What Every Singer Needs to Know about the Body [4 ed.] 9781635502619, 1635502616, 9781635502824, 1635502829

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What Every Singer Needs to Know About the Body Fourth Edition

Melissa Malde MaryJean Allen Kurt-Alexander Zeller

S PRAISE FOR THE FOURTH EDITION OF WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY To successfully integrate all of the complex tasks performers are called upon to embody in each moment of performance is a feat of staggering complexity. What is the process involved in coordinating all of the elements of mindfulness while singing, acting, and living a performance before an audience or a filming crew? The solid foundation must begin with the desire to own a complete, rich, and expressive embodiment of the physical self, beginning with the process of creating an accurate and detailed body map. Michael Chekhov, the nephew of playwright Anton Chekhov and protégé of Konstantin Stanislavski (the father of Method Acting), was powerfully connected to the creation of an embodied acting pedagogy. As actors and actresses, we must rejoice in the possession of our physical faculties. We must experience joy in the use of our hands, arms, body etc. Without this appreciation and realization of the body and its many possibilities, we cannot perform as artists. Compare the body without life and the body with life. Meditate on this. See how helpless the dead person is, then contrast that with a living person. You should feel a flow of joy because you are alive. Your body will feel full of life. That is what you must give from the stage. Your life. No less. That is art: to give all you have. And what have you? Your life-nothing more. And to give life means to feel life throughout your whole being. Frequently, we as teachers and performers become focused on one specific task such as modifying a vowel in the higher register to become more acoustically viable and hope to simply “add in the acting later.” Certainly, we must address individual elements specifically, but, as Michael Chekhov stated, a performer must learn to “feel life throughout your whole being.” MaryJean Allen, Melissa Malde, and Kurt-Alexander Zeller give us an extensive, thoughtful, and discovery-filled approach to this journey, guiding us every step of the way. If our body’s internal map is incorrect, both art and the performer will suffer. But when the map is accurate, when we hone our kinesthetic sense and work towards adopting an inclusive awareness, we will thrive, and our performances will be full of life. The performer and the audience will be powerfully transformed, and the joy of living is affirmed.

Beginning with MaryJean Allen’s foundational work in Chapters 1 and 2, we learn to inhabit our body as a whole. Through extensive and loving instruction, powerful guided explorations, and wonderfully curated external video links, we learn how our skeletal and muscular systems are the tapestry upon which all performance practices are expressed. The journey continues with Melissa Malde guiding the reader on a path from breath through resonance. Along the way we are given delightful explorations to conceptualize and embody each aspect of respiration, phonation, and strategies to find timbre and resonance options. The journey concludes with Kurt-Alexander Zeller leading us through the expressive fields of articulation, gesture, and performance practices. His playful explorations of these principles are fully integrated with the material from the previous chapters highlighting the need for accurate Body Mapping practice at each step. I am deeply grateful to these three authors for their powerful insights and deeply thoughtful work, and I consider this text to be essential knowledge for all singing performers and pedagogues. I highly recommend it. Matthew Ellenwood, Voice and acting teacher at Ellenwood Studios, co-founder Integrated Vocal Pedagogy, and Artistic Director of Terra Mysterium

What Every Singer Needs to Know About the Body Fourth Edition

What Every Singer Needs to Know About the Body Fourth Edition

Melissa Malde, DMA MaryJean Allen, MM, AD Kurt-Alexander Zeller, DMA Contributions by Barbara Conable and T. Richard Nichols

5521 Ruffin Road San Diego, CA 92123 e-mail: [email protected] Website: https://www.pluralpublishing.com Copyright ©2020 by Plural Publishing, Inc. Typeset in 11/14 Garamond by Flanagan’s Publishing Services, Inc. Printed in the United States of America by McNaughton & Gunn, Inc. All rights, including that of translation, reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, recording, or otherwise, including photocopying, recording, taping, Web distribution, or information storage and retrieval systems without the prior written consent of the publisher. For permission to use material from this text, contact us by Telephone: (866) 758-7251 Fax: (888) 758-7255 e-mail: [email protected] Every attempt has been made to contact the copyright holders for material originally printed in another source. If any have been inadvertently overlooked, the publishers will gladly make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity. Disclaimer: Please note that ancillary content (such as documents, audio, and video, etc.) may not be included as published in the original print version of this book. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Malde, Melissa, author. | Allen, MaryJean, author. | Zeller, Kurt Alexander, author. | Conable, Barbara, contributor. | Nichols, T. Richard, contributor. Title: What every singer needs to know about the body / Melissa Malde, MaryJean Allen, Kurt-Alexander Zeller ; contributions by Barbara Conable and T. Richard Nichols. Description: Fourth edition. | San Diego : Plural Publishing, Inc., 2020. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020002316 | ISBN 9781635502619 (paperback) | ISBN 9781635502824 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Singing — Physiological aspects. | Singing — Instruction and study. Classification: LCC MT821 .M24 2020 | DDC 783.2071— dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020002316

Contents Introduction by Barbara Conable ix How to Use This Book by Melissa Malde xiii xv Multimedia List Acknowledgments xix

1 Body Mapping, Kinesthesia, and Inclusive Awareness

1

MaryJean Allen

2 The Core of the Body and the Places of Dynamic Balance

17

MaryJean Allen

3 The Singer’s Breath

69

Melissa Malde

4 Creating a Singing Sound

123

Melissa Malde

5 Resonating the Voice

165

Melissa Malde

6 Singing as Communication:  Mapping the Structures of Articulation

213

Kurt-Alexander Zeller

7 Physical Expression for Singers

241

Kurt-Alexander Zeller Appendix A.  What to Do About Performance Anxiety Barbara Conable

283

Appendix B. The Scientific Basis of Body Mapping T. Richard Nichols

293

Glossary 295 Index 301

vii

Introduction During the 25 years I taught the Alexander Technique and Body Mapping to singers, I witnessed more unnecessary suffering than I care to remember. Singers do not ordinarily suffer the acute physical pain of a poorly moving violinist, flutist, or pianist, although singers suffer more throat pain than is commonly known. Many singing students and choir members do not admit that their throats are hurting, so teachers need to learn to regularly inquire so that throat pain can be addressed. Singers do suffer greatly from a profound disappointment that they can’t do what their musical imaginations prompt them to do: frustration because they can’t improve their singing, and fear that they will fail to do in performance even what they can do with luck on a good day in the studio. Many singers program what they do not want to sing because they fear they can’t manage what they do want to sing. Many singing teachers have given up singing altogether and carry in their souls an abiding grief as a result, not to mention envy. Some teachers elaborately justify why they are no longer singing, claiming to be at peace with it, but joyfully sing again when they are given the information they need to sing well. Singers’ suffering is not from lack of technique. Classical singers, in particular, are awash in technique. Technique is the content of their voice lessons. Technique is what they practice. Technique is what they read about. Technique is what is addressed at their conventions. Technique is what they are hired by their universities to convey to the students. Technique is what they listen for when they judge contests. If technique were the issue, every singer would sing beautifully and often. No, movement is the reason singers suffer, that is to say, faulty movement, tense movement, movement done without awareness and therefore without discernment. Singers who do not feel the movement of their breathing can’t assess whether it is good movement or bad. They have to judge their breathing by what they hear, and hearing offers them no remedy, only the isolated information that something is not as desired. In the practice room, the usual response is to repeat the passage, hoping for a better result. If a better result is achieved in the moment, it cannot be secured because the singer does not know what caused it. Repetition of faulty movement continues and the poor singer finishes the practice session as ignorant and helpless as at the beginning. To gain mastery, these singers must learn to feel their movement, and constantly evaluate its effectiveness. They must become profoundly acquainted with all the sensations of a fine singer’s breath, the movement of the ribs, the movement of the entire cylinder of the abdominal wall, the flowing up and down of the pelvic floor, the coordinated gathering and lengthening of the spine in breathing, and the dynamic “up and over” of the head at the atlanto-occipital joint. They must learn to make all the proper choices about the movements of breathing to get just the air they need and deliver it across the phrase in the most musical and comfortable way. Singers must cultivate the best movement in breathing so that they know instantly how to recover the best movement if they should lose it in performance, just as they would recover intonation. In order to feel the movement of breathing, singers must learn that they have a sensory mechanism specifically for feeling the movement. The great natural singers know this instinctively, of course. This movement sense is called kinesthesia and it tells us about our moving, our position, and our size. Moment-by-moment kinesthetic awareness is as important for stately oratorio singing as it is for singing while one dances. Singing is movement — pure and simple, nothing else — and it must be conceived and perceived as such so that the best movement may be chosen in the moment.

ix



x WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

To breathe well, a singer must have an accurate and adequate body map of the structures and movements of breathing. Any error in the body map will impair the breathing. When a teacher sees impaired breathing, it just makes sense to ask the students about their mapping (their internal representation) of the structures that are not functioning well. If, for instance, a teacher observes inadequate rib movement either on inhalation or on exhalation, the teacher should inquire, “Tell me about ribs. Where are they and how do they work?” It would be usual for the student to put hands on the lower ribs, those that surround the stomach, spleen, and liver, and speak of those. This student has not mapped the upper ribs that surround the lungs. No wonder the upper ribs don’t move well! They are not even in the student’s body map! Another student might tell the teacher with a perfectly straight face that ribs move because the lungs are filling with air, and the teacher will have to question the student as to what imagined miracle of nature is taking place. Another student might have no interest in rib movement at all because he or she has imagined that air goes into the belly. The teacher will not know without inquiring just what error in the body map is dictating that poor movement. Once the error is known, the remedy is at hand. The remedy is learning, in the first instance, that upper ribs exist, in the second that all of the ribs move to increase thoracic circumference so that air comes into the lungs, and in the last that the lungs are not in the belly but in the upper torso. In order to learn whatever singing technique is being taught, a singing student must have an accurate and adequate body map of the vocal tract. This is something the late, lamented, Pat Berlin (College-Conservatory of Music at the University of Cincinnati) understood long before she met me, and it was one factor in her success. If she encountered a student with tongue problems, she would hand the student pencil and paper and say, “Draw me a tongue.” She and the student would then compare the drawing with good pictures of the tongue in an anatomy book to discover what misconception about the tongue was compromising the movement of the tongue. Sometimes the error was functional rather than structural, in which case teacher and student would have to keep their detective hats on a little longer and ask some questions. It often turned out that the culprit lay in having mapped the whole tongue as working all the time, rather than just the fibers that take the tongue in this direction or that. The tongue tension makes perfect sense in light of that misconception, but now the remedy is at hand: Send the culprit off into oblivion and absorb the truth of the tongue into the body map so that only the portion of the tongue that needs to be working at any moment is working, and the rest of the tongue is just going along for the ride. Body Mapping is not technique, but it is the basis for technique; the fertile ground out of which good technique can grow. Some students will come into the studio with perfectly accurate and adequate body maps and no mention will ever need to be taught about the student’s structure, function, or size. However, more students will have inaccurate and inadequate body maps that will constantly frustrate teacher and student alike by producing ineffective movement. A few minutes here and there of attention to mapping the structures of balance, gesture, breathing, accurate and adequate articulation, and resonance, will correct the ground and promote proper growth of technique. It is a sad fact that singing teachers and choral directors are often at odds about how singers should be singing. Attention to the body map provides common ground as well as the information necessary for singers to adjust appropriately to differing requirements. Singers learn that they can move differently in the choir than in the opera and meet the demands of each art form. I remember a very frustrated young jazz singer who spoke passionately at a National Association of Teachers of Singing winter workshop about her need for instruction to solve vocal problems. She said she felt she couldn’t go to a classical singer for help because the training would “make her

INTRODUCTION xi

sound funny,” but she thought no one else would have the information she needed to get her voice healthy and keep it that way. The young woman was in tears. What was she to do? Couldn’t singing teachers learn to teach all singers without imposing their “elite” technique? I submit that any teacher of classical singing can teach a jazz singer how to stay vocally healthy by addressing the body map, especially with regard to accurate and adequate mapping of the vocal tract, and the structures and movement of breathing. I have the highest regard for the authors of the book you are about to read, both for their artistry and the integrity with which they have learned and imparted the vitally important content of the book. This book is a resource for solving vocal problems and for mastery on the stage and in the studio. Enjoy. — Barbara Conable

How to Use This Book When I was a young singer, I had moments of brilliance when music flowed from me to the audience, establishing an effortless connection. I occasionally gave riveting performances. Then I had hours of frustration trying to recreate that sensation. What was I doing wrong? Why was I so inconsistent? The fact is that I had a natural sense of how to sing. When I lost myself in the music, that innate coordination occasionally took over and I communicated with ease and aplomb. But when I concentrated on fixing things, which was most of the time, I got stuck. When I began my work in Body Mapping I was able to pinpoint the problem. It was not with my instrument, my musical understanding, my work ethic, or even my technique. It was that I had almost no connection to my body, so that when things were working well I didn’t know why, and when things weren’t working well, I didn’t know how to fix them. I would focus on the problem by isolating it, instead of putting it in the context of my whole body, mind, and spirit. Body Mapping has helped me correct misconceptions about the movements of singing, and has revolutionized my awareness of how habits control that movement. We have all had the humbling experience of trying to correct a musical habit ingrained during the process of learning a new piece. Here is why those mistakes are so stubborn. When we make a movement by singing a note, rhythm, or word, the neurons in our brain fire and a neural pathway is formed. When we repeat the movement, the pathway is strengthened. The more we repeat the movement, the stronger the pathway becomes. Soon, we have mapped that movement as part of the music. This is great if the movement is one we want to keep. If we want to make a change, we have to dismantle the old pathway (bad habit) and start a new one (good habit). This requires scrutiny, awareness, and repetition. The same is true of movement that results from an inaccurate body map. Intellectual understanding of the changes necessary to make your body map adequate and accurate may happen quickly. Forming new neural pathways that will change the new map into a habit can often take longer. Once the neural pathways in your brain correspond with an adequate and accurate body map, you will move and sing with integrity and consistency. Correcting your body map, however, will not qualify you to teach Body Mapping. All three principal authors have studied Body Mapping intensively with Barbara Conable, founder of the Association for Body Mapping Education (ABME), formerly known as Andover Educators. We have incorporated this information into our own performances and have been trained to help others do the same. We are licensed to teach the course What Every Musician Needs to Know About the Body. After reading this book, you may want to deepen your knowledge of Body Mapping or even train to become a member of ABME. If so, we invite you to visit http://www.bodymap.org to find a teacher near you. When I was a junior in college, I finally realized that I would learn more by admitting ignorance than pretending I already knew everything. Reading your own writing for the fourth time, it is easy to assume what you have written is complete and accurate. In preparing this edition, I kept complacency at bay by asking questions. For instance, if the cricoid cartilage is fixed to the top of the trachea, how can the larynx move up and down so much? If muscles always pull and never push, why do singers describe the diaphragm pushing down on the viscera and pushing out on the ribs? Some of the answers to these questions confirmed what I had written. Others led to changes that I hope will further clarify the movements we use in singing. xiii

xiv WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

We learn by questioning. As you approach this book, ask questions. You may have many moments of recognition that affirm what you already know and correspond to the way you move. You may also have those wonderful “aha” moments when you discover something new that makes instant sense and corrects a long-standing problem. On the other hand, you may run into information that is so strange that you think it must be wrong. If that happens, start asking questions: Why do I believe what I believe? Does my instinct correspond to anatomical fact? What do other resources say? Are these authors right? If you think we have made a mistake, contact us! This book will not give you a technique or method. We hope it will guide your experimentation, discovery, and questioning, whatever your style of singing. You may choose to sit and read it like a textbook. Or you may pore over one page until it makes sense. You may work through a chapter just studying the drawings. You may practice with the book open to one drawing until that image is thoroughly incorporated into your body map. You may watch one of the videos many times until you have embodied that movement. There is no wrong way to use this book except with a closed mind. — Melissa Malde

Multimedia List www

L ook for this icon throughout the text, directing you to related materials available on the companion website.

Chapter 1 Audio 1–1.  Awakening the Kinesthetic Sense Audio 1–2.  Experiencing Micromovement Audio 1–3.  Using Inclusive Awareness with Kinesthesia Audio 1–4.  Experiencing the Three Forms of Attention Video 1–5.  Body Mapping Firsthand:  Success Stories Chapter 2 Audio Audio Audio Audio Audio Audio Audio Audio Audio Audio Audio

2–1.  Embodying Powerful Substitutes for the Word “Posture” 2–2.  Experiencing a Tense Muscle Versus a Released Muscle 2–3.  Experiencing Appropriate Effort 2–4.  Experiencing Support From Your Skeleton 2–5.  Experiencing Compression and Release of Your Spinal Discs 2–6.  Experiencing Spine Location and Function 2–7.  Experiencing Head Balance Forward and Back 2–8.  Experiencing Head Balance Up and Down 2–9.  Experiencing Thoracic Balance 2–10.  Experiencing Feet Tripods 2–11.  Balancing the Arm Structure

Chapter 3 Video 3–1.  Four Principles of Muscles Audio 3–2.  Inclusive Awareness of Breathing Video 3–3.  Mapping the Ribs Video 3–4.  Mapping the Diaphragm Video 3–5.  Mapping Rib Movement Video 3–6.  Rib Movements Video 3–7.  Rib and Arm Independence Video 3–8.  Breathing Exercises Video 3–9.  Mapping Abdominal Movement in Breathing Video 3–10.  The Movement of the Pelvic Floor in Breathing Video 3–11.  Normal and Forced Exhalation Video 3–12.  Pitch of Inhalation Video 3–13.  Mapping the Trachea Video 3–14.  Modeling Coordinated Breathing Video 3–15.  Five-Person Breathing Model Video 3–16.  Gathering and Lengthening Video 3–17.  Silent Inhalation Video 3–18.  Air Pressure Resistance xv

xvi WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

Chapter 4 Video 4–1.  Finding the Larynx Video 4–2.  Pitch Variation in Speech Video 4–3.  Head Balance and the Larynx Video 4–4.  Building a Larynx out of Modeling Clay Video 4–5.  Modeling the Cricoid Cartilage Video 4–6.  Modeling the Thyroid Cartilage Video 4–7.  Modeling the Relationship of the Cricoid and Thyroid Video 4–8.  Modeling the Opening and Closing of the Glottis Video 4–9.  Modeling the Contraction of the Cricothyroids Video 4–10.  Rubber Band Model A: Effect of Thickness, Tension, and Length on Pitch Video 4–11.  Rubber Band Model B: Color of Pitch due to Thickness Video 4–12.  Onsets and Offsets Video 4–13.  The Bernoulli Effect Video 4–14.  Degrees of Adduction Audio 4–15.  Finding Head Voice Chapter 5 Video 5–1.  The Effect of Head Balance on Resonance Video 5–2.  Mapping the Mandible and TMJ Video 5–3.  Common Mis-Mappings of the TMJ Video 5–4.  Mapping the Jaw Closers Video 5–5.  Mapping the Jaw Openers Video 5–6.  Jaw Movement in Articulation Video 5–7.  Mapping the Pterygoids Video 5–8.  Mapping the Tongue Video 5–9.  Mapping Tongue Tension Video 5–10.  Mapping the Independence of the Jaw and Tongue Video 5–11.  Mapping the Soft Palate Audio 5–12.  Raising the Soft Palate Video 5–13.  Mapping the Buccinators Video 5–14.  Mapping the Lips Video 5–15.  Mapping the Muscles that Move the Larynx Audio 5–16.  Relationship of the Extrinsic Muscles of the Tongue and the Larynx Video 5–17.  Mapping the Aryepiglottic Sphincter Audio 5–18.  Inclusive Awareness of the Vocal Tract Audio 5–19.  Movements of the Vocal Tract Video 5–20.  Normal Speech, Calling Voice, Operatic Resonance, Twang, Nasal Speech Video 5–21.  Vowel Modification Video 5–22.  Resonance and Intonation Video 5–23.  Efficient Resonance Chapter 6 Video 6–1.  Phonemes as Movements Media 6–2.  Articulation of Nasal Continuants

MULTIMEDIA LIST xvii



Media 6–3.  Voiced/Unvoiced Cognates Video 6–4.  Pitch and Voiced Consonants Media 6–5.  Glottal Stop Media 6–6.  Aspiration Video 6–7.  Movement of the [aI] Diphthong Media 6–8.  Vive la Différence Chapter 7 Video 7–1.  Characterization Audio 7–2.  Collarbone Exploration Audio 7–3.  Exploring Humeroscapular Rhythm Video 7–4.  Humeroscapular Rhythm and Gesture Video 7–5.  Vocal Fold Independence from Eyebrows Audio 7–6.  Visual Focus Shifting with Thoughts Video 7–7.  Balance and Spontaneity Video 7–8.  Toes and Propulsion

Acknowledgments My dear, departed teacher, Patricia Berlin, deserves my first debt of gratitude. It was she who started me on the path that eventually led to my study of Body Mapping and licensure as a Body Mapping Educator. Jacqui Goeldner taught me to write with precision and economy. I thank our mentor and the founder of Association for Body Mapping Education, formerly known as Andover Educators, Barbara Conable, for her commitment to musicians’ health and well-being, her patient training and her insight and input in the writing of this book. Thanks also to the many Body Mapping Educators who have dedicated themselves to the work of Body Mapping with creativity and fervor. Every author should wish for such a community! This book would not have been possible without the generosity of David Gorman, whose elegant illustrations grace its pages. The feedback of Bonnie Draina, Michael Ruckles, Kelly Wilson, Jennifer Johnson, and my co-authors, MaryJean Allen and Kurt-Alexander Zeller, has helped me clarify my writing and spurred me to explore new avenues of thought. My wonderful students have been open to experiment; their commitment and enthusiasm have been an inspiration. Charles Hansen spent hours poring through his theatrical photos to find appropriate shots for the cover. Videographer Steve Jackson exhibited great patience and empathy in filming and finishing my videos. The constant love, patience, and support of my partner Bob, my parents Carrie and Hal, and my sister Meg have given me the confidence to be a better singer, a better teacher, and a better human being. Because of them I have had the will and independence to complete this project. I dedicate my part of this edition to the memory of my cousin, Scott, who was a joyful practitioner of the art of movement. — Melissa Malde Thank you to my coauthor and good friend, Kurt-Alexander Zeller, who started me on this journey by encouraging me to take Barbara Conable’s week-long course in 2000, What Every Musician Needs to Know About the Body. I am grateful to Barbara for creating that amazing 6-hour course, and for training and licensing me to teach it. Barbara, you are an extraordinary person, teacher, author, and poet. Special thanks to my coauthor, Melissa Malde, who was the driving force of all editions of this book. Melissa’s tenacity in the pursuit of a goal is both splendid and admirable. I am grateful to my friends, colleagues, and coauthors Melissa Malde and Kurt-Alexander Zeller, who provided their time and valuable writing expertise during the creation of all four editions of this book. I owe a great debt of gratitude to my teachers, colleagues, family, and friends who have supported and inspired me over the years. Thank you to the late Edward Zambara, who truly taught me to sing. Thank you to my voice teaching friends and colleagues, including my dear friend and most amazing voice teacher and soprano, Lynn Eustis, and to the very talented voice teacher and tenor, Matthew Chellis, founder of The Up North Vocal Institute Young Artist Program, where I was privileged to teach voice, Body Mapping, and Alexander Technique for eight summers. Thank you to choral director Martin Sirvatka for his excellent choral conducting talents and his time to create the Chapter One video, and thank you to my wonderful friend and truly fabulous acting and voice teacher Matthew Ellenwood. Many thanks to my fellow Body Mapping Educators, who along with me, strive to learn more about Body Mapping every day, with special thanks to Amy Likar, Kelly Wilson, Lea Pearson, Shawn Copeland, and Janet Alcorn. Heartfelt thanks to my excellent Alexander Technique teacher and director of The North Carolina Alexander Technique Program, Robin Gilmore, and to my other influential Alexander xix

xx WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

Technique teachers including Penny O’Connor, Meade Andrews, Lucia Walker, Michael Frederick, Robert Britton, and Bob Lada. Thank you to my Alexander Technique colleagues including my dear friend and talented voice and Alexander Technique teacher, Susan Dorchin. Much gratitude goes to my parents, George and Jeannine Steinmetz, who always supported me in the field of music, my students, past and present, who inspire me as a person and teacher every day, and my husband, John Allen for his loving support, multiple creative talents, humor, and writing expertise. — MaryJean Allen It is humbling for an author to contemplate how much of the credit for the book in the reader’s hand truly belongs to someone else. I would like to thank Jan Powell, Sarah Hoover, B.D. Stillion, and Kay Hooper for kindling ideas that made their way into this book, as well as Jack Paulus, Amy Likar, Christopher White, Chris Arrell, and Jeff Kayser for providing invaluable technical assistance. I am grateful for the many ways the collective wisdom and indefatigable curiosity of the entire network of Body Mapping Educators have deeply enriched my work, and I especially treasure the keen insight, open enthusiasm, and warm friendship of my co-authors, Melissa Malde and MaryJean Allen. Repeatedly, they have employed all three qualities to help me express what I have to say more clearly and vividly. I owe still greater debts to the late Ellen Faull, whose example showed me that great teachers teach the individuals in front of them rather than the subject in their heads, and to Barbara Conable, whose perception and generosity of spirit have been transformative: Body Mapping is not only powerful; it’s fun. Most of all, I thank all of my teachers and each of my students for everything I have learned from them.  — Kurt-Alexander Zeller

1 Body Mapping, Kinesthesia, and Inclusive Awareness MaryJean Allen

THE BIG PICTURE You are invited to attend a performance of an exceptional singer. She embodies the qualities of an accurate and refined body map along with kinesthesia and inclusive awareness. Her tone quality is beautiful and effortless, and she navigates easily throughout her vocal range. Her entire body looks buoyant and flexible as she moves and gestures expressively. Even during the moments that she seems still, we can observe her micromovement, which makes her look very graceful. For example, we see a very small movement of her head, or a slight movement with her hand. Her larger gestures look elegant as well. She has efficient breath management, excellent dynamic control, and outstanding musicianship. Her voice effortlessly fills the space. Her spine gathers as she breathes in and lengthens as she sings. She has clear diction, her facial expression is genuine, and her delivery of the music and text is heartfelt and moving. Her poise makes us relax and really enjoy her performance.

THE ESSENTIALS Body Mapping, kinesthesia, and inclusive awareness are powerful tools that can help you achieve a performance like the singer I just described. In this chapter, each of these tools is explained in detail to help you learn how to move freely and smoothly so that your tone quality and expressiveness will become even better. This book is designed to help singers, voice teachers, vocal coaches, and choral conductors of all musical styles. Because singing is movement, singers need and deserve training that creates an accurate body map, a fine-tuned kinesthetic sense, and the conscious use of inclusive awareness. Even if you are not naturally coordinated, you can learn how to move with freedom and elegance in singing. If you are a singer who already moves beautifully, you may teach or coach a student who does not. Even the very best singers continue to change and grow. 1



2 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

ORIGIN OF BODY MAPPING Body Mapping was articulated by William Conable, Alexander Technique teacher and former Professor of Music at The Ohio State University. In 1998, Barbara Conable, Alexander Technique teacher, founded Andover Educators, now known as the Association for Body Mapping Education, a not-for-profit organization that trains and licenses musicians to teach Body Mapping to promote facility and prevent injury. She applied this concept in her six-hour course and accompanying book, What Every Musician Needs to Know About the Body. Her three decades of teaching demonstrate that the body map has a profound and direct effect on each musician’s success. Barbara Conable’s course and her book are informed by the insights of F. M. Alexander (the founder of Alexander Technique) as well as other somatic disciplines and current findings in the neuroscience of movement. In her book How to Learn the Alexander Technique, Barbara Conable describes the Alexander Technique as follows: Alexander Technique is a simple and practical method for improving ease and freedom of movement, balance, support, flexibility, and coordination. It enhances performance and is therefore a valued tool for musicians. Practice of the Technique refines and heightens kinesthetic sensitivity, offering the performer a control which is fluid and lively rather than rigid. It provides a means whereby the use of a part — a voice or an arm or a leg — is improved by improving the use of the whole body (1992, p. 1).

Regarding Body Mapping and the neuroscience of movement, in the training manual for the Association for Body Mapping Education, Barbara stated: Bill Conable and I did not know when he discovered the body map practically (you may read that story in an appendix of How to Learn the Alexander Technique) that it was also being named and explored by neuroscientists. I learned about the scientists’ work fairly recently. It would have helped us very much during our years of exploration to know about the scientists’ work, but we didn’t.

So Barbara’s development of her Body Mapping course was actually concurrent yet independent of neuroscientific research. Since then, the Association for Body Mapping Education has incorporated that research. This book is based on Barbara Conable’s work and her six-hour course. To read an article by William Conable entitled “The Origins and Theory of Body Mapping,” go to http://bodymap.org/ main/?cat=34 To gain a more thorough understanding of the science of Body Mapping, read “The Biological Basis of the Body Map” by the Association for Body Mapping Education’s Science Advisor, Dr. Richard T. Nichols http://bodymap.org/main/?cat=34. You can also read Dr. Nichols’ article in Appendix B of this book, The Scientific Basis of Body Mapping. Due to continued brain and body research, there will be many more discoveries about the brain and its connection to the body. This book is not intended to be the “final word,” although it is intended to assimilate the knowledge of the brain and body connection as it applies to singing at this point in time, and combine that knowledge with practical application of Body Mapping concepts so that our readers may benefit from it.

1.  BODY MAPPING, KINESTHESIA, AND INCLUSIVE AWARENESS 3



THE DETAILS The Body Map and Body Mapping Let’s begin with brief definitions of the body map and Body Mapping, kinesthesia, and inclusive awareness. I explain them in detail later in this chapter. n The body map is your mental representation of your body’s structure, size, location, and

function. n Body Mapping is the process of refining, correcting, and embodying individual body maps. n Kinesthesia is the sense that detects your body in motion. Singers who learn how to

perceive their bodies in motion with their kinesthetic sense will clearly discern movement size, position, and quality, which is vital for beautiful, communicative, and healthy singing. Kinesthesia is a fundamental component of Body Mapping. n Inclusive awareness is conscious, simultaneous organized awareness of your inner and

outer experience. Inclusive awareness is also a fundamental component of Body Mapping and includes kinesthesia. According to Amy Likar, Body Mapping teacher and former president of the Association for Body Mapping Education, your body map is your conception of your body, in whole or part (2008). Although our brain contains many different maps of our body, such as a map of our jaw, and a map of our ribs, etc., in the Body Mapping process we identify it as one body map. In the training manual for the Association for Body Mapping Education, Barbara Conable explains: By analogy to the visual maps, which are interdependent to a degree that justifies the singular, visual map, if you had thirty maps of the terrain around your house: a street map, a topographical map, a map of population, a map of rainfall, etc., and they were all bound together, you might very well say as you begin a trip around your neighborhood, ‘Do we have the map?’

Next, here is the most important fact about Body Mapping; because your body map governs your movement, you move according to what you believe about your body. For example, if you think only your lowest ribs move during inhalation, you will try to move according to that map, even though all of your ribs are designed to move during inhalation. Thus, the integrity of any movement that you want to make depends on the integrity of the body map that governs it. The process of Body Mapping corrects and refines your body map. When you correct and refine the map of your ribs, your rib movement will be smoother because you will move in the way your body is designed to move, resulting in better breathing and singing. Here’s another benefit of Body Mapping: Singers who bow before an audience can learn to do so healthily yet elegantly. In order to bow and bend forward smoothly and gracefully, your body map needs to reflect its anatomical design. However, some people inaccurately map their waist as a hinge, causing them to bend forward in a manner that can irritate or injure their back. An accurate body map reveals that you are not designed to bend forward from the waist; you are designed to bend forward from the hip joints. Singers who learn to bend forward from their hip joints while they bow will feel and look graceful.



4 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

While all musicians can learn to bow in a healthy manner, not all need the same level of body map. The body map needs to reflect the particular requirements of each type of musician. A singer would not need to have a detailed map of the wrist and forearm, as a violinist requires. However, singers need a detailed, accurate map of the musculoskeletal structures of optimal stance, breathing, resonance, articulation, and gesture. It is vitally important to note that the body map can be effective whether it is conscious or unconscious. This explains why there are excellent singers, instrumentalists, dancers, actors, and athletes who move and perform beautifully but have not consciously mapped their bodies. Although their body map is unconscious, it is still accurate, which is why they move so well. Your body map began in infancy, developed in childhood, and is changeable throughout your life. Your map is designed to grow and change as your body grows and changes, so your body map is flexible and changeable. This is a wonderful and positive aspect of Body Mapping; your map is always transformable. Even if you have had an unclear or incorrect map for many years, that map can still be enhanced or corrected. When you change your map by correcting and refining it, your movement, and therefore your singing, will improve.

Anatomy Applied to Movement During the Body Mapping process, it is essential to apply anatomical facts to your movement as you sing. As you learn the anatomical information to correct and refine your body map, your map will change when you translate the anatomical information directly into movement. This book is not purely an anatomy book; rather, it provides anatomical information so that you can create an adequate and accurate body map, and apply it to your movement. You can use your kinesthetic and inclusive awareness to move in ways that produce a healthy and graceful musical performance. Sometimes, a body map may be corrected instantly, but often it takes multiple interventions to fully correct and refine a body map. Develop your kinesthetic sense and inclusive awareness, your essential mapping tools. Be patient and persistent, continuously experiment and explore, and enjoy the process of Body Mapping. Remember that time taken to correct your body map is always well spent because your body map governs your movement. If you have an incorrect body map, your movement and your singing will be tense and could even cause injury. If you have an unclear body map, your movement and your singing will be tentative or awkward. When you have a correct and refined body map, and use that along with your kinesthetic and inclusive awareness, your movement and your singing will be fluid, expressive, and healthy.

Elements of Your Body Map Your body map contains several important and interconnected elements, which include: n Structure (bone, muscle, tendon, etc.) n Size n Location n Function (movement design and purpose)

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Figure 1–1.  Body Mapping elements. Created by MaryJean Allen.

In the process of Body Mapping, these elements are of equal importance and can be approached in any order. I designed Figure 1–1 to illustrate the relationship of the four elements of a body map. After you have viewed Figure 1–1, let’s look at examples of those mapping elements.

Mapping Size Not accounting for bodily growth and change can lead to an incorrect map. For example, one of my adolescent male voice students grew six inches during the summer. He also gained some muscle. During a voice lesson the following September, John moved and sang as if he were still his previous size. His body map had not yet “caught up” with his increased height and broader width and depth. He slumped down, and he also moved with his shoulders slightly rounded forward toward his chest. To address the problem, I asked John to go home and have one of his parents help him accurately measure his height, his shoulder width, and his depth from the front of his body to the back of his body. Those measurements helped John to use anatomical facts to correct his body map. But this was only the beginning of the Body Mapping process. I needed to help John transfer those anatomical facts to movement. At his next lesson, I asked John to study himself in a full-length mirror. I stood next to him as he looked in the mirror to give him a frame of reference. With his corrected map, John moved and sang with his actual height, width, and depth. Then I asked John to move again with his old body



6 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

map, with its shorter height and narrower width and depth. As he sang, I asked him to alternate back and forth between his old map and his new map so that he could see and hear how his corrected body map radically improved his movement and singing. My student John and I both found his Body Mapping process informative, fun, and helpful.

Mapping Location and Structure During my own training to learn how to teach the six-hour course “What Every Musician Needs to Know About the Body,” I discovered that I had mapped my thoracic spine (the part of the spine in the chest region) as situated completely on the outside of my ribs. My inaccurate body map caused me to tilt my torso significantly back in space because I thought my thoracic spine held my ribs up from the outside. Once I discovered that mapping error, I realized this might be one of the causes of my chronic lower back pain. Next, I remembered the critiques I had received from several voice teachers and judges urging me to work on my posture, despite the fact that I honestly felt that I was standing as upright as possible. To counteract their criticism, I had tried positioning my sternum quite high, but I still received poor critiques about my posture. Sure enough, when I corrected my thoracic spine map by thoroughly mapping structure, and then clearly mapped the location of the weight-bearing area of my thoracic spine inside my ribs, then I no longer felt the need to lean back, and my torso moved a little bit more forward in space. My stature and tone quality became freer and easier, and my chronic back pain disappeared. I was so happy and excited to feel pain free and also to feel such ease in singing that I immediately signed up to train with Barbara Conable to become a Body Mapping teacher. Although I have been teaching Body Mapping since 2001, my map continues to change and become more refined. The Body Mapping process is continuous, since our body maps are changeable, and there is always room for improvement. It is invigorating and satisfying to teach Body Mapping to my voice and Alexander Technique students and help their maps improve too.

Mapping Function Mapping function identifies the purpose of each anatomical structure and how it is designed to move. Let’s learn how to map function by examining a common mapping mistake: A singer who erroneously believes he has an “upper jaw” will try to open his mouth with the nonexistent upper jaw. This mistake in his structural map also leads to a mistake in function. Because he has mapped two jaws instead of one, and tries to open his mouth as if he had an upper jaw and a lower jaw, his head must tilt slightly back in order to open his imagined upper jaw. Therefore, his movement is awkward, and his singing is tense. Try that for yourself: n Open your mouth as if you had both an upper jaw and a lower jaw, and sing an ah vowel.

How does it feel? How do you sound? n Now, let’s correct this map. Accurate anatomical pictures and models of the skull and jaw

will show you that your upper teeth are attached to a lower bone of your skull, called

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the maxilla. Your corrected map will include your skull and one jaw that can easily swing down from your two jaw joints when you open your mouth. Consult Chapter 5, pages 173–184, for more detail on the jaw. n Now with this corrected map, open your mouth and sing an ah vowel. How does it feel?

How do you sound? Here is a progression of activities you can use to correct and refine your body map: n Study accurate anatomical illustrations and three-dimensional anatomical models.

Be sure trained anatomists designed the illustrations and models. (Please see http:// www.bodymap.org for a list of recommended atlases of human anatomy and anatomical models.) As you study each illustration or model, ask yourself: “Does anything I see here differ from my map? If so, how?” n Use the mirror.  Begin by describing to yourself what you would expect to see before you

actually stand in front of a mirror. Think about height, width, and depth of your body. Be sure to think about structure, size, and function. Next, stand in front of a full-length mirror and ask yourself, “How does what I see differ from what I expect to see?” For example, you may have mapped the bottom of your torso as ending at your waist. This is a common mapping mistake and can cause all sorts of movement difficulties. Keeping in mind that your waist is not an anatomical feature, when you study yourself in the mirror you will see that your torso is vertically longer than you had thought, and that it ends at the bottom of your pelvis — your sit bones. In fact, the word “torso” is defined in medicine as the part of your body that is exclusive of your head and limbs. Now, with a clearer map of your torso, sing as you look at yourself in the mirror, observing how you look, feel, and sound. n Palpate (touch with your hands and fingers) the area to be mapped. So, as you are

mapping your torso, it is very helpful to palpate the entire area of your torso. As you palpate, ask yourself: “How does what I palpate differ from my map?” n Draw the area to be mapped.  For example, draw your jaw. It is also helpful to draw other

parts of your body in relation to the area you are mapping. So try to draw your jaw, your skull, and the rest of your body. Remember, you do not have to be a great artist to do this very powerful exercise. You may draw a few simple lines, but you will still be able to see a significant map. It is illuminating to date and keep each map that you draw so that you can compare each new drawing with the former and then compare each drawing with the anatomical facts. n Ask specific questions. What is the structure and size of my jaw? Where is it located in

my body? How does it move? Be sure you answer each of these questions thoroughly in order to discover every detail about your body map. Consult anatomical illustrations and models to be sure you have all of the anatomical facts. n Relate the part to the whole.  Once you have corrected the map of a specific part of your

body, relate it to your entire body. For example, once you’ve clearly mapped your jaw, map your jaw in relation to your skull, and finish by mapping your jaw and skull in relation to your entire body. n Move.  After you have created an accurate body map, apply the knowledge of the anatom-

ical facts by moving and singing with your kinesthetic sense and inclusive awareness.



8 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

KINESTHESIA For Body Mapping to be fully effective, you must use your kinesthesia and inclusive awareness. These two skills are vital to the Body Mapping process. Let’s discuss kinesthesia first. Kinesthesia is the perception of your body in motion: how it moves, where it moves, and the quality of that movement (kinema means movement and esthesia means perception). The kinesthetic sense is conveyed by sensory receptors located in joints, muscles, fascia, and connective tissue. The joints are especially rich in these sensory receptors. When you use your kinesthetic sense, you will know the position, balance, size, and quality of your movements. Your kinesthetic sense is as essential as your other senses, and singers will benefit if they learn how to develop and use it.

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Exercise 1–1.  Awakening the Kinesthetic Sense You may read this exercise, or listen to Audio 1–1. n To awaken your kinesthetic sense, raise one of your hands over

your head where you cannot see it. Did you notice that, even though you can’t see your hand, you know exactly where your hand is located? n As you wiggle your fingers, use your kinesthetic sense to perceive

information about your hand and your wiggling fingers: both the location in space and the quality of the movements. Now stop wiggling your fingers and notice you can sense that too. n Next, bring your hand down as you wiggle your fingers and look

at it. Notice that when you add the visual sense, your kinesthetic sense fades somewhat. n Raise your hand over your head again where you can’t see it,

and resume wiggling your fingers. Notice how your kinesthetic sense becomes heightened when your visual sense is not being used. n Finally, bring your hand down again and look at it while you

wiggle your fingers and notice that when you add your visual sense, your kinesthetic sense fades again.

Exercise 1–1 illustrates the fact that our kinesthetic sense tends to be weaker than our other senses because we do not consciously use it enough. By deliberately and continuously using your kinesthetic sense, you can strengthen it so that it will not fade when you choose to include your other senses. Here are three ways to strengthen your kinesthetic sense: 1. Awaken it. 2. Use it in your daily life. 3. Use it in your singing life.

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Next, notice the similarity to what you already understand about your auditory sense. When you use your auditory sense, you can benefit from the following three virtues of your kinesthesia: sensitivity, discrimination, and responsiveness. 1. You are sensitive, so you hear the note you are singing. 2. You discriminate, so you notice that the note is sharp. 3. You respond by bringing the note back in tune. So with your entire body, you can choose to be kinesthetically sensitive, so you perceive your body in motion. Next, you can discriminate, noticing that you have gone off balance. Finally, you can respond kinesthetically by bringing yourself back to balance. Notice that you can also use your kinesthetic sense to perceive large-sized movements, medium and small movements, and extremely small movements (micromovements). Furthermore, we are never completely motionless; there are always small micromovements in our body. Singers who allow micromovement look and sound more flexible and expressive. To awaken your kinesthetic sense of your micromovement, try the following exercise.

Exercise 1–2.  Experiencing Micromovement You may read this exercise, or listen to Audio 1–2. Stand in front of a full-length mirror and use your kinesthetic sense to detect your micromovement. n First, close your eyes and notice the small movements of your

breathing at rest. You may also feel your head or your arms moving very slightly. n Now open your eyes, look at yourself in the mirror, and use both

your kinesthetic and visual sense to detect micromovement. n Next, try standing absolutely still. Sing a few notes, and observe

how you look and sound. n Take a deep breath, and then let it out slowly. Now allow your

micromovement. n Sing a bit more, noticing how you feel, look, and sound.

Using Kinesthesia to Determine Appropriate Effort Your kinesthetic sense will also help you determine exactly how much effort is necessary for a particular movement. For singers and all performing artists, this is an important skill to develop and utilize. Your joints, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and connective tissue provide vital kinesthetic information that helps you move with freedom, from a place of balance, and with appropriate effort. This is of supreme

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10 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

importance to singers: by determining the exact amount of effort necessary for each movement, we will move efficiently and smoothly, thereby producing beautiful singing.

Using Kinesthesia to Determine Optimal Movement Your kinesthetic sense will also help you discover how to choose the best movements for a particular task. For example, as you read this chapter and if you notice your neck is tight and that your head is jutting forward, you can choose to balance your head more comfortably on your spine so that your neck muscles can release. Likewise, when you stand and sing you can use your kinesthetic sense to discover that you are leaning forward from your hip joints. While you continue to sing, you can choose to bring yourself back to balance. Unfortunately, many of us unconsciously turn our kinesthetic sense off. For example, you may sit for hours at your computer. Your kinesthetic sense may turn on too late, well after your leg is numb and your neck hurts. You should not have to wait until you are uncomfortable or in pain to use your kinesthetic sense. As I edit this chapter, I can use my kinesthetic awareness to perceive the size, position, and quality of my movement. If I’m uncomfortable, I simply adjust my position. If I feel comfortable, then I can simply enjoy how my body moves. Try the following exercise to practice and fine-tune your kinesthesia: 1. First, choose a short phrase of a song or vocal exercise. 2. Next, while you sing, ask yourself the following questions: n What n Can

parts of my body am I moving?

I feel micromovement?

n Is

the quality of my movement free or effortful?

n Is

the quality of my movement light or heavy?

When you are using your kinesthesia, it is important to experiment with different movements of all sizes. For example, you might notice that you can achieve better breath control when your hip joints are free and when you allow micromovement. Or you might notice that your tone quality becomes warmer and more vibrant when you move your head slightly so it is in a more balanced relationship with the rest of your body. Or, you might notice your breath management improves when you allow a larger excursion of your ribs when you inhale. In training the kinesthetic sense, we must be sure that we are not only being sensitive and discerning, but that we are responding to the situation. A cook making the perfect cake decides the batter tastes bland, so he responds by adding more cinnamon. As you sing, you might notice your tone quality is shrill, so you respond by choosing a different kind of movement to create a warmer tone. Perhaps you will choose a movement that provides more space in your resonating areas, or perhaps a lighter movement or a movement born from a sense of buoyancy created by your body in better balance. Take a moment now to practice using your kinesthetic sense by answering the following questions while you continue reading:

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n Can I feel the movement of my breathing? n Can I feel the movement of my eyes, head, and neck? n What is the quality of that movement? n Can I feel micromovement? n How do my back, arms, and hands feel while I read? n How does the rest of my body feel?

As you train and strengthen your kinesthetic sense, be sure you are fully perceiving your body with your kinesthetic sense. Please read the following quote by Barbara Conable: A significant minority of your students will have been greatly confused because they have not made a clear distinction between imagining their bodies and perceiving them. Some musicians have based everything on imagination. All the time they practice, rehearse, and perform they are imagining their bodies. Of course, their perception of their bodies goes to zero if they are imagining fiercely enough. They are creating a kind of “dream body,” which substitutes in their experience for their own real body. This extreme condition will be true of perhaps only one in a hundred students, but some lesser version will be true of more, maybe five or ten in a hundred. All will be frustrated artists, unable to really do what they want to do. Most of these people will find real perceiving a terrific relief and will easily make the transition to using their kinesthesia and integrating it with their other senses, but some will be threatened by perception, and may bolt, or fight you, claiming that imagination is what art and music are all about. Don’t fight back, just ask them to experiment in the privacy of their practice room with what you are recommending. Assure them that there is a legitimate place for imagination in music making, it’s just not imagining one’s own body!

INCLUSIVE AWARENESS Inclusive awareness is the skill of perceiving self and world simultaneously. Inclusive awareness and kinesthesia are equally important. Inclusive awareness will help develop your kinesthesia, and kinesthesia will help develop your inclusive awareness. Inclusive awareness includes information from all of your senses: seeing, hearing, moving, and so on. When you use the information from all of your senses, it will provide the link between yourself and your environment. Some people think that inclusive awareness produces too much information for our minds to handle. However, our brains are designed to use inclusive awareness successfully and many excellent singers already do so. Here is how you can do the same. As you sing in public, you can use your inclusive awareness and kinesthesia to become simultaneously aware of yourself and your surroundings: your body in terms of movement; the music; the text; other performers on stage; your performing space, whether it’s a large auditorium or a small room or stage; the audience, the conductor, and if you are in a show, the character you are portraying; your costume; the set; and your props. In other words, you can choose to expand your awareness to include yourself and your environment. Remember that by using your inclusive awareness you include other stimuli. You become aware of how all the elements relate to each other.

12 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

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Exercise 1–3.  Using Inclusive Awareness with Kinesthesia You may read this exercise, or listen to Audio 1–3. When I defined kinesthesia in the previous section, I asked you to raise your hand above your head where you could not see it and to wiggle your fingers. n Do that again now. Note that you can use your inclusive aware-

ness as you continue to wiggle your fingers, expanding your awareness to include the rest of your body. n How does the rest of your body feel now?

With inclusive awareness, you can use your other senses to include your chair, the room temperature, the color of the walls and size of the room, the hum and also the color of the lighting, and the faint sounds next door. You can always choose to expand your awareness.

As a young singer, I entered many voice competitions, and each first-round requirement was a recording. I really loved making each recording. Because I did not know how to use my kinesthesia or inclusive awareness, it felt much easier to sing during the recording process without the distraction and anxiety I often felt with an audience. Every competition accepted me to the second round, which required me to sing for judges and an audience. During each of those second rounds, although I was well prepared, I did not sing my best, as I felt very anxious and distracted. So I did not advance to the third round in many of those competitions. A colleague told me that my voice teacher attempted to explain the problem, and said, “That’s because she only sounds good on a recording.” Although this was not a kind or helpful thing to say, it certainly was true. At that time, I did sound much better on a recording! Now that I use my kinesthesia and inclusive awareness when I sing or speak before an audience, I feel more confident and am much more successful. (For further information about how to use kinesthesia and inclusive awareness to help alleviate performance anxiety, see Appendix A, “What to Do About Performance Anxiety,” by Barbara Conable.)

Types of Attention In the process of Body Mapping, we define three forms of attention: n Concentration n Scanning n Inclusive awareness

Now let’s discuss each of them. Concentration is an extremely limited tool for singers because it is attention upon a single object. For example, as you sing, you might concentrate your attention like



1.  BODY MAPPING, KINESTHESIA, AND INCLUSIVE AWARENESS 13

a flashlight on your jaw, only to leave the rest of your body in the dark. Because you are narrowing your attention on your jaw, you won’t notice that the cause of your neck tension is that your head is off balance and jutting slightly forward of your body. You won’t notice that your breathing is restricted because your arm structure is too low. Scanning (sequential concentration) also falls short. When you engage in scanning, you rapidly move your attention from one area of the body to the next. For example, while you sing, you might concentrate exclusively on your jaw, then your rib movement, then your facial expression, and then your tone quality. This is exhausting and unnecessary work for your brain. Concentration and scanning alone do not provide enough awareness or relationship to the environment for singers to perform to their highest potential. Also, scanning and concentration are exercises about isolation, whereas inclusive awareness is an exercise about relationship. Therefore, the singer’s most effective mode of attention is inclusive awareness. Imagine that you are holding the flashlight of your attention, and that you take several steps backward so that the beam of light takes in everything necessary for singing all at once. Each part of your body relates to the other parts because your inner awareness is integrated with your outer awareness. With inclusive awareness you are not working hard to become aware of all these elements simultaneously. Nor are you trying to exclude other elements. You are simply expanding your awareness to include yourself in relationship to your world, and your world in relationship to yourself. With inclusive awareness your focus can easily shift to what needs your attention the most: the conductor in one moment, how much air you need to take in during the next moment, and the fact that the singer next to you has skipped a measure in the next moment. When you use inclusive awareness, you are still in relationship with the other elements even as you shift focus from element to element. The finest singers, instrumentalists, actors, dancers, and athletes naturally use inclusive awareness. Some of us simply need to expand this skill, and others need to relearn it. The reason we say “relearn” is that most of us had this skill as children. So the good news is that the skill of inclusive awareness can be relearned and refined. Inclusive awareness is highly beneficial to singers because it helps them perform in relationship to the music, the text, other musicians, and the performance space.

Exercise 1–4. Experiencing the Three Forms of Attention You may read this exercise, or listen to Audio 1–4. This exercise will help you to experience each of the three forms of attention. n Choose one part of your body and concentrate on that part. Now,

sing a few phrases and notice what happens to your moving and singing. n Next, rapidly scan different parts of your body as you sing and

notice what happens. n Finally, use your inclusive awareness, which as you learned is

consciously including both your body and your environment. Notice what happens to your body and to your singing.

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14 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

If you expand your awareness to include yourself and your environment, you will likely notice that inclusive awareness is easier and more beneficial than concentration or scanning. Furthermore, you will notice that you can easily shift focus and can make any necessary adjustments to your body and singing in order to attain the best performance. As your inclusive awareness strengthens, you will be able to respond to your body and your environment effortlessly as required. It takes time to develop and strengthen inclusive awareness. Don’t give up. With regular practice of inclusive awareness, your movement and singing will benefit.

Complementary Somatic Disciplines

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Barbara Conable created the course “What Every Musician Needs to Know About the Body” to put music education on a firm somatic foundation. Some synonyms of somatics are: mind-body training, movement study, and body training. Pioneers of somatic training include Mabel Todd, who wrote The Thinking Body, F. M. Alexander, who founded the Alexander Technique, and Moshe Feldenkrais, who founded the Feldenkrais Method. If you are fortunate enough to live near Alexander Technique or Feldenkrais teachers, consider taking lessons. Somatic disciplines like Alexander Technique or Feldenkrais enrich Body Mapping, and vice versa. Before you continue reading, please view Video 1–5. Then, after you have viewed Video 1–5, review Chapter 1 by answering the following questions.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What is the body map? 2. What are the four elements of the body map? 3. List two examples of the process of Body Mapping. 4. List three activities to correct and refine your body map. 5. What is kinesthesia and how does it benefit singers? 6. What is inclusive awareness and how does it benefit singers?

CONCLUSION Robin Gilmore, author of What Every Dancer Needs to Know About the Body, captures the essence of Body Mapping: “This is not a ‘quick fix’ but a by-product of rethinking your approach to your body and movement. Correcting your body map can be easy and fun, but it requires conscious thinking and a willingness to change.” As you read Chapter 2 and beyond, use your kinesthesia to explore the new material. Cultivate your inclusive awareness. Compare those experiences with your current body map, and inquire if there



1.  BODY MAPPING, KINESTHESIA, AND INCLUSIVE AWARENESS 15

are changes you might make to your body map. Get up. Move around. Sing. Reread. Draw. Palpate. Reflect. Move some more. Body Mapping is an active process, active in the brain and active in the body. Let’s get moving!

RESOURCES Association for Body Mapping Education: http://www.bodymap.org The Complete Guide to the Alexander Technique: http://www.alexandertechnique.com/ Feldenkrais Resource: http://www.feldenkraisresources.com/life-in-movement-moshe-feldenkrais-reesebiography-p/2257.htm Robin Gilmore’s Alexander Technique website: http://www.chesapeakealexander.com Todd, M. (2008). The thinking body. Gouldsboro, ME: The Gestalt Journal Press.

REFERENCES Conable, B. (1998). What every musician needs to know about the body. Chicago, IL: GIA Publications. Conable, B., & Conable, W. (1992). How to learn the Alexander Technique. Chicago, IL: GIA Publications. Gilmore, R. (2010, 2005). What every dancer needs to know about the body. Chicago, IL: GIA Publications.

2 The Core of the Body and the Places of Dynamic Balance MaryJean Allen

THE BIG PICTURE Just as your skeleton is the framework of your body, both Chapter 1 and this chapter are the framework of this entire book. You will need to apply the skills you learn from Chapters 1 and 2 in order to successfully apply the information in Chapters 3 through 7. Further, you will receive the most benefit if you read and embody Chapters 1 and 2 before you read the other chapters. This chapter will give you the framework to sing beautifully and expressively. The body of a singer needs to be balanced and free in order to move in a range from a large, dramatic gesture to a tiny micromovement. When your body is balanced, any movement that is inherent to the structure and flexibility of your body will be available to you.

HOW WILL THIS KNOWLEDGE HELP YOUR SINGING? This chapter covers the core of the body and the places of dynamic balance. A foundational concept of Body Mapping is that your core is the weight-distributing portion of your spine, your body’s support and weight delivery system, along with the deep support muscles and fascia surrounding the spine. Your spine will be thoroughly discussed later in this chapter. For now, simply note that your spine is comprised of the bony vertebral bodies and cartilaginous discs. And, your spine is supported by spinal muscles, ligaments, tendons, connective tissue, and fascia. Next, as you correct and refine your body map by learning how to embody the places of balance, your singing will benefit in the following ways: n Your muscles will release unnecessary tension. n Your entire body will become more buoyant and flexible as you sing. n Your tone quality will become more beautiful, full, and resonant. 17

18 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

n Your breath management will become more efficient. n Your voice will move with greater agility. n Your gesturing and acting will become more authentic.

To sing with beautiful sound and expression, we need to learn the body’s anatomical facts and translate that knowledge into graceful and balanced movement. The movement exercises in this chapter will help you achieve that goal. Be sure to complete each exercise because movement is an essential component of Body Mapping.

THE ESSENTIALS Mapping the Word “Posture” Posture is a primary concern of all singers, so let’s begin with it now. Why do some singers who attempt to sing with what is commonly considered to be “good posture” look rigid or caricature-like? They also may complain they feel stiff and uncomfortable. These singers might be instructed to use more “effort” in order to achieve good posture, or they may be told that their postural muscles are weak. Let’s consider the meaning of the word “posture.” One root of the word is positura, meaning “a position,” and another root is ponere “to place.” Therefore, the word “posture” implies stasis or standing still. Singing, however, always requires movement and flexibility of our body, so the word “posture” can sometimes be antithetical to excellent singing. Although the word “posture” will always be in our vocabulary, here is an enjoyable and beneficial exercise to embody words that are powerful substitutes for the word “posture.” Note that each of these words implies movement.

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Exercise 2–1.  Embodying Powerful Substitutes for the Word “Posture” You may read this exercise, or listen to Audio 2–1. Stand in front of a mirror and think about what each word means to you in terms of movement. “Try on” each word, and be sure to fully embody each word while you stand, breathe, move, and sing. Notice how each word affects your body and your singing. n Let’s start with the word balance, which means a state of equi-

librium and poise. How does your body feel when you “try on” that word? Sing a few notes. How do you look and sound? n Next, try on the word buoyant, which means lightness and resilience.

Look in the mirror and sing. Notice how you feel, look, and sound. n Finally, try on the word springy, which means moving as a result

of elasticity. How do you feel, sound, and look? Be creative, and search for other words that imply movement to help you move and sing with greater freedom.



2.  THE CORE OF THE BODY AND THE PLACES OF DYNAMIC BALANCE 19

Singers need to understand how the skeleton serves as a structure of support, weight delivery, and movement. Let’s continue by exploring and mapping the skeleton.

Mapping Your Skeleton To map your skeleton, first take an inventory of your current assumptions and beliefs about it. Remember that you need to clearly map structure, size, location, and function. As you learned in Chapter 1, each of these elements is equally important in the Body Mapping process, and can be approached in any order (Figure 2–1).

Figure 2–1.  Body Mapping elements. Created by MaryJean Allen.

Begin mapping your skeleton by answering the following questions: n Structure:  What is the construction of my skeleton? n Size:  How large are the various parts of my skeleton? n Location:  Where are the parts of my skeleton located in my body? n Function:  How does my skeleton move?

Next, study Figure 2–2. Then read the following list of additional ways to map your skeleton. Use as many as you can. Note that you will need to apply some or all of these activities to map any part of your body.

Figure 2–2.  Full skeleton, front view. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., Section I, p. 28), by D. Gorman, 2002, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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2.  THE CORE OF THE BODY AND THE PLACES OF DYNAMIC BALANCE 21

1. Study Figure 2–2. Here are some beneficial ways to do that. Note that the vertical dotted line in the center of the skeleton is a “plumb” line indicating gravity. The plumb line is also a great reminder that both the skeleton and the ground support the body from below. Next, you can color in any part or parts on the illustration that you discover were not mapped at all, were mis-mapped, or were not mapped clearly. And you can make notes about those mapping discoveries next to those parts on the illustration. Finally, it can be very useful to try to draw your skeleton without looking at the illustration, and then compare your drawing to Figure 2–2. Don’t worry about creating a drawing in great detail, even a simple line drawing will tell you a great deal. 2. Examine medical-grade human skeletal models. As you touch and examine the model, remember that just as every human body is different, every skeletal model is different, too. This is manifested in bone length, distances between bones, etc. There is no skeletal model in which the bones will be the exact same size or shape as your own bones. Still, skeletal models are very effective in the Body Mapping process if you note the general shape and size of each model as you compare it with your own skeleton. Next, as you examine the model, ask yourself, “Is this how I thought I was constructed?” If not, be sure to fully answer that question. For example, perhaps there were bones you left out in your map, or bones that were not clearly mapped. You can also ask yourself how your skeletal structure might differ in proportion or relationship to the model. The anatomical models you purchase and/or study, whether life-size or smaller, must be medical grade models. A skeleton from a Halloween shop most always has all kinds of errors. Although medical-grade skeletal models can be expensive, they are enormously helpful in Body Mapping. See the reference section at the end of this chapter for websites that sell medical-grade skeletal models. 3. Study anatomical illustrations of the human skeleton (be sure to study atlases of human anatomy illustrated by trained anatomists; see http://www.bodymap.org for a list of recommended anatomy books). As you study the illustrations, ask yourself, “How do the anatomical facts compare with what I previously thought about my skeleton’s structure, size, location of its parts, and function? How does my skeletal structure differ in proportion and relationship to the illustration?” 4. Cultivate tactile awareness of your own skeleton through palpating, which means to examine by touch with your hands and fingers. Remember to compare what you palpate on your own body with what you palpate on skeletal models. Also, compare what you palpate on your own body and skeletal models with illustrations. 5. Use a mirror. Begin by describing to yourself what you would expect to see when you stand in front of a mirror. Think about height, width, and depth of your body. Be sure to ask yourself, “How does what I see differ from what I expect to see?” As you observe yourself in a full-length mirror while you stand, breathe, and sing, try to observe yourself from different angles, too. You can use a hand mirror along with a full-length mirror to better see yourself in profile. Sometimes mirror work can cause us to feel self-conscious or negative about our appearance or our movement, which obviously interferes with receiving helpful feedback from what we observe in the mirror. When working with a

22 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

mirror, you can eliminate a judgmental response by looking into the mirror and thinking, “How can I help that person who I see in the mirror come to a better balance and move more easily?” The intention of helping the person we see in the mirror often frees us from a judgmental response to what we observe, thus allowing us to move forward successfully in the Body Mapping process. 6. Cultivate kinesthesia through movement. For example, explore hip joint movement by palpating your right or left hip joint area as you kick out one leg. Next, palpate both hip joint areas as you march in place, and also when you bow before an imaginary audience. 7. Sit in on a dissection at your local college or university. 8. Visit local museums and science centers. 9. Purchase and use The Anatomy Coloring Book and the Physiology Coloring Book by Wynn Kapit and Lawrence M. Elson.

THE DETAILS The human skeleton is comprised of about 270 bones at birth, and by adulthood some bones fuse, creating a total of about 206 bones. The skeleton protects organs, produces blood cells, stores ions, and regulates the endocrine system. Also, the skeleton comprises bones of many different sizes and shapes. There are slight skeletal differences between males and females; for example, long bones are generally larger in males. Next, people do not have the exact same size or density of bones, and some people do not have the same number of bones. And finally, some people have skeletal anomalies, due to injury or skeletal disorders, such as scoliosis (abnormal spinal curvature). Therefore, it’s very helpful in the Body Mapping process to learn as much as you possibly can about your own skeleton, and also to learn about your student’s skeleton. However, sometimes we are so accustomed to our own skeletal anomalies that we do not even think about them, even if we perceive the “result” of that anomaly with our kinesthesia. For example, during my early years as a Body Mapping teacher, my voice student “Julie” looked stiff as she stood, and she appeared to be overly locked in her knee and hip joints. Because Barbara Conable trained me to teach Body Mapping by observing my student and then asking questions, instead of offering Julie a solution to “fix” her stiff appearance, I asked her how she felt in her body while she stood. Julie’s answer to my question gave me important information. She replied that standing with “good posture” had always been a bit difficult for her because she had been in a car accident as a child, and one of her legs was shorter than the other. So now I could help Julie cooperate with her skeletal structure, yet help her discover the most comfortable and healthy way to stand. It’s important to add, although I observed Julie looking stiff, I probably would not have learned about her skeletal anomaly unless I had asked her how she felt in her body as she stood. Julie was so used to her leg structure, and so accustomed to feeling uncomfortable when she stood, that she did not even think of telling me about her leg. Therefore, in the Body Mapping process it’s important to ask questions, especially pertaining to how one feels in the body while sitting, standing, breathing, moving, and singing.



2.  THE CORE OF THE BODY AND THE PLACES OF DYNAMIC BALANCE 23

Let’s continue to map the skeleton. Our goal is free and healthy movement. We can achieve that by mapping the skeleton and learning how it is designed to deliver our weight, and mapping how the bones and skeletal muscles are designed to move. The skeleton and the skeletal muscles allow your body to move in a variety of ways at the joints. A joint is a place at which two bones, two cartilages, or a bone and a cartilage meet. Cartilage, a tough, elastic tissue with a distinct shape but more flexible than bone, covers the ends of your bones at your joints to protect the bone and permit movement. Bones are connected to each other at joints via ligaments, short, flexible, tough fibrous connective tissue that connects bone to bone. Ligaments also can connect bone to cartilage or cartilage to cartilage. Your skeletal muscles are connected to your bones with tendons, cords or bands of fibrous connective tissue that connect muscles to bones. Although there are three types of muscle — cardiac, smooth, and skeletal — this chapter discusses skeletal muscle. There are 640 skeletal muscles that make up the majority of our muscles. Skeletal muscles are elastic, fibrous tissue capable of movement. Skeletal muscles are voluntary; they move when your brain tells them to move. And, they move your bones by pulling on them. Movement occurs when a muscle contracts (shortens), which pulls on a bone. Skeletal muscles usually work in pairs or groups. When they work in pairs, one muscle contracts, and the other muscle releases. In order for a muscle to contract optimally, its reciprocal muscle must stay relatively inactive, or released. And, muscles that are released can still maintain their elasticity or tonus. To bend at the elbow, for example, your biceps muscle located on the front of your upper arm contracts, while your triceps muscle located on the back of your upper arm releases. In order to straighten your arm, your triceps muscle must contract while your biceps muscle releases. However, some people try to move their arm while contracting both the biceps and triceps muscles simultaneously. This is called co-contraction. It produces tension, constricts movement, and can cause injury. Co-contraction causes singers to look and sound awkward and tense. So mapping how skeletal muscles are designed to move, along with discovering appropriate effort for each task, is paramount to free and expressive singing. Next, visit at least one of these videos to strengthen and enhance your skeletal muscle map. 1. Fast paced, witty, and clear video about how muscles work: Muscles, Part 2 — Organismal Level: Crash Course A&P #22 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I80Xx7pA9hQ 2. Short informative video about the muscular system: The Muscular System Explained In 6 Minutes by CTE Skills https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rMcg9YzNSEs 3. Clear and informative video with excellent animations [MEDICAL] 3D Anatomy and Physiology Animations : Bones and Skeletal Muscles https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ge7LK3h83f0 Let’s continue mapping your skeletal muscles. They cannot move freely if they are chronically tense. Furthermore, tense muscles diminish our kinesthetic sense. Therefore, singers who learn how to discern and release tension and also learn how to use appropriate effort for each movement will sing with ease and efficiency. Try the next two exercises to learn how to achieve those two goals.

24 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

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Exercise 2–2. Experiencing a Tense Muscle Versus a Released Muscle You may read this exercise, or listen to Audio 2–2. n This exercise will teach you how to discern the difference between

a tense muscle and a released one. n Begin by clenching your right fist as tightly as you can. Using

your kinesthesia, feel the tension and stiffness in your hand and arm. n Next, as you continue clenching your right fist, use your inclu-

sive awareness to include your whole body. Notice how your entire body feels. n Now slowly relax the tension in your right hand and arm by

uncurling your fingers and loosening the rest of your hand. Notice how your right arm muscles have released their tension. Observe that your whole body has released the tension you perceived earlier in this exercise. n Next, clench your right fist as tightly as you can while you sing

a few lines of a vocal exercise or a song. Notice how your body feels and notice how you sound. n As you continue to sing, slowly relax the tension in your right

hand and arm by uncurling your fingers and loosening the rest of your hand and arm. Notice how your entire body feels and how you sound.

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Exercise 2–3.  Experiencing Appropriate Effort You may read this exercise, or listen to Audio 2–3. Our goal in Body Mapping is for our muscles to work only as much as necessary for any particular task. Now, try the following exercise to determine the amount of effort needed for the following task. n If you are currently reading from this book, you can use the book

for this exercise. If you are reading on a computer screen, please pick up a book or a similar object. Now imagine the book weighs more than it actually does, about ten pounds, like a large sack of potatoes. Use your kinesthesia to note how your arms and hands feel as you hold the book. Use your inclusive awareness to note how the rest of your body feels.



2.  THE CORE OF THE BODY AND THE PLACES OF DYNAMIC BALANCE 25

n Next, change your thinking and feel the actual weight of the

book. Use your kinesthesia and inclusive awareness to determine exactly how much effort you need in your arms, hands, and the rest of your body to hold the book comfortably. Ask yourself if you can find a way to hold the book even more easily. How do your arms, hands, and the rest of your body feel when you use the appropriate amount of effort to hold the book?

Along with discovering the appropriate effort necessary for each task, you will find it easier to move and sing expressively when you allow your muscles to release and rest upon your skeleton. By allowing your skeleton to support you, your muscles will not overwork. However, this does not mean your muscles should be completely passive or so heavy that they “collapse” upon your skeleton. Rather, the objective is to find a balance between support from our skeleton and a resilient vibrancy in our muscles and other tissue. Because I am a “high-energy” person, and since I suffered constant pain from a very old back injury, I developed years of habits of “overwork” in my muscles and other tissue. At age 39 in the year 2000 with those habits firmly in place while I trained to become a Body Mapping Educator with Barbara Conable, it was a revelation and relief to learn that my muscles, tendon, ligaments, connective tissue, and fascia did not have to work so hard. My habits and mis-mappings were years old and therefore quite ingrained, yet because the body map is changeable, I successfully corrected and refined my map. I was able to change some aspects of my map instantly, some took months to change, and others took years to change. I continue to enjoy the benefits of refining that map. During my training to become a Body Mapping Educator, Barbara Conable asked us to draw our bodies with a simple line drawing. Since I was an experienced singer and voice teacher, it was not surprising to me that I drew a clear picture of my larynx, lungs, and diaphragm. However, my drawing did not contain one single bone! Due to my chronic back pain, my muscles always felt like they were overworking. Well, they certainly were. According to my body map, I didn’t have any bones to help support me! When I carefully mapped my skeleton as a structure of support and learned how to allow my muscles to release and rest upon my skeleton, I moved more freely and my back pain greatly decreased. I continue to be fascinated by bones, and now I own many different skeletal models and I use them to teach voice, Body Mapping, and Alexander Technique. Some folks, however, may collapse too much upon their skeleton, and need to cultivate more tone and elasticity in their muscular structure. So whether a person tends to collapse or overwork, discovering the appropriate amount of effort necessary for each movement is vital in Body Mapping. The search is worthwhile, since the results are liberated movement, easily produced tone quality, better breath intake and breath management, and more vibrant singing. Now that you have mapped your skeleton as a structure that supports and delivers the weight of your body, let’s enhance that map with your kinesthesia and inclusive awareness.

26 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

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Exercise 2–4.  Experiencing Support from Your Skeleton You may read this exercise, or listen to Audio 2–4. Earlier, you experienced a short exercise to distinguish the difference between a tense muscle and a released muscle. n Try the following experiment in thinking: Stand with an inac-

curate body map, using only your muscles and other tissue to hold you upright. This stance is typical of a singer who has not mapped her skeleton as supporting and distributing her weight. Using your kinesthesia and inclusive awareness, perceive how your body feels. Observe how you look in the mirror. Sing a few phrases, and notice how you sound. n Now try the exercise again, but this time allow your muscles to

release and rest upon your skeleton. Look in the mirror. What changed? Notice how your body feels. n Continue to stand, allowing your skeleton to support you. Look

in the mirror and sing a phrase or two, noticing how you feel, look, and sound. n Finally, allow the floor to support you as well. Did you feel

an additional release in your leg or back muscles? Sing a bit, observing how you feel, look, and sound. n Because singers often sit during vocal rehearsals, you will also

benefit from trying this exercise while sitting in a chair. If you have a chair nearby, sit and repeat the above process.

Before you continue reading, visit this excellent video to view the skeleton in 3-D format while you refine and strengthen your skeletal map. General Skeleton Basic Tutorial (by AnatomyZone) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fIoBoGSPkws

BIOTENSEGRITY To fully embody our skeletal support along with the resilient vibrancy of our muscles and other tissue, it is useful to understand the concept of biotensegrity. To accomplish that, we must first investigate the concept of tensegrity. In the late 1940s, American architect and inventor Buckminster Fuller, inspired by his student Kenneth Snelson’s sculpture, coined the word “tensegrity” (an elision of the words tensional and integrity). A tensegrity structure is three-dimensional and contains rigid components, such as steel or wood, that do not touch each other and function as discontinuous compression components, combined with wires or strong elastic, that function as continuous tension elements. So a tensegrity structure is stable, resilient, and fully integrated. For example, when you place pressure on any part of a tensegrity struc-



2.  THE CORE OF THE BODY AND THE PLACES OF DYNAMIC BALANCE 27

ture, the entire structure is affected. And when you remove the pressure, the entire structure springs back to its original shape. The late Tom Flemons, artist and inventor of many tensegrity structures, invented the Skwish Toy, the first commercially available children’s toy that is a pure tensegrity. In Figure 2–3, you can see the Skwish toy with its discontinuous compression elements, the colorful pieces of wood, along with its continuous tension element, the elastic string. Note that in each instance when I push or pull on one part of the toy, the entire toy is affected.

Figure 2–3.  Skwish Toy. Photographs by John Allen. Used with permission.

28 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

Stephen Levin M.D., an orthopedic surgeon, coined the term “biotensegrity.” Rather than considering the skeleton and spine as a rigid, base-heavy vertical stack of blocks, to which muscles and other tissue are attached, biotensegrity considers the body as a system of compression and tension. Thus, our bones comprise the discontinuous compression components, and our muscles, tendons, ligaments, connective tissue, and fascia comprise the continuous tension component. Graham Scarr, chartered biologist, osteopath, and author of Biotensegrity: The Structural Basis of Life, briefly defines biotensegrity on his website: It is a simple re-evaluation of anatomy as a network of structures under tension and others that are compressed; parts that pull things together and others that keep them apart; basic physics!

Scarr provides an in-depth explanation in his 2018 article “Biotensegrity: A Different Way of Thinking”: Tensegrity structures are strong, light in weight, flexible and resilient. They can move with the minimum of effort and always return to the same position of equilibrium. Each part is integrated with all the others and has a mechanical influence on the whole system. When one part changes then everything around it also changes, which means that forces, power and information can be efficiently transmitted from one region to another.

Understanding our body as a tensegrity structure explains why Exercise 2–1 is so helpful. Exercise 2–1 encourages you to embody the words balanced, buoyant, and springy, which help you map your body as a tensegrity structure. To learn more about biotensegrity, consult Chapter 3 pages 71–73 and Dr. Stephen Levin’s website: http://www.biotensegrity.com/ Before we move on to mapping the spine, which is a tensegrity structure in and of itself, remember our spine functions well in many different positions. Although the process of singing often requires standing, we also sit while singing, and sometimes we must lie down in order to portray the character, too.

CORRECTING AND REFINING YOUR MAP OF THE SPINE Let’s continue mapping the skeleton by mapping the spine. When you map the structure, size, location, and function of your spine accurately, your breathing, stature, and singing will improve. This is because your entire body is dependent on your spine, which is one of the major support and movement structures of your skeleton. You will discover that when you correct and refine your spinal map, you will not only sing better, but you will be able to do everything in your life with greater ease and efficiency, too. Begin mapping your spine by taking an inventory of your current assumptions and beliefs about it, answering the following basic Body Mapping questions. (Note that you need to ask questions like these when you map any part of your body.) What is its size? n How big is your spine? n What is the length and circumference? n Are the measurements the same all along the structure or are they different?

2.  THE CORE OF THE BODY AND THE PLACES OF DYNAMIC BALANCE 29



What is its structure? n What is it comprised of? n Is it comprised of bone only? n Is it comprised of one, several, or many bones? n Does it also contain cartilage, and if so, what is it like? n Is there synovial fluid between the joints, and if so, what is it like? n What is its shape? Is it straight? If not, how does it curve?

Where is it located? n Is your spine located along the front, the back, or in the center of your body? n How high up and how far down does it extend in your body? n Due to its natural curves, where is each part of the spine located in your body?

What is its function, and how does it move? n What are the functions of the spine? n How does it move when you twist, bend, or when you stand in balance? n How does it move when you breathe in? n How does it move when you breathe out?

Let’s continue our journey of mapping the spine. Please visit the first two minutes, 45 seconds of the following video. Although this video was designed to educate patients about a spinal surgical procedure, the first two minutes, 45 seconds of the video are a clear overview of the spine. Transforaminal Lumbar Interbody Fusion Overview by Atlantic Spine Center: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=okNJPMbh_W0 Let’s continue. Note that during the next section, you will need to alternate among viewing four different figures. These are Figures 2–4, 2–5, 2–6, and 2–7. First, briefly study Figure 2–4. Then continue reading.

Figure 2–4.  Skeleton, side view. By Tim Phelps. Copyright 2008. Used with permission.

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Figure 2–5.  Side view, spine and pelvis with vertical axis. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., Section I, p. 45), by D. Gorman, 2002, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission. 31

Figure 2–6.  Side view, spine with discs. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., Section I, p. 46), by D. Gorman, 2002, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission. 32

Figure 2–7.  Side view of spine outlining curves. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., Section I, p. 45), by D. Gorman, 2002, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission. 33

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THE SIZE OF YOUR SPINE Correctly mapping the size of our spine in our body can be difficult because the spine is deeper from front to back than most people realize. The bumps we can palpate on the surface — the spinous processes — are a very small part of the whole spine, as you can see in Figures 2–5 and 2–6. In Figures 2–4 and 2–7 you can see that the front of the spine is deep inside the torso. And, you will see that the spine is also wide, taking up about half the neck and one-third of the abdominal cavity. The spine is also long, extending all the way from the base of the skull at the atlanto-occipital joint to the bottom of the tailbone. Its five sections run through four regions of the body: the cervical spine in the neck region, the thoracic spine in the chest region, the lumbar spine in the abdominal region, and the sacrum and coccyx in the pelvic region. Skeletal measurements are relative to the size of each human being (and therefore each skeletal model) so we do not map using one set of exact measurements. The lumbar spine (lower back area) is the largest area of your spine. Many people underestimate its size. If you make a circle with both index fingers touching each other and both ends of your thumbs touching each other, this is roughly the size of one of your lumbar vertebra, including its protruding spinous processes. Here is a great way to understand the circumference of your spine in relationship to the distance between the front and back of your body. In a person with little to no body fat, such as shown in Figures 2–4 and 2–7, the cervical spine takes up one-third of the body’s depth from front to back, the thoracic spine one-fourth, and the lumbar spine one-half. As you study Figures 2 –4 and 2 –7, think and reflect on those anatomical facts.

THE STRUCTURE AND LOCATION OF YOUR SPINE Your spine begins at your top vertebra, the atlas, located right between your ears. It extends down to your coccyx (tailbone). In Figure 2–4, the vertical line on the skeleton illustrates the central line of balance when we are standing upright. The places of dynamic balance along this vertical line are circled: atlanto-occipital joint (A-O joint), arm structure, thorax, hip joints, knee joints, and ankle joints. We will cover these places of balance later in this chapter. Mapping the location of our spine in our body can be confusing. This is because the parts of the spine that we can easily see and palpate — the spinous processes — extend back from the bodies of each vertebra along the back of our cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine. But there is much more to our spine than the spinous processes, such as the vertebral bodies and cartilaginous discs, which we will map later. As we continue mapping the location of the spine, remember that your atlas (C-1) is located right between your ears. Your lowest cervical vertebra (C-7) is located at the base of your neck. Your thoracic spine (chest region) lies between the cervical and lumbar regions and covers the area below your lowest cervical vertebra at the base of your neck to the bottom of your lowest ribs. It curves back in space in order to allow room for the lungs and the heart. Your sacrum lies just below your lumbar vertebrae. Your coccyx (tailbone) is located at the base of the spine behind the pelvis. Your spine is segmented and flexible, with 24 individual bony vertebrae, 9 fused vertebrae, and 23 cartilaginous discs. There are 7 cervical vertebrae (C1–C7), 12 thoracic vertebrae (T1–T12), and 5 lumbar



2.  THE CORE OF THE BODY AND THE PLACES OF DYNAMIC BALANCE 35

vertebrae (L1–L5). The remaining 9 fused vertebrae comprise your sacrum (S1–S5) and coccyx (Co1– Co4). Your 24 vertebrae and spinal discs are smaller in thickness and circumference near the top of your spine and larger near the lumbar spine. You can see this on any medical-grade skeletal model and in any accurate anatomical drawing, such as Figure 2–6. As you study Figure 2–6, notice the size of each vertebra along the entire spine. Your spine has four curves. Study Figure 2–7 to map the location and extent of each. The spine curves slightly forward in the cervical area, then curves back away from center in the thoracic area, then curves forward to center in the lumbar area, and, finally, curves away from center in the sacrococcygeal area. The very base of the coccyx curves slightly toward the center. Now let’s take a more detailed look at the construction of an individual vertebra. Please view Figure 2–8. Note that it is a lumbar vertebra, and due to its large size, it is easy to see its three parts: the body, the foramen (opening for spinal cord), and the spinous processes.

Figure 2–8. Vertebral body. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., Section I, p. 47), by D. Gorman, 2002, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

36 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

You can easily palpate the rear spinous processes, those protruding “bumps” right underneath the skin all along your spine. Give it a try. The spinous processes function to protect the spinal cord, and also function as muscle attachments. Each vertebra has four facet joints that allow your spine to be both flexible and stable. One pair of facet joints connects to the vertebra above, and one pair connects to the vertebra below. The foramen (opening) is located in the center of the three spinous processes behind the body of the vertebra. Since the bodies of your spinal vertebrae are located deep inside your body, it is very important to map the vertebral bodies by studying and thoroughly palpating medical-grade skeletal models and by studying medical-grade illustrations. To enhance your map of your spinal vertebrae, visit the following video: Human Anatomy Video:  The Typical Vertebra https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zwni5IwAtRk Next, note that only your uppermost vertebra (atlas, C1) does not have a body. This is because your second vertebra (axis, C2) has a post on the upper part of it that protrudes through the foramen of the atlas. Thus, when you turn your head back and forth to indicate the word “no,” your atlas rotates on the post of your axis. Please visit the following video to clearly map the atlas and axis vertebrae of your spine. Although this video was designed to educate people about a chiropractic method, it will help you clearly map the atlas and axis. At 2 minutes and 4 seconds, you can view the atlas, which is pictured in blue, and the axis in white, followed by an animation of the atlas rotating on the post of the axis. The AtlasPROfilax® method (English version, March 2012) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jajcvFOH6m0 Let’s continue mapping the spinal discs. First, please visit the following video, which is about lumbar spine facet joints, yet mostly covers spinal discs: Normal Lumbar Disc Facet by Atlantic Spine Center: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wetxtIGoCu4 Each of your 23 cartilaginous spinal discs is flat and approximately elliptical in shape. They function as shock absorbers, as cartilaginous joints to allow slight mobility, and as ligaments to hold the vertebrae together. They are about one-fourth-inch thick in the upper areas of the spine and increase in thickness in the lower areas of the spine. There are six discs in the cervical area, 12 in the thoracic area, and 5 in the lumbar area. Because the atlas (C1, uppermost spinal vertebra) does not have a body, there is not a disc in between the atlas and the axis (C2). Your spinal discs have a fibrous outer shell of circular rings called the annulus. The center of each of these discs, the nucleus, contains a gelatinous substance. Due to their hydraulic construction, the flexible discs will compress when they bear weight; they spring back to shape when the weight is removed, as you can see in Figure 2–9.



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Figure 2–9.  Spinal disc at rest and compression. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., Section I, p. 51), by D. Gorman, 2002, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

Your vertebrae, discs, and facet joints are connected to each other with spinal ligaments. Ligaments and tendons are strong yet flexible fibrous bands of tissue. Ligaments connect bone to bone. Tendons connect muscles to bone. In your spine, for example, ligaments connect your vertebrae, and tendons connect muscles to your vertebrae. Fascia consists of thin, strong fibers that connect and support all of the structures in your body. Your bones, ligaments, tendons, muscles, and fascia provide a flexible and elegant support and movement system for your spine and entire body. Next, visit each of these excellent videos to enhance mapping of your vertebrae, facet joints, and discs: Cervical Spine Anatomy (eOrthopod): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RNUpMNd_u1U Lumbar Spine Anatomy: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0qR-Yfw9fOI

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Function:  What Does Your Spine Do? How Does Your Spine Move? Now that you have mapped the location and structure of your spine, you can map its functions: to deliver and distribute weight, to protect the spinal cord, to absorb the shock of impact, to allow movement, and to provide attachments for the ribs.

Delivering and Distributing Weight The front of your spine (vertebral bodies and discs) distributes the weight of your head and torso and delivers it through the sacrum into the pelvis. Mapping the spine as delivering and distributing weight helps you find the optimal stature, alignment, tone quality, and breathing for singing. When we are upright, each vertebra supports what is above it, and distributes the weight to what is below it. This is why vertebrae become progressively larger the lower they are located in your spine. The weight-delivering parts of two of the five regions of the spine are on the line of balance, which make your body both flexible and stable. These two centrally located spinal regions are the cervical and the lumbar vertebrae. Your cervical spine (C1–C7) distributes and delivers the weight of the head. Your head weighs 9 to 13 pounds. Pause for a moment, use your kinesthesia and inclusive awareness, and embody that anatomical fact: Your head weighs from 9 to 13 pounds! The “average” head weight is about 10 pounds. And fortunately, your spine and the rest of your body are designed to support your head elegantly and easily. However, many singers unconsciously hold their head too far forward of their spine, which tightens neck muscles and tightens the rest of the body as well. Some singers unconsciously hold their head slightly in back of their spine, and some singers hold their head too high or too low. All of those imbalances of the head on the spine cause tightening of neck muscles, which affects the entire body. Learning how to balance your head is of enormous importance for singers and for everyone. We return to this important aspect later. Though slightly back of center, the thoracic spine still delivers weight along its curve. Your thoracic spine (T1–T12) distributes the weight of your head, arms, and chest and delivers it to the lumbar spine. Your lumbar spine (L1–L5) helps to support your torso, arms, and head and delivers their weight to your sacrum. Many folks assume that the weight-delivering portion of our lumbar spine is located along the very back of the spine, where we can both see and palpate the spinous processes. In fact, the weight-delivering portion of our lumbar spine is located deep in the center of our body, about 3 inches forward of our back. To map its location, find the top of your pelvis (iliac crests) on both sides of your body (see Figures 2–18 and 2–19 on pages 52 and 53 to see illustrations of the iliac crests). Place one index finger on the top of each iliac crest with each index finger pointing toward the center of your body. Imagine that your index fingers are quite long and can go through your body, nearly touching each other. Next, imagine a line extending from your index fingers to the center of your abdomen. So where you are imagining your fingers would touch is the front, weight-delivering portion of your lumbar spine containing the vertebral bodies and cartilaginous discs. Your sacrum (fused vertebrae S1–S5) delivers the weight from your upper body to your pelvis at the sacroiliac joints. Your coccyx is below these joints at the base of the spine (fused vertebrae Co1–Co4) and has no weight-delivering function.

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Your cartilaginous discs absorb shock and act as ligaments to hold the vertebrae together. The four curves of your spine also help to absorb shock as well as distribute and deliver weight and enhance stability. When you map the curves of your spine, you can take full advantage of its resiliency for breathing and singing.

Housing and Protecting the Spinal Cord Your vertebrae’s protruding spinous processes enclose and protect your spinal cord, which runs in the foramen (opening) between them and the body of the vertebrae. The spinous processes also provide attachments for ribs, muscles, and ligaments. However, they are not capable of delivering or distributing your weight.

Allowing for Movement Because your spine is segmented and cushioned by flexible cartilaginous discs, it is capable of an impressive range of movement: bending, spiraling, gathering, and lengthening. The four curves of your spine allow for a wide range of movement. Your discs allow bending and rotation. During spinal movement, disc compression occurs. What singers need to avoid, however, is chronic disc compression, which impedes movement and can also cause pain or injury. Figure 2–9 illustrates a spinal disc at rest and a spinal disc compressed. When your body is balanced and aligned, your spine’s gathering and lengthening will occur naturally; your tone quality, breathing, and expressiveness will become free and easy. Spinal gathering and lengthening are covered thoroughly in Chapter 3. Next, try the following exercise to experience your spinal discs compressing and releasing.

Exercise 2–5.  Experiencing Compression and Release of Your Spinal Discs You may read this exercise or listen to Audio 2–5. n To achieve a kinesthetic sense of your discs compressing and

releasing, assume a classic slump, compressing your spinal discs downward as in Figure 2–9. How does your entire body feel? As you look in a mirror, sing a few notes and ask yourself: How do I look and sound? n Now take the pressure off your discs by bringing your spine into

balance. This is a good moment to try on the words “buoyant” and “springy.” Honor the four curves of your spine and allow your muscles to rest on your skeleton. Does your body feel better? Sing a few notes. Do you look and sound better?

Now complete Exercise 2–6 to experience your spine’s location and function.

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Exercise 2–6.  Spine Location and Function You may read this exercise or listen to Audio 2–6. The following experiments will help you to compare inaccurate and accurate body maps of your spine to help you map both the location and the weight-delivering function of your spine. n Begin by trying on this inaccurate map: The location of your

weight-delivering spine is completely along your back. Stand with your back against a wall, flattening your spine’s natural curves (use your kinesthesia here). You will notice that most of your weight will be on the heels of your feet. Observe how your body feels and how your singing sounds when you take on this inaccurate map. n Now, correct the map by moving away from the wall and

changing your thinking. Kinesthetically sense the cervical and lumbar portions of your spine in the center of your body. Now sing, and notice how you feel and sound. n Next, inaccurately map your back muscles or your front muscles

as the primary means of holding you upright. (Many singers assume they are held upright by their backs, and others assume they are held upright by their fronts.) n Go ahead and try this both ways using your kinesthesia and

inclusive awareness. How do you sound and look? n Finally, stand as best you can with an accurate body map by

kinesthetically sensing that the cervical and lumbar portions of your weight-delivering spine are in the center of your body. This accurate map will help free your back and front muscles for expressive singing. How does your body feel now? Sing a phrase or two, and notice how you sound.

THE PLACES OF DYNAMIC BALANCE Accurately mapping the places of balance gives singers an extremely powerful set of singing tools. You will enjoy excellent stature, tone quality, breathing, and expressiveness, allowing you to move freely and sing beautifully. In the process of mapping the places of balance, Body Mapping Educators now add the word “dynamic” to indicate constant change. Thus, as you learn how to embody the places of dynamic balance, remember that each place is a location of continuously changing movement, and each place of balance relates to the entire body. First, study Figure 2–10. Notice that the circles on Figure 2–10 enclose six places of balance, which must be mapped accurately in order for your movements to be free, healthy, and musically expressive.

Figure 2–10.  Places of balance skeleton, side view. By Tim Phelps. Copyright 2008. Used with permission.

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Five of the places lie at your main joints, which are rich in sensory receptors: the A-O joint, upper arm joints, hip joints, knee joints, and ankle joints. One of the places of balance, the balance of your thorax in relation to your lumbar spine, is not medically defined as an actual joint, but this area is also rich in sensory receptors. If you use your kinesthetic awareness, you will be able to notice the quality, position, and size of your movements at these locations of balance. Also, you may notice that you have excellent kinesthetic awareness at some locations but not at others. Be persistent and continue practicing, and as you learn to release your muscles, your kinesthesia in these locations will strengthen. Also, to help train your kinesthesia and inclusive awareness, two excellent resources are listed near the end of this chapter. Before we proceed, note that your body can become balanced in life and in singing in multiple positions; standing, sitting, lying down, doing the “plank” in Yoga, squatting, standing on one foot, doing a plié, and so forth.

A-O Joint Balance Your atlas (uppermost cervical vertebra) meets the bottom portion of your skull (occiput), forming your atlanto-occipital joint (A-O joint). Your atlas helps to support your 9- to 13-pound head and deliver its weight to the rest of the spine. Study Figure 2–11. Two condyles (rounded bumps) are located on the underside of your occiput. These two occipital condyles fit into two oval depressions on the top of your atlas, so when you nod, for example, the condyles glide and slide in the depressions on top of the atlas as your head moves up and down. Your A-O joint also allows very slight motion of your head to one side or the other. When you shake your head “no,” or tilt your head from side to side, the lower cervical vertebrae are involved.



2.  THE CORE OF THE BODY AND THE PLACES OF DYNAMIC BALANCE 43

Figure 2–11.  A-O joint, back view of skull with cervical vertebrae. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., Section I, p. 153), by D. Gorman, 2002, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

Figures 2–11, 2–12, and 2–13 will help you map the location of your A-O joint, which is right between your ears. Study each figure carefully. Also, be sure to view the entire AtlasProfilax Video listed on page 36 of this chapter. Mapping the location of your A-O joint is crucial because balance at the A-O joint allows the muscles in your neck and the rest of your body to release, thus allowing you to move easily and expressively while you sing. You have numerous sensory receptors at your A-O joint that tell you about the location, size, and quality of the movements of your head.

Figure 2–12.  A-O joint location. By Benjamin Conable. Copyright 2001. Used with permission.

Figure 2–13.  A-O joint location in context. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., Section I, p. 153), by D. Gorman, 2002, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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You will benefit enormously as a singer by becoming kinesthetically aware of movements at your A-O joint. To map the location of your A-O joint clearly, along with studying the figures in this chapter and viewing the suggested videos, you can apply suggestions 1 through 9 listed in the previous section of this chapter on pages 21 and 22. Be sure to use medical-grade skeletal models, anatomical illustrations, and so on. Mapping the length, width, and depth of your neck muscles helps you to release and free them along with the connective tissue and fascia that may have tightened around them. If your neck is tight, these muscles will shorten. As your neck becomes free of unnecessary tension, the muscles will find their natural resting length and your singing will become more free and beautiful. Two important elements of mapping the neck muscles include mapping the full length of the muscles, and mapping the multiple layers of the muscles. For example, if you have mapped your neck muscles as shorter than they actually are, then it can be more difficult to free them. Or, if you think of releasing only the external layer of neck muscles, then you are leaving out the deeper layers of neck muscles. Including the deeper layers is important because those areas of the neck that offer reflexive support might be overworking. So it’s helpful to learn to release all the way through the multiple layers of neck muscle, so the neck muscles work only as much as necessary. Please study Figure 2–14 to map the neck muscles. Note that the head is tilted back to clearly demonstrate the vertical length of the neck muscles. This is not a movement used in singing as it pulls up on the larynx. For more details on how the balance of the head affects phonation and resonance, see

Figure 2–14.  Neck muscles. By Benjamin Conable. Copyright 2001. Used with permission.

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Chapters 4 and 5. Now turn to page 126 and study Figure 4–2, to see the neck muscles along with the head in balance. Return to Figure 2–14, and notice the multiple layers of neck muscle and connective tissue. To amplify and embody what you just learned, visit this video: Muscle Anatomy of the Neck — Everything You Need to Know, Dr. Nabil Ebraheim: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BrItOoELlZg

The Balance of the Head If you are balanced at your A-O joint, your neck muscles will release and allow other muscles of your body to release as well. So if your head is balanced and your neck is free, then very likely you will be free in other areas of your body. You can approach your head balance from two perspectives: As you learn how to release your neck muscles, it will be easier to balance your head and become balanced in other areas of your body. Likewise, as you learn how to balance your head, your neck muscles will release and the rest of your body will release tension too. Now, study Figures 2–13, 2–15, 2–16, and 2–17. Study the head balance in each figure. When we learn how to balance at the A-O joint, it is important to note we are not searching for a certain “position.”

Figure 2–15.  Balance of A-O joint, Aaron M. Johnson.



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Figure 2–16.  Balance of A-O joint, Lester Lynch.

In fact, when we try to “place” our head in a certain position, this can tighten our neck and the rest of our body. So we need to search for a balanced relationship at our A-O joint and the rest of our body. Importantly, if you try to balance your head and jaw as one unit, you may balance your head inaccurately: either too high or too low. Remember that your jaw is a separate entity, suspended from the rest of your head. It is an appendage, just like your arm or leg. So, think in terms of balancing your skull without your jaw, and then allow your jaw to be appended to, and take advantage of, your balanced head. Next, use your kinesthesia and inclusive awareness to determine where your head is located in relation to the rest of your body. If your neck muscles feel released, your head most likely is balanced. Use your kinesthesia and inclusive awareness to be sure your head is balanced. Also, use a hand mirror and a full-length mirror so you can view yourself in profile without having to turn your head to the side. Next, video yourself while you sing, and study the videos carefully. Finally, ask for feedback from your colleagues, teachers, and coaches.

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Exercise 2–7.  Experiencing Head Balance Forward and Back You may read this exercise or listen to Audio 2–7. n To help train and enhance your kinesthetic sense of your head

balance, slowly move your head slightly forward of your spine. Perceive with your kinesthesia and inclusive awareness what happens to your body. How do your neck and body feel? n Next, allow your head to balance easily on your atlas, to help

release your neck muscles. This is called neutral, a place of no work. Observe in a full-length mirror how you look. Notice how you feel, and then sing a few notes. How do you sound? n Next, slowly pull your head slightly back of your spine, as if you

were pulling your head back in distaste. How do your neck and body feel, and how do you look and sound? n Now restore the balance of your head centrally on the atlas,

returning to neutral. Sing a few notes, and observe how excellent balance positively impacts your movement and singing. You can also try this same set of exercises with upward and downward movements of your head, returning to neutral each time.

Singing requires balance for a large variety of head and neck movements that dramatically affect your singing. Achieving balance at your A-O joint is not stasis or rigidity. As we have seen with our study of the body’s anatomical facts, balance is achieved in the natural and flexible dynamics of movement. As you sing, act, and gesture, you will be moving in and out of balance. When you balance at your A-O joint, any movement of your head and neck is available to you in an efficient and expressive way as you sing and perform. Notice how Aaron M. Johnson displays excellent balance at the A-O joint in Figure 2–15. He respects his cervical curve rather than trying to sing with a straight neck. Because Aaron’s neck muscles are released, they have their full natural length. Next, it will be helpful to review Figures 2–11, 2–12, and 2–13, to review the location of the A-O joint (right between the ears), and compare those figures with the photograph of Aaron in Figure 2–15.

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Exercise 2–8.  Experiencing Head Balance Up and Down You may read this exercise or listen to Audio 2–8. Here are two exercises to help you balance your head. n First, feel the bottom chewing surfaces of your upper molars with

your tongue. This part of your upper molars should be roughly



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parallel to the floor as you balance your head, consistent with the entire base of the head (excluding the jaw) being roughly parallel to the floor when at rest. n The second exercise demonstrates how your neck muscles tense

and overwork when your head is poorly balanced and how your neck muscles release and move easily when your head is properly balanced at the A-O joint. In this exercise, your hands, not your neck muscles, must accomplish all the movement. Be sure to encourage your neck muscles to release. n Let’s begin: put your right thumb on the tip of your chin and your

left index finger on the base of your head, your occiput. Rock your head up and down with your hands. When you make this movement, you might notice a lot of tension and a jutted-out jaw. n Next, stand comfortably at balance with your entire body, then

put your right thumb on the bottom of your top front teeth and your left index finger on the base of your head, and rock that unit up and down. When you make this movement, you should notice that your neck releases and your head easily rocks up and down. Notice that your head comes to rest roughly parallel to the floor. Now your head is able to move freely balanced on the fulcrum of its atlas just like a teeter-totter.

Lester Lynch (see Figure 2–16) also has excellent balance at the A-O joint and a wonderfully free jaw. Because his head is balanced and his neck is free, his arm and hand gestures are very graceful.

Thoracic Balance in Relation to the Lumbar Spine We defer discussing arm balance for now because your arm structure cannot balance until the rest of your body has become balanced. Let’s continue, then, with thoracic balance. Your thorax, located from the base of your neck to your lowest ribs, is designed to balance in relation to the lumbar spine. Your thorax is comprised of the sternum, thoracic vertebrae, ribs, heart, lungs, and diaphragm. Your lumbar spine (lower back area) is below your thorax. Singers who chronically tilt their thorax back put a great deal of pressure on the muscles and nerves of their lower vertebrae and discs. Other singers tend to chronically tilt their thorax forward while performing. Both breathing well and gesturing easily and eloquently requires thoracic balance. So what does good thoracic balance look like, and how do we find thoracic balance? First, as you can see in Figure 2–17, Aaron exemplifies wonderful thoracic balance, the kind you will achieve with accurate Body Mapping. His thorax is beautifully balanced in relation to his lumbar spine (see also Figure 2–10, page 41). Again in Figure 2–17, visualize the location and structure of Aaron’s spine. You might even want to make several copies of this page and draw his spine on the photo. Next, complete Exercise 2–9.

Figure 2–17.  Balance of thorax, Aaron M. Johnson.

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Exercise 2–9.  Experiencing Thoracic Balance You may read this exercise or listen to Audio 2–9. n Lie down on your back with your knees bent and your feet flat

on the floor. Some people feel more comfortable with one to three thin paperback books under their head until their neck muscles and fascia are used to releasing. In this position, the floor fully supports you, and your thorax is balanced in relation to your lumbar spine quite naturally. If your habit is to tilt your thorax back, this exercise can help correct that habit because the floor allows your thorax to balance accurately in relation to your lumbar spine. Spend a few moments allowing your muscles to release toward the floor, and be sure to allow the floor to fully support you. Use your kinesthesia and inclusive awareness to feel this balance. n Now stand up and search kinesthetically for balance. n Continue further balancing your thorax by doing the following:

Using your kinesthesia and inclusive awareness, slowly walk backward (first be sure that the path behind you is clear). Walking backward will often bring the thorax to accurate balance in relation to the lumbar spine because walking backward makes it nearly impossible for your thorax to be too far back or forward of the lumbar spine. n Now slowly walk forward, maintaining the same balance you

gained in walking backward. You may feel that you are leaning forward, but a good look in the mirror will tell you that you are not. n If you are still confused, try walking slowly backward again a

few steps. n Finally, using your kinesthesia and inclusive awareness, find

the best thoracic balance you can, and sing a few phrases. How does your body feel, and how do you sound?

HIP JOINT BALANCE AND YOUR PELVIC ARCH Your pelvis is designed to deliver the weight of your upper body to your legs. When you stand, your pelvis delivers the weight of your upper body through the wide pelvic arch and your hip joints, and then outward to your thighbones. When you accurately map the arch design of your pelvis as delivering weight to the legs, your hip joints will become more mobile and your singing will become more expressive. The area of your pelvis that distributes the weight of the torso and sends weight into your

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hip joints is thick. Study Figure 2–18. The arrows drawn around the wide arch indicate how weight is delivered to the thighbones when you stand. The arrows drawn around the narrower arch indicate how your weight is delivered to your sit bones when you sit.

Figure 2–18.  Hip joints and pelvis, front view, weight delivery. By Benjamin Conable. Copyright 2001. Used with permission.

Your pelvis contains two bones on either side that mirror each other. The top of your pelvis is called the iliac crest. Between the two pelvic bones lies your sacrum, comprised of five fused vertebrae. The upper part of your sacrum connects to your lowest lumbar vertebra, and the bottom part connects to your coccyx, which is comprised of four fused vertebrae. Your sacrum curves deeply back in space, increasing the depth of your pelvic cavity (Figure 2–19). As you map this area, make sure you palpate your sacrum, pelvis, and hip joints; use medical-grade skeletons to palpate the internal areas.



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Figure 2–19.  Hip joints and pelvis, front view. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., Section 3, p. 16), by D. Gorman, 2002, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

The top of your sacrum is thicker than other areas of your pelvis to provide the strength needed to deliver the weight from your upper body and spine. Below your sacrum, your coccyx (tailbone) is thinner because it is not designed to bear weight. Now let’s map the location of your hip joints. Study Figure 2–19. Note that each of your upper thighbones has a neck that angles up and in toward your pelvis. The bulbous projection at the outside end of each neck is called the greater trochanter. Choose either the right or left side of your body, and find the top of your pelvis (the iliac crest); work your way downward until you can feel the bulbous end of your greater trochanter. Notice that your hip joint is located 2 to 3 inches deeper and higher than your greater trochanter. Although it can be difficult to actually palpate your hip joint, you can feel it kinesthetically by moving your leg at the hip joint in all directions: forward and back, side to side, and full rotation. March in place and palpate the hip area. It is very important to clearly map that your hip joints are located outside of your pelvis, and above your sitting bones. Study Figures 2–18 and 2–19 to clearly map this. Many singers, voice teachers, choral conductors, and vocal coaches also play the piano or organ. When sitting at either instrument, be sure to accurately map your hip joints so that your weight is delivered through your spine and pelvic arch to your sit bones (Figure 2–20).

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Figure 2–20.  You can sit easily on your sit bones, which simultaneously give you stability and mobility. By Benjamin Conable. Copyright 2001. Used with permission.

Mapping the Torso and Bending Forward from the Hip Joints Now that you have clearly mapped your hip joints, you can clearly map your torso. Your torso is the portion of your body that excludes your head, arms, and legs. Therefore, your torso begins at your top vertebra (atlas), located between your ears, and continues down to the bottom of your pelvis, your sit bones. Think and reflect on this anatomical fact for a moment. For singers, mapping the torso’s vertical length is of tremendous importance for movement, which includes breathing, gesturing, and bending forward. Your waist is flexible, so you can twist or bend from side to side. But your waist is



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not designed as a hinge: you are not designed to bend forward efficiently from your waist. Instead, we are designed to bend forward efficiently from our hip joints. By clearly mapping your hip joints, you have accurately located where you should bend forward when you bow for applause or pick up something from the floor. Try bending forward from your hip joints, keeping your entire torso as one unit. It is important to feel dynamically poised for any type of expressive movement at your hip joints whether you are standing or sitting.

Knee Joint Balance Your knee joint is located behind and slightly below the kneecap (patella). That sentence needs rereading, because the actual location of the knee joint is a revelation to people who have mistakenly mapped the kneecap as the knee joint itself. Your kneecap, however, is in front of the knee joint; it is connected with ligaments to the top of the larger lower leg bone (tibia) and the bottom of the thighbone. The knee joint has three conditions: locked, balanced, or bent (Figure 2–21). If your thorax is too far back in relation to your lumbar spine, your knee joints will lock to protect you from falling over. Unfortunately, many singers have to lock their knees because they have not balanced their thorax over their lumbar spine. To solve this problem of locked knees, some voice teachers and directors tell those students to simply bend them. However, since the students are locking their knees in response to their thorax not being balanced, they will not be able to safely unlock their knee joints until their entire body is in balance.

Figure 2–21.  Knee joints. By Benjamin Conable. Copyright 2001. Used with permission.

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Notice that your knees do not need to bend in order to be balanced. To feel the difference between bent and balanced knees, lock your knees and then release and balance them. Notice how your knee joints and entire body feel when you release the muscles surrounding the knee joints. Then bend your knees, noticing the additional muscular work in your thighs. Finally, allow your knees to be at balance again, but be sure you balance your thorax in relation to the lumbar spine (try walking backward a few steps to find this place of balance). When you successfully balance your thorax, your knee joints will balance, helping you to stand and move with greater freedom.

Ankle Joint Balance and Weight Delivery to the Floor The ankle joint is located where your two lower leg bones (tibia and fibula) meet the talus bone of your foot. The talus bone lies on top of the large heel bone, the calcaneus. To accurately map the location of your ankle joint, study Figure 2–22. Note that this illustration is the front view of your talus and your two lower leg bones on the right side of your body, and does not include an illustration of your toes.

Figure 2–22.  Right ankle joint, front view, toes excluded. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., Section 3, p. 103), by D. Gorman, 2002, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.



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The large bony “lump” at the bottom and outside your lower leg is actually the bottom of your fibula, the thinner and longer of the two lower leg bones. The other bony lump at the bottom and inside your lower leg bone is the bottom of your tibia, the thicker lower leg bone. Your body’s weight is delivered through the larger of your lower leg bones, the tibia. The ankle joints require the same upper body balance as the knee joints: The ankle joints will stiffen if the thorax is not balanced in relation to the lumbar spine, and fluid, free movement will not be available to you. There is also a direct relationship between balance at your A-O joint and balance at your ankle joints. Therefore, first balance at your A-O joint, then balance your thorax in relation to your lumbar spine. Next, balance at your hip and knee joints, and then you will be ready to balance at your ankle joints. Thus, in order to deliver weight efficiently and easily to the floor, the ankle joints require upper body balance as described. Study the location of your heel bone in Figure 2–23. People often miss the fact that the heel bone extends farther back from the line of balance behind the ankle joint. This is a common and destructive mapping mistake, causing the mapping error of an L-shaped foot and also results in mis-mapped ankle joints, creating poor balance and movement difficulties. This mis-mapping is especially detrimental for those who play piano or organ. The fulcrum at the ankle joint allows free movement of the foot for pedaling at the piano and playing the pedal bass notes on the organ. To accurately map this area, study Figure 2–23 and palpate your heel bone.

Figure 2–23.  Foot, side view. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., Section 3, p. 100), by D. Gorman, 2002, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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Now, study Figure 2–24. We are looking at the foot from the top, but it is transparent. The shaded area indicates the outlines of the sole of the foot. The black plus signs are also on the sole of the foot, whereas the black plus sign with a white circle around it indicates the location of the ankle joint at the top of the foot. The oval line around the ankle joint indicates the points of contact of the talus with all the structures it meets. Your feet each have three arches, which help to deliver the weight of your body from the center of the arches outward. Note that your toes are not part of the arches, so there is no need to “grip” the floor with your toes. The foot arch that people think of first is the medial longitudinal arch. This arch spans from your heel to the head of your first (big) toe. The lateral arch spans from the ball of your foot near your fifth toe to your heel, and the transverse arch spans across the ball of your foot. Chapter 7 discusses movement of the feet in depth.

Figure 2–24.  Foot tripod. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., Section 3, p. 151), by D. Gorman, 2002, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.



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Finally, notice that the three black “plus” signs indicate that the head of your big toe, the head of your fifth toe, and your heel form a tripod. When you deliver your weight equally on these three areas of the foot tripod, the balance of your entire body will be optimal for singing. Try the following Exercise 2–10 to apply the balance of the foot on the foot tripod kinesthetically.

Exercise 2–10.  Experiencing Your Feet Tripods You may read this exercise or listen to Audio 2–10. n Stand in front of a full-length mirror with most of your weight

shifted back on your heels. n Take a breath in preparation to sing and notice how it feels. Sing

and observe how you look and sound. n When you are ready to move on, stand with most of your weight

shifted forward on the balls of your feet. How do you feel, breathe, look, and sound? n Now for the final exercise: Stand on both feet, kinesthetically

sensing your foot tripods, with your weight equally delivered to the forward balls of your feet and backward to your heels. Make sure you have mapped the weight delivery of your body through the arches of your feet. Take in a breath and notice how it feels. You will likely notice that standing balanced on each foot’s tripod feels much easier than having your weight shifted backward or forward as in the previous two exercises. You will likely notice too, that you look and sound much better as you sing.

Arm Structure Balance Although the arm structure and its movements are thoroughly covered in Chapter 7, we cover it briefly now. To balance your arm structure, the rest of your body must already be in balance. For example, if your thorax is not balanced in relation to your lumbar spine, it will be impossible to balance your arm structure. So if you aren’t sure where your arms should “go” (meaning forward, back, up, or down), then you need to check your balance at the A-O joint, thorax in relation to the lumbar spine, hip, knee, and ankle joints, foot arches, and foot tripods. Once balance has been restored in those areas, you are ready to balance your arm structure. The structure of each arm contains a collarbone, shoulder blade, upper arm bone, two lower arm bones, a wrist, and hand (Figure 2–25). The four arm joints are: sternoclavicular, upper arm, elbow, and wrist.

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Figure 2–25.  Arm structure. By Benjamin Conable. Copyright 2001. Used with permission. 60



2.  THE CORE OF THE BODY AND THE PLACES OF DYNAMIC BALANCE 61

Your sternoclavicular joint connects your entire arm structure to your sternum (breastbone). This is a tremendously important joint for arm movement, since it enables you to move your arm structure up, down, forward, back, and rotate it in circles. Be sure you clearly map this joint and its available movements. (Read Chapter 7 for further information.) When you move at this joint, the entire arm structure goes along for the ride: As you raise your collarbones up, your shoulder blades and the rest of your arm structure moves, too. Next, study Figure 2–26, and note that the composite structure of your collarbones and shoulder blades, known as the shoulder girdle, is designed to center over your weight-delivering spine, with your collarbones roughly parallel to the ground. Chronically holding your arms back, forward, up, or down causes muscular tension that significantly impairs your breathing and singing. When your arm structure is out of balance, it also can put pressure on the nerves that run under your collarbone and between the arms and ribs. Therefore, the arm structure needs to balance lightly and centrally over your ribs in order to allow free and expressive movement.

Front

Back Figure 2–26.  Balance of arm structure, view from above. By Benjamin Conable. Copyright 2001. Used with permission.

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Exercise 2–11.  Balancing the Arm Structure You may read this exercise or listen to Audio 2–11. Try this exercise to find your arm structure balance kinesthetically. n Stand in front of a full-length mirror with your arms at your

sides. Check all the places of balance, making sure they are indeed balanced. n Using your kinesthesia, raise both shoulders as close to your ears

as possible. How do you look? Try to sing with your arms in this location. n Next, slowly lower your arms until they feel “neutral” or at a

place of no work. Take in a breath and sing. Observe how you look and sound. n Next, slowly lower your arms as if you were holding heavy buckets

of water. Take in a breath and sing. How does your body feel? How do you look and sound? n Now allow your arms to slowly float upward until you can feel

the place of neutral, or no work. Take in a breath and sing. Observe how you feel, look, and sound. n Next, try this exercise with your shoulder areas far forward of

your body. Breathe, sing, and observe. n Now move your arm structure far behind your body. Breathe,

sing, and observe how you feel, look, and sound. n And finally, move your arm structure back to neutral. Breathe,

sing, and observe. When you can find neutral and balance your arm structure, fluid and free movement will readily be available to you.

KINESTHESIA AND INCLUSIVE AWARENESS RESOURCES As you learn how to dynamically balance at your main joints, you will be more successful if you continuously train and enhance your kinesthesia and inclusive awareness. Here are some excellent resources: n Kay S. Hooper, licensed Body Mapping teacher and certified Alexander Technique teacher,

has written a wonderful book: Sensory Tune-ups. It is a guided journal of sensory experiences for all ages. http://www.allsensepress.com

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n David Nesmith, licensed Body Mapping Teacher and certified Alexander Technique teacher,

created many excellent audio guides for Constructive Rest, a beneficial Alexander Technique practice. Constructive Rest, when practiced regularly, greatly enhances kinesthesia and inclusive awareness. http://www.constructiverest.com

TO ACHIEVE DYNAMIC BALANCE, ELIMINATE THESE POSTURE MYTHS Here are some “posture myths” that interfere with free and expressive movement and singing. n Stand against the wall to achieve good posture.

Many singers are told to stand with their backs against a wall to achieve good posture. First, as we learned earlier in this chapter, the word “posture” can be antithetical to accurate Body Mapping and beautiful singing. Instead, consider substituting words that imply movement, such as “buoyant” or “springy.” Furthermore, the “stand against the wall” method organizes uprightness around the back half of the spine and back muscles, and flattens the spinal curves. And finally, the word “backbone” can cause this unfortunate activity because “backbone” implies that the spine is a single, straight bone at the back of the body instead of a series of segments located mostly at the center of the body. You know now that your spine has 24 individual vertebra, 9 fused vertebrae, 4 curves, and that much of your spine is located in the center of your body. Unfortunately, this wall exercise teaches singers to think, “My spine and back muscles hold everything up in front of them.” Instead, we need to map the spine more clearly and accurately: “My spine and my postural muscles that surround it support my back and my front, freeing my back and my front for expressive movement.” Singers who raise their sternum too high are organizing their posture around the back of their body. Singers who collapse forward are organizing their posture around the front of the body. Instead, singers need to organize and balance themselves around the center of their body, the accurate location of the weight-delivering spine. n Stand “straight” as if the spine were a straight, solid broomstick.

Because the spine has curves and is segmented, the straight, solid broomstick map is not only inaccurate; it is destructive as it causes enormous tension in the singer’s back and entire body. n Lift the sternum high.

When the body is in balance, the sternum may rise and fall slightly in respiration. The natural and balanced movement is very different from raising the sternum artificially high and holding it in a “superior” stance. That particular posture shortens the back and stiffens the neck, causes the entire upper body to arch slightly backward, creates locked knee joints, and places excess weight on the heels. Therefore, holding the sternum high can seriously compromise the movements of breathing, singing, and gesturing. If the sternum is low due to a collapsed stance, learning how to balance your thorax and arm structure will bring the sternum into a more natural balance.

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n Roll the shoulders back and/or hold them down.

Chronically holding your shoulders back, forward, up, or down puts pressure on your nerves, reducing or even cutting off sensation and blood flow to the arms. If you cut off sensation, your kinesthesia is reduced or negated, so your movements will not be free or expressive. Holding the shoulders back or down also shortens the back and puts unnecessary pressure on the upper ribs, interfering with breathing and singing. n Tuck the pelvis under. This impedes the rebound of the abdominal wall and pelvic floor and prevents spinal gathering and lengthening. It also tightens the hip joints as well as the buttock and leg muscles, compromising the movements of breathing and singing and all leg movements. There are some singers who seem to have too deep a curve in their lumbar spine. Instead of treating the effect as a cause, and asking the singer to change the orientation of the pelvis by tucking it under, try the following: Teach the singer how to balance the thorax over the lumbar spine, which will help free the hip joints and create a healthy relationship of the spine, pelvis, and hip joints. n Suspend your head by an invisible string from the ceiling. In What Every Dancer Needs to Know About the Body, author Robin Gilmore notes that many well-meaning teachers have told their students to imagine an “invisible string” above their heads as a way to achieve good posture (the imaginary string will supposedly help pull the head and body upward and lengthen the neck). Not only does this string image cause neck tension; it mis-maps how the body moves at the A-O joint, and denies the laws of gravity, which our bodies are designed to embrace. The support and movement of your head on your atlas occurs below your head, in your neck area and the rest of your body. When you accurately map your A-O joint, then your neck will become much freer, and you will move and sing with greater freedom and beauty.

THE PLACES OF DYNAMIC BALANCE:  PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER Mapping the places of balance releases your muscles from unnecessary tension when you sing. And, as you learn how to embody the Places of Dynamic Balance, remember that each place is a location of continuously changing movement, and also that each place of balance relates to the entire body. Further, by practicing the exercises in this chapter, and by recruiting your kinesthesia and inclusive awareness, you will achieve a quality of dynamic balance that creates a more beautiful, healthy, and expressive vocal quality. Study Figure 2–27 as you consider the following: Your weight-delivering, weight-distributing spine has 4 curves, 24 individual vertebrae, 9 fused vertebrae, and 23 cartilaginous discs. You can learn to release your muscles and allow them to be supported by your skeleton. In other words, your skeleton will be better balanced when your muscles are not being recruited to do the work of your skeleton. By allowing your skeleton to support you, your muscles are free to work efficiently, only as much as necessary for any movement. Use your kinesthesia and inclusive awareness to assess the appropriate amount of effort necessary for each movement. With practice, you will easily perceive the quality of your movements, be able to move freely, and sing beautifully. When your body becomes balanced, more movement choices are available to you.

Figure 2–27.  Places of balance skeleton, side view. By Tim Phelps. Copyright 2008. Used with permission.

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The Places of Dynamic Balance n A-O joint n Thorax in relationship to lumbar spine n Hip joints n Knee joints n Ankle joints (include arches of the feet and foot tripods) n Arm structure

REVIEW Remember that this chapter and Chapter 1 both function as the framework of this entire book. In this chapter we covered the following: n Mapping your skeleton, skeletal muscles and other soft tissue, and your spine n Experiencing a tense muscle versus a released muscle n Experiencing appropriate effort n Biotensegrity n Mapping the Places of Dynamic Balance

CONCLUSION The goal of Body Mapping is improving our movement. And even in perceived stillness there is always micromovement. Also, you are not striving for a certain “position.” Instead, you are striving for a dynamic relationship of your skeleton, muscles, connective tissue, and fascia. Use your kinesthesia and inclusive awareness, too (see Chapter 1). When you are in dynamic balance, you will move and sing with greater freedom ­­and expression.

RESOURCES [MEDICAL] 3D Anatomy and Physiology Animations : Bones and Skeletal Muscles: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ge7LK3h83f0 Association for Body Mapping Education website:  https://www.bodymap.org Cervical Spine Anatomy (eOrthopod) by Randale Sechrest, MD: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RNUpMNd_u1U David Nesmith:  www.constructiverest.com Dr. Stephen Levin’s website:  http://www.biotensegrity.com/ General Skeleton Basic Tutorial by Anatomy Zone:  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fIoBoGSPkws

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Human Anatomy Video: The Typical Vertebra:  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zwni5IwAtRk Kay Hooper: Sensory Tuneups:  https:// www.allsensepress.com Lumbar Spine Anatomy by Randale Sechrest, MD:  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0qR-Yfw9fOI Muscle Anatomy of the Neck, Everything You Need to Know, by Dr. Nabil Ebraheim: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BrItOoELlZg Normal Lumbar Disc Facet by Atlantic Spine Center: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wetxtIGoCu4 Muscles, Part 2 - Organismal Level: Crash Course A&P #22 by CrashCourse: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I80Xx7pA9hQ The AtlasPROfilax® method (English version, March 2012): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jajcvFOH6m0 The Muscular System Explained In 6 Minutes by CTE Skills: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rMcg9YzNSEs Transforaminal Lumbar Interbody Fusion Overview by Atlantic Spine Center: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=okNJPMbh_W0

Skeletal Model Websites As of 2019, these are some of the largest and most reputable websites that sell medical-grade (anatomically correct) skeletal and musculoskeletal models. https://www.a3bs.com https://www.anatomywarehouse.com https://www.shopanatomical.com/

Article Rating Skeletal Models Article dated December 19, 2019:  https://alternative.me/anatomical-skeletons

REFERENCES Scarr, G. (2018). Biotensegrity: A different way of thinking [Conference paper]. In A. Pilat (Ed.), Fascia: Scientific advances (pp. 167–180). Proceedings of the 28th Jornadas de Fisioterapia Conference, March 1–3, Madrid, Spain: Escuela Universitaria de Fisioterapia de la Once. Scarr, G. (n.d.). Biotensegrity: Tensegrity in Biology. Retrieved from http://www.tensegrityinbiology​ .co.uk/biology/

3 The Singer’s Breath Melissa Malde

THE BIG PICTURE The average person takes between 17,000 and 23,000 breaths each day. Breathing happens whether we are conscious of it or not: while we sleep, while we eat, while we read. So why is breathing for singing fraught with so much anxiety and associated with so many myths? Singers are not average breathers. We breathe to sustain tone as well as life. Although the muscle, bone, and cartilage used in breathing are essentially the same for everyone, they can be coordinated in different ways. Consequently, there are almost as many breathing methods as there are singers. This can be confusing and frustrating. This chapter does not promote any method; instead it will help you map the anatomical structures that may be used in breathing. When you have an adequate and accurate breathing map, you will have the tools to ensure that your method of breathing is effective and expressive. Mapping breathing is vital for singers. Breath is the source of our sound and we must be able to use it efficiently. The way we breathe also conveys many messages to the audience, both aural and visual, both conscious and subliminal. A slow, quiet inhalation conveys a very different emotion than a sudden gasp. Our breathing must be so well mapped that it expresses every nuance of our emotions. It is at the core of our artistry.

The Nature of Air Air is a gas and, like all gases, its natural tendency is to maintain equal pressure. Given access, it flows from areas of high pressure into areas where pressure is lower. The movements of inhalation decrease the air pressure in the lungs by increasing the size of the chest cavity. When the air pressure inside the lungs is lower than the air pressure outside the body, air flows into the lungs. The movements of exhalation increase the air pressure in the lungs by decreasing the size of the chest cavity. When the air pressure in the lungs becomes higher than the air pressure outside the body, the air in the lungs flows out. If this concept is confusing to you, it may help to think of an accordion. Outside air is drawn in 69

70 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

when the ends are pulled apart to enlarge the air chamber, creating a vacuum (an area of low pressure). When the handles are moved back together, the air in the chamber is pressurized and flows back out. To see how creating a vacuum can inflate the lungs, you can watch How To Make a Simple Lung Model with Balloon by The Dad Lab (https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=1&v=H62wTF9vKPQ).

Prerequisite:  The Body in Balance For breathing to work effectively, the body must be in balance. When we are in balance, we can rely on the suspension system of bones, fascia, ligaments, tendons, and deep postural muscles to keep us buoyant. The muscles used for breathing are then free to make the movements of inhalation and exhalation. If we lock any part of the body, this elastic, balanced system is compromised and breathing becomes less effective.

Basic Principles of Muscle Activity Here are four basic principles that govern how muscles work. n Muscles always pull. They never push.  When muscles engage, they contract and the fibers

become shorter and thicker. The extent to which this contraction moves the muscle and/ or the surrounding structures away from the resting state is called the excursion. n Contracted muscles naturally release to their resting state once their work is done. It

should be noted, however, that many of us overwork our muscles. This can become so ingrained that it is difficult to release them. Instructing a muscle to soften and lengthen along the direction of its fibers may help you to release it. Releasing is distinct from relaxing, which means to become lax or loose. In singing, we depend on our bodies to remain elastic and responsive. Therefore, our muscles must be in a state of springiness, ready to respond. This is known as muscle tone or tonus. Muscles may be released and still maintain tonus. n Muscles are elastic and may be stretched by any force that acts upon them. When that

force is removed, they spring back to their original state because of their elasticity. This is called elastic recoil.  If the muscle is released when something stretches it, then it will recoil to a released state. If the muscle is contracted when something stretches it, then it will recoil to its contracted state. Elastic recoil also occurs with other springy structures in our bodies. Cartilages experience recoil after being bent or compressed. Ligaments, tendons, and fasciae experience recoil after being stretched. Membranes and tissues experience recoil after being stretched or compressed. n Opposing muscles act either in dynamic equilibrium or co-contraction. Opposing

muscles are muscles that pull in opposite directions. When a muscle releases while its opposing muscle contracts, they are working together in dynamic equilibrium. If two opposing muscles are contracting simultaneously, they are working against each other

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in co-contraction. To understand this, imagine that the effort of two opposing muscles acting in dynamic equilibrium will add up to 100%. The ratio of effort between the two muscles might change, but not the total effort. The effort of two opposing muscles acting in co-contraction will add up to more than 100%.

Exercise 3–1.  Video 3–1. Four Principles of Muscles shows this exercise in action. To explore the four principles of muscle activity, try this. n Contraction:  extend your right arm forward, parallel to the floor

with the palm up and elbow slightly bent. Put the fingers of your left hand on the biceps of the extended arm. Bend the elbow and feel the fibers of the biceps thicken and shorten. Release the contraction of the biceps and the arm will return to rest. n Elastic recoil:  with the right arm resting palm up on a table, push

the biceps with the fingers of your left hand. Take your left hand away and watch the biceps recoil to its resting state. Repeat this exercise bending the right elbow and making a fist, contracting the biceps. Then push the biceps with your left hand. Take your left hand away and watch the biceps recoil to its contracted state. n Opposing muscles in dynamic equilibrium:  extend your right

arm again with the palm up and the elbow slightly bent. With the left hand, circle the biceps and triceps of the right arm, fingers on the biceps and thumb on the triceps. Bend the forearm up to feel the contraction in the biceps and the stretch in the triceps. Release the arm to neutral. Keeping your right hand loose, engage the triceps to completely straighten the elbow, feeling the contraction in the triceps with your left thumb and the release of the biceps with your left fingers. n Co-contraction: with your right arm extended as described

above, engage both the triceps and biceps, straightening your arm completely and curling your right hand into a tight fist. Feel the co-contraction of the biceps and triceps with your left hand.

Biotensegrity and Fascia To understand the process of breathing for singing, it is helpful to understand the concept of biotensegrity. Tensegrity (tensional + integrity) is an architectural term coined by Buckminster Fuller referring to structures that maintain their structural integrity by combining continuous tension with discontinuous compression. Conventional compression structures rely on gravity and load distribution for structural integrity. In a compression structure, such as a brick wall, each layer distributes its weight through the

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layer beneath, all the way to the ground. A true tensegrity structure also has compression elements, but they do not touch each other, or distribute weight to each other. Rather, the compression elements are suspended in a continuous web of flexible­­tension. While a compression structure is vulnerable to forces that disrupt the load distribution, a tensegrity structure absorbs and distributes these forces throughout the resilient and flexible system. Figure 3–1 shows two tensegrity models. One is a basic icosahedron and the other is a tensegrity model of the spine.

Figure 3–1. A tensegrity icosahedron and a tensegrity model of the spine.

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Biotensegrity applies this concept to the body. Instead of defining the skeleton as a pure compression structure, biotensegrity conceives of bones as discontinuous compression elements connected by a continuous tensional web of soft tissues, especially fascia. These elements are integrated in a springy and responsive system that operates ideally when each part of the web has equal tonus. Tom Myers explains this eloquently in What Is Tensegrity? (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OuMHAZ3ync0). Fascia is integral to the tensional element of biotensegrity. There are several kinds of fascia, associated with skin, organs, muscles, and even bones. In muscles, fascia surrounds and separates muscles from each other, it surrounds and separates each muscle bundle, and it surrounds and separates each muscle fiber within a bundle. To visualize this, you can think of an orange. The skin is one layer of fascia, each section is surrounded by fascia, and each individual juicy sac is surrounded by fascia. For a description of muscle fascia, read Brad Walker’s short article Stretching and Muscle Fascia (https:// stretchcoach.com/articles/stretching-fascia/). In the body, this web of fascia is integral to all soft tissues, including muscles, tendons, ligaments, and membranes. Unlike muscle fibers, fascia does not contract. It supports movement by providing the flexible, elastic, and responsive network that can keep us in balance, even when we are not upright. If kept immobile, some fascia becomes sticky and can inhibit movement. We notice this after sitting too long, or protecting a joint after surgery. Unless this immobilization is chronic, fascia can be restored to flexibility through movement. For an in-depth discussion of fascia, visit the Anatomy Trains website (https://www.anatomytrains.com/fascia/).

THE ESSENTIALS Below is a description of the process of breathing for singing that you may use as an inclusive awareness exercise. Good breathing is possible when lying down or even hanging upside down, but this description assumes that the breather is standing or sitting upright. Don’t worry if you don’t understand every part of this right now. Simply read or listen a few times and then proceed to the detailed descriptions of the structures and movements involved in respiration. If you are unfamiliar with breathing anatomy, it might be helpful to review the following glossary of anatomical names used for common breathing structures. n Diaphragm:  The main muscle of breathing, located between the chest and

abdominal cavities. n Viscera:  The contents of the abdominal cavity. n Sternum:  The breast bone. n Costal Cartilage:  The rib-extending cartilage that connects the ribs to the sternum. n Thorax/Thoracic:  The chest/referring to the chest. n Pharynx:  The throat. n Velum:  The soft palate. n Trachea:  The tube that carries air to and from the lungs.

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Exercise 3–2.  Audio 3–2. Inclusive Awareness of Breathing provides a recording of this exercise. When we need oxygen, the brain sends a signal to the diaphragm, which contracts. The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that attaches to the front of the lumbar spine and to the lower ribs all the way around. When it contracts, it pulls down on the central tendon, located in the dome of the diaphragm just under the heart. This exerts pressure on the viscera, which are displaced out against the muscles of the abdomen and down against the muscles of the pelvic floor. The contraction of the diaphragm also swings the lower ribs up at the sides, changing their orientation to the spine and the sternum, and slightly bending the costal cartilage. This action is assisted by many other muscles that help lift the ribs. The vertebrae of the spine gather together with the contraction of the diaphragm and the movement of the ribs, slightly compressing the spinal discs. The muscles of the abdomen and pelvic floor remain toned, but stretch to allow the contraction of the diaphragm and rib lifters. This dynamic equilibrium among these four muscle groups is vital to good breathing. The spongy, elastic tissue of each lung is connected to the inside of the thoracic cavity by a membrane called the pleural sac. Therefore, as the thorax expands during inhalation, the lungs expand with it. The contraction of the diaphragm pulls down on the lungs, expanding them vertically. As the ribs lift at the sides, they pull out on the lungs, expanding them horizontally and from front to back. Thus, as we inhale, the lungs get taller, wider, and deeper, increasing their volume. As the volume of the lungs increases, the air pressure inside them decreases. In order to equalize the pressure, outside air rushes in through the nose or mouth. The muscles of the pharynx, velum, and tongue release to provide a clear passage for inhalation. The air travels through the pharynx and the larynx to the trachea and then on to the lungs. The amount of air we inhale depends on the excursion of the diaphragm and the ribs, which in turn depends on the extent of release in the abdominals and pelvic floor. At rest, exhalation begins as soon as the diaphragm and rib lifters begin to release, responding to the elastic recoil of the pelvic floor, abdominal muscles, costal cartilage, and spinal discs. The elastic recoil of the pelvic floor and the abdominals exerts gentle upward pressure on the diaphragm through the viscera. As the diaphragm releases in response to this pressure, the dome of the diaphragm rises, exerting upward pressure on the lungs. The muscles that lift the ribs release in response to four

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forces: the elastic recoil of the abdominals, the elastic recoil of the costal cartilage, the release of the diaphragm, and, when we are upright, the force of gravity. As the ribs descend, they exert inward pressure on the lungs. With the release of the diaphragm and the rib lifters, the spinal discs recoil to their full height, lengthening the spine. These movements decrease the volume of the thoracic cavity, increasing the air pressure inside the lungs. As soon as the air pressure inside the lungs becomes greater than the pressure of the outside air, breath flows out to equalize the pressure. At rest, this happens quickly. In singing and speaking, we regulate the exhalation by choosing how quickly to release the diaphragm and the rib lifters. The vocal folds close, and the outgoing air sets them into vibration to make sound. Movements in the vocal tract shape that sound into words and resonance.

At rest, our breathing is involuntary. That is, it occurs without our conscious direction. However, when we sing, we decide the timing, extent, and pace of the inhalation and exhalation. Therefore, breathing for singing is voluntary to some degree. There are various levels of voluntary breathing. Forced inhalation and forced exhalation are medical terms used to describe the process of taking in and expelling the maximum amount of breath. It is almost never necessary to do this in singing because we tailor the amount of air we inhale to the demands of the phrase. However, singers use more breath, and have more control over its release, than the resting breather. Therefore, we may choose to guide structures beyond their normal movement when we sing. In this book, we will call this active breathing.

THE DETAILS The Bony Framework of Breathing The ribs and the spine form the bony framework that houses the heart and lungs. This is not a static or rigid structure, as the term “rib cage” implies. In fact, the ribs and the spine move with every inhalation and exhalation. This skeletal movement is integral to the process of breathing. The 12 vertebrae below the neck, and the ribs that connect to them, define the thorax. The thoracic vertebrae are numbered from top to bottom: T1 is at the top, T12 is at the bottom. As you can see in Figure 3–2, the thoracic spine forms a gentle curve toward the back to make room for the heart and lungs. There are 24 ribs, 12 on each side of the body. Like the corresponding vertebrae, they are numbered from top to bottom. Anatomical terms referring to ribs use the Latin root cost-. Therefore, the joints where the ribs connect to the vertebrae are called the costovertebral joints (see Figure 3­–2). These joints

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Figure 3–2.  The ribs and spine viewed from the right side showing the costovertebral joints. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 118), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

are located on the back of the vertebral bodies on each side. Most of the weight-distributing part of the spine is in front of the costovertebral joints. The top rib and the bottom 3 ribs connect directly to their corresponding vertebrae. The rest of the ribs connect to 2 vertebrae, spanning the disc between them. The ribs also connect with joints to the transverse processes of the vertebrae. These connections are shown in the detail of Figure 3–3. Because of these many connections, movement of the ribs causes movement in the thoracic spine.



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Figure 3–3.  The ribs and spine viewed from the back showing the costotransverse joints (1) and costovertebral and joints (2–3). By Holly Fischer. Copyright 2015, Association for Body Mapping Education. Used with permission.

From their connection to the spine the ribs arc back, as they curve down and around to the sides. At the front, the bones of the ribs become cartilage, called costal cartilage. The cartilage in turn connects to the sternum. As you can see in Figure 3–4, the costal cartilage of the first rib is united with

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Figure 3–4.  The ribs, spine, and costal cartilage viewed from the front. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 119), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

the top of the sternum, the manubrium. The costal cartilage of ribs 2 through 6 connects with joints to the body of the sternum. Ribs 7 through 10 join into one cartilage before connecting to the sternum with a single joint. These sternocostal joints are gliding joints, permitting a swiveling movement. The bottom two ribs (11 and 12) do not curve all the way around to connect to the sternum and for this reason are sometimes called floating ribs. Some of the rib movement during breathing results from the springiness of the costal cartilage.

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Because of the nature of the sternocostal and costovertebral joints, and the flexibility of the costal cartilage, we can change the orientation of our ribs to the spine and the sternum. When we breathe, we can raise and lower the ribs at the sides without causing the entire rib cage to rise and fall. There are no joints between the ribs and the bones of the arm, as you can see in Figures 3–3 and 3–6. The ribs are therefore free to change orientation beneath the arm structure without causing the shoulders to rise. To see an animation that shows the independence of the arms and ribs, watch Scapulohumeral Rhythm Shoulder Abduction by Muscle and Motion (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3VygGuBObVc). The ribs are wider near the hips than they are near the neck. Measured from spine to sternum, each rib (except the floating ribs) is longer than the rib above. The ribs slope down at the sides. The angle of the slope in back is uniform for all the ribs (Figures 3–2 and 3–3). The slope up to the sternum in front becomes progressively steeper with each rib. As you can see in Figure 3–4, the costal cartilage of the second rib is virtually horizontal, but the slope of the costal cartilage for the 10th rib slants at a steep angle. Exercise 3–3 below will help you map the ribs. An adequate, accurate map of the ribs and spine is essential for good breathing, so take the time to embody this information before you move on.

Exercise 3–3.  Video 3–3. Mapping the Ribs shows this exercise in action. To map your ribs, start by simply exploring them with the touch of your hands. n Begin at the sternum (breast bone). Explore from the top of your

sternum at the notch located at the base of your neck down to the lower tip where the abdominal wall begins. n Now, work your way around the lowest edge of your ribs from

front to back. Notice the steep slant of the costal cartilage in the front. Notice that your bottom ribs are lower in back than at the front. n Returning to the front, explore the costal cartilage that connects

the ribs to the sternum. n Explore your ribs all the way up to the top: the first rib is directly

under the collarbone in front and above your shoulder blade in back. n Explore the sides of your ribs. Find the distance between your

bottom rib on the side and the top of your hip bone. n Put your right thumb on the ribs nearest your right arm pit and

your left thumb on the ribs nearest your left hip. Notice that the circumference of the ribs is narrower at your underarm than it is near your hip bone.

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Review:  Bony Framework of Breathing n There are 12 thoracic vertebrae. There are 24 ribs, 12 on each side. n The ribs connect with joints to the vertebral bodies of thoracic spine. n The ribs arc back and away from the spine. n The ribs slope down at the sides. n The ribs turn into costal cartilage in front, which connects to the sternum with joints. n The ribs and arms move independently; there are no joints between the ribs and the arm

structure.

The Muscles of Inhalation The primary muscles that are active during inhalation are (1) the diaphragm and (2) the muscles that lift the ribs. In efficient breathing, these muscles engage in dynamic equilibrium with the abdominal muscles, and the muscles of the pelvic floor. For an easy inhalation, the abdominal and pelvic floor muscles must release to allow the full excursion of the diaphragm. The abdominals must also release to allow the rib lifters to contract and raise the ribs. Though they release during inhalation, the abdominals and the pelvic floor must maintain their tonus in order for breathing to be balanced and elastic.

The Diaphragm The Structure, Size, and Location of the Diaphragm. The diaphragm is the principal muscle of inhalation. It is a dome-shaped muscle that arches up inside the ribs, dividing the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. The top of the dome is the central tendon, located directly under the heart (Figure 3–5).



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Figure 3–5.  The diaphragm in context viewed from the front (lungs not shown). From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 136), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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The diaphragm covers a large area. It is thin but its fibers, though only about 5 millimeters thick, are quite strong. The lungs connect to the top of the diaphragm via the pleural sac on both sides of the heart. The liver, stomach, spleen, and kidneys nestle inside its dome, as you can see in Figure 3–6. These organs, along with the intestines, are known as the viscera.

Figure 3–6. An outline of the diaphragm viewed from the front with lungs and viscera. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 146), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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From the central tendon, the muscle fibers of the diaphragm radiate downward and outward. In back, the fibers converge into tendons that attach to the front of the lumbar vertebrae on both sides of the aorta. These structures are sometimes called the stem or pillars of the diaphragm. The rest of the fibers arch downward from the central tendon to connect with the lowest ribs all the way around. Figure 3–7 shows the diaphragm from the right side with the ribs cut away for a better view. The dark arrows show the direction of contraction. The outline of the heart is shown with a dotted line.

Figure 3–7.  The diaphragm viewed from the right side (ribs cut away). From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 138), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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Figure 3–8 shows the diaphragm from below. The central tendon is the lighter area in the middle of the dome. You can notice an elliptical opening in back of the central tendon for the esophagus (food tube) to pass through and a round hole in the right side of the central tendon for the passage of the vena cava as it carries deoxygenated blood to the heart. The aorta passes through behind the diaphragm along the spine, carrying oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the lower body. Healthline Body Maps provides an interactive diagram of the diaphragm (http://www.healthline.com/humanbody-maps/diaphragm#6/12 Click and drag on the drawing to see the diaphragm from all angles).

Figure 3–8.  The diaphragm viewed from below showing psoas muscles. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 135), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

As you can see in Figures 3–8 and 3–9, the psoas muscles are intimately associated with the diaphragm because they connect to the spine in very close proximity to the stem of the diaphragm. The psoas muscles are leg movers that originate from the 12th thoracic vertebra and all of the lumbar vertebrae. From there they span the pelvis to attach to the femur (thigh bone). Because of this connection among the leg movers, the spine, and the diaphragm, any locking of the legs or hip joints will inhibit free breathing.



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Figure 3–9.  The diaphragm, psoas, and pelvic floor viewed from the front. By Holly Fischer. Copyright 2018, Association for Body Mapping Education. Used with permission.

The Function of the Diaphragm. The contraction of the diaphragm pulls the central tendon downward and pulls the lowest ribs upward. Because of its connections to the surrounding structures, the diaphragm’s contraction has multiple effects. (1) It exerts downward pressure on the viscera, (2) it widens the circumference of the lower ribs as they swing up at the sides, (3) it pulls down on the lungs and heart, and (4) it slightly compresses the discs of the lumbar spine. Figures 3–10 and 3–11 show the diaphragm in two states: domed high at rest (exhalation) and somewhat flattened on contraction (inhalation). Notice especially the effect of the diaphragm’s contraction on the ribs, and that the diaphragm never becomes concave, even during the deepest inhalation.

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Figure 3–10. The diaphragm at rest and during inhalation. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 127), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.



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Figure 3–11.  Frontal view of the diaphragm during exhalation and inhalation. By Holly Fischer. Copyright 2015, Association for Body Mapping Education. Used with permission.

For animations of the movement of the diaphragm, ribs, and associated structures, watch 3D view of diaphragm by 3D Yoga (3D Yoga: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hp-gCvW8PRY), Diaphragm – 3D Medical Animation by AnimatedBiomedical (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=23-KAubf-js), and Respiration totale animation by Roger Fiametti (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9JqFWUjxI1Q). It is impossible to palpate the diaphragm because it domes up inside the ribs. In addition, we have no sensory receptors in the diaphragm so we can’t feel its movement directly. However, you can certainly feel the effects of its contraction and you can get a fairly accurate model of its movement using your hands as described below.

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Exercise 3–4.  Photos of the model are shown below in Figure 3–12. Video 3–4. Mapping the Diaphragm shows this exercise in action. n Round your fingers and spread them out. Put the tips of the three

middle fingers together to form a dome. With your palms facing down, move the dome so that its top is just below the level of your heart. Tip the dome slightly so that your pinkies are higher than your thumbs. n Inhale, and as you do, flatten the dome slightly, allowing your

pinkies and thumbs to draw farther apart. Notice that the circumference of your dome widens and rises slightly as it flattens. That is exactly what the diaphragm does as it contracts, pulling up on the lower ribs. Don’t forget to restore your hands to the original dome as you exhale. Repeat this exercise until the movement of your hands is completely coordinated with your breathing and you have thoroughly mapped the action of the diaphragm.

Figure 3–12.  Model of diaphragm at rest and upon inhalation.

Rib Movement Rib movement is central to good breathing and, for the ribs to move freely, the head, arms, and torso must be balanced and flexible. If you are not completely clear on the balance of your upper body, review Chapter 2. The action of the diaphragm will move the ribs enough for some singing. However, you may choose to lift the ribs actively for more vigorous singing. Cultivating rib movement will allow a fuller inhalation and more flexible regulation of the exhalation than diaphragmatic breathing alone. We will consider how the ribs move during inhalation first. Then we will go into detail about the muscles that move them.

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How the Ribs Move.  When we engage our rib lifters during inhalation, the ribs change orientation by gliding in their joints at the spine and the sternum and bending slightly at the costal cartilages. This changes the slope of the ribs, making it less steep. Therefore, though each rib bone maintains its shape, the thoracic cavity as a whole becomes wider. In addition, the thoracic cavity becomes slightly deeper from front to back. This happens because the ribs arc back from the spine as they slope down. As the ribs change orientation, the arc of the ribs rises, slightly deepening the thoracic cavity. The sternum may also move slightly outward. For a 3D animation of rib movement during breathing, watch Will Lawson’s Ribcage Movement During Respiration (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Ph9tlaUSfo).

Exercise 3–5.  Photos of the model are shown below in Figure 3–13. Video 3–5. Mapping Rib Movement shows this exercise in action. To model the action of the lower ribs with your arms, try this. n With your palms facing your chest and your elbows at your sides,

put the tips of your pinkies and fourth fingers together, angling your forearms down like the slope of the costal cartilage from the sternum to the 10th rib. Adjust the position of your hands until they are at the low end of the sternum. n Now, as you breathe in, lift your elbows, swiveling your arms

where the humerus (arm bone above the elbow) makes a joint with the shoulder blade near your armpit. Keep your shoulders balanced and released. As you exhale, let your elbows return gradually to their resting place at your sides. Repeat this exercise until the movement of your hands is completely coordinated with your breathing and you have thoroughly mapped the movement of the lower ribs.

Figure 3–13.  Model of lower ribs at rest and upon inhalation.

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Muscles that Move the Ribs.  Now let us consider the daunting list of muscles that can lift the ribs. They are the latissimus dorsi, the pectoralis muscles (major and minor), the serratus muscles (anterior and posterior superior), the intercostals, the levatores costarum, and the scalenes. If your eyes just glazed over from information paralysis, don’t be alarmed. I did not learn about rib movement at all until I took my first lesson with Patricia Berlin at the University of Cincinnati College-Conservatory of Music in the spring before I started my doctorate at the age of 32. Ms. Berlin sent me on my way for the summer telling me to get my ribs moving for breathing. She explained that the intercostal muscles lift the ribs during inhalation. With this basic information, I gradually developed a fundamental map of rib movement during breathing. Now that I know more about the other rib lifters, my breathing has become more refined and my movement more efficient. I include a detailed description of all the rib lifting muscles below. All of these muscles are paired muscles (muscles that occur on both sides of the body, one the mirror image of the other). You will not need to engage all of them actively. However, one or more of them might be the key to unlocking more movement in your ribs, so I encourage you to experiment with all of their movements. If you would like more detail, consult Blandine Calais-Germain’s excellent book, Anatomy of Breathing. For a breathing animation that shows the action of the rib lifters, watch What Muscles Are Used for Forced Inspiration Breathing? by Muscle and Motion (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O3nLJgROd8). Though the pace and excursion of these movements is not appropriate for singing, it provides a good visual tool for mapping the muscles that lift the ribs.



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Latissimus Dorsi.  The latissimus dorsi muscles are wide, strong muscles that originate at the back of the pelvis, the spinous processes of the lower vertebrae, and the bottom four ribs. The long fibers of these muscles converge to insert in the back of the humerus (upper arm bone) near the glenohumeral joint (Figure 3–14). These muscles are used to pull the arm toward the hip (during swimming) or to pull the body up (during chin-ups). When not engaged in these activities, the contraction of the nearly vertical fibers that connect the humerus to the bottom four ribs lift those ribs during inhalation.

Figure 3–14.  The latissimus dorsi muscle. Note that not all the ribs are shown in this drawing. By Holly Fischer. Copyright 2015, Association for Body Mapping Education. Used with permission.

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Pectoralis Major and Minor.  There are two pectoralis muscles on each side: the pectoralis major and the pectoralis minor. Both are primarily arm movers. The pectoralis major muscles attach at the clavicle, sternum, and top six ribs in front and insert into the top of the humerus (upper arm bone). When the arm is at rest, the contraction of the diagonal lower fibers of the pectoralis major muscle raises ribs 5 and 6. In Figure 3–15 you can see the muscle drawn solidly on one side and drawn with more transparency on the other side to show the ribs.

Figure 3–15.  The pectoralis major. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 36), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.



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More important as rib movers are the pectoralis minor muscles, which are deeper than the pectoralis major. Their fibers connect ribs 3, 4, and 5 to the coracoid process at the front of the scapula (shoulder blade). When the arms are in balance, the contraction of the pectoralis minor raises ribs 3, 4, and 5. In Figure 3–16 you can see the pectoralis minor from the right side drawn in outline in the first drawing. The second drawing shows the muscle from the front drawn both solidly and with more transparency to show the ribs.

Figure 3–16.  The serratus anterior and pectoralis minor. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., pp. 37–38), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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Serratus Anterior and Serratus Posterior Superior.  The serratus anterior muscles originate at the front edge of the shoulder blades and fan forward to attach to ribs 1 through 8 or 9. Like the pectoralis minor, the serratus anterior can move the arms. When the arms are in balance, the contraction of the serratus anterior will raise the lower ribs. The right serratus anterior muscle is pictured in Figure 3–16 with the pectoralis minor. Where the top ribs connect to the spine in back, there are four bellies of the serratus posterior superior muscles on each side. They arise from the posterior process of vertebrae C7 through T3. They extend downward diagonally to attach to the second rib below the process where they originate (Figure 3–17). When they contract, they lift the upper ribs during inhalation.

Figure 3–17.  The serratus posterior muscles. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 133), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.



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Intercostals. The external and internal intercostal muscles connect each rib to the rib below. They consist of two thin layers of short, diagonal fibers. The external intercostals are the outermost layer. They start at the spine and their fibers slope down and away from the upper rib to the rib below (Figure 3–18). They extend around the sides and almost to the costal cartilage in front. The internal intercostals are deeper inside. They start at the sternum and their fibers also slope down and away from the upper rib to the rib below. The internal intercostals extend around the sides to the back of the ribs, but not as far as the spine. Where the fibers of the external and internal intercostals overlap at the sides, they cross each other at roughly right angles.

Figure 3–18.  The external intercostal and levatores costarum muscles. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 132), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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It is generally accepted that the external intercostals raise the ribs during inhalation and that the internal intercostals depress the ribs during exhalation. The truth may be more complicated than that, but researchers do not agree on the exact function of these muscles in respiration. A detailed discussion of current research on this topic is beyond the scope of this book. For our purposes, it is enough to map the external intercostals as rib lifters. Levatores Costarum. The levatores costarum muscles run diagonally to connect the transverse process of 12 vertebrae (C7–T11) to the rib below (see Figure 3–18). There are 12 muscles on each side. Of these, the muscles connected to vertebrae T7 through T10 have two parts. The shorter of these connects to the rib immediately below and the longer part extends down to the second rib below. When the levatores costarum muscles contract, they raise the ribs during inhalation. Scalenes.  There are three scalene muscles on each side. They arise from the middle six cervical vertebrae (C2 through C7) and extend downward to the first two ribs (Figure 3–19). These muscles flex the neck to the side; however, if the neck is in balance, their contraction raises the top two ribs. Since singers are so prone to neck tension, it is not advisable to cultivate the contraction of the scalenes in respiration. They will make their contribution to breathing without our conscious guidance. For an animation of the actions of the scalene, watch Cervical Spine Muscles Scalenes by Medilaw.TV (https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=MygDJtu8EtA).

Figure 3–19.  The scalene muscles. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 183), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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The muscles that lift the ribs during inhalation may work together or individually. How much you cultivate their movement will depend on the type of singing you do, the demands of the phrases you are singing, your artistic and acting choices, and any number of other factors. Mapping all of these muscles will give you the greatest flexibility to tailor your breathing to your specific needs.

Exercise 3–6.  Video 3–6. Rib Movements shows some of many possibilities for using rib movements in breathing. Follow along, trying on the movements yourself.

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Though there are many muscles that connect the ribs to the arm structure, there are no joints between the ribs and the arms. Arms and ribs move independently. You may make the movements of breathing without moving your shoulders, and move your arms to gesture without moving your ribs. As you can see in Figure 3–16, the arm structure connects directly to the sternum with a joint at the collarbone. In Figure 3–3, notice that there are no joints connecting the scapula with the ribs. Rib movement is inhibited by tension in the arm structure, especially if the arms are pressing down or in on the ribs. For more information on the arm structure, consult Chapter 7.

Exercise 3–7.  Video 3–7. Rib and Arm Independence shows this exercise in action. To map the independence of arm and rib movement, try this. First map the independent movement of your ribs when your arms are in balance. n Stand or sit so that your shoulders are as wide across the front

as they are across the back. Soften the muscles of your neck and arms. Put one hand on the collarbone of the same side and the opposite hand flat on the ribs just below it. n Now move that shoulder. Notice that the collarbone moves a lot

but the ribs do not. n Leaving your hands in place, bring your arms back into balance

and take a deep breath cultivating the action of the pectoralis muscles. Notice that the ribs move considerably more than the collarbone. Now that you are aware of your rib movement during inhalation with balanced arms, you can notice the difference when your arms are tense. n Press your shoulders down on your top ribs and inhale again.

Exhale and release that tension. n Now pull your upper arms close to your sides and inhale again.

Release that tension as you exhale.

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If you are sure your arms and thorax are balanced and you are still having trouble finding movement in your ribs, make sure you are mapping the ribs as slanting downward at the sides and being lifted by the actions of the muscles. Many people think the ribs are horizontal and try to expand the chest cavity by pushing them out horizontally at the sides. You could also do some vigorous exercise and notice the movement of the ribs when you are breathing heavily. Finally, if you know people who have excellent rib movement, you could ask to feel their movement with your hands and then try to emulate it. www

Exercise 3–8.  Video 3–8. Breathing Exercises shows this exercise in action. You may find it is easier to cultivate rib movement when draped over a physio ball or when lying on your side. n Kneel in front of a physio ball and drape your upper body over

it, softening your neck and arms as the ball supports you. Inhale deeply, noticing the feeling of expansion in your back as your ribs move during inhalation. n Lie on your side with your head resting on your arm. Inhale

deeply, noticing the ribs resting on the floor moving down into the floor and your ribs on the ceiling side rise. If you have never cultivated rib movement, it may take several months before you can find the full excursion of your ribs.

Review of Muscles of Inhalation The following muscles help create the vacuum in the lungs that draws air in. n The diaphragm contracts, pulling down on the lungs and pulling up on the lower ribs. n The latissimus dorsi muscles pull up on the sides of ribs 7 through 10. n The serratus anterior muscles pull up on the sides of ribs 1 through 8. n The serratus posterior superior muscles pull up on the back of ribs 1 through 4. n The pectoralis major muscles pull up on the front of ribs 5 through 6 and the pectoralis

minor muscles pull up on the front of ribs 3 through 5. n The levatores costarum muscles pull up on the back of all the ribs. n The external intercostals are thought to lift all the ribs during inhalation. n The scalenes can pull up on the top three ribs in front, but will do any necessary work

beyond our conscious control.

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The Role of the Abdominal and Pelvic Floor Muscles During Inhalation Abdominal Muscles Structure and Location of the Abdominal Muscles. The four abdominal muscles are the external obliques, the internal obliques, the transversus abdominis, and the rectus abdominis. As you can see in Figure 3–20, the abdominal muscles extend all the way down to the pubic bone on the bottom and overlap the lower ribs on the top. Note that Figure 3–20 shows different layers of the abdominal muscles on each side. All abdominal muscles are paired (occurring on both sides of the body). In front, the abdominals are centered on the linea alba, a seam of fibrous connective tissue that connects the base of the pelvis with the bottom of the sternum. As they approach the linea alba, the external

Figure 3–20.  The abdominal muscles viewed from the front (partially dissected to show different layers on different sides). From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 94), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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obliques, internal obliques, and transverse abdominis form the rectus sheath (layers of tendon that house the rectus abdominis muscle). In back, the abdominals are centered on the spine. They encircle the abdominal cavity on the front, back, and sides, as is shown in Figure 3–21, a lateral cross section of the abdomen. Unlike in Figure 3–21, the cavity is not empty. It is filled with internal organs, collectively known as the viscera.

External Obliques Rectus Abdominis

Internal Obliques

Transversus Abdominis

Figure 3–21.  A cross section of the abdomen (viscera not shown). From The Body Moveable (4th ed., Section 3, p. 16), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.



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In order to understand how the abdominal muscles connect to the structures around them, we need a brief tour of the pelvis, seen in Figure 3–22. The pelvis is composed of two bones. These bones connect to the sacrum (base of the spine) at the sacroiliac joints and are joined together in front by strong connective tissue at the pubic bones (pubic symphysis). The strong bones you feel near the sides of your waist are called the iliac crests. The inguinal ligament runs from the front of the iliac crest to the pubic bone.

Figure 3–22.  The pelvis showing places of attachment of abdominal muscles. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 89), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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The external obliques form the outermost layer of abdominal muscles. They originate at the sides of ribs 5 through 12, just where the serratus anterior muscles connect to these ribs (Figure 3–20). From there, their fibers run diagonally down and in, connecting to the iliac crest and the rectus sheath (Figure 3–23­).

Figure 3–23.  The external oblique muscles viewed from the right side. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 96), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.



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The internal obliques form the middle layer of abdominal muscles. They have several origins: a band of fascia in the back, the iliac crest at the sides, and the top half of the inguinal ligament. From there, most of their fibers run up and in toward the center, where they connect at the bottom edge of ribs 10 through 12. Some of the fibers run down to connect to the pubic bone. The fibers split into two layers at the rectus sheath. The center portion of the rectus abdominis lies between these layers. In Figure 3–24, the lighter muscles on the left side of the drawing show the outer (superficial) layer of the internal obliques and the darker muscles on the right side of the drawing show the inner (deep) layer. The rectus abdominis is the nearly vertical muscle shown in white. Where the fibers of the internal and external obliques cross each other, they meet at roughly right angles.

Figure 3–24.  The internal oblique muscles with the rectus abdominis. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 99), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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The transversus abdominis muscles form the deepest layer of abdominal muscles. They have similar origins to the internal obliques (fascia in back, iliac crest, inguinal ligament) with additional attachments to the costal cartilage of ribs 7 through 12. The fibers run horizontally, running deep to internal obliques to connect to the rectus sheath (Figure 3–25).

Figure 3–25.  The transversus abdominis muscles with the rectus abdominis. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 100), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.



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The rectus abdominis muscles connect the pubic bone with the sternum and the costal cartilage of ribs 5 through 7 (see Figure 3–25). They each have four bellies that are clearly visible in very fit people. Each of these bellies is capable of independent movement. For an excellent tutorial on the abdominal muscles, watch Abdominal Wall Muscles by Anatomy Tutorials (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=5Dl5RBTTBRg). Role of the Abdominal Muscles During Inhalation.  Although we occasionally refer to the abdominal muscles collectively as the “abdominal wall,” it is not a rigid structure. The contraction of the abdominals can flex the spine forward, twist the torso, bend the torso from side to side, tilt the pelvis, pull in on the contents of the abdominal cavity, and pull down on the ribs. None of these movements help us inhale. As the diaphragm contracts during inhalation, the abdominals release at the front, sides and back, stretching with the movement of the displaced viscera. As the rib lifters contract to raise the ribs during inhalation, the abdominals release to allow the excursion of the ribs. Thus during inhalation the abdominal muscles release in all directions in dynamic equilibrium with the diaphragm and the rib lifters. Locked or contracted abdominal muscles interfere with efficient breathing. Though the abdominal muscles release during breathing, they do not become lax or loose. Toned abdominal muscles are integral to singing. The elasticity of toned abdominal muscles causes them to spring back to their original shape after being stretched, supporting exhalation. They may also be engaged in varied and subtle ways to articulate accents, aspirate consonants, or sing staccato notes in a phrase. In Figure 3–23, you can see that this skeleton has significant distance between the lowest rib and the iliac crest. This is not always the case. Some people have a gap of 3 to 5 inches between the ribs and the iliac crest. Others have only a half-inch gap. Mapping that distance in your own body will help you map the amount of expansion and stretching you will feel in the sides and back of your abdominal muscles in response to the contraction of the diaphragm and rib lifters.

Exercise 3–9.  Video 3–9. Mapping Abdominal Movement in Breathing shows this exercise in action. Figure 3–26 below shows photographs of this model. n To map your abdominal muscles, palpate from your pubic bone

all the way around the iliac crest to your spine. Now palpate the upper reaches of your abdominal muscles along your ribs. n Form a circle with the tips of your fingers meeting in front and

your thumbs meeting in back. Allowing your hands to separate, widen this circle to approximate the circumference of your abdominal region at rest. n As you inhale, widen the circumference by stretching your

fingers and thumbs wider as well as expanding the distance between your hands. As you exhale, the circumference becomes smaller again.

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Repeat this exercise until the movement of your hands is completely coordinated with your breathing and you have thoroughly mapped the stretch of your abdominal muscles. n To understand how the abdominal muscles can interfere with

free breathing, try this. Consciously lock your abdominals and take a breath. n Compare that sensation with the breaths you were taking in the

first part of the exercise. If you don’t feel a significant difference, your abdominal muscles were probably quite tight to begin with. Keep experimenting until you feel the difference between muscle tone and excess muscle tension in your abdominals.

Figure 3–26.  Model of the abdominals at rest and upon inhalation.

Pelvic Floor The top of the abdominal cavity is defined by the diaphragm. Its front, sides, and back are defined by the abdominal muscles. Its base is defined by the pelvic floor, a flexible group of muscles that span the opening at the bottom of the pelvis (Figure 3–27). The muscles of the pelvic floor form a shallow bowl shape, roughly mirroring the dome of the diaphragm (Figure 3–28). When we inhale well, the pelvic floor is in dynamic equilibrium with the diaphragm. While maintaining tonus, it releases and stretches downward as the diaphragm displaces the viscera.

Figure 3–27.  The pelvis and pelvic floor viewed from above. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 75), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

Figure 3–28.  The diaphragm, pelvic floor, and abdominal muscles in cross section viewed from the front (viscera not shown). From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 113), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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The movement of the pelvic floor is not as large as the movement of the abdominal muscles, but awareness of the pelvic floor is essential to excellent breathing. The pelvic floor defines the bottom of the torso, so including its movement in our awareness ensures that we involve the whole torso in breathing for singing. Additionally, because of its proximity to the hip joints, awareness of the pelvic floor helps us to relate the legs to the torso so that we can cultivate a buoyant, springy foundation for our breathing.

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Exercise 3–10.  Figure 3–29 below shows photographs of this model. Video 3–10. The Movement of the Pelvic Floor in Breathing shows this exercise in action. n To model the movement of the pelvic floor, cup your hands with

your palms facing up, interlacing your rounded fingers. Adjust your hands so that they are at the low end of the pelvis. n As you inhale, deepen the cup by straightening your fingers

slightly. As you exhale, the cup becomes shallower again. n Now lock your pelvic floor and try to inhale. Notice the difference

in the breathing system. Release this excess tension, allowing the pelvic floor to stretch as you inhale.

Figure 3–29.  Model of the pelvic floor at rest and upon inhalation.

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Review:  Process of Inhalation The movements of inhalation are distributed throughout the entire torso and are interrelated. Because the whole torso is involved, each individual movement can be subtle and still result in a full, energized inhalation. n As we inhale, the muscle fibers of the diaphragm contract. Because of its anchor at the

front of the lumbar spine, the contraction pulls down on the central tendon, displacing the viscera as it pulls down on the lungs. n The contraction of the diaphragm also pulls the lower ribs up. The other muscles that lift

the ribs contract simultaneously with the diaphragm. As the ribs rise, they swivel in their joints with the spine and sternum, and the costal cartilage may bend slightly. n These actions combine to expand the thoracic cavity, making it taller, wider, and deeper. n This expansion creates an area of low pressure in the lungs and air flows in to equalize

the pressure. n The abdominal muscles and pelvic floor remain toned as they release and stretch to allow

the contraction of the diaphragm and rib lifters. n The movements of breathing are independent of the arm structure.

The Movements of Exhalation As soon as we breathe in, the elastic recoil of the abdominals and pelvic floor exerts upward pressure on the viscera. The elastic recoil of the costal cartilage and abdominal muscles encourages the ribs to descend. To exhale, we release the contraction of the diaphragm and rib lifters in response to these forces. These actions decrease the volume in the thoracic cavity, exerting pressure on the air in the lungs so that it flows out of the body. The abdominals do not need to contract to force the air out of the lungs. They may engage slightly for articulations, staccato and marcato for instance, but their role in exhalation is otherwise passive. Thus, exhalation is essentially a regulated release of the work of inhalation.

Forced Exhalation After that release has expelled most of the air in the lungs, it is possible to expel more air by contracting the abdominal muscles, the muscles that depress the ribs, or both. When the abdominal muscles contract they force the viscera farther up into the dome of the diaphragm and pull down on the ribs. The contraction of the muscles that depress the ribs pulls the ribs downward and inward. These actions should be used with caution because they require extra effort and recovery time. If the abdominals and the rib depressors are contracted during exhalation, they must release before the next inhalation can take place.

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Exercise 3–11.  Video 3–11. Normal and Forced Exhalation shows this exercise in action. To evaluate the effort of these actions, try this. Inhale, and then breathe out normally by releasing the activity of inhalation. Now expel more air by contracting your abdominals and pulling your ribs in. Try those actions sequentially and then simultaneously, noticing the amount of effort each action takes and the effect on the ensuing inhalation. Repeat the exercise while singing a vowel as you exhale. Notice the effect on your singing.

Organs and Membranes Some singers expend extra effort by imagining they can draw air into the body by doing work with the lungs. However, the lungs are organs made of spongy tissue and cannot expand or contract by themselves. They conform to the shape of the thoracic cavity and fill the spaces defined by the ribs, spine, heart, and diaphragm. The only way to bring air into the lungs natur ally is to create low air pressure inside them by increasing the size of the thoracic cavity using the rib lifters and diaphragm. The lungs conform to the shape of the thoracic cavity. They are higher than many people imagine. The top of the lungs extends slightly above the collarbone and the bottom of the lungs rests on the top of the diaphragm. Therefore the lungs reach only to the seventh rib in front and the tenth rib in back (Figure 3–30). They are attached to the ribs and diaphragm by a membrane called the pleural sac. Like the ribs, they are wider at the bottom than at the top. They are also deeper from front to back than some people imagine. As you can see from Figure 3–31, they surround the sides of the thoracic spine.

Figure 3–30.  Views of the lungs from the front, back, and side. By Holly Fischer. Copyright 2015, Association for Body Mapping Education. Used with permission.

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Figure 3–31.  A cross section of the right lung. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 145), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

The Neck and Vocal Tract in Breathing The head must be balanced and the neck must be free for effective breathing. Two muscles in the neck play a limited role in inhalation: The scalenes elevate the top two ribs and the sternocleidomastoids elevate the sternum. However, their activity in breathing happens automatically and need not be cultivated. Several other muscles in the neck can lower the larynx and open the glottis wide during inhalation. These will be discussed in Chapters 4 and 5. The rest of the neck muscles do not have any role in breathing. Their function is to move the head and the shoulders. Yet, for many singers, the neck really wants to “help” with inhalation. For some, the head tilts backward on every inhalation. For others, the chin tucks or the whole head comes forward. All of these movements are visually distracting, interfere with good breathing, and often have a negative impact on the ensuing tone.

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The primary function of the vocal tract (the spaces of the throat, mouth, and nose) in breathing is to provide sensory information about the air we inhale. The sensory receptors in the vocal tract can tell us about the temperature, volume, and speed of the air we are drawing into our bodies. Otherwise, the vocal tract has little function during inhalation. It is simply the passageway for the air. The pharyngeal constrictors (muscles of the throat) must be released for the throat to be open. When they contract, they constrict the throat for swallowing. Inhaling with a narrowed pharynx is inefficient and noisy. Similarly, the tongue has no role during inhalation. Silent inhalation is possible as the tongue forms any vowel. More information on the pharynx and the tongue can be found in Chapter 5. The glottis (the opening between the vocal folds) must be open when we inhale. For breathing at rest, or when little breath is needed, this takes no work at all. For a large, silent, quick inhalation, the glottis may open wider. For details, see Chapter 4. Usually singers want to inhale silently. Any constriction in the vocal tract will make noise when we inhale, whether it is caused by the lips, nostrils, tongue, velum, throat, or glottis. If unwanted sound is occurring during inhalation, it can be diagnosed by sensation and by pitch. Constriction of the nostrils, lips, and tip of the tongue will produce a high hiss. When the tongue is too close to other parts of the vocal tract, it will make a hiss corresponding to the vowel shape. Mapping these movements will allow singers to identify where the constriction is occurring. Singers occasionally choose an audible inhalation for cueing or dramatic effect. Mapping the possible ways of making sound on inhalation will allow them to choose how to make the sound they want and they will quickly find the movement that has the least harmful impact on the following vocal tone. www

Exercise 3–12.  Video 3–12. Pitch of Inhalation shows this exercise in action. To sensitize yourself to the sounds that are frequently made during inhalation, try this. Inhale while constricting the inhalation in sequence with the following movements: nostrils, lips, tip of tongue, ee vowel, eh vowel, ah vowel, oh vowel, ooh vowel. You can easily hear the difference in the sound created by these constrictions. In general, the farther forward in the vocal tract the constriction is, the higher the pitch.

Some singers think they should draw or pump air all the way into their stomachs when they breathe. This idea causes extra effort, usually in the neck muscles. If you have been trying to pump air all the way down to your stomach, it can be a real relief to know that the air only has to travel a short distance to your lungs. As you can see in Figure 3–32, the trachea (air tube) is relatively short, only about 4 to 6 inches long, and it branches out into the lungs just above the heart. It is about an inch in diameter. It consists mostly of cartilage, with a thin strip of muscle in the back where it connects with the esophagus. Because of its fixed size and shape, it cannot do any work in the breathing process. It simply provides an open passage from the larynx to the lungs. The trachea is in front of the esophagus (food tube), which is made of muscle and travels through the diaphragm to connect the pharynx to the stomach (Figure 3–33).

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Figure 3–32. A simplified representation of the lungs, vocal tract, trachea, bronchia, and heart. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 140), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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Esophagus Trachea

Figure 3–33.  The vocal tract in cross section, by Benjamin Conable. Copyright 2001. Used with permission.

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Exercise 3–13.  Video 3–13. Mapping the Trachea shows this exercise in action. It’s easy to palpate the upper part of the trachea. Simply place your finger in the notch at the top of your sternum and press in lightly. The ridged structure you feel is the cartilage of the trachea. Inhale with the knowledge that the trachea is short and right behind the sternum. Now inhale as if the trachea went all the way to the abdominal cavity and was behind the esophagus, nestled against the spine. If that feels at all familiar, keep working on your map of the trachea until you are clear that it is short, forward, and incapable of contraction.

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To ensure an easy, silent breath, we stop recruiting the work of the neck muscles and vocal tract and put the activity of breathing where it belongs: in the contraction of the diaphragm and the muscles that lift the ribs. It is not easy to change habits that interfere with free breathing. We get a lot of sensory feedback from the neck muscles and the vocal tract. If we are used to that feedback, it is hard to trust that we are inhaling enough air when we breathe without those movements. In addition, these movements are habits formed over months or years. Replacing them with new habits requires diligence, patience, and motivation. Remember, if you free your neck and vocal tract from responsibility for breathing, they will respond to your artistic ideas of gesture and glorious sound.

REVIEW Now that you have mapped all the structures and movements of breathing, return to Exercise 3–2 at the beginning of the chapter. Read or listen to it again and evaluate what has changed in your breathing map. Is there anything that still seems unclear? If so, try Exercise 3–14 below.

Exercise 3–14. Video 3–14. Modeling Coordinated Breathing shows this exercise in action. To refine and coordinate your breathing map, review the exercises in the gray boxes above that describe how to model the movements of the diaphragm, the ribs, the abdominals, and the pelvic floor with your hands and arms. Try doing two motions at once. For instance, one hand can imitate the diaphragm pulling down during inhalation while the other imitates the pelvic floor stretching down. Or one arm can imitate the ribs lifting as the other hand shows the stretching of the abdominals. Remember to coordinate these motions with your breathing during both inhalation and exhalation. Keep trying different combinations until all of them feel easy and familiar.

Exercise 3–15. If you can collect a group of four or five people together, you can model all the breathing structures at once. In Video 3–15, 5-Person Breathing Model, students show the coordinated movements of breathing, including opening of the glottis wide for a deep inhalation and closing it for phonation.

Gathering and Lengthening One of the most profound sources of buoyancy in our bodies is the gathering and lengthening of the spine that happens during breathing. Gathering, the drawing together of the vertebrae, occurs all along the spine as we inhale. Consider all the muscles that are active in breathing and their various

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connections to the spine. The scalenes connect the cervical spine to the top ribs. The levatores costarum and serratus posterior superior muscles connect the ribs with the thoracic spine. The psoas connects the legs with the spine near the diaphragm. The diaphragm attaches to the front of the lumbar spine and to the bottom ribs. Many other muscles move the ribs during breathing, changing their orientation in relation to the spine. When we inhale, all of these connections act together to subtly modify the curves of the spine and to bring the vertebrae slightly closer together along its entire length. As the vertebrae gather together, the springy discs of cartilage between them are slightly compressed (Figure 2–9). As we exhale, we release the muscles of inhalation, the discs of cartilage spring back to their full height through elastic recoil, and the spine lengthens. This phenomenon of gathering during inhalation and lengthening during exhalation occurs in all vertebrates. You can notice it in the gait of a horse. If you look at a cheetah on the prowl, you will notice it gathers and inhales just before unleashing a dazzling burst of speed. In their upright stance, this movement is less noticeable in humans. It is easiest to see and sense when we are seated or draped over something like a stack of pillows or a physio ball.

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Exercise 3–16.  To map the gathering and lengthening of your spine, try these exercises. Video 3–16. Gathering and Lengthening shows this exercise in action. n Place a physio ball in front of a floor-length mirror laid on its

side. Drape your torso over the ball in such a way that you can deliver your full weight and feel completely stable. If the ball is so big that your knees and hands can’t touch the floor, deflate it slightly. n Turn your face toward the mirror and soften your neck muscles,

letting the ball support your head. Watching yourself in the mirror, take several deep, slow breaths, being sure to allow plenty of rib movement. n Try varying the amount of breath you take in and the speed of

exhalation to notice the effect on your spinal movement. n Once you notice this movement consistently in the prone posi-

tion, move to sitting in balance and then to standing in balance. n When you notice the spine gathering and lengthening consis-

tently in your breathing, try singing. Continue working on this until you can sense the spine gathering with every inhalation and lengthening with every singing phrase. Variations: If you do not own a physio ball, you can use a stack of pillows. You can also work on lengthening and gathering lying on your side. See Exercise 3–8.



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Most people notice the gathering and lengthening first in the relationship of the head and neck as the head gathers toward the torso during inhalation and springs away during exhalation. However, movement is visible all along the spine. Remember, you must allow this gathering and lengthening, not try to make it happen. If your breathing structures are coordinated in dynamic equilibrium and your neck is released, the spine will begin gathering and lengthening naturally. Cultivating the awareness of this movement will add flexible control to your breathing, helping you sustain long phrases, soar into high notes, and fine-tune your dynamics.

Support Singers like to talk about support, but how many have a really good working definition of it? What does “more support” actually mean? The concept of support can be divided into two categories: structural support and breath support. If you have mastered the material in Chapter 2, you already have a good sense of structural support. When we stand or sit in alignment, our weight is distributed through our skeleton to the surface below. Biotensegrity teaches us that our bones are also integrated with springy, resilient connective tissues that allow us to be in balance even when we are not upright. When in balance, we can rely on this wonderfully efficient system of bones and connective tissue to support us so that the muscles are free to move for singing. Breath support is about how the movement of breath facilitates the sound. If you keep your abdominals and pelvic floor toned while allowing them to release and stretch during inhalation, the elastic recoil of these muscles continually contributes to, or supports, the flow of breath during exhalation. Likewise, if you lift your ribs during inhalation, the springy recoil of the costal cartilage supports the expiratory breath flow. In other words, if you inhale well, your exhalation will enjoy constant support from the abdominal muscles, the pelvic floor, and the costal cartilage. Where singers get into trouble with breath support is in the regulation of the exhalation. We may not exhale as we would at rest: We have to shape the exhalation to our artistic needs. We do this by regulating the release of the muscles of inhalation. If we allow our rib lifters and our diaphragm to release quickly, the breath flow will be fast. If we slow down that release, we slow down the breath flow so that it may be sustained over a long phrase. Of course, when we speak or sing, the muscles in the larynx bring the vocal folds toward the center, creating the slight resistance to the breath flow at the glottis that sets the vocal folds into vibration. Even how we shape the resonance in the vocal tract can contribute to breath support. No matter how finely tuned the breathing mechanism is, inefficient phonation and resonance can undermine the regulation of the breath, as we will see in Chapters 4 and 5. When we sing, we engage in a continual dance of dynamic equilibrium among the structures of balance, breathing, phonation, and resonance, allowing more breath to flow for some phrases and less breath to flow for others. Instead of asking yourself if you need more support, you can ask if you need to allow the breath to flow more quickly or if you need to regulate that release so that the breath flows more slowly. You can ask if your phonation and resonance are responsive and efficient. Many singers spend so much energy controlling the flow that they become locked and can’t use the breath they have. There is a final, crucial element of support that many singers fail to optimize: the gathering and lengthening of the spine. The spine provides structural support as it bears and distributes the weight

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of our upper body. It also provides support for the breath. Like the cheetah who gathers himself to pounce, we gather ourselves to sing with each inhalation. The resulting release of the muscles of inhalation, in response to the recoil of the spinal discs, allows the spine to lengthen, lending great buoyancy to our exhalation and consequently our singing. Without this spinal movement, breath support will never work optimally.

Common Breathing Errors Noisy Inhalation It is common for singers to make sound during inhalation. The tactile and auditory feedback of a noisy inhalation is comforting because it provides evidence that we have drawn air in. We have no sensory receptors in the diaphragm, so it is difficult for some singers to trust that the diaphragm is working. To wean yourself of craving the feedback of a noisy inhalation, try the exercise below. This is especially important for conductors. While it is convenient to cue your choir with an audible inhalation, you are unintentionally training the members of your ensemble to breathe noisily.

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Exercise 3–17.  Audio 3–17. Silent Inhalation provides a recording of this exercise. With your body in balance, form an ee vowel. Noticing the movement of your diaphragm and rib lifters, inhale making an ee sound for two slow counts. Exhale, sustaining a hiss for eight slow counts. Inhale again with your tongue in an ee shape, but without the constriction. Exhale, sustaining a hiss for eight slow counts. Notice that you had at least as much breath for the silent inhalation as for the noisy one. Repeat on other vowels (eh, ah, oh, ooh). When you can inhale slowly and silently, try a quick, silent breath.

Tanking Up It is tempting to take the maximum amount of air for each phrase. We certainly don’t want to run out of breath. However, inhaling more deeply than necessary leads to excess effort. Matching the air we need to the phrase we are singing is a skill that singers develop over time. If we take in too little, we won’t be able to complete the phrase. If we take in too much, several things may happen. We may expel the breath forcefully creating an overblown sound with excessive air flow and glottal resistance. We may sing normally and then have to blow air out at the end of the phrase in order to take in a fresh inhalation. We may store air at the end of the phrase and then inhale more. In this case, each ensuing inhalation will bring in less and less fresh air, we become light-headed and may eventually hyperventilate, or even faint. The body’s instinct to release the breath is in proportion to the extent of the inhalation, as you will see in Exercise 3–18 below. As singers, we gradually learn to balance this instinct with the control necessary to sustain long phrases. Only take in the breath you need. Fully use the breath you have.

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Exercise 3–18. Video 3–18. Air Pressure Resistance shows this exercise in action. You can easily feel the difference in air pressure of a small and a large inhalation. Take a shallow breath and hold it for 10 seconds, and then release. Now take a deep breath and hold it for the same time. With the shallow inhalation, you may notice your body clamoring for air, but your breathing muscles will not need to use much effort to suspend the exhalation and your glottis can easily remain open. With the deep inhalation, you will have plenty of air, but your breathing muscles will be working hard to resist its release and you will be tempted to close your glottis tightly to hold the breath in.

Keeping Your Ribs Out During Exhalation At the beginning of the exhalation, the descent of the ribs may be so gradual as to be imperceptible. However, your ribs must return to their resting place after every phrase or phrase complex (string of connected phrases). If you keep breathing in without fully exhaling, you will be storing deoxygenated air in your lungs and will grow light-headed. The muscles that raise the ribs may release slowly to regulate exhalation for long phrases. However, they do release. Use the air you take in, so that you can start the next phrase with new, fresh air.

Confusing the Diaphragm With the Upper Abdomen Many people think that the diaphragm is at the front of the abdomen directly below the ribs. This confusion often happens because a well-meaning teacher has demonstrated diaphragmatic breathing while resting a hand there. It is helpful to remember that the movement you feel in the upper abdomen is the result of the diaphragm displacing the viscera against the abdominal muscles, not the movement of the diaphragm itself.

The Ribs Are Immovable This idea usually comes from the term “rib cage.” Though it may seem convenient, this term gives the impression that the framework of the ribs is rigid and static like a bird cage. In optimal breathing, the ribs are free to move with every breath. This may also be associated with “belly breathing” (see Breathing Imagery below), where diaphragmatic and abdominal movement is cultivated to the exclusion of rib movement.

Pushing Out the Abdominals Will Bring About Inhalation It is possible to distend the abdominals outward with muscular work without inhaling. If this is happening, usually your glottis will close and your ribs will be dragged downward. This might feel like “belly breathing” (see Breathing Imagery below) but if no air is coming in, it is merely mechanical manipulation of the muscles. Remember, the abdominals release during inhalation so that the diaphragm and ribs may move freely to create a vacuum in the lungs.

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Breathing Imagery Images help some singers. Other singers will take them literally and get confused. Never assume that an image that makes sense to you will make sense to others. Any image that goes against the laws of anatomy and physiology may produce movement that defies nature and induces inefficiency or injury.

Belly Breathing or Getting a Low Breath There is movement in the “belly” because the diaphragm pulls down, displacing the viscera down and out, which stretches the abdominal muscles and pelvic floor. The resulting inflow of air all goes into the lungs, however, not the belly. A literally minded singer might hear the instruction to breathe into the belly and try to force air down through the esophagus to the stomach.

Drinking in the Breath or Sipping Breath Through a Straw The muscles used in drinking are the swallowing muscles (the tongue and the pharyngeal constrictors). These muscles contract to squeeze liquid down into the esophagus, which pushes it to the stomach. When we swallow, the larynx closes to keep liquid out of the lungs and channel it into the stomach. Try swallowing and you will immediately sense that the contraction of these muscles is not helpful in breathing for singing. When we breathe well, the tongue and pharynx release to provide a clear passage for the air, and the larynx opens to allow air into the lungs.

Column of Air This is an image that encourages singers to imagine a vertical column of pressurized air extending from the abdominal area to the vocal folds. There is air pressure in the trachea beneath the vocal folds when we sing. However, the trachea is only 4 to 6 inches long. Since it is made primarily of cartilage, it cannot assist with pressurizing the breath. The entire torso from the pelvic floor to the top of the ribs is involved in creating the pressure that brings about exhalation.

Breathing Down to Your Toes It is an excellent idea to include the springiness of your feet and legs in your awareness as you breathe. Breathing is connected to the legs through the psoas muscles. However, the literally minded singer may hear this image and strain to bring air down into the feet. The air that is drawn into the body is confined to your lungs.

Filling an Inner Tube Around Your Waist This image comes from the laudable desire to stretch the abdominal muscles in every direction during inhalation. It encourages singers to feel the elasticity of the abdominal muscles. However, the literally minded singer may think that air is pumped into the abdomen under pressure, often recruiting the vocal tract or neck to do the pumping. The abdominal muscles stretch in every direction because the diaphragm displaces the viscera against them, not because the abdominal cavity is filling up with air.

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Filling Up From the Bottom Unlike liquids, air is a gas and expands in all directions. The lungs do not fill from the bottom up. They fill out from the middle, where the bronchial tubes enter the lungs just above the heart. The literally minded singer might keep thinking about air as a liquid during exhalation. Expelling liquid would take much more effort than expelling air, which flows easily to an area of less pressure.

Surprise Breath This image evokes the startle reflex to cultivate an instinctive inhalation and help singers raise the soft palate. Unfortunately, it often causes singers to constrict the vocal tract and make a gasping sound during inhalation. More information about raising the soft palate is found in Chapter 5.

Breathe Through Your Belly Button Air goes into the lungs through the nose or mouth. Trying to breathe through your belly button into your abdominal cavity often encourages excess work of the abdominal muscles.

Back Breathing Breathing into the back can mean two things. It can mean the feeling that the thorax is expanding, or it can mean that the back portion of the abdominals is expanding. Both of these are good, as long as the source of the expansion is understood. With the thorax, the expansion happens as the arc of the ribs changes orientation, rising during inhalation. With the lower back, it happens when the abdominal muscles are allowed to release and expand in circumference as the viscera are displaced down and out by the diaphragm during inhalation. In neither case is the air itself causing the expansion.

CONCLUSION Good breathing is the foundation for all other aspects of singing. An adequate, accurate map of the structures and movements of breathing will help singers reach their full potential. As we refine our breathing map, we also refine our phrasing, tone, and diction so that we can follow our innate artistic impulses to new heights of expression.

RESOURCES YouTube Videos 3D-Yoga.com. 3D view of Diaphragm: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hp-gCvW8PRY&feature=related Anatomy Tutorials. Abdominal Wall Muscles: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Dl5RBTTBRg AnimatedBiomedical. Diaphragm — 3D Medical Animation: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=23-KAubf-js

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Fiametti, Roger. Respiration totale animation: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9JqFWUjxI1Q Lawson, Will. Ribcage Movement During Respiration: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Ph9tlaUSfo Medilaw.TV. Cervical Spine Muscles Scalenes: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MygDJtu8EtA Muscle and Motion. What Muscles Are Used for Forced Inspiration Breathing?: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O3nLJgRO-d8 Muscle and Motion. Scapulohumeral Rhythm Shoulder Abduction: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3VygGuBObVc Myers, Tom. What Is Tensegrity?: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OuMHAZ3ync0 The Dad Lab. How To Make a Simple Lung Model with Balloon: https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=1&v=H62wTF9vKPQ

Books and Articles Calais-Germain, B. (2006). Anatomy of breathing. Seattle, WA: Eastland Press.

Websites Anatomy Trains. Fascia: https://www.anatomytrains.com/fascia/ Healthline Body Maps. Diaphragm Overview: http://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/diaphragm#6/12 Walker, Brad. Stretching and Muscle Fascia: https://stretchcoach.com/articles/stretching-fascia/

4 Creating a Singing Sound Melissa Malde

THE BIG PICTURE Vocal sounds originate in the larynx. You already have a map of your larynx. Otherwise, you would not be able to speak or sing. For most people, this map resides in the subconscious. Many singers sing well without conscious knowledge of the inner workings of the larynx. Often it is enough to bring the body into balance, release the neck, and learn to regulate the functions of the larynx through experimentation and aural feedback. If the body is in balance, the larynx should be free to respond to impulses of imagination. Why would you want to bring your laryngeal map into your conscious mind? There are at least three reasons. You may have misconceptions about your larynx that are interfering with effective phonation. Some symptoms of this are persistent hoarseness, a tight sound, difficulty in negotiating register changes, problems with initiating the tone cleanly, and inconsistent vibrato. Or you may be a teacher who wishes to refine your own laryngeal map in order to be a better vocal diagnostician. Or you may simply be curious to know how it all works in order to explore your artistic choices. Some singers think the map of the larynx can’t be made conscious because we have no sensory receptors in the larynx and therefore can’t feel movement of the laryngeal muscles directly. However, though the laryngeal nerves carry only general sensations from the larynx back to the brain, they carry very specific impulses from the brain to the larynx. The brain guides muscle movement whether we can feel it or not. As your map of the larynx becomes more refined, you can be more intentional about your choices in generating sound. This chapter will provide the tools to help you on this path.

Overview The larynx (plural: larynges) is at the front of the neck (Figure 4–1). Its base attaches to the top of the trachea, the tube through which air flows to and from the lungs. Above, the larynx is attached to the hyoid bone, which is located at the base of the tongue. The larynx itself is made mostly of cartilage and muscle and is about the size of a walnut. Just as walnuts vary in size, so do larynges. Women tend to 123

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Figure 4–1.  The larynx from the right side in context. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 179), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

have smaller larynges than men. The larynx is suspended in the neck by a network of extrinsic muscles that connect to it from outside and move the whole larynx up and down in the neck. These will be described in detail in Chapter 5. The intrinsic muscles, which connect the laryngeal cartilages, are responsible for the delicate movements within the larynx. For a rotating view of the larynx in context, visit Neck Anatomy by Healthline Body Maps (https://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/neck#1). Use the slider on the right to peel away layers until you see the larynx clearly. Zoom in using the magnifying button on the left, then click and drag on the image to see the larynx from multiple angles. www

Exercise 4–1.  Video 4–1. Finding the Larynx shows this exercise in action. To locate your larynx, place your fingers lightly on the front of your neck and swallow. The knobby thing you feel bobbing up and down is the thyroid cartilage at the front of the larynx, often called the Adam’s apple. Now place your fingers lightly on the knob and hum. You will feel vibration as you make sound.

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The survival function of the larynx is twofold: (1) to prevent food and liquid from entering the trachea, and (2) to close the airway to create the pressure needed for heavy lifting, elimination of waste, and giving birth. A third function is to make sound for communication. It is this function that we use in singing. Singing is simply enhanced vocal communication.

Exercise 4–2.  Video 4–2. Pitch Variation in Speech shows this exercise in action. Most people don’t realize how much pitch variation they use in everyday speech. n Try speaking the following phrase in a robotic monotone without

any inflection at all: “How are you today?” n Now try emphasizing different words: “How ARE you today? How

are YOU today? How are you TODAY?” Notice the change in pitch on the emphasized words. Do you notice any different sensations on the stressed word? n Now emphasize the word “are” and sustain it over several

seconds. What do you notice? Do you speak that word on one pitch or glide through several? Finally, sing the phrase, jumping up an octave on the word “are” and sustaining it. How is singing different from sustained speaking?

At rest, our exhalation is silent, and the glottis (the space between the vocal folds) is open. When we want to communicate, the glottis closes as we exhale. Air expelled from the lungs sets the vocal folds into vibration. This process is called phonation. The pitch created depends on the rate of that vibration. The scientific term for the rate of vibration is frequency, and pitches are identified by the number of cycles per second (cps) or hertz (Hz). The faster the frequency, the higher the pitch created. For instance, the frequency of middle C is 261.5 and the frequency of the octave above is 523. A typical person is able to produce a wide range of pitches, usually spanning over two octaves and sometimes over three octaves. The vibration of the vocal folds creates a sound wave that travels through the air in the vocal tract to the outside air. Pitch is the most obvious component of that sound wave. Other components of the sound wave generated in the larynx include some aspects of color, the initiation, duration and cessation, the amplitude (strength), and the fluctuation, known as vibrato. All of these are regulated to some extent by movements of the larynx in conjunction with breath flow.

THE ESSENTIALS In order for the larynx to function optimally, the body must be in balance. This is especially true of the balance of the head at the atlanto-occipital joint. Notice in Figure 4–2 how the hyoid bone is connected to the jaw with multiple muscles. It is also connected to the larynx with muscles, a membrane, and two ligaments. The hyoid bone is not stabilized by a joint to the rest of the skeleton. Therefore, when the

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Figure 4–2.  The neck muscles with the head in balance. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 178), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

chin is raised, or jutted forward, it pulls up on the hyoid bone, which, in turn, pulls up on the larynx. Tucking the chin and pulling the head back pushes down and in on the larynx. Both of these actions affect the delicate intrinsic laryngeal muscles and may eventually lead to vocal damage. Whatever effect a singer is trying to achieve can be better attained by other means. For instance, a tenor may be able to extend his high range slightly by raising his chin, but he will sound better and sing more healthily if he learns to sing his high notes using the muscles intrinsic to the larynx. Note that it is possible to raise and lower the chin while maintaining balance at the atlanto-occipital joint, as you can see in Figure 2–13. These are perfectly good movements but they must be very subtle while singing or speaking. This does not mean that the head must be kept in a fixed relationship to the spine. Slight adjustments to the balance of the head in relation to the spine are integral to expressive singing.

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Exercise 4–3.  Video 4–3. Head Balance and the Larynx shows this exercise in action. To understand how the balance of the head affects the larynx, try this exercise. As you do, be gentle with your movements. If you sense any strain, go back to balance. n With your whole body in your awareness and your head in balance,

sing a note in a comfortable part of your range. Sustaining the note, tilt your head back, raising your chin slightly. How does it feel? What happens to the pitch? The tone quality? n Bring your head back into balance and sing the note again.

Sustaining the note, press your chin into your neck. How does it feel? What happens to the pitch? The tone quality? n Bring your head back into balance and sing the note again.

Sustaining the note, bring your head forward from the balance point. Still sustaining the note, pull your head back from the balance point. Try this exercise at different pitch levels and with different degrees of excursion away from the point of balance until you have thoroughly mapped the relationship of head balance and phonation.

All the movements of phonation occur using the intrinsic muscles of the larynx. These muscles are contained entirely within the larynx itself. There are several muscles in the neck that regulate the position of the larynx as a whole. These extrinsic muscles will be discussed in Chapter 5. Most neck muscles move the head and shoulders and have no role in phonation except to maintain the balance of the head. Still, some singers feel that effort in the neck muscles helps them produce a better sound. Unlike the intrinsic laryngeal muscles, the neck muscles have many sensory receptors. When we engage the neck muscles, we get immediate feedback to the brain, so we feel like we are doing something. Unfortunately, that “something” often interferes with the healthy function of the larynx. Learning to trust the absence of effort in the neck can be difficult, but the resulting ease of phonation is the reward. If you feel that your subconscious laryngeal map is adequate and accurate for your singing needs, the remainder of the chapter may not be necessary for you. However, if you wish to bring your laryngeal map into your conscious mind, read on!

THE DETAILS Guidelines for Refining Your Laryngeal Map n Small as it is, the larynx is a complex structure and it may take a significant investment

of time to map it well. n If the descriptions contradict your current perception, pay special attention and correct

or refine your map as necessary.

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n Thoroughly map each structure before adding the next. n Relate each structure to the ones you have already mapped. n Continually relate your map of the larynx to your whole body. n As you work on refining your laryngeal map, you will find some things are helpful for

you and some things simply lead to information paralysis. If you find yourself frustrated and overwhelmed, focus on the big picture first and fill in the details later. n Keep in mind that you cannot feel the work of the laryngeal muscles. However, you will

be able to hear and sense the effect of their movement on your sound.

Anatomical Terminology Associated with the Larynx There are few common names for the structures found in the larynx. Those that exist are often confusing or misleading. You can map the structures without memorizing the anatomical names. However, in order to describe the structures accurately, the anatomical names will be used in this book. The following glossary may be helpful to you.

Glossary of Laryngeal Anatomy Tissue:  A collection of cells of a similar type that form an anatomical structure. Bone:  A hard substance composed largely of calcium that forms the skeleton. Cartilage:  A tough, elastic tissue with a distinct shape like bone but that is more flexible. Ligament: A tough, flexible, fibrous tissue that connects bone to bone, bone to cartilage, or cartilage to cartilage. Membrane:  A thin, elastic tissue that covers or lines a structure. Muscle:  Elastic fibrous tissue in the body that is capable of contraction. Muscle insertion:  The point of attachment of a muscle that moves most during contraction. Muscle origin: The point of attachment of a muscle that remains relatively fixed during contraction. Process:  A protrusion that projects outward from the main body of a structure. On bones or cartilages, processes are often points of attachment for muscles or ligaments. Horn:  Like a process, only longer. Glottis:  The opening between the two sides of the larynx, each edge being defined by one side of the vocal folds and the corresponding arytenoid cartilage. Inferior:  Below (when referring to anatomical structures). Superior:  Above (when referring to anatomical structures).

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Epi-:  Upon or atop (the epiglottis is atop the glottis). Inter-:  Between (the interarytenoids run between the arytenoid cartilages). Lat-:  Side (the lateral cricoarytenoid muscles originate at the sides of the cricoid cartilage). Post-: Back (the posterior cricoarytenoid muscles originate at the back of the cricoid cartilage). Trans-:  Across (the transverse arytenoid muscle spans the arytenoid cartilages). Oblique: At an angle (the oblique arytenoid muscles run diagonally across the opening between the arytenoids). Vocal folds: The vibrating structures of the larynx composed of muscle, ligament, and membrane. For a discussion of the difference between the terms vocal fold and vocal cord, consult Frequently Asked Questions at the end of the chapter.

Decoding Muscle Names The muscles of the larynx have especially complex, multisyllabic names. These become less intimidating if you remember the following: n Most muscles are named for the structures they connect. For instance, the cricoarytenoid

muscles connect the cricoid cartilage to the arytenoid cartilages. n The first structure indicated in the muscle name is usually the point of origin, while the

second is the point of insertion. As you read above, the point of origin remains relatively stable, while the point of insertion may move significantly. For instance, the cricoarytenoid muscles move the arytenoids, while the cricoid remains stable. n Muscle names often include words that describe their location or the direction of their

fibers. For instance, the lateral cricoarytenoids connect the cricoid to the arytenoids on the side, and the fibers of the oblique arytenoids run at an angle.

Overview of the Structures of the Larynx Laryngeal Cartilages There are five principal cartilages that form the framework of the larynx. n The cricoid cartilage forms the base of the larynx. n The thyroid cartilage forms the front of the larynx and anchors the front of the vocal folds. n The pair of arytenoid cartilages sits on the back of the cricoid cartilage and anchors the

back of the vocal folds. n The epiglottis cartilage attaches to the back of the thyroid cartilage and covers the glottis

during swallowing.

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Intrinsic Muscles of the Larynx There are six principal sets of muscles intrinsic to the larynx: n The posterior cricoarytenoid muscles open the glottis. n The lateral cricoarytenoid muscles partially close the glottis. n The transverse arytenoid muscles, also known as the interarytenoids, pull the arytenoid

cartilages together to continue the closure of the glottis. n The oblique arytenoids pull the tops of the arytenoids toward center, contributing to the

closure of the glottis. n The thyroarytenoid muscles form the body of the vocal folds and affect pitch and register. n The cricothyroid muscles stretch the vocal folds, affecting pitch and register.

Other Structures Intrinsic to the Larynx There are several other kinds of structures found in the larynx. n The conus elasticus is a strong membrane that lines the trachea and extends upward to

support the underside of the vocal fold. n The vocal ligaments are the thickened upper edges of the conus elasticus and strengthen

the edges of the vocal folds. n Epithelium membranes cover the vocal folds. n The lamina propria is a flexible layer of membrane that is between the conus elasticus

and the epithelium membranes. n The hyoid bone connects the larynx to the structures above it. As described above, the

position of the larynx depends on the position of the hyoid bone. However, the hyoid bone has no direct role in phonation and it will not be discussed in detail in this chapter. www

Exercise 4–4.  Video 4–4. Building a Larynx out of Modeling Clay shows this exercise in action. One way to work on mapping the structures of the larynx is to build a model out of modeling clay or dough. The video linked to this exercise will take you through the steps so that you can build your own model before, during, or after reading the detailed descriptions below. You will need three full-sized tubs of modeling dough, in contrasting colors, two popsicle sticks, and the template included with the video.



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Detailed Description of the Laryngeal Cartilages and Ligaments All of the descriptions below assume the body is in an upright stance with the head in balance and the larynx at rest. We will start our tour with the base of the larynx and move upward. The cricoid cartilage connects to the top of the trachea with a flexible ligament. The cricoid is round with a hollow space in its center and therefore is sometimes called the “ring” cartilage. The diameter of the space is small: 9 to 17 millimeters in women and 11 to 21 millimeters in men. When at rest, the bottom of the cricoid cartilage is level, parallel to the floor. The back is taller than the front. Figure 4–3 shows the cricoid cartilage from the front and above, as if you were looking at the cricoid cartilage of someone facing you.

Figure 4–3.  The cricoid cartilage viewed from the front and above. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 201), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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Exercise 4–5.  For many, it is difficult to imagine a three-dimensional shape from a two-dimensional drawing. To approximate the shape of the cricoid cartilage, try this hand model. The model is pictured in Figure 4–4 below. Video 4–5. Modeling the Cricoid Cartilage shows this exercise in action. n Make a ring with the tips of your pinkies and thumbs together.

Place the ring on a flat surface. Interlace your remaining fingers to form a round wall roughly perpendicular to the surface. n Your thumbs represent the front of the cricoid cartilage, and

your fingers represent its back. Your model is facing the opposite way from the cricoid cartilage in your larynx. You can imagine that you are looking at the larynx of a person facing you or at your own larynx in a mirror. n This model is much bigger than your actual cricoid cartilage.

Figure 4–4.  A hand model of the cricoid cartilage with a scale drawing. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 201), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Photo by and of Melissa Malde. Reprinted with permission.

The thyroid cartilage is the part of the larynx commonly known as the Adam’s apple, which you can easily palpate at the front of your neck. The thyroid cartilage extends over the sides of the cricoid cartilage and is open in back. Figure 4–5 shows views of the thyroid cartilage from several angles. There are two pairs of horns at the back of the thyroid cartilage. The superior horns extend upward, connecting through ligaments to the hyoid bone. The inferior horns extend downward, connecting at a joint to each side of the cricoid cartilage near the back. These joints allow the thyroid cartilage to rock forward in relation to the cricoid cartilage. The relationship of the thyroid cartilage and the cricoid cartilage is seen in Figure 4–6.

Figure 4–5.  Three views of the thyroid cartilage. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 201), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

Figure 4–6.  The relationship of the cricoid and thyroid cartilage viewed from the right side. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 201), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission. 133

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Exercise 4–6.  To approximate the shape of the thyroid cartilage, try this model. The model is pictured in Figure 4–7 below. Video 4–6. Modeling the Thyroid Cartilage shows this exercise in action. n Hold your hands parallel so that the eight fingers are straight

and pointing away from you. Bring your eight fingers together at the tips forming a rounded “v” shape and extend your thumbs straight up. n You are approximating the shape of the thyroid cartilage. Your

model is much bigger than the actual thyroid cartilage. n The extended thumbs represent the superior horns at the back of

the thyroid cartilage. You could also represent the inferior horns pointing down to the cricoid cartilage, if you had a set of thumbs next to your pinkies. n The tips of your fingers represent the front of the thyroid carti-

lage, and your thumbs represent its back. Your model is oriented in the same way as the thyroid cartilage in your larynx.

Figure 4–7.  A hand model of the thyroid cartilage viewed from the back with a scale drawing. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 201), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Photo by and of Melissa Malde. Reprinted with permission.



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Exercise 4–7. If you have a friend who is interested in laryngeal anatomy, you can put the thyroid model together with the cricoid model to show the relationship. Video 4–7. Modeling the Relationship of the Cricoid and Thyroid shows this exercise in action. Facing each other, have one person make the cricoid model and the other person make the thyroid model. Put the thyroid model on top of the cricoid model. This models the larynx of the person making the thyroid cartilage.

The two arytenoid cartilages sit on top of the back of the cricoid cartilage. They connect to the cricoid cartilage with flexible joints that allow them to swivel and slide. Each arytenoid cartilage is shaped roughly like a pyramid built on a right-angle triangle. At the base of the pyramid, the arytenoids are rounded at the right angle, which is toward the center back of the cricoid. The two acute angles of the triangular base form processes. At rest, the process at the front of each arytenoid cartilage points toward the front of the thyroid cartilage and is called the vocal process. The process at the side of each arytenoid cartilage points toward the horns of the thyroid cartilage and is called the muscular process. The apex of each arytenoid is formed by the corniculate cartilage. This cartilage will not be discussed further in this book. Figure 4–8 shows the cricoid with the arytenoids from three different angles.

Figure 4–8.  Three views of the cricoid cartilage with the arytenoid cartilages. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 201), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

The final laryngeal cartilage is the epiglottis. It is shaped like a two-dimensional teardrop with the point oriented downward (Figure 4–9). This point connects via a short ligament to the posterior surface at the center of the thyroid cartilage. In Figure 4–10 you can see the relationship of the thyroid cartilage and the epiglottis cartilage. The epiglottis cartilage itself is swathed in membranes that surround the space above the glottis. The epiglottis plays an essential role in survival: The muscles around it draw it

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Figure 4–9.  The epiglottis cartilage viewed from the back. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 201), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

Epiglottis Cartilage Hyoid Bone

Figure 4–10.  The epiglottis Thyroid Cartilage cartilage viewed Superior Horn from the back in the context of the whole larynx. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 201), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

Arytenoid Cartilage

Muscular Process of Arytenoid Cartilage

Thyroid Cartilage Inferior Horn

Cricoid Cartilage

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down over the glottis to prevent food and liquid from entering the trachea. Its role in singing is limited to resonance and it will be discussed further in Chapter 5. The conus elasticus membrane arises from the inside edges of the cricoid cartilage. The membrane is paired, connecting to the posterior surface of the thyroid cartilage in front and to the vocal process of the arytenoids in back on each side of the larynx. The free upper edges thicken slightly, forming the two vocal ligaments. The vocal ligaments thus span the distance between the vocal processes of the arytenoid cartilages and the thyroid cartilage (Figure 4–11). They form the strong, flexible edges of the vocal folds. Before reading further, continue working on mapping the size, shape, orientation, and connections of these structures until they are quite clear in your mind. For a detailed tutorial on the cartilages and ligaments mentioned so far, watch Larynx – Cartilages – 3D Anatomy Tutorial published by Anatomy Zone (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z3S2dD9BrSY). You may also test your knowledge of the laryngeal structures with the Interactive Atlas of the Larynx by Ahmet Sinav, M.D. (https://www1​ .columbia.edu/sec/itc/hs/medical/anatomy_resources/anatomy/larynx/). As you work on mapping the framework of phonation, make sure you are relating the location and orientation of your larynx to your whole body.

Figure 4–11.  The laryngeal cartilages and ligaments viewed from above. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 204), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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Review:  Laryngeal Framework n The cricoid cartilage connects with a flexible ligament to the trachea and forms the base

of the larynx. n The thyroid cartilage connects to the side of the cricoid cartilage through its inferior horns

and forms the front of the larynx. n The arytenoid cartilages sit on top of the back of the cricoid cartilage. n The conus elasticus membrane arises from the inside of the cricoid and extends up to the

level of the arytenoids in the larynx. n The vocal ligaments are the thickened upper edge of the conus elasticus and connect the

vocal processes of the arytenoid cartilages with the center back of the thyroid cartilage.

Detailed Description of the Laryngeal Muscles When we breathe at rest, the intrinsic muscles of the larynx are released and the glottis is slightly open. When we sing or speak, the muscles engage. The pair of posterior cricoarytenoid muscles opens the vocal folds wide for a singing breath. The pair of lateral cricoarytenoid muscles, the pair of oblique arytenoid muscles, and the transverse arytenoid muscle act together to close the glottis for phonation. The combined actions of the thyroarytenoid and cricothyroid muscles change the thickness, tension, and length of the vocal folds to vary the pitch. Each muscle and its movement will be described in this section. There are several exercises and links to videos to help you visualize the muscles in action. You will not be able to feel the action of these muscles directly. However, you will be able to hear the effects of the movement in the resulting sound.

Glossary of Terms Describing Muscle Movement in the Larynx Recognizing these terms will prove helpful in the following discussion. Abduct:  Separate. The vocal folds abduct for inhalation. Adduct:  Bring together. The vocal folds adduct to make sound. Co-contraction:  When opposing muscles are working against each other; both are contracting simultaneously. Dynamic equilibrium: When opposing muscles are working with each other, one is contracting as the other releases. Offset:  The termination of phonation. Onset:  The initiation of phonation. Opposing muscles:  Muscles that pull in opposite directions. Paired:  Structures that occur on both sides of the body, one the mirror image of the other.



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The Muscles That Open and Close the Glottis The posterior cricoarytenoid muscles originate from the back of the cricoid cartilage and insert into the muscular processes of the arytenoid cartilages. When they engage, they pull the muscular process toward the center back of the cricoid cartilages. This action swivels the arytenoids so that the vocal processes spread apart in front. Because the vocal ligaments connect to the vocal processes, this action abducts (opens) the vocal folds further than their resting position, forming a wide V shape, with the opening in the back. The posterior cricoarytenoid muscles are active during deep inhalation, enabling a quick, silent breath for singing. They are inactive during phonation, releasing so that the vocal folds can close completely. Figure 4–12 shows a simplified view of larynx from above. The arytenoid cartilages are shown in white. The resting position of the vocal ligaments and arytenoids is shown with dotted lines. The black arrows represent the work of the posterior cricoarytenoids, which are not shown.

Figure 4–12.  The action of the posterior cricoarytenoid muscles viewed from above. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 208), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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The lateral cricoarytenoid muscles also insert into the muscular processes of the arytenoid cartilages, but they originate from the sides of the cricoid cartilage. When they contract, they pull the muscular processes toward the front, rotating the arytenoids so that the vocal processes meet. This action adducts (closes) the vocal folds but leaves an opening at the back of the glottis between the arytenoid cartilages. Phonation is possible in this position but it creates a breathy sound. Figure 4–13 shows a simplified view of the larynx from above. The arytenoid cartilages are shown in white. The resting position of the vocal ligaments and arytenoids is shown in dotted lines. The black arrows represent the work of the lateral cricoarytenoids, which are not shown, rotating.

Figure 4–13.  The action of the lateral cricoarytenoid muscles viewed from above. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 208), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.



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The transverse arytenoid and oblique arytenoid muscles connect the arytenoid cartilages to each other. The transverse arytenoid muscle (also called the interarytenoid muscle) connects straight across, and the oblique arytenoid muscles connect at an angle crossing each other in the center. When they engage, these muscles pull the arytenoid cartilages snugly together, eliminating the opening between. When the lateral cricoarytenoids are also engaged, this completely closes the glottis. Figure 4–14 shows a simplified view from above. The arytenoid cartilages are shown in white. The resting position of the arytenoids and vocal ligaments is shown in dotted lines. The black arrows represent the work of the transverse arytenoid and oblique arytenoid muscles, which are not shown.

Figure 4–14.  The action of the transverse and oblique arytenoid muscles viewed from above. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 208), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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For an animation of the action of the posterior cricoarytenoids, lateral cricoarytenoids, and transverse arytenoids, watch Vocal Cords Adductor and Abductor Muscles by 3dmedicalillustrations (https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=DXZZpMwPeJ4).

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Exercise 4–8.  You can model the opening of the glottis with your fingers. The model is pictured in Figure 4–15 below. Video 4–8. Modeling the Opening and Closing of the Glottis shows this exercise in action. To map the abduction and adduction of the vocal folds, try this. n Hold one hand parallel to the floor with the index and middle

fingers extended and the rest of the fingers curled under with the thumb. Separate the index and middle fingers until they are slightly apart, forming a very narrow V shape. Now point the opening of the V straight into your larynx, keeping your hand parallel to the floor. Breathe normally. This is similar to the shape of your glottis at rest. n Now, take a deep singing breath, opening your fingers to form

a wide V shape. Bring your fingers together and make sound as you exhale. Repeat until you can picture the activity in the larynx while breathing at rest, while breathing in preparation for singing, and while phonating. Remember, the glottis is much smaller than your fingers.

Figure 4–15.  A hand model of the glottis at rest, during deep inhalation and phonating.

Figures 4–16 and 4–17 show the muscles that open and close the glottis in the context of the whole larynx. Both drawings show the larynx at rest, which means that the glottis is slightly open. Take some time to study these intricate drawings, referring back to the simpler drawings and descriptions above. Figure 4–16 shows the larynx from the back, as if you were looking into the larynx of someone facing away from you. The glottis is hidden by the oblique and transverse arytenoid muscles. The posterior cricoarytenoid muscles are clearly visible. For a singing breath, the posterior cricoarytenoid muscles would contract, swiveling the vocal processes of the arytenoid cartilages apart to open the glottis.

4.  CREATING A SINGING SOUND 143



Thyroid Cartilage Oblique Arytenoids Transverse Arytenoids Muscular Process of Arytenoid Cartilage

Posterior Cricoarytenoids

Muscular Process of Arytenoid Cartilage

Cricoid Cartilage

Figure 4–16. The laryngeal muscles viewed from the back. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 206), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

Figure 4–17 shows the larynx from the back at an angle from the right side, as if you were standing behind someone’s right shoulder and looking at the larynx. Here you can see the lateral cricoarytenoid muscle on the right side. This would normally be hidden by the thyroid cartilage and the cricothyroid muscles, both of which have been cut to expose the lateral cricoarytenoid muscle. Look at the direction of the muscle fibers in the lateral cricoarytenoid muscle. When we sing, they contract, swiveling the vocal processes of the arytenoids together to close the glottis. At the same time, the oblique and transverse arytenoid muscles contract to slide the arytenoid cartilages close together, closing the space at the back of the glottis.

144 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

Aryepiglottic Muscle Thyroid Cartilage (Cut)

Transverse Arytenoids Muscular Process of Left Arytenoid Cartilage Posterior Cricoarytenoids

Muscular Process of Right Arytenoid Cartilage Lateral Cricoarytenoid

Cricoid Cartilage Cricothyroid (Cut)

Figure 4–17.  The laryngeal muscles viewed from the back of the right side. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 206), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.



4.  CREATING A SINGING SOUND 145

The Muscles That Determine Pitch There are two muscle pairs that affect the pitch produced by the vocal folds. They are the thyroarytenoid muscles and the cricothyroid muscles. These are opposing muscles: the action of the cricothyroids lengthens the vocal folds and the action of the thyroarytenoids shortens the vocal folds. The pair of thyroarytenoid muscles connects the posterior surface of the thyroid cartilage to the arytenoid cartilages. Each side is divided into two parts. Though the fibers of the two parts are continuous with each other, they can act independently. The two parts are called the vocalis muscle (also known as the internal thyroarytenoid muscle) and the external thyroarytenoid muscle. The vocalis muscles form the body of the vocal fold. They lie snug next to the vocal ligaments on either side of the glottis. The external thyroarytenoid muscles are on the outside of the vocalis muscles. In a view from above, Figure 4–18 shows all the laryngeal muscles described to this point. Note that the drawing is not symmetrical. It shows some muscles only on one side, though they all occur on both sides.

Figure 4–18.  The laryngeal muscles viewed from above. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 207), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

146 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

Figure 4–19 shows the vocal folds in cross section in the context of the whole larynx. Here you can see the vocalis muscles nestled against the vocal ligament. The conus elasticus membrane forms the base of the vocal fold and its thickened upper edge, the vocal ligament, defines its top edge. An epithelium membrane covers the surface. Between the epithelium and the conus elasticus is the lamina propria. The lamina propria contains many blood vessels and together with the epithelium forms the covering of the vocal fold. Because of their moisture content, these two membranes are highly flexible. This whole structure is the vocal fold.

Figure 4–19.  The larynx in cross section viewed from the back with a detail of the vocal fold. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 205), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

4.  CREATING A SINGING SOUND 147



Figure 4–20 shows the effect of the action of the thyroarytenoids as they pull the arytenoid cartilages closer to the thyroid cartilage, shortening the vibrating edge of the vocal folds. This is a simplified view from the right side. The resting position of the right arytenoid and vocal ligament is shown in dotted lines. The black arrow represents the action of the thyroarytenoids, which are not shown.

Figure 4–20.  The action of the thyroarytenoid muscles viewed from the right side. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 208), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

The paired cricothyroid muscles arise from the sides of the cricoid cartilage at the front. From there, they extend back at an oblique angle to attach to the bottom of the thyroid cartilage at the sides. Each side has two parts, or bellies. As the cricothyroids contract, they change the relationship of the thyroid cartilage to the cricoid cartilage. The thyroid cartilage rocks forward and the cricoid cartilage tips back, pulling the front of these cartilages closer together. The effect of this is to increase the distance between the thyroid cartilage and the arytenoid cartilages, stretching the vocal folds. Figure 4–21 shows the two bellies of the right cricothyroid muscle. Figure 4–22 shows how the action of the cricothyroid muscles stretches the vocal folds. The position of the larynx at rest is shown in dotted lines. Unlike all the similar representations above, the black arrows in the drawing do not correspond to the direction of contraction in the muscle fibers. Rather, they represent the resulting movement of the cartilages. The cricothyroid muscles are not shown in this drawing.

Figure 4–21.  The cricothyroid muscles viewed from the right side. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 207), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

Figure 4–22.  The result of the action of the cricothyroid muscles viewed from the right side. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 208), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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4.  CREATING A SINGING SOUND 149



Exercise 4–9.  The model is pictured in Figure 4–23 below. Video 4–9. Modeling the Contraction of the Cricothyroids shows this exercise in action. To visualize the movement of the cricothyroid muscles, try this. n With your head in balance, bring the base of your palms and

your thumbs together under your chin with your fingers pointing up. n Put your thumbs slightly below your thyroid cartilage. If you

can’t find your thyroid cartilage, just swallow. The thyroid cartilage will move up and down. n Next, put your index fingers on either side of your neck upon the

sides of the thyroid cartilage. n Now, bring the thumb and index fingers closer together. You are

approximating the contraction of the cricothyroid muscles. n Now try singing a slide or siren starting low and going high.

Don’t worry if there are some awkward places — just let your voice jump right through them. As you ascend in pitch, bring your fingers and thumbs closer together to model the contraction of the cricothyroids. You may feel the thyroid cartilage rock slightly down and forward under your fingers as you go up. This is excellent — it’s the healthiest way to access your upper range. Your larynx may rise as you ascend in pitch. If this is happening, don’t worry about it right now. You will learn how to balance the internal and external muscles of the larynx in Chapter 5. Don’t try to keep the larynx completely stationary. It moves all the time as we sing.

Figure 4–23.  A finger model of the cricothyroid muscles.

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150 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

To review cartilages and view the actions of the intrinsic laryngeal muscles, watch How the Larynx Produces Sound by Bethea Medical Media (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b89RSYCaUBo).

Review:  Intrinsic Muscles of the Larynx and the Vocal Folds Intrinsic to the larynx, there are two sets of opposing muscles and one set of complementary muscles. n Openers and Closers n The

posterior cricoarytenoids swivel the vocal processes of the arytenoid cartilages away from center, opening the vocal folds.

n The

lateral cricoarytenoids swivel the vocal processes of the arytenoid cartilages toward the center, closing the vocal folds.

n Shorteners and Lengtheners n The

thyroarytenoids pull the arytenoids closer to the thyroid, making the vocal folds shorter and thicker.

n The

cricothyroids rock the thyroid cartilage forward, pulling the front of the thyroid cartilage and the cricoid cartilage closer together, stretching the vocal folds longer and thinner.

n Complementary Muscles n When

the transverse and oblique arytenoids are released, they allow the posterior cricoarytenoid muscles to completely open the glottis.

n When

the transverse and oblique arytenoids contract, they pull the arytenoid cartilages together, completing the action of the lateral cricoarytenoid muscles to close the glottis.

n The Composition of the Vocal Folds n The

conus elasticus forms the lower surface.

n The

vocal ligament forms the edge.

n The

vocalis muscle forms the body.

n The

entire structure is covered with the lamina propria and epithelium membranes.

Watch Vibration of the Vocal Folds by Mélanie Canault and Olivier Rastello to see an animation of these muscles in action (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kfkFTw3sBXQ).

Coordinated Movements of Laryngeal Muscles Pitch Pitch is determined by the frequency of vibration. The faster the vibration, the higher the pitch. In singing, the frequency of vibration depends on the length, thickness, and tension of the vocal folds. To understand how these qualities affect pitch, consider the four strings of a violin. The vibrating length of the strings is the same, so why do they produce different pitches? It is partly because the strings

4.  CREATING A SINGING SOUND 151



differ in thickness. The E string is the thinnest and makes the highest pitch. The G string is about three times thicker than the E string and makes the lowest pitch. Now consider tension. If we stretch the string by tightening the tuning peg, the pitch will get higher because it has more tension. If we loosen the string, the pitch will get lower because it has less tension. Finally, consider differences in length. If we decrease the vibrating length of the string by damping it against the fingerboard, the shorter vibrating length of the string will produce a higher pitch. From the example of the violin, we can deduce these three physical laws governing the pitch a vibrating string produces: n The thinner the string, the higher the pitch. n The more tension on the string, the higher the pitch. n The shorter the string, the higher the pitch.

What does this mean for the voice? The vocal folds are much more complex than the strings of a violin. First, unlike strings, the muscles of the vocal folds have the ability to contract, thus adjusting their own length, thickness, and tension. Second, they are free to vibrate only on one edge. Finally, they have multiple layers: muscle, ligament, and membrane. However, the string analogy can be helpful. The innate length and thickness of the vocal folds determine the total compass of pitches a singer may produce. A bass has a lower range than a soprano because he has longer, thicker vocal folds. You may compare the size of vocal folds for four singers by watching Cords (hear us and have mercy), which shows the vocal folds of a quartet singing a Kyrie by Tomás Luis de Victoria (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=km5ZccQsqE4). While length is an important factor in determining the compass of an individual singer’s vocal range, within that range, pitch is mostly regulated by changing the thickness and tension of the vocal folds. Just like strings, when they are loose and/or thick, the pitch is low. When they are thin and/or taut, the pitch is high. Following is a simplified description of how the intrinsic muscles act to change pitch. Other factors, including breath pressure and the action of extrinsic muscles, may also contribute to pitch. In the lowest part of the range, the external thyroarytenoids reduce the distance between the arytenoids and the thyroid cartilage while the vocalis muscles (internal thyroarytenoids) release, making the vocal folds thick and relatively loose. In the highest part of the range, the cricothyroids rock the thyroid cartilage forward, increasing the distance between the arytenoids and the thyroid cartilage, thus stretching the vocal folds and making them thin and taut. In between these two extremes, the cricothyroids, vocalis, and external thyroarytenoids interact in varied and complex ways to create not only pitches but the color aspect of the voice known as registers.

Review:  The Actions That Change Pitch n The external thyroarytenoid muscles make the vocal folds shorter, thicker, and looser

when they contract. This lowers the pitch. n The vocalis muscles add tension to the vocal folds when they contract. This raises the pitch. n The cricothyroid muscles stretch the vocal folds when they contract, making them longer,

thinner, and tenser. This raises the pitch.

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Exercise 4–10.  Video 4–10. Rubber Band Model A: Effect of Thickness, Tension, and Length on Pitch shows this exercise in action. n The effect of thickness, tension, and length on pitch can be

demonstrated with a rubber band stretched over a glass. Give the rubber band just enough tension so that it will create a pitch when plucked. Now pinch the rubber band where it meets the rim of the glass on one side. Stretch it away from the glass and pluck again. The pitch is higher because the vibrating part of the rubber band is thinner and has more tension. This is analogous to the vocal folds being stretched by the action of the cricothyroid muscles. n If you want to raise the pitch without increasing the tension, you

can return the rubber band so that it touches both sides of the rim. Pluck it to hear the pitch. Then damp the rubber band by pinching it in the middle and pluck again. Because the vibrating length is shorter, it will make a higher pitch. This is analogous to the innate difference in vocal fold length between a soprano and a bass.

Registration Just as the innate shape of the vocal folds determines the total compass of pitches a singer may produce, it also determines innate weight of the voice. Singers with innately slender vocal folds will produce a lighter sound than singers with robust vocal folds. However, all singers may adjust the thickness of their vocal folds to vary the weight of their sound to some extent. Throughout much of the range, individual pitches can be produced with multiple configurations of the vocal folds. That is, the vocal folds may vibrate at the same rate, thus producing the same pitch, but have a very different shape and amount of tension. These configurations, regulated by the actions of the thyroarytenoids and the cricothyroids, determine the element of color commonly known as register. A register can be defined as a series of tones that have similar vocal production. A pitch produced with thick vocal folds will sound very different from the same pitch produced with thin vocal folds, even when they are produced by the same singer. www

Exercise 4–11.  Video 4–11. Rubber Band Model B: Color of Pitch Due to Thickness shows this exercise in action. Take a thin rubber band and a thick rubber band and stretch them across a glass. Adjust them until they make the same pitch when plucked. Notice the tone color difference produced by the rubber bands. Even though they are vibrating at the same rate, the thicker rubber band makes a more robust sound than the thin rubber band.

4.  CREATING A SINGING SOUND 153



There are three distinct register delineations in the voice. The terminology describing these registers varies but in this book we will use the following labels: modal voice, falsetto/flute, and glottal fry. In modal voice, both the thyroarytenoids and the cricothyroids are active to some degree. In falsetto/flute, only the cricothyroids are active. In glottal fry, the cricothyroids are completely inactive. Within the modal voice and falsetto/flute, colors can be produced that, confusingly, are also called registers. The modal voice can be divided into three registers. Again, there is variation in the terminology, but in this book, we will use chest voice, mixed voice, and head voice.1 Falsetto/flute also includes whistle tone. The actions of the thyroarytenoids and cricothyroids associated with these registers and sub-registers are described in detail below. Most singing takes place in the modal voice. Throughout this register, both the thyroarytenoid and the cricothyroid muscles are active to some degree. These opposing muscles cooperate to change the thickness and tension in the vocal folds. Therefore, there is always some degree of contraction in both muscles. This is good tension, just enough to do the work of creating the pitch and color, not enough to strain. When the thyroarytenoids and cricothyroids are working in perfect dynamic equilibrium, one releasing incrementally as the other engages incrementally, the modal voice can be considered one unified register. However, many singers experience distinct registers within the modal voice. When the action of the thyroarytenoids predominates, the vocal folds are thick, producing a register commonly known as chest voice. Typically this register is associated with a low pitch range. When the action of the cricothyroid muscles predominates, the vocal folds are stretched thin, producing a register commonly known as head voice. Typically, this register is associated with a high pitch range. Because the vocal folds are thickened in chest voice, we perceive the sound to be “heavy.” Because the vocal folds are thinned in head voice, we perceive the sound to be “light.” Keep in mind that the terms “heavy” and “light” are independent from “loud” and “soft.” Though tones produced with thick vocal folds have a robust color, they may be soft if the breath pressure is low. Though tones produced with thin vocal folds may be pure and clear, they may be loud if the breath pressure is high. “Heavy” and “light” refer to registration and thus are independent from the terms “bright” and “dark.” These terms refer to resonance and will be discussed further in Chapter 5. Between chest voice and head voice, there is a part of the range where the contraction of the thyroarytenoids and cricothyroids is more or less equal. Because this register combines the color elements of chest voice and head voice, it is called mixed voice. Throughout the modal voice we can produce the same pitch in multiple registers. We can carry the thyroarytenoid-dominated production (chest voice) up in pitch or carry the cricothyroid-dominated production (head voice) down. The higher you carry chest voice up, the more strident it becomes. The farther you carry head voice down, the weaker it becomes. Any register carried to extremes makes the transition into the next register more noticeable. In classical singing, a transition between registers is called a passaggio. A transition area may also be called a break, especially if there is an abrupt change between registers. Falsetto/Flute and Glottal Fry.  The discussion above concerns the various ways of producing the tone within the modal register, where thyroarytenoid and the cricothyroid muscles are always engaged to some degree. There are two registers in singing that are produced without the concurrent use of the 1

 Other registration terminology includes Mode 1 and TA-dominated for chest voice and Mode 2 or CT-dominated for head voice. Whistle Tone is sometimes called flageolet. Glottal fry is sometimes called Pulse Register or Vocal Fry.

154 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

thyroarytenoids and the cricothyroids. They are falsetto/flute (with the sub-register of whistle tone) and glottal fry. As we ascend in pitch, at a certain point, the action of the cricothyroids cannot produce higher pitches as long as the thyroarytenoid muscles are providing a countering pull. The point in the range where the thyroarytenoid muscles release completely is called falsetto in men and flute in women. Only the vocal ligament and the surrounding membranes vibrate in this register. The vocal folds are taut and thin and produce an ethereal quality. The pitch is adjusted within this register by the degree of contraction of the cricothyroid muscles stretching the vocal ligament. Within flute/falsetto, some singers have yet another register. When the cricothyroids have reached their maximum contraction, the back of the vocal folds may be damped (kept from vibrating). This effectively shortens the length of the vibrating edge, just as a violin string is shortened when a finger presses it against the fingerboard. This can happen within the falsetto/flute register of both men and women. However, not everyone can achieve it. This register is called whistle tone in women. For men it sounds like a lighter register within falsetto and is often used by countertenors. For a fun romp through all the singing registers of the female voice, listen to this recording of Yma Sumac singing “Taita Inty” (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GcGJQInBmdQ). For a male version of registration, watch Franco Fagioli singing “Vo solcando” from Artaserse Vinci. Within the first few phrases you can hear him sing in his falsetto, modal voice and whistle registers. His whistle register is most apparent in his final cadenza near the end of the video (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=rXmF6h3Yd_A). The lowest register is glottal fry, sometimes called the pulse register. This register is produced when we disengage the cricothyroid completely. In a glottal fry, the vocal folds are thick and completely released and the air that passes through them produces a rattling sound very different from other phonation. Glottal fry is sometimes used in speech and in popular singing styles but is generally avoided in solo classical singing. However, it can be very useful in choral situations for those low Cs the basses can’t quite reach in modal voice.

Review:  Vocal Registers n Glottal fry:  The cricothyroids are completely released. n Modal voice:  The cricothyroids and thyroarytenoids are engaged concurrently. There are

three possible delineations within this register. n Chest

voice: The action of the thyroarytenoid muscles predominates. The vocal folds are short and thick. The tone is robust/heavy.

n Mixed

voice: Both the thyroarytenoid and cricothyroid muscles are active, engaging and releasing in dynamic equilibrium. The tone is balanced.

n Head

voice:  The action of the cricothyroid muscles predominates. Vocal folds are long and thin. The tone is pure/light.

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n Falsetto/flute:  The thyroarytenoids are completely released. The pitch is determined solely

by the contraction of the cricothyroids. The vibrating edges of the vocal folds are at their thinnest, producing an ethereal quality. n Whistle Tone

occurs within Falsetto/Flute:  The thyroarytenoids are completely released and the cricothyroids are fully engaged. Pitch is determined by damping the back of the vocal folds, shortening their vibrating length.

Some singers dislike the word “register,” because it imposes distinct labels on what is essentially a fluid process. Other singers find register terminology useful because it gives a name to the different sensations they experience throughout the range. Ultimately, it doesn’t matter what you call these differences in color as long as you can use them for artistic purposes. If you want a heavy or lusty sound, you will engage your thyroarytenoids more. If you want a pure or ethereal sound, you will engage your cricothyroids more. In classical singing, blending the actions of these two muscle pairs seamlessly in dynamic equilibrium is of paramount importance. In styles like blues and folk, the cricothyroid is less engaged because the singing range is generally lower. In jazz, pop, and country singing, more extreme differences in timbre may actually be cultivated. Those who yodel, for example, must be able to switch from one register to another in an instant, and the juxtaposition of timbres is part of the charm of their art.

Onset and Offset The way a singer initiates the pitch (the onset) and releases the pitch (the offset) is an important expressive tool. There are three types of possible onsets and offsets: coordinated/balanced, glottal/ hard, and aspirate/soft. Within these basic types, variation is a matter of degree. A glottal may either be gentle or forceful, for instance. In a coordinated onset, the air flowing from the lungs meets the glottis just as it is closing setting the vocal folds into vibration immediately. During a glottal onset, vibration is delayed momentarily because the folds are already closed when the air flow reaches them. It takes a moment for the air pressure beneath the glottis to set the vocal folds into vibration. When they do start vibrating, there is an audible “click” in the sound. In an aspirate onset, the phonation is also delayed momentarily. In this type of onset, the air flow reaches the glottis before it closes. Air escapes before the vocal folds come into vibration, sounding like an [h]. In a coordinated offset, the vocal folds separate just as the air ceases to flow from the lungs. In a glottal offset, the vocal folds close tightly to damp vibration before the air has stopped flowing from the lungs, making an abrupt end to the sound, rather like the grunt we make when lifting something heavy. In an aspirate offset, the vocal folds separate while air continues to flow from the lungs, sounding like a final [h] or a sigh. Though the balanced onset is the most standard and healthy, all of these onsets may be useful. In some languages, such as German, the glottal onset is often required. Glottals may also be used in moments of anger or fear. An aspirate onset may be required for an [h] sound or to denote a sigh.

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Exercise 4–12.  To practice the different types of onset and offset, try this. Video 4–12. Onsets and Offsets shows this exercise in action.

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n Aspirate:  Exhale while closing your glottis slightly, making an

[h]. Now repeat this movement but allow your vocal folds to close and produce a tone after the airflow has started. This is an aspirate onset. Next, sing a tone and stop the vibration of your vocal folds while continuing to allow breath to flow from the lungs to make an [h]. This is an aspirate offset. n Glottal: To achieve a glottal onset, prepare to cough lightly

without actually coughing. Or grunt as if you are lifting a somewhat heavy object (not too heavy!). Your glottis will close. Then initiate the air and sing a vowel. You will feel a noticeable tug or click as the vibration starts. This is a glottal onset. For a glottal offset, sing a vowel and cut off the tone with a grunt, as if lifting the heavy object again. Be careful with this movement, using only enough force to stop the vibration that makes sound. n Balanced: Finally, practice repeated balanced onsets and

offsets, closing the vocal folds just as the air reaches them for the onset and opening the folds just as the breath stops flowing for the offset. Sometimes it is easier to start work on balanced onsets using a voiced consonant like [n], [m], or [ l ]. When the onset of those consonants feels effortless and balanced, try different vowels. If an exercise with text is easier for you, say the following phrase: “Uncle Eddie eats eggs.” Practice this phrase with hard or glottal onsets, with aspirate onsets (“Huncle Heddie heats heggs”), and with balanced onsets.

Summary of Types of Onsets and Offsets Onsets n Coordinated/Balanced:  airflow begins as glottis closes. n Aspirate/Soft:  airflow begins before glottis closes. n Glottal/Hard:  glottis closes before airflow begins.

Offsets n Coordinated/Balanced:  airflow stops as glottis opens. n Aspirate/Soft:  airflow continues after glottis opens. n Glottal/Hard:  glottis closes, stopping the airflow.

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FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS How Do the Vocal Folds Come Into Vibration? The interaction of the vocal folds with the breath flowing from the lungs causes the vibrations of phonation. When the vocal folds are adducted (closed) by the intrinsic muscles, breath pressure builds up beneath the glottis. This is called subglottic pressure. When the pressure is high enough to overcome the closing action of the vocal folds, it pushes them apart and a puff of breath escapes. The vocal folds come back together because of (1) elastic recoil, (2) aerodynamics, and (3) inertia. First, we will consider the contribution of elastic recoil. The vocal folds are made of ligaments, membranes, and muscle, all of which are elastic. During phonation, the glottis closes and the intrinsic laryngeal muscles engage to create the desired pitch. As soon as a puff of air escapes, subglottic pressure subsides and the muscles, ligaments, and membranes snap back to their closed position. Subglottic pressure builds up again and the cycle repeats: about 261 times per second at middle C. Aerodynamics also play a role in vocal fold vibration. In 1738, Daniel Bernoulli published a theory about fluid dynamics. As it applies to the vocal instrument, the Bernoulli principle recognizes the tendency of gases and liquids to flow faster through narrow spaces. For instance, when you are river rafting, you notice that the “rapids” are always in a narrow part of the river. The same amount of water must flow through the constriction (where the river banks are close together) as it does through the broad part of the river above and below. Therefore, it flows faster. Water pressure builds in the broad part of the river and drops in the rapids. Air, which is a gas, behaves in the same manner in the larynx as water does in a river. As you can see in Figure 4–19, the trachea and the laryngeal cavity are wider than the closed glottis. When the breath flow meets this constriction, it slows down and subglottic pressure builds. As the pressure pushes the vocal folds open, air molecules speed through the narrow glottis and the pressure drops. The low pressure in that space draws the flexible epithelium membrane and lamina propria surrounding the vocal folds toward the center in a rippling pattern. This phenomenon is referred to as the mucosal wave. Inertia may also be an important factor in vocal fold vibration. Inertia can be defined as the tendency of matter, such as air, to continue doing what it has been doing. Here is how that might function in the larynx. Subglottic pressure builds beneath the closed glottis until it is high enough to push the vocal folds apart. Air speeds through the opening, the pressure drops, and the folds close because of elasticity and the Bernoulli effect. As the air reaches the top of the vocal folds, it encounters a wider space. You would expect the air to slow down and pressure to increase. However, because of inertia, the air continues to move quickly. This creates an area of low pressure above the vocal folds that helps draw the top of the glottis closed. To see an animation of the vocal folds in vibration, watch Process of Phonation Small on Vimeo (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Aoa_N1vQS4M). Vocal fold vibration – slow motion (http://www​ .youtube.com/watch?v=Drns_eV9wWg) shows actual vocal folds in phonation filmed with a high speed digital camera so that you can see the mucosal wave. As you can see from these videos, the vocal folds do not need to be closed tightly in order to vibrate. The vocalis muscles respond to the breath flow with elasticity. The flexible membranes covering the vocal folds are drawn into a mucosal wave due to Bernoulli’s principle. This combination of air flow and vibration is sometimes called flow phonation.

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Exercise 4–13.  Video 4–13. The Bernoulli Effect shows this exercise in action. To demonstrate the effect of the Bernoulli principle on the vocal folds, you can use two sheets of paper. Make an [u] shape with your lips. Take two sheets of paper and, aligning them so that they are parallel and perpendicular to the floor, press a sheet to each side of your mouth. Blow fairly forcefully between the two sheets of paper. They will not blow apart as you might expect but will instead be drawn together into vibration.

For several other demonstrations of Bernoulli’s principle, watch Physics Project “Bernoulli’s Principle” by Amy McBeth (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wuAUJPUupfE).

What Causes a Breathy Sound? Resonance and phonation can both contribute to a breathy sound. For the ways resonance contributes to breathiness, see Chapter 5. The larynx will produce a breathy tone when the vocal folds are either closed too loosely or the space between the arytenoids remains open. Usually when a breathy quality is deliberately cultivated, the first is true. The second condition is often prevalent in adolescence, and most singers grow out of it as they mature. Learning to close the glottis with gentle firmness may take time and practice if it does not happen naturally. It is vital that singers do not recruit neck muscles or excessive tension in the vocal folds themselves to close the glottis. Such practices do not help and can often lead to injury. To find appropriate glottal closure, it is helpful to relate the larynx to the body in active balance. For instance, gentle lunges that explore springiness in the hip joints and that increase tonus in the abdominals may assist in proper adduction. www

Exercise 4–14.  Video 4–14. Degrees of Adduction shows this exercise in action. To experiment with different degrees of closure, try this. n Without singing, sustain a glottal [h]. Notice the sensation as your

vocal folds come close together without touching. Try phonating with that lax adduction. n Now go to the opposite extreme and grunt as if lifting something

heavy. Notice the sensation as your vocal folds close forcefully. You will probably notice other muscles engaging, especially your abdominal muscles and neck muscles. Try phonating briefly with that tight adduction. Neither of these extremes is desirable for singing! The first will lead to an extremely breathy tone. The second will lead to an extremely tight tone and can cause damage to the vocal folds. Keep experimenting gently

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with the degree of glottal closure until you have an adequate, accurate map of the movement involved. Remember, this does not mean you need to sense the movement in the muscles that close the glottis. That is impossible. However, you may begin to regulate differences in degree of effort consciously.

What Causes a Strident Sound? Like breathiness, a strident sound can be the result of resonance. When it is caused in the larynx, it is usually because the voice is produced too heavily. This often happens when we carry chest voice up into the range where use of mixed voice or head voice would be more appropriate. As we do this, the muscles of vocal folds keep increasing their tension in order to raise the pitch and the sound gets increasingly harsh as we sing higher. Head voice might seem weaker at first, but it gets stronger as you use it and it is important to be able to sing in head voice for most styles.

Exercise 4–15. For a recording of this exercise, listen to Audio 4–15. Finding Head Voice. Some singers have difficulty engaging their cricothyroid muscles and discovering the lighter register within the modal voice commonly called head voice. n To experiment with your high voice, try making non-singing

sounds like whoops and sirens. Start low in your range and swoop high. Start high in your range and swoop low. If you can make a sound in falsetto (men) or flute (women) you can start there and glide down into your modal voice. n When you are first experimenting, don’t worry if one part of your

voice feels much stronger than another or if there are noticeable transitions between different parts of your voice. These will smooth out with practice. As you whoop, scoop, and glide, notice the balance of your head. If it starts tilting back as you swoop higher, you are making it harder for the cricothyroids to do their job. Keep experimenting with different levels of breath pressure and different vowels. Some singers find head voice more easily on a lip trill, tongue trill, or an “ng” sound. You can also try making your tone slightly breathy. If your head continues to come out of balance, or your larynx rises with the pitch, come back to this exercise after you have read Chapter 5. Don’t give up! Everyone can learn to sing in head voice.

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What Causes a Tight Sound? When a sound is tight, it is usually because the laryngeal muscles are working too hard to close the glottis. Remember, the closure should be gentle, not pressed. If you feel your sound is too tight, experiment with the degree of glottal closure as described in the box about breathiness above. A tight sound can also result from excess tension in the neck or throat.

What Does the Larynx Have to Do With Dynamics? Loudness and softness are regulated by the speed of the breath flow and the reaction of the vocal folds to that flow. When we wish to sing softly, we release breath slowly, creating minimal air pressure beneath the glottis. When we wish to sing loudly, we release breath quickly, creating high pressure beneath the glottis. The intrinsic laryngeal muscles react to the resulting difference in air pressure, subtly adjusting tension and the degree of closure of the vocal folds. Unfortunately, some singers try to control dynamics with the neck and throat muscles, straining to sing louder and constricting to sing softer. It is healthier and more effective to use the rate of breath flow to regulate dynamics.

How Can I Fix My Intonation? There are degrees of problems with intonation. People who are “tone deaf” can’t tell if the pitch they are making is accurate or not. That is, the brain does not translate accurately between the pitch they desire to hear and the number of vibrations needed to make that pitch. Discussion of this condition is beyond the scope of this book. Then there are people who have a “bad ear”; that is, they sing pitches that are close to the desired pitch but are often flat or sharp. This is not uncommon in beginning singers and improves as they perfect their understanding of the harmonic function of the pitches they are singing. Even singers with “good ears” sometimes sing out of tune. The way we produce the sound dramatically affects the overtones of the sound. This can make a pitch sound sharp or flat, even when the actual rate of vibration is correct. Here are some things to consider when experimenting with intonation: n It is easier to stay in tune when we sing within a narrow range. The wider the range of the

phrase, the more difficult excellent intonation becomes. Shifting back and forth between heavy and light registers will often make a singer sound out of tune because different harmonics are emphasized in different registers. n Registration has another effect on intonation: If heavy production is brought high into the

range, the muscles become increasingly strained. It is likely that the singer will sing flat because of the effort involved in sustaining that rate of contraction. If light registration is brought low into the range, sometimes singers sing sharp. n Singers who are used to singing with a certain registration in a part of their range may

go sharp or flat when they try to sing in a different register until the mechanism and ear adjust to the new color. n Resonance also plays a part in intonation. For further details, see Chapter 5.



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What Causes Vibrato and How Can I Control It? Vibrato is an important style element in vocal music. In classical singing, it is constant in most music. However, in Renaissance and Baroque music it may be used as an ornament and in contemporary music using extended techniques, it is just one of many vocal colors. In styles based on spoken sounds, like folk or country music, the vibrato may be unobtrusive, but it is rarely completely absent. Vibrato can be used as a color choice in jazz. In Broadway styles, it is frequently delayed, allowed only at the end of long notes. Vibrato is an oscillation of frequency, amplitude, and timbre in a musical tone. If you listen to old opera recordings, you can hear vibrato rates as fast as 7 cycles per second. The currently accepted standard vibrato rate ranges from 4.5 to 6.5 cycles per second. The currently accepted extent (pitch variation) is up to 100 cents, or one quarter tone above and below the intended pitch. It would be nice if the source of vibrato was as well understood as its definition. Unfortunately, despite extensive research, the exact cause of vibrato is unknown. Since the cricothyroid is active in all phonation except in the glottal fry, where there is no vibrato, it is logical to assume that the activity of that muscle contributes to vibrato. It may be that the extended work of that muscle triggers the body’s natural physiological tremor rate. You might experience your body’s physiological tremor rate when your muscles start shaking while holding the same position for an extended time. If this tremor happens in the big muscles of the body, imagine how quickly it happens in the delicate laryngeal muscles. Other contributing factors in creating vibrato may be the way the intrinsic muscles work in simultaneous contraction and the way they react to subglottic pressure. It is generally accepted that when the intrinsic muscles are appropriately engaged in response to subglottic pressure, vibrato happens naturally. Almost nothing makes a singer more self-conscious than comments about vibrato. We feel powerless to correct it when we think it is too fast, too slow, too wide, or inconsistent. There is a daunting list of things that can cause trouble with vibrato. The short list includes (1) too much vocal effort, (2) uneven breath pressure, (3) lack of coordination in register transitions, (4) inefficient resonance, (5) insufficient tonus in the extrinsic laryngeal muscles, and (6) too much or too little engagement of the intrinsic laryngeal muscles. To sing with effortless and natural vibrato, singers put phonation in the context of the whole body. When the body feels springy and responsive, the breath will be regulated appropriately and dynamic equilibrium in both the intrinsic and extrinsic laryngeal muscles is likely to be achieved. Under these conditions, a vibrant tone occurs naturally. If you are trying to cultivate optimal vibrato, one way to start is to notice when it occurs naturally in your singing. This might be on a particularly resonant pitch-vowel combination, or at the very end of a long, sustained tone. Once you sense the conditions where it naturally occurs, you can start creating those conditions in every part of your voice. There are varying opinions about how to suppress vibrato without tension. This so-called “straighttone” singing is necessary in many styles. Experimenting with the degree of glottal closure and breath pressure will often bring about the desired sound. Vowel modification, discussed in Chapter 5, may also help. Those interested in further reading on the possible causes of vibrato and how to control it may consult the thorough article in the Journal of Singing by John Nix listed in the reference section at the end of this chapter.

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What Are Nodules and How Can I Prevent Them? The vocal folds are remarkably resilient. We can cheer loudly at a soccer game one day and be ready to sing a few days later. However, extended abuse, especially if it is part of a singer’s technique, is likely to produce injury. One kind of vocal injury is the development of vocal nodules. Nodules are calluses on the epithelium membrane covering the vocal folds that disrupt the vibration of certain pitches. They are usually treated with vocal therapy and retraining technique. A more serious injury is vocal hemorrhage, a rupture in a blood vessel in the vocal fold. Singing when vocally exhausted or hoarse, especially if the technique tends toward heaviness, can bring about a hemorrhage. A vocal hemorrhage may also be caused by very forceful coughing, especially if the vocal folds are already swollen. Some pain relievers, like aspirin, may increase the risk of hemorrhage because they widen the blood vessels to increase blood flow. A hemorrhage is a very serious injury and a singer who experiences it may never regain full function. Singers must take great care of themselves and their vocal folds. If you are frequently hoarse after singing, this is an indicator that your phonation is not in balance. Stay hydrated and avoid singing when tired or stressed. Talking over loud background noise, especially in a smoky environment, may also cause damage. Pushing beyond what feels natural can lead to serious, even career-ending conditions. The only way to avoid injury is to pay attention to your larynx in the context of your whole body. If you suspect you might be suffering from a vocal injury, you should stop singing and see a voice care professional immediately.

What Is the Difference Between Vocal Folds and Vocal Cords? Among voice scientists, the term vocal cord has fallen out of favor and has been replaced by vocal fold. Since the vibrating bodies in the larynx are actually folds of tissue, this term is more accurate. The term vocal cord is confusing because it can refer to the whole structure, to the vocalis muscle alone, or to the vocal ligament. Should you decide to adhere to the term vocal cord, make sure you are thinking of a cord (like a thick string), not a chord of several pitches!

Can Raising My Eyebrows or Rising Up on My Toes Help Me Sing High Notes? Pitch results from the speed of vibration of the vocal folds. It is hard to imagine a physical connection between faster frequency and raising your eyebrows or coming up on your toes. Yet these tactics do seem to have a psychological benefit for some people. As you gain more finesse in your phonation, you will be able to rely on the intrinsic laryngeal muscles to refine intonation so that your feet and facial muscles can do the work of communication and characterization.

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CONCLUSION We can’t sense the muscles of the larynx directly, but we can guide them with amazing sophistication. For some, a subconscious map of the larynx is sufficient. Others will benefit from conscious refinement of their laryngeal map. However, no laryngeal map will lead to artistic phonation unless the body is springy and balanced. There are many more aspects of singing determined by the actions of the larynx than most singers realize. The creation of the pitch is only the most obvious. The larynx is also responsible, at least partially, for choices in dynamics, register choices, choices concerning vibrato, and choices of onset and offset. All of these movement choices affect style and characterization and contribute to highly artistic singing in any genre.

RESOURCES YouTube Videos 3dmedicalillustrations. Vocal cords adductor and abductor muscles: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DXZZpMwPeJ4 Anatomy Zone. Larynx — Cartilages — 3D Anatomy Tutorial: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z3S2dD9BrSY Bethea Medical Media. How the Larynx Produces Sound: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b89RSYCaUBo Canault, Mélanie and Oliver Castello, Institute of Rehabilitation Science and Technology, 2010. Vibration of the Vocal Folds. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kfkFTw3sBXQ Cords. Hear us and have mercy: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=km5ZccQsqE4 Franco Fagioli. “Vo solcando un mar crudele” from Artaserse Vinci: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rXmF6h3Yd_A McBeth, Amy. Physics Project “Bernoulli’s Principle”: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wuAUJPUupfE Process of Phonation Small on Vimeo. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Aoa_N1vQS4M Vocal fold vibration — slow motion. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Drns_eV9wWg Yma Sumac. “Taita Inty”: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GcGJQInBmdQ

Books and Articles McCoy, S. (2004). Your voice: An inside view. Gahanna, OH: Inside View Press. Nix, J. (2014). Shaken not stirred: Practical ideas for addressing vibrato and non-vibrato singing in the studio and the choral rehearsal. Journal of Singing, 70(4), 411–418. Titze, I., Story, B., Smith, M., & Long, R. (2002). A reflex resonance model of vocal vibrato. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 111(5), 2272–2282.

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Websites Healthline Body Maps. Neck Anatomy: https://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/neck#1 Sinav, Ahmet, M.D. Interactive Atlas of the Larynx: https://www1.columbia.edu/sec/itc/hs/medical/anatomy_resources/anatomy/larynx/

5 Resonating the Voice Melissa Malde

THE BIG PICTURE In this age of voice science, we have sophisticated tools to evaluate, measure, and categorize resonance. There are many resources that provide voice visualization software and instructions on how to use it. These tools are wonderful additions to teaching studios and voice research labs. This chapter is going to provide a different tool: defining the movements that affect resonance and providing exercises to increase resonance-related awareness. Resonance is integral to vocal music in a way that is different from instrumental music. A jazz pianist will play very different notes and rhythms than a classical or rock pianist and use different articulation to affect the tone. However, the color of the instrument is similar in all styles. A piano sounds like a piano. This is because the piano has a fixed shape and thus a consistent resonance. The same is true of most other instruments. In contrast, the resonator of the voice, the vocal tract, changes shape with every combination of vowel and pitch. Each shape causes a different color. As you know if you listen to Bobby McFerrin, the voice may emulate the sound of a trumpet, an oboe, a drum, and a string bass. It can also make the sounds of a jazz singer, an opera singer, or a rock singer. There are an infinite number of movement combinations that affect the shape of the vocal tract and thus vocal resonance. Singers of different styles all have the same basic anatomical structure, but they make very different movements. Tiny adjustments of the tongue, lips, jaw, soft palate, and larynx can have a dramatic impact on our sound. As singers, we are looking for efficient, tension-free resonance that enhances the style of music we are singing and makes an emotional impact on our audience. Some of the structures of resonance can be explored by using the tactile sense, the sense of touch. However, many of the structures discussed in this chapter are so deep inside the head and neck that they can only be sensed using kinesthesia, the sense of movement. The key to success in resonance, as in any aspect of singing, is inclusive awareness. Both attention to detail and awareness of the whole are essential. You already have quite a bit of kinesthetic awareness of your vocal tract, whether it is conscious or not. You know what yawning and swallowing feel like, for instance. Many of the structures involved in those actions are also used in vocal resonance. As you awaken the sensory receptors in the vocal tract and add layers of awareness, your resonance will become more finely tuned, flexible, and expressive. 165

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THE ESSENTIALS What is resonance? To find out, let’s play with a rubber band and a glass. If you stretch a rubber band and pluck it, it makes a very soft sound. Stretch the same rubber band across a glass and pluck it again and the sound will be louder and richer. This is because the sound wave generated by plucking the rubber band is enhanced or resonated by the chamber of air in the glass. Stretching the rubber band across a glass of a different size or shape will give you a different tone color, even if the rubber band is tuned to the same pitch. In singing, the sound is generated by the vocal folds and resonated in the chamber of air defined by the vocal tract, shown in solid light gray in Figure 5–1. This drawing shows the vocal tract at rest.

Figure 5–1.  The vocal tract. By Benjamin Conable. Copyright 2001. Used with permission.

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As we sing, the vocal tract is in constant motion, changing the shape of the resonating chamber. Singers make changes in resonance by changing their movement. This can be consciously directed or a subconscious response to a conceived sound. To see examples of the variety in the movement in the vocal tract during singing, watch The Diva and the Emcee (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M2OdAp7MJAI). This video shows an operatic soprano and a beat-boxer filmed with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to show the movements of the soft tissues in the mouth and throat.

Nine Structures That Affect Resonance Movement of these nine structures affects the shape of your resonator: n The skull (head), n the pharyngeal constrictors (throat muscles), n the mandible (jaw), n the tongue, n the velum (soft palate), n the buccinators (inner cheek muscles), n the orbicularis oris muscles (lips), n the larynx, and n the aryepiglottic sphincter (opening of the larynx into the throat).

The Vocal Tract at Rest When the vocal tract is at rest, the head is balanced at the atlanto-occipital joint in an easy relationship with the neck. The muscles of the throat are neither stretched nor tensed, but nestle easily against the vertebrae of the neck. The soft palate is suspended in such a way that air may move freely through the nose or mouth. The jaw is slightly open so that there is a small space between the upper and lower teeth. The tongue lies in the cradle of the jaw, touching the bottom teeth all the way around. The lips can be either closed or slightly open to allow air through the mouth. If closed, they are not pressed together. The cheeks are free and long. The larynx is midway between its highest and lowest point. The epiglottis is up, and the glottis is open to allow air to pass through for breathing.

The Vocal Tract in Motion Some movements are essential to all styles of good singing. The head is free to move but remains in a balanced relationship with the neck. The throat muscles are released. The jaw moves easily for articulation. The tongue is free to form vowels and consonants. Other movements are specific to individual styles. A classical singer keeps the lips released and forward and the cheeks long and free. A classical singer may also have more variation in the opening

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of the mouth than singers of other styles. The larynx is lower and the soft palate higher in classical singing than in most other styles. These choices result in vowels that are modified away from spoken vowels and intense resonance that carries without external amplification. What movement choices do non-classical singers make? They might choose a wider lateral opening of the mouth, allowing the cheeks to pull the lips back. This is especially true in belting but is used in most other popular singing styles as well. In these styles, the movements of the larynx, soft palate, and jaw will often be closer to those of speech. Jazz singers use a wide array of colors resulting from a wide variety of movements. Even when external amplification is used to boost the sound, resonance is important in popular styles because it is essential to vocal color. The moveable structures of the vocal tract respond instinctively to our idea of the sound we want to create. For some singers, this is effortless and effective. Their bodies know instinctively how to interpret resonance instructions (Brighter! Deeper! More forward! Rounder!). Other singers employ more work than necessary and have ideas about the vocal tract that interfere with the sound they want to make. Having an adequate and accurate awareness of your vocal tract in motion will help your resonance be more consistent. You may already have a lively kinesthetic sense of resonance in your singing, in which case the following discussion will confirm what you have already mapped. On the other hand, much of this information may be new to you. Take time to thoroughly embody any new discovery and revel in the color palette1 available in your voice.

THE DETAILS The Balance of the Head and Spine The head must be in balance at the atlanto-occipital joint for all other parts of the body, including the structures of resonance, to function freely. However, keeping the head in balance does not mean keeping it immobile. Good, free singing is full of tiny adjustments in the relationship of the head to the spine. Some of these movements are gestural, involving the large strap muscles you see in Figure 5–2. Others are micromovements, involving the smaller, deeper muscles of the neck. Since the back of the throat conforms to the curve of the cervical spine, as you can see in Figure 5–1 above, moving the head indirectly affects the shape of the throat, and thus the resonance. The balance of the head also affects the height of the larynx. If the back of the head pulls down relative to the neck, jutting or raising the chin, the larynx will be pulled up through its connection to the hyoid bone. Conversely, if the chin is pressed down onto the neck, it pushes down and back on the larynx. Small movements of the head can affect the ability of the intrinsic laryngeal muscles to function freely and the ability of the extrinsic laryngeal muscles to regulate the height of the larynx, an important part of resonance.

1

 Note that the words palate, palette, and pallet are frequently confused. Palate refers to the roof of the mouth. Palette refers to a range of colors. A pallet is a straw mattress or a portable platform.



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Figure 5–2.  The head in balance. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 178), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

This does not mean that the body always has to be upright. Our springy and elastic bodies can sing effectively in many attitudes, including lying on the floor, hanging upside down, and lunging forward, to name just a few. However, to have optimal resonance and laryngeal function, the balance of the head and neck must be maintained in every attitude.

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Exercise 5–1.  Video 5–1. The Effect of Head Balance on Resonance shows this exercise in action. To explore the vital role that the balance of the head plays in resonance, try this. In Exercise 4–3, you made these same movements. However, in addition to noticing the effect of head balance on the larynx, now you will pay attention to its effect on resonance. n Bring your head into balance and sustain a single vowel on a

single pitch in a comfortable range. n As you sustain the pitch and vowel, gently change the relation-

ship of your head to your neck, returning to balance as soon as you sense any strain. First raise and then lower your chin. Now, jut your head forward. Then pull your head back. Notice the effect of each movement on your resonance. Where do you feel the vibration of the sound wave? Repeat on several different vowels and pitches.

The Pharynx and Pharyngeal Constrictors The term pharynx can be confusing because it can refer both to the space of the throat and to the muscles that surround and define that space. In this book, the space is called the pharynx and the muscles are called the pharyngeal constrictors. Some people have the throat incorrectly mapped as a tube. Actually, the pharynx is open in front; a horizontal cross section of the pharyngeal constrictors looks somewhat like a wide horseshoe. Figure 5–3 shows the vocal tract from the back. The drawing shows the pharyngeal constrictors on the left side. On the right side, they have been cut away to show the structures of the vocal tract in front of them. This drawing starts directly in front of the spine.

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Superior Pharyngeal Constrictor

Nasal Cavity

Jaw Middle Pharyngeal Constrictor Inferior Pharyngeal Constrictor

Tongue

Larynx

Esophagus

Figure 5–3.  The vocal tract viewed from the back. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 215), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

At the back of the pharynx, the three pharyngeal constrictors nestle against the front of the spine. Because of their connection to the vertebrae of the neck, the shape of the pharyngeal constrictors depends in part on the curve of the cervical spine, which in turn depends on the balance of the head. Many people think that the pharynx starts behind or below the mouth. In fact, the back of the superior (top) pharyngeal constrictor is connected to the base of the skull behind the nasal cavities, just in front of the atlanto-occipital joint. Its fibers converge to connect to the buccinators (inner cheek muscles). The middle pharyngeal constrictor is just below, roughly at the level of the bottom of the jaw.

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Its fibers converge to connect to the sides of the hyoid bone at the base of the tongue. The fibers of the inferior (lower) pharyngeal constrictor converge to connect to the sides of the cricoid and thyroid cartilages. The fibers of the inferior pharyngeal constrictor are continuous with the esophagus (food tube). At the back, along the spine, each section of the pharynx nests in the one below. Figure 5–4 shows how the pharyngeal constrictors connect to other structures in the vocal tract. The jaw has been cut away to reveal the top two constrictors. Neither the spine nor the buccinator is shown. If pictured, the spine would be directly against the back of the pharyngeal constrictors and the buccinator would hide the teeth.

Figure 5–4.  The pharyngeal constrictors viewed from the right side. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 214), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

The survival function of the pharyngeal constrictors is to assist during swallowing and regurgitation. When we swallow, the pharyngeal constrictors engage in sequence from top to bottom to push food or liquid down into the digestive tract. When we throw up, they engage in reverse order. Next



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time you drink a glass of water, notice the work of the pharyngeal constrictors and think about how incompatible this action is with singing. The job of the pharyngeal muscles in singing is simple: to stay out of the way. So often we are told to sing with an “open throat.” To achieve an open throat, the pharyngeal constrictors must release. It is impossible to open the throat with muscular effort in the pharyngeal constrictors themselves. Muscles contract when they work. Therefore, work in the pharyngeal muscles can only narrow the throat, hence the name “constrictors.” Some singers think that tensing the sides of the vocal tract will result in more volume because sound waves reflect well off of hard surfaces. This is not desirable in singing, since the function of the resonator is to organize the buzzy sound created by the larynx, amplifying some parts of the sound wave and damping (filtering out) others. Without this filtering function, our resonance would simply amplify the buzz created by the vocal folds. Remember, the resonator is the chamber of air, not the surfaces of the vocal tract. Efficient resonance creates an organized sound wave that carries through the air at any volume level.

The Mandible and Temporomandibular Joints Mandibular Structure The mandible (jaw) is formed by a single bone that is open in the back as you can see in Figure 5–5. The mandible is horseshoe-shaped when looked at from above or below. It is taller at the back than at the front. At the top of the back, there is a rounded condyle on each side. The coronoid processes are

Figure 5–5. The mandible. From The Body Moveable (4th  d., p. 186), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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on the side of the mandible between the condyles and the molars. Some people think the bone of the mandible extends under the tongue. They discover wonderful freedom of movement when they learn the tongue rests on muscle rather than bone. The upper teeth are embedded in the lower part of the skull. The lower teeth are embedded in the mandible. Some people think they have “jaws”; that is, that the mouth opens both up and down, like the two shells of a clam. If this seems right to you, study Figures 5–5 and 5–6 until you have mapped the mandible as a single bone, an appendage to the skull.

Figure 5–6.  The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) in context. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 152), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.



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The condyles connect the mandible to the rest of the skull with joints called the temporomandibular joints or TMJs. These joints are just below the back of the cheekbone directly in front of the ear hole.

Exercise 5–2.  Video 5–2. Mapping the Mandible and TMJ shows this exercise in action. To explore the structure of the jawbone, simply touch it with your fingers. Start in the middle of the chin and work outward. In your exploration, notice where there is no bone: directly under the tongue. Notice that there is a corner at the back on each side of the neck. Turn that corner and travel upward with your fingers to find the slight depression about half an inch in front of the ear holes. This is the joint where the jaw connects to the skull, the temporomandibular joint, or TMJ. If you aren’t sure about its location, try this. Find your cheekbone and trace it back to your ear. Place two fingers on the back of your cheekbone near the ear and your thumb on the corner of your jaw. Wiggle your jaw from side to side and notice how your thumb moves with your jaw while your finger stays in one place. While wiggling your jaw, move one of your fingers down until it is just below the cheekbone. You will feel the movement of the jaw when your lower finger finds the TMJ. Conclude your exploration by palpating the lower teeth through the lower lip and the cheek.

Figure 5–7 shows the TMJ in cross section from the right side during a complete cycle of opening and closing the mandible. When we open the mouth, the chin moves back and down as the condyles rotate slightly forward in the TMJs.

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Figure 5–7. The movement at the right temporomandibular joint. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 195), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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Misusing the TMJ puts stress on the cartilage, sometimes resulting in the painful condition known as TMJ syndrome or dysfunction. TMJ dysfunction may also be caused by structural anomalies or injury. If you have any clicking, pain, or physical restriction in your TMJs, it is best to consult a medical practitioner. To see an animation of the movement of the mandible in relation to the skull, watch TMJ — Temporomandibular Joint Dysfunction by Advancedortho (https://www.youtube.com/watch​ ?v=P0TqzSFqQfc). It shows healthy movement followed by various forms and stages of TMJ problems. Many people have mis-mapped the location of the TMJs. Some people have them mapped at the lower back corner of the mandible, some at the coronoid processes just under the cheekbone in front, and some at the bony processes just behind the ear. Any of these mis-mappings will cause unnatural, possibly injurious, movement.

Exercise 5–3.  Video 5–3. Common Mis-Mappings of the TMJ show this exercise in action. If you are still unsure about the location of the TMJ, try on some of the mis-mappings described above. Open your jaw as if the joints were at the back corner. Now open it as if the joints were behind your ears. Now open it as if the joints were right below your cheekbones. If any of those feel familiar, keep working until the actual location of your TMJs is utterly clear.

Mandible Movement At rest, the mouth is slightly open. Even when the lips are closed, there is a little vertical space between the upper and lower teeth. There are several muscles that move the mandible from the resting position. The masseter and the temporalis muscles attach to the mandible from above and pull it up when they contract. The digastric muscles attach to the mandible from below and swing it back and down when they contract. Figures 5–8 and 5–9 show the primary muscles that close the mouth. The masseter muscles originate on the underside of the cheekbones and insert into the sides of the mandible along the back. The temporalis muscles originate in a fan shape from the sides of the skull above the ears, run obliquely to the inside of the cheekbones to insert into the coronoid processes. When temporalis and masseter muscles are engaged, they bring the teeth together for chewing and biting. In singing, except for the formation of a few consonants, they are released. In Figure 5–9 the cheekbone has been cut to show how the temporalis muscle connects to the coronoid process.

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Figure 5–8.  The masseter muscle. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 196), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

Figure 5–9.  The temporalis muscle. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 197), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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Exercise 5–4. Video 5–4. Mapping the Jaw Closers shows this exercise in action. Bring your head into balance, release your tongue so that it is touching your lower teeth all the way around, and allow your jaw to release so that there is a little space between your teeth. n Put your fingers flat on the sides of the jaw at the back. Now

clench your teeth lightly. The muscles you feel bulging are the masseter muscles. The harder you clench, the bigger the bulge. n Release, then put your fingers on your temples and clench lightly

to feel the temporalis muscles engage. n Release, then activate the masseter and the temporalis muscles

just enough so that your teeth are barely touching. Notice how little effort is involved. Repeat this exercise until you have mapped the movements of the masseter and temporalis muscles and know exactly how little effort is required to close the jaw.

When asked which muscles open the mouth, some people bring their fingers to the masseter and temporalis muscles. Mis-mapping these muscles concurrently as mouth closers and openers causes tension and frustration. To open the mandible beyond its resting position, the muscles that attach to it from above must release and the muscles that attach to it from below must engage. The most important openers are the digastric muscles. These muscles are paired and each side has two bellies. The back belly originates at the inside of the mastoid process, the bony hump on the skull just behind the ear, and runs obliquely down to pass through a fibrous loop attached to the hyoid bone. The front belly continues under the tongue and attaches at the front of the mandible behind the chin. As you can see in Figure 5–10, the two bellies of the digastric make the shape of a wide-open V when viewed from the side. When they contract, they swing the mandible back and down.

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180 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

Figure 5–10.  The digastric muscle viewed from the right side. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 180), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

Two other muscles that can assist in opening the mouth are the geniohyoid muscles and the mylohyoid muscles. Like the scalenes in breathing, the mylohyoid and geniohyoid will do any necessary work beyond our conscious control. When we are upright, gravity assists us to open the mouth. If the muscles that close the mouth are released, very little effort is required to open it. The geniohyoid and mylohyoid muscles are pictured along with the digastric muscles in Figure 5–11 and below in Figure 5–15. In Figure 5–11, different muscles are shown on the two sides of the drawing to show each muscle clearly. Of course, all three muscles are paired, occurring on both sides.

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Figure 5–11.  The muscles that open the mouth. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 190), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

Exercise 5–5. Video 5–5. Mapping the Jaw Openers shows this exercise in action. To sense the movement of the digastric muscles, try this. n Bring your head into balance and release your tongue as well

as the masseter and temporalis muscles. n Push your thumbs gently into the hollow in the bottom of the jaw

behind the chin. n Gradually open your jaw. You can easily feel the contraction

of the forward belly of the digastric muscles. Because the back sections of the digastrics are so deep inside the neck, they are impossible to palpate.

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182 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

When singers choose to open the mouth for high notes or open vowels, the mouth will have to close again to form most consonants. However, there is no consonant that requires the teeth to be together. Simply releasing the muscles that open the mouth is all that is necessary to bring the mandible to a neutral position. The natural elasticity of the masseter and temporalis muscles will close the mouth sufficiently to form most consonants. There are a few consonants that may require a slight contraction of the masseter and temporalis: [s] [z] [f] [v] [tʃ] (church) [Z] (leisure) [dZ] (judge). This movement is very subtle. When the muscles that move the mandible are properly mapped, singers are free to use them in dynamic equilibrium and find the opening that produces optimal resonance and articulation. www

Exercise 5–6. Video 5–6. Jaw Movement in Articulation shows this exercise in action. With your jaw in a neutral position (jaw closers and jaw openers released), place your hands on the sides of your jaw upon your masseter muscles. n Run through the alphabet slowly in your regular speaking range.

You will sense that very little movement of the jaw closers is necessary. There is no consonant that requires the teeth to close completely. n Repeat the exercise speaking in your higher singing range. Does

the higher range require more jaw movement? If so, how much?

If your mandible moves forward or to the side as you open your mouth, you should learn about the pterygoid muscles, shown in Figure 5–12. Both of these muscle pairs arise from the base of the skull behind the nose. The lateral pterygoids insert into the condyles of the mandible directly in front of the TMJs and assist in opening the mouth by pulling the condyle forward. The medial pterygoids insert into the inside of the mandible at the lower back corner and assist in closing the mouth. Watch TMJ Movement posted by Living Gym to see clearly the action of the pterygoids (https://www.youtube​ .com/watch?v=ZcNn3C3QyeI&t=13s).



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Figure 5–12.  The lateral and medial pterygoid muscles viewed from the left side. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 197), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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When both the lateral pterygoids engage fully, they jut the mandible forward so that the lower teeth move in front of the upper teeth. If habitual, this movement can damage the cartilage in the TMJs. When the lateral and medial pterygoid muscles engage on one side, they pull the mandible to the opposite side. This movement is helpful in chewing but has no place in singing. To see the movement of the lateral pterygoids and the digastrics as the mouth opens in both healthy and detrimental ways, watch Mandibular Movements, produced by Anomolous Medical (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=uCA7YpS-sfU). The screen is split into four parts so that you can see the detail of TMJ movement from each side, and the full movement of the mandible from the right and from the front. www

Exercise 5–7.  Video 5–7. Mapping the Pterygoids shows this exercise in action. In the video, the author uses a model of the skull to show where the pterygoids connect and how the jaw moves. You can explore these movements yourself but do so with caution, especially if you have any hint of TMJ dysfunction.

Review:  Mandibular Movements n The mandible is a single bone and is an appendage to the skull. n The mandible connects to the skull at the temporomandibular joints. n The masseter connects the mandible to the cheek bones and closes the mouth. n The temporalis connects the coronoid processes of the mandible to the sides of the skull

and closes the mouth. n The lateral pterygoids connect the condyles of the mandible to the base of the skull

behind the nose and can (1) assist in opening the mouth, (2) jut the mandible forward, and (3) with the medial pterygoids, assist in moving the mandible to the side. n The medial pterygoids connect the back inside corner of the mandible to the base of the

skull behind the nose and assist in closing the mouth and moving the mandible from side to side.

The Tongue We all have a map of the location and function of the tongue. However, most people have an imprecise idea of its true size and structure. Many singers have mis-mapped its function and believe the tongue is responsible for many more aspects of singing than it actually is. The survival function of the tongue is to move food around in the mouth for chewing and start the swallowing process. These movements are not used in singing. To communicate, we use the tongue to articulate the sounds of speech. For singing, the tongue has this same function: to form vowels and consonants. That’s all. It sounds so simple, doesn’t it? Then why is tongue tension so prevalent in singing? To begin to answer this ques-

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tion, start by asking yourself about your map of the tongue. How big is it? How does it relate to the surrounding structures? Where is it attached? How does it move? The eight muscles of the tongue are capable of complex and independent movement. The part we can see, that has the taste buds on it, is a small part of the whole tongue. The tongue muscles can be divided into intrinsic muscles, which are completely contained within the tongue, and extrinsic muscles, which connect the tongue to the structures around it. The four intrinsic tongue muscles are responsible for the subtle movements of articulation, while the four extrinsic tongue muscles move the tongue forward (genioglossus), up (palatoglossus), back (styloglossus), or down (hyoglossus). Since the fibers of these intrinsic and extrinsic muscles intermingle, we may consider the tongue as one highly flexible unit. As you can see in Figure 5–13, the tongue has attachments to the hyoid bone, the mandible at the back of the chin, and the styloid process. Additionally, it connects to the velum (soft palate) with the palatoglossus, as you will see in the discussion of the velum below.

Palatoglossus (cut)

Intrinsic Muscles of the Tongue

Styloid Process

Styloglossus Muscle

Genioglossus Muscle Jaw Bone (Cut) Hyoglossus Muscle Hyoid Bone

Figure 5–13.  The extrinsic tongue muscles. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 222), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

186 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

There is a thin, fibrous septum that extends vertically from the center of the hyoid bone and serves as a point of attachment for the intrinsic muscles. Figure 5–14 shows a cross section of the tongue just to the right of the center line with the whole tongue outlined in black. You can see its attachment to the chin and hyoid bone and observe that the back third of the tongue is roughly perpendicular to the

Figure 5–14.  A cross section of the tongue from the right side. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 224), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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floor when we are upright. In its released state, as pictured here, the tongue rests lightly against the back of the lower teeth. Figure 5–15 shows a cross section from the back with the tongue outlined in black. Notice that its root is well below the teeth. This cross section is taken in front of the hyoid bone so the hyoid bone is not pictured.

Intrinsic Muscles of the Tongue

Septum of the Tongue Genioglossus Muscle

Geniohyoid Muscle

Mylohyoid Muscle

Digastric Muscles

Figure 5–15.  A cross section of the tongue viewed from the back. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 224), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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Exercise 5–8. Video 5–8. Mapping the Tongue shows this exercise in action. To map your whole tongue, bring your whole body into your awareness and your head into balance. Release your masseter and temporalis muscles. n Use your tactile sense to explore the inside of your mouth with

your tongue. Now let it rest and notice how it fills the cradle of your jaw. Is it touching your lower teeth all the way around? If so, good! Is it pressing against your top teeth or the roof of your mouth? If so, release that tension. n Insert your thumbs in the hollow on the bottom of the jaw behind

your chin. For some, who have tension there, this may be painful. Don’t push hard —  gentle pressure will be enough. Now swallow. You will immediately feel activity above your thumbs in some of the extrinsic tongue muscles. Move your thumbs back toward your neck and swallow again to feel the action of the root of the tongue in swallowing. n Now switch to using your index fingers and walk them toward

the neck along the inside of the bottom of the jaw, pushing slightly toward the center to feel the base of the tongue. Push it around with your fingers and notice how little effort it takes when the tongue is at rest. Now push the top of your tongue against the roof of your mouth and feel that tension with your fingers. Now pull the tongue back into your throat, again palpating the tension. Release again and you should be able to move the tongue easily with your fingers. Try different movements of the tongue — sticking it out of the mouth, curling it back against the soft palate, speaking text and so forth, with awareness of the whole tongue from its origin at the back of the chin, to its root at the hyoid bone, to its blade and tip, until you feel very familiar with the tongue and its movements.

All the movements necessary to articulate vowels and consonants are possible without undue tension. However, many singers recruit the tongue to do the work of other muscles. Some singers try to push the larynx down by pulling the tongue down on the hyoid bone with the hyoglossus. This will not lower the larynx appreciably. It will only make your sound throaty and unnatural. Other singers pull the tongue back into the pharynx using the stylopharyngeus. The auditory tubes open into the top of the pharynx and carry the sound wave from the pharynx to our ears. Pulling the tongue back into your throat makes that pharyngeal resonance sound louder and richer from the inside. To your audience it sounds overly dark and rather muffled. Once the structures of resonance are well mapped, the tongue will be free to do its own work: forming vowels and consonants.



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Exercise 5–9. Video 5–9. Mapping Tongue Tension shows this exercise in action. One way to explore movements of the tongue that are detrimental to singing is to exaggerate them. Pull your tongue far back into your throat, and then release. Push your tongue down onto your larynx, and then release. Push your tongue against your teeth, and then release. By exaggerating the movement and identifying the tension, you will be more apt to notice it if it creeps into your singing. You can go one step further and try to sing with your tongue in these contorted positions. If any of these feel at all familiar when you sing, you have identified an error in the map of your tongue that leads to tension. Now you have the tools to correct it.

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The tongue can move independently from the mandible. Some consonants, [l], [k], and [ŋ] (sing), for instance, can be made by the tongue alone with the mouth in any position. Though some consonants require the mouth to close, the tongue is more independent of the mandible than most singers believe, and it is useful to explore this independence.

Exercise 5–10. Video 5–10. Mapping the Independence of the Jaw and Tongue shows this exercise in action. n With your whole body in your awareness, head in balance, and

the masseter and temporalis muscles released, say the consonant [ l ] with a neutral vowel. If you have a mirror, look to see whether or not your jaw moves. If you don’t have a mirror, rest your hands gently on the sides of your jaw to feel any movement. You should be able to produce the [ l ] without any movement of the jaw. n When you can do this easily in your normal speaking range, try

a higher pitch and a more open jaw position. Your tongue can still move independently of the jaw to produce the [ l ]. n Now try the same exercise with [k] and [ŋ] and a neutral vowel.

Remember, your tongue should be in contact with your lower teeth all the way around on the vowel and on the consonants [k] and [ŋ]. When you can form these consonants without engaging the jaw-closing muscles, try repeating them quickly. Keep working on these exercises until you have mapped the tongue as able to move independently from the jaw.

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Review:  Movements of the Tongue Intrinsic muscles n Form the blade of the tongue. n Make the movements that articulate vowels and consonants.

Extrinsic muscles n Hyoglossus (root of the tongue): connects the tongue to the hyoid bone and can pull the

tongue down on the hyoid bone or pull the hyoid bone up. Used in swallowing. n Styloglossus: connects the tongue to the styloid process and pulls the tongue back into

the pharynx. Used in swallowing. n Genioglossus: connects the tongue to the back of the chin and pulls the tongue forward.

Used to stick the tongue out of the mouth. n Palatoglossus: connects the tongue to the velum and pulls the velum down to make velar consonants: [g], [k], [ŋ], and uvular [r].

The Velum The velum (soft palate) acts as a valve that opens and closes the passages to the nose. It is located at the top of the pharynx above the opening into the mouth. The uvular muscle forms the body of the velum and its tip hangs down at the back of the mouth. www

Exercise 5–11.  Video 5–11. Mapping the Soft Palate shows this exercise in action. To find the soft palate, run your finger or tongue backward along the roof of your mouth. The bony part is the hard palate, which forms the base of the skull (the maxilla) in front. The soft palate begins where the bone ends. You can also sustain an “ng” sound, noticing how your soft palate is pulled down to meet the top of your tongue.

When the velum is in a neutral position, as in Figure 5–16, it allows air to flow freely through the mouth and nose. When it is at its highest, it closes off the nasal cavity so that air can only move through the mouth. When it is at its lowest, it closes off the mouth so that air can only move through the nose. The movement of the velum regulates the nasality of a singer’s tone. There are four muscle pairs that control the movement of the soft palate: two that lift it and two that pull it down. All four muscle pairs attach to the uvular muscle.



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Figure 5–16. The hard and soft palate in cross section. By Conable, B. Copyright 2001. Used with permission.

If you want a less nasal sound, you pull the velum up against the top pharyngeal constrictor to close off the nasal cavity. The muscles that lift the soft palate are called the levator veli palatini muscles. The tensor veli palatini muscles engage to tense the velum, assisting in lifting it. Engaging these two muscle pairs will not only close off the nasal cavity, but also increase the vertical space of the pharynx. Figure 5–17 shows these muscles in the context of the vocal tract. The drawing shows the view toward the front from the top of the pharynx. Though the muscles occur on both sides, this drawing shows the levator veli palatini only on the left side and the tensor veli palatini only on the right side.

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Nasal Cavity Uvular Muscle Tongue

Levator Veli Palatinini Muscle

Upper Pharyngeal Constrictor (Cut)

Tensor Veli Palatinini Muscle (Cut) Uvular Muscle

Pterygoid Hamulus

Palatopharyngeus Muscle

Figure 5–17.  The muscles that move the soft palate; the vocal tract viewed from the back. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 219), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

As you can see in Figure 5–17, the levator veli palatinis originate at the base of the skull behind the nose, pass through the upper pharyngeal constrictor, and insert into the top of the uvular muscle at a slightly oblique angle. The tensor veli palatinis originate slightly farther forward on the base of the skull and connect to the Eustachian (auditory) tubes. From there, they descend to the pterygoid hamuli (bony horns that project from the skull behind the nasal cavity) and turn a corner to insert into the uvular muscle horizontally. Because of their connection to the Eustachian tubes, engaging the tensor veli palatini muscles can assist in opening ears that are blocked due to changes in air pressure. If you want to create a nasal tone, you open the passageway to the nasal cavity by pulling the velum forward and down toward the back of the tongue. The muscles that do this are the palatopharyngeus and the palatoglossus muscles. The more you engage these muscles, the more nasal your tone becomes.

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The palatopharyngeus muscles are long and thin. They connect the sides of the uvular muscle to the inferior pharyngeal constrictor and pull the velum down (see Figures 5–17 and 5–18). The palatoglossus muscles connect the uvular muscle to the sides of the tongue at the back (see Figure 5–18). They pull the velum down and forward. When you make the consonants [ŋ], [g], or [k], you are lowering your velum to meet your tongue using these two muscle pairs. Raising the eyebrows, the cheek muscles, the “sneer muscles,” or any other facial muscles does not raise the velum directly. Though there is no physical connection, these actions may help engage the muscles that do lift the palate. However, mapping facial muscles as palate lifters will limit freedom of expression that influences resonance in spontaneous, subtle ways. It is best to learn to move the velum without using facial muscles.

Buccinator Palatoglossus Muscle

Raphe Palatopharyngeus Muscle

Superior Pharyngeal Constrictor

Figure 5–18.  The mouth viewed from the front showing the palatopharyngeus and palatoglossus muscles. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 225), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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Exercise 5–12.  Audio 5–12. Raising the Soft Palate provides a recording of this exercise. Since all of us know how to yawn, that is a good place to start identifying the sensation of lifting and stretching the soft palate. n With your whole body in your awareness, your head in balance,

your mouth slightly open, and your tongue touching your lower teeth all the way around, think about yawning. You may feel a lifting, stretching sensation at the back of your mouth as your soft palate closes off the opening to your nose. Repeat this exercise while looking in a mirror. Can you see your soft palate rise? n Now repeat this motion while singing. Start by singing an open,

shallow, speech-like vowel in a comfortable range. Now make the tone more nasal and watch what happens to your soft palate. Now think about a yawn, and notice what happens to the soft palate and the resonance. Make sure your tongue is not drawing back as you think of yawning. You should be able to lift and stretch your soft palate with your tongue touching your lower teeth all the way around. You may have to repeat this exercise again and again until you are sure you have accurate awareness of these movements.

All singers must lower the velum to create consonants like [k] and [ŋ]. The velum must be in a neutral position to resonate nasal consonants like [m] and [n] and nasal vowels in French. Except for these few instances and for character effect, the velum is kept relatively high in classical singing. In other styles of singing, the velum is often lower, allowing, or even cultivating, a nasal tone color. Awareness of the role the velum plays in creating color choices can open up a range of interpretive possibilities for singers of all styles.

Review:  Movements of the Velum Soft Palate Anatomy posted by Soton Anatomy Hub provides a detailed tutorial on the velum and its muscles (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mdqY-t8tpLM). n The levator veli palatini connects the velum to the base of the skull and pulls it up. n The tensor veli palatini connects the velum to the base of the skull and the Eustachian

tube and tenses the velum, assisting in lifting it. It also assists in popping blocked ears. n The palatoglossus connects the velum to the tongue and pulls the velum forward to make velar consonants ([g], [k], [ŋ], and uvular [r]). n The palatopharyngeus connects the velum to the inferior pharyngeal constrictor and pulls

the velum down for nasal vowels.

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The Buccinators The buccinator muscles form the inside of the cheeks (see Figure 5–18 above and Figure 5–19 below). In back, they have three origins, (1) on the outside of the top molars, (2) on the outside of the bottom molars, and (3) at a raphe (seam of connective tissue) with the upper pharyngeal constrictor. They insert into the lip muscles in front in the following manner. The fibers that originate outside the top molars run obliquely to blend with the muscles of the lower lip. The fibers that originate outside the bottom molars run obliquely to blend with the muscles of the upper lip. The fibers that originate from the raphe run horizontally to blend with the sides of the lips. Because of their complexity, the buccinators can pull back on the corners of the mouth, compress the cheeks to assist with chewing, and engage for sucking. Because of this last function, they are among the first muscles babies learn to use. Buccinator Muscle by Dr. Christopher provides an informative video tutorial concerning the buccinator muscles (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gxx9PIWNNNc). When we sing with the lips pulled back at the sides to create a wide lateral opening, we are using the buccinators. In classical singing, this resonance is described as spread. The sound is brighter and shallower than a standard classical sound and is avoided except for character effect. In other types of singing, especially musical theatre, this movement is desirable because it allows the singer to sustain spoken vowels higher up in the range.

Figure 5–19.  The buccinators and orbicularis oris viewed from the right side. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 197), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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How can the cheek muscles have such a dramatic effect on resonance? First, they shorten the oral cavity by pulling the lips back. Second, they can pull forward on the upper pharyngeal constrictor, slightly constricting the oral pharynx and shortening the throat through its connection to the palatoglossus and the palatopharyngeus (see Figure 5–18). Finally, the buccinators can impede the freedom of mandibular movement. The buccinator is sometimes called the “bugler’s muscle,” because the compression action of the buccinators used in chewing and sucking helps stabilize the embouchure for wind players. This activity also restricts the opening of the mouth. Singers must keep the cheeks released enough so that the lips and mandible are free to move for articulation and resonance. Once you include your buccinator muscles in your awareness, you can explore the effect on the resonance. Exercise 5–13 below will help you on this path. www

Exercise 5–13. Video 5–13. Mapping the Buccinators shows this exercise in action. To identify the action of the cheek muscles, bring your whole body into your awareness and your head into balance, releasing the tongue, masseter, and temporalis muscles. Place your hands on your cheeks. n Contract your cheek muscles and say “cheese” with a wide grin.

The muscles pulling the sides of your lips back are the buccinators. Now sing “cheese” in your middle range with your cheeks contracted. Try to round your lips and notice how difficult it is unless you release your cheeks. n Now sing “choose” while releasing your cheeks. Contract your

cheeks while sustaining the “choose” and notice the effect on the vowel and the resonance. Sing “cheese” again while contracting your buccinators. As you sustain that word, try opening your jaw. Notice how difficult it is. Now sing “choose” with your buccinators released. As you sustain that word, open your jaw and you will find it is much easier. n For some, it is very difficult to disengage the cheek muscles. Here

are two ways to help. n With

your head balanced, sustain a single vowel on a single pitch. Now, bring your hands to your head and pinch your upper lip gently, pulling it slightly forward, noticing the effect on the resonance.

n For

another way to release your buccinators, use both index fingers to press the cheeks lightly into the molars and then push the cheeks forward slightly.

n Try

this on different vowels and notice which vowel sounds trigger activity in the buccinators.

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The Lips Most people map the lips as the thin layer of specialized skin tissue where lipstick goes. However, the muscles of the lips, the orbicularis oris muscles, extend all the way up to the nose and all the way down to the indentation above the chin, forming a thick band around the opening of the mouth, as you can see in Figure 5–20. Everything in front of the front teeth is a part of the orbicularis oris muscle. A side view may be seen in Figure 5–19 and a cross section may be seen in Figure 5–16 above.

Figure 5–20.  The muscles of the face. By Benjamin Conable. Copyright 2001. Used with permission.

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This is crucial information for singers because we use our lips to articulate many sounds of speech. If we use the whole orbicularis oris muscle, articulation is clear. If we use only our lipstick lips, articulation is tense and compromised. How we use our lips can also have a substantial effect on resonance. When the lips are at rest, they form a gently rounded opening for the oral cavity. When they contract, they make a narrower opening and lengthen the resonating chamber. When they are stretched by the buccinators, they make a wider opening and shorten the resonating chamber. These movements are necessary for some aspects of style. However, they should be quite subtle. Remember, your audience wants to feel your emotion, not watch your technique. Singers must take care to keep the lips and other facial muscles as free as possible to do the work of expression and articulation. www

Exercise 5–14. Video 5–14. Mapping the Lips shows this exercise in action. n To identify the whole lip muscle, trace its outlines on your face.

Start at the indentation above your chin and circle around, following the indentation as it curves under the nose. Continue circling until you are back to the indentation above the chin. n Now use your whole lip to form an “ooh” and trace again. Trace

again forming different vowels. n Now try some consonants. Use the inside or “wet part” of the lips

to make an m. Now use only the lipstick part. Press your lips together with as much force as you can to make the m. Now use as little force as possible. n Now sustain an “ah” vowel and then an “ee” vowel. While

sustaining each vowel, change the amount of work in your lip muscles: first released, then contracted and forward, then stretched wide. Try this in your speaking range and in your higher singing range. How do the different movements affect resonance?

Review:  Movements of the Buccinators (Inner Cheeks) and Orbicularis Oris (Lips) Buccinator (inner cheek) muscles n Pull the lips wide. n Pull the cheeks in. n Restrict mandibular movement.­­­­

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Lip muscles n Articulate labial consonants ([f],[v], [m], [p], [b]). n Narrow and lengthen the front opening of the oral cavity.

The Larynx and Resonance Vocal sound is generated in the larynx by the vibration of the vocal folds. The shape and tension of the vocal folds determine the pitch and some color aspects of the voice — for instance, the difference between head voice and chest voice. The size, location, and function of the intrinsic muscles of the larynx are covered in Chapter 4. The goal of the present chapter is to describe how the extrinsic laryngeal muscles move the larynx as a whole unit and how the location of the larynx affects vocal resonance. The height of the larynx has a profound effect on resonance. The larynx is suspended in a web of muscles that attach to it from above, below, and behind. The tonus of this suspensory system is important in stabilizing the larynx. When the body and resonance are in balance, this will happen naturally. The muscles of this suspensory system also engage to raise and lower the larynx. For many singers, it is enough to regulate the height of the larynx by conceiving the desired sound and letting the suspensory system respond. The following discussion is for those who wish to understand the role of the extrinsic laryngeal muscles in this process. Whether you choose to lower the larynx is a matter of technique and style. If you choose to lower it, the only way to do so healthily is to use the muscles that connect to it from below. These muscles are the sternohyoid, the omohyoid, and the sternothyroid muscles. The sternohyoid muscles connect the top of the sternum and the hyoid bone. The omohyoid muscles are long, thin muscles that connect the upper edge of the shoulder blade to the hyoid bone. Remember, the larynx is suspended from the hyoid bone, so any muscle that moves the hyoid bone will also move the larynx. These two muscles, when engaged, pull down slightly on the hyoid bone, keeping the larynx low and stable. The sternothyroid muscles connect the top of the sternum to the thyroid cartilage. This muscle pulls down on the thyroid cartilage, assisting in lowering the entire larynx. These muscles are shown in Figure 5–21.

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Figure 5–21.  The muscles that pull the larynx down. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 183), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

To see a rotating view of these muscles, visit Neck Region at Healthline Body Maps (http://www​ .healthline.com/human-body-maps/neck). Use the slider to find the level of the deep muscles. Hover your mouse over individual muscles and click to see the names until you can identify the sternohyoid, sternothyroid, and omohyoid. Then rotate the picture in any direction by dragging the cursor. The buttons on the left help with navigation. If you click on the muscle and then click “Read More,” you will navigate to a screen that describes the function of the muscle and shows it individually. Most of the muscles in the neck are responsible for moving the head and arms. Their role in singing is only for expression and gesture. The sternohyoid, sternothyroid, and omohyoid are among the very few muscles in the neck that can play a positive role in singing. Maintaining the larynx at a comfortable height is necessary for vocal health in all styles. This does not mean the larynx should be fixed in one place. It will move continually as you sing. However,



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the movements should be within a fairly narrow range — not pulled too far down or pulled up behind your tongue. Not every style requires a low laryngeal position, but a lowered larynx is one of the important hallmarks of classical resonance because it is a significant factor in producing the singer’s formant (ring) of the voice (see Frequently Asked Questions below). Learning to lower the larynx on command is not always easy. Just knowing that the larynx moves independently from the tongue and that it is pulled down from below is enough for some singers to discover the right movement. For the rest, the exercise below gives several ways of experimenting with the height of the larynx.

Exercise 5–15. Video 5–15. Mapping the Muscles that Move the Larynx shows this exercise in action. To explore the effect of the laryngeal position on resonance, try this. Bring your whole body into your awareness and your head into balance. Close your mouth, and release your tongue. n Place a finger in the hollow just above your sternum and press

in lightly. Yawn deeply. You will feel the sternohyoid and sternothyroid muscles working to pull the larynx down. If you have a mirror, you may be able to see the Adam’s apple descending as you engage these muscles. Now think about yawning without inhaling. Do the muscles still engage? n Now spread your index finger and thumb wide, placing them on

the side of your neck just above your collar bone. Yawn again and notice the subtle work of the omohyoid. n Move your fingers up slightly and you can feel a general widening

of the lower neck as the larynx pushes out on the lower pharyngeal constrictor — the proverbial open throat! n Now speak on a vowel. While sustaining the vowel, engage the

muscles that pull down on the larynx (this will feel like the beginning of a yawn) and notice the change in the resonance. Experiment with other vowels and pitch ranges as well as various heights of the larynx until you have mapped the effect of the muscles that lower the larynx.

There are several muscles that pull up on the larynx. This happens during swallowing and when we carry a heavy register up beyond its comfortable range. Some of these muscles, like the mylohyoids, also can assist in opening the mouth if the hyoid is stabilized from below. The strongest muscles that pull up on the larynx are the hyoglossus muscles (see Figure 5–13 above). These muscles connect the back of the tongue to the hyoid bone. Generally, the hyoglossus muscles are released in singing unless you are raising your larynx consciously for effect.

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Exercise 5–16. Audio 5–16. Relationship of the Extrinsic Muscles of the Tongue and the Larynx provides a recording of this exercise. With your whole body in your awareness, head in balance, and the masseter and temporalis muscles released, sustain the consonant [ l ] with your tongue as released as possible. n Now make a tense, pushed [ l ] and notice the effect on the larynx.

Place your fingers on your larynx if it helps to sense the movement. n Now sing the word “see” in your lowest range with your hand

resting lightly on your larynx. Keeping your vowel pure and the jaw opening the same, ascend in pitch, noticing the larynx rising as the pitch ascends. Keep experimenting with the muscles that elevate and lower the larynx until you find a range that is comfortable and appropriate for your singing style.

Review:  Movements of the Extrinsic Laryngeal Muscles n Primary muscles that pull the larynx down: sternothyroid, sternohyoid. n Primary muscle that elevates the larynx: hyoglossus. n When these muscles are working in balance, they stabilize the larynx, which can help

regulate vibrato.

The Aryepiglottic Sphincter Narrowing the aryepiglottic sphincter (AES) plays a role in many singing styles. The AES is the opening of the laryngeal cavity into the lowest part of the pharynx (Figure 5–22). The size of this opening is regulated by the aryepiglottic muscles, which extend from the oblique arytenoid muscles to connect the arytenoid cartilages with the back edge of the epiglottis cartilage. When they are active, the aryepiglottic muscles pull the epiglottis toward the arytenoid cartilages to close off the larynx, preventing food and liquid from entering the airway during swallowing. Singers use the very beginning of this movement to make the AES narrower without closing it completely. This action allows singers to gain the acoustic advantage of the singer’s formant without lowering the larynx. The result is twang, a bright, steely sound with minimal vowel modification (see Frequently Asked Questions below for more detail). The exercise below will help you to gain awareness of this movement.

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Figure 5–22.  The aryepiglottic sphincter. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 206), by D. Gorman. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

Exercise 5–17. Video 5–17. Mapping the Aryepiglottic Sphincter shows this exercise in action. Bring your whole body into your awareness and your head into balance with your vocal tract at rest. n Now think about swallowing without actually doing it. If you go

too far, you will notice your pharyngeal muscles constricting. Notice the sensation of tightening just above your larynx. This is the action of the aryepiglottic muscles. n Other ways to find this movement is to cackle like a witch, cry

like a baby, or prepare to cough without actually coughing. Now try singing while engaging the aryepiglottic muscles and notice the effect on your resonance.

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Developing Inclusive Awareness in Resonance The previous discussion has been devoted to individual structures and the movements associated with them. In order to achieve balanced resonance, singers must be aware of all of these structures in relation to each other. Not only that, they must be aware of these structures in the context of the whole body. This skill is called inclusive awareness and was discussed in Chapter 1. Awareness is a skill that improves with practice. Following are two exercises that will help set you on the road to being fully aware of your resonance. First, deepen your awareness of your vocal tract in relation to the rest of your body. Before trying this, review the description of the vocal tract at rest at the beginning of this chapter. www

Exercise 5–18. Audio 5–18. Inclusive Awareness of the Vocal Tract provides a recording of the exercise. Sitting in a comfortable chair, begin to open your mind to the signals your senses are sending. Arrive in the room. Notice its ambience, its temperature, light, and smells. What is your physical state? Are you hungry, thirsty, tired? What is your emotional state? Now, notice how the weight of your head delivers to your torso. Notice how the weight of your torso and legs delivers to the chair. Notice how the weight of your lower legs delivers through your feet to the floor. As you notice tensions, make slight adjustments until you feel your body come into balance. Now, maintaining the awareness of your body, notice your breathing. Notice the air flowing in and out through your vocal tract. Keeping your whole body and your breathing in your awareness, begin to add awareness of the vocal tract structures at rest. Can you sense the full length of the pharynx from the atlanto-occipital joint down to the esophagus? Can you sense the path of the air through your mouth or nose back into the pharynx and then forward through the aryepiglottic sphincter, through the vocal folds into the trachea? Can you sense the fullness of your lip muscles in front of your teeth? How do your lips relate to your cheeks? How do your cheeks relate to your throat? How does your throat relate to your jaw? Can you sense the location of your TMJs? Are your jaw movers released? How does your tongue connect to your jaw, to your soft palate, to your hyoid bone? Is it lying in the cradle of your jaw, touching the lower teeth all the way around? Relate your larynx to your tongue through their connection at the hyoid bone. Can you feel your larynx rise as you begin to swallow? Can you feel it descend as you yawn? Continue adding layers of awareness, always relating structures to the whole body.

Once you have developed awareness of how the vocal tract feels in silence, you are ready to begin to notice its movements in singing. Many muscles will become active as you think about producing a sound. Your movement will depend on the style and tone you wish to achieve. In classical singing, for instance, your lips would be released and forward, your larynx relatively low and your soft palate high. However, if you are singing a country song, the lips might be pulled wide open by the inner cheek

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muscles, the larynx would have the same range of motion as in speech, and the soft palate would be in a neutral position or even lower for more nasal resonance. As you experiment to achieve the tone you want, remember you are looking for economy and efficiency of movement. There will be some sensation of activity, but unless you are intentionally creating a sound with tension in it for dramatic purpose, the movements should feel springy and elastic.

Exercise 5–19. Audio 5–19. Movements of the Vocal Tract provides a recording of the exercise. Include your whole body in your awareness, balance your head, and keep your eyes alive. Now think about singing without making any sound. Which structures experience an impulse to move? Do different structures start moving as you imagine different pitch levels and vowels? Now try phonating with no thought of resonance to see what comes out. To develop awareness of individual structures and their effect on resonance, you can begin to experiment with the moveable structures of the vocal tract. What happens to the tone as you: change the balance of your head; open your jaw; raise or lower your larynx; raise and stretch your soft palate; lower your soft palate; engage your cheeks; release your cheeks; change the shape of your lips? Notice the shape of the tongue as it forms different vowels, keeping the base of the tongue in your awareness. Tense and release the base of the tongue while singing, always noticing the effect this movement has on the surrounding structures. Now try out these movements at different pitch levels. Keep in mind that some of the movements described above are unnecessary, even detrimental, in singing. Notice which movements enhance your resonance and which introduce excess tension. As you experiment, practice relating structures to each other and the whole body.

COMMON RESONANCE IMAGES AND THEIR PITFALLS Resonance imagery is convenient. Images act as shorthand for a complex set of movements and sensations. As singers, we often have a strong sensation, both aural and kinesthetic, of what works in our own bodies. Our images make perfect sense to us. Unfortunately, sometimes our images don’t make sense to other people. They may help some people. However, for other people our images may be confusing. We must think very carefully about the possible misinterpretations of the images we use.

Lofting a Parachute in the Back of the Throat It is tempting to think that the breath flow from the lungs can assist in lofting the soft palate from below, as this image implies. However, the breath flow has nothing to do with this movement. The soft palate is lifted and stretched by the levator veli palatini and tensor veli palatini muscles from above with no relation to air flow.

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Feeling as If You Could Swallow a Grapefruit Many singers strive to create more space in the vocal tract to improve resonance. The only way to increase the space is to release the pharyngeal muscles if they are constricted, to release the tongue to its naturally forward state, to raise the soft palate (which makes the pharynx taller), or to lower the larynx (which lengthens and widens the lower pharynx). Any resonance image that involves swallowing can cause the pharyngeal constrictors to narrow the throat and the tongue to pull back. Also, as you saw in the video of the diva and the emcee, the size and shape of the throat changes constantly as we sing. Keeping a fixed opening would lead to a stilted, unnatural sound.

Holding an Egg at the Back of Your Mouth This image is intended to help singers lift the soft palate and release the back of the tongue to increase the space of the oral cavity. It implies that something is necessary to prop up the soft palate. Imagining a space of a certain shape and dimension also discourages differentiation between vowels. This type of image can be especially detrimental for singers with a strong gag reflex.

Placement in the Mask The face is made of lots of small muscles attached to the bones of the skull and jaw, as you can see in Figure 5–20. Encouraging singers to think of the face as a “mask” inhibits the coordinated movements of facial expression. Resonance occurs in the spaces of the vocal tract. The sound wave that reaches the outside air transmits through air in the spaces, not the bones and muscles of the face. High harmonics in a musical tone have small enough wavelengths to penetrate into the bones and soft tissues of the skull. These sympathetic vibrations do not transmit to the outside air; however, they give singers excellent information. Still, the idea of “placing the tone” in any specific location can lead to inflexible, unnatural resonance and a look of concentration, especially if you are instructing another singer to imitate your sensations. The perception of sympathetic vibrations is distinct for each singer. When producing the optimal sound, one singer might feel vibration in the cheek bones and another might feel vibration in the forehead. Within one singer’s range, those sensations might vary between low and high registers. Each individual singer can explore all the moveable structures of resonance and find the best sound. From then on, the associated sensations may be used as a guide to optimal resonance for that singer.

Imagining a Golf Ball Between Your Upper and Lower Molars This image promotes the idea that the mouth must always be open wide to create a resonant sound. In fact, the jaw moves constantly as we articulate vowels and consonants, and in some parts of the range optimal resonance occurs when the jaw movers are at rest. It is vital to map the dynamic equilibrium between the muscles that move the jaw up and down so that the mouth is free to find the appropriate degree of openness for resonance and articulation. Trying to create space between the molars encour-

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ages singers to “drop” the jaw straight down (see below). Forcing the jaw open by inserting any object, even an imaginary one, will not cure co-contraction in the jaw movers.

“Drop” the Jaw The jaw does not drop straight down when the mouth opens. It swings back and down as the condyle pivots at the TMJ. With healthy jaw movement, there will be more distance top to bottom between the front teeth than between the molars. Even with the widest opening, you would never have enough space between your molars for a golf ball.

Lifting the Cheekbones This image is intended to aid in lifting the soft palate. The idea of lifting around the area of the cheekbones may trigger the engagement of the palate lifters. However, it is impossible to lift the cheekbones independently from the rest of the skull, and trying to do so may lead singers to engage other facial muscles, like lifting the eyebrows. There is no physical connection between the facial muscles on the surface of the skull and the muscles that lift the soft palate from the base of the skull. We want the muscles of the face to be free to do the work of expression rather than technique.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS Why Does My Jaw Shake When I Sing? Why Does My Tongue Tremble? If these problems are present, there is excess work in the muscles involved. Make sure that your head is balanced and that you have mapped the independence of the tongue, the muscles that move the larynx, and the muscles that move the jaw. Map the dynamic equilibrium between the muscles that open and close the mouth. Map the difference between the intrinsic and extrinsic tongue muscles, and the dynamic equilibrium between the extrinsic tongue muscles. Finally, ask yourself if you can produce the sound with less effort. Remember: Only do work that is necessary and put the work where it belongs. When the actions of breathing, resonance, and phonation are coordinated within the context of a balanced, springy body, the problem of the trembling tongue and/or shaking jaw will gradually disappear.

How Can I Get My Voice to Carry Better? Some singers have an effortless ringing tone that carries in large spaces without a microphone. How do they do that? They are probably using a phenomenon known as the singer’s formant or the “ring” of the voice. This is an extra resonance high in the harmonic series that is independent of the pitch and the volume of the tone. Most people achieve this ring when they use their calling voice. Imagine

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you suddenly see people half a block away stealing your car. You cry out, “Hey!” to stop them. In that utterance, you will probably find a naturally ringing tone that carries a long way. Typically, however, the calling voice is heavier than we would use in classical singing. So how do we find ring in singing? The singer’s formant occurs when the opening of the larynx is about six times smaller than the width of the lower pharynx. There are two ways we can achieve this: widen the pharynx or make the laryngeal opening smaller. To widen the pharynx, we lower the larynx. The thyroid cartilage is larger than the space defined by the inferior pharyngeal constrictor, so pulling the larynx down will widen the laryngopharynx considerably. To reduce the laryngeal opening, we partially close the aryepiglottic sphincter (AES). These two actions may be combined. When the larynx is low, the color of the voice becomes deeper as well as more brilliant, giving it an “operatic” sound called chiaroscuro. In contrast, when we close the AES we get a brassy sound called twang used in musical theatre and pop styles. This is the color that Ethel Merman uses when singing “There’s No Business Like Show Business” (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PIiQMsDQ0Uo). www

Exercise 5–20.  Video 5–20. Normal Speech, Calling Voice, Operatic Resonance, Twang, Nasal Speech shows this exercise in action. This video demonstrates the author speaking normally, using her calling voice, speaking with a low larynx, speaking while narrowing the AES, and speaking with a nasal tone. These colors are repeated while singing.

What Is Vowel Modification? Covering? Vowel Matching? You have probably noticed that it is easier to sing some vowels on lower pitches and other vowels on higher pitches. This is because each vowel corresponds to a shape in the vocal tract defined by the tongue and the jaw, and each shape has frequencies it resonates particularly well. When the pitch we are singing matches one of those frequencies, it is easy to sing that vowel. When it doesn’t, we have to change the shape of the vocal tract so that the pitch-vowel combination produces efficient resonance. Any time we change the shape of the vocal tract, we change or modify the vowel. Treble voices generally need to open the mouth as they ascend into their upper range, especially on closed vowels like [i] (ee) and [u] (ooh). However, in the middle of the treble range, closed vowels are often more efficient than open vowels such as [a]. Altering the vowel slightly to improve the resonance is called vowel modification. It is especially necessary for treble singers to learn how to modify vowels well, because most of the notes they sing lie above the natural range where closed vowels can be sung healthily in their pure form. Basses, baritones, and tenors have different issues because many of the notes they sing lie below the range where vowel modification is necessary. Perhaps for this reason, vowel modification for these voices has different nomenclature. Traditionally it has been called covering, but it can also be called vowel migration, turning over the voice, and so forth. In classical singing, lower-voiced singers start closing their vowels as they approach the upper middle of their range in order to transition into their head voice. If low voices keep the vowels open, they will tend to carry a heavier register up into this range that sounds increasingly like a yell the higher they sing. A detailed discussion of how vowels

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interact with resonance and register is beyond the scope of this book. The following exercise will give an introduction to vowel modification. For more on how vowels interact with pitches, read Scott McCoy’s “Formantology” in the September/October 2013 issue of the Journal of Singing.

Exercise 5–21.  Video 5–21. Vowel Modification shows this exercise in action. Speak the word “seek” in your regular speaking range. Notice the shape of your vocal tract, especially the shape of your tongue and the opening of your jaw. Now sing “seek” in a low part of your range, keeping exactly the same mouth shape. This seems easy, right? Now, sing “seek” in a high part of your range, trying to keep your mouth in exactly the same shape. This is not so easy! How does it feel? What happens to your larynx, to the muscles that move your jaw? Now sing “seek” in your spoken range and glide up an octave, keeping your tongue in the same shape, but allowing the jaw to find a comfortable opening as you ascend in pitch. Does that feel easier? Next, keeping the mouth open in the shape you just used on the high pitch, sing the word on a low pitch. What does the vowel sound like? It probably sounds pretty strange — somewhere between “sick” and “suck.” Close your jaw and the word will sound like “seek” once more.

It is easy to over-modify vowels so that we sound stilted. Usually this happens when we try to modify the vowel with the tongue instead of the jaw. Remember, the tongue and the jaw are independent from each other. The tongue can continue to form the desired vowel while the muscles that move the jaw do the work of modification. Vowel matching is related to vowel modification. Simply put, we want to sing all vowels in the same register on any given pitch in order to sound in tune. Modifying vowels to match each other in tone helps us do this. Using the vowel examples above, a treble voice might match an [a] vowel to an [i] in the middle of the range, keeping the closure of the [i] vowel with the jaw, but shaping the tongue into an [a]. In the high range, they would do the opposite, moving the jaw to form an [a] but making an [i] with the tongue. The lips also contribute to vowel matching and modification. It is possible to form vowels with very minimal movement in the lips. In speech and folk singing, we might pull the corners of the lips back with the buccinators for the word “see.” However, in classical singing, we might shape the “ee” with the tongue while keeping the buccinators released and the lips round.

I’m Producing the Right Pitch, but My Intonation Is Still Off. What’s Going On? Resonance affects the listener’s perception of pitch through emphasizing certain parts of the sound wave. If high harmonics are emphasized with resonance, the pitch may sound sharp. If low overtones are emphasized, the pitch may sound flat. This is especially true if the resonance is not consistent. For

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instance, if a singer habitually sings a bright, somewhat nasal [e] vowel and a throaty, dark [a] vowel, the intonation will sound inconsistent, even if the vocal folds are producing the same pitch. If half of an ensemble is singing with a bright, nasal quality and the other half is singing with a dark, hooty quality, the whole choir will sound out of tune. Choices in vowels can also affect registers. If two vowels are sung on the same pitch, one in head voice and the other in mixed voice, intonation will not sound consistent (see vowel matching above). Awareness of the structures of resonance will help eradicate tension and build consistency in resonance, which will help intonation. www

Exercise 5–22.  Video 5–22. Resonance and Intonation shows this exercise in action. Sing the word “hey” using a bright, somewhat nasal vowel and follow it on the same pitch with the word “hah” using a hooty, dark vowel. Notice that the dark vowel, the one with the low overtones, sounds lower. Now sing the bright, nasal “hey” followed by a bright, nasal “hah” on the same pitch. The pitch sounds the same. Now sing hooty, dark “hey” followed by a hooty, dark “hah.” The pitch sounds slightly lower but is consistent between the vowels. You can try this with all the vowels you sing.

My Glottis Is Closed but My Tone Still Sounds Breathy. Why Is That? When you are sure your glottis is closing completely but you still sound breathy, it may be due to inefficient resonance. The buzzy sound produced by the vocal folds is filtered as it travels through the vocal tract. Sometimes the shape of the vocal tract is just right and the tone sounds pure and vibrant. Other times, the shape is a little off and the tone has less presence. When the shape is way off, the tone can sound breathy, even when the signal from the vocal folds is clean. You can fix this by moving the structures of resonance until you find the optimal shape for the vocal tract on that pitch. Remember, the shape will be different on every pitch-vowel combination. When you find the most efficient resonance, you will notice that phonation is easier and that your breath lasts longer. You can then match the vowel you need to sing to the most efficient vowel on any given pitch.

Exercise 5–23.  Video 5–23. Efficient Resonance shows this exercise in action. As with every exercise, start with your head in balance and your whole, wonderfully springy and responsive body in your awareness. n Sing with an intentionally shallow, breathy sound in an easy

part of your range. n As you sustain that shallow tone, pinch your upper lip and pull

it forward slightly. This encourages the resonance to come into balance, eliminating some of the “white noise” in the sound. You

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can also experiment with pushing your cheeks forward, stretching and lifting your soft palate, lowering your larynx, opening and closing your jaw, narrowing the aryepiglottic sphincter and so forth until you find the clear resonance you desire. n Sometimes the best way to do this is just to wiggle the jaw and

tongue around until you feel the resonance become vibrant and stable. Continue to sustain the tone/vowel combination as you stop wiggling and you will probably have discovered the shape of the vocal tract that gives you the most efficient resonance for that pitch. The shape may be quite different on another pitch within your range.

CONCLUSION Many of the movements of resonance are discovered through imagination and experimentation. Mapping the structures of the vocal tract adequately and accurately gives singers the tools we need to achieve the resonance we desire. We can’t see many of these structures, but we can palpate a few and we can learn to sense the rest. We can become more consistent because we can identify sources of tension and eradicate them before they affect the whole instrument. We do not need to be aware of each muscle fiber or know the anatomical names of each muscle. However, we do need to have a sense of which muscle groups are responsible for which tasks, which muscles need to be active and which need to release, and how each group of muscles relates to the whole. When we have this sense, we are able to use our resonance for expression. You now have the tools to experiment with all the structures of resonance. Have fun!

RESOURCES YouTube Videos Advancedortho 1. Temporomandibular Joint Dysfunction: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P0TqzSFqQfc Anomolous Medical. Mandibular Movements: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uCA7YpS-sfU Dr. Christopher. Buccinator Muscle: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gxx9PIWNNNc Living Gym. TMJ Movement: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZcNn3C3QyeI&t=13s Merman, Ethel. There’s No Business Like Show Business: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PIiQMsDQ0Uo Nayak, Krishna. The Diva and the Emcee: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M2OdAp7MJAI Soton Anatomy Hub. Soft Palate Anatomy: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mdqY-t8tpLM Yan, Irene. TMJ Jaw Movement Animation: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fQfNrwYUVFI

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Website Healthline Body Maps:  http://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/neck

Books and Articles McCoy, S. (2013, September/October). Formantology. Journal of Singing, 70(1).

6 Singing as Communication: Mapping the Structures of Articulation Kurt-Alexander Zeller

INTRODUCTION The attribute of singing that most strongly distinguishes it from other forms of making music is that the human voice is the only instrument capable of delivering a text as well as a musical sound. Not every piece of vocal music has a text; there are occasional concert vocalises in classical music, and an integral feature of jazz singing is scat, or improvisation that chooses phonemes primarily for their sounds and not for their semantic meaning. But whether a vocal piece has a text that has a clear meaning or one that seems to be nonsense, it still will rely upon the movement of articulators to give it clarity, timbral variety, and rhythmic definition and propulsion.

THE BIG PICTURE:  TEXT AS MOVEMENT All texts, including nonsensical ones, are made up of arrangements of phonemes, the smallest units of speech sounds. Phonemes are not the same as the alphabetical symbols each language uses to spell them; they are the sounds themselves. (For instance, the English words sung, wrung, and tongue have four, five, and six letters in them, respectively, but each actually consists of only three sounds, or phonemes.) How do we know that? Because our kinesthesia and hearing cooperate to tell us so. Earlier in this book you learned that all sound is created by movement and that to change any sound, you must change the movement in some way. A different movement will always result in a different sound. Every phoneme, then, is one distinct gesture (that is, one movement or one specific combination of simultaneous movements) of the articulatory structures of the vocal tract. Each distinct movement inevitably results in one distinct phoneme. 213

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Exercise 6–1. Video 6–1. Phonemes as Movements shows this exercise in action. Try it yourself. Slowly say the English words “mat,” “vat,” and “that” in succession. Your ears tell you that each is a different word because each begins with a different sound, or phoneme. Now say them again, being very attentive to what your kinesthesia tells you about the movement of your lips and tongue in relation to your upper teeth. You will perceive that the different sound at the beginning of each word is created by a different movement — a meeting of the lips for the [m] at the beginning of “mat,” a touching of the inside of the lower lip to the upper teeth at the [v] beginning the word “vat,” and the upper surface of the tongue making contact with the bottom edges of the upper teeth to form the first sound of “that.” Sound is movement. Because each of these words rhymes with “at,” ending with the same vowel and consonant phonemes, each of them also ends with the same two movements forming those phonemes. What we hear as rhyme, or repeated sound, is actually repeated movement.

It is crucial that singers understand that integrity of text depends upon integrity of movement. Classical singers typically sing in many different languages and must learn the complex rules of pronunciation that govern Italian, French, German, and other languages. Many students struggle to memorize pages and pages of rules, only to discover that even when they have done so, they still do not sound authentically Italian or German. Most often the problem is that all they have learned is pronunciation — they have learned to hear and distinguish the proper sounds; however, they have not learned articulation, the repertoire of movements that will authentically reproduce the pronunciation they wish to hear. Most people know that languages are repertoires of particular sounds, but often they forget to think of them as repertoires of particular movements. French moves differently from English, just as ballet moves differently from modern dance or tap. And just as similar gestures in different dance styles are not quite the same, so in different languages similar gestures are not executed in quite the same way. For instance, the consonant /t/ involves raising the tongue tip up to touch the roof of the mouth in English, Spanish, and Italian, but in each of the three languages the point of contact, the amount of the tongue tip used, and the duration of the contact will be subtly different. Classical singers are not the only ones who must be concerned with understanding the distinction and the relationship between pronunciation and articulation/movement. Rock singers, country singers, and blues singers all usually sing in the same language, English. Yet the English used in each of these styles is noticeably different from the English of the others (not to mention from the English of classical art songs) because different movement choices are being made. (These different movements of the articulators also affect the resonance of the vocal tract, as you learned in Chapter 5, creating characteristic qualities, such as the “twang” of country music. The management of resonance and text articulation are closely interrelated, because both are fundamentally movement issues and involve many of the same structures.) Broadway singers also sing mostly (though not exclusively) in a single

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language, but they are called upon to master a wide variety of dialects — in one season of summer stock, a singing actor might move from Cockney in My Fair Lady to Scots in Brigadoon to Yiddish in Fiddler on the Roof and finally to Irish or Southern U.S. American in Finian’s Rainbow. A dialect is a particular way, or habit, of moving the articulators through the basic gestures of a language. Tevye the milkman and Alfred Doolittle don’t sound alike because they don’t move alike — actors who understand this and recruit their kinesthesia as well as their ears to help them in dialect work are always better at it than actors who don’t. Kinesthetic awareness is a huge advantage.

Review Points:  Text as Movement n The human voice is the only instrument capable of delivering a text as well as a musical

sound. n Texts are made up of arrangements of phonemes, the smallest units of speech sound. n Each phoneme is produced by one distinct movement, or gesture, of the articulators of

the vocal tract. A different movement will always result in a different sound. n Phonemes are physical acts; they do not always correspond exactly with the written

symbols (orthographic letters) that are used to represent them to the visual sense in most languages. n In the International Phonetic Alphabet, however, each written symbol represents only one

specific gesture of articulators — that is to say, only one specific phoneme. n Languages are repertoires of particular sounds, which means they are repertoires of

particular physical movements. n To be expert at singing in any given language, singers must practice and master not only

pronunciation (the selection of the correct sounds), but also articulation (the physical execution of the movements that will produce those sounds).

THE ESSENTIALS:  MAPPING ARTICULATORS In order to move well in vocal articulation, it is necessary to map the structures that are involved in those movements. These articulators are the tongue, the jaw, the velum (or soft palate), the hard palate, the teeth, the lips, and the glottis (Figure 6–1). You have been introduced to many of these structures already in the previous chapter on resonance, because they are part of the vocal tract, the space whose shape in large measure determines vocal resonance. Although this book has been divided into separate chapters on resonance and articulation for the convenience of the reader wishing to focus on one aspect of singing at a time, to some extent it creates a false dichotomy to suggest that resonance and articulation can be considered independently of one another in singing.

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Hard Palate

Teeth

Velum

Lips

Jaw

Tongue Glottis

Figure 6–1.  The vocal tract and articulators. By Benjamin Conable. Copyright 2001. Used with permission.

This acknowledgment must be the first element of every singer’s map of articulators. In many types of instrumental music, articulation and resonance are quite separate processes and even involve completely different parts of the instrument. For singers, all movements of articulators will have consequences for resonance; the challenge that faces the singer is to find the movement that both promotes the clear articulation of the text and enhances the type of resonance desired for that particular pitch in that particular style of singing. Although the resulting sound will be the criterion for judging the success of the movement, it will be the precision and the quality of the movement that achieve that success.

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For instance, the position of the tongue has a profound effect upon vocal resonance, because it lies along almost the entire length of the vocal tract. The tongue is at once the most important articulator of the vocal instrument and the one that is the most frequently misunderstood. The misunderstandings usually arise because the tongue is an unusual structure and because we can see only a relatively small part of it easily. These misunderstandings, or mis-mappings, lead inevitably to many of the common faults in vocal articulation. Movements of the tongue are involved, either alone or in combination with other articulators, in the formation of all vowels and many consonants, so if our tongues are poorly mapped, there are very few phonemes that will not suffer as a result.

Review Points:  Mapping Articulators n The vocal tract is responsible for both resonating and articulating sung sounds. Conse-

quently, choices about either resonation or articulation can affect the other process. n The structures of vocal articulation are: n The

tongue

n The

jaw

n The

velum (soft palate)

n The

hard palate

n The

teeth

n The

lips

n The

glottis

The Tongue One thing that surprises many people about the tongue is its size. Because a small part of the tongue, the dorsum (this is the part of the tongue that contains taste buds for the gustatory sense), is easily visible when we open our mouths and look in, it is tempting to think that is all there is to it. Actually, what we can see when we look in our mouths is only about two-thirds of the total length of the tongue, and a very small part of its total mass. Figure 6–2 shows that the root of the tongue is attached to the hyoid bone, the same bone from which the larynx is suspended. The root, or vertical part, of the tongue is about one-third of the length of the dorsum and runs roughly perpendicular to the floor. The rest of the dorsum (comprising about two-thirds of its length), which anatomists call the body of the tongue, lies roughly parallel to the floor when the tongue is at rest. The root forms the front of part of the pharynx, one of our principal vocal resonators. This part of the tongue does not have any significant articulatory function, and if it works too much during articulating, it can negatively impact resonance by pulling up on the hyoid (and thus on the larynx) or by moving backward and obstructing the pharyngeal space.

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Figure 6–2.  A cross section of the tongue from the right side. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 224), by D. Gorman, 2002. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

The tongue is not only longer, but also more massive than many people imagine. The tip, or apex, of the dorsum that children (and sometimes adults) delight in sticking out of their mouths as a sign of distaste is very thin and delicate in comparison to most of the muscle. Indeed, it would be more accurate to say “in comparison to most of the muscles,” because the tongue is actually a complex of numerous muscles, each capable of moving independently of the others, which have various points of attachment. For instance, the genioglossus, the bottom element of the tongue visible in Figure 6–2, runs between the mandible at the back of the chin to the hyoid, but most other muscles of the tongue originate elsewhere. Yet all these autonomous muscle fibers are intertwined and united within a common structure that facilitates each doing its part in the common purpose of articulation. You could think of the tongue as being the United States of the Vocal Tract. The cross section of the tongue in Figure 6–3 shows the depth, as well as the variety, of muscle fibers in the tongue. Different muscle fibers in the tongue complex curl the tongue upward or downward, make it narrower, furrow it, flatten it, retract



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Figure 6–3.  A cross section of the tongue from the back. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 224), by D. Gorman, 2002. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

it, pull it forward, or arch parts of it upward toward the hard or soft palate. By using these different muscles in different combinations, an almost infinite number of movements is possible for the tongue, particularly because (as those children have discovered to their delight) the tongue has a most unusual attribute for a muscle: it exists to move itself rather than to move a bone. Consequently, many of the tongue’s muscle fibers are free and unattached at one end, giving it even more flexibility in movement. One result of this almost infinite variety of movements is an almost infinite variety of phonemes they create; it’s no wonder that human language encompasses a Babel of many “tongues.” A complete examination of each one of those phonemes and the movement that creates it belongs to the realm of phonetics and is beyond the scope of this book. But it is essential that singers understand that every gesture of the tongue produces a specific sound. If you would like to learn more about the specific movements of a specific sound, you can visit the website of the Visible Speech Project of the University of British Columbia’s Department of Linguistics (http://enunciate.arts.ubc.ca/linguistics/ introduction-to-phonetics/). One must make the right gesture to have the right sound; it is impossible

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to produce a clear [e] vowel if the tongue is in the position for [a]. Many singers, particularly classical singers who must sing in many languages, have had the frustrating experience of hearing themselves produce a phoneme that they knew was not the one they wanted but not being able to correct it. Often the problem is that the singer is trying to hear the error away, as if listening alone would fix it. Instead, an articulation error must be moved away. Singers who can hear an articulation error don’t need to improve their hearing; they need to practice unfamiliar movements of the articulators until they perceive those movements as clearly with their kinesthesia as they can perceive the resulting sounds with their hearing. Fortunately, the tongue, because of its survival function in eating, is as rich in tactile and kinesthetic sense receptors as it is in taste receptors, and it is possible for singers to monitor its movement and position using multiple senses — or to learn to do so.

Review Points:  The Tongue n The tongue lies along almost the entire length of the vocal tract. n The base of the tongue is attached to the hyoid bone, and the first third of its length

is roughly vertical, comprising the front of the pharynx. This part of the tongue has no significant role in articulation, but it can affect resonance. n The part of the tongue that is active in articulation is the body of the tongue, the approxi-

mately two-thirds of the tongue’s length that lies roughly parallel to the floor. n The tongue is actually a complex of several muscles and has muscle fibers that run in a

variety of directions. These elements can work independently of each other to produce a large variety of movements. It is not necessary for the entire tongue to move or work all at the same time.

The Jaw Like the tongue, the jaw is a relatively large structure among the articulators, and its movement can drastically impact resonance as well as articulation. However, the jaw is different from the tongue in very significant ways. First of all, of course, it is bone, not muscle. In fact, the jaw is a single bone (called the mandible). One of the most common mis-mappings of the jaw is the misconception that human beings have a pair of movable jaws, each holding a row of teeth, and both moving either away from or toward one another from some hinge-like joint, like the steel jaws of an animal trap. Singers with this fantasy always will have neck tension that interferes with their singing because they try to open their mouths by lifting the maxilla containing their upper teeth (what they think of as their “upper jaw”) up and back as the mandible swings down and back. To do this, they must use neck muscles to move their entire skulls, because the maxilla is just a specialized part of the entire bony unit that forms the skull; it cannot move on its own. As a result, the mechanical advantage of the free balance of the skull on top of the spine is compromised, the lengthening of the spine during exhalation is inhibited, and the cervical spine curves more sharply forward, closing off some of the pharyngeal space that otherwise could be helping with resonance. Furthermore, it’s just plain inefficient; singers who do this are working to move a comparatively large thing (the skull) to open the mouth. Instead, they could be moving a comparatively smaller thing (the mandible), often with no work at all but merely by allowing gravity to assist them.



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To understand how the jaw properly opens, it is necessary to examine the joint. The jaw meets the skull at the temporomandibular joints (TMJs). There are two joints, one on each side, just in front of each ear. Some people are surprised by the location of the joints. They may think the jaw opens from a point straight back from the chewing surfaces of the teeth or from the angle, the lower posterior corner where the outer edge of the mandible changes from being roughly horizontal to being roughly vertical, or even from somewhere behind the ear. Singers who have these fantasies about the jaw in their body maps will find it very difficult to open their mouths easily and fully, with disastrous consequences to both articulation and resonance, because they’re trying to open their mouths from some place other than where the opening actually occurs. A bone can move only at a joint. The temporomandibular joints form the only point from which the mandible can move, so it is important to be absolutely clear about their location. Because the mandible is actually suspended from the skull at the TMJs, it has a wide range of available movement. (The muscles that do the moving were described already in Chapter 5 on pages 177–184.) The jaw ends on each side in a rounded condyle that meets the temporal bone of the skull just underneath the zygomatic bone (cheekbone) and just in front of the ear. Between the mandible and the temporal bone is the meniscus, a band of spongy connective tissue that serves a protective function similar to that of the discs between the vertebrae of the spine. The simplest movement of the jaw is the one that the structure most strongly suggests: swinging back and down. As this happens, the rounded process of the condyle functions much like a pivot. Only gravity is necessary to make this movement happen — it is allowed, rather than done with muscular work. The masseter muscle, which runs along the ramus, the vertical plane of the jaw just in front of the TMJ, has to stop working. In some situations, this degree of opening may be all a singer needs. Because the joint is not a socket, the condyle also can slide forward along the curve underneath the zygomatic arch, moving the whole jaw forward in space, and then slide back again. The meniscus adjusts to accommodate that motion, which takes some muscular work to accomplish. This is a useful motion for some activities, including biting corn kernels off the cob and other forms of eating, but it has no use in singing and should be avoided in that context. If you try exaggerating this motion, you can feel quite easily the resulting tension on neck muscles and the pulling on the larynx, and you will see why it is not a good idea for singers; to whatever degree one does it, that tension will exist in that degree. Some people habitually make this motion part of every time they open their mouths. This builds up a lot of stress on the TMJ, and eventually the meniscus can withdraw backward or erode altogether, depriving the two bones of their cushion, and then there is trouble with the joint. If the meniscus has merely withdrawn, the proper function of the joint often can be restored by careful attention to retraining the movement of the jaw. A third type of movement is also available at the TMJs: movement from side to side. The jaw is suspended from the skull, so in addition to swinging down and back, it also can rock slightly from side to side. Again, this motion is very useful for survival (it is what allows us to grind down fibrous foods between our molars), but it is unnecessary work when applied to singing. In the first type of jaw movement described above, the muscles (masseter and temporalis) that hold the jaw shut by contracting and pulling up simply stop working and the weight of the jaw gives in to the force of gravity, the mandible swings back and down from the TMJ, and the mouth opens. This degree of opening is adequate for all purposes of speech articulation and most singing. However, the mouth certainly can be opened much wider by using the muscles that pull down on the jaw. When they do this, the condyle rotates more in the TMJ and the jaw swings farther down and back. If the muscles

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contract enough, the condyle also travels slightly forward so the rest of the mandible can move even farther back. (See Figure 5–7 on page 176 in Chapter 5 for a picture of the TMJ’s motion in such cases.) The result is a much larger mouth opening, which can be useful in the dentist’s chair. It also can be useful to some singers in some singing styles as a means of adjusting resonance and volume in parts of the pitch range. That much larger mouth opening, however, isn’t necessary to differentiate an open vowel such as [a] from a closed vowel such as [i] within the pitch range normally used for speaking and for many styles of singing (such as Broadway or country) that are essentially speech based. The choice of whether or not to use this movement is largely one of style or resonance management in specific individuals. (Remember, there is considerable variation in many of these structures from person to person; don’t we, in large measure, use facial anatomy and vocal resonance to recognize other humans as the specific individuals they are?) For many singers, however, this extra jaw opening has become a habit and has ceased to be a choice. When it is employed all the time, for any type of singing, distorted vowels invariably result. In styles and situations where using the jaw openers is appropriate, it is important for the singer to make sure that the masseter and other muscles that close the jaw are fully released. Otherwise, there will be unnecessary tension as the two sets of muscles work in opposition to one another. Besides the wasted effort and the stress on the TMJ, the problem that such co-contraction creates in articulation is rigidity and slowness; no articulator can move quickly and fluently if it is being pulled in two directions at once. The final point to make about the jaw brings us back to the tongue. Although they seem to inhabit the same space in the head, with the dorsum of the tongue cradled inside the arch of the mandible, usually in contact with its teeth, singers must realize that the two are actually highly autonomous and can move very independently of each other. The tongue can move up while the jaw moves down, or it can move up while the jaw goes nowhere at all. The tongue can even pull down while the masseter and temporalis pull the jaw upward, although that is a recipe for very effortful, inefficient singing. Singers need to be able to differentiate the movements of the tongue from the movements of the jaw in exquisite detail if they want their diction to be clear and precise. A [k] will never sound like a [k] unless the back of the tongue rises high enough to touch the soft palate. But if the jaw comes along, unnecessary work results because the muscles that close the jaw can’t make that sound (the [k] movement is the back of the tongue and the soft palate making firm contact and then springing apart; all the jaw work in the world will never make a [k]). And then the jaw still has to be re-released for the vowel that follows. It could have stayed released to gravity all along and let the tongue and the soft palate do all the work.

Review Points:  The Jaw n The jawbone, or mandible, is suspended from the skull at the temporomandibular joints

(TMJs), located just in front of the ears. The mandible contains the lower teeth. n The movement of the mandible at the TMJs is what brings the lower teeth into contact

with the upper teeth to close the mouth or to chew. n The upper teeth are embedded in the maxilla, which is part of the skull. The only way to

move the maxilla is to move the entire skull, which is much more work than is necessary for vocal articulation.

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n The masseter and temporalis muscles must stop working in order for the mandible to

open. Completely releasing these muscles should allow gravity to cause the mandible to swing down and back, opening the mouth. This opening is sufficient for speech articulation and for much singing. n Other muscles (principally the digastrics) can open the jaw further. Depending upon pitch

and musical style, that may be desirable for resonance management; however, it is not necessary merely to achieve an “open” vowel. n The tongue and jaw can and should move independently of each other.

The Velum The musculature of the velum, or soft palate, has been described already in Chapter 5, where its function in resonation was examined. The velum is also an important articulator. When the velum is working, it closes off the nasal passages from the rest of the vocal tract, which is important for resonance in some singing styles and less important in others. However, some phonemes require resonance in the nasal passages, no matter what the singing style. These include the nasal continuants [m], as in the final phoneme of the word sum; [n] as in sun; and [ŋ] as in the word sung.

Exercise 6–2.  Media 6–2. Articulation of Nasal Continuants shows this exercise in action. Say “sum” and “sung” slowly and notice again that each of these words has only three phonemes; what makes each comprehensible as a distinct word is a different movement at the end. In the first, the lips come together to form [m]. You can see in a mirror that the mouth opening is completely shut. The air you are exhaling from your lungs and using to vibrate the vocal folds has to exit your body somehow. The usual route through the mouth is blocked, so it has to take a detour. The velum releases down, allowing air to be redirected through your nasal passages instead. If you sing the word “sum” and sustain the [m] phoneme, you probably will feel vibration in your nasal passages as the sound waves travel through. Now, do the same thing again, only this time, as you are sustaining the [m], use your hand to pinch your nostrils firmly shut. The sound will stop, because there is no way for it to leave your body, either through your mouth or your nose. Now say the word “sung” in alternation with the word “sum” and notice the different movements at the ends of the words. Your kinesthetic and tactile senses should tell you just as clearly as your auditory sense that “sung” ends differently from “sum.” In contrast with “sum,” where the mouth is closed by the lips touching, at the end of “sung” the back of the tongue rises to meet the velum as it descends. You can feel this movement kinesthetically, and you can feel the contact of the two structures

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224 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

tactilely and, further, if you have a mirror handy, you can use your visual sense and watch it because the mouth is open. The meeting of the tongue and velum also close off the mouth as a possible exit for the vibration and the air, even though the lips are open, and again the air must detour through the nasal passages. This is the movement of the [ŋ] phoneme. The two sounds, [m] and [ŋ], share a common movement, the lowering of the velum; it is the shared movement element (we might think of that as their “family resemblance”) that classifies them both as nasal continuants. What distinguishes them as individual sounds within that phonetic family are the movements they do not share: only in [m] do the lips meet, and only in [ŋ] does the back of the tongue rise to make contact with the lowered velum.

The Hard Palate The velum is often called the soft palate. This usage can give rise to some confusion. In phonetics the adjective palatal always refers to another articulator, the hard palate, whereas velar always refers to the velum, or soft palate. The palate, or hard palate, is the bony structure immediately in front of the soft palate; it is part of the skull and forms the roof, or dome, of the mouth and the floor of the nasal passages. Confusion about movement results when singers start thinking about two palates — to which point of contact is the tongue moving, the one farther forward or the one farther back? On the other hand, the labels “hard” and “soft” can be useful to remind yourself that the (hard) palate is (hard) bone covered by a thin layer of tissue and cannot be moved independently of the entire skull, and that the velum, or soft palate, is (soft) muscular tissue and thus can move. (You can feel this distinction with your tactile sense by palpating the entire top of your mouth with your tongue tip, beginning at your upper teeth and working backward.) In palatal sounds (for example, the enye in Spanish or the ich-Laut in German), the blade of the tongue moves up to a position that, depending on exactly which palatal phoneme is in question, is either in contact with or else in close proximity to the (hard) palate, while the tip of the tongue remains pointing downward, in contact with the lower incisors. Other languages, including Latin, Italian, French, Spanish, and German, are richer in palatal phonemes than is English, so native English speakers attempting to sing in these languages often have particular trouble with those sounds — not only because they sound unfamiliar, but because they feel unfamiliar. They don’t know those movements and execute them awkwardly, just as they might when first attempting new, unfamiliar dance steps.

The Teeth and Alveolar Ridge The teeth are used in articulation, but like the hard palate they don’t move to form phonemes. Instead, other articulators move in relationship to them. The tongue and lips approach or contact the teeth



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to shape or obstruct the stream of exhaled air. The lower teeth are embedded in the mandible and will move if (and only if) it does, so their movement is determined by the movement at the TMJs. In singing all vowel phonemes, the tongue tip should be in easy contact with the inside surfaces of the lower incisors, but the rest of the dorsum will move to a different position for each individual vowel. The upper teeth are embedded in the maxilla and, like it, cannot be moved without moving the entire skull; instead, other structures approach them. For instance, the inside surface of the lower lip reaches up to make light contact with the upper incisors for [f] and [v], whereas for the initial phonemes of this and think, the front part of the tongue reaches up to touch the bottom surfaces of the upper teeth, spreading to extend slightly beyond them. One set of movements involving the teeth is of particular interest to those who sing in several languages other than English. In the Romance languages (Latin, Italian, Spanish, French, Portuguese, and others), the phonemes [d], [n], [t], and [ l ] all involve the tongue tip rising and making contact with the upper front incisors. (Some of those phonemes require additional movements of other structures or other parts of the tongue as well.) This articulation on the teeth is easy to remember by noticing that the four consonant phonemes are the four found in the English word dental, referring to teeth. However, despite the handy English mnemonic for this movement, in English and other Germanic languages, these very same phonemes are not articulated on the teeth. Instead, the tongue tip rises to touch the alveolar ridge, the part of the hard palate that is a couple of millimeters immediately behind the upper teeth, before the palate arches up to form the vault of the roof of the mouth. This slight but important difference in movement is the cause of the differing character of the sound of these phonemes in Romance and in Germanic languages; singers must observe the distinction or they will never sound authentic in one linguistic family or the other.

Review Points:  The Velum, Hard Palate, and Teeth n The velum is often called the soft palate, because it is movable (soft) tissue. This muscular

tissue lies behind the hard palate and moves to close off the nasal passages from the rest of the vocal tract. n Certain phonemes require nasal resonance. To articulate these phonemes clearly, the

velum must lower enough to allow sound access to the nasal passages. n Phonetics applies the label “velar” to articulations that use the soft palate, or velum, in

relation to the tongue. The label “palatal” always refers to the hard palate. n The hard palate is a bony structure and forms part of the skull, separating the oral cavity

(mouth) from the nasal cavities. n Palatal phonemes are formed by the tongue moving in relation to the hard palate. n The upper teeth are embedded in the maxilla and, like it, cannot be moved without moving

the entire skull. n The role of teeth in articulation is for other articulators to move in relation to them. n In Romance languages, the tongue articulates the phonemes [d], [n], [t], and [ l ] by making

contact with the upper teeth. In Germanic languages, including English, the tongue articulates these phonemes on the alveolar ridge instead.

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The Lips The movement of the lips plays an important role in the formation of certain phonemes. However, a common mis-mapping of the lips often interferes with clear and efficient articulation of these sounds. That mis-mapping is the mistaken notion that “the lips” are only the two small areas around the mouth covered with a specialized mucous membrane and frequently also with lipstick. The lip muscle, called the orbicularis oris, is actually a single ring of muscle. The inside edge of the ring is free and forms the opening of the mouth, whereas the outer edge is connected to the bony structure of the face only at two points on the centerline of the face. These two points are about halfway down the chin, below the roots of the lower front incisors, and at the base of the nose, above the upper incisors. So when the orbicularis oris muscle works, the contraction brings the outer edges of the ring closer together and flares the inner edges forward, away from the maxilla and mandible, forming a sort of tube that extends the vocal tract, thus making the distance between the source of the vocal vibration (the vocal folds) and the outside air longer. This forward extension can be well over an inch, which is an enormous change in the shape and length of the resonator relative to the size of the vibrator of the vocal instrument (the vocal folds, which are usually between 10 and 18 millimeters in length). As with other articulatory movements, extending the vocal tract also has consequences for resonance, but at present we are concerned with the significance of the movement for the articulation of text. In English, there is a series of vowels that phoneticians call back vowels because the position of the back of the dorsum of the tongue relative to the roof of the mouth is an important factor in the integrity of the vowel. However, each of these vowels also requires some activation of the lip muscle to lengthen the vocal tract by extending it forward. The more “closed” these vowels are, the more the orbicularis oris muscle will contract, moving the outer corners of the mouth in toward the centerline of the face, bringing the lips farther forward, and extending the vocal tract in front of the teeth. This motion will reach its greatest extent for [u] (as in “true”), the most closed of the back vowels. Keep in mind, however, that [u] is called the “most closed” of the back vowels because in this vowel the back of the tongue is the closest to the roof of the mouth, somewhat closing that space, and not because the opening of the lips of the mouth is closed. Many singers make the mistake of pursing their lips into tiny little openings for the [u]. Generally, when they do this they fail to extend the lips very far forward; indeed, some of them press their lips tightly against their teeth. As a result, the [u] vowel sounds squeezed or constricted. The important motion of the lips in all rounded vowels is forward, not close together. Singers who let their lips flow forward for rounded vowels will gain more options for balancing resonance, and they will be able to articulate with more speed, clarity, and ease.

Review Points:  The Lips n The lips are a single ring of muscle, the orbicularis oris. n When the orbicularis oris muscle works, the contraction brings the outer edges of the ring

closer together and flares the inner edges forward, forming a tube that extends the vocal tract. n The important motion of the lips in all rounded vowels is forward, not close together.



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The Vocal Folds The vocal folds themselves are the last articulator we must consider. The musical function of the vocal folds is phonation, or the production of musical pitch, as discussed in Chapter 4. Many phonemes require vocal fold vibration; that is to say, they require pitch. These phonemes are called voiced phonemes and include all vowels and the voiced consonants.

Exercise 6–3.  Media 6–3. Voiced/Unvoiced Cognates shows this exercise in action. Try this experiment: With your fingers, find your thyroid cartilage and rest your thumb and index finger gently but firmly on each side of the projecting cartilage. Now say the word “fan,” greatly elongating the [f] sound. You’ll notice that air is flowing as soon as you start the [f], then at the beginning of the vowel, you also will feel vibration underneath your fingers; that vibration will continue through the [n], the voiced consonant that ends the word. Compare that experience with speaking the word “van” with a similarly elongated [v] sound. This time you’ll notice that the vibration under your fingers starts as soon as the airflow does, because [v] is a voiced consonant. Now alternate the words “fan” and “van,” noticing not only the voice but also the movement of the lower lip in relation to the upper teeth. In both [f] and [v], the inside surface of the lower lip reaches up and makes light contact with the bottom of the upper incisors. The only difference between the two sounds is the movement of the vibrating vocal folds (for [v]), or the lack thereof (for [f]). When two articulatory movements are identical except that one has vocal fold vibration and one does not, phoneticians call the resulting sounds cognates. The voiced cognate of [f] is [v]; the unvoiced cognate of [v] is [f].

Singers must include the vibration of the vocal folds in their maps of the movements required for all the voiced phonemes in their texts. At the same time, they must know that the vocal folds must stop vibrating in order to make all the unvoiced phonemes. Some singers have unclear diction, particularly when they are trying to sing legato, because they assume that their vocal folds must be vibrating all the time that they are “singing.” They have mistakenly equated phonation and singing. Phonation is part of singing, but an effective singing performance using language also includes sounds that are not phonated. Consonants that should be unvoiced (such as [f], [k], [t], [s], and those troublesome German fricatives [x] and [ç], among others) will be muffled, glossed over, or turned into entirely different sounds whenever singers attempt to keep phonating through sounds that should not be phonated. It is equally problematic when singers don’t clearly acknowledge that the vocal folds’ movement of phonation is part of the movement required for voiced consonants such as [v], [g], [d], [z], [ l ], [m], [r],

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and others. This means that every one of those voiced consonants will be produced with a particular pitch. Singers who don’t understand that will not be able to consciously and deliberately choose the pitch at which a voiced consonant sounds, and they will not be able to use that choice to their advantage technically. For instance, inadvertent failure to phonate voiced consonants at a pitch that is related to surrounding vowels can have disastrous consequences for intonation. Many a choir and its conductor have spent a great deal of rehearsal time laboriously tuning the vowel of an “Amen” chord, only to discover that in performance the final chord never settles immediately because the singers never practiced tuning the [m]! Not mapping the vibration of the vocal folds as part of voiced consonants can have equally grave consequences for communication. Though it is not true in English, for proper comprehension in some other languages (such as Italian or Norwegian), it is crucial that both consonants in an orthographic double consonant always be observed appropriately, whether with separate movements or a single gesture of extended duration. If the double consonant is a voiced consonant, each consonant in the double must have pitch. If the pitch of the musical melody changes from one syllable to the next, then the singer will have to make a decision about the pitch to assign to each consonant. Singers who aren’t attuned to voicing as part of the articulation of those consonants may fail to make the choice appropriate to that particular language or situation and thus fail to be clearly understood.

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Exercise 6–4.  Here’s an example of how a singer, ignoring the pitch of consonants, can unwittingly say something quite different from what he meant, turning a deeply touching moment into unintended comedy. In the famous aria “Una furtiva lagrima” from Donizetti’s L’elisir d’amore (The Elixir of Love), the tenor, Nemorino, has just discovered that the soprano he has been pining for throughout the entire opera actually does love him, too. He sings “M’ama [she loves me!], sì, m’ama, lo vedo [yes, she loves me, I see it].” The first “M’ama” begins on an F, and the second syllable is on a D-flat. That second syllable of “M’ama” begins with an [m] phoneme, which is a voiced phoneme and therefore has to have pitch. The pitch should be the same D-flat as the subsequent vowel. However, many inexperienced tenors (even a few on commercial recordings who should know better) will close their lips to form the [m] while they are still phonating the F pitch, move to D-flat, and then open to the vowel. When they do this, the central [m] articulation has two pitches, so an Italian-speaking audience hears the first syllable ending with an [m] and the second syllable beginning with an [m]. The word they hear isn’t “M’ama”; instead, they hear “Mamma” — and they will laugh at the poor sap who, at the moment he discovers that the woman he desires can be his, suddenly calls for his Mommy. Video 6–4. Pitch and Voiced Consonants demonstrates this illustration.

Opera singers are not the only vocal artists who need to be concerned with the pitch of voiced phonemes. Excellent jazz singers achieve a number of important stylistic effects by playing with the



6.  SINGING AS COMMUNICATION:  MAPPING THE STRUCTURES OF ARTICULATION 229

pitches of voiced consonants. Sometimes they deliberately choose to place a voiced consonant on a pitch that is different from that of the vowel that follows to give the phrase a more languid or sultry feeling or to make the note sound a little more “blue.” In scat improvisation, the singer’s choice of voiced consonant phonemes that carry a pitch, or unvoiced consonant phonemes that do not, will have a marked effect on the character of the entire improvisation. There are two more ways in which singers use the vocal folds themselves in articulation. In all the voiced phonemes, the vocal folds work in concert with other articulators. In [m], for instance, the vocal folds vibrate at the same time as the lips come together and the velum lowers to allow access to the nasal passages, while for [u], the vocal folds vibrate while the lips round and the back of the tongue rises. However, in two particular phonemes, the vocal folds themselves are the only articulators necessary to form the sounds. The first of these sounds is the glottal stop, in which the vocal folds press together, closing the glottis while the singer or speaker begins, or continues, to exhale. There is a momentary silence as the subglottal air pressure builds until it is great enough to force the vocal folds back open. When this happens, there is a small explosive sound before a vowel begins as the vocal folds start to vibrate. (As you learned in Chapter 4, however, the vocal folds are quite tiny structures, so it is important to map the size of the concepts “pressure,” “force,” and “explosive” in an appropriate way that is commensurate with the size of the structure involved. The next exercise will give you some opportunities to explore how little effort you can get away with and still make your text clear.) The glottal stop is a legitimate phoneme in some languages, and is never used in others. In some languages, like Hawaiian, it is actually represented by an orthographic symbol; the apostrophe in careful spellings of Hawai’i or the famous humuhumunukunukuapua’a fish of the 1930s pop song “My Little Grass Shack” represents a glottal stop. Germanic languages, including English, also use the glottal stop, but they don’t have an orthographic symbol for it. Still, it is important for clear communication. However, in Romance languages, such as Italian or Spanish, the glottal stop is incorrect, and to sing effectively in those languages English speakers generally have to be trained to stop making this movement at the beginning of words that start with a vowel.

Exercise 6–5.  Media 6–5. Glottal Stop shows this exercise in action. You can experience the glottal stop by saying very emphatically the colloquial American phrase “Uh-uh!” with the meaning, “No way! Not in a million years!” Before each vowel, there will be a slight glottal stop. To see how this sound is necessary for English communication, try saying the English phrases “a nice man” and “an ice man” aloud several times in succession. You will hear that to distinguish the two phrases clearly, it is necessary to insert a glottal stop in the latter phrase at the beginning of the word “ice,” but you also may find that you can articulate the glottal stop more lightly than you expected.

The second common articulation formed solely at the glottis is the unvoiced fricative [h]. To produce this sound, the vocal folds are held still in a position that is almost closed, and air is blown through the narrow opening of the glottis. The friction against the vocal folds of the air passing through the glottis produces the sound. The important point to remember is that to produce an [h] phoneme,

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230 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

the vocal folds have to stop vibrating and hold still. Singers who are clear on that point will be much less likely to fall into a habit of inserting unwanted [h] sounds between different pitches sung to the same syllable; they’ll understand that stopping the vocal fold vibration in the middle of a vowel will disturb the legato of the musical phrase. Conductors who are clear on that point will not be puzzled when choristers who are asked to articulate melismatic passages with inserted [h] phonemes tend to slow down; the singers are being asked to constantly stop and restart the vocal folds between every pitch and it tends to slow their progress, just as turning a car engine on and off would slow the progress of the vehicle. (Of course, if [h] insertions in coloratura truly are required for artistic reasons, the feat can be achieved, but singers should understand just what they’re being asked to do.)

Review Points:  The Vocal Folds n Many phonemes require vocal fold vibration. These phonemes are called voiced phonemes

and include all vowels and the voiced consonants. n When two articulatory movements are identical except that one has vocal fold vibration

and one does not, phoneticians call the two resulting sounds cognates. There are many cognate pairs of voiced and unvoiced consonants, for instance, [v] and [f]. n All voiced phonemes, voiced consonants as well as vowels, must be produced with pitch.

Singers must choose with care the frequency, or pitch, at which a voiced consonant sounds in order to enhance the effectiveness of their performances. n The glottal stop is an important phoneme in some languages and does not exist in others.

In many languages that do employ it, including English, it has no orthographic symbol; nevertheless, it can be crucial to meaning. n The unvoiced glottal fricative [h] results when the vocal folds are held still in a position that

is almost closed and air is blown through the narrow opening of the glottis between them.

THE DETAILS:  STYLE ISSUES, OR THE “ART” OF ARTICULATION Choices in articulation are one of the primary means by which style in vocal music can be achieved. Now that we have examined the articulators and their movements, we can look at a few of the common challenges in vocal articulation and a few of the differing movement choices that are made in different styles of singing. Because the articulators can make an almost infinite variety of movements, we will not have space in this chapter to cover every possible issue.

Aspiration An aspiration is a little burst of unvoiced air that accompanies the articulation of a particular phoneme. In English and other Germanic languages, unvoiced plosive consonant sounds ([p], [t], and [k]) often aspirate. Words that end with these sounds have a tiny rush of air after the explosion of the consonant itself. Words that begin with these consonant sounds usually have a little burst of escaping air



6.  SINGING AS COMMUNICATION:  MAPPING THE STRUCTURES OF ARTICULATION 231

between the consonant and the subsequent vowel. You can experience both of these phenomena in the English word cat.

Exercise 6–6.  Media 6–6. Aspiration shows this exercise in action. To explore aspiration, cut a small strip of ordinary notebook paper or copy paper, about as wide and as long as your thumb. Grasping it at the lower end, hold it upright about three inches in front of your mouth. Now say the word “cat” clearly and distinctly. The paper strip will bend away from your mouth twice, at the end of each consonant sound. No matter how long you stretch out the vowel, or how loudly you say it, the paper strip will not move during the vowel. It is the aspirations of air that move the paper strip, and the vowel is not aspirated. Not all consonants need to be aspirated, either. If you replace the final consonant in “cat” and try the exercise again with the word “can,” you will see that the paper strip now moves only once, at the beginning of the word. Unlike [t], the [n] phoneme is not aspirated. Try comparing what the paper strip does when you alternate “cat” and “can.” Even phonemes that often aspirate don’t always do so. Now add an [s] sound to the beginning of “can” and say “scan.” In “scan,” the [k] sound of the letter C loses aspiration and the paper strip hardly wavers. Repeat “scan” a few times, watching the paper strip. Next try to aspirate the [k] phoneme in “scan” to make your paper strip move. You’ll find that you can do this, but now, with the aspiration, the word sounds distorted and overemphatic.

This is precisely the situation in which native speakers of English often find themselves when they must sing in Romance languages, such as Latin, Italian, Spanish, and others. Their movement habits in forming aspirated plosive consonants differ from the movements of the language in which they are attempting to sing. In Romance languages, plosive consonants are not aspirated. Young singers learning “Caro mio ben” as their first classical art song, or volunteer church choirs starting a Credo movement from a Mass, likely will make the same mistake, aspirating the opening [k] phoneme, unless the teacher or conductor has carefully trained them in an unfamiliar way of articulating a [k]. To those who understand the “style” of these languages, such singers will sound angry or foolishly pedantic, just as you probably felt you did in the exercise with the strip of paper when you were over-aspirating the [k] sound in the word scan. That’s hardly the image we want to cultivate when tenderly singing, “My dear treasure,” or confidently proclaiming, “I believe in one true God”! Choral conductors and voice teachers can unintentionally make these articulation errors worse by using catchphrases like “Really spit out those consonants!” There are things that an individual can spit out, but most of them don’t belong on the concert platform, and a consonant certainly is not among them. A consonant is merely a motion of articulators; there’s nothing to project. What these teachers and conductors really want is for the motions of articulation to be made with greater precision and

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perhaps with more vigor. But using images of spitting inevitably causes the singers to think in terms of expelling something, and usually the result is greater aspiration as they attempt to expel extra air with ever greater force. Consequently, their Italian or Latin or French sounds ever more Americanized, which serves the music poorly (and probably makes the teacher or conductor ever more frustrated). Incidentally, the ability to sing well in Romance languages is not exclusively a requirement of classical singing. Romance languages figure in Broadway musicals from South Pacific to Light in the Piazza. Two Romance languages (Spanish and French) are official languages of the United States’ neighbors in North America, and much of the popular music market in North America, even in the United States itself, is for vocal music in those languages. No one who aspirates unvoiced plosives in Spanish is ever going to have any credibility as a salsa singer.

Aspiration in Melismatic Singing There is another issue concerning aspiration and articulation, and that is the insertion of [h] sounds (which are aspirations, or bursts of unvoiced air) in between separate pitches that are sung on the same vowel in the same syllable, whether the syllable covers just two pitches or is a big melisma eight measures long from a Rossini aria or a gospel solo. Whether or not it is desirable to do this is largely a question of musical and historical style and sometimes of personal artistic preference. In some historical styles of music, such as Baroque and Renaissance, questions of performance practice can be very complex and, despite the (often conflicting) pronouncements of numerous experts, still are not always well understood or universally agreed upon. Singers who are active in these styles often need to be able to sing a given work or passage several different ways, depending on which maestro or musicologist is in charge of any particular performance. What is important to remember, however, is that the [h] sound is unvoiced; that is, the vocal fold vibrations must completely stop in order to make it. Therefore, it is not possible to sing a completely legato melisma with inserted [h] aspirations that are not part of the phonemes of the actual word; if legato is the highest artistic value for a particular phrase, piece, or style, then the singer must take care to achieve precision of pitch or intonation without resorting to [h] insertions. On the other hand, because the vocal folds must stop vibrating and hold still to form an [h], every singer will always be able to sing a melisma faster legato than with [h] insertions, because the vocal folds can accelerate or decelerate between the pitches without coming to a dead halt in between them. So, if speed is the paramount need, a legato run will be easier, and skillful singers should be able to tune a legato run as exactly as an aspirated one. Sometimes, however, legato is not the desired sound for the style of a given piece of music, and singers will need to practice techniques of aspirated singing. They stand a better chance of being successful if they have mapped the structures involved.

Shadow Vowels A shadow vowel is a phenomenon somewhat similar to an aspirated consonant; both are caused by an extra puff of air after a consonant articulation is released. When a word ends with a voiced consonant phoneme, such as [b], [n], [v], or [d], and the singer continues to exhale and phonate after releasing the gesture of the articulators that forms that particular phoneme, the continued phonation is heard as



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a transitory vowel sound, or shadow vowel. For instance, if a singer finishes a hymn with an “Amen” and does not stop phonating exactly at (or, preferably, even before) the point at which she releases the gesture of the [n] by letting the tongue tip drop back down from the alveolar ridge to its resting position at the lower incisors, as the tongue leaves the alveolar ridge, a shadow vowel will be heard until the voice “shuts off” when the vocal folds stop vibrating. Instead of “A-men,” the congregation will hear something like “A-men-uh!” This is a coordination and timing issue. To avoid final shadow vowels, singers must learn not to release the consonant gesture of the articulators until the vocal folds stop vibrating, which they will do when the exhalation ends. On the other hand, in some instances, particularly in large halls with dry acoustics and no amplification, some singers may find it useful to cultivate small, short shadow vowels to help them project a final voiced plosive. Whatever the effect they decide to choose, singers should remember that making choices about shadow vowels means making choices about the coordinated timing of movement. A shadow vowel also can be created between consonants if the singer does not carefully coordinate movement from one consonant phoneme to the next and lets the gesture of a vowel briefly intervene (often, but not invariably, by letting the tongue drop) between two adjoining consonant phonemes. This occurrence is especially common among non-native speakers and singers of English, because English has many instances of adjacent voiced consonant phonemes, and many other languages, especially Romance languages like Spanish and Italian, typically interpose vowels between consonant phonemes. When such singers bring their accustomed movement patterns to articulating the English language, utterances like “I love-a-you! I’m-a-going-a-to-give-a-you-some-a-thing-a-now” are created. The resulting accent may well strike the hearer as charming, endearing, or seductive, but it’s still an accent. Singers wanting to correct this habit and sing in perfect Standard English (whether Standard American stage dialect or British Received Pronunciation) will need to practice moving directly and quickly from one consonant articulation to another without intervening gestures that might create a vowel. Of course, sometimes singers will not want to sing in Standard English, and artful employment of shadow vowels is a useful tool in creating convincing accents or dialects. Sometimes they are even essential to the musical integrity of vernacular styles of music. For instance, the classic spiritual “Ain’ta-That Good News” would be inconceivable without the many shadow vowels of the dialect; they are in large measure the very reason for the work’s rhythmic vitality.

Review Points:  Aspiration and Shadow Vowels n An aspiration is a little burst of unvoiced air that accompanies the articulation of a

particular phoneme. n In some languages, aspiration is a normal part of articulation, while in others it is abnormal

or incorrect. Consequently, attention to aspiration is necessary for stylistic effectiveness. n A shadow vowel is a transitory vowel sound created when a singer releases the articulatory

gesture of a voiced consonant while continuing to phonate. n In English, shadow vowels most typically characterize dialectical articulations. n Singers who wish to avoid shadow vowels must learn not to release the consonant gesture

of the articulators until the vocal folds stop vibrating. n Sometimes shadow vowels can be useful for reasons of acoustic projection, dialectical

characterization, or musical style.

234 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

Diphthongs A diphthong is two vowel phonemes in succession in the same syllable, hence the name, which comes from the Greek terms for “two” (di-) and “sound” (phthongos). Because there are two sounds, by now it should be clear to you that there must be two movements or gestures of the articulators; otherwise, there couldn’t be two sounds. A diphthong, then, is all about movement; it is what you get when the articulators are moving from one vowel to another in the same syllable.

Exercise 6­–7.  To experience the movement inherent in a diphthong, call out an enthusiastic “Hi!” as if you’ve just been greeted by a friend you were pleasantly surprised to see. Your kinesthetic and tactile senses may immediately tell you that the dorsum of your tongue moves up and forward in the course of the vowel, which is actually a diphthong; it starts as an [a], but then your tongue moves to the more arched position of the vowel [I], as in “him,” before finishing the word. If you are having trouble perceiving this movement kinesthetically, use your visual sense to watch your tongue by holding a hand mirror up in front of your mouth. You’ll see the up-and-forward movement of the dorsum very clearly. Video 6–7. Movement of the [aI] Diphthong shows this movement.

Typically, the first vowel of a diphthong is of longer duration than the second. (Some phoneticians make a distinction of duration by calling two vowels in the same syllable in a long-short arrangement a diphthong but two vowels in the same syllable in a short-long arrangement, as in the English word you, a glide.) The first problematic issue concerning diphthongs is that of timing. Allowing the articulators to move too soon to the second position in a diphthong or to stay there too long distorts the word and creates the impression of dialect. (This movement habit is typical of many speech dialects of the southern United States, for instance.) Even many singers who do not speak this way may find themselves doing it in singing, because virtually all syllables last longer in singing than they do in speech. (Only in the most rapid patter songs, à la Gilbert and Sullivan, do the words proceed at a pace comparable to, or faster than, most speech.) So singers may find themselves having to relearn how to time the elements of a diphthong to fit what may seem to them like slow-motion articulation. Another problem concerning diphthongs is having them where they don’t belong. There are many situations in which this issue might arise, but one of the most common concerns the pure closed [o] and [e] vowels found in French, German, and Italian. These sounds are problematic for English speakers, because they do not exist in English as pure monophthong vowels. Instead, they exist in English only as the first elements of diphthongs. For instance, the English homophones lo and low, though spelled with a different number of orthographic symbols, both consist of three phonemes, the consonant [ l ] and the diphthong [oU]. If you watch your mouth very carefully in a mirror as you say the words, you will see that your lips round farther forward just as the word finishes. That last movement of articulators creates a new vowel, [U], which ends the word, and that movement is the second element of the diphthong. The English diphthong [eI], as in lay, or the name of the orthographic letter A, works much the same way. If you watch in your mirror as you say the word or the letter name, you’ll see that the dorsum of the tongue rises at the end of the word (just as it did in Hi in Exercise 6–7), and that movement makes the second vowel of the diphthong.

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But many other languages have pure versions of the vowels [o] and [e]. Americans who bring their movement habits in these vowels to Spanish will be marked immediately as gringos by their diphthongs. Many an American soprano has paid a lot of money to work with a vocal coach on her rendition of “O mio babbino caro,” only to hear the coach say over and over, “I hear diphthongs at the ends of your words! That doesn’t sound Italian!” The problem is, frequently the soprano hears the diphthongs as well as the coach does; she just has no idea how to make them go away. Merely by paying attention to her kinesthesia, or by using a mirror and watching to make sure there was no extra movement of the lips at the end of each of the final [o] vowels in the title phrase, she could fix the problem herself and save time and money by leaving her coach only the deeper issues of style and artistry still to address.

Exercise 6–8.  Media 6–8. Vive la Différence shows this exercise in action. Try this experiment: Let’s consider the English homophones “bow” (as in Cupid’s bow and arrows) and “beau,” a synonym for boyfriend. Using a hand mirror, watch yourself carefully as you speak these words. You will see that, right at the end of the word, there is an extra rounding forward of the lips, almost as if you were preparing to be kissed (perhaps not an inappropriate response to the thought of a beau!). It is that extra rounding that makes the second sound, [U], of the [oU] diphthong in “bow” or “beau.” The lips are already somewhat rounded for [o], but when they move farther forward into a more rounded position before releasing the word, the sound changes briefly to [U] before ceasing altogether, and a diphthong is formed. Now, in contrast, the French word “beau” (which means “handsome” or “beautiful”) from which we appropriated our colloquial word for a suitor or boyfriend (presumably at least the lady in the case would consider her boyfriend “handsome”) is correctly pronounced with no diphthong. Although it looks just like the English word descended from it, the two do not sound alike. Using your mirror to help you pay attention visually as well as kinesthetically, say the word “beau” as we do in English, and watch your lips move from the [o] position, already somewhat rounded, to the more-rounded [U] position. Now speak again, but this time do not allow your lips to move from where they begin the vowel; stop the sound without moving your lips and leave them in the [o] position even past the time you no longer hear your voice. The word will sound different, and quite possibly you will find that different sound strange to your ear. That sound will be much more authentically French because you have made a much more authentically French movement. Vive la différence! The diphthong has disappeared because you have not made a second movement; without a second movement of some articulator, a diphthong is not possible. So when English-speaking singers try to master what used to be called “a foreign language,” they have to learn a repertoire of movements and a style of moving that are foreign to them.

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Review Points:  Diphthongs n A diphthong is two vowel phonemes in succession in the same syllable. A diphthong is

always created by two movements of articulators. n If a diphthong is unwanted, the way to eliminate it is to use attention to kinesthesia to

prevent the second movement. n Diphthongs are a normal part of the sounds of most languages, but their treatment and

orthography often differ markedly from language to language.

Articulation and Communication: Clarity, Precision, Style, and Character Singers may need to learn new habits of moving articulators even when they are singing in their own language. English exists in many dialects and subdialects, and often these different styles of moving through the basic gestures of English articulation are an important determining factor in what we vaguely call style in vocal music. An Elizabethan madrigal, a Handel aria, a Gilbert and Sullivan patter song, a blues, a Broadway standard, a traditional spiritual, and a rock anthem each has a different vocal style. There are numerous factors involved in differentiating a style, but one important factor in each of these styles is the manner and clarity with which text is articulated. A singer who uses exactly the same kind of articulations in an art song by an English Romantic composer as in a country-western ballad is going to sound as unstylistic as would a fiddler playing the Elgar Violin Concerto with the same kind of movements as in “The Orange Blossom Special.” Clarity in text articulation comes principally from specificity and precision of movement of the articulators rather than from the force or effort of movement. If the movement isn’t precise, if the tongue is going to the wrong place to articulate the [ l ] phoneme, all the effort in the world is not going to result in a clear [ l ]. (That’s another reason the “Spit out those consonants!” directive is an unhelpful one.) Instead, what the singer will get is an even more effortful muddy [ l ] (or worse, a more effortful entirely different sound). One area of singing in which it is crucial to remember this principle is when singing with a microphone. Microphones are very sensitive to some types of sounds, particularly plosive consonants. If the force with which they are articulated is too great (or if they are too aspirated), a microphone “pop” can result. Singing with a microphone in comparison to singing unamplified is something like acting for a film camera in comparison to doing a play in a large theater. The actor in the 1,200-seat theater, in order to be seen and understood by the audience, needs his gestures and reactions to be larger than does his counterpart whose face is being blown up to 15 feet in height by the camera close-up. But both actors have to act from exactly the same place of specific truth in order to be believable, and neither actor can afford unnecessary work, which is what the more common term tension really means. Unnecessary work in articulation is tiring (and even potentially damaging), but this is not the most important reason a singer cannot afford it. The most important reason is that the singer is articulating words, and an audience will always assume not only that the words themselves have communicative meaning, but also that the way in which the words are articulated is meaningful. That is how it works in real life: The way in which people articulate the words we hear them say gives us important informa-



6.  SINGING AS COMMUNICATION:  MAPPING THE STRUCTURES OF ARTICULATION 237

tion, often as much information as the words themselves do. Manner of articulation tells us something about the personality and character of the speaker: The articulation tells us she is precise or slipshod, prissy or unaffected. It tells us something about the speaker’s emotional or physical state: He is calm or hysterical, inebriated or infuriated. So a singer who habitually uses too much force to articulate in an effort “to be understood” will be understood by the audience (which will assume that degree of force to be both deliberately chosen and dramatically meaningful) to be pedantic, or irate, or bitter, even though the performer thought the song’s text was one of ecstatic first love. If the quality of the articulatory movement doesn’t match the personal or emotional quality of the character or of her words, the audience is confused and assumes its confusion is the performer’s fault. And it is — just as much as it would be if the quality of a ballet dancer’s movement didn’t match the personal or emotional quality of the choreography or the music. (We’ve all seen a performance in which a dancer executes the steps perfectly but fails to truly give us the dance.) Although any vocal music needs to have text articulated clearly enough to be understood, merely being clear is not enough to make a performance successful. Singers must remember that articulation is gesture, which means it is acting. (This is equally true in every style of singing, whether directly associated with the theater or not.)

Articulation and Legato Some singers have trouble integrating the aims of clearly articulating text and singing a legato phrase. Almost always this trouble arises either because these singers fundamentally misunderstand the structure and function of the articulators in relation to the function of the rest of the vocal instrument, or because they misunderstand the characteristics of legato within the specific language in which they are singing. (Of course, it is possible that some singers misunderstand both things simultaneously.) You learned in Chapter 3 that the motor of the vocal instrument is the breath. You also learned about the structures of the body that animate and manage the flow of breath. Of those breathing structures, none that animate and move the breath are among the articulators you have learned about in this chapter. Effective, efficient, and physically free management of breath is the key to vocal legato. Singers who try to sustain breath, and thus legato, with their articulators are tackling a legitimate problem with the wrong tools. Instead, legato is achieved by careful attention to breathing musculature in order to ensure a continuous exhalation through the phrase. Some people instead consider legato to mean the completely continuous presence of musical pitch (that is, phonation, or vocal fold vibration) throughout an entire breath phrase. However, it will be impossible to achieve that definition of legato while singing in any human language. No singer in the history of the world has ever done it. In Chapter 4, you learned about the larynx, its structures, and their functions. This is where phonation occurs. If the vocal folds are vibrating, there can be musical pitch. If they are not, there cannot be musical pitch. Earlier in this chapter, you learned further that the vibration of the vocal folds is an essential element of the articulation of some language phonemes (all vowels and voiced consonants) and that the absence of vocal-fold vibration is an equally essential element of the articulation of other phonemes (all unvoiced consonants). Consequently, no language that contains unvoiced consonants can possibly achieve completely continuous presence of musical pitch; that is an unworkable and impossible definition of legato for the human voice, though it might work for some instruments that do not articulate with text. No wonder some singers become frustrated: They are attempting the impossible!

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Fortunately, the impossible is not necessary. Legato is the job of the breath, and singers who master breath management can sing true legato even in Polish or German, with their beautiful, expressive clusters of consonants. Of course, that German legato will sound subtly different from legato in Italian, a language with far fewer phonemes from which to choose, a much higher ratio of vowels to consonants, and no glottal stops. Even that Italianate legato will feature interruptions to continuous pitch that are occasioned by unvoiced consonant phonemes like [s] and [f], as well as the tiny silences that are part of the Italian language’s distinctive articulation of pairs of double plosive consonants, such as [p:p] or [k:k]. But what singers must remember is that none of those temporary devoicings or silences should be caused by stopping the continuous exhalation that is the foundation for legato; they are not made at the breathing level, but rather at the articulatory level.

CONCLUSION Articulation of text is one of the musical challenges that are unique to singers. This challenge, however, also provides an important opportunity for artistry. To capitalize on that opportunity effectively, singers must understand that all articulation is movement. Each specific movement will result in a specific sound, so in order to choose or refine any particular sound, the singer must choose or refine the specific movement of the articulatory structures that form that sound. These moving structures include the tongue, jaw, velum, lips, and vocal folds, and they move in relationship to each other and to the hard palate and the teeth. A clear and detailed map of the structure, function, and size of these articulators is necessary in order for singers to be able to choose and execute articulatory motions with the degree of variety, precision, and ease required for clear articulation. Failure to map articulators and their movements both accurately and adequately can cause singers to experience not only unclear diction but also a number of problems in musical style.

Review Points:  Articulation and Communication n The manner in which text is articulated is an integral part of musical style in vocal music.

Even in the same language, singers may make different choices about the movements of articulation when singing in different musical styles, just as an instrumentalist playing in different musical styles would. n Articulation is an element of action. Audiences will assume not only the words themselves

but also the way in which they are articulated to be meaningful. They often will make inferences about the personality of the character singing, based upon his or her manner of articulation. n Effective, efficient, and physically free management of breath is the key to vocal legato.

Singers who try to sustain breath, and thus legato, with their articulators are applying the wrong tools to a legitimate problem. n Continuous presence of musical pitch is an unworkable definition of legato, at least in

texted music. Unvoiced consonants cannot carry pitch.



6.  SINGING AS COMMUNICATION:  MAPPING THE STRUCTURES OF ARTICULATION 239

RESOURCES “Introduction to Phonetics.” eNunciate! University of British Columbia Department of Linguistics: http://enunciate.arts.ubc.ca/linguistics/introduction-to-phonetics/ “Consonants.” eNunciate! University of British Columbia Department of Linguistics: https://enunciate.arts.ubc.ca/linguistics/world-sounds/consonants-pulmonic/ “Vowels.” eNunciate! University of British Columbia Department of Linguistics: https://enunciate.arts.ubc.ca/linguistics/world-sounds/vowels/ Gardner, Edith. “Normal TMJ Function”:  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p-cW4a8i5_E

7 Physical Expression for Singers Kurt-Alexander Zeller

INTRODUCTION One particular challenge that is unique to singers among musicians, articulating text, was introduced in the previous chapter. It is in large part because of that unusual requirement that singers face yet another: Singers, whether they acknowledge it or not, usually are viewed by their audiences as actors because, like actors, they present text. In most cases, this expectation means that singers are called upon to present a performance that is just as compelling and meaningful visually as it is aurally. This chapter will explore the tools available to the singer to be successful in meeting these visual expectations, as well as some of the common obstacles that often hinder success.

THE BIG PICTURE Because singers present a text, audiences immediately perceive them differently than they do instrumentalists. They place singers in the same category as they do others who work with text and narrative; singers are lumped in with actors, teachers, preachers, and all other “storytellers.” Audiences may at the same time remain aware of the commonality singers have with instrumentalists as “musicians,” but they still will respond with a different kind of expectation to the singer who has text than they will to the instrumentalist who does not. Even in concert, the singer appears to audiences as a sort of hybrid artist, with a foot in both worlds, musical and dramatic. If singers are highly skilled at the requirements of both of these worlds, then they can have the best of both at their disposal and deploy an extra-capacious artistic toolbox full of a huge variety of tools. To be clear, a singer is not part actor and part musician; a singer is fully actor and fully musician, 100% of each (Figure 7–1). Singers who rely too much on textual and physical drama, without having developed sufficient skills of musicianship and vocal technique, are the root of that pernicious stereotype expressed by the implied contrast in the common phrase “musicians and singers.” Singers who think of themselves primarily (or only) as generators of perfect tones and beautiful musical phrases and don’t claim their responsibility to communicate with the movements of their entire bodies are the source of all the tired jokes about 241

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Figure 7–1.  There is no part of a singer that is not a musician, and there is no part of a singer that is not an actor. This Venn diagram demonstrates that singers are fully both.

“park and bark” singing. Singers must claim the full range of their artistic activity, or they will be as crippled in performance as they would be if they did not claim their full stature or the full range of motion of any of their joints. Because almost all vocal music has text, it is almost always indebted to the extramusical influence of the verbal art forms. Even the choral music of the Christian and Jewish liturgies is essentially drama; indeed, for believers, this narrative of the relationship between God and humankind could be considered the greatest story in human experience. Choral music deals in narrative just as much as theatrical music does, and audiences still expect physical expression from choirs, even though they are ensembles rather than soloists.

THE ESSENTIALS The Body Map as a Tool for Characterization In previous chapters, you have learned how the movement of the body is governed by the body map. (The body map is the internal self-representation in each individual’s mind concerning how the body is structured, how it functions, and how big it is, as well as how each of these categories of structure, function, and size relates to each individual component of the body.) All singers, therefore, must take responsibility to investigate their own body maps in order to make sure they are accurate and adequate to carry out the movements of singing with ease and efficiency. In so doing, many singers discover that flaws in their body maps (for example, fantasies about where air actually goes during inhalation or sketchy understanding of the function and size of the tongue in resonation and articulation) are the root causes of movement patterns that they have experienced as perennial, perhaps even seemingly permanent, flaws in their singing. Their faulty body maps have been the source of what they had been considering distinctive, individual problems in their performance. Conversely, distinctive strengths in a singer’s performance often can be demonstrated to be related to a very clear, accurate, and detailed map of some aspect of the physical system involved in the movement of singing.



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How is this relevant to the acting part of the singer’s art? The crux is understanding that every character you sing also has a body map. The singer who can construct the character’s body map has the key to the character. As David Ostwald says in his excellent book, Acting for Singers, “Your characters believe they’re real people” (p. 4). Real people have body maps, so those characters also would carry in their minds an internal self-representation of how their bodies and their constituent parts are structured, how they function, and how big they are. Performers must use their imaginations to create the body map for each character — and that body map will in turn govern how those characters move. The Verdi baritone who understands that will have no trouble creating memorable and individual physical characterizations of Rigoletto, Germont, and Falstaff — these all are men with very different body maps. The Broadway tenor who understands this principle will not need a huge amount of help from makeup artists and costume technicians to transform convincingly from one title persona to the other in Jekyll and Hyde. We have seen already that singers with inaccurate body maps can be surprisingly successful at behaving as if their bodies really did work according to their fantasies. They can make their bodies move inefficiently as if they really did not have ribs that move from joints when they breathe, if those joints were absent from their body maps. If they truly believe the only way to sing a closed vowel is to close the jaw, they will behave as if that were true and close the jaw every time they wish to sing a closed vowel. Genuinely behaving as if an imaginary circumstance were true has been the foundation of modern acting ever since Konstantin Stanislavski developed his system of acting in Russia early in the twentieth century. (A generation later, American actors took Stanislavski’s ideas and transformed American acting with what they called “the Method.”) Therefore, constructing a memorable and believable way of moving for your character is a matter of constructing the body map that will inevitably and truthfully create that way of moving. If you, as the singing actor, take on that new body map with just as much certainty as you might take on your character’s personal history, economic and social circumstances, sexual experience, or cultural milieu, you cannot help but react to it by moving truthfully and consistently in the distinctive way that body map dictates, just as you would react to all the other given circumstances defined for the character by the script (and which, just like the character’s body map, also might well differ very radically from your own).

Exercise 7–1.  Here’s an exercise in characterization through the body map. One of the challenges that frequently face female singers in opera is playing male characters in so-called “pants roles.” A particularly famous example is Cherubino, the precocious teenaged page in Mozart’s The Marriage of Figaro. No woman playing this role can actually have a teenaged male body, but she can move as if she did. We map our bodies for structure, function, and size. Clearly, Cherubino’s body will differ in significant ways in all three areas from that of the woman singing his role, and the singer could productively explore all of them. However, let’s focus on the question of size. The page actually says that he doesn’t understand the changes that seem to be happening to him, that he no longer feels like the same person. Of course, teenaged boys go through significant hormonal and emotional changes (and the plot lets us know these are certainly happening for Cherubino!), but they also grow

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significantly. Their bodies and the constituent parts of those bodies get significantly larger, and often this happens in a relatively short amount of time. When this happens, it may take a while for their brains to re-map their bodies for their new size, and their movement changes, usually becoming more awkward, until their body maps catch up with the reality. They trip over their newly size-11 feet. They hit their now-6-inches-fartheraway-from-the-ground heads on the doorframe when they get into the car. Maybe they shove their little brothers a bit harder than they really meant to with their recently bulked-up muscles. So, let’s imagine you’re playing Cherubino. Your body map does not match your actual size. (Notice that, in this exercise, you get to keep your actual size — nothing about it demands that you be any different from what you are.) You’re several inches taller than you expect to be, and your shoulders are broader. (Perhaps that jacket no longer fits.) Explore that: How does that change how you move about the room? How does that affect how you move your arms? Might that explain how you can knock things over in the Countess’s closet at a crucial point of Act II? How would you move if you thought your feet were three inches shorter and significantly lighter than they actually are? Wouldn’t they feel big and heavy? (And those new shoes would weigh a lot more than the old ones, too.) How would that change your gait? The beauty of this kind of work is that it is very specific and very concrete. It is, in a word, “actable” in a way that “I’ve got to be less ‘girly’ ” is not; it gives you a very specific reality rather than some weak generalization (“This is the way boys walk”) to play. Merely mimicking the behavior of contemporary teenagers may not be useful. Cherubino exists in a very specific society with specific expectations about behavior; he may not be allowed, or even want, to move exactly the way your teenaged nephews do today. But if you endow the character with an appropriate body map that governs his movement, that will affect him in everything he does, whether he is wanting to appear like an elegant eighteenth-century gentleman to impress the Countess, acting like a hurt little boy to win Susanna’s sympathy, or even disguising himself as a peasant girl to impersonate Barbarina’s cousin from the country. And if you’re a male singer and have felt left out of this exercise, you can think about the characters of Bartolo, the old doctor, and Antonio, the drunken gardener, in the same opera. Surely they, the learned professional man and the outdoor laborer, map their bodies very differently. Yet at the premiere, they were sung by the same bass-baritone — how might the differing body maps of these men be used to strengthen the distinction between the two characters? Video 7–1. Characterization provides a guided example of the kind of exploration discussed in this exercise.

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It is important to remember that in taking on the body map of another person, the character, the singer keeps his or her own body. Though it is common to speak of “becoming the character,” you cannot literally become another person. (We hope that no one needs literally to become a murderous tyrant to sing an effective King Herod, for instance!) So before singers can learn to move as if they had someone else’s body map, they must first map their own bodies with exquisite precision. Once they have found the most balanced, free, and easy movement of which they themselves are capable, they will be in a position to begin to explore how they can take on the idiosyncrasies and possibly the inaccuracies of a character’s body map. As you work with a character’s body map, you must always keep your own in your awareness as well. The rehearsal process will be a time of constant exploration and negotiation in which you learn how far you can go in mapping the character’s body in a particular way without endangering the integrity of your own movement so much that your freedom and efficiency in singing, or even your physical well-being, might be compromised. In taking on a character’s body map, performers can never lose sight of themselves as performers and thus put their own bodies at risk. That is not to say, however, that they don’t allow any changes in their movement or sound. Some degree of inefficiency or extra effort may, in fact, serve a particular character better than will perfect ease. But just as every performer’s goal in stage combat must be to keep all actors safe while appearing deadly, all performers must take responsibility to protect the integrity of their own bodies in their work. You’ll find an exercise to practice this skill later in the chapter.

The Difference Between Feeling Emotions and Kinesthesia One of the most basic traps into which singers and actors fall is confusing emotion and muscular work. They think that because we say we “feel” emotions they must therefore feel emotion using their kinesthetic senses. Kinesthesia, however, is what allows us to perceive movement, which is emotionally neutral. You can raise a fist in anger, but you also can do so as a gesture of pride, and, although it might feel odd or out of place, you could choose to execute the very same gesture while feeling peace or boredom. Although emotion can motivate a movement, the movement itself is not the emotion. Singers who are not clear on this point will have less success executing the movements of singing than singers who are. The intention to display an emotion, such as anger, often tempts singers to make stereotyped movements, such as tightening the jaw or gripping in the abdominal muscles, which are counterproductive to good vocalism. The soprano as Eliza Doolittle singing “Just You Wait, ‘Enry ’Iggins, Just You Wait” in My Fair Lady can be seething with rage using appropriately dynamic, balanced gestures. She does not need to clench her jaw in a misguided attempt to feel the emotion. Such a movement would, of course, wreak havoc upon her resonance, and, rather than empathizing with the character’s anger, her audience instead will empathize with the performer’s physical discomfort. And discomfort is precisely what the soprano would be feeling, only she would have made the mistake of mislabeling these physical sensations in her muscles as “anger,” when in fact they are only tension. If muscular movement or work were emotion, people with paralysis would have no emotions, and that certainly isn’t true. All performers need to gain absolute clarity in their body maps about the distinction between the sensation of emotion and the sensation of movement. Both are very real and both arise in the brain. Each can influence or motivate the other, but they are not the same. Emotion is

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important; in fact, most audience members come to performances hoping to have an emotional experience. But performers cannot simply have it for them because audiences can’t perceive performers’ emotions. Emotion isn’t actable because it isn’t action. Action is movement, that is, sound and gesture. These are the very things a performer can and should perceive with kinesthesia. Audiences can perceive performers’ actions, their movements, and then they will react to those actions. Exactly how performers make the choice of action is a question of acting technique, and there are many competing philosophies. However, what is certain is that if physically free performers choose and execute their actions well, the audience’s reactions will include emotional ones. But audiences cannot perceive a performer’s actual emotions; they can perceive only what they themselves judge or infer the performer’s emotions to be through their experience of the performer’s actions. So anything that you wish to communicate to your audience must be turned into sensory information — that is to say, action. When a three-year-old has a temper tantrum, we are hearing the loud shrieks, seeing the flushed face, and perhaps feeling the blows of the little fists, and we understand that the child is angry and frustrated and probably overtired. We are not, however, actually experiencing a trio of abstract emotions called “anger,” “frustration,” and “fatigue”; instead, we are experiencing their effects. We are experiencing action. Action can be perceived with senses; it can be seen or heard. Your audience has to use their senses to gather and experience any new information. Then they will use that sensory information to evaluate the story for themselves and to decide how they feel about it. They will not be able to read your mind to know what you are thinking and feeling. They will hear what you sing or say and they will see what you do. And everything you do is action. It doesn’t matter whether the performer has chosen that action or is even aware of it. Audience members will assume anything they see is meaningful, and they will attempt to make sense of it in the context of the drama or story. If they are unable to make sense of it, they will become uncomfortable or distracted, and, to resolve their discomfort, they will have to conclude that your performance is unconvincing.

Review Points:  The Singer and Action n Because singers present a text, audiences perceive singers differently than they do

instrumentalists. n A singer is fully actor and fully musician, 100% of each. n Everything a singer presents to an audience’s senses, including their visual sense, is

considered action by that audience, which will attempt to assign it meaning. n The body map can be a powerful characterization tool. Real people have a body map that

governs their individual movement. Characters, if they are to be believable as real people, also must have a body map that governs their individual movement. n Constructing a memorable and believable way of moving for your character is a matter of

constructing the body map that inevitably will govern that way of moving. n As you work with a character’s body map, you must always keep your own in your aware-

ness as well. This will help you to keep your instrument safe and healthy. n Singers must map the difference between feeling emotion and feeling muscular work.



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Mapping the Structures and Movement of Gesture and Expression Just as it is necessary to map the structures involved in human vocal production accurately and adequately to be able to make the movements of singing with maximum ease, efficiency, and effectiveness, vocal performers also must map the structures of their bodies that are involved in gesture and expression. This book has already examined many of those structures (the way a character maps the relationship of the thorax to the lumbar spine, for instance, can speak volumes about that character’s self-image), but in this chapter we will deal primarily with parts of the body that are not active in making vocal sound but are important to communicative gesture: the arms, hands, legs, and feet. We also will examine the role of the muscles of the face and neck in visual communication. As you assimilate the information being presented in the next section and explore it kinesthetically in the exercises, be sure to relate it to what you already know about how movement is integrated throughout the body. Take a moment to restudy the image in Figure 7–2, which was introduced in Chapter 2.

Figure 7–2.  Skeleton side view. By Tim Phelps. Copyright 2008. Used with permission.

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7.  PHYSICAL EXPRESSION FOR SINGERS 249



The Arms and Hands The arms and hands are a singer’s best resources for expression that appeals to the visual sense, particularly in very big theaters where much of the audience is too far away to see a performer’s face clearly. They allow performers to extend themselves and take up more space — and the amount of space in the stage picture a performer occupies is an important element of successfully engaging the audience’s attention. At the same time, because of the number and variety of joints available in the arms and hands, they are capable of an almost infinite number of movements that can express many fine shadings of emotion or meaning. And because they are largely independent of the structures and movements of singing, arms and hands are free to express a full range of dramatic possibilities without fear of any negative effect upon the production of vocal sound. One of the most common mis-mappings of the arm is failure to map the entire arm structure as arm. In so doing, singers often omit the collarbone and the shoulder blade from their map of the arm. Figure 7–3 shows the entire arm, which actually begins at the sternoclavicular joint, where the collarbone (or clavicle) meets the sternum. This joint is the only place where the arm structure is connected to the rest of the skeleton. The other end of the collarbone is attached to the acromion of the shoulder blade (or scapula) at the acromioclavicular joint, which is stabilized by three strong ligaments so that

Figure 7–3.  The bones of the right arm. By Benjamin Conable. Copyright 2001. Used with permission.

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the two bones invariably move together as a team. Their movement occurs from the sternoclavicular joint, which has a significant range of motion. The collarbone can move up, down, back, and forward and circle between the compass points of these four directions. And whenever the collarbone moves, the shoulder blade must follow along.

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Exercise 7–2.  The position of the collarbones is enormously expressive. Here’s an exercise you can try to explore this. Audio 7–2. Collarbone Exploration presents this exercise in action. Stand in front of a mirror and find the best balance you can. First palpate your sternoclavicular joints. Start by putting your fingers at the V-shaped notch at the top of the sternum and then moving your fingertips out, away from the centerline of the body. Very quickly you’ll encounter a small depression and then the rounded head of the collarbone. This depression where the head of the collarbone encounters the top of the sternum is the sternoclavicular joint. Everyone can palpate this joint and many people also will be able to see this joint clearly in the mirror once they know where to look. Now, moving at the sternoclavicular joint, raise your collarbones up toward your ears. Use your kinesthesia to feel how your shoulder blades also move upward. (If you can’t feel this right away, you can reach over to put your left hand over your right shoulder blade and raise the collarbones again. Your tactile and kinesthetic senses will tell you that your left hand is being moved by the right shoulder blade, which is being moved by the right collarbone.) Now, with your collarbones (and shoulder blades) raised, look at yourself in the mirror. What do you see? The shrugging gesture that we make to say, “I dunno” or “Whatever!” Make a facial expression that goes along with that. Next, let your collarbones and shoulder blades relax back down to neutral, maintaining the facial expression. Even though you won’t have changed your facial gesture at all, the picture you now see in the mirror probably will express a milder version of the meaning; the gesture of the collarbones strengthened the expression. You also can move the collarbones downward, moving them below their position of balanced suspension. Still moving from the sternoclavicular joints, try this in front of the mirror. How do you look? Sad, defeated, maybe resentful? Now try moving the collarbones a bit forward while they’re still down. How does the expression of the body change? Probably it maintains the same basic quality but now appears more defensive or self-protective. Singers can use the position of collarbones to express many states of mind, although some collarbone positions will increase the amount of muscular work with which they are performing and may impact their breathing, so they will need to experiment to find



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the optimal balance of character expression and vocal efficiency for each situation. Spending lots of time in front of a mirror exploring movement of your collarbones will help you be more visually expressive, and if you have had trouble with the dynamic suspension of your arm structure above your breathing structure, it may help you become more vocally expressive, too! Do this as you practice your vocal exercises; it’s fun to watch (and even hear) how the exercises change meaning as you move the arm structure. This will help you develop a good kinesthetic sense of how much you can move the collarbones and still make a vocal sound you find acceptable.

It is important for singers to note that neither the clavicle nor the scapula connects to the ribs. The arm structure is one of the clearest examples of how our bodies are designed as biotensegrity, rather than compression, structures. The load of the arms doesn’t rest upon bony structures beneath them, such as the ribs. Rather, the collarbones and shoulder blades are suspended over the ribs and around the central core of the body (Figure 7–4) by a system of strong but flexible connective tissue extending from the head and cervical vertebrae, thus allowing the ribs to move freely for breathing and the arms to move freely for gesturing (or any other sort of work, including conducting, playing an instrument, or dancing, that one may need to be doing while continuing to breathe). If, however, the dynamic balance of the arm structure is interfered with by dragging the arms downward, the collarbones and

Figure 7–4.  The yoke of the arm structure around the central core. This picture shows how the collarbones and shoulder blades at rest balance around the core of the spine. They are suspended from above by connective tissue that connects with the head and cervical spine. (The first thoracic vertebra is at the center of the view, which is seen from above. The head and cervical spine have been removed.) By Benjamin Conable. Copyright 2001. Used with permission.

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shoulder blades will get in the way of the up-and-out excursion of the ribs during inhalation, and the singer will not be able to breathe fully and freely. Neither will the singer be able to gesture fully and freely with the arms and hands in response to dramatic impulses because of the antagonistic action of the muscles pulling downward on the arm structure. Even more destructive to natural, coordinated movement of the arms is the tense, unnatural pulling of the shoulder blades toward one another that some singers adopt in a mistaken attempt to assume “a good posture.” We can see immediately the fallacy of this “Shoulders back!” thinking if we remember that our shoulder blades are actually part of our arms. “Arms back!” is not going to help our breathing, and it certainly is not going to help us look nobler. Most of all, this erroneous idea of good posture will cripple any performer’s ability to gesture meaningfully and effectively with those arms he or she is working to hold back; they’re stuck. The very word posture means a pose, something stationary, while gesture demands the opposite: movement. Some people have mapped the shoulder as separate from the arm. These people think of the shoulder joint, shown in Figure 7–5, as the first arm joint and fantasize that this joint, rather than the sternoclavicular joint, is where the arm attaches to the body. Not infrequently, the mythical thinking goes even further, with the idea that the humerus, the long bone of the upper arm, attaches directly to the ribs. Singers with this idea will be seriously compromised in both breathing and gesturing. The truth is that the humerus meets the shoulder blade at the glenoid cavity (or glenoid fossa), a small, concave surface about the size of a thumbprint. Because this surface on the shoulder blade is so small in comparison to the ball at the end of the humerus, there is an enormous range and variety

Figure 7–5.  The second joint, or shoulder joint, of the right arm. The view on the left shows the humerus in relation to the scapula, or shoulder blade, seen from the back. Notice how large the ball at the head of the humerus is. The view on the right is the scapula seen from the right side, and the humerus is shown as an outline so you can see how small the surface of the “socket” is in relation to it. By Benjamin Conable. Copyright 2001. Used with permission.



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of movement available at this joint. The humerus can move forward and back. It can move to point down toward the stage and up toward the second balcony. And it can rotate. It is necessary to have all of these movements fully available in order to do the mambo in West Side Story. Or to be able to hold up a music folder through a 60-minute choral concert. Or to hold and use your microphone effectively throughout a jazz set. Or to play lead guitar in a rock band without compromising your singing. The shoulder blade must be free to move with the rest of the arm. Once the humerus passes a certain point in its range of motion, the shoulder blade (and the collarbone, to which it is attached) should just follow along in the same direction. This sequenced coordination is called humeroscapular rhythm and is a natural part of human movement.

Exercise 7–3.  Audio 7–3. Exploring Humeroscapular Rhythm presents this exercise in action. A good way to experience humeroscapular rhythm is to swim. Even if you don’t have a pool handy or you don’t like to swim, you still can make the arm motions of the Australian crawl, or freestyle, in the air. As you reach up and forward with your hand, the rest of the arm follows, and as soon as the humerus passes a certain point (rather early in the stroke), the shoulder blade and collarbone will follow along. Now try to get those shoulders back in a posture-myth position and repeat the swimming motion. If you maintain the “shoulders back” position, you will not be able to reach nearly as far with your arm, and probably you also will notice that the arm moves more slowly and awkwardly and you will feel the muscles protesting the antagonistic pulling in opposite directions you’re asking them to do. If you are actually swimming in water, you certainly will notice far less power and propulsion from this stroke without humeroscapular rhythm. That’s because your back muscles are busy holding your shoulder blades back rather than helping to propel you through the water. The superficial muscles of the back (deltoid, trapezius, latissimus dorsi, rhomboid) are actually muscles that move the arms. If we try to use them as posture muscles, our movement will be compromised. Try the motions of other swimming strokes — breaststroke, butterfly, and so on. You’ll discover that all of them require free humeroscapular rhythm.

The “good posture” myth of keeping the shoulders back invariably will kill humeroscapular rhythm. The muscular work necessary to hold the shoulder blades back prevents them from moving along with the humerus, resulting in the arm being able to move only awkwardly and unnaturally through a reduced range of motion. In some cases, when humeroscapular rhythm has been compromised or lost, repetitive and strenuous motions of the arms can even result in injuries, such as a torn rotator cuff. For example, consider singers in theatrical productions who have significant dance or fight responsibilities, singers who also do much conducting, and singers who are teachers and frequently accompany at the piano. These singers especially need to cultivate the freedom of the shoulder blades that allows good humeroscapular rhythm. But all singers will move awkwardly without it.

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Exercise 7–4.  Video 7–4. Humeroscapular Rhythm and Gesture shows this exercise in action. Having experienced humeroscapular rhythm with the swimming exercise, let’s see how it affects dramatic gesture. Stand in front of your mirror and kill your humeroscapular rhythm by drawing your shoulder blades slightly toward one another in the posture-myth way. Then, as if you were acknowledging a tremendous ovation, bring your hand upward, palms up. Continue the motion only until you feel the point at which your pulled-together shoulder blades start to resist. If your shoulder blades don’t follow along in humeroscapular rhythm, you won’t be able to raise your humerus bones beyond shoulder height, although by bending your elbows you could get your hands a bit higher. Examine this picture in the mirror. How do you look receiving that ovation? How included are the people stomping and yelling for you in the top balcony going to feel? Next, release the posture-myth pull on your shoulder blades. Now the shoulder blades can follow the humerus bones as they move higher and farther. Reach up to your audience again, but this time with good humeroscapular rhythm, and see what that looks like in the mirror. Don’t you think the fans in the balconies will feel more acknowledged and embraced by that gesture? Restoring humeroscapular rhythm gives your arm much more extension, more reach — not only literally, but also figuratively.

The third joint of the arm is the elbow. At this joint, shown in Figure 7–6, the lower end of the humerus meets the two bones of the forearm, the ulna and the radius. Because of this structure of one bone meeting two bones, the elbow is able to do two very distinct types of motions. One is bending and unbending. Most people find that motion relatively uncomplicated. Touch your chin with your index finger, and you have bent at the elbow. Let your hand fall to your side, and you have unbent at the elbow.

Figure 7–6.  The right elbow joint. This figure shows the joint and represents one of the two types of movement available at the elbow: bending and unbending. By Benjamin Conable. Copyright 2001. Used with permission.



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Figure 7–7 shows the other type of motion at the elbow: rotation, which is also called pronation and supination. It is movement at the elbow that allows the palm of the hand to face down (pronate) or to face up (supinate). In supination, the ulna and radius are parallel to one another; the ulna runs along one side of the forearm and points at the little finger, and the radius runs along the thumb side. In pronation, the radius rotates and crosses over the ulna, turning the palm of the hand downward.

Figure 7–7.  Pronation and supination of the right hand and forearm. This figure shows the second type of movement available at the elbow: pronation and supination. When the palm is facing up in supination, the ulna and radius bones are parallel. When you turn the palm over in pronation, the radius crosses over the ulna. (To make the arm in the picture more like what you see when you look down at your own arm, turn the book so the fingers of the pictured hand are pointing away from you.) By Benjamin Conable. Copyright 2001. Used with permission.

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Proper understanding of forearm rotation is crucial for musicians, such as pianists and violinists, who must make sound by moving their arms. Singers are less likely than instrumentalists to develop career-threatening injuries because of poor movement caused by mis-mapping of forearm rotation, but they still can reduce the effectiveness of their visual performance. Although the elbow allows only the two kinds of movement (bending/unbending and pronation/supination), these movements are completely independent of each other and can be combined in an amazing variety of degrees. These many varying degrees of combined gesture are seen by most humans as visual cues for many varying degrees of meaning. Effective vocal performers need to have all these visual cues at their disposal. For instance, Figure 7–8 demonstrates how changing the rotation of the elbow can change the meaning of the same degree of bending.

Figure 7–8.  Study of combining different degrees of elbow rotation with the same degree of elbow bending. In this photo, my student Stephen Odom demonstrates how the exact same degree of bending at the elbow can be combined with different degrees of pronation or supination to create gestures of very different meanings. Every possible movement you can cultivate gives you another shade of expressive possibility. Photos by C. White.

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The fourth joint of the arm is the wrist, which is shaded in gray in Figure 7–9. Actually, it might be more correct to say that the fourth, fifth, and sixth joints of the arm are the wrist, because the wrist is a composite structure of eight bones, the carpals, in two rows of four. There is movement available between the radius and the first row of carpals, between the two rows of carpal bones, and between the second row of carpals and the metacarpal bones of the hand. So the wrist is really a long, sinuous structure, capable of complex, nuanced motions that can move the hand up and down (flexion and extension) and side to side (radial and ulnar deviation) or in many combinations and gradations of these two basic functions. Clearly understanding the variety of motion available at the wrist and not thinking of it as a simple hinge is the singing actor’s key to discovering a wealth of expressive hand gesture.

Figure 7–9.  The bones of the right hand and wrist. In this illustration, which shows the right hand palm up, you can see how long the composite structure of the wrist (shaded in gray) is and how many joints you have available for subtle movement in the hand. Notice also how the bones of the fingers actually originate at the wrist. By Benjamin Conable. Copyright 2001. Used with permission.

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After the face, the hand is probably the structure of the body that provides other human beings with the most visual clues concerning mood and meaning and is capable of the subtlest shades of movement to provide those visual cues. This is due, in no small measure, to the large number of bones and joints that make up a hand: nineteen of each! (The sum figure of 19 joints includes the joints between each of the metacarpal bones of the hand and the second row of carpal bones of the wrist, already mentioned in the foregoing discussion of the wrist.) With so many moving parts and so many articulations available, it is hardly any wonder that in most cultures humans “talk” with their hands as much as with their voices when they speak to one another. Singers often are concerned about the expressive use of their hands. The question, “But what should I do with my hands?” is one that many voice teachers and coaches have heard from worried students. Some specific diagnostic and strategic tools will be offered later in this chapter, but for the most part, singers anxious about their hands can find assurance by refining their body maps so that they are intimately familiar with the movements that are available at all joints of the arm and the hand, and so that they understand the dynamic relationship of the arm structure with the core of the body that distributes the work of those movements throughout the entire system. When this is the case, virtually any movement suggested by the impulses that arise from thinking the character’s inner monologue will not be blocked or distorted by tension in the muscles that move the arms and hands, and thus will be meaningful and believable. Now that you’ve examined all the parts of the arm structure, remind yourself of the entire arm as a unit. (You may want to look again at Figure 7–3.) There is one more aspect of the arm that singers need to have mapped correctly to help them be effective in gesture and characterization: the strong line of the arm down the side of the ulna and the little finger in the lower arm and hand (Figure 7–10). If you let your right arm hang by your side at rest and then place your left hand over your shoulder blade and run it down your arm all the way off the end of your little finger, you will be palpating this line. If you reach up toward the top balcony to acknowledge your applause (remember to use good humeroscapular rhythm), you then can take one hand and run it underneath the other arm all along this line on the outside of the arm from the shoulder blade to the little finger. This line is the strength of the arm in gesture and movement. In a sword fight, it will be the side of the arm that always leads the true (cutting) edge of your sword, because that allows a stronger grip on the hilt and provides more strength in the movement of cutting and parrying. Organizing your arm movement around the radius and thumb side of the arm weakens your gestures. (Nobody makes a karate chop with the thumb side!) Singers who have this aspect of the arm and its movement mapped well have a great characterization tool at their disposal. You can make your character stronger and

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Figure 7–10.  The strong line down the ulna and little finger. By Benjamin Conable. Copyright 2001. Used with permission.

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more commanding by using the line of the ulna (little finger) side of the arm to lead your gesture, and if you are playing a character who is weak or subservient, you can weaken your gestures by organizing your arms around the radius (thumb) side. Often, by weakening your arm movement in this way, you can avoid having to slump to make your character appear powerless or less commanding, preserving your core balance so that your movement of singing still is well distributed through your whole spine. Figure 7–11A and B contrasts stronger and weaker versions of the same arm gesture.

A

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Figure 7–11.  A. Example of a strong reaching gesture with little-finger orientation. In this photo my student Martin Hardin demonstrates a reaching gesture in which the arm is organized along the strong line running down the ulna, or little-finger, side of the arm and hand. The strength of this physical organization makes the gesture and the character appear strong and confident. B. Example of a weak reaching gesture with thumb orientation. In this photo, the same student demonstrates how organizing the same gesture along the radius, or thumb, side of the arm weakens the gesture and makes the character appear less strong and certain. Photos by C. White.

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Review Points:  The Arms and Hands n Because singers do not need the arms and hands to make sound, arms and hands are free

for movements that can visually express many fine shadings of meaning. n The full arm includes the clavicle/collarbone and scapula/shoulder blade. n The collarbone and shoulder blade are connected and must move together. Their move-

ment occurs at the sternoclavicular joint, where the collarbone meets the sternum. n The collarbone and shoulder blade are suspended from structures above (head and cervical

vertebrae) by strong and flexible connective tissue. They do not rest on structures below. n The humerus, or upper arm bone, meets the shoulder blade at the glenoid cavity. The

structure of the joint allows for a large range of motion. n When the humerus travels past a certain point, the shoulder blade (scapula) is supposed

to follow along in sequence. This sequence is called humeroscapular rhythm. n If the movement of the scapula is impeded, movement of the entire arm will be limited. n The architecture of the elbow joint supports two entirely different movements: (1) bending

and unbending and (2) pronation and supination. n In bending and unbending, the forearm and hand are brought up toward the shoulder. n In pronation and supination, the two bones of the forearm are parallel to turn the palm

of the hand up (supination) or the radius bone crosses over the ulna to turn the palm of the hand downward (pronation). These movements occur at the elbow, not the wrist. n The wrist is a composite structure of eight small bones (the carpals), capable of much

complex movement because of the many articulations between the eight bones and surrounding structures. n The hand is capable of nuanced communication because its large number of bones and

joints (nineteen of each) make possible a great variety of movements. n Organizing movements of the arm with the ulnar side leading gives gestures more literal

and figurative strength.

The Legs You already have learned about the bones and joints of the legs in Chapter 2, the chapter on core balance, where their role in distributing the load of our weight throughout the body and into the ground was discussed. But legs do more than distribute weight; they also move the body through space, and they have a significant expressive role. In some historical periods and some societies, arrangements or gestures of the legs conveyed stylized messages about social status or romantic availability. Singing actors need to be just as aware of such historical styles in gesture as they are of historical styles in music, and they need legs whose muscles are free to execute the desired movements. And jazz and pop singers need legs whose muscles are free to boogie. Leg muscles can’t be free to move if they’re already engaged trying to hold a singer up. For instance, in Chapter 2 you learned that the knee joints have three possible conditions: balanced, bent, and locked. As you experiment with these three conditions, you will discover that balanced knees

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require very little work in the leg muscles, while chronically bent knees or locked knees trigger extra work to try to support the weight of the body. As you learned in Chapter 2, locked knees often are a symptom of an imbalance of the thorax in relation to the lumbar core. If the thorax is tilted back so that it is no longer over the lumbar vertebrae, knees lock to protect the back by taking some of the resulting weight-bearing compression off of the back muscles and lumbar discs. In either the bent-knee or the locked-knee scenario, leg muscles are already actively engaged in compensation for the loss of efficient weight distribution; therefore, they are not free to move the leg without effort to overcome the work they’re already doing. A singer standing with locked knees will not be able to move freely across the stage in immediate response to the entrance of another singer or to some other dramatic stimulus. The cross will look awkward or not believably motivated because, instead of leaping immediately to embrace his returning sweetheart, the singer will first have to unlock his knees, and then move. He can’t move with locked knees. That momentary hesitation is as deadly to effective physical drama as a momentary hesitation is to effective musical rhythm. (Of course, returning to the concept of using the body map as a characterization tool, if the drama specifies that our hero is a complete klutz, then the naturally graceful actor could choose to use this extra work to his advantage in creating the character.) Fortunately, we have an alternative to locked or bent knees: balanced knees. Another way of thinking about the concept of balanced is that it is the point from which any movement is easily and immediately available. In balance, you don’t need to undo before you can start doing. When the knees are in balance, the leg muscles are free to take the legs anywhere you want them to go. In Chapter 2 you also learned about the structure of the ankle joints and the feet and how the arches of the foot help distribute weight from the ankle joint both backward to the heel and forward to the heads of the metatarsal bones, which form the ball of the foot. The arrangement of the bones and connective tissue of each foot into three arches and a strong, springy web of connections efficiently distributes forces throughout the foot and provides us with excellent support and stability as we stand. If singers were concerned only with standing still, they might not need to map toes carefully, because the toes are in front of the arches that distribute our weight to the ground. However, in a chapter about movement and gesture, we need to map the toes in relation to the arches (Figure 7–12A). The primary purpose of toes is to help us move through space; they provide propulsion as we walk, run, or dance. These are things that most instrumentalists (with the important exception of marching band players) are rarely called upon to do while performing, but which most singers, from hip-hop artists to opera singers, must do all the time. As you take a step, the foot extends. There is movement at the ankle joint at the top of the foot, tipping the tripod of the foot so that the heel will contact the ground first. The arch of the foot rocks, first at the heel’s rounded calcaneus bone and then at the ankle joint, which brings the tibia (shin) bone forward as the ball of the foot comes down and the heel comes up. As the load is transferred from the heel through the arches to the ball of the foot, the five metatarsal bones gently spread apart slightly; this also spreads the toes. At the end of the step, shown in Figure 7–12B, only the toes are on the ground, and they provide forward propulsion by pushing off from the ground as the ligaments of the foot help the spread bones lightly spring back to their original configuration. This elastic recoil of the ligaments is an important part of moving through space with ease and grace. The description “There’s a spring in his step” isn’t metaphorical; it’s literal.

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A

Figure 7–12.  A. The bones of the right foot from the medial (big toe) side. Notice that the toes are in front of the arches that provide us with support and stability. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 151), by D. Gorman, 2002. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission. B. Passive extension of the toes. Toes provide propulsion in the last phase of rolling through the stride. From The Body Moveable (4th ed., p. 122), by D. Gorman, 2002. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

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This spring in the step is a vital tool for any singer; it is part of every human being’s automatic system for supporting the body in movement. It gives us a sense of buoyancy and grace as we move, and it can be coordinated with the lengthening of the spine that is so important to a singer’s exhalation. Singers must actively map this elastic action of the spreading and springing back of the metatarsal and tarsal (toe) bones as one of their primary postural and gestural resources.

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Why is this important for singers to know? First of all, it is important because singers must move through space with strength and grace, especially in theatrical situations (Broadway chorus lines, opera fight scenes), but even in ensemble situations (gospel choruses, R&B backup singers). Second, singers who understand how the process works can use it as a characterization tool; vocally, the same singer might well be cast as Lt. Cable in South Pacific, an athletic young man in love, and as Archibald Craven in The Secret Garden, who regards himself as disfigured and disabled. If he pays attention to using (or not using) the spring in his step that a free, buoyant use of the ankle joint and the architecture of the foot provide him, the singing actor can establish distinctive and effective movement patterns for each character. Finally, many singers have habits in which they mistakenly try to use work in their feet to help them sing, with adverse effects on both vocal communication and visual communication. Two of these common habits, toe-tapping and toe-gripping, will be discussed later in the chapter. If you would like more information about the action of the foot as it rolls through the stride and how it relates to the rest of the body, Dr. Ivo Waelop of the Gait Guys has made a useful video entitled “A Walk on the Beach” (available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9fF3N19TBnA).

Review Points:  The Legs n Knees have three possible conditions: balanced, bent, and locked. Locked knees often are

a protective response to imbalance elsewhere in the body, but they inhibit spontaneous and graceful reaction. n Balanced knees allow a performer to move freely in response to any impulse because

there is no work of holding to overcome first. In balance, you don’t need to undo before you can start doing. n The three arches of the feet create a tripod arrangement that distributes weight efficiently

and provides for excellent support and stability in standing. n The toes do not need to assist in standing but help in propulsion at the end of a step. n The elastic recoil of the ligaments of the foot provides a literal “spring in the step” that

assists in buoyant locomotion and is another resource that can be harnessed (or inhibited) for effective characterization.

The Muscles of Facial Expression The movements of the muscles of the face are key indicators of human emotion and attitude. Some singers routinely perform in spaces so large that many in the audience can’t possibly see the movements of their faces with the unaided eye, but even in the largest opera house or rock-concert arena, somebody is down front and will be able to see the performers’ faces. Technology, from opera glasses to high-definition television broadcasting, also enables listeners to watch singers’ faces very closely. And even when the audience can’t clearly see a singer’s face, the colleagues onstage with him can do so, and because their performance success will to some extent depend upon their reacting to the stimuli he presents them, it is incumbent upon all singers to cultivate the means to effective facial expression. Indeed, even singers who plan to perform only on radio or as voice-over artists still must cultivate facial expression, because the action of facial muscles affects tone. Your audience in the third balcony, or in Mumbai over internet streaming, still can hear a smile in your voice even if they can’t see it on



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your face. (Remember, that smile is the action that provides the means of communicating your emotion to your audience’s senses.) All singers need to have both freedom and liveliness in the musculature of the face. Most singers will not need to be able to name all of the over four dozen muscles in the face and analyze exactly what they do in order to have expressive faces; consequently, we will not do so here, either. (If you do want more information on individual muscles, a two-part animated tutorial on the muscles of facial expression is available from the YouTube channel AnatomyTutorials (https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=5CWYAw5gsdY and https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HoH8av2ADNE). Another tutorial, in which the narration is captioned, is available on YouTube from The Anatomy Zone (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xmz3oLrnzBw). What singers do need to map clearly is that absolutely none of those facial muscles is involved in phonation of pitch and that very few of them are needed to resonate and articulate vocal sound. (Those that are have been discussed already in Chapters 5 and 6.) When singers are clear on those points, their facial muscles will not be already occupied trying to do things they can’t. Instead, those muscles will be free to react truthfully to the singer’s thoughts while performing and automatically express the emotions accompanying those thoughts, just as they do in real life. Singers cannot do this if their facial muscles are busy participating in fantasies that manipulating facial muscles will directly affect the pitch or improve the resonance of their singing, so we will briefly examine what a few facial muscles do, largely in order to clarify what they do not, and cannot, do. The two zygomaticus major muscles run from the outside edge of each cheekbone (the zygomatic bone, hence the name of the muscle) to each outside corner of the mouth. When they contract, they lift the corners of the mouth upward and laterally (away from the center line of the face), as in smiling or laughing. The two zygomaticus minor muscles also originate on the outside of the cheekbone, and they connect to the top of the lip muscle, somewhat more medially than the zygomaticus major muscles, a bit closer to the nostrils. They, too, raise the upper lip and can help the zygomaticus major muscles with a smile; however, in conjunction with other muscles, they also can be active in producing a sneer or even a sad expression. Both sets of zygomaticus muscles run only on the outside of the skull; they are not connected in any way to anything inside. It is important for singers to map these muscles correctly because many singers have been told that lifting with the zygomatic muscles will lift the soft palate and improve their resonance. You already have learned in Chapter 5 about the muscles that do lift the soft palate. These muscles are not among them. The zygomatic muscles cannot help singers resonate; any lifting of the soft palate that occurs when the zygomatic muscles are active is merely a coincidence, not a cause-and-effect connection. It would be bad enough if the result of entangling the zygomatic muscles with trying to lift the soft palate for resonance were merely wasted effort; however, this entanglement of the zygomatic muscles is worse than that. It also hinders communication. Audiences perceive the engagement of the zygomatic muscles as being emotionally meaningful. If these muscles are active, the audience will see the singer smiling (or worse, sneering) even as he sings of his grief at the soprano’s tragic death, and they will not assume he is improving his resonance (and he won’t be); rather, they will assume there is something they have missed in the plot, and instead of empathizing, they will be waiting for the other shoe to drop. Or else they will assume he is a bad or insincere actor and be waiting for someone more believable to come onstage. Another facial muscle singers frequently try to manipulate in order to change their sound is the occipitofrontalis. This is the broad sheet of muscle that runs from the eyebrows up underneath the

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hairline, where it continues all across the crown of the head as connective tissue that lies underneath the skin of the scalp, until at the back of the occiput it becomes muscle tissue again. The frontal part of the muscle covering the forehead elevates the eyebrows, which is useful for appearing surprised or shocked or horrified. However, the eyebrows have no connection at all to the vocal folds, the only part of the body that can determine the pitch a singer is singing. The misconception that raising the eyebrows will somehow raise the frequency of a sung pitch is a very common mis-mapping of the body. The two have nothing to do with one another. Indeed, the idea that raising the eyebrows could raise a sung pitch is not only a mis-mapping of the body, it is a mis-mapping of pitch. When the pitch rises, the vibration isn’t really going higher, it is merely going faster.

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Exercise 7–5. Just imagine a choir director saying, “Tenors, you’re singing flat — wiggle your eyebrows faster!” That would actually be a closer metaphor to how pitch (that is, frequency of vibration) works, yet you would see immediately how silly the idea is that eyebrows and vocal folds are at all related and how comical it looks to equate them. If you want to have a good laugh, go find a mirror and actually try this! Then try something else that should demonstrate to you once and for all that the occipitofrontalis and the vocal muscles are completely separate. Start with your face relaxed and sing a five-note descending scale in a comfortable middle range. Then repeat the scale, but raise your eyebrows slightly higher with each descending pitch of the scale. If you could sing the descending scale with perfect ease the first time, you’ll find you still can do that even as your eyebrows ascend. Video 7–5. Vocal Fold Independence from Eyebrows shows this exercise in action.

Although the muscles of the face must be free from entanglements that improperly attempt to involve them in producing sound, the directive “Relax your face!” is not always helpful. Some singers will interpret that to mean that the face should be inert or impassive as they sing, resulting in a masklike expression that never changes. Audiences always find an inert face to be off-putting, because it is not natural human behavior. Just like the rest of our bodies, our faces are in continual micromotion, subtly reacting to both external and internal stimuli. Some reactions are consciously chosen; others are not. There is a word for faces that do not move in this way: deadpan. And no one wants to go watch a “dead” performer. As you have learned in previous chapters, when muscles are free from tension (which includes the unnecessary work of “holding still”), not only is movement more available and efficient, but improved flow of blood and of nerve impulses also will result. Singers should cultivate the feeling of liveliness that inhabits faces that are free to move!

The Eyes and Visual Focus An old English proverb reminds singers that “the eyes are the windows to the soul” and that anyone who hopes to communicate deeply with other human beings would do well to include the eyes as part of that intention. Of course, the choices concerning visual focus that are available to performers are almost infinite (even including closing the eyes and shuttering the “windows to the soul,” though this



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is usually off-putting to an audience unless it is reserved for rare, special occasions). Choices exist to be made as part of the singer’s arsenal of expressive devices. Failing to consider and intentionally take advantage of the possibilities of visual focus in a vocal performance is tantamount to choosing to play the piano with only nine fingers. The most important thing for singers to remember about the eyes is the same principle that has been emphasized throughout this book: movement arises in the brain. The eyes move and change focus in response to thought; this is normal human behavior. If you want your audience to experience your characters as real people, you must allow your visual focus to change, just as it does in real life, with the thoughts of what you are singing. These changes and movements are often small and subtle, but a completely fixed gaze (such as that some well-meaning voice teachers occasionally instruct novice singers to direct at “the clock at the back of the hall”) is such unusual behavior for humans that an audience will immediately start trying to figure out what exceptional, and possibly alarming, circumstance might be motivating it. The way to achieve natural, engaging liveliness and variety of visual focus is to have complete freedom in the musculature of the face and head (including, of course, the muscles that move the eyes), and then to allow those muscles to respond organically to the vivid thoughts that motivate your song and are expressed in it. If there is no contradictory message from the brain (such as “keep your eyes fixed on the clock on the back wall”) impeding the movement, the eyes will move freely and spontaneously in response to the impulses of the music and the drama, just as the rest of the body is free to move freely and spontaneously in response to the same impulses if there is no contradictory message telling it to lock knees to hold the body up or pull the shoulder blades together to “have good posture.”

Exercise 7–6.  Audio 7–6. Visual Focus Shifting with Thoughts presents this exercise in action. If the concept of eyes constantly making shifts of focus in response to thought seems strange to you, try this exercise by making a brief video recording. Enlist a friend to help you and position him or her immediately behind whatever device you are using to record, but in a way that is easily visible to you. In fact, it is best if the friend is more visible to you than the recording device. Let your friend operate the recording device instead of you. (A word of advice to the assistants: start the recording without announcing you have done so — perhaps slightly earlier or later than your friend expects.) Cultivate the best, easiest balance that you can, and then, as you continue to do so, carry on a conversation with your friend, who will not be visible in the video but can and should feel free to participate in the conversation. Have the intention of speaking to your friend, rather than to the camera. The point of the conversation is to tell your friend about some very vivid experience you have had. It might be a vacation trip to a breathtakingly beautiful spot which you describe and share how it made you feel. Perhaps it will be a story about a disastrous date where absolutely everything went wrong, or about how you got the news that a child or parent had just been rushed by ambulance to an emergency ward and what you did then. Maybe it will be the tale of when you truly

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realized your spouse was the right one for you. Really allow yourself to relive and share the experience in as much detail and power as you can. Once you have made the recording, play it back. The first time, play it back with the sound turned down all the way, so you can’t hear what you are saying. Watch your eyes. You may be surprised at how much they move. Sometimes your whole head will move and change the visual focus left or right, up or down. Other times, the head will remain relatively stationary, but the eyes themselves will move. At times, you may even be able to know exactly what you were saying just by what you see, even though you can’t hear yourself. Then play the recording again, this time with the sound on, and you will be able to see and hear how the changes in your visual focus correspond with changes in your thoughts — in reaction to a memory, a new idea, or a response from your friend. This is exactly what the “real people” characters who sing the songs you perform (including those songs that may be sung by the real person that is you) must do if they are to behave like real people.

This liveliness and variety of visual focus is one of the primary reasons it is imperative that singers always understand everything they sing. Singers who sing in languages other than their own simply cannot have this organic, spontaneous visual response to thought if they have not done the hard work of painstakingly translating their texts, completely assimilating their nuances, and connecting the textual thoughts to the musical structure of the piece. The movement is motivated by the thought; if the thought isn’t present, there will be no movement. Further, because thoughts move muscles, if the thought is the wrong thought, the movement will be the wrong movement. Just as knees that are busy with locking to help hold up an unbalanced body are not free to move in a powerful, organic reaction to a dramatic stimulus, when the brain busies itself with a thought that isn’t part of the character’s thought process, that mental busy signal usually shows up in the eyes. For instance, some singers try to sing a performance from memory by mentally reading an image of the musical score they’ve stored in their minds. When they do this, their eyes will not be participating in expressing the meaning of the music, because the thought the movement of those eyes expresses is, “I’m busy reading right now.” The visual image of the score in the brain is a thought powerful enough that the eyes will behave as if it really were in front of them and they were reading it. Fortunately, as Stanislavski knew, the good news is that this as if behavior will be equally true of any other visual thought. Consequently, singers can create a compelling sequence of eye movements simply by creating for themselves a compelling sequence of visual thoughts or images their characters are experiencing; their eyes will move as if they were seeing them.

Review Points:  Facial Expression n The movements of the muscles of the face are key indicators of human emotion and

attitude.

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n Very few of the muscles of the face play any necessary role in resonating or articulating

sung words. n When singers try to use muscles of facial expression for other purposes, audiences can

become confused. Audiences will assign movements of facial muscles to the emotional meanings they associate with those movements, whether the singer intends that meaning or not. n Zygomatic muscles have no communication with the inside of the skull. They cannot lift

the soft palate, to which they have no connection. n The occipitofrontalis muscle can move the eyebrows but not the vocal folds. It has no

bearing on pitch or intonation. n The labels “high” and “low” in relation to pitch refer to their written position on the staff

of Western music notation. They do not describe any physical movement of singing. That which we call a “higher” pitch is actually a faster frequency of vibration. n It is normal human behavior for the eyes, as well as other muscles of the face, to move in

response to our thoughts. Singers who wish to communicate as realistic, believable human characters must cultivate these subtle movements in their performances.

THE DETAILS:  CHOICES AND CHALLENGES IN MOVEMENT Eradicating Unwanted Movements Throughout this book, you have been learning that all sound is movement, and of course singers want every sound they make to be meaningful to an audience. In this chapter, you have been learning that audiences will try to assign meaning to all of a performer’s movements, both those they hear and those they see; therefore, it is essential that all of a performer’s gestural movements have a meaning that is part of the artistic whole. When a singer makes movements that have no meaning or that undermine the intended meaning of the singer’s words and melodic line, audiences will be confused or distracted from the artistic intent, and the impact of the singer’s performance will be diminished. The good news is that every singer can cultivate the ability to make other choices and that Body Mapping can help us do so. We already have examined some examples of movements that singers mistakenly choose, such as using the zygomatic muscles to try to lift the soft palate, resulting in a smile even while singing of despair. Such useless movements have no connection to the production of meaningful sound, and they don’t communicate emotional or dramatic information visually. Often the easiest solution to these unwanted, extraneous movements is through Body Mapping. Using the same kind of questioning Barbara Conable described in the introduction to this book, the singing teacher or coach, the stage director, the ensemble conductor, or the singers themselves can discover why the unhelpful movements are there. Then they can correct the misconception or mis-mapping that gave rise to them and watch them melt away far faster and more completely than they ever do in response to directives like, “Quit playing with your skirt” or “Please stop that distracting swaying!”

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For instance, if a singer has the habit of swaying from side to side while singing, shifting weight from one foot to the other, the stage director might ask, “What is the utility of this swaying? How does it help you get what you need? What are you trying to accomplish with it?” Almost simultaneously, I once had three young men who had this habit in my voice studio and opera programs. Each, as it turned out, had a different mapping issue. The first responded to my inquiries by saying he needed to sway in order “to sing relaxed.” He had the mis-mapping of stillness that is so common among singers, that of assuming that stillness is holding still; he knew he didn’t want to hold, so he moved continuously. Once he learned what has been explained in Chapter 2 of this book, that using his structure to find the core balance of the body would support him while freeing all his muscles from needing to hold him in place, the swaying just stopped. He realized that he’d had it backward: It’s work when our muscles move; it’s not work when we’re allowing our bones and connective tissue to support us. The second young man had a different kind of mapping issue. Most of his singing experience had been in genres of music quite different from the classical repertoire on which we were working. Swaying, as it turned out, was his way of demonstrating involvement in and commitment to the music; after all, in some genres of music, that movement would indeed have that meaning. Telling him not to sway was tantamount to telling him not to identify with the music, and he certainly didn’t want that. He needed to re-map oratorio as drama, and once he did that, the movement no longer served the intention of the character singing those Old Testament words, and it stopped. The third young man’s tendency to sway from side to side as he sang was particularly puzzling, because he hadn’t done that when I first encountered him; indeed, he had tended to lock his body. I thought perhaps he had started swaying out of a misguided desire to emulate his classmates. But I soon discovered the fault was my own. When I inquired what the swaying was intended to accomplish, he had an immediate answer: “It’s micromovement, just like you told us in studio class!” More questioning revealed that, although he had understood how using the bony structure and connective tissue for support frees muscles for movement, that all singing is movement, and that the body of a singer is in fact in constant motion even if his feet are not, he had no conception of the size of those motions. His slight swaying was actually the smallest motion he could conceive as being a movement. We had quite a bit more work to do in mapping size (this young man also insisted for quite some time that his ribs didn’t move when he breathed because they didn’t go far enough to count as “motion” in his definition), but when he came

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to see the swaying as a gross movement rather than a micromovement, it ceased. I tell this story because it illustrates the power of the brain over movement. Each of these singers was acting according to the “truth” his brain told him; the movement followed inevitably and was very resistant to direct change. When the sham truth was shown to be false, however, the extraneous movement ceased. The experience of the third singer also is a good cautionary tale about how we teachers, conductors, and stage directors can lead young singers into mapping errors, even with correct information, if we are not careful to inquire deeply enough into their current body maps and their understanding of what they have heard.

Avoiding Stock or Stereotypical Gestures and Encouraging Spontaneity Almost every effective, arresting singer is an individual singer. No matter what the musical style may be, singers who become successful are those who are perceived to have some unique quality to offer. Yet many singers undermine the individuality of their vocalism and musical imagination with repetitive, hackneyed gestures. There are many reasons singers do this, and not all of them have to do with Body Mapping. Sometimes singers are consciously imitating another singer they admire and need to be encouraged to develop their own style. (Actually, Body Mapping still can help here by helping singers to realize that there are differences between their body and that of the singer they are emulating, which should result in differences in movement. But the principal problem in this situation is the intention to look like someone else. The singer needs a new intention.) A common reason, however, is that the body or some part of it is not free to move in response to an emotional stimulus. Earlier, you learned that balance is the place from which any motion is immediately available. Provided the song is well understood, a singer who is singing from a place of balance almost always moves arms and hands, legs and feet, face and head, with dramatic meaning and individual truthfulness because nothing stands between the brain’s response to the emotional stimulus of the music or the action of another singer onstage and the body’s expression of that response. If a singer is singing from a place of imbalance, then there is muscular tension that will stand in the way of muscles immediately moving in response to the brain’s thought. Such tension will halt the truthful, exciting dramatic response in movement. Instead, the singer will fail to move at all or will belatedly impose an artificial movement to indicate what the truthful response should have been. Although there will be general similarities, such indicated responses are only pale reflections of the truthful response they replace. They are lacking in grace, power, subtlety, and individuality, which is why the term indicated acting is considered such a withering pejorative among many nonsinging actors. Spontaneity, then, is not entirely a psychological quality; it is also physical. Unless we are in that state of balanced physical equilibrium from which any movement is equally available, it is difficult to act spontaneously; the work of first having to overcome the work of holding the out-of-balance pose or posture before the body will be able to move kills spontaneity.

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Exercise 7–7.  Here’s a series of related exercises to explore how balance promotes spontaneity and imbalance inhibits it. Video 7–7. Balance and Spontaneity shows elements of these exercises in action. First, choose a fairly routine task that involves a lot of movement, perhaps dusting or washing dishes or preparing a salad. Before you begin, take some time to cultivate the best balance you can and keep the intention to enjoy the advantage of balance always in your awareness as you begin and continue the movements of the task. As you let your bones and connective tissue support you, freeing muscles to move, explore how many different movements or ways of moving you can use to accomplish the task you’ve chosen. Some will feel very familiar; those are the movements the “character” that is you generally chooses. Others may feel wildly unfamiliar and silly; those are perhaps a very eccentric character working on the same task. But that character is still getting the dusting or the dishwashing done. You may decide you, yourself, would never do it that way, and that’s OK; you wouldn’t do things the way a lot of your characters do. However, you just might also discover a whole new way of peeling vegetables or cleaning the bathroom that makes the task easier or more fun. Remember, all the while you will be intending to move with the advantage of core balance. Take a break halfway through the task and reflect on what you’ve noticed about your movement. Now, intentionally kill the buoyant support of core balance. You can do this by dragging your head down and back, or tilting it radically to one side, or throwing your chest out and shoulders back in a posturemyth way, or intentionally locking your knees. Return to the task; you’ll find your movements and the amount of effort it takes to accomplish them both have changed. You may find that your mood changes, too. As you did in the first part of the exercise, try to explore as many ways of moving as you can, only this time be sure not to allow the advantage of core balance. The movements will be different (if any feel familiar, you may have some work to do on balance), and they almost assuredly will be more effortful than before. Some people even find it harder to think of as many different ways of moving through the task as they did when they were in balance, and occasionally (depending on the task), they find that a few movements from the first part of the exercise truly will be impossible. Imbalance seems to shut down possibilities. Again, reflect upon what you notice. Variation One You will need help from someone else. Enlist a family member or friend to interrupt you at some point during the task with something that demands a response from you. Let your helper decide the timing and the reason.

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Maybe it will be a yell from the next room (“Oh no! Come quick, and bring a towel!”). Or a call to your cell phone, or an interruption in person (“Hey, can you help me fix my hair?”). Do this twice also, once with good core balance and once without it. (A word of advice to the helpers: don’t let exactly the same amount of time elapse before the interruption each time; that will help keep the reactions honest.) Notice how you react to the interruption each time. Could you respond as quickly without balance as with it? Did you notice any evidence of having to undo before you could start doing (such as having to unlock your knees before you could run to the phone)? Did you feel differently about the interruption in either situation? Variation Two This can help you with the challenge of playing a character whose body map is quite inaccurate and whose movement consequently is seriously compromised. Singers frequently have to do this, but we always have to maintain the integrity of our own body maps and our own movement well enough that (a) we do not hurt ourselves and (b) we still can move well enough to fulfill the vocal requirements of singing the role. Begin as you did for the original exercise. With excellent balance, approach a task involving movement, such as dusting your home. Note how easily and efficiently you can accomplish the task. Incorporate sound — sing or speak as you move. Note how easily and efficiently you can vocalize. Now create a character whose body map includes inaccuracies that inhibit balance. For instance, let’s try a very gung-ho military man or woman who has truly bought into the posture myth. Chin up! Shoulders back! Chest out! Butt tucked! Assume this posture in a big way and go back to your task. Continue to vocalize. Observe how you move, how you sound, and how you feel. It probably won’t take long before you don’t feel good; you certainly won’t want to move that way for a full two-anda-half-hour musical, even with an intermission in which to recover. You may not like the sound you get, either. How can you possibly use this character’s body map? Well, you can’t use it exactly. But what you can do is suggest it. Experiment with lesser degrees of that particular body map. To what degree can you take it on and compromise your movement only enough to suggest the character in gesture and sound and still fulfill the task that is required of you? If you can’t manage dusting for 10 minutes without distress, it’s unlikely you will be able to negotiate a dance routine. However, with careful attention to what you’re doing, you will be able to find the amount that you can move toward the faulty body map and still allow enough freedom and micromovement to accomplish the task.

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This may not be optimal freedom, but that character probably never has functioned with optimal freedom. (Nor would the audience want him to. If the evil Monostatos in The Magic Flute sings with as much beauty and freedom as the hero Tamino, the audience just gets confused; they want their villain to sound like one. But each tenor still has to sing with enough freedom that he keeps his voice healthy.) The point is to find enough freedom for the performer. If you keep experimenting, you will find just the amount of posture myth you can take on that will allow you to get the room dusted, moving in a way that is quite different from your own habit, without distress or danger. The keys will be cultivating as much micromovement as you can, planning to allow some recovery time or activity afterward and, above all, maintaining inclusive attention to your whole body throughout the whole activity.

The Distinction Between Concentration and Attention Everything discussed in this chapter so far presupposes that the singer is paying attention to what he or she is doing. Without attention, all bets are off, and in fact singers not infrequently do encounter problems simply because they have failed to pay sufficient attention to some aspect of their bodies, their movement, the conductor or director, their fellow performers, or the musical or textual information on the printed score. But an equally common and destructive problem is for singers to allow their awareness to be narrowly selective rather than globally inclusive. For many centuries, even before the term was invented, singers have been multitasking. A singer must attend simultaneously to all sorts of sensory information. Responding to auditory input from an orchestra or church organ or jazz rhythm section or other singers helps singers keep their intonation true, their rhythm and tempo secure, and their dramatic impulses truthful. Responding to visual input from a conductor, or the shape of a piece of scenery or the angle of a beam of light, or the trajectory of the flower tossed by the femme fatale helps singers be more effective in singing on time, being seen as well as heard, and moving believably. Responding to the tactile information of a trailing velvet gown or an uneven stage surface helps singers stay in character and avoid mishaps. And attending and responding to information from their kinesthesia at the same time as all the other senses will help singers do all of those things, as well as to monitor their singing technique. Singers whose attention includes all of this information, as well as their intentions for the music they are singing and the movements they choose to fulfill those intentions, will be able to give performances of great richness and nuance. Unfortunately, instead of cultivating this broadly inclusive awareness, many singers choose to concentrate all their attention on a single object or thought. In real life, we all know that such narrow concentration is nothing but trouble and describe it pejoratively. We say, “She’s consumed by making money” or “He’s completely obsessed with maintaining a spotless house.” Barbara Conable likes to point out that no police officer is going to be impressed with the statement, “But, officer, I was concentrating on the green car when I hit the blue one!” precisely because the very idea is so ludicrous. Singers must tune to their accompaniment, follow the drummer’s beat on the monitor, find the hot spot of the light,



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dance without tripping on the amplifier cords, and hit their marks for the fog-machine effect precisely on the downbeat of the bridge, maintaining kinesthetic awareness of the movement of singing all the while. Only singers who have learned to keep all these things in their awareness simultaneously will be able to succeed fully at the task. What often happens instead is that singers direct all of their attention at a single thing, usually the element of the performance that engenders the most anxiety. It may be making a tricky musical entrance or performing a complicated bit of stage business or achieving the “money note.” This sort of concentration prevents the brain from attending to all the other important sensory information.

Here’s a real-life example of the importance of inclusive attention and the danger of exclusive concentration. When I was a young singer, I sang at a number of summer festivals. One summer, I was in the chorus of a production of Lucia di Lammermoor, in which the title soprano, on her wedding night, murders the man she has been forced to marry and then horrifies the wedding guests in the famous Mad Scene. At one point in the scene, she imagines she sees the man she truly loved, Edgardo Ravenswood, and greets him amorously. Often this is played as simple raving at the thin air, but the soprano and I both had noticed that the costumer had for some reason dressed me (alone of all the choristers) in the same tartan as the tenor playing Edgardo. So she and I worked out some staging in which this crazy woman with a bloody knife singled out this utterly terrified wedding guest and chased him around the stage until her wandering mind went on to something else. The director loved it, the audience loved it, and I, lowly college apprentice, loved having the opportunity to act up a storm in the middle of the star soprano’s showpiece. Everything went swimmingly, just as we’d planned and rehearsed it, until the last performance. Because I didn’t have to sing in that section, there was absolutely nothing in my mind but that knife that kept coming toward me and backing safely away from it. I was, I would have said then, really “getting into it.” Suddenly, the soprano stopped dead and then appeared to have a vision of something else stage left and wandered away. Of course my character’s immediate reaction was relief, but then I started wondering why she had changed the scene from what we’d always done before. It wasn’t until it was time to exit that I happened to look down and notice that my downstage heel was hanging off the edge of the stage. If I had backed up another two inches, I’d have landed in the orchestra pit on the timpani. I had been concentrating on acting; the soprano, fortunately, had been paying inclusive attention. Not only was she beautifully singing one of the greatest coloratura showpieces in the literature and giving a gripping dramatic performance, she was simultaneously able to save a dumb college kid who was concentrating too exclusively on acting to be paying attention to where he was. She taught me a lesson about inclusive awareness that I’ve never forgotten.

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Of course, most singers know that they must do many things, so what they do is scan: They give all their attention to one thing at a time and rapidly move from concentrating on one thing to concentrating on the next to concentrating on yet another. Scanning is frantic and exhausting. It’s hard work to firmly shut out all sensory input except that which is concerned with one small thing. And constantly shifting what that one thing may be is disorienting. The solution is for singers to keep all of their experience in their awareness. Then within that inclusive awareness, they can focus more detailed attention wherever it is most needed, but they mustn’t lose touch with the rest of their experience. Broadway singers who master this skill will never lose track of where the steps in the scenery are while they keep an eye out for a cue from the conductor. Choral singers with inclusive awareness will always tune beautifully to the bass section while perfectly matching vowels with the rest of their own section and attending to their own kinesthesia so they can stand in a comfortable balance on the risers throughout an entire oratorio. The matter of cultivating awareness is also a matter of Body Mapping. Singers who concentrate have mapped their brains as having the function of concentrating; that’s what they believe that thinking is. They have not mapped their brains as having the function of receiving and processing a world of simultaneous sensory information or as having the ability to focus within a large amount of information by selecting the most important bit of information for special attention while still remaining aware of the rest. They are putting limits that really don’t exist on their brains and then demanding that their brains function only within those limits. If this is hard for you to assimilate, you may want to study Chapter 1 in more detail, since that chapter is all about cultivating attention.

How to Use Body Mapping to Address Some Common Movement Problems Awareness is the foundation for all Body Mapping work. With awareness and the kind of inquiry that has been described throughout this book, you can solve problems you encounter in making your movements visually expressive. In this section, we’re going to look at how you might use Body Mapping to address a few common challenges in gestural movement. You probably will find others to explore on your own. There is an almost infinite variety of movements singers make in the mistaken belief that these movements help them accomplish some goal in their production of sound but which actually have nothing at all to do with the structures that can accomplish those goals. Some examples that have been discussed already in the course of this chapter include raising the eyebrows to raise the sung pitch and pulling the shoulder blades together and hiking up the sternum in an attempt to achieve “good posture” for better breathing. To review, there are two problems with these misdirected movements. The first problem is that they do not actually help singers accomplish their technical goals and in fact often interfere with the technical intention instead. The second problem is that they are actions, and the audience will attempt to assign meaning to them. But since they are not truly part of the movement of singing that pitch or breathing effectively, they don’t mean what the singer intended. This means that the performer has lost an important opportunity to communicate fully and expressively with the audience. For example, the tenor who rises up on his toes every time he “goes for a high note” is not helping his vocal folds vibrate quickly enough to sing that pitch; the vocal folds are a very long way from the joints of the foot and ankle where this movement is happening. But the audience is going to see that rocking and lifting, and they will do what human beings do: assign a meaning to that behavior. Maybe

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they will decide the character is nervous, or impatient, or hyperactive. Worse yet, maybe they will decide that the performer is one of those things and not a good enough actor to conceal it. Whatever the audience members decide, the tenor has, at least to some extent, lost them and is no longer telling exactly the story he wished to tell. The performer caught in a situation like this can recruit awareness and Body Mapping to solve the problem. By bringing the movement into his awareness, the tenor with an accurate body map can realize the movement has nothing to do with the high notes. If his intention is to seduce the mezzosoprano, he will realize that the movement of rocking up and down on his toes is hardly making him appear the magnetic and mysterious sophisticate he wishes her to see, and he then will find it easy to abandon that movement and choose a more effective tactic.

Gripping With the Toes Many singers have a habit of curling or gripping with their toes as they stand to sing, as if they thought that doing so would help them stand securely. Usually, they do believe this. As you have learned in Chapter 2 and in this chapter, that isn’t true; it’s a mis-mapping of the body. The mis-mapping is a problem because toes are actually for propulsion, and when they grip to stand, we cannot move about the stage easily and efficiently because the toes are already busy doing something that is none of their business. Gripping and scrunching with the toes will prevent the tarsal and metatarsal bones of the toes and balls of the feet from spreading and thus rob singers of the buoyant spring when the spread bones spring back. Furthermore, the toe-gripping can actually interfere with the security and stability of the foot that comes from the tripod structure that distributes the body’s weight to the heel and to the heads of the metatarsal bones.

If you have the toe-scrunching habit, it won’t do much good just to tell yourself, “Don’t grip with the toes!” when your brain believes you will fall over if you don’t. The cure for the habit is remapping the foot. Study the pictures in Figure 2–23, Figure 2–24, and Figure 7–12. Try Exercise 2–10 on page 59. Then you may want to try the following exercise. Exercise 7–8.  Video 7–8. Toes and Propulsion shows this exercise in action. Find the best core balance that you can and then try walking. (You may want to do this barefoot so you can see it more clearly.) Feel how the heel of each foot comes down first, and then how the arch begins to rotate from the ankle joint at the apex of the arch until the other side of the arch contacts the floor as the heel comes up. You’ll perceive that the other side of the arch is the ball of the foot, not the toes. The toes are hardly even touching the floor yet! They only come into play as you continue forward through the step and provide you a lovely impetus as they leave the floor and your weight moves onto the heel of your other foot. In the gait labs where scientists study human locomotion, this entire process is referred to as “rolling through the stride,” which is a useful way of underscoring the fluidity of the motion.

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Now grip hard with your toes and repeat the whole process. You’ll see immediately how movement is compromised. The arch of the foot is distorted, altering your balance and preventing the metatarsals from spreading; they and the toes cannot provide you with any spring in your step at all. The toes become an obstacle to forward propulsion rather than an assist. In some individuals, the tip of the big toe may even encounter the ground before the ball of the foot does; that’s not only unbalanced and inefficient, it’s painful! You may also want to repeat this whole exercise while singing a simple scale; you will feel and hear a difference in your sound as well as in your gait.

One other source of gripping with toes is footwear. Shoes that don’t fit and push the bones of the foot into odd configurations will affect your balance. The great Swedish soprano Birgit Nilsson understood this. When asked what a singer needed most to be successful in the long and arduous Wagner roles for which she was famous, she exclaimed, “Comfortable shoes!” Choose your shoes for concert wear carefully, and if you sing in theatrical productions, be sure to make friends with the costumer.

Two words about shoes: High heels. By far the question female singers most frequently ask me at Body Mapping workshops is, “Can someone sing in high heels and still be in balance?” The answer is, “Of course, but it requires extra attention and probably some practice with the shoes.” Adding height to the heel of a shoe will change the arc of the arch through which the weight of the body is distributed; the heel of the shoe becomes an extension of the heel of the foot. The ankle joint must rock and rebalance so that it still remains the fulcrum at the apex of the arch, which will of course be taller and narrower. (The higher the heel of the shoe, the taller and narrower the arch.) A change in the shape of any tensegrity structure must be distributed throughout the entire structure, so this change in the configuration of the arch must be accommodated dynamically throughout the whole of your balance; it can’t be isolated locally in the foot. With practice, you can learn a dynamic balance that continues to distribute the load of your weight equally back through the heel of the foot and the shoe and forward through the ball of the foot. (If too much of the load is thrown onto the balls of the feet, the toes often grip in compensation, which is counterproductive.) By the way, guys, you might need to learn this skill, too. Authentic footwear for men in a number of historical periods included dizzyingly high heels; in period pieces, you could find yourself singing with a saber in your hand and stilettos on your feet.



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Toe-Tapping and Other Forms of Self-Conducting Toe-tapping while singing is considered an annoying visual distraction in some genres of music; in others, however, it may be perfectly fine. This movement and many others arise from an attempt to make the mechanics, rather than the underlying meaning, of the music visual. Different styles of music have different conventions about whether or not this is desirable. Gospel singers, for instance, often make very elaborate hand gestures as they sing improvised melismas, almost as if they are drawing the phrase in the air as they sing it. Generally, their audiences enjoy and appreciate these movements as an integral part of the performance. However, a classical singer who did the same with a Rossini melisma or a Handel cadenza would be violating the expectations and conventions of the opera or oratorio stage and most likely would be criticized for it. So singers need to map the conventions and expectations of the musical genre they are singing as part of their intention for the music. After doing so, if singers wish to change their movement habits, they must intentionally include those movements in their awareness. Again, inquiry is a potent tool: “What does this toe-tapping (or head-bobbing or air-conducting) accomplish? What am I trying to do with it?” If the toe-tapping is an attempt to gain a kinesthetic connection to the rhythmic pulse of the music (and it usually is), then the singer wishing to eliminate it will need to work on other ways of sensing rhythm before it can and will cease, because having no “feeling” for the rhythmic pulse certainly is not an option for an effective performer. A singer who tries to use motions of the hands or head to demarcate each pitch in a given phrase will want to re-map the mechanics of making pitch, starting with the phonation chapter of this book, until it is clear that hands and head have nothing to do with pitch, and moving them only provides a visual metaphor for the pitch. In a classical art song, that visual metaphor for particular pitches would distract the audience from the message the text and music seek to convey, and the singer who truly understands that will find it easy to abandon the unhelpful tactic of the metaphor. However, in another genre, perhaps a jazz scat improvisation, the performer might feel that the visual metaphor for the musical structure of the phrase enhances the performance and thus choose to keep it.

Holding a Music Score While Singing Singers in concert genres, particularly in choral music and oratorio, often hold a score while they perform. Virtually no other kind of musician does this because they need their hands and arms free to make sound; however, because arms and hands do not make sound in singing, they can be, and often are, used as music stands. Singers must learn to manage supporting a score using their core balance. Of course, this will not be possible until singers have learned enough about their own body maps to be able to stand or sit with ease, using their core balance, as discussed in Chapter 2. Once they have mastered those skills, they will be ready to add the music score. The key to supporting the weight of the score and distributing it through your core and eventually to the ground is the strong line down the ulnar (little-finger) side of the arm. If that alignment is preserved, the arm structure takes the load and distributes it to the rest of the body through the connective tissue that suspends the yoke of the shoulder blade and collarbone that was depicted in Figure 7–4. Figure 7–13 shows a singer using this strong line to hold a score.

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Figure 7–13.  Using dynamic balance to support a music score. Here my student Lianna Wimberly Williams demonstrates using the integrity of the strong ulnar line and core balance to support a music score with ease by distributing the load through the arms to the spine. Photo by C. White.

If, however, the singer allows the arms to become thumb-oriented, or organized along the radial side of the arm, the muscles of the arms themselves will have to work much harder in order to hold up the music. Typically, as the singer tires of doing this, the elbows will drop, the wrists will bend, and the singer may even compromise his core balance by throwing the thorax forward to rest the upper arms against it or by letting the weight of the score and arms push the thorax back off the lumbar balance. When any of these things happen, the entire singing mechanism will be negatively impacted.

CONCLUSION Body Mapping is more than just an essential tool to promote balance, ease, and freedom in movement. It does more than promote superior function in performance. It also is an excellent means to enhance meaning and communication. By means of careful mapping of the structures of visual communication, including the arms and hands, the legs and feet, the muscles of the face, and the eyes, singers can enhance the visual elements of their performances and communicate more powerfully with audiences, whose expectation is that everything they hear and see is (or should be) a meaningful part of their artistic experience. Singers who make skillful use of the body map and of inclusive attention will be able to meet that audience expectation brilliantly.

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Review Points:  Choices in Movement and Attention n Audiences will try to assign meaning to all of a singer’s movements. When a singer makes

movements that have no meaning or that undermine the intended meaning of a singer’s words or melodic line, audiences will be distracted. n If a singer is singing from a place of imbalance, then there is muscular tension that will

halt the truthful, exciting dramatic response in movement. n Spontaneity is not entirely a psychological quality; it is also physical. n Singers must attend simultaneously to all sorts of sensory information, cultivating a global,

inclusive awareness, rather than concentrating narrowly or scanning rapidly from one thing to another. n Coupling inclusive awareness with an accurate and detailed body map can solve many

problems with unintended or ineffective performance movements.

RESOURCES The Anatomy Zone. “Muscles of Facial Expression — Anatomy Tutorial, Part I”: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xmz3oLrnzBw and “Muscles of Facial Expression — Anatomy Tutorial, Part 2”: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Z0nbAm2HPw AnatomyTutorials. “Facial Muscles — Mouth Expression — 3D Anatomy Tutorials”: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5CWYAw5gsdY and “Facial Muscles — Eye Expression — 3D Anatomy Tutorials”: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HoH8av2ADNE The Gait Guys. “A Walk on the Beach”:  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9fF3N19TBnA

REFERENCE Ostwald, D. F. (2005). Acting for singers. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Appendix A

What to Do About Performance Anxiety Barbara Conable

The following article is reprinted verbatim from the first edition. Our students come to us with physical discomfort and with emotional discomfort related to playing. Performance anxiety is the worst of the emotional discomfort. Here is what to do about it. There are four distinct phenomena that go by the name performance anxiety. Each requires a different response, so it is important to name all four and distinguish them from each other so that the appropriate response may be chosen. Mixing responses guarantees failure.

FOUR KINDS OF PERFORMANCE ANXIETY These are the four types of performance anxiety: 1. Butterflies 2. Self-consciousness 3. Emotions associated with inadequate preparation 4. Debilitating fear, terror, dread, panic They are defined as follows: 1. Butterflies: The fluttery sensations, sometimes intense, that precede performance and disappear as performance begins, often regarded by seasoned performers as indicative of readiness to perform but often mistaken for performance anxiety by inexperienced performers. Normal, not pathological. 2. Self-consciousness:  Defined in my dictionary as “morbidly aware of oneself as an object of attention for others” — a brilliant definition. I’d like to shake the hand of the person who wrote it. Self-consciousness is a pathology but rather easily remedied. To call it 283

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performance anxiety is a misnomer because anxiety is not involved, as you will learn if you carefully question a self-conscious person. He or she will say, “Oh, I don’t feel any fear; I’m just so self-conscious.” 3. Emotions associated with inadequate preparation:  A witches’ brew of shame, confusion, avoidance, and fear; not pathological, just human; often mistaken for number 4 by those who don’t want to acknowledge the truth that they are not ready to perform. Shame predominates in this mix. 4. Pathological, debilitating fear, terror, dread, panic:  Intense emotion, coming in waves, usually expressed physically as sweating, shaking, or other involuntary movement, rapid breathing, dry mouth, senses distorted or diminished; for example, “It sounded like the piano was a quarter of a mile away.”

Time of Occurrence They typically occur as follows: 1. Butterflies:  Occurs in the hours immediately preceding performance. 2. Self-consciousness:  Occurs whenever the performance is thought about. 3. Emotions associated with inadequate preparation:  Pretty constant in the weeks preceding performance. Usually low grade because of the avoidance factor. 4. Debilitating fear, terror, dread, panic: Grandly episodic throughout the entire period of preparation. Middle of the night. While driving one’s car. At a party. Walking past the concert hall. Talking with one’s accompanist on the phone. Taking a walk. Sudden. Unpredictable. Subsides, only to reappear another time, like herpes.

Effect on Performance These four categories usually have the following effects: 1. Butterflies:  Enhances performance. 2. Self-consciousness: Compromises the whole performance, start to finish. “I always play better in practice than in performance.” Emotional expression and meaning are compromised. 3. Emotions associated with inadequate preparation: Performance spotty and substandard because of the inadequate preparation, not because of the associated emotions. 4. Debilitating fear, terror, dread, panic: May stop performance altogether. Performers may refuse to play or sing at the last minute or they walk off stage mid-concert. If they play or sing the whole concert, the fear and its physical manifestation are episodic throughout.

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The sweating and shaking may be visible and result in wrong notes. The sensory distortion may interfere with ability to read the notation or to hear the other players so that performance has to be stopped and started again. Often results in “memory slips” or rhythmic distortion. Rarely if ever compromises expressiveness. In fact, some performers claim they are not expressive unless they are filled with fear, terror, dread, panic.

Remedies These steps eliminate the anxiety: 1. Butterflies:  Learn to enjoy them. Begin the performance and they disappear. 2. Being self-consciousness, morbidly aware of oneself as an object of observation for others, requires a two-step remedy. First, get clear about the fact that the audience pays money and comes to the concert hall to make the music the object of attention. If the audience paid money and came to the concert hall to make you the object of attention, you wouldn’t have to play the music. You could just sit there and let them look at you. Second step in the remedy: develop self-awareness. True self-awareness (kinesthetic, tactile, emotional) is the great, reliable remedy for self-consciousness. This two-step remedy can work literally overnight and solve the problem forever if the first step is truly comprehended. The music is what it’s all about. The music is the object of observation for the audience and for the performer, who have a mutual interest in the music. 3. Emotions associated with inadequate preparation: Cancel or postpone the performance or the audition, or get a sub. No other response is appropriate. Then, get yourself adequately prepared. If you don’t know how to prepare, find someone who will teach you. Never, never use performance anxiety as an excuse when it was inadequate preparation that compromised the quality of your performance. Teachers, don’t let your students get by with this, either. Nail them. Call them on it. It’s your job. Don’t let them perform unprepared. 4. Debilitating fear, terror, dread, panic: The remedy for this is strenuous, demanding, difficult, uncompromising, but it works. The remedy will be described in great detail later in this essay, but first, I believe it is important to understand that this type of performance anxiety happens in a context. In my experience, the context must be credited in order for the sufferer to do the work of liberation.

THE CONTEXT Performance fear, terror, dread, panic are not purely personal and cannot be remedied without some understanding of their cultural context. In order for musicians to exert themselves to genuine change, they need to sense they are changing not just themselves but also the musical culture. In other words, they are doing it for everyone.

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Let’s look at the problem from the perspective of circumstances in which performance anxiety rarely or never occurs. Then, let’s examine some unusual factors in the way music is taught and heard in our culture. Third, please consider the status of musicians in our culture as a factor in the fear musicians feel. Let’s look first at the circumstances in which performance anxiety rarely or never occurs in order to shine some light on the circumstances in which it does occur. Performance anxiety rarely occurs among pro-ams, as they are now fondly called, that is, amateurs who play at a professional level. It rarely occurs among church musicians, especially those who regard themselves as having a vocation for music; it rarely occurs among Indian classical musicians (those who play the traditional ragas), though their music is at least as complex and demanding as Western classical music, and it rarely occurs among African drummers, though their music is far more complex rhythmically than is Western music. I have the impression that performance anxiety is less frequent among Western jazz and rock musicians than among Western classical musicians. Pro-ams tell me they feel eager anticipation when they perform. One said it is like preparing a fine meal for friends. Pro-ams play a lot of chamber music, and the music itself is the motivating factor, the joy of hearing it, the joy of playing it, the joy of discovering something new about it. For these highly skilled amateurs there are no bad consequences in their imagination if they don’t for some reason play well, no loss of job, no scorn from colleagues, and the like. Church musicians tell me they attribute their absence of fear to the fact that even their very finest performances are not ends in themselves but rather dedicated to the overall effect of the celebration. Organists sometimes tell me it helps them that they are not seen by the congregation, or not watched as a concert pianist is. Indian classical musicians tend to attribute their comfort in playing to the communal nature of their training and to the fact that they usually live with their teachers, who teach them every day, not every week, and offer the ongoing nurture and support in supervised daily practice. The students never experience the isolation so many young musicians experience in our culture. One of the great African drummers at a Percussive Arts Society convention, when asked about performance anxiety, said he had never met anyone who suffered from it. Laughing, he said, “We are not afraid of music.” Then he became serious and named some elements in the training of drummers that may prevent performance anxiety. First, he said, “We never, ever name a mistake. Naming mistakes seems silly to us,” he said, “like naming the ‘mistakes’ in a young child’s talking or walking.” He went on to say that young children are kept at the same level of playing for a long time and not allowed to go to the next level of complexity until they are practically bursting to do so. Then, when they do go to the next level, they can achieve it easily, because they have so long anticipated it in their minds and because they have heard it and seen it for so long from others. In addition, African teachers play with their students or for their students all or most of the time, and there are no competitions, only performances. Rock musicians, in my experience, are free of performance anxiety. When I ask them about this, they generally attribute it to the connection they feel to their audience. They are deeply, profoundly aware of their audience as they write and rehearse, so it is as if the audience is perpetually present. The audience is not something to be feared but something to draw strength and inspiration from. Listen to interviews with great rock musicians and you will hear them talk about their audiences in the same way some well-known novelists talk about theirs. A mutual loyalty is being described. Jazz musicians share to some degree the sense of audience, especially those who get a following in certain clubs, but



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they have the further cushion of improvisation. Improvisation is a very demanding enterprise, but it does give a kind of space that the strict notation of classical music does not. There are some aspects of the ways music is heard in our culture that we take for granted much of the time but which are nevertheless quite unusual and may contribute to the debilitating fear some musicians experience. An audience sitting in rows facing a stage with nothing else to think about is unusual in the world. In other cultures people wander in and out of the performance space, paying close attention when they like and peripheral attention at other times. The musicians are not watched so intently. Nowadays many people have CDs of the music being performed. Notes not written by the composer have been corrected on the CDs, and therefore people’s ears are geared to a level of technical perfection that is unrealistic. Also, audience members may be comparing a university professor’s performance to the performance of the finest concert musicians in the world. The comparison spoils what would otherwise be a profoundly enjoyable experience, and, to make matters worse, the performer may also be making the comparison, contributing to performance fear and dread. Some fine musicians perform infrequently, upping the ante on any one performance, like getting to play one or two poker hands a year. And then there is the matter of envy. I will not write about envy in this essay because it has been discussed so brilliantly by James Jordan in The Musician’s Soul, a book all musicians need to read and study because envy is a truly significant factor in performance fear and dread. As is status. Musicians’ status in our culture is described in one word: low. Evidence:  joke. Three people appear at the pearly gates. The doctor is welcomed right in; likewise the lawyer. The musician is directed around to the back door. Evidence:  cover story in city magazine: “How to Impress Your Friends This Year. Tip Number Ten: Buy Season Tickets to the Symphony and Never, Never Go.” Evidence:  musicians’ salaries at universities as compared with others who have spent decades of hard work in preparation for what they do. Evidence:  the way musicians are treated at the White House. Rosalyn Carter made sure that musicians were greeted when they arrived and that they were served good food and had a comfortable place to change clothes and warm up and rest between performances, but other occupants of the White House have not followed her example. Evidence:  the reluctance of symphony management to adopt and adhere to elementary safeguards for musicians and their instruments, like temperature control, reasonable schedules, and ear protection. Evidence:  the failure of universities to credit practice time and score study as work hours. Many university musicians work a full work week in addition to their practice and study time. From a nonmusician’s point of view, this is cruel and counterproductive, like asking a scientist to do research after hours, and it contributes to performance anxiety because the performing professor is tired and sometimes resentful. I have been privileged to spend some time in a culture in which musicians are held in the highest esteem, revered, cared for, regarded as very, very special. Their status is in shocking contrast to that of musicians in American mainstream culture.

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THE REMEDY FOR PERFORMANCE FEAR, TERROR, DREAD, PANIC I derive some linguistic pleasure from building the remedy on the letters in the word fear, thus: F  —  feel the fear E  —  embody the fear A  —  arrive R  —  relate The device also helps my students remember what to do. Feel the fear. Embody the fear. Truly arrive in the performance space. Truly relate to the space, the music, and the audience. It sounds simple, but it is actually very mentally demanding, and the feeling and the embodying must be done over and over again throughout the preparation period whenever the episodes of fear occur, so it is a day-by-day commitment over a period of weeks or months; it is particularly demanding at the time of performance because feeling and embodying must continue unabated while you at the same time truly arrive in the space and truly relate to it. Not simple. Not easy. Why do I recommend something so demanding as remedy? I do because it’s the only thing that works. Believe me, I’ve seen everything you can imagine tried to solve this problem and nothing but this demanding procedure really works. If you don’t believe me, try all the others and then do this, hard as it is. No one ever said being a successful performer was going to be easy, only that it was going to be fulfilling and in keeping with our deepest humanity, so the reward is great. So, here is how it’s done, letter by letter.

F = Feel Many people make the mistake of trying not to feel their fear, terror, dread, panic, or they try to diminish it, or they try to ignore it. This turns them into two people, the person who is feeling the fear and the one who is suppressing or ignoring it. You can’t perform when split. It just won’t work. So, the first task in solving the problem of performance fear is to just agree to feel what you’re feeling full out in every part of your body, not diminishing any tiny bit of it. Now, understand that fear, terror, dread, panic only overwhelm if they are experienced in isolation from other sensations. So, your next feel task is to feel also all the other emotions in your experience. You may think there are no others, but you will be wrong about this. If you go looking for them, you will find the others — anger, perhaps; self-compassion, we hope; your love for the music you will be playing, your anticipation, yearning; hope for a fine performance; regard for the other musicians on your concert. The key here is to let all those other emotions live in your experience and come into relationship with the fear you feel. If you let them live there with the fear, the other emotions will cushion the fear, change its texture. Probably they will not diminish its intensity, but that’s okay, really, because they will change the physical expression of the fear. Sweating and shaking will subside. Your body only produces these expressions of your fear if your fear is all you’re feeling, if it’s alone there in experience, all by itself. When you’re feeling all your other emotions at the same time, the monochromatic response of shaking and sweating gives way to a rainbow of expression, which also prevents the sensory distortions that compromise performance so seriously.



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You may want to actively cultivate and enhance some of your other emotions. If you love music, right there in the presence of all your fear, expand and enhance that love. If you have some joyful anticipation of playing this marvelous music for people in the audience, enhance that. Don’t stop feeling the fear; just give it good company. You are cultivating richness in your experience. If you allow it to, the music will help you as you practice it. Be sure you are making the fullest possible emotional response to the music you are practicing. You will need to make your entire nervous system available to the music, and then it will provide you with the richest possible context for your fear. Music teaches you how to feel what it expresses. That is one of its glories, and it is how music helps you with your fear. Now, remember, this is just the first step, and it will not work in isolation from the others to solve your performance fear problem, but neither can it be skipped or cheated. You will have to do this step consistently, day after day, in your practice and every single time you feel an episode of performance fear coming on.

E = Embody Now you go the next step and give all your emotion a larger context. You need to put all your emotion in the company of all your other physical sensation. Just like fear never overwhelms when it is given the company of other emotion, so emotion never overwhelms when it is given the company of other sensation. We call this strategy embodying the fear. First, put all your emotions in the context of your tactile experience, the feeling of your skin, your tactile sensation of your shoes, socks, floor, clothing, the temperature and movement of the air as perceived by your skin. Find it all and put your emotion firmly in relationship to it. Then find all your kinesthetic sensation, that is, all your experience of your moving, of your position, of your size. You will be moving to perform, and you will need to feel your moving with great clarity in order to choose the best movement and in order to change your moving if it needs to be changed. So, in embodying your emotion, you are also availing yourself of information crucial for performance anyway, apart from its function as a primary cushion for fear. As you become kinesthetically awake, you will feel overt movement and what is fashionably called micromovement, all the inner hum of muscular and visceral activity. You will feel this all as related, like an orchestra of sensation, not isolated like orchestra members warming up. You want to be sure you are feeling any other sensation that may be present: pain, if it’s there, hunger, thirst, pleasure, the whole richness of being. Then your fear is like a clarinet in the orchestra, just one element of a complex but unified whole. This reclaiming of experience requires intention, or will, but it is worth all the mental effort it takes to recover it. To repeat, you must make this recovery every single time you feel the fear, terror, dread, panic in the months coming up to performance. There is a discipline in this, a consistency. Every time.

A = Arrive Then you have to put all this richness in the context of the actual performance situation. We are nesting experience here, you see, like those nested Russian dolls, one within another. Your fear is the littlest doll, which you put within all the others so that you have it in a safe context. You have to truly arrive in the space.

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Now, this is the opposite of unsuccessful strategies like, “I try to pretend I’m still in my practice room.” The pretending strategy is disastrous on two counts: it removes you from reality, and it ties up your imagination, which you need for performance. Arrive. Come to the concert hall early. Walk out onto the stage. Get clear about where the walls are, the floors are, the seats are. Sense the space. Relate to the space. Claim the space. Be in the space. Get clear about the objects in the space, learning where the piano is, for instance, the music stands, the chairs, the lights. Watch in the wings as the audience filters in. Do this arriving in your dress rehearsals so you’re used to it for performance. You can also practice this by truly arriving in your practice space, using the same strategy for your practice you will use later for your performance. In your practice space, even if it is very small, you will need to claim a space for your moving that is at least as big as the space you will perform in; otherwise coming into the larger performance space will be a shock. Many successful musicians ordinarily claim a much larger space for their moving than a concert hall, but the size of the concert hall is the smallest that works. This does not mean that you imagine you are in the concert hall. No. Rather, you claim, own, move in, command, occupy a space in practice big enough for performance. Arrive. An audience is coming into this space in which you will perform. Part of arriving is acknowledging the likely nature of that audience. If some of your audience is hostile, may write bad reviews, will be catty, you will need to arrive at that fact and really be present with it. There’s no pretending they are other than they are. Hostile people, along with those who are kindly and truly interested in hearing the music, must be treated as audience. You are not responsible for how they behave, but you are responsible for how you behave, and it is your job to play or sing in good faith for all the members of your audience, including the hostile and the catty and the uppity. This is rich and complex experience, which is just how it is for an artist.

R = Relate This brings us to the final maneuver in eliminating performance fear as a problem. Fear remains, perhaps, as an emotion, but it is no longer a problem because you know how to handle it. You feel, you embody yourself and your feeling, you arrive, and you relate. You relate to the space; you relate to your audience, you relate to the music, you relate to your instrument. Let’s take each of those in turn. You relate to the space as I have described above, claiming the whole of it for your movement in performance. You do not go out onstage and play in a space the size of your practice room. If you do, we in the audience have to look into your space as through a window. We are not included in it and we feel left out, as though we were watching someone practice. If you do not relate to the space in performance, you do not get the advantages of perceiving its acoustical properties or its beauty or the spaciousness that might inform the quality of your moving. You do not get the benefit of its sheltering. You relate to your audience; that is, they are in your awareness and you are playing for them. There is mutuality. They enjoy your performance, and you feel their enjoyment and appreciation, and that helps you in your performance. Performers who do not relate to their audiences do not get the benefit of the audience reaction for stamina and for pleasure in performing. It’s a big, big loss to everyone. You relate to the music; that is, you let the music benefit you as much as it is benefiting the audience. You make a full emotional response to the music, which carries and sustains your performance. You let the music sustain you.

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You relate to your instrument. There is great security in this, for you will be able to feel your instrument clearly. It may seem that the instrument is warmed up, ready to go, that it is eager to perform, like a racehorse at the beginning of a race. This will help you. Your love for your instrument as well as your love for the music can be a source of stability and cushioning in the performance. This is especially true for singers, of course. If you are relating profoundly to your instrument as you perform, you will know when it needs some special care or some adjustment, as to a quirky reed or to a voice just recovering from a cold. One result of feeling-embodying-arriving-relating is that time has a different flavor. There seems to be more of it. There is enough time to make choices. There is a temporal spaciousness that allows you to recover and renew your feeling-embodying-arriving-relating if it weakens. This all becomes second nature over time, as it is first nature for those who never lost it. The deliberateness falls away; the need for intention falls away. Feeling-embodying-arriving-relating is no longer a discipline, but just what one does naturally. Fear as a problem is a poignant memory.

BEST TIPS FOR ELIMINATING PERFORMANCE ANXIETY AMONG YOUR STUDENTS Help your students see that their fear is not purely personal but is a shared, cultural phenomenon that requires a cultural change as well as a personal one, to which they may contribute. Frequently remind your students that becoming a highly accomplished amateur is an option for them. Encourage your students to explore and enjoy all kinds of music and to see themselves as part of a community of musicians that includes all kinds of musicians. Encourage your students to seek out performance opportunities, to perform in nursing homes, for instance, or at their own dinner parties. Encourage your students to play or sing chamber music at every possible opportunity, just for the joy of it. Cultivate a positive environment in your studio and set clear rules for how students treat each other. Always perform on your students’ recitals, always. They need to see your preparation and they need your modeling. Keep your own performance at a high level and perform frequently even if you primarily earn your living by teaching. If a student comes to a lesson unprepared, practice for the student, talking to the student about what you’re doing, for example, “Notice that I repeated that passage because I changed my mind about how it goes.” Or offer to observe the student’s practicing, coaching the student in good practice technique. Never, never just ignore or overlook the fact that the lesson is unprepared. Play with your students. Play for your students.

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Face your students whenever possible. It’s a great help for them to see what you’re doing. They can’t see you if they are on a stand with you. Help your students from the very first lesson to truly know their instruments. Many students are handicapped and fearful because they are playing fantasy instruments, which differ greatly from the instruments they actually have (like a piano student listening to the keys instead of the strings; like a piano student imagining that the point of sound is at the key bed). Always let the students know the limitations of the instrument they are using so they don’t feel bad because they can’t make their student violin sound like your Strad. Deal constructively with wrong notes. Much of the time you don’t even need to point them out. Just play the piece again yourself, asking the student to listen carefully. If you feel it’s important to give feedback about the note, just say that the student played a note the composer didn’t write and always play that note yourself. “You played this (you play B flat); the composer wrote this (you play B natural).” Give the student time to hear the difference and to play the difference, one and then the other, so that the correction can truly be assimilated. Put the correction in a musical context, asking, “Why did the composer choose B natural here instead of the B flat you played?” Sometimes the student will have played something that actually sounds better than what the composer wrote. Always acknowledge that when it is true. Be very, very careful to give students age-appropriate and skill-appropriate music and not too much of it. Keep the students at a skill level for a long time, letting them enjoy their success in coming to that level, so that year after year as they grow they get to experience real competence and musicality. Never, never, never let a student perform unprepared. Just reschedule the student to the next recital. Keep your young students out of competitions and seek opportunities for them to play for supportive, knowledgeable colleagues in noncompetitive situations. Stay with them in those situations so you know they are being treated well and constructively. Be as educated as you can be about the youth choirs and orchestras and the music camps in your area so that you can steer your students away from harsh circumstances and into nurturing, supportive circumstances. Teach your students to improvise, right from the first. If you don’t know how to improvise yourself, join Music for People and let David Darling and his certified improv teachers teach you how. Help your students build a genuine sense of having an audience. In the beginning it will be the parents and friends who come to the recitals. Refer frequently to the audience and to the pleasure the audience will take in the music. Make it clear that in your studio musicians are held in high esteem, consistent with the intelligence, humanity, and artistry it takes to do the job. Model for the students a very high level of self-regard and self-care. Teach your older students how to treat auditioners and jurors as genuine audience.

Appendix B

The Scientific Basis of Body Mapping T. Richard Nichols

The following article is reprinted verbatim from the first edition. Anatomical representations of the body are regular features of many parts of the brain. In the cerebral cortex, it has been known for a long time that cells in the primary motor and sensory areas are associated with different parts of the body, and that these cells are spatially arranged in such a way as to represent the anatomical correspondence of these parts. In the nineteenth century, the British neurologist John Hughlings Jackson noticed that certain epileptic patients would undergo seizures in which involuntary movements would progress along body parts in anatomical sequence (from toe to hip, for example). On the basis of these careful observations, Hughlings Jackson proposed that the body is represented on the cortical surface in the appropriate spatial relationships. In later studies in which this “somatotopic” map was studied directly, it was found that the size of the representation of each area is related to the use and precision of movement of that area. More cortical “space” is devoted to the face, mouth, and fingers than the trunk. Even more recent studies have shown that within these areas representing specific structures, such as the wrist or hand, individual muscles are represented in a number of places depending upon the type of movement to be performed. These maps occur in both motor areas and sensory areas, which communicate through pathways that link different parts of the cerebral cortex. Recent research on rodents, nonhuman primates, and human patients with neurological disorders has also shown that the representation of anatomy on the cortical surface is subject to considerable plasticity. In the cases of injury or overtraining, the cortical representation can change. In the case of amputation, the cortex representing the lost limb or limb segment will eventually come to represent neighboring portions of the body. In the case of damage to the cerebral cortex, such as occurs in a stroke, cortical areas near the damaged area can become associated with the affected body part. The cortical maps described above pertain to portions of the cerebral cortex that are concerned with the execution of voluntary movements. These cortical areas communicate directly with the neurons that activate muscles. The mechanisms of voluntary movement require several prior stages of processing, however, including motor planning. Motor planning, which consists of the more abstract aspects such

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as programming movement sequences and motor strategies, occurs in premotor areas that are less well understood than the executive motor areas described above that provide the last stages of information processing. These earlier stages of motor planning are closely linked to cortical sites of learning, memory, and the interpretation of the special sensory systems like the auditory system. There is evidence that maps are present in these areas as well. These maps include representations of frequency and spatial localization of tones in the case of the auditory system. Presumably, spatial maps of the musculoskeletal system exist in the premotor areas as well. The use of the concept of “body map,” which was proposed by William Conable, is engaged at these more cognitive levels of processing. Conscious representations of the musculoskeletal system will influence motor learning and planning and will have downstream effects on the cortical maps in the executive areas of primary motor cortex. Therefore, the details of the body map can influence cortical representation along the entire chain of information flow, from planning through execution. The maps in the executive areas of the cortex that represent the anatomy of the body are clearly dependent upon the motor and sensory experiences of the individual. In the case of a highly trained artist such as a musician, it is expected that the cortical areas become reorganized in a way that reflects the motor planning practices of that individual. Cortical maps are sufficiently flexible that they can represent a wide range of motor behaviors. Some motor practices can, however, lead to pathological changes in the musculoskeletal system, such as tendonitis or carpal tunnel syndrome. If movement is based on an inaccurate knowledge or perception about the anatomy of the body, then pathologic changes can result. These practices can lead to alterations in cortical representation, which can then become reinforcing of the faulty motor practice. Overtraining of one specific motor pattern can also lead to pathologic changes, such as focal dystonias, in the central nervous system. These conclusions underscore the importance of educating musicians in anatomy and physiology of the motor system so that practices that can lead to pathology in the musculoskeletal system can be avoided. The basis of voluntary movement in the cortex, as well as in the cerebellum, basal ganglia, and brainstem, is the focus of intense research at present. There are certain to be important breakthroughs in the knowledge about these mechanisms in health and disease in the near future. An excellent introduction to the mechanisms of voluntary movement and the role played by maps can be found in Squire et al. (2003). A more general overview of mechanisms of voluntary motion can be found in Kandel et al. (2000).

REFERENCES Kandel, E. R., Schwartz, J. H., & Jessell, T. M. (Eds.). (2000). Principles of Neural Science (4th ed.), New York: McGraw Hill.. Squire, L. R., Bloom, F. E., McConnell, S. K., Roberts, J. L., Spitzer, N. C., & Zigmond MJ. (2003). Fundamental Neuroscience (2nd ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Glossary Note that the terms below may have other meanings. The meanings in this glossary are those that are necessary for this book. Ab-. Away. Abduct.  Separate from. Ad-. Toward. Adduct.  Bring together. Alexander Technique. An educational process, pioneered by Australian actor F. M. Alexander, that teaches people how to become aware of, and eliminate, habits that interfere with fluid, free movement. Ant-.  At the front. Articulation. 1. (Anatomy) A place at which two bones, two cartilages, or a bone and a cartilage meet. Synonymous with Joint. 2. (General) The state or manner of being jointed or interrelated. 3. (Speech and Singing) The movements that create the individual phonemes within the vocal utterance. Aspiration.  An unvoiced expulsion of air (resembling something like an extra [h] sound) preceding or following a phoneme. Biotensegrity. The application of the concept of tensegrity to the body, conceiving of bones as discontinuous compression elements connected by a continuous tensional web of soft tissues, especially fascia. Body Map.  The mental representation of your body’s size, structure, and function. The term body map is a scientific term and is written in lowercase letters. Body Mapping.  The process of refining, correcting and embodying individual body maps. The term Body Mapping refers to a process developed by Barbara and William Conable and taught by licensed members of the Association for Body Mapping Education. Thus, this term is capitalized. Bone.  A hard substance composed largely of calcium that forms the skeleton. Break.  An abrupt shift between vocal registers. Cartilage.  A tough, elastic tissue with a distinct shape like bone but that is more flexible. Cervical.  Pertaining to the neck. For example, there are seven cervical vertebrae of the neck. Chest Voice. Common term for the lowest register within the modal voice where the action of the thyroarytenoids predominates. Chiaroscuro.  A description of classical vocal resonance that combines depth and ring in the tone. Co-contraction.  Opposing muscles working simultaneously. Cognate.  (Phonetics) A pair of two different phonemes resulting from two articulatory movements that are identical except that one has vocal fold vibration and one does not — for example, [b] and [p]. Compression Structure.  An architectural structure, where the load from each element is distributed through the element below, depending on the force of gravity for stability. Concentration.  (Body Mapping) The narrow focus on one movement or body part to the exclusion of the rest of the body. Condyle.  A prominence on a bone where the bone articulates with another structure.

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Connective Tissue.  Tissues that support, separate, and connect structures in the body. These include, but are not limited to, tendons, ligaments, membranes, and fascia. Consonant.  A phoneme in which the movement of articulators significantly obstructs the airstream. Consonants may be either voiced (involving vibration of the vocal folds) or unvoiced (involving no vocal fold vibration). Constructive Rest.  A state where the body is at rest but the mind is actively guiding muscle releases. Also called Semi-Supine Rest or Active Rest. For further information, see http://www.constructiverest.com/. Core of the Body.  The weight-bearing portion of the spine formed of the vertebral bodies and cartilaginous discs and supported by the spinal muscles, ligaments, tendons, and fascia. Cost-.  Of or referring to ribs. Covering. The process whereby lower voices start closing vowels as they approach the upper middle of their range in order to transition into their head voice. Damping. Decreasing the amplitude of, or stopping, vibration. Diphthong.  Two successive vowel phonemes in the same syllable, in which the articulators begin at the position for one vowel and move to the position for another. Dorsum.  The upper surface of a body part, particularly the upper surface of the tongue. Dynamic Equilibrium.  Opposing muscles working in balance: one is releasing as the other contracts or recoils. Elastic Recoil.  The tendency of anatomical structures to return to the state they were in before being acted upon by another force. Epi-.  Upon or atop. Esophagus.  The muscular tube that connects the throat with the stomach. Excursion.  The extent to which an anatomical structure moves away from its resting position. Extrinsic Muscles.  Muscles that are attached to a structure from outside the structure itself. The tongue and the larynx are attached to the surrounding structures with extrinsic muscles. Facet.  A small, smooth place on a bone that forms the articulation of a joint with another bone. Facet Joints.  Joints of the spine where two small, smooth surfaces articulate, allowing a gliding motion. Falsetto.  The part of the male singing range in which the thyroarytenoids are inactive. Fascia. Thin, strong connective tissue that provides support for organs and muscles. Fascia can envelop, separate, and bind these structures together. Flute Register.  The part of the female singing range in which the thyroarytenoids are inactive. Foramen.  An opening in an anatomical structure. These occur most often in bone (for example, the vertebrae or the base of the skull) but can also occur in other structures, such as the diaphragm. Frequency.  The speed of vibration that determines the pitch of a sound. Glenoid Cavity. A shallow depression on the lateral angle of the scapula that articulates with the head of the humerus, forming the glenohumeral, or shoulder, joint. It is approximately the size and shape of a thumbprint. Also called the glenoid fossa. Glottal Fry.  A vocal register where the cricothyroid is inactive. Also called Pulse Register. Glottis.  The opening between the two sides of the larynx, each edge being defined by one side of the vocal folds and the corresponding arytenoid cartilage. Head Voice.  Common term for the highest part of the modal voice where the action of the cricothyroids predominates. Also called Loft Register, Mode 2.

GLOSSARY 297

Horn. In anatomy, a long protrusion that projects outward from the main body of a structure. On bones or cartilages, horns are often points of attachment for muscles or ligaments. Inclusive Awareness.  Conscious, simultaneous organized awareness of inner and outer experience. It is the skill of perceiving self and world simultaneously. Inferior.  (Anatomy) Below. Inter-. Between. International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). A system of denoting phonemes whereby each phoneme is represented by a particular symbol that is distinct to that phoneme, unlike the orthography of most languages, in which the same symbol can be used to represent multiple phonemes. Intrinsic Muscles.  Muscles whose attachments are contained wholly within a structure. In the larynx, the intrinsic muscles connect the laryngeal cartilages. Joint.  Location in the body where two bones, two cartilages, or a bone and a cartilage connect. Kinesthesia.  The sense of movement of the body and its constituent parts. This sense is mediated by sensory receptors located in muscles and tendons, especially in the joints. Larynx.  The complex structure that forms a valve between the throat and the trachea and creates the source of sound for singing and speaking. Lat-.  To the side. Ligament.  A tough, flexible, fibrous tissue that connects bone to bone, bone to cartilage, or cartilage to cartilage. Lumbar.  Pertaining to the lower back. For example, there are five vertebrae in the lumbar spine. Membrane.  A thin, elastic tissue that covers or lines a structure. Micromovement.  Very small movement(s). Mixed Register.  The part of the modal voice where the action of the cricothyroids and the thyroarytenoids is relatively equal in intensity. Modal Voice.  The part of the singing range in which both the thyroarytenoids and the cricothyroids are active. Muscle.  Elastic fibrous tissue in the body that is capable of contraction. Muscle Belly.  The fleshy part of a muscle. Many muscles, including the cricothyroids, digastrics, levatores costarum, rectus abdominis, and serratus anterior have multiple bellies. Muscle Insertion.  The point of attachment of a muscle that moves most during contraction. Muscle Origin.  The point of attachment of a muscle that remains relatively fixed during contraction. Nodules.  Calluses on the epithelium membrane, which covers the vocal folds. Colloquially (and inaccurately) called Nodes. Oblique.  At an angle. Offset.  The termination of phonation. Onset.  The initiation of phonation. Opposing Muscles.  Muscles that pull in opposite directions. Paired.  Structures that occur on both sides of the body, one the mirror image of the other. Palpate.  To explore by touch. Passaggio.  A transition between vocal registers. Phonation. The process of converting the air pressure from the lungs into an audible sound wave via vibration of the vocal folds. Phoneme.  The smallest unit of speech sound. Each phoneme is made by a specific movement of the vocal articulators: one movement = one phoneme.

298 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

Physiological Tremor Rate.  The rate of vibration innate to the body that occurs when muscle activity is sustained. Pitch.  The perceived fundamental frequency of a sound. Post-.  At the back. Process. A short protrusion that projects outward from the main body of a structure. On bones or cartilages, processes are often points of attachment for muscles or ligaments. Pronation.  Rotation of a joint or part toward the midline; specifically, rotation at the elbow that brings the palm to face downward. Pronunciation: The choice in the brain of sounds and stress patterns for a syllable, word, or phrase. Although the word “pronunciation” alone often is used to imply correct pronunciation according to some accepted standard, it is, of course, possible to choose (and thus pronounce) incorrectly. Raphe.  Seamlike connective tissue where two muscles join. Register.  In singing, a series of tones that are produced with similar movement. Release.  The tendency of muscles to return to their resting state after contracting. Resonance.  In singing, the filtering and amplification of the sound wave from the larynx in the vocal tract. Scanning.  (Body Mapping) Shifting from one point of concentration to another in rapid sequence. Sensory Receptor. Specialized cells that respond to a stimulus outside the cell (either physical or chemical) by sending signal through the nervous system to the brain. Singer’s Formant. An acoustical boost in resonance high in the range of overtones that allows a singer’s voice to carry over instruments and in large spaces. Often called the ring of the voice. Stanislavski, Konstantin.  The Russian actor and director (1863–1938) whose theories of acting were highly influential on all forms of theatre and film in the Western world in the twentieth century. Stanislavski is particularly noted in the United States for his influence on “the Method,” a term used loosely to describe the philosophy of Lee Strasberg, Stella Adler, Sanford Meisner, Uta Hagen, and others whose teaching came to dominate American acting styles from the 1940s onward. Superior.  (Anatomy) Above. Supination.  Rotation of a joint or part away from the midline; specifically, rotation at the elbow that brings the palm to face upward. Tendon.  A cord or band of fibrous connective tissue that connects muscles to bones. Tensegrity. An architectural term coined by Buckminster Fuller referring to structures that rely on discontinuous compression and continuous tension to maintain their structural integrity. Thoracic.  Pertaining to the chest region. For example, there are twelve thoracic vertebrae. Thorax.  The part of the torso defined by the twelve vertebrae below the neck and the ribs that attach to them. Tissue.  A collection of cells of a similar type that form an anatomical structure. Tonus.  The springiness in a muscle maintained by continuous, slight activity of the muscle fibers. Trachea.  The tube through which air flows to and from the lungs. Trans-. Across. Twang. A bright, resonant sound resulting from narrowing the aryepiglottic sphincter. Velum. The structure composed of muscle and membrane located between the nasal cavity and the oral cavity, commonly known as the soft palate. Viscera.  The contents of the abdominal cavity, including the stomach, spleen, liver, kidneys, intestines, and so forth.

GLOSSARY 299

Vocal Cords.  Colloquial term for Vocal Folds. Vocal Folds. The vibrating structure of the larynx composed of the vocalis muscle, vocal ligament, and epithelium membrane. Vowel.  A phoneme in which the vocal folds are vibrating and the other articulators do not significantly obstruct the air stream. Vowel Modification.  Altering the vowel slightly to improve the resonance. Whistle Tone or Whistle Register.  A sub-register within Falsetto or Flute where the pitch is raised by damping the posterior portion of the vocal ligaments.

Index Note:  Page numbers in italics indicate non-text material

A Abdomen, cross section of, 100 Abdominal cavity abdominal muscles and, 100, 105 diaphragm and, 80 pelvic floor and, 106–107 spine and, 34 viscera and, 73 Abdominal muscles, 74, 80, 99–107, 109, 119, 120, 121 adduction and, 158 articulation and, 109 diaphragm and, 80, 105, 119 emotion and, 245 exhalation and, 109 ribs and, 79, 80, 102–105, 119 support and, 117 Abdominal wall, 64, 79, 105 Acting for Singers, 243 Adam’s apple, 124, 132, 201 AES. See Aryepiglottic sphincter Alexander, F. M., 2, 14 Alexander Technique, 2, 14 Alveolar ridge, and articulation, 224–225, 233 Anatomy of Breathing, 90 Ankle joints, 34, 42, 56–58, 66, 262–264 balance and, 56–58, 262–264 front view, 56 side view, 57 A-O joint. See Atlanto-occipital joint Arms, 59–62, 249–261 appropriate effort and, 24–25 balance and, 38, 49, 59–62, 63–64, 66, 251 holding music score, 279–280 independence from ribs, 79, 80, 97, 109, 251–252 kinesthetic sense and, 10–11 micromovement and, 9 neck muscles and, 200 principles of muscles and, 23–24, 71 structure, 59–62, 249–261 Articulation, 213–239 abdominals and, 109 alveolar ridge and, 224–225, 233 aspiration and, 230–231 cheeks and, 196

diphthongs and, 234–236 hard palate in, 223, 225 jaw and, 167, 182, 206, 220–223 lips and, 198, 226, 228–229 legato and, 228, 230 pronunciation versus, 215 shadow vowels and, 232–233 style and, 236–237 teeth and, 224–225 tongue and, 185, 217–220 velum and, 223–224 vocal folds and, 227–230 Aryepiglottic muscles, 144, 202–203 Aryepiglottic sphincter (AES), 167, 202–203 twang and, 207–208 Arytenoid cartilages, 129, 135, 136, 138, 143, 144 movement of, 139–144, 145–147, 150 vocal ligaments and, 137, 138 Aspiration, 231–232 in melismatic singing, 232 Atlanto-occipital joint (A-O joint), 34, 42–46 balance and, 46–49, 57, 59, 64 phonation and, 126–127 resonance and, 168–170, 172, 204 Atlas vertebra, 34, 34, 36, 42, 48–49, 64 Attention, 12–13, 274–275 Awareness, 1, 3, 8, 11–14, 62–63, 74. 165, 204–205, 274–276, 281. See also Inclusive awareness

B Back breathing, 121 Balance, 17–69 ankle joints and, 56–59 arm structure and, 59–62, 251–252, 260, 279–280 atlanto-occipital joint (A-O joint) and, 42–43 articulation and, 220 benefits of, 17–18 breath support and, 117 breathing and, 70, definition, 18 feet and, 262–263, 277 head and, 46–49, 111, 125–127, 220 high heels and, 278 hip joints and, 51–55

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Balance  (continued) kinesthesia and, 9, 10, 42 knee joints and, 34, 42, 55–56, 63, 66, 261–262, 264, 267–268, 272 legs and, 261–262, 264 micromovement and, 9, 17 phonation and, 125–127, 159, 162 places of, 34, 40–62, 66 posture myths and, 18, 63–64, 252 resonance and, 168–170, 171, 199, 204–205 sitting in, 26, 51–54 spine and, 38–39, 64 spontaneity and, 271–274 swaying and, 270 tensegrity and, 28, 73 thoracic, 49–51 Belly breathing, 119, 120 Belting, 168 Berlin, Patricia, 90 Bernoulli, Daniel, 157 Bernoulli’s principle, 157–158 Body map, 1 biological basis of, 2 definition, 3 described, 3–5 elements of, 4–7, 19 how to correct and refine asking questions, 7, 21–22, 28 drawing, 21, 25 movement and, 3, 4, 17–18, 25, 28, 276 Body Mapping activities, 7 anatomy and, 4 as characterization tool, 242–246, 258, 262, 264, 271–274 benefits of, 1, 3–4, 5–6, 14, 17–18, 25, 64, 69, 97, 112, 211, 245, 246, 271 brain function, 276 common movement problems and, 254 complementary disciplines to, 14 definition, 3 described, 3–5 eradicating unwanted movements and, 246–248 kinesthesia and, 8–11 origins of, 2 scientific basis of, 293–294 Biotensegrity, See Tensegrity Breath support, 117. See also Support Breathing, 69–122 abdominal muscles and, 74–75, 80, 99–106, 109–110, 117 119

active, 75 arm balance and, 79, 80, 97, 251 articulation and, 230–232, 237 balance and, 70, 80, 88, 111, 117 bony framework of, 75–80 coordinated model of, 115 diaphragm and, 74–75, 80–88, 98, 105, 106, 109, 118, 119 dynamic equilibrium in, 74, 80, 105, 106, 117 errors in, 118–119 exhalation, 69, 74–75, 85–87, 88, 105, 109–110, 115–118. 119, 125 forced, 75, 109–110 gathering and lengthening of spine during, 74, 115–118 glottis and, 111, 112, 115, 117, 119, 125, 138 imagery, 120–121 legs and, 84, 108, 116, 120 muscles of, 74–75, 80–110 neck and, 111 overview of, 74–75 pelvic floor and, 106–109, 117 pelvis, balance of, and, 64 performance anxiety and, 284 ribs and, 74–75, 75–79, 88–98 silent, 112, 115 sternum and, 73, 74–75, 77, 78, 80, 89, 109, 111 support and, 117–118 summary, 74, 80, 98, 109 tonus and, 74, 80, 105, 106, 109, 117 tension in, 96, 97, 105–106, 108 vocal tract and, 111–115 Breathy sound, causes of, 140, 158–159, 210–211 Buccinator muscles, 167, 171–172, 195–196, 198, 209

C Calais-Germain, Blandine, 90, 122 Carpal tunnel, 294 Cartilage arytenoid, 129, 135, 138, 139–141, 143, 144, 147, 150 costal, 73, 74–75, 77–80, 89, 109, 117 cricoid, 129, 131–133, 138, 143, 144, 147, 150, 172 described, 23, 128 epiglottis, 129, 135–136, 202–203 jaw (TMJ), 177 laryngeal, 123, 124, 129, 131–138 recoil and, 70, 109, 117 spine and, 29 , 37, 116 trachea, 112, 114, 120

INDEX 303

thyroid, 124, 129, 132–135, 138, 143, 144, 147, 150, 172, 199–200, 208, 227 Central tendon, 74, 80, 83–85, 109 Cervical spine, 34, 37, 38, 66, 96, 116, 122, 168, 171, 220, 251 Character, 242–246 articulation and, 233, 236–237, 238 awareness and, 11, 271–274, 277 laryngeal movements and, 163 physical expression and, 247 arms and hands, 249–261 eyes, 266–268 facial muscles, 162, 268–269 legs, 261–266 resonance and, 194, 195, 214 tensegrity and, 28 Cheekbone (zygomatic bone), 265 lifting, 207 masseter and, 177 temporomandibular joint (TMJ) and, 175, 177, 221 Chest voice, 153, 154 strident sound and, 159 Chiaroscuro, 208 Clavicle. See Collarbone Coccyx, 34–35, 38, 52, 53 Co-contraction, 23, 70–71, 138 definition, 138 jaw and, 207, 222 Cognates, 227–228 Collarbone (clavicle), 59, 61, 79, 92, 97, 110, 249–253, 261, 279 Conable, Barbara, 2, 3, 6, 11, 12, 14, 22, 25, 269, 274 Conable, William, 2, 294 Concentration, 12 attention versus, 12–14, 206, 274–276 Condyles, 42, 173–1745 182, 184, 207, 221–222 Connective tissue, 8, 9, 17, 23, 25, 28, 45, 46. 99, 101, 117, 195, 221, 251, 261, 262, 266, 270, 272, 279 Constructive rest, 63 Conus elasticus, 130, 137, 138, 146, 150 Coronoid processes, 173, 177, 184 Costal cartilage, 73, 74–75, 77–80, 89, 109, 117 Costovertebral joints, 75–77 Covering, 208–209 Cricoid cartilage, 129, 131–133, 138, 143, 144, 147, 150, 172 Cricothyroid muscles, 130, 138, 143–144 pitch and, 145–150, 151–152 register and, 152–155, 159 vibrato and, 161

D Diaphragm, 49, 73, 74–75, 80–88, 98, 105, 106–107, 109, 110, 115, belly breathing and, 120 gathering and lengthening and, 116 mis-mapping, 119 ribs and, 80, 83, 85, 87, 88 silent inhalation and, 118 support and, 117 Digastric muscles, 177, 179–181, 184, 187, 223 Diphthongs, 234–236 Discs, spinal, 32, 37, 39, 49, 221, 262 recoil of in breathing, 64, 67, 74–75, 76, 85, 116, 118 Dynamic equilibrium, breathing and, 70–71, 74, 80, 105, 106, 117, described, 70, 138 registration and, 153–155 resonance and, 182, 206, 207 vibrato and, 161 Dynamics (loud and soft), 117, 160

E Elastic recoil breathing and, 70–71, 74–75, 109, 116, 117–118 described, 70 in the stride, 262–263 of cartilage, 70, 109, 116 phonation and, 157 Elbow, 59, 254–256 Emotion articulation and, 237 breathing and, 69 expression of, 249, 264–268, 271 extraneous movement and, 269–270 kinesthesia versus, 245–246 performance anxiety and, 284, 289, 290 resonance and, 165, 198 Epiglottis cartilage, 129, 135–136, 202–203 Epithelium membranes, 130, 146, 150, 157, 162 Esophagus, 84, 112–114, 120, 171–172 Eustachian tubes, 192, 194 Excursion, 70 breathing and, 10, 74, 80, 98, 105, 127, 252 described, 70 of ribs, 10, 90, 98, 105, 252 Exhalation, 69, 74–75, 109, 100 abdominals and, 105–106, 117, 109 air pressure and, 119, 120

304 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

Exhalation  (continued) articulation and, 233, 237–238 diaphragm and, 85–88 forced, 109–110 intercostals and, 96 lengthening of spine during, 116–117, 220, 263 phonation during, 125 regulation of, 80, 117–118, 119 External obliques, 99–100, 102–103 External thyroarytenoids, 145, 151. See also Thyroarytenoid muscles Extrinsic muscles larynx and, 124, 151, 161, 168, 199, 202 tongue and, 185, 188, 190, 202, 207 vibrato and, 161, 202 Eyes, mapping, 266–269

F Facial expressions, 264–268 Fagioli, Franco, 154 Falsetto, 153–155 Fascia, 8, 17, 25, 37, 45, 51, 66, 70, 103, 104 tensegrity and, 28, 71–73 Feldenkrais, Moshe, 14 Femur (thighbone), 51–53, 55, 84 Fiametti, Roger, 87 Flute register, 153–155 Foot (feet), 120, 162, 244, 247, 271, 277–278 arches of, 58, 262–264 L-shaped, 57 tripod, 58, 59, 66, 262, 264, 277–278 weight delivery through, 36, 56–59, 66, 117, 262–264 Foramen, vertebrae, 35–36, 39 Forced Exhalation, 75, 109–110 Forced Inhalation, 75 Frequency (cycles per second), 125, 150

G Genioglossus muscles, 185–187, 190, 218 Geniohyoid muscles, 180, 187 Gesture articulation as, 213–215, 219, 228, 232–234, 236–237 avoiding stock/stereotypical, 271-274 balance and, 48, 49 breathing and, 97, 115 distinction between emotion and, 245–246 eradicating unwanted, 269–271

mapping, 247 arms, 249–261 eyes and visual focus, 266–269 facial expressions, 268–269 legs, 261–266 problems of, 269–271 neck muscles and, 115, 200 Gilmore, Robin, 14, 64 Glenohumeral (shoulder, upper arm) joint, 59–61, 91, 252, 261 Glossary, 295–299 of breathing structures, 73 of laryngeal anatomy, 128–129, 138 Glottal fry register, 153–154, 161 Glottal closure, 158–159, 160, 161 onset and offset, 155–156 stop, 229–230, 238 Glottis as articulator, 215–216, 229–230 breathing and, 111, 112, 115, 117, 119 described, 128 degrees of adduction and, 158–159, 160 dynamics and, 160 muscles affecting the opening of, 130, 139–144, 150 onset and offset and, 155–156 phonation and, 125, 157–158 support and, 117 Greater trochanter, 53

H Hard palate, 190 as an articulator, 215–217, 224–225 Head (skull) balance, 10–11, 13, 34, 36, 38, 42–49, 88, 111, 125–127, 159, 167, 168–171, 272 imagery, 64 facial expression and, 265, 266, 267, 269 jaw and, 6–7, 174–177, 179, 182, 184, 220–222 fascia and, 51 gathering and lengthening and, 117 hard palate and, 224–225 mask and, 206 movement of, 36, 200, 207, 271, 279 torso and, 7, 54 weight of, 38, 42 visual focus and, 268 Head voice, 153, 154, 159, 199, 208, 210 High heels and balance, 278

INDEX 305

Hip joints balance and, 10, 22, 34, 42, 51–54, 66 bending forward from, 3, 54–55 breathing and, 10, 84, 108, 158 bowing from, 3 pelvic floor and, 108 tucking pelvis and, 64 Holding music score, 279–280 Hooper, Kay S., 62 How to Learn the Alexander Technique, 2 Humerus (upper arm bone), 91, 92, 252–254, 261 Humeroscapular, (scapulohumeral) rhythm, 79, 253–254 Hyoglossus muscles, 185, 188, 190, 201–202 Hyoid bone, 123–124, 125–126, 136 digastric muscle and, 179 geniohyoids and, 180 head balance and, 125–126, 168 hyoglossus and, 190, 201 position of larynx and, 130, 190, 202, 204 middle pharyngeal constrictor and, 171–172 mylohyoids and, 180 omohyoid muscle and, 190 sternohyoid muscle and, 190 superior horns of thyroid cartilage and, 132 tongue and, 185–188, 201, 204, 217, 220

I Iliac crest, 38, 52, 53, abdominal muscles and, 101, 103 distance from lower ribs, 105 Inclusive Awareness, 1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 11–14, 64, 281. See also Awareness experiencing appropriate effort and, 24–25, 64 concentration versus, 12–13, 274–276 described, 3, 11 of breathing, 73–75 head balance and, 47–48, of resonance, 166, 204–205 of skeletal system, 26, 38, 40 resources for developing, 42, 62–63 thoracic balance and, 51 Inferior horns of thyroid cartilage, 132, 134, 136, 138 Inferior (lower) pharyngeal constrictors See Pharyngeal constrictors Inguinal ligament abdominal muscles and, 103, 104 described, 101 Inhalation, 69–109 abdominal muscles and, 80, 99–106, 109, 117, 119, 120

active versus forced, 75, 90, 109 arm balance and, 97, 109, 252 audible, 112, 113, 118 characterization and, 69, 242 coordinated, model of, 115 described, 74, 109 diaphragm and, 80–88, 98, 109, 117 gathering and, 74, 115–117, 118 lungs and, 110 neck and, 111 pelvic floor and, 80, 106–109, 117 ribs and, 3, 75–80, 88–98, 109, 117, 121 size of, 118–119, soft palate and, 121 spine and, 75, 80, 84–85 support and, 117 tongue and, 118 glottis and, 138, 139, 142 vocal tract and, 112 voluntary control of, 75 Interactive Atlas of the Larynx, 137 Interarytenoid muscles, 129, 130, 141. See also Transverse arytenoid muscles Intercostal muscles, 90, 95–96, 98 Internal obliques, 99, 100, 103, 104 Internal thyroarytenoids, 145–146, 150, 151, 157, 162. See also Vocalis muscles Intonation, 160, 162, 209–210, 228, 269 Intrinsic muscles of the larynx, 124, 130 actions, 130, 138, 150, 151, 157, 162 described, 130 dynamics and, 160 effect of head balance on, 126–127, 168 vibrato and, 161 of the tongue, 186–187, 190, 207

J Jaw, 173–184 as an articulator, 182, 215–217, 220–223, 225, 226 buccinators and, 196 emotion and, 245 head balance and, 47–49 hyoid bone and, 125 mapping activities for, 7 mis-mapping, 6, 206–207 movers, 177–184 resonance and, 165, 167–168 173–184, 204, 205, 206–207, 211 pharyngeal constrictors and, 171–172

306 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

Jaw  (continued) shaking, 207 tongue and, 185–187, 202, 218 independence from tongue, 189, 222 vowel formation and, 208–209, 243 Joints acromioclavicular, 249 ankle, 34, 42, 56–59, 66, 262–264, 276–278 as places of balance, 34, 42, 66 arm, 42, 59, 88, 249–258, 261 atlanto-occipital joint (A-O joint), 34, 42–46 balance and, 46–49, 57, 59, 64 phonation and, 126–127 resonance and, 168–170, 172, 204 costotransverse, 77 costovertebral, 75–77, 79 described, 23, 29 elbow, 59, 254–256 facet, 36–37 hand, 258, 261 hip balance and, 10, 22, 34, 42, 51–54, 66 bending forward from, 3, 54–55 breathing and, 10, 84, 108, 158 bowing from, 3 pelvic floor and, 108 tucking pelvis and, 64 kinesthesia and, 8, 9, 22 knee joints, 34, 42, 55–56, 57, 63, 66, 261–262, 264, 272–273 laryngeal, 132, 135 leg, 261 sacroiliac, 38, 101 sensory receptors and, 8 shoulder, 249–252 spinal, 36–37 sternoclavicular, 59, 61, 250, 249–250, 252 sternocostal, 78, 79 synovial fluid in, 29 temporomandibular (TMJ, jaw joint), 7, 173–177, 184, 221–222 wrist, 257, 261

K Kinesthesia (kinesthetic sense), 1, 8–11 determining optimal movement and, 9–11 arms and, 58, 64 articulation and, 213–215, 220, 223–236 awakening and strengthening, 8–9

awareness and, 11–12 described, 3, 8 emotions versus, 245–246 feet and, 59 head balance and, 45, 47, 48 resources, 62–63 resonance and, 165, 205 spine and, 38, 39, 40, 42 tension and, 23–25 thoracic balance and, 51 Knee joints, 55–56, 57, 261–262 balance and, 34, 42, 55–56, 63, 66, 261–262, 264, 267–268, 272

L Lamina propria, 130, 146 Laryngeal cartilages, described, 129, 131–138. See also Arytenoid cartilages; Epiglottis cartilage; Cricoid cartilage; Thyroid cartilage Laryngeal muscles. See also Aryepiglottic muscles; Cricothyroid muscles; External thyroarytenoids; Interarytenoid muscles; Internal thyroarytenoids; Lateral cricoarytenoid muscles; Oblique arytenoid muscles; Posterior cricoarytenoid muscles; Transverse arytenoid (interarytenoid) muscles; Vocalis muscles described, 130, 138–150 effect of head balance on, 127, 168 naming of, 129 onset and offset and, 155–156 pitch and, 150–152 registers and, 152–155 versus neck muscles, 127 Larynx articulation and, 237 breathing and, 74, 111, 112, 120 breathiness and, 158 cartilages of, 129, 131–138. See also Cartilage, laryngeal extrinsic muscles of. See Extrinsic muscles functions in singing, 125 dynamics and, 160 glossary of, 128–129 head balance and, 45, 125–127, 168–170, 221 hyoid bone and, 125–126, 130, 217 intrinsic muscles of, 130, 138–150. See also Laryngeal muscles location of, 123–124

INDEX 307

modeling clay model of, 130 muscles that move the, 199–202. See also Extrinsic muscles nodules in, 162 overview of, 123–125, 129–130 pharynx and, 171, 206, 208 resonance and, 165, 167–168, 199–202, 207–208, 209, 210–211 sensory receptors in, 123 size of, 123–124 strident sound and, 159 style and, 204–205 support and, 117 survival function of, 124 swallowing and, 120, 124 tight sound and, 160 tongue and, 188–189, 202, 217 vibration of, 157–158 vibrato and, 161 vowel modification and, 209 Lateral cricoarytenoid muscles, 129, 130, 138, 140–142, 143, 144, 150 Lateral pterygoids, 182, 184 Legato, articulation and, 227, 230, 232, 237–238 Legs balance and, 26, 51–59, 64 breathing and, 84, 108, 116, 120 gesture and, 261–264, 271 Levator veli palatini muscles (palate lifters), 191–192, 194, 205 Levatores costarum muscles, 90, 95, 96, 98, 116 Ligaments, 9 acromioclavicular joint and, 249 cricotracheal, 131, 138 described, 23, 37, 128 elastic recoil and, 70, 262, 264 epiglottic, 135 fascia and, 17, 25, 28, 73 inguinal, 101–102, 103, 104 hyoid and, 125, 132 knee and, 55 spinal discs as, 36 vocal, 129, 130, 137, 138, 139–141, 145–146, 147, 150, 151, 154, 157, 162 Likar, Amy, 3 Linea alba, 99 Lips (orbicularis oris muscles), 167, 197–199 as an articulator, 198, 215, 226 audible inhalation and, 112 buccinators and, 195–196

diphthongs and, 234–235 resonance and, 165, 167, 197–199 style and, 167–168, 204 Lower (inferior) pharyngeal constrictors 171–172. See also Pharyngeal constrictors open throat and, 173, 201 palatopharyngeus and, 193 singer’s formant (ring) and, 208 Lumbar spine, 33–35 as place of balance, 34, 65–66 curve of, 33, 35, 39 size of, 34 thoracic balance and, 42, 51, 55, 57, 59, 65, 247, 262 vertebrae of, 33–35 diaphragm and, 83–84, 116 psoas and, 84, 116 weight delivery through, 38 Lungs, 74–75, 110–111, 132 air pressure and, 69–70, 74–75, 98, 109, 110 breathing imagery and, 119–120 cross section of, 111 described, 74, 110 diaphragm and, 74–75, 82, 85 thorax and, 34, 49, 74, 75, 98

M Mandible. See Jaw Mask, placement in, 206 Masseter muscles, 177–179, 181, 182, 184, 221–223 Maxilla, 7, 190, 220, 222, 225, 226. See also Hard palate Medial pterygoids, 182–184 Melismatic singing, aspiration in, 230, 232 Meniscus, 221 Micromovement, 1, 9, 10, 11, 17, 66, 168, 270–271, 273–274, 289 Microphone, singing with, 236, 253 Middle pharyngeal constrictors. See Pharyngeal constrictors Mirror, as a Body Mapping tool, 5, 7, 9, 18, 21–22, 26, 39, 47, 48, 51, 59, 62. 116, 189, 194, 201, 223–224, 234–235, 250–251, 254 Mis-Mappings (mapping errors, mistakes), 25, 269, 276 abdominals, 105, 119, 120, 121 air, 121 articulation, 217, 231 arms, 249, 252, 256

308 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

Mis-Mappings (mapping errors, mistakes) (continued) atlanto-occipital (A-O) joint, 47 brain function, 276 cheek muscles (zygomatic muscles), 193, 265, 269 cheekbones, 207 diaphragm, 119 emotion, 245 eyebrows, 162, 193, 207, 265–266, 269, 276 facial muscles, 193, 266 head balance, 38 heel, 57 jaw, 6, 174, 176–177, 179, 206, 207, 220 knee, 55 larynx, 123 lips, 198, 226 lungs, 110 masseter, 179 micromovement, 270–271 pharynx, 171, 173, 206 phonation, 227 pitch, 266 posture, 18 ribs, 75, 98, 119, 243 spine (backbone), 6, 38, 40, 63 soft palate (velum), 205, 206 stillness, 270 temporalis, 179 temporomandibular joint (TMJ), 177, 207 thorax, 49, 262, 263 toes, 58, 120, 162, 264, 276, 277 tongue, 189, 217, 218 torso, 6, 7, 55 trachea, 112 velum (soft palate) 205, 206 voiced consonants, 228 waist, 55 zygomatic muscles (cheek muscles) 193, 265, 269 Mixed voice, 153, 154, 159, 210 Modal voice, 153–154, 159 Muscle activity, terms describing, 70–71, 138 Muscular process, 135–136, 139, 140, 143–144 Music score, holding, 279–280 Mylohyoid muscles, 180, 187, 201

N Nayak, Krishna, 211 Neck cervical spine and, 34 gathering and lengthening of spine and, 116–117

head balance and, 10, 13, 38, 43, 46–49, 126, 167, 168–170 larynx and, 123, 124, 127, 132, 149, 200–202 breathing and, 96, 111–115, 120, 158 muscles, 45–49, 96, 127, 158, 159, 160, 200–202, 247 pharynx and, 171 posture and, 63–64 tension, 160, 220, 221 tongue and, 188 Nesmith, David, 63 Nichols, T. Richard, 2, 293 Nix, John, 161 Nodules, preventing vocal, 162

O Oblique arytenoid muscles, 129, 130, 138, 141, 143, 150, 202 Occipital condyles, 42 Occipitalfrontalis muscle, 269 Offset of phonation, 138, 155–156 Omohyoid muscles, 199–201 Onset of phonation, 138, 155–156 Opposing muscles, 70–71, 138, 139 breathing and, 80, 105–106 larynx and, 145, 150, 153 Orbicularis oris muscles. See Lips Ostwald, David, 243

P Paired muscles, 90, 99, 137, 138, 147, 179, 180 Palatoglossus muscles, 185, 190, 192–193, 194, 196 Palatopharyngeus, 192–193, 194, 196 Palpate, 7, 15, 21, 22, 34, 36, 38, 52, 53, 57, 87, 105, 114, 132, 181, 250 Pectoralis muscles, 90, 92–93, 97, 98 Pelvic floor, 64, 74, 80, 85, 99, 106–109, 117, 120 Pelvis, 7, 31, 34, 38, 51–54, 64, 84, 91, 99, 101, 105, 106–107 Performance anxiety, 12, 283–292 Pharyngeal constrictors, 170–173 inferior (lower) pharyngeal constrictors, 172 open throat and, 187, 192 palatopharyngeus and, 180 singer’s formant (ring) and, 193 middle pharyngeal constrictors, 171–172 superior (upper) pharyngeal constrictors, 171 buccinator and, 171, 193, 195 levator veli palatini muscles and, 192

INDEX 309

Pharynx, 73, 170–173, 206. See also Pharyngeal constrictors audible inhalation and, 112 auditory tubes and, 188 breathing and, 74–75, 120 buccinators (cheeks) and, 196 esophagus and, 112 singer’s formant (ring) and, 202, 208 tongue and, 190, 217, 220 velum and, 190–191, 206 Phonation, 157–158 adduction (glottal closure) for, 115, 138, 139–142 articulation and, 227–228, 232–233, 237, 265 breath support and, 117 breathy sound and, 117, 158 210 described, 125, 157–158 flow, 157 framework of, 137 glottal fry and, 154 head balance and, 45, 127, 168 intrinsic muscles and. See Laryngeal Muscles neck muscles and, 127 nodules and, 162 onset and offset of, 138, 155–156 problems with, 123 vibrato and, 161 Phonemes, 213–215 alveolar ridge and, 224–225 aspirate, 230–231, 232, 233 diphthongs and, 234–236 glottal, 229, 230 hard palate and, 224, 225 lips and, 226 shadow vowels and, 232–233 teeth and, 224–225 tongue and, 217, 219–220 velum and, 223–224, 225 vocal folds and, 227–230, 237, 238 Physiological tremor rate, 161 Pillars (stem), of diaphragm, 83 Pitch, 125, 145–152 articulation and, 227, 228–230, 237, 238 eyebrows and, 162, 265–266, 269, 276 facial muscles and, 265–266 hands and, 279 head balance and, 127 inhalation and, 112 intonation and, 160, 209–210 muscles that determine, 130, 138, 145–152 notation of, 269 onset and offset of, 155–156

register and, 152–155 scientific name for, 125 toes and, 162, 276 variation in speech, 125 vowels and, 208–209, 222, 223 vibrato and, 161 Placement in mask, 206 Pleural sac, 74, 82, 110 Posterior cricoarytenoid muscles, 129, 130, 138–139, 142, 143–144, 150 Posture, 6, 22 mapping the word, 18 myths, 63–64, 252–254, 267 spontaneity and, 271 Psoas, 84–85, 116, 120 Pterygoids. See Lateral, Medial Pterygoids Pubic bone, 99, 101, 103, 105 Pulse register. See Glottal fry register

R Radius, 254–261 Raphe, 193, 195 Rectus abdominis, 99, 103, 104, 105 Rectus sheath, 100, 102, 103, 104 Registration. See Vocal registers Resonance aryepiglottic sphincter and, 167, 202–203, 207–208 buccinators and, 167, 171–172, 195–196 described, 154 frequently asked questions, 207–211 head balance and, 168–170 images and pitfalls of, 205–207 inclusive awareness in developing, 165, 204–205 larynx and, 165, 167–168, 199–202, 207–208, 209, 210–211 lips and, 165, 167, 197–199 mandible (jaw) and, 165, 167–168 173–184, 204, 205, 206–207, 211 structures of, 167, 168–203 pharyngeal constrictors and, 170–173, 202, 208 tongue and, 184–190, 201–202 velum (soft palate) and, 190–194, 205–206, 207 Rib cage, 75, 79, 119 Ribs, 75–80 abdominals and, 80, 99, 102–105, 119 arm structure and, 61, 64, 97, 251–252 breath support and, 117 breathing and, 3. 72–73, 88–98, 121, 243 costal cartilage and, 73 diaphragm and, 74, 80, 83–88, 109

310 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

Ribs  (continued) exhalation and, 109–110, 119 excursion of, 10, 74, 90, 98, 105, 252 floating, 78 gathering and lengthening and, 116 lungs and, 110–111 muscles that lift, 74–75, 90–97 spine and, 6, 34, 38, 39, 75–80, 89 sternum and, 73, 77–79, 88 thorax and, 49, 75–80

S Sacrococcygeal curve, 35 Sacroiliac joints, 38, 101 Sacrum, 34–35, 38, 52, 53, 101 Scalene muscles, 90, 96, 98, 111, 116, 180 Scapulae (shoulder blades), 59, 61, 79, 93, 94, 97, 199, 249–254, 258, 261, 276, 279 Scanning, rapid, 12–14, 276 Self-conducting, 279 Sensory receptors, 8 atlanto-occipital (A-O) joint and, 42–43 diaphragm and 87, 118 larynx and, 123 neck muscles and, 127 places of balance and, 42 thorax and, 42 vocal tract and, 112, 165 Sensory Tune-ups, 62 Sequential concentration. See Scanning, rapid Serratus anterior muscles, 90, 93–94, 98, 102 Serratus posterior superior muscles, 94, 98, 116 Shadow vowels, 232–233 Shoulder blades. See Scapulae Shoulder (glenohumeral, upper arm) joint, 42, 59–60, 91, 252, 261 Sinav, Ahmet, 13 Singer’s formant (ring), 201, 202, 207–208 twang and, 202, 208 Sit bones, 7, 52, 53–54 torso and, 54 Skeletal models, 21, 25, 34, 35, 36, 45, 67 Skeletal muscles, 23 Skeleton, 19–40 balance and, 40–66 biotensegrity and, 76 breathing and, 75, 117 Skull. See Head Soft palate. See Velum Somatic disciplines, complementary, 14

Spinal cord, housing/protection of, 35–36, 38, 39 Spine. See also Cervical, Lumbar, Thoracic. functions of, 38–40 gathering and lengthening of, 39, 64, 74, 115–117 head balance over, 10–11, 13, 34, 36, 38, 42–49, 88, 111, 125–127, 159, 167, 168–171, 272 inhalation and, 115–117 location of, 34–37 structure of, 34–37 Spinous processes of vertebrae, 34–36, 38, 39, 91 transverse, 76, 96 Stanislavski, Konstantin, 243, 268 Stem (pillars) of diaphragm, 83 Sternoclavicular joint, 59, 61, 250, 249–250, 252 Sternocleidomastoid muscles, 111 Sternocostal joints, 78, 79 Sternohyoid muscle, 199–202 Strident sound, causes of, 153, 159 Styloglossus muscles, 185, 190 Subglottic pressure, 157, 161 Sumac, Yma, 154 Superior horns, 132, 134, 136 hyoid bone and, 132 Superior (upper) pharyngeal constrictors. See Pharyngeal constrictors Support, 17, 37, 45, 117–118 at atlanto-occipital (A-O) joint, 42, 64 breath, 105, 117–118 fascia and, 37, 73, 272 imagery, 120 skeletal, 17, 19, 21, 25–26, 64, 262–264, 270–272, 279–280 spine and, 28, 38, 63, 64

T Tailbone. See Coccyx Teeth, 203 as an articulator, 182, 214, 215–217, 224–225, 227 clenching, 179 jaw and, 6, 167, 174, 175, 177, 184, 207, 220, 222 lips (orbicularis oris) and, 197, 204, 226 tongue and, 167, 179, 187–189, 204, 223 Temporalis muscles, 177–182, 184, 221– 222 Temporomandibular joint (TMJ), 7, 173–177, 184, 221–222 syndrome, 177 Tendons, 4, 9, 17, 25, 28, 70, 73, 100 central, 74, 80, 83–85, 109 described, 23, 37 recoil and, 70

INDEX 311

stem (pillars) of diaphragm, 83 Tendonitis, 294 Tensegrity, (biotensegrity), 26–28, 71–73 Tensor veli palatini muscles, 191–192, 194, 205 “The Scientific Basis of Body Mapping,” 2, 293 The Thinking Body, 14 Thighbone (femur) 51–53, 55, 84 Thoracic (chest), 73 balance, 34, 42, 49–51, 55, 57, 59, 64, 247, 262 cavity, 69, 74–75, 80, 89, 98, 109, 110, 121 curve, 33, 34, 35, 38, 75 spine, 6, 34, 35, 36, 38, 49, 75, 76, 80, 110, 116, 251 vertebrae, 34, 75, 80 Thorax (chest), 49, 75 Thyroarytenoid muscles, 130, 138, 145–147, 150, 151 external, 130, 151 internal (vocalis), 145–146, 150, 151, 157, 162 pitch and, 150–151 register and, 152–155 Thyroid cartilage, 124, 129, 132–135, 138, 143, 144, 147, 150, 172, 199–200, 208, 227 cricothyroid muscle and, 147–149 pitch and, 130, 138, 145, 150–152 Tight sound, causes of, 123, 158, 160 TMJ. See Temporomandibular joint Todd, Mabel, 14 Toes breathing to, 120 gripping with, 58, 277–278 high notes and, 162, 276–277 role in walking, 262–264 tapping, 264, 279 Tongue as an articulator, 217–220 breathing and, 74, 112, 118, 120 digastric muscles and, 179 extrinsic muscles of, 185, 188, 190, 192–194, 218. See also Genioglossus muscles; Hyoglossus muscles; Palatoglossus muscles; Styloglossus muscles independence from mandible (jaw), 189, 207, 222, 223 inhalation and, 112 intrinsic muscles of, 185–186 jaw and, 174–175 low larynx and, 123, 201, 202 pharynx and, 171–172 resonance and, 165, 167, 184–190, 201, 202, 204, 205 septum of, 186–187 tension, 184, 188–189, 207

trembling, 207 vowel modification and, 208–209 Tonus, 23, 70, 73, 74, 80, 105, 106, 109, 117, 158, 161, 199 Torso, 6, 7, 54 abdominals and, 105 balance and, 6 hip joints and, 54–55 in breathing, 88, 108, 109, 117, 120 weight delivery of, 34, 38, 51 Trachea, 73, 74, 112–114, 120 larynx and, 123, 125, 130, 131, 137, 138, 157 Transverse arytenoid (interarytenoid) muscles, 129, 130, 138, 141–144 Transversus (transverse) abdominis, 99, 100, 104 Transverse process, 76 Twang, 202, 208

U Ulna, 254–255, 257, 258–260, 261 University of Cincinnati College-Conservatory of Music, 90 Upper (superior) pharyngeal constrictors. See Pharyngeal constrictors Uvular muscle, 190–192

V Velum (soft palate), 73, 167, 190–194 as an articulator, 190, 215–216, 217, 222, 223–224, 225, 229 breathing and, 73, 74, 112, 121 facial muscles and, 194 imagery and, 205, 206, 207 movements of, 194 resonance and, 165, 167, 190–194, 204, 205, 211 style and, 167–168, 194, 204–205 zygomatic (cheek) muscles and, 265, 269 Vena cava, 84 Vertebrae, 17, 34–38 arm structure and, 251, 261 atlas, 34, 36, 42–45 axis, 36 body (bodies) of, 35, 36, 38, 39, 76 costovertebral joints of, 76–77 diaphragm and, 83 discs and, 32, 34, 35, 36–37, 38, 39 facet joints of, 36 foramen of, 35, 36 fused, 34–35, 38, 52, 63, 64

312 WHAT EVERY SINGER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT THE BODY

Vertebrae  (continued) gathering together of, 74, 115–117 numbering, 34–35, 63, 64, 75, 80 pharynx (throat) and, 167, 171 psoas and, 84–85 ribs and, 76–77, 79, 80 rib lifters and, 91, 94, 96 size of, 35 spinous processes of, 34, 35, 36, 39 torso defined by, 54 thorax defined by, 75 weight-bearing portion of, 38, 76 Vibrato, 123, 125, 161, 202 Viscera, 73, 74, 82, 85, 100, 105, 106, 109, 119, 120, 121 Visible Speech Project, 219 Visual focus, mapping, 266–269 Vocal cords, vs. vocal folds, 129, 162 Vocal folds, 75, 129, 129–130, 137, 146, 150 abduction and adduction of, 138–144, 150 air (subglottic) pressure and, 120 articulation and, 227–230, 232, 233, 237 breathy sound and, 158–159, 210 described, 129, 130, 145–146 dynamics and, 160 exhalation and, 117 glottis and, 112, 117, 125, 128 inhalation and, 112, 138 intonation and, 266, 269, 276 nodules on, 162 onsets and offsets and, 155–156 pitch and, 145, 147–149, 150–152, 199 registers and, 152–155, 199 strident sound and, 159 tight sound and, 159 vibration of, 117, 125, 157–158, 162, 199, 226 vocal ligaments and, 137 vs. vocal cords, 129, 162 weight and, 152 Vocal hemorrhage, 162 Vocal ligaments, 130, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 145, 146, 147, 150, 162 falsetto/flute registers and, 154

Vocal process, 135 laryngeal muscles and, 137–143, 150 vocal ligaments and, 138 Vocal registers, 151, 152–155, 159 intonation and, 160, 210 laryngeal position and, 201 placement and, 206 vibrato and, 161 vowel matching and, 209 vowel modification and, 208–209 Vocal tract, 166, 171, 172, 204 as resonator, 75, 125, 165, 206 at rest, 166–167 awareness of, 204–205 breathing and, 111–115, 120, 121 breath support and 117 creating space in (open throat), 173, 201, 206 efficient resonance in, 173, 210–211 in motion, 167–168, 205 surfaces of, tensing, 173 vowels and, 208–209 Vocalis muscles, 145–146, 150, 151, 157, 162 Vowel matching, 209 Vowel modification, 208–209

W What Every Dancer Needs to Know About the Body, 14, 64 What Every Musician Needs to Know About the Body, 2, 6, 14 “What to Do About Performance Anxiety,” 12, 283 Whistle tone (flageolet register), 153–155 Wrist, 59, 257–258, 261, 280

Y Yan, Irene, 211

Z Zygomatic bone. See Cheekbone Zygomatic muscles. See Cheek muscles