Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health (Approaches to Global Sustainability, Markets, and Governance) 981153618X, 9789811536182

Citation preview

Approaches to Global Sustainability, Markets, and Governance Series Editors: David Crowther · Shahla Seifi

Nicole Cvenkel

Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health

Approaches to Global Sustainability, Markets, and Governance Series Editors David Crowther, Faculty of Business and Law, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK Shahla Seifi, University of Derby, Derby, UK

Approaches to Global Sustainability, Markets, and Governance takes a fresh and global approach to issues of corporate social responsibility, regulation, governance, and sustainability. It encompasses such issues as: environmental sustainability and managing the resources of the world; geopolitics and sustainability; global markets and their regulation; governance and the role of supranational bodies; sustainable production and resource acquisition; society and sustainability. Although primarily a business and management series, it is interdisciplinary and includes contributions from the social sciences, technology, engineering, politics, philosophy, and other disciplines. It focuses on the issues at a meta-level, and investigates the ideas, organisation, and infrastructure required to address them. The series is grounded in the belief that any global consideration of sustainability must include such issues as governance, regulation, geopolitics, the environment, and economic activity in combination to recognise the issues and develop solutions for the planet. At present such global meta-analysis is rare as current research assumes that the identification of local best practice will lead to solutions, and individual disciplines act in isolation rather than being combined to identify truly global issues and solutions.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15778

Nicole Cvenkel

Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health

123

Nicole Cvenkel My Work & Well-Being Consulting Inc., Prince George, BC, Canada

ISSN 2520-8772 ISSN 2520-8780 (electronic) Approaches to Global Sustainability, Markets, and Governance ISBN 978-981-15-3618-2 ISBN 978-981-15-3619-9 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3619-9 © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Foreword

From a historical standpoint, the workplace has traditionally been viewed as task oriented with the main focus being on productivity and very little focus being on employee well-being. The employee was responsible for his own welfare that was not directly related to his work. From the eighteenth century onwards, it gradually became recognised that the effectiveness of the workplace is tied directly to the well-being of the worker. To this end, efforts to address well-being at work gradually began focusing on worker well-being, albeit in a limited way by addressing issues such as mental health or by promoting a safe and healthy working environment. Many workplaces have taken steps to improve well-being at work by implementing mental health programmes, paying for gym memberships or promoting programmes that teach about health and safety and wellness management. Many of the programmes are generalised and would be considered as a one size fit all. Consequently, no attention is paid to the needs of individual workers or those who may fall into specific generational and occupational categories. Furthermore, it is becoming more evident that well-being at work is not always an issue that can be directly addressed by implementing work-based solutions, as many employees are affected by conflicts related to personal challenges, their family life, their marriage, and their community. As such, well-being at work needs to be addressed in a holistic manner and needs to encompass every aspect of the life of the worker. This may include the individual’s psychological well-being, family, marriage or partner relationship, his/her faith, finances, opportunities for rest and relaxation, and many other aspects of an individual’s life. Moreover, given the fact that individuals live longer and remain in the workplace for a much longer period, the workplace consists of individuals that span several generations from the Silent Generation to the Millennials and Generation Z. Persons in each of these groups have different challenges and therefore have different needs. In order to be inclusive and to ensure that the needs of every worker are met, well-being at work programmes and strategies should therefore not be a one size fit all but should be tailored to meet the needs of individuals from each of these generations. v

vi

Foreword

Well-being in the workplace is therefore an all-encompassing and multidimensional phenomenon which continues to attract more and more research aimed at determining how best to enhance such well-being to make the workplace healthier from both a physical and mental and emotional standpoint. Needless to say, much research is needed in the area of worker well-being. This current work is the product of extensive qualitative and quantitative research done by Dr. Nicole Cvenkel in this area. By conducting extensive interviews, focus groups, and questionnaire surveys, the writer was able to garner the perspectives of employees, union, and senior personnel in various sectors. The book is also valuable in that it is the end product of research done not only in the Canadian context but also in the UK. This makes the book different from other works on well-being in that the reader is able to show that despite differences in geographical location and culture there are certain common threads that exist in relation to worker well-being. The book presents the perspectives of both the employee and the employer and discusses various elements of well-being such as work-related stress, mental health, work-life balance, leadership, violence in the workplace, multigenerational workforce and well-being, and the holistic multidimensional nature of well-being in the workplace. These discussions are done within nineteen chapters. Chapter 1 introduces and explores employee well-being research and sets the historical and development context for well-being at work and how it has evolved over the decades. Chapter 2 addresses the issue of the historical and theoretical debates in human resource management and high-performing organisations and highlights the development of HRM and introduction of the welfare of employees as well as the high-commitment HRM practices that promotes well-being and high performance in organisations. Chapter 3 reviews the literature of well-being at work and highlights the multidimensional nature of workplace well-being that focuses on the individual, groups, and the organisation. Chapter 4 is a conceptual chapter that explores how well-being at work can be constructed to bring to live the meaning of well-being from social actors within an organisation. Chapter 5 discusses a methodological approach that can be adopted for well-being at work research and shares with the reader the author’s personal experiences of the work environment and interaction with informants from a broader research that was conducted on workplace well-being in the UK. Chapter 6 extends the researcher’s experience of understanding the working life realities of informants from the public sector through the use of observations and documentary analysis. Chapter 7 examines the triggers of workplace stress such as long working hours and heavy workload, while Chap. 8 highlights mental health and presents the findings from interviews done with workers who discuss what mental health means to them, experiences of mental ill-health, developments in leadership competencies to promote mental health, stigma removal, and improvements in mental health.

Foreword

vii

The interviewees also discussed methods used to promote well-being, a healthy work environment, and stronger employment relationships. Chapter 9 highlights the fact that each generation in a workplace has different needs and different challenges which require different approaches to the promotion of well-being at work. Chapter 10 discusses well-being at work within the public sector that functions with limited budgets and resources and asks the question as to whether well-being at work can be maintained in a public sector environment compared to their private sector counterparts. Chapter 11 discusses work-life conflict that can hinder work-life-balance satisfaction and suggests family-friendly policies that organisations can adopt to reduce absenteeism and promote job satisfaction and reduced work-related stress. Implications for policymakers and managers are discussed. Chapters 12–13 explore empirical research highlighting employees’ experiences of well-being in the workplace in the public sector and touch on themes such as the work environment, defining well-being at work, importance of well-being, and improvement of well-being at work in the local government in North West England. Chapter 14 discusses the quality of working life of public sector employees and their experiences and relationship with their line manager, and Chap. 15 evaluates well-being research in the public sector and provides recommendations for developing a healthy, resilient, and sustainable organisation. One other aspect of employee well-being is that of violence in the workplace. This can range from bullying, swearing at persons, and hitting persons to sexual harassment. The writer addresses violence in Chap. 16 of the book, takes an in-depth look at violence in the workplace, and presents the results of research done in the forestry sector in British Columbia in Canada. Chapter 17 discusses line management leadership, governance, sustainability, and well-being at work. Chapter 18 looks at whether fun at work can replace well-being at work activities to enhance the quality of work life and satisfaction of senior managers. Insights from this research can assist policymakers and managers. The chapter highlights the fact that while one-off activities present opportunity for temporary distractions employees feel better with a working environment that is structured to promote well-being at work. Workplace violence is again addressed in Chap. 19 with practical insights from the Canadian natural resources sector and presents recommendations of how organisations can strive towards promoting a healthy and respectful organisation. This book Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health is based mainly on empirical findings resulting from extensive research done by Dr. Nicole Cvenkel through interviews, focus groups, surveys, documentary analysis, and observations. It therefore presents real-life experiences which will serve as a useful guide for policymakers and employers. The book is also useful for students and academics and can serve as a catalyst for further research into various aspects of employee well-being at work. We live in a world that is changing rapidly, and the nature of the workplace is also changing. For instance, as a result of immigration a typical workplace in Canada or the UK may comprise individuals from various cultures or backgrounds. It will therefore

viii

Foreword

become more challenging for employers to implement strategies that address the needs of workers from such diverse cultural backgrounds. Ongoing research on employee well-being is therefore necessary, and this book contributes to the literature and research in this area and can be used by researchers, practitioners, and managers to improve organisational practices and empower leaders to gain further insight and interest in the topic in developing and promoting healthy and sustainable workplaces. Dr. Valerie Dye Assistant Professor Ryerson University Executive Director/President of Dye Law Toronto, ON, Canada

Introduction

Many theorists have proposed models for the stages of human life, well-being at work, HRM, and leadership. However, the appropriateness of these models for diverse employees and the validity of those based on a multigenerational workforce from diverse occupational industries from different parts of the world are under-researched. Changes in the composition of the workforce and changing work values such as increased emphasis on the interrelationship of family and work require new ways of looking at the quality of working life, employees’ experiences and reactions to high-commitment HRM practices, leadership, career development, and multigenerations at work and how these relate to the promotion of a healthy, ‘well’, and productive workforce. A generation is a group of people born around the same time and raised around the same place. People in this “birth cohort” that can be found in the modern workplace include (Baby Boomers, 1946–1964; Generation X, 1979–1965; Generation Y or Millennials, 1980–1997; and Generation Z, after 1998) and exhibit similar and different characteristics, preferences, and values over their lifetimes. The four generations (Baby Boomers, Generation X, Generation Y or Millennials, and Generation Z) that encompass the twenty-first-century workplace provide interesting insight for organisational leaders regarding their values, work ethics, motivations, mental health, work stress triggers, perspective on the employment relationship, workplace justice prescriptions, line management leadership, work-life-balance requirements, definition and understanding of well-being at work, respectful and healthy organisations, and the factors that can empower and motivate each generation in the diverse and multicultural modern workforce. Generations are not individually in a box; instead, they are powerful clues showing where organisational leaders can begin connecting with and influencing people of different ages in the workplace. It is important for employers to understand the differences between generations in order to govern, build, and foster effective relationships, attitudes, behaviours, health, and well-being that impacts the organisation’s performance, governance, and sustainability. Most people around the world spend more than half of their time at work, and many are at risk for or dealing with workplace stress and mental health problems. The effects of workplace stress are growing exponentially. It accounts for 53% of ix

x

Introduction

long-term absence and has major impacts on well-being, productivity, and sustainability. Stress is often a symptom of poor employment relations and can seriously affect employee health and productivity. Organisations who talk regularly with their employees and have sound systems and procedures in place for dealing with issues like workplace absence, presenteeism, and discipline are much more likely to avoid work-related stress and to be able to deal with potentially stressful situations when they arise. More importantly, employers should be able to deal with the stressful situations and personal challenges that exist among diverse generations that are part of the workforce. Mental health problems are also found to cause significant productivity loss, especially in the form of presenteeism. It is essential that HR and well-being managers as well as senior executives understand the organisation’s corporate social responsibility of fostering and maintaining a healthy organisation by understanding the ‘holistic employee’ that comes to work. An unhealthy organisation can adversely affect employees’ health and well-being which has become widely recognised as essential for promoting a healthy organisation through organisational accountability, governance, and sustainability. There is growing recognition of the need for employer well-being practices to address the psychosocial, as well as the physical, aspects of working life of the ‘holistic employee’ in the twenty-first century. This book explores the impact of the holistic employee, health, and well-being from the perspective of both internal stakeholders (i.e. employees, supervisors, the union, managers, directors, and executive directors) and the diverse organisations in which they work. In addition to describing the factors that promote a healthy organisation, Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health also looks for ways to reduce workplace stress, mental health issues, and workplace mistreatment and improve workplace well-being to provide a springboard to sustained governance and organisational success. Employers that embrace the corporate responsibility of promoting the ‘holistic employees’ health and well-being will reap cost savings and productivity advantages, as well as a psychologically healthier and productive workforce. Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health is essential for organisational leaders, HR and wellness practitioners, academics, researchers, students, and anyone with responsibility to help support employees in the twenty-first-century workplace. It offers organisations a chance to create an environment that will not only build a healthier workplace by providing appropriate and effective employment relation strategies and well-being interventions, but also provide solutions to manage the ‘holistic employee’ within the employment relationship that will lead to the possibility of individual, group, organisational well-being, organisational development, governance, sustainability, and potential.

Contents

Part I

Introduction: Exploring Well-Being and HRM Research Terrain . . . .

3 3 6 8

........ ........

11 11

........

13

........ ........ ........

14 16 20

1

An Introduction to Employee Well-Being Research Terrain . 1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Workplace Health and Well-Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2

Historical and Theoretical Debates in Human Resources Management and High-Performing Organisations . . . . . 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Historical Development of Well-Being in the Human Potential Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Theoretical Debates in HRM and High-Performing Organisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 High-Commitment HRM Practices . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3

Workplace Well-Being: Understanding Psychologically ‘WELL’ Employees and the Sustainable Healthy Workplace 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 The Historical Development of HRM and Well-Being Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Employee Well-Being at Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 The Concept of Employee Well-Being . . . . . . . . 3.4 Multidimensional Well-Being Paradigm . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 Individual Well-Being Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2 Group Well-Being Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.3 Organizational Well-Being Perspective . . . . . . . 3.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

..... .....

25 25

. . . . . . . . .

26 28 29 30 31 45 49 54 54

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

xi

xii

4

5

6

Contents

Constructing Well-Being at Work: What Does It Mean? . . . . . 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Theoretical Debates in HRM and High-Performing Organisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Social Exchange and the Employment Relationship . . . . . . 4.4 Employee Well-Being at Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Conceptual Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.1 The Pilot Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.2 After the Pilot Study—Lessons for the Main Study 4.6.3 Main Interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8 Conclusions and Implications for Managers . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 1: (Pilot Study) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 2: (Pilot Study) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 3: (Main Study) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 4: (Main Study) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

... ...

63 63

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65 67 68 69 71 74 76 77 77 80 82 83 83 85 85

.. .. ..

91 91 91

A Methodological Approach to Workplace Well-Being Research in a New Public Management (NPM) Environment . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Assessing Well-Being Methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Review of Philosophical, Theoretical, and Methodological Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Rationale for Using Mixed Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Challenges and Tensions Experienced: The Beginning . . . . . 5.5 Approach to Method: Questionnaire Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 Approach to Method: Observation Field Notes . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 Approach to Method: Semi-Structured Interviews . . . . . . . . . 5.8 Approach to Method: Review of Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9 Research Ethical Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Well-Being at Work: Understanding Employees Working Life Realities in the Public Sector Context—Observations and Documentary Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Field Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.1 Pilot Questionnaire and Interview Observation . . . . 6.1.2 Observation of Email Communication from the HR Director . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.3 Observation from the Main Data Collection . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

92 96 96 100 105 107 113 114 115 115

. . . 119 . . . 119 . . . 120 . . . 121 . . . 122

Contents

6.2

xiii

Analyses of Company Documents . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 Nature of the Work Environment . . . . . 6.2.2 Partnership Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.3 Pay and Reward Strategies . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.4 Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.5 Health, Safety and Welfare Management 6.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Part II

7

8

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

123 124 124 126 126 127 131 131

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

135 135 136 137 139 140 141

The Employment Relationship: Stress, Mental Health, Limited Resources, Work-Life-Balance and Well-Being in the Workplace

Workplace Stress and Well-Being in the Workplace: The Workers’ Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 The Impact of Stress on Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Well-Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Work-Related Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 Stress and Occupations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6 Workplace Harassment and Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7 Management Standards to Improving Workplace Culture and Reduce Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9 Results: Employees Perspectives of Stressors in the Workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.10 Organisational Improvement to Prevent or Reduce Workplace Stress and Burnout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.11 Discussion and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mental Health and Well-Being in the Workplace . . . . . . . . 8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Mental Health in the Workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Work–Family Conflict Interconnection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 Mental Well-Being in the Workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 The Stigma of Mental Ill-Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.6 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7 Analysis and Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7.1 Definition and Understanding of Mental Health and Mental Ill-Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7.2 Experiences of Mental Ill-Health at Work and Organisational Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7.3 Line Management Development to Respond to Mental Health Concerns of Employees . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . 142 . . . . . 144 . . . . . 145 . . . . . 149 . . . . . 153 . . . . . 156 . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

159 159 161 162 163 164 166 167

. . . . . . 167 . . . . . . 171 . . . . . . 173

xiv

Contents

8.8 8.9

Removing the Stigma of Mental Health in the Workplace . Enhancing Mental Health and Well-Being in the Workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.10 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9

Multigenerational Workforce and Well-Being in the Twenty-First-Century Workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 Introduction: Well-Being, HRM in the Changing Workforce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 Well-Being at Work and the Changing Workforce . . . . . . 9.3 Multigenerational Profiles at Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 Lifestyle and Workplace Characteristics by Generation . . . 9.5 The Changing Nature of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6 Benefits and Managing a Multigenerational Workforce . . . 9.7 Well-Being at Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8 Challenges to Sustaining Employee Well-Being . . . . . . . . 9.9 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.10 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.10.1 Defining Individual Well-Being at Work . . . . . . . 9.10.2 Generations Well-Being at Work Need Preference 9.11 Employer Improvements to Sustain Happiness, Health, and Well-Being at Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.12 Discussion and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.13 Implications for Managers, HR Practitioners, and Organisational Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10 Well-Being at Work with Limited Resources: A Public Sector Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1 Modernisation in the Public Sector and New Public Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 Human Resource Management and Well-Being at Work . 10.3 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4 Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4.1 The Reality of Working Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4.2 Understanding Well-Being at Work . . . . . . . . . . 10.4.3 Perspectives on Well-Being Initiatives . . . . . . . . 10.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . 177 . . . . 180 . . . . 184 . . . . 187 . . . . 191 . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

191 192 193 197 199 199 200 202 203 205 205 209

. . . . 212 . . . . 217 . . . . 217 . . . . 219

. . . . . 225 . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

225 226 229 230 232 234 235 237 239

Contents

xv

11 Work-Life Balance and Well-Being at Work: Strategies for Individual and Organisational Health and Potential . . 11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Work-Life Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3 Work-Life Conflict or Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4 Work-Life Balance and Satisfaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.5 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.6 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.6.1 Work-Family Conflicts that Affects Work-Life-Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.6.2 Health and Well-Being Initiatives to Promote Work-Life-Balance Satisfaction . . . . . . . . . . . 11.6.3 Employer Implementation of Workplace Family-Friendly Support to Promote a Psychologically Healthy Workplace . . . . . . . . 11.7 Discussion and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part III

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

243 243 244 246 247 247 248

. . . . . . . 248 . . . . . . . 250

. . . . . . . 255 . . . . . . . 257 . . . . . . . 260

Well-Being at Work in the New Public Management Environment

12 The Work Environment and Well-Being at Work: Employees’ Experiences in the Public Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1 The Global Economy and New Public Management . . . . . . 12.2 The Crisis of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4 Exploring Lived Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5 Working Life Realities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5.1 Restricted Resources and Controlled Work Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5.2 Workplace Incivility and Mistreatment . . . . . . . . . 12.5.3 Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5.4 Work-Life Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6 The Meaning of the Job . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6.1 Professionally Stimulating and Engaging Work . . . 12.6.2 Financial Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6.3 Confidence and Self-Esteem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6.4 Career Advancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6.5 Financial Stability and Community Contribution . . 12.6.6 Gratitude and Fulfilment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6.7 Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

265 265 266 268 269 270

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

273 278 280 282 283 284 284 284 285 285 285 286 289

xvi

Contents

13 Beneath the Melting Ice: Definition, Importance, and Improvement in Well-Being at Work in Local Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1 Employee Well-Being at Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2 Public Sector Working Environment and Employee Well-Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.4 Employees’ Concepts of Well-Being at Work . . . . . . . . . . 13.4.1 The Setting of the Experience and Resources . . . . 13.4.2 The Meaning and Understanding of Well-Being . . 13.4.3 Importance of Well-Being at Work . . . . . . . . . . . 13.4.4 The Local Government Improvements to Promote Employee Well-Being at Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Quality of Working Life, Leadership, and Well-Being in the Public Sector: Insights from Employees . . . . . . . . . 14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2 Working Life Realities and Well-Being . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3 Identity-Work-Life Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4 Trust Makes Lives Better . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5 Line Management Leadership and Well-Being . . . . . . 14.5.1 Responsiveness of Line Manager to Promote Well-Being at Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5.2 Line Management Improvement to Promote Employee Well-Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.6 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.7 Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . 293 . . . . 293 . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

294 295 297 297 298 302

. . . . 305 . . . . 308 . . . . 313 . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

315 315 316 319 320 322

. . . . . . . 322 . . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

323 334 340 342

15 Evaluation of Workplace Well-Being Research: Developing Healthy, Resilient and Sustainable Organisation—A Public Sector Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.2 Evaluation and Meaning of the Results . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3 Fairness at Work and Well-Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3.1 Bullying and Unfair Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.4 The Meaning of Well-Being to Employees . . . . . . . . . . 15.5 Practicalities for Policymakers and Management . . . . . . 15.6 Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.7 What Happens Next . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.8 Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

345 345 346 350 350 353 363 364 365 366 366

Contents

Part IV

xvii

Striving Towards Promoting Healthy, Respectful and ‘WELL’ Organizations

16 Workplace Violence, Mistreatment, and Well-Being at Work: A Forestry Sector Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2 Workplace Violence in the Forest Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3 Violence in the Workplace: Mapping the Terrain . . . . . . . 16.4 The Crisis of Work—the Canadian Context . . . . . . . . . . . 16.5 Workplace Violence and Harassment: Mapping the Canadian Terrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.6 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.7 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.7.1 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.7.2 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.7.3 Employees’ Definition of Workplace Violence . . . 16.7.4 Employees’ Experiences of Workplace Violence . 16.7.5 Drivers of Workplace Violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.8 Discussion and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

371 371 373 373 374

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

376 379 380 380 381 381 387 390 391 395

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

397 397 398 400 401 401 401 403 403 404

17 Line Management Leadership, Governance, and Sustainability for Employee Well-Being at Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.1 The Global Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.2 The Dynamics of Leadership and Well-Being at Work . . . . 17.3 Research Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.5 The Work Organisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.5.1 Blame Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.6 The Meaning of the Job . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.6.1 Rewards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.7 The People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.7.1 Trust in Management; Support; and Communication: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.8 Discussion and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . 404 . . . 406 . . . 407

18 Can Fun and Games at Work Replace Well-Being in the Workplace?: Perspectives from Senior Managers in the Public Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.2 Fun at Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.3 Well-Being and Fun at Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

409 409 410 411

xviii

Contents

18.4 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.5 Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.6 Working Life Realities . . . . . . . . 18.7 Managerial Work and Well-Being 18.8 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

19 Striving Towards a Violence ‘Free’ and Healthy Workplace: Insights from Canadian Natural Resource Industry Workers . 19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.2 Understanding Workplace Violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.3 The Continuum of Workplace Violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.4 Employer Obligations, Intervention, and Prevention of Workplace Violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.5 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.6 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.6.1 The Work Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.6.2 Prevalence of Workplace Violence . . . . . . . . . . . 19.6.3 Consequences of Workplace Violence . . . . . . . . . 19.6.4 Stopping Workplace Violence in Natural Resources Organisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.6.5 Striving Towards a Violence-‘Free’ and Healthy Workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.7 Discussion and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

413 414 416 416 419 422

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

425 425 426 429

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

430 433 434 434 440 442

. . . . 445 . . . . 449 . . . . 456 . . . . 460

Part I

Introduction: Exploring Well-Being and HRM Research Terrain

Chapter 1

An Introduction to Employee Well-Being Research Terrain

Abstract Well-being in the workplace is one of the essential domains for contemporary organisations. Several reasons can be advanced for the importance of studying employee well-being at work. Historically in the late nineteenth century, employers paid little attention to employee well-being, though there were some exceptions as some employers (Quaker Cadbury family and Lever Brothers) generally cared about employees’ well-being and introduced practices that assisted employees in the workplace and life outside of work (Cooper and Robertson 2001; Newall 2002). However, most employers at that time held a different view. Regarding employees as a necessity, but burdensome financial evil was a far more frequent phenomenon (Currie 2001). Social and economic history shows that it took centuries to develop the employment relationship where well-being is recognised as an organisational responsibility (Cooper and Robertson 2001). However, one often wonders if, under the organisational façade of ‘putting people first’, whether this attitude is still uppermost in contemporary employers thinking but is being stopped by the now pressing ‘best practice’ and employment legislation standards, unions, and human rights corporative. This chapter introduces the historical development of employee well-being research and its growth and prevalence in academia and government agendas that focuses on the health and well-being of employees as integral to businesses and the economy’s productivity.

1.1 Introduction The nature of global, technological, economic, demographic and social changes in the twenty-first century have affected, and will continue to affect work, workers and management in the coming decades as emphasis is placed on revolutions in business concepts and incremental progress, a little cheaper, better and faster (Armstrong and Brown 2001; Berman et al. 2010; CIPD 2006; Cascio 2010; MacDonald 2005). These changes have transformed the way people live and work, revolutionizing the rules of the game by creating a 24/7 service work culture, resulting in individuals working longer hours and experiencing job insecurity. All of these have implications for © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 N. Cvenkel, Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health, Approaches to Global Sustainability, Markets, and Governance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3619-9_1

3

4

1 An Introduction to Employee Well-Being Research Terrain

increased work-related stress and negative well-being (ESRC 2006; Green and Whitfield 2010). ESRC (2010) further argues that the risk of losing jobs is greater in large organisations and has shifted from blue to white-collar workers with professionals experiencing much of the job losses. Work-related stress is another salient principle of growing importance for policymakers and organisations, as the growing intensity and pressures of work are major problems facing workers in the twenty-first century, contributing to rising demands and placing an ever-increasing burden on those of working age in the delivery of products and services (DWP 2005; HSE 2004, 2007; 2009). The negative effects of the levels of stress and pressure experienced by individuals have health implications such as depression and anxiety, mental ill-health and other psychological and physical well-being factors, resulting in high cost to business and the public purse (MacDonald 2005). Harrington and Rayner (2010) states that stress is a generic term that can be substituted for apprehension, fear or anxiety, and stress is not limited to emotional experiences but also encompasses the psychological, behavioural and cognitive. Harrington defines stress as undesirable and harmful to one’s health and well-being. Spurgeon et al. (2009) argue that ill-health relating to pressure at work doubled between 1990 and 2007 and highlight that stress is now the second biggest cause of employee absence behind musculoskeletal conditions. This view is echoed by the World Health Organization (1992), predicting soaring levels of stress and other mental health problems in the next few years (CIPD 2010a; Grant et al. 2007; Thompson and Bates 2009). Stress, anxiety, and depression are part of an explosion in workplace mental health issues now costing the Canadian economy an estimated $50 billion a year in lost productivity. The Canadian economy also loses billions more in medical costs, with millions of Canadians suffering from a mental health disorder, which is now the fastest growing categories of disability insurance claims in Canada (Maclean’s 2007; Mortillaro 2016). The Conference Board of Canada (2015) states that mental illnesses are costing Canada about $20.7 billion in 2012 by reducing the number of workers available in the labour force. The cost is growing at a rate of approximately 1.9% every year and is expected to rise to $29.1 billion annually by 2030 (The Conference Board of Canada, 2015). Nationally, in Canada, an estimated 35 million workdays are lost to mental conditions among ten plus million workers. The annual cost of treating depression and distress is at $6.3 and $8.1 billion in lost productivity. Just as serious may be ‘presenteeism’—the phenomenon of stressed-out workers who show up to work anyway and accomplish little. It is estimated to cost Canadian employers $22 billion a year (Maclean’s 2007). The US workforce illness costs $576 billion annually from sick days to workers’ compensation. Forbes business research reveals that from absenteeism due to illness, to the cost of disability and workers’ compensation and poor health costs the US economy more than a half a trillion dollars a year (Japsen 2012). The cost of workers’ ill-health to organisations and the economy is astronomical, with the average cost of sickness absence in the United Kingdom (UK) being £600.00 per employee per year, resulting in 35 million working days lost yearly to occupational ill-health and injury, with absence due to sickness costs of around £12 billion each year (CIPD 2007;

1.1 Introduction

5

HSE 2004a, 2009; Silcox 2007). In the public sector, British employees’ average absence levels are 8.5 days per employee compared to 4.89 days for the private sector, costing around £4 billion a year to the taxpayer (DWP 2005; HSE 2009; Silcox 2007). Therefore, promoting and maintaining employee well-being in the public sector, in particular, is essential given the high absence levels and cost to individuals, organisations, and the economy as a whole. The challenges and tensions of work, work-related stress and employee absence, have implications for worker satisfaction. Guest and Conway (1999) and Brown et al. (2006) argue that the level of worker satisfaction and worker well-being in Britain is considerably lower than suggested by Workplace Employment Relations Survey (WERS) 2004 survey (Kersley et al. 2006). Brown et al. state that a majority of British workers (15 million or more) are dissatisfied with their jobs and recommend an important policy towards worker well-being and its likely incremental impact. In support, the Gallup survey points out that more than 80% of Britain’s workers lack any real commitment to their jobs and a quarter of those are ‘actively disengaged’ or genuinely disaffected with their workplaces, lacking inspiration and engagement with their work and the problem has not gotten any better (Flade 2003; MacLeod and Clarke 2009). Echoing this view, Green and Whitfield (2009) claim that workers in larger organisations report higher levels of stress, work intensity, a lack of influence, and more dissatisfaction than those in smaller- and medium-sized organisations. In support, CIPD’s (2010c) research found that public sector employees are less satisfied than their private sector counterparts. What is of particular interest to the discussion presented here is whether wellbeing philosophy can be extended to the public sector. The UK public sector, as with many public sectors worldwide, continues to undergo significant reform processes regarding efficiency and costs. The push towards New Public Management (NPM) has led to considerable changes within funding models, governance structures, initiatives such as joint procurement, and joint public service delivery (Morphet 2008; Noblet et al. 2006a). These have been associated with some pressures that have been a catalyst for public sector reform (Bach et al. 2005). In particular, local government reforms tend to focus on improved management of resources and redefinition of roles and responsibilities (Noblet et al. 2006a). All these changes place additional demands on public sector employees, leading to an increase in the stresses they face relative to their regular work (Morphet 2008). Additionally, public sector employees are at times subject to intense scrutiny by stakeholder groups, who may regard recourse to ‘well-being initiatives’ poor use of the public purse (Baptiste 2009). In this context, it is not at all clear whether a ‘well-being’ culture can thrive or deliver all that is espoused, and the well-being at work literature has made some comment on its applicability to differing contexts and employee groups, not least in the public sector. To this end, Black (2008) suggests that the business case evidence for promoting employee well-being is far from proven (ESRC 2006, 2010). Echoing this view, Guest (2002) points out the impact that management implementation of people management practices can have on employees (Pfeffer 2005; Purcell and Hutchinson 2003), and the evidence of increasing work-related stress occurring in the public sector over the

6

1 An Introduction to Employee Well-Being Research Terrain

last decade (Silcox 2007) all have implications for employee well-being. Thus, this is a fascinating and essential area of exploration for leaders in private and public sector organisations. While the issue of employee well-being at work has reached a new level of importance in the minds of policymakers and managers, there is still little evidence that attention has been paid to the ‘worker’s voice’ in their evaluation of HRM practices, line management leadership, the quality of working life and well-being at work in the public sector. Research within this area remains relatively untapped. Furthermore, understanding employees’ expectations of the psychosocial factors affecting behaviour, the meaning of work experiences and well-being, and the practical improvement of employee well-being are all lacking in the evidence base (ESRC 2010; HSE 2007; Mowbray 2009). Based on the above discussions, this book seeks to contribute to the debates in these areas.

1.2 Workplace Health and Well-Being The health and well-being of people of working age are of fundamental importance to Britain’s future (Black 2008), as well as other countries and organisations globally. Growing evidence suggests that work can help improve physical and mental health, reduce health inequalities, and offer improved opportunities in life (DWP 2005; HSE 2009; Mental Health Commission of Canada 2010). The debate about the impact of working life on employee well-being has been intensified with the publication of Dame Carol Black’s (2008) review, Working for a Healthier Tomorrow. The central message in this review is that promoting the health and well-being of employees is not only a good thing in itself, but it also promotes the well-being of the organisations for which they work, including the so-called bottom-line performance indicators such as profits and targets (Black 2008; ESRC 2006; HSE 2009). Black (2008) also suggests that the failure of many organisations to grasp this is as a result of a lack of information. Black further points out that the vital importance in the promotion of employee well-being is job design, management organisation, and minimisation of work-related stress. This policy position is based on evidence from the review by PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) research (PwC 2008) that considered the broader business case for workplace wellness programmes and the economic business case for UK employers. The evidence indicates that the costs of well-being programmes can in many circumstances be translated into benefits in the form of cost savings rather than increased income or revenue flows, which can all impact positively upon intermediate measures that can be followed through to financial benefits (HSE 2009; PwC 2008). Furthermore, Williams and Cooper (1999) emphasise that when people come to work, the whole person comes to work, and not just the part that does the job. Central to this view, Thompson and Bates (2009) indicate that it is crucial for organisations to understand that when they employ individuals it is essential to recognise that they have employed a ‘human being’ to perform a particular task and presumably add

1.2 Workplace Health and Well-Being

7

value to the organisation. Echoing this view, Bolton and Houlihan (2007) maintain that organisations need to recognise that their human resources are precisely that: human, and not simply a resource, and they will be a far from the optimal resource if their humanity is not recognised, respected, and supported. Silvester and Konstantinou (2010) argue that organisations have experienced unprecedented changes in the way people work as a result of the intensification of work and the need to cope with continually changing work requirements and a faster pace of work. They recommend that employers should design work environments that can best meet the needs of twenty-first-century workers and ensure maximum levels of well-being and performance. In essence, the journey to workplace health and well-being can start with a ‘leap of faith’ as it is most needed for the challenges that organisations and individuals face in the twenty-first century. Central to this view, Bates and Thompson (2007) argue that the idea that an organisation’s most valuable resource is its human resource—its people—has been around for a long time now, and sadly it often remains at a rhetorical level and does not rise above the status of an empty slogan. What is of particular importance to this argument here is that, in order to view employees as the most valuable asset, it may require ‘going back to the basics’ of the notion that people are more valuable than ‘carbon paper’ or placed ‘ninth’ in the list of organisational priorities (Fig. 1.1). It is vital for organisations to have the understanding that people can work more effectively, may be more creative, productive, stimulated, and fulfilled when their well-being is promoted (Baptiste 2008, 2009). Echoing this view, Cartwright and Cooper (2009) state that when organisations take care of their employees, such care is reciprocated (Rousseau 1995; George 2009) and can have positive effects on the bottom line (Black 2008), citizenship behaviour (Coyle-Shapiro and Conway 2005), enhance service delivery (Noblet et al. 2006b), reduction in absenteeism (Silcox 2007), improvement in performance (Mowbray 2009) and personal fulfilment (CIPD 2007; Grant et al. 2007; MacDonald 2005). Therefore, it is essential to understand better the needs of the employees that contribute to the overall strategic objectives. This can only be done by getting ‘below the surface’ of people issues, understanding what matters and, investing in information about the staff, particularly their wellbeing (Williams and Cooper 1999).

Fig. 1.1 People are the most important asset (Copyright, 1993 United Feature Syndicate, Inc. Reproduced with permission)

8

1 An Introduction to Employee Well-Being Research Terrain

In general, employers know relatively little about their employees apart from the necessary personal details required at the commencement of employment (Williams and Cooper 1999). Therefore, understanding employees’ perspectives and the meaning they give to their lived working life experiences and well-being within organisations have been overlooked. This is demonstrated by scanning through HRM journals where a substantial amount of research focuses on quantitative measures of employees’ experiences of the employment relationship, neglecting to consider that individuals’ lived experiences cannot be measured but require instead, an in-depth understanding of what ‘lies beneath the melting ice’ of employees’ work experiences and well-being within organisations.

References Armstrong, M., & Brown, D. (2001). New dimensions in pay management. London: Kogan Page Publishers. Bach, S., Kessler, I., & White, G. (2005). Employment relations and public services ‘modernisation’ under labour. Personnel Review, 34(6), 626–633. Baptiste, N. R. (2008). Tightening the link between employee wellbeing at work and performance: A new dimension for HRM. Management Decisions, 46(2), 284–309. Baptiste, N. R. (2009). Fun and wellbeing: Insights from senior managers in a local authority. Employee Relations, 31(6), 600–612. Bates, J., & Thompson, N. (2007). Workplace wellbeing: An occupational social work approach. Illness, Crisis and Loss, 15(3), 273–284. Berman, E. M., Bowman, J. S., West, J. P., & Van Wart, M. R. (2010). Human resource employment relations in the public services. London: Routledge. Black, D. C. (2008). Working for a healthier tomorrow. London: TSO. Bolton, S., & Houlihan, M. (Eds.). (2007). Searching for the human in human resource management: theory practice and workplace contexts. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Brown, A., Charlwood, A., Forde, C., & Spencer, D. (2006). Changing job quality in Britain 1998–2004, DTI Employment Relations Research Series, No. 70. London: DTI. Cartwright, S., & Cooper, C. L. (2009). The oxford handbook of organisational wellbeing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cascio, W. F. (2010). The changing world of work. In P. A. Linley, S. Harrington, & N. Garcea (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology and work (pp. 13–23). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Chartered Institute of Personnel Development (CIPD). (2006, August). Stress at work. CIPD. (2007). New directions in managing employee absence: An evidence-based approach. Research in practice. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. CIPD. (2010a). The talent perspective: What does it feel like to be talent-managed?. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. CIPD. (2010b). Employee outlook recovery yet to reach the workplace, quarterly survey report, Spring 2010. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel Development. CIPD. (2010c). CIPD, IIP and HSE join forces to issue management guidance to help employers tackle increasing levels of stress at work as recession bites. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Cooper, C., & Robertson, I. (2001). Well-being in organisations: A reader for students and practitioners. Chichester: Wiley.

References

9

Coyle-Shapiro, J. A.-M., & Conway, N. (2005). Exchange relationships: An examination of psychological contracts and perceived organisational support’. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 774–781. Currie, D. (2001). Managing employee well-being. Oxford: Chandos Publishing Oxford Limited. Department of Works and Pensions (DWP). (2005, October). Health, work and wellbeing: Caring for our future: A strategy for the health and wellbeing of working age people. Research Report with Department of Health and Health and Safety Executive, HWW1. Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC). (2006). Health and well-being at work of working age people. Seminar Series: Mapping the public policy landscape. Swindon: ESRC. Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC). (2010). Wellbeing and working life: Towards an evidence-based policy agenda. London: HSE/ESRC. Flade, P. (2003). Great Britain’s workforce lacks inspiration. Gallup Management Journal, The Gallup Organization’s Employee Engagement Index Survey. https://gmj.gallup.com/content/ 9847/great-britains-workforce-lacks-inspiration.aspx. Accessed July 12, 2010. George, C. (2009). The psychological contract: Managing and developing professional groups. Work and organisational psychology. Berkshire: Open University Press. Grant, A., Christianson, M., & Price, R. (2007). Happiness, health or relationships? Managerial practices and employee well-being tradeoffs. The Academy of Management, 21(3), 51–63. Green, F., & Whitfield, K. (2009). Employees experiences at work. In W. Brown, A. Bryson, J. Forth, & K. Whitfield (Eds.), The evolution of the modern workplace. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Guest, D. (2002). Human resource management, corporate performance and employee wellbeing: Building the worker into HRM. Journal of Industrial Relations, 44(3), 335–358. Guest, D., & Conway, N. (1999). How dissatisfied are British workers? A survey of surveys. London: IPD. Harrington, S., & Rayner, C. (2010). Look before you leap or drive right in? The use of moral courage in response to workplace bullying. In P. A. Linley, S. Harrington, & N. Garcea (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology and work (pp. 265–276). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Health and Safety Executive. (2004). Management standards for work-related stress, November 3, 2004. London: HSE. HSE. (2007). Workplace health, safety and welfare: A short guide for management. London: Health and Safety Executive. Health and Safety Executive. (2009). Health and safety statistics 2008/2009. London: HSE. Jepsen, B. (2012). U.S. workforce illness costs $576B annually form sick days to workers compensation, forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/brucejapsen/2012/09/12/u-s-workforce-illness-costs576b-annually-from-sick-days-to-workers-compensation/#137afa305db0. Accessed September 14, 2018. Kersley, B., Alphin, C., Forth, J., Bryson, A., Bewley, H., Dix, G., et al. (2006). Inside the workplace: Findings from the 2004 workplace employment relations survey. London: Routledge. MacDonald, L. A. C. (2005). Wellness at work: Protecting and promoting employee well-being. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. MacLeod, D., & Clarke, N. (2009). Engaging for success: Enhancing performance through employee engagement. London: Office of Public Sector Information. MacLean’s, C. A. (2007). Dealing with the stressed: Workplace stress costs us dearly, and yet nobody knows what it is or how to deal with it. https://www.macleans.ca/work/dealing Mental Health Commission of Canada. (2010). The cost of mental health and substance abuse services in Canada. Alberta, Canada: Institute of Health Economics Canada. Morphet, J. (2008). Modern Local Government. London: Sage Publications. Mortillaro, N. (2016). Anxiety and depression cost the canadian economy almost $50 billion a year. https://globalnews.ca/news/2917922/anxiety-and-depression-cost-the-canadian-economyalmost-50-billion-a-year/. Accessed Jan 10, 2010.

10

1 An Introduction to Employee Well-Being Research Terrain

Mowbray, D. (2009). The well-being and performance agenda. https://www.the-stress-clinic.net. Accessed May 15, 2010. Newall, S. (2002). Creating the healthy organisation: Well-being, diversity and ethics at work. Surrey: Thomson Learning. Noblet, A., Rodwell, J., & McWilliams, J. (2006a). Organisational change in the public sector: Augmenting the demand control model to predict employee outcomes under new public management. Work and Stress, 20(4), 335–352. Noblet, A. J., McWilliams, J., Teo, S. T. T., & Rodwell, J. J. (2006b). Work characteristics and employee outcomes in local government. International Journal of Human Resources Management, 17 (10), 1804–18. Pfeffer, J. (2005). Producing sustainable competitive advantage through effective management of people. Academy of Management Executive, 19(4), 95–108. PricewaterhouseCoopers. (2008). Building the case for wellness.www.workingforhealth.gov.uk. Accessed July 20, 2010. Purcell, J., & Hutchinson, S. (2003). Bringing policies to life: The vital role of front line managers in people management. London: CIPD. Rousseau, D. M. (1995). Psychological contracts in organisations: Understanding written and unwritten agreements. London: Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks. Silcox, S. (2007, May). Health work and wellbeing: Rising to the public sector attendance management challenge. ACAS Policy Discussion Paper, No. 6. Silvester, J., & Konstantinou, E. (2010). Lighting, well-being and work performance: A review of the literature. London: City University, Philips International. Spurgeon, P., Mazelan, P., Barwell, F., & Flanagan, H. (2009). New directions in managing employee absence: An evidence-based approach. London: CIPD. The Conference Board of Canada. (2015, September). Federal policy action to support the health care needs of Canada aging population. Thompson, N., & Bates, J. (Eds.). (2009). Promoting workplace wellbeing. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Williams, S., & Cooper, L. (1999). Dangerous waters: Strategies for improving wellbeing at work. Chichester: Wiley. World Health Organisation (WHO). (1992). Basic Document (39th ed.). Geneva: WHO.

Chapter 2

Historical and Theoretical Debates in Human Resources Management and High-Performing Organisations

Abstract The management and treatment of employees stems from the history of Human Resource Management (HRM) in the eighteenth century. Welfare ideological businesses were concerned about the health and education of their workforce as their responsibility. Alternatively, Scientific Management viewed teamwork and worker consultation as unnecessary. In contrast, Elton Mayo’s ‘Human Relations Movement’ focused on the ‘human’ side of management viewing ‘psychological factors’ as important in understanding and influencing workplace performance. This prompted change and the emergence of the HRM ideology along as a result of external pressures on industry resulting in increasing competition in national and international markets. This chapter reviews the historical and theoretical development and debates of the Human Potential Movement, well-being at work, diverse HRM literature streams, high-commitment HRM practices that are espoused to promote high-performing organisations.

2.1 Introduction The treatment of employees stems from the history of HRM that can be traced back to the Industrial Revolution in England in the late eighteenth century (Redman and Wilkinson 2009). Welfare paternalist employers such as Rowntree and Leverhulme concerned about the welfare of the workforce, viewed the health and education of employees as part of their responsibility (Pinnington and Edwards 2000). In the early 1900s, Fredrick Taylor’s Scientific Management was embraced, viewing teamwork and worker consultation as unnecessary and undesirable, with managers being responsible for task performance (Brewster et al. 2004). In contrast to Scientific Management, Elton Mayo introduced the ‘Human Relations Movement’ that focused on the ‘human’ side of management viewing ‘psychosocial factors’ as important in understanding and influencing workplace performance (Ulrich 1997). In the 1980s, Guest (1990) points out that the emergence of HRM in the USA was a stimulus of change, which came from a set of external pressures on industry resulting in increasing competition in the national and international marketplace. This, combined with anxieties about slow productivity growth in American industries, was seen as a new © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 N. Cvenkel, Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health, Approaches to Global Sustainability, Markets, and Governance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3619-9_2

11

12

2 Historical and Theoretical Debates in Human Resources …

approach in the ‘search of excellence’ (Lepak and Snell 2005; Peters and Waterman 1982). HRM as a management ideology replaced welfare-based Personnel Management (PM) and is distinctive with a strategic focus. It emphasises the alignment of HRM practices with business strategy and the effective deployment of people and skills to increase productivity, rather than emphasising employees’ interests (Legge 2005). It is associated with the psychological contract (Rousseau 2001) as it assumes that management will trust their workers and give them responsibility through the distribution of challenging assignments, and workers will, in turn, respond with high motivation, commitment, and performance (Guest 1990). Attempts to define HRM produced a polarisation of multi-conceptual normative models of HRM (Guest 1990) that predominantly focused on the contingency thesis, which contributed to the best-fit school of HRM (Wood and De Menezes 1998), the universalistic argument that contributed to the best practice school of HRM (Huselid 1995; Legge 2005; Storey 1992), the Guest model, which extended the others to include high quality and involvement of line management (Guest 1997), and the Storey model, which agreed with the underlying assumptions and included key levers of managing culture (Storey 1989, 2007). In essence, these developments in HRM have two significant implications regarding the requirement to develop strategic credibility within organisations, and a shift in attitudes, behaviours, and affiliations to fulfil the new role (Wright 2005). The evolution of HRM in the United Kingdom (UK) promoted the introduction of a governing body for people management known now as the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) (Beardwell and Claydon 2007). Furthermore, the government-commissioned research by the Workplace Employment Relations Survey (WERS), to map the extent and use of a number of HR practices, the strategic location of HR through representative information, and until recently, employee well-being in British workplaces (Cully et al. 1999; Kersley et al. 2006). Historically, the promotion of wellness in the Human Potential Movement started in the 1960s in America (Diener 1984; Eid and Larsen 2008). Well-being is a complex construct that concerns the optimal experience and psychological functioning (Ryan and Deci 2001). Current research on well-being has been derived from two general perspectives: hedonic and eudaimonic. The hedonic approach focuses on happiness and views well-being in terms of pleasure attainment and pain avoidance (Diener 1984; Ryff and Keyes 1995). The evaluation of the pleasure/pain continuum in human experience relates to subjective well-being which consists of life satisfaction, the presence of positive mood, and the absence of negative feeling that is often summarised as happiness (Eid and Larsen 2008; Seligman 1975). By contrast, proponents of the eudaimonic approach disagreed with the ‘happiness’ principle advocated by hedonism and focused on meaning and self-realisation. This approach views well-being from the perspective of the degree to which a person is fully functioning (Grant et al. 2007; Ryan and Deci 2001; Ryff 1995). This approach relates to psychological well-being as distinct from subjective well-being and includes aspects of autonomy, personal growth, self-acceptance, and positive relatedness of human actualisation (Ryff and Keyes 1995). According to Grant et al. (2007), the fulfilment

2.1 Introduction

13

of these needs is essential for psychological growth, integrity, well-being, and experiences of vitality. Ryan and Deci (2001) argue that the two views of well-being have given rise to different research foci and a body of knowledge that is in some areas divergent and complementary in others.

2.2 Historical Development of Well-Being in the Human Potential Movement The growth in the field of well-being in the UK is evident by the expansion of interest academically, within organisations and government-commissioned research on well-being from the Health and Safety Executive (HSE), Department of Health (DOH), Department of Works and Pensions (DWP), Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC), Health Work and Well-being Executive (HWWE), to name a few. This research was all geared towards gaining information and providing evidence on the promotion of the health and well-being of Britain’s working-age population, which has implications for the quality of working life, expenditure reduction, and bottom line for organisations and the national purse (Black 2008; DOH 2004; DWP 2005; HSE 2004; HWWE 2010). Against this backdrop, what is interesting to note here is that the history of people management and well-being appears to have made a full circle, beginning with the people management approach from welfare paternalist employers, followed by the scientific management approach (Waterman 1993; Kahneman et al. 1999). The human relations movement focused on the human side of management and promoted the interest in psychological health and wellness (Health and Safety Executive 2006). The emergence of HRM in the 1980s resulted in the shift from PM to HRM with a consequence of contrasting roles for HRM as a strategic partner versus an employee champion, which has implications for employee well-being in organisations (Baptiste 2008). Thus, the growth of the fields of HRM and well-being research is evident in the UK, Canada, USA, Europe, Australia, and other countries based on the expansion of interest from the government, academia, and within organisations. The Well-being Reality of Subjects—Well-being has been widely researched in literature, and human well-being has been the focus of substantial and ongoing research (Baptiste 2009; Diener 1996; Diener et al. 2003; ESRC 2010; Guest and Conway 2002; Kahneman et al. 1999; Seligman 2003; Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi 2000; Waterman 1993; Whitfield 2009). Significant lines of research that characterise the quality of life and performance originate from stress and health literature. These argue that worker performance and quality of life are hindered by strain or boredom that affects performance as well as their well-being (Cooper et al. 2001; Seligman 1975). Although well-being is very much talked about, it is not adequately defined (Renwick 2003). The literature focuses on psychological, physical, and social well-being dimensions (Baptiste 2009; Grant et al. 2007; Kersley et al. 2006; Warr 2002). From a broader perspective, well-being also generally relates to

14

2 Historical and Theoretical Debates in Human Resources …

work-life balance, wellness management programmes, job satisfaction, job-related well-being, and contentment (Guest 1990; Kersley et al. 2006; PwC 2008; Warr 2002; Wood 2008). Baptiste (2008) argues that there is a need to go beyond the current conceptualisation of well-being in the literature, towards a more holistic, multidimensional well-being paradigm that can be used for policy and practice in organisations, to understand better the meaning employees give to well-being at work from an HRM perspective.

2.3 Theoretical Debates in HRM and High-Performing Organisations The human resource management (HRM) literature is divided into three principal streams: the prescriptive, the critical, and the small but growing body of employeefocused literature (Gibb 2001; Grant and Shields 2002; Guest 2002). The dominant prescriptive stream of research within the field of HRM has explored the link between HRM and organisational performance (Bach and Kessler 2009; Gould-Williams 2004; Guest 1990, 1997; Huselid et al. 1997) and is an essential determinant of the organisational success which distinguishes high-performing organisations (Grant and Shields 2002; Price 2007). Over the past decade, there has been much interest in the notion of ‘best practice’ HRM, sometimes referred to as ‘high-performance work systems’ (Appelbaum et al. 2000; Keenoy 1990), ‘high commitment’ (Bach and Kessler 2009; Gibb 2001; Guest 2002) or ‘high involvement’ (Belt and Giles 2009; Wood and De Menezes 1998). Research on HRM focuses on a particular set of high-commitment HRM practices that are suggested to be able to improve employee and organisational performance and the bottom line for all organisations (Huselid 1995; Legge 2005; Storey 2007; Wood 2008). There is no agreed assumption about which HRM practices constitute ‘best practice’, and the debate is ongoing with researchers using ranges between seven to twenty-eight practices (Gould-Williams 2004; Huselid 1995; Wood 2008). HRM practices associated with high worker satisfaction include trust, teamwork, involvement/participation, employee voice, fair rewards, job security, job design, equal opportunities, family-friendly, and anti-harassment practices (Gould-Williams 2003; Guest 2002; White et al. 2003). By contrast, HRM is also regarded with disdain because it is considered as a blunt instrument to bully workers and is associated with increased job intensity, reduced security, and high levels of worker anxiety (Grant and Shields 2002; Guest 2002; Huselid 1995). To demonstrate value in organisations, human resource professionals (HRPs) should adopt seemingly contrasting roles of both the strategic partner and employee champion (Storey 2007; Ulrich 1997). There are many debates around such conceptualisations and typologies with the particular challenge being that of HRM positioning itself as a business partner (Storey 1992; Ulrich 1997). Likewise, there are different debates about the HRM role of an employee advocate which

2.3 Theoretical Debates in HRM and High-Performing Organisations

15

places HRPs in an impossible situation of attempting to simultaneously champion employees while being part of the management team (Harrington and Rayner 2010; Williams and O’Reilly 1998). Such a conflict has resulted in the criticism of the philosophy and components of HRM for creating an environment in which bullying can remain unchallenged, allowed to thrive, or encouraged indirectly, thus becoming a source of bullying itself (Ulrich 1997; Warr 2002). Proponents of the critical stream claim that HRM views the worker purely as a resource or commodity to be exploited for the benefit of the organisation (Keenoy 1990; Legge 2005). HRM is also viewed as another management initiative to secure greater control and reinforcement of management prerogatives, raising the spectre of inhumane resource management (Grant and Sheilds 2002; Rousseau 2001). Other researchers claim that HRM looms as a ‘wolf in sheep’s clothing’, that in practice HRM has not worked, performance has not been significantly enhanced, and workers and management remain locked into their conflicting positions (Keenoy 1990; Legge 2005). The third stream of HRM literature is employee-focused literature which is one of the central foci of this study. Proponents of this stream of literature argue that there is neglect of workers’ reactions to HRM and attempt to re-centre the employee as the primary subject of HRM (Gibb 2001; Grant and Shields 2002; Guest 2002; Legge 2005; Wilkinson et al. 2004). The reactions of employees to HRM practices have attracted little scholarly attention, and even less research has been conducted into the effects of those practices on employee well-being (Baptiste 2008, 2009; Gibb 2001; Grant and Shields 2002; Guest 2002). Researchers further argue that studies linking HRM and performance never go beyond considering workers as subjects of HRM. Instead, employees are left disenfranchised—their verdict on HRM being seriously ignored (Grant et al. 2007; Grant and Shields 2002). Other researchers point out that the growing body of employee-focused literature fails to provide an adequate basis for understanding the association between HRM and the employee. It also ignores inputs from employees and believes that the dearth of research into employee reactions leaves us unable to evaluate HRM (Appelbaum et al. 2000; Gibb 2001; Belt and Giles 2009). Furthermore, there is a lack of clarity on whether or not employees are as enthusiastic about the model as their employers since their views are not accorded the same space (Gibb 2001; Grant and Shields 2002). However, Grant and Shields (2002) and Gibb (2001) also point out that attempts to assess employee reactions are affected by conceptual and methodological limitations. Where large-scale surveys of HRM do exist, they fail to appraise employees’ reactions to HRM, and employee presence is mostly incidental rather than fundamental, leaving us unable to evaluate HRM. This led to a strong call for the ‘employee voice’ to be heard in HRM research (Baptiste 2009; Guest 1990, 1997). Research findings reveal a mixed but overall positive picture of the state of HRM, highlighting positive results, suggesting employees’ ‘like’ for HRM which contradicts the views that HRM is ‘talked up’ by management and is ineffectual (Guest and Conway 2002). Guest also suggests that the greater number of HR practices used are more likely to enhance a more positive psychological contract, greater satisfaction, fairness of treatment, trust in management and lower levels of work pressure (Guest

16

2 Historical and Theoretical Debates in Human Resources …

and Conway 2002; Guest 1997). Gibb’s study found that employees report areas of strengths and weaknesses of HRM and highlighted strengths to include the provision of training and development, rewards, and levels of personal motivation (Baptiste 2009; Gibb 2001). By contrast, weaknesses of HRM in employees’ estimation existed in the management of staffing levels, aspects of recruitment and retention, levels of morale, and a reduction in the worker’s voice (Gibb 2001). It also included more responsive management, insufficient line management commitment (Baptiste 2008, 2009; Beardwell and Claydon 2007), unfairness, inconsistency in the application of HRM policies (Bryson et al. 2006), and poor communication (Gould-Williams 2003; Grant et al. 2007). According to O’Donnell and Shields (2002), HRM practices are likely to meet with negative employee reactions where they are incompatible with employees’ prior experience and expectations, and where they conflict with the underlying, as opposed to espoused, organisational values. Therefore, O’Donnell and Shields (2002) suggest that however configured, ‘best practice’ HRM is likely to fall short of its criteria for success unless it is attuned to existing employees’ perceptions of the employment relationship.

2.3.1 High-Commitment HRM Practices The ‘bundles’ of high-commitment HRM practices that are geared towards high performance in an organisation are drawn from Pfeffer (2005) and are now widely recognised and universally accepted, and have been modified by Marchington and Wilkinson (2005) for the UK context (Kinnie et al. 2005; Wood and De Menezes 1998). These include: (1) employment security and internal labour markets, (2) selective hiring and sophisticated selection, (3) extensive training, learning and development, (4) employee involvement, information sharing and worker voice, (5) selfmanaged teams/team working, (6) high compensation contingent on performance, and (7) reduction of status differentials/harmonisation. These practices are discussed in greater depth below: 1. Employment security and internal labour markets—Employment security is a crucial theme that affects an individual’s well-being and underpins the other six HR practices as it is unrealistic to ask for employees’ loyalty, intellectual competences and commitment without reciprocating an expectation of employment security and future careers (Guest and Conway 2002; Pfeffer 2005). The changing nature of the workplace hinders employers’ ability to offer job security, but instead employers offer the possibility of internal transfers, flexibility in employment, challenging jobs, a competitive package, and a promise of opportunities to learn valuable skills (Marchington and Wilkinson 2005; Redman and Wilkinson 2009; Ulrich 1997). Workplace Employment Relations Survey—WERS’s (2004) survey reveals that internal recruitment offers advantages of cost savings, guaranteeing tacit knowledge from recruits who have an understanding of the internal workings of the workplace (Kersley et al. 2006). Flexibility enables organisations

2.3 Theoretical Debates in HRM and High-Performing Organisations

17

to promote employment security as it enables them to react quickly and cheaply to environmental changes (Redman and Wilkinson 2009). However, Legge (2005) points out that while in some circumstances employees will have flexibility, the interest of employee and employer will not always coincide. Legge further argues that flexibility cannot unequivocally be seen as a good thing and can have negative implications for increasing work-related stress and pressure, workloads, extending working hours, and blurring the distinction between work and home which can all affect employees’ health and well-being at work (Baptiste 2008, 2009). 2. Selective hiring and sophisticated selection—Recruitment is the most critical human resource function for organisational survival or success (Guest and Conway 2002; Storey 2007). It is one of the most common job responsibilities of employment relations managers, demonstrating key decisions for efficiency and the quality of diversity of applicants from their recruitment strategies (Redman and Wilkinson 2009). WERS’s (2004) survey confirms that various recruitment channels are used by managers in British workplaces in the recruitment of new employees (Kersley et al. 2006). From a broader perspective, a competitive strategy used by organisations is ‘employer branding’ to attract a high-quality pool of job applicants (Warr 2002; White et al. 2003). Moreover, the systematic selection is now regarded as a critical function of HRM and is an essential part of an organisation’s strategic capability for adapting to competition (Wood and De Menezes 1998). This facilitates the achievement of key organisational outcomes (Storey 2007) and can bring about increased commitment and motivation from employees that may result in positive work attitudes and behaviour that may lead to higher performance (Marchington and Wilkinson 2005). In essence, this also has implications for employee well-being at work. 3. Extensive training, learning, and development—Training and development are used in organisations to increase competitiveness through raising skill levels, enabling greater effectiveness, insulation of organisations from skills shortages, and safeguarding productivity and ‘value-added’ (Price 2007; Redman and Wilkinson 2009). It is also an essential practice that can promote employee wellbeing at work (Baptiste 2009). At the level of the individual, training can increase knowledge and opportunities, prepare employees for future jobs, give access to more highly rewarded work and career progression (Bach and Kessler 2009; Redman and Wilkinson 2009). From an organisational perspective, training and development are likely to bring about increased commitment and motivation among employees that can ultimately enhance employee well-being at work (Kersley et al. 2006). From a British national perspective, Lord Leitch’s (2006) report suggests that skills development and training unlocks potential talent that can lead to high productivity as well as the creation of wealth and social justice in Britain. Extending this view, WERS’s (2004) survey reveals that more than four-fifths of workplaces provided training that included Investors in People (IiP) accreditation (Kersley et al. 2006). From a regional perspective, WERS’s (2004) survey indicates that three-fifths of employees in the North West (NW) received training and just over half of the region’s employees were satisfied with training received, with one-fifth expressing dissatisfaction (Forth and Stokes 2006).

18

2 Historical and Theoretical Debates in Human Resources …

4. Employee involvement, information sharing, and the worker’s voice—Employee involvement/participation (EIP) is an essential component of the highcommitment paradigm (Marchington and Wilkinson 2005; Wood 2008). EIP is a process by which individual employees are given greater freedom to make decisions autonomously (Cox et al. 2006) and includes interrelations between supervisors and subordinates towards a result (Strauss 2006). According to Handel and Levine (2004), EIP can improve organisational outcomes and should be embedded and integrated within the corporate practice which has implications for organisational citizenship behaviour, free speech, and dignity (Bolton and Houlian 2007). Moreover, Marchington and Wilkinson (2005) differentiate EIP into direct communication, upward problem-solving or representative participation. Communication is a critical theme in EIP that can affect an individual’s wellbeing as it ensures that employees are informed about organisational issues as well as guaranteeing successful team working, where employee suggestions can contribute to organisational performance (Belt and Giles 2009; Bryson et al. 2006; Forth and Stokes 2006). Critiquing this view, Dundon and Wilkinson (2009) suggest that information communicated may be political and power-centred and that messages may be used to reinforce managerial prerogatives. Other critics advocate upward problem-solving as being inherently unitarist in nature and that feedback given to workers in an attitude survey is based on a managerial agenda, as information asked for tends to be set by employers (Wood and De Menezes 1998). Moreover, emails have also been shown to have an adverse effect on workplace stress and employee well-being (Grant et al. 2007). WERS’s (2004) survey highlights that EIP was similar throughout the UK, with a greater disposition of EIP in the NW than elsewhere (Kersley et al. 2006). From a practice perspective, NW managers agreed that employees were involved and consulted in decision making, but employees’ view tended to be more negative as a little more than one-third disagreed and considered managers to be deficient in this area (Baptiste 2009; Guest 2002). Twenty-seven percent of employees rated managers as poor in responding to suggestions from employees (Forth and Stokes 2006). Employee voice is also viewed as an essential component of the highcommitment paradigm (Handel and Levine 2004; Pfeffer 2005). According to Storey (2007) employees experience greater satisfaction when they are invited by management to voice their opinions in decision-making events that can bring about increased commitment, motivation and can lead to higher performance (Baptiste 2009; Gould-Williams 2003; Guest and Conway 2002). Tapping into employees’ ideas and drawing on their tacit knowledge may be embraced as a solution to the problems of managing in an increasingly competitive marketplace (Marchington and Wilkinson 2005; Wilkinson et al. 2004; Wood 2008). WERS’s 2004 survey reveals that in the NW, employee voice was demonstrated through direct consultation with staff through unions (as nationally) (Kersley et al. 2006). WERS also indicated that in the NW, employee voice was demonstrated predominantly through consultative committees and various communication strategies (Forth and Stokes 2006).

2.3 Theoretical Debates in HRM and High-Performing Organisations

19

5. Self-managed teams—Self-managed teams are seen as an integral part of high-performance work systems and provide workers with greater autonomy, influence, and responsibility for task completion and inter-dependent skills (Appelbaum et al. 2000). Echoing this view, Beardwell and Claydon (2007) claim that self-managed teams are viewed as an evolutionary development in the management of work from a traditional bureaucratic structure to a more decentralised, participative, and democratic form of controlling work activity. According to Bolton and Houlian (2007) organisations benefit from self-managed teams by eliminating supervision that is not needed, from greater employee motivation, productivity, and commitment and from enhancing the capacity to promote a varied and satisfying work experience. WERS’s (2004) survey reveals that four-fifths of all workplaces had core employees working informally designed teams and the majority of workplaces encouraged collaborative working among core employees in the absence of formal groups (Kersley et al. 2006). Team working is integral to achieving more creative solutions and better organisational performance through people (Pfeffer 2005). By tapping into the power of teams, organisations can experience excellent results and better decision making (Marchington and Wilkinson 2005). It also facilitates a way of pooling ideas (Peters and Waterman 1982), improvement in work processes and reports higher levels of employee satisfaction (Legge 2005). Organisations function better when employees are encouraged to work together, rather than on their own as team working has a positive effect on performance and social interaction (Gould-Williams 2003, 2004). However, a more subversive side of team working is that it can be introduced in the context of cost-cutting and can result in forms of peer surveillance and control, work intensification, and limited autonomy (Belt and Giles 2009; Brewster et al. 2004). WERS’s (2004) survey reveals that team working was present among core employees in almost three-quarters of all workplaces, with the incident of the team working varying substantially according to the amount of work being done by employees (Kersley et al. 2006). From an NW perspective, it was reported that team working skills were higher than the national average (Forth and Stokes 2006). In essence, both self-managed teams and team working have implications for employee well-being at work. 6. High compensation contingent on performance—It is essential that organisations remunerate employees adequately. This is associated with procedural justice (Folger and Cropanzano 1998) that may affect their psychological contract (Coyle-Shapiro 2001; George 2009) and material well-being (Currie 2001). Supporting this view, Gould-Williams (2003) suggests that workers should be adequately rewarded for their effort and points out that when employees perceive that the management team, shareholders or other parties are benefiting from their diligent efforts, they become discouraged. This negative perception may be perceived as a psychological contract breach (Rousseau 2005), and unfair treatment (Folger and Cropanzano 1998), affecting the quality of workplace relationships, productivity, and well-being at work (Baptiste 2008, 2009). According to Pfeffer (2005) higher than average compensation and performance-related rewards both send a signal to employees that they deserve

20

2 Historical and Theoretical Debates in Human Resources …

to be rewarded for superior contributions. However, Marchington and Wilkinson (2005) highlight that for high compensation to be adequate, it needs to be at a level more than that for comparable workers in other organisations to attract and retain high-quality labour. WERS’s (2004) survey reveals that rewards were used in organisations to extract greater effort from employees and to increase employees’ motivation and commitment to the goals of the organisation (Kersley et al. 2006). From an NW perspective, employees were least satisfied with the amount of pay they received, with only one-third expressing satisfaction and 43% expressing dissatisfaction (Forth and Stokes 2006). 7. Reduction of status differentials/harmonisation—The decrease in status differentials encourages employees to offer ideas within an ‘open’ management culture towards promoting a single status and alignment (Pinnington and Edwards 2000). This aims to break down artificial barriers among different groups of staff, thus encouraging team working and flexibility (Redman and Wilkinson 2009). Marchington and Wilkinson (2005) advocate that symbolic manifestation of egalitarianism promotes a message to manual workers and lower grade staff that they are valuable assets who deserve to be treated in a similar way to their more senior colleagues (Gould-Williams 2003). In essence, this practice may have implications for interactional justice (Pfeffer 2005), social justice equity (Harrow 2002), the psychological contract (George 2009; Guest and Conway 2004; Rousseau 1995), and employee well-being at work (Baptiste 2008). From an NW perspective, WERS’s (2004) survey highlights that two-thirds of workplaces in the region and nationally had a formal written equal opportunity policy (Kersley et al. 2006; Mathieson and Wilkinson 2005). The above review discussed the different streams of HRM literature and the highcommitment HRM practices as outlined by Pfeffer and Marchington and Wilkinson. Relevant gaps identified include the under-researched area in the employee-focused HRM literature as it relates to employees’ perspectives and reactions to HRM practices and well-being at work and the methodological weakness of HRM literature that is fundamentally underpinned in a realist tradition. This chapter and book, and the research therein propose to contribute to the debate in the employee-focused HRM literature by emphasizing the employee’s voice in the evaluation of HRM and well-being at work.

References Appelbaum, E., Bailey, T., Berg, P., & Kalleberg, A. (2000). A manufacturing competitive advantage: The effects of high performance work systems on plant performance and company outcomes. New York: Cornell University Press. Bach, S., & Kessler, I. (2009). HRM and the new public management. In P. Boxall, J. Purcell, & P. Wright (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of human resource management (pp. 469–488). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Baptiste, N. R. (2008). Tightening the link between employee wellbeing at work and performance: A new dimension for HRM.Management Decisions, 46(2), 284–309.

References

21

Baptiste, N. R. (2009). Fun and wellbeing: Insights from senior managers in a local authority. Employee Relations, 31(6), 600–612. Beardwell, J., & Claydon, T. (2007). Human resources management: A contemporary approach (5th ed.). Englewood Cliffs: Financial Times, Prentice Hall; London: Pearson Publishers. Belt, V., & Giles, L. (2009). High performance working: A synthesis of key literature. UK Commission for Employment and Skills, Evidence Report 4, August 2009 Black, D. C. (2008). Working for a healthier tomorrow. London: TSO. Bolton, S., & Houlian, M. (2007). Beginning the search for the H in HRM. In S. Bolton & M. Houlian (Eds.), Searching for the H in human resource management: Theory, practice and workplace context. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Brewster, C., Mayrhofer, W., & Morley, M. (2004). Human resource management in Europe: Evidence of convergence? London: Elsevier, Butterworth Heinemann. Bryson, A., Charlwood, A., & Forth, J. (2006). Worker voice, managerial response and labour productivity: An empirical investigation. Industrial Relations Journal, 37(5), 438–455. Cooper, C. L., Dewe, P. J., & O’Driscoll, M. P. (2001). Organisational stress: A review and critique of theory, research and application. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Cox, A., Zagelmeyer, S., & Marchington, M. (2006). Embedding employee involvement and participation at work. Human Resource Management Journal, 16(3), 250–267. Coyle-Shapiro, J. A. (2001). Managers: Caught in the middle of a psychological contract muddle. Annual meeting of the Academy of Management, Washington DC, August 2001. Cully, M., O’Reilly, A., Millward, N., Forth, J., Woodland, S., Dix, G., et al. (1999). British at work: As depicted by the 1998 workplace employee relations survey. London: Routledge Publishers. Currie, D. (2001). Managing employee well-being. Oxford: Chandos Publishing Oxford Limited. Department of Health. (2004). Choosing health: Making healthier choices easier (Public health white paper). London: DH. Department of Works and Pensions. (2005). Exploring how general practitioners work with patients on sick leave. Research Report 257, June. Diener, E. (1984). Subjective wellbeing. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 542–575. Diener, E. (1996). Traits can be powerful, but are not enough: Lessons from subjective well-being. Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 389–399. Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. E. (2003). Personality, culture, and subjective wellbeing: Emotional and cognitive evaluations of life. Annual Review Psychology, 54, 403–425. Dundon, T., & Wilkinson, A. (2009). Employee participation. In T. Redman & A. Wilkinson (Eds.), Contemporary human resource management: Text and cases (3rd ed., pp. 405–416). London: Pearson Education. Economic, and Social Research Council (ESRC). (2010). Wellbeing and working life: Towards an evidence-based policy agenda. London: HSE/ESRC. Eid, M., & Larsen, R. J. (2008). The science of subjective wellbeing. London: The Guilford Press. Folger, R., & Cropanzano, R. (1998). Organisational justice and human resource management. London: Sage Publications. Forth, J., & Stokes, L. (2006). A regional perspective on employment relations: Tabulations from the 2004 workplace employment relations survey. Report to the Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Services (ACAS), Final Report, September 8, 2006. George, C. (2009). The psychological contract: Managing and developing professional groups. Work and organisational psychology. Berkshire: Open University Press. Gibb, S. (2001). The state of human resource management: Evidence from employees’ views of HRM systems and staff. Employee Relations, 23(4), 318–336. Gould-Williams, J. (2003). The importance of HR practices and workplace trust in achieving superior performance: A study of public-sector organisations. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 14(1), 28–54. Gould-Williams, J. (2004). The effects of high commitment HRM practices on employee attitude: The views of public sector workers. Public Administration, 82(1), 63–81.

22

2 Historical and Theoretical Debates in Human Resources …

Grant, A. M., Christianson, M. K., & Price, R. H. (2007). Happiness, health or relationship? Managerial practices and employee well-being tradeoffs. Academy of Management Perspectives, 21(3), 51–63. Grant, D., & Shields, J. (2002). In search of the subject: Researching employee reactions to human resource management. Journal of Industrial Relations, 44(3), 313–334. Guest, D. (1990). Human resource management and the american dream. Journal of Management Studies, 27(4), 377–397. Guest, D. (1997). Human resource management and performance: A review and research agenda. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 8(3), 263–276. Guest, D. (2002). Human resource management, corporate performance and employee wellbeing: Building the worker into HRM. Journal of Industrial Relations, 44(3), 335–358. Guest, D., & Conway, N. (2002). Pressure at work and the psychological contract. Research Report. London: CIPD. Guest, D., & Conway, N. (2004). Employee well-being and the psychological contract. London: CIPD. Handel, M. J., & Levine, D. I. (2004). Editors’ introduction: The effects of new work practices on workers. Industrial Relations, 43, 1–43. Harrington, S., & Rayner, C. (2010). Look before you leap or drive right in? The use of moral courage in response to workplace bullying. In P. A. Linley, S. Harrington, & N. Garcea (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology and work (pp. 265–276). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Harrow, J. (2002). New public management and social justice: Just efficiency or equity as well? In K. McLaughlin, S. P. Osborne, & E. Ferlie (Eds.), New public management: Current trends and future prospects (pp. 141–159). London: Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group. Health and Safety Executive (HSE). (2004). Health and safety statistic highlights, 2003/2004. Health and Safety Executive (HSE). (2006). Health and safety statistics highlights, 2005/2006. Health Work and Wellbeing Executive (HWWE). (2010). https://www.workingforhealth.gov.uk/. Accessed April 10, 2010. Working in partnership with DOH, DWP, HSE, Welsh Assembly Government, and The Scottish Government. Huselid, M. (1995). The impact of human resource management practices on turnover, productivity and corporate financial performance. Academy of Management Journal, 38(3), 635–672. Huselid, M., Jackson, S., & Schuler, R. (1997). Technical and strategic human resource management effectiveness as determinants of firm performance. Academy of Management Journal, 40(1), 171–188. Kahneman, D., Diener, E., & Schwarz, N. (Eds.). (1999). Wellbeing: The foundations of hedonic psychology. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Keenoy, T. (1990). Human resource management: Rhetoric and reality and contradiction. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 1(3), 363–384. Kersley, B., Alphin, C., Forth, J., Bryson, A., Bewley, H., Dix, G., et al. (2006). Inside the workplace: Findings from the 2004 workplace employment relations survey. London: Routledge. Kinnie, N., Hutchinson, S., & Purcell, J. (2005). Satisfaction with HR practices and commitment to the organisation: Why one size does not fit all. Human Resource Management Journal, 15(4), 9–29. Legge, K. (2005). Human resource management: Rhetorics and realities. London: Palgrave Macmillan Publishers. Leitch, S. (2006). Leitch review of skills—Prosperity for all in the global economy: World class skills. December 2006, HM Treasury on behalf of HM Stationery Office. Lepak, D. A., & Snell, S. A. (2005). The human resource architecture: Towards a theory of human capital allocation. In S. Little & T. Ray (Eds.), Managing knowledge: An essential reader. London: Sage Publishers. Marchington, M., & Wilkinson, A. (2005). Human resource management at work: People management and development. London: CIPD.

References

23

O’Donnell, M., & Shields, J. (2002). Performance management and the psychological contract in the Australian federal public sector. Journal of Industrial Relations, 44, 435–457. Peters, T., & Waterman, R. (1982). In search of excellence. New York: Harper and Row. Pfeffer, J. (2005). Producing sustainable competitive advantage through effective management of people. Academy of Management Executive, 19(4), 95–108. Pinnington, A., & Edwards, T. (2000). Introduction to human resource management. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Price, A. (2007). Human resource management: In a business context. USA: South-Western Cengage Learning. PricewaterhouseCoopers. (2008). Building the case for wellness. www.workingforhealth.gov.uk. Accessed July 20, 2010. Redman, T., & Wilkinson, A. (2009). Contemporary human resource management, text and cases. London: Pearson Education. Renwick, D. (2003). HR managers, guardians of employee wellbeing? Personnel Review, 32(3), 341–359. Rousseau, D. M. (1995). Psychological contracts in organisations: Understanding written and unwritten agreements. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Rousseau, D. M. (2001). Schema, promise and mutuality: The building blocks of the psychological contract. Journal of Occupational and Organisational Psychology, 74, 511–541. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic wellbeing. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 141–166. Ryan, R. M., & Frederick, C. M. (1997). On energy, personality, and health: Subjective vitality as a dynamic reflection of well-being. Journal of Personality, 65, 529–565. Ryff, C. D. (1995). Psychological well-being in adult life. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4, 99–104. Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological wellbeing revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 719–727. Seligman, M. (1975). Helplessness: On depression, development and death. San Francisco, W.H.: Freeman Publishers. Seligman, M. E. P. (2003). Authentic happiness. London: Nicholas Brealey. Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 5–14. Storey, J. (Ed.). (1989). New perspectives on human resource management. London: Routledge. Storey, J. (1992). Developments in the management of human resources. Oxford: Blackwell. Storey, J. (2007). Human resource management: A critical text (3rd ed.). London: Thomson Learning. Strauss, G. (2006). Worker participation: Some under-considered issues. Industrial Relations, 45, 778–803. Ulrich, D. (1997). Human resource champions: The next agenda for adding value and delivering results. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Warr, P. (2002). Psychology at work. Suffolk: Penguin Group Books. Waterman, A. S. (1993). Two conceptions of happiness: Contrasts of personal expressiveness (eudaimonia) and hedonic enjoyment. Journal Person Social Psychology, 64, 678–691. WERS (Workplace Employment Relations Survey). (2004). Department for business, innovation & skills. The Government of the United Kingdom, published 5 July, 2006. https://www.gov. uk/government/publications/the-2004-workplace-employment-relations-survey-wers. Accessed Feb 6th, 2008. White, M., Hill, S., McGovern, P., Mills, C., & Smeaton, D. (2003). ‘High-performance’, management practices, working hours and work-life balance. British Journal of Industrial Relations, 41(2), 175–195. Whitfield, K. (Ed.). (2009). Employee wellbeing and working life: Towards an evidence-based policy agenda. An ESRC/HSE Public Policy Project, Report on a public policy seminar held at HSE, London, February 2009.

24

2 Historical and Theoretical Debates in Human Resources …

Williams, K. Y., & O’Reilly, C. A. (1998). Demography and diversity in organizations: A review of 40 years of research. Research in Organizational Behaviour, 20, 77–140. Wilkinson, A., Dundon, T., Marchington, M., & Ackers, P. (2004). Changing patterns of employee voice: Case studies from the UK and Republic of Ireland. The Journal of Industrial Relations, 46(3), 298–322. Wood, S. (2008). Job characteristics, employee voice and wellbeing in Britain. Industrial Relations Journal, 39(2), 153–168. Wood, S., & De Menezes, L. (1998). High commitment management in the UK: Evidence from the workplace industrial relations survey and employers WERS’ manpower and skills practices survey. Human Relations, 51, 485–515. Wright, T. A. (2005). The role of “happiness” in organisational research: Past, present, and future directions. In P. L. Perrewe & D. C. Ganster (Eds.), Research in occupational stress and wellbeing (Vol. 4, pp. 221–264). Amsterdam: JAI Press.

Chapter 3

Workplace Well-Being: Understanding Psychologically ‘WELL’ Employees and the Sustainable Healthy Workplace

Abstract This chapter reviews the historical development and HRM and well-being at work research. Historically, the treatment of employees can be traced back to the Industrial Revolution in England in the eighteenth century with welfare paternalist employers viewing the health and welfare of their employees as their responsibility. Taylor’s Scientific Management viewed team working and work consultation as unnecessary and undesirable, with managers being responsible for task performance. However, the ‘Human Relations Movement’ was associated with a ‘people-focused’ side of management viewing psychosocial factors as important in understanding and influencing well-being at work and workplace performance. HRM replaced a welfare-based Personnel Management and is distinctive with a strategic focus. Wellbeing is a complex construct that concerns optimal experience and psychological functioning (Ryan and Deci 2001). The growth in the field of well-being in the UK is evidenced by the expansion of interest academically within organisations and government-commissioned research on well-being to provide empirical evidence on the promotion of health and well-being of Britain’s working-age population. Multidimensional well-being domains that consider the individual, group, and organisation dimensions within the employment relationship are developed from the literature. These well-being paradigms have implications for the quality of working life, mental health, fairness perceptions, sickness absence, stress reduction, positive well-being and performance. This chapter and the research and discussion presented in this book seek to contribute to the debate in these areas.

3.1 Introduction This chapter reviews the literature on employee well-being at work. The chapter discusses the historical development of HRM and well-being research, and the multidimensional nature of workplace well-being that includes the individual, group dynamics in the employment relationship, and the organisational systems, policies, structures, and climate. The chapter proposes a multidimensional well-being

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 N. Cvenkel, Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health, Approaches to Global Sustainability, Markets, and Governance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3619-9_3

25

26

3 Workplace Well-Being: Understanding Psychologically ‘WELL’ …

paradigm that is considered a relevant conceptualisation for employee well-being at work that can assist organisational leaders with effective people management and well-being strategies. The chapter concludes with a summary of the gap(s) in the literature.

3.2 The Historical Development of HRM and Well-Being Research The treatment of employees’ stem from the history of HRM can be traced back to the Industrial Revolution in England in the late eighteenth century (Redman and Wilkinson 2009). Welfare paternalist employers such as Rowntree and Leverhulme concerned about the welfare of the workforce viewed health and education of employees as part of their responsibility (Pennington and Edwards 2000). In the early 1900s, Fredrick Taylor’s Scientific Management was embraced, viewing teamwork and worker consultation as unnecessary and undesirable, with managers being responsible for task performance (Brewster et al. 2004). In contrast to Scientific Management, Elton Mayo introduced the ‘Human Relations Movement’ that focused on the ‘human’ side of management viewing ‘psychosocial factors’ as important in understanding and influencing workplace performance (Ulrich 1997). In the 1980s, Guest (1990) points out that the emergence of HRM in the USA was a stimulus of change that came from a set of external pressures on industry, resulting in increasing competition in national and international marketplace. This, combined with anxieties about slow productivity growth in American Industries, was seen as a new approach in the ‘search of excellence’ (Lepak and Snell 2005; Peters and Waterman 1982). HRM as a management ideology replaced welfare-based Personnel Management (PM) and is distinctive with a strategic focus. It emphasises the alignment of HRM practices with business strategy and the effective deployment of people and skills to increase productivity, rather than emphasising employees’ personal interests (Legge 2005). It is associated with the psychological contract (Rousseau 2001; Guest and Conway 2004) as it assumes that management will trust their workers and give them responsible and challenging assignments and workers will in turn respond with high motivation, commitment, and performance (Guest 1990). Attempts to define HRM produced a polarisation of multiconceptual normative models of HRM (Guest 1990, 1997) that predominantly focused on the contingency book that contributed to the best-fit school of HRM (Fombrun 1996; Wood and Menezes 1998), the universalistic book that contributed to the best practice school of HRM (Beer et al. 1984; Huselid 1995; Legge 2005; Storey 2007), the Guest Model extended the others to include high quality and involvement of line management (Guest 1997), and the Storey Model agreed with the basic assumptions and included key levers of managing culture (Storey 1989, 2007). In essence, these developments in HRM have two significant implications in terms of the requirement to develop strategic credibility within organisations and a shift in attitudes, behaviours, and

3.2 The Historical Development of HRM and Well-Being Research

27

affiliations to fulfil the new role (Wright and Snell 1998). The evolution of HRM in the United Kingdom (UK) promoted the introduction of a governing body for people management known now as the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) (Beardwell and Claydon 2007). Furthermore, the government-commissioned research by the Workplace Employment Relations Survey (WERS), to map the extent and use of a number of HR practices, the strategic location of HR through representative information, and until recently, employee well-being in British workplaces (Cully et al. 1999; Kersley et al. 2006). Historically, the promotion of wellness in the Human Potential Movement started in the 1960s in America (Cowen 1991; Diener 1984; Eid and Larsen 2008). Wellbeing is a complex construct that concerns optimal experience and psychological functioning (Ryan and Deci 2001). Current research on well-being has been derived from two general perspectives: hedonic and eudaimonic. The hedonic approach focuses on happiness and views well-being in terms of pleasure attainment and pain avoidance (Diener 1996; Diener et al. 2003; Ryff 1995; Kahneman et al. 1999). The evaluation of pleasure/pain continuum in human experience relates to subjective well-being which consists of life satisfaction, the presence of positive mood, and the absence of negative mood that is often summarised as happiness (Eid and Larsen 2008; Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi 2000; Seligman 2003). By contrast, proponents of the eudaimonic approach disagree with the ‘happiness’ principle advocated by hedonism and focused on meaning and self-realisation. This approach views well-being in terms of the degree to which a person is fully functioning (Grant et al. 2007; Ryan and Deci 2001; Ryff 1995; Waterman 1993). This approach relates to psychological well-being as distinct from subjective well-being and includes aspects of autonomy, personal growth, self-acceptance, and positive relatedness of human actualisation (Ryff and Singer 1998; Ryff and Keyes 1995). According to Ryan and Frederick (1997), the fulfilment of these needs is essential for psychological growth, integrity, well-being, and experiences of vitality. Ryan and Deci (2001) argue that the two views of well-being have given rise to different research foci and a body of knowledge that is in some areas divergent and in others complementary. The growth in the field of well-being in the UK is evidenced by the expansion of interest academically, within organisations and government-commissioned research on well-being from the Health and Safety Executive (HSE), Department of Health (DOH), Department of Works and Pensions (DWP), Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC), Health Work and Well-being Executive (HWWE), the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) to name a few. These research were all geared towards gaining information and providing evidence on the promotion of the health and well-being of Britain’s working-age population, which has implications for the quality of working life, expenditure reduction, and bottom line for organisations and the national purse (Black 2008; DOH 2004; DWP 2005, 2006; ESRC 2006, 2010; HSE 2000; HWWE 2010). Against this backdrop, what is interesting to note here is that the history of people management and well-being appears to have made a full circle, beginning with the people management approach from welfare paternalist employers, followed by the scientific management approach. The Human Relations Movement focused on the

28

3 Workplace Well-Being: Understanding Psychologically ‘WELL’ …

human side of management and promoted the interest in psychological health and wellness. The emergence of HRM in the 1980s resulted in the shift from PM to HRM with a consequence of contrasting roles for HRM as a strategic partner versus an employee champion, which has implications for employee well-being in organisations. Thus, the growth of the fields of HRM and well-being research is evident in the UK based on the expansion of interest from the government, academia, and within organisations.

3.3 Employee Well-Being at Work The definition and meaning of work-related well-being are emergent with a number of competing meanings, making a precise definition of it open and can take many forms (Renwick 2003, 2009). Proponents of employee well-being indicate that it is a complex concept with multiple dimensions (Diener et al. 2003; Grant et al. 2007; Ryan and Deci 2001). Danna and Griffin (1999) emphasise work-related satisfactions and suggest that non-work-related satisfactions are affected by work and general health. Warr (2002) argues that there is a need to go beyond ‘satisfaction’ to a more positive concept of well-being reflected in three dimensions: satisfaction, enthusiasm, and contentment with their opposites of depression and anxiety (Holman 2002; Wood 2008). Peccei (2004) suggests that well-being at work concerns an overall sense of happiness, physical, and mental health of the workforce (Currie 2001; Graham 2009). Wider aspects of well-being are reflected in questions about work satisfaction, work stress, work-life balance, job-related well-being, joy-filled workplaces, and satisfaction with life as a whole (Bakke 2005; Guest and Conway 2004; Guest 2002, 2009; Kersley et al. 2006). Well-being is multifaceted, and for the purpose of this book, employee well-being is defined as employee welfare that includes different domains that promote an individual’s well-being; the group interface between organisational social actors that promotes employee well-being; and organisational practices, policies, programmes, and culture that strategically fosters and maintains positive work experiences and functioning for employees that promotes their well-being within the wider experience of organisational life and a healthy organisation (Baptiste 2009). This definition invokes not just specific practices of HRM, wellness management programmes, health screening, or indeed fun programmes, but employees’ ‘holistic’ functioning and organisational experiences within the employment relationship (Baptiste 2007, 2009). In the context of well-being research, it has two major advantages over many other studies. First, it explores various aspects of the PC (i.e. the range or breadth of promises made, the fulfilment of promises, violation of promises and aspects of fairness and trust that form part of the wider concept of the PC) (Guest and Conway 2004, 2009; Rousseau 1995, 2001). Second, it explores a wide range of relevant outcomes (such as job satisfaction, organisational commitment, and several aspects of health and well-being that include anxiety, depression, irritation at work, physical health and self-rated sickness absence) (Guest 2002; Warr 2002).

3.3 Employee Well-Being at Work

29

3.3.1 The Concept of Employee Well-Being The concept of employee well-being at work promotes the advantage to organisations of having a healthy workforce (Harter et al. 2002; MacDonald 2005). The dynamics of well-being at work is essential to understand the different domains that affect the quality of life at work (Green and Whitfield 2009). Personal well-being does not exist on its own or in the workplace but within a social context as individual lives are affected by social relations with organisational agents, lifestyle and employment changes (Tehrani et al. 2007; Guest 2002). Employees expect their employers to value, support, and respect their efforts towards attainment of organisational objectives and as such are looking to employers to help them to achieve this, since a large proportion of their lives are spent at work. In support, Wilkinson et al. (2008) state that in order to ensure that employee well-being is promoted, it is important for employers to create a conducive environment that promotes a state of contentment that allows employees to flourish and achieve their full potential for the benefit of themselves and their organisation (Tehrani et al. 2007). The meaning of work and well-being can have different meaning for individuals. Wilson (2010) suggests that work occupies a substantial proportion of most of our lives, can be a symbol of personal value, it can provide status, economic reward, and potential. Echoing this view, Bolton and Houlihan (2007a) state that working provides a sense of worth, dignity and that people and employment structure our lives and shape the inequalities that we face (Terkel 1977). Bolton and Houlihan (2007b) further argue that maintaining dignity at work is something that workers from all walks of life struggle to achieve and can be attained through taking pride in productive accomplishments, and assistance against abusive bosses or bad management. Burke and Ng (2006) and Wilson (2010) highlight that employers, in particular, managers have the hierarchical power to influence, if not determine, the shape and degree of those inequalities in their organisation. There is acknowledgement, however, that implementation of a well-being philosophy in the workplace may not be easy, and recognition that significant differences can exist between organisations in the degree to which their organisational cultures tolerate, facilitate, embrace, or embed well-being. More broadly, individuals are likely to differ in their attitudes regarding the importance, appropriateness, and perceived consequences of having well-being at work (Baptiste 2009; Currie 2001; Warr 2002). These differences can be aligned to different groups of workers’ having different psychological contracts (George 2009). These tensions, along with questions about the underlying motivations of the well-being philosophy, can cause some employees to respond with cynicism and resistance (Fineman 2006; Reichers et al. 1997). Perceptions of well-being at work may be dependent on employees’ personal outlook, socialisation processes, gender, work experiences, and personality characteristics—each accounting for varying attitudes and perceptions regarding the importance of workplace well-being (Grant et al. 2007). Managerial practices can have implications on employee well-being and can lead to well-being trade-offs or exchange, which is a common feature of organisational

30

3 Workplace Well-Being: Understanding Psychologically ‘WELL’ …

life (Weick 1992). Echoing this view, Grant et al. (2007) point out that managers must often make trade-offs in choosing between short-term profits and long-term motivation (March 1991). Grant et al. (2007) further argue that it is possible for trade-offs to exist between different dimensions of well-being by enhancing one aspect of well-being (i.e. psychological) while decreasing another aspect of well-being (i.e. physical). Proponents of well-being suggest that improvements in well-being can result if managers make changes in organisational contexts in terms of job redesign practices, reward, physical, and social dimensions (Baptiste 2009; Danna and Griffin 1999; Hackman and Oldham 1980). Moreover, Fried and Ferris (1987) state that when tasks are enriched to create feelings of meaningfulness, responsibility and knowledge of results, employees experience higher levels of job satisfaction. By contrast, Campion and McClelland (1993) point out that although work redesign practices can create job satisfaction they can also undermine employee health as the enriched job challenge stretches employees’ skills to complete complex demanding work, which often leads to strain, fatigue, overload, and increased risk of cardiovascular disease (Cooper et al. 2001). In essence, job enrichment can increase psychological well-being but decrease physical well-being due to well-being trade-offs. Employee well-being can also be increased by rewards and incentive compensation practices that can be both monetary and non-monetary to enhance employee performance (Danna and Griffin 1999). Eisenberger et al. (1999) suggest that incentive compensation may lead to increased job satisfaction as employees might be pleased at the prospect of earning higher pay and recognise that effort can bring valued rewards (Jain et al. 2009). Although incentive compensation may enhance the satisfaction of many employees, it can harm their interpersonal relationships. This can introduce inequality leading employees to compare with each other for earnings, eroding trust, cooperation, mutual support, and helping. This can affect turnover and reduce performance (Ferraro et al. 2005; Munkes and Diehl 2003; Yorges et al. 1999). Therefore, rewards and compensation practices can have potential trade-offs between psychological, material, social, and organisational well-being. Furthermore, improving relationships through team building can assist in increasing employee well-being by changing social dimensions of organisational context through improving interpersonal relations and cohesion at work (Katzell and Thompson 1990). Interpersonal relationships and team building can have potential trade-offs for social and psychological well-being.

3.4 Multidimensional Well-Being Paradigm This book argues that there is a need to go beyond ‘psychological’, ‘physical’, and ‘social’ domains of well-being at work to a more ‘holistic’ conceptualisation of multidimensional well-being at work paradigm reflected in sixteen domains: psychological, physical, mental health, intellectual, material/rewards, career, spiritual, financial, work/family, social, compassionate leadership, stakeholders, humanistic and fair practices, organisational financial, workplace well-being management, and

3.4 Multidimensional Well-Being Paradigm

31

healthy work/organisation. These dimensions attempt to overcome the limitations and better represent the notion of multidimensional well-being that can be an essential concept to understanding the individual perspective (i.e. the whole person), the group perspective (i.e. social actors and interrelationships), and organisational perspective (i.e. humanistic HRM practices, workplace well-being management, healthy work/organisation context, and environment). The researcher argues that a multidimensional well-being model is a relevant concept that is practical for policy, practice and for the development of well-being theory from an HRM perspective. The summary of multidimensional well-being perspectives is in Table 3.1.

3.4.1 Individual Well-Being Perspective A number of workplace factors that can influence an individual’s quality of working life and well-being at work are captured under the individual well-being perspective and include nine key domains: psychological, physical, intellectual, mental health, material/rewards, career, spiritual, and financial and work/family well-being.

3.4.1.1

Psychological Well-Being

The psychological dimension entails subjective experiences and functioning (Grant et al. 2007) involving positive or negative thoughts or feelings in an individual’s judgement which influences a perception of stress, anxiety, happiness, and other emotional states (Bakke 2005; Baptiste 2009; Guerrier and Adib 2003; Haworth and Hart 2007; Kersley et al. 2006; Robinson et al. 2004; Ryff and Keyes 1995; Seligman and Csikszenthmihalyi 2000). The psychological well-being dimension takes into consideration similarities and differences of well-being existing among employee groups in organisations, job satisfaction, discrimination and fair treatment, and bullying and harassment. Well-being can be experienced differently by individuals and is captured by Burke et al. (2008) who highlight that similarity in work experiences exist for males and females that had similar work experiences, job satisfaction, and levels of psychological well-being (Emmons 1991). Another challenge that can affect the psychological well-being of employees is workplace bullying and harassment (Lewis and Rayner 2003). It is now generally accepted that the definition of bullying contains the following elements: the experience of one or more negative behaviour(s) that is persistent, unwelcome, unwanted, or unsolicited that violates a standard of conduct and is harmful to the target or victim. The behaviour may be deliberate or unconscious or a power imbalance between the victim and perpetrator resulting in a hostile working environment (CIPD 2005, 2007b, 2008; Peyton 2003; Salin 2003). In terms of its prevalence, the self-reported claims of bullying were revealed by WERS’s 2004 survey which highlighted the main employee grievances involving bullying at work, work time practices, work allocation, pace of work, relationship with line managers, unfair treatment, pay and

Job satisfaction, fulfilment, engagement, purpose in life, influence over job, psychological growth, competence, life satisfaction, happiness, contentment, sense of purpose, enjoyment, exciting and stimulating work, flexibility, feeling valued, positive emotional, coping with life, reducing individual working time arrangements, job demands, work control, psychological strain, commitment, personal choice, identity, organisational citizenship behaviour, self-congruence, integrity, fair treatment, realisation of human potential, anxiety, tense, calm, relaxed, worried, uneasy, depression, enthusiasm, pleasure, dignity at work, anti-bullying and discriminatory practices, equal opportunities, trust, desire for goals and challenges, desire for variety, need for clarity, opportunities for personal control, burnout, idealism and passion for job, distressed, cynical, discouraged, involvement, job security, peace of mind, confidence, and self-respect

Physical and mental health, stress management, health and safety, safe working environment, physical comfort and security, fatigue, exhaustion, workloads, maintaining healthy and energetic bodies by making healthy choices about exercise and diet

Psychological

Physical

Individual

Elements

Well-being domains

Perspectives

Table 3.1 Summary of multidimensional workplace well-being perspectives

(continued)

Danna and Griffin (1999), Karasak and Theorell (1990), WHO (1999), Warr (2002), HSE (2000), Currie (2001), Baptiste (2008a, 2009)

Perri (2007), Hutchinson and Purcell (2010), Kersley et al. (2006), Tehrani et al. (2007), Haworth and Hart (2007), Currie (2001), Guest (2002/2007), Baptiste (2008a, 2009), Karasak and Theorell (1990), Whitener (1997), Podsakoff et al. (2000), Grant et al. (2007), Ryan and Deci (2001), Warr (2002)

Authors

32 3 Workplace Well-Being: Understanding Psychologically ‘WELL’ …

Perspectives

Elements

Job design, appropriate education, training and development, management development, creativity, autonomy, mental agility from keeping our minds active, alert, open, curious, and creative

Work stress, long-term sickness absence, anxiety, depression, heart diseases, incapacity benefits, leaders and managers support for mental ill-health at work

Fair reward strategies, non-cash benefits, money, pay schemes

Devotion to career, profession, craft, occupation apart from the work environment, career development

The purpose, fulfilment and meaning that comes with having a sense of connection to those things that are larger than ourselves, religious well-being, and meaning and purpose in life

Financial needs, employee stress, right rewards and benefit choices, and poor financial well-being

Work/life conflict, life changes, family time under pressure, and psychological strain

Well-being domains

Intellectual

Mental health

Rewards/material

Career

Spiritual

Financial

Work/family

Table 3.1 (continued)

(continued)

Baptiste (2009), Currie (2001), Newell (2002), Quick (1992)

CIPD 2019

CCMD (2002), Moss (2009), Freshman (1999)

Morrow (1983, 1993)

Currie (2001), Baptiste 2009

CIPD 2019, Hesketh and Cooper (2014)

Currie (2001), Tehrani et al. (2007), Baptiste (2009), CCMD (2002)

Authors

3.4 Multidimensional Well-Being Paradigm 33

Interpersonal relationships, fair treatment, trust, social support, reciprocity, leader–member exchange, cooperation, coordination, integration, social networks, bonding, communication, collaboration, team working, something that is done together and not something that we each possess, desire for supervisory support, the camaraderie that comes from maintaining a rich web of relationships with family, friends and colleagues, identification and sense of cohesiveness with other members of the organisation, individual’s identification, and sense of cohesiveness with other members of the organisation Managers who are not judgemental, not too busy to be empathetic for another person’s suffering, tolerating personal distress, being alive to the suffering of others, demonstrating care for people; taking appropriate action, and encourage close relationships

Social

Compassionate and relational leadership

Group

Elements

Well-being domains

Perspective

Table 3.1 (continued)

(continued)

Poorkavoos (2016), Fryer (2013), Meechan (2018)

Baptiste (2008a/2009), Kramer and Tyler (1996), Grant et al. (2007), Keyes (1998), Sixsmith and Boneham (2007), Hutchinson and Purcell (2010), Tehrani et al. (2007), Perri (2007)

Authors

34 3 Workplace Well-Being: Understanding Psychologically ‘WELL’ …

Organisational

Perspective

Reward strategies, working time arrangements, stress management, communication strategies, team working, positive relationships with managers and stakeholders, clarification and reduction in change initiatives, employee voice/involvement, equal opportunities, diversity management, bullying and harassment prevention, anti-violence, civility, respect, and trust Pay, budget limitation, financial difficulties, retirement plans and education, benefit plans, workplace financial education, material resources, and financial health of an organisation

Organisational financial

Collective, communal, community empowerment, relationship with stakeholders and counsellors, and stakeholders demands

Stakeholders

Humanistic and fair practices

Elements

Well-being domains

Table 3.1 (continued)

(continued)

Haworth and Hart (2007), Corrigan and Garman (1999), Perri (2007), Cartwright and Cooper (2009)

Baptiste (2009), Redman and Wilkinson (2009), Gould-Williams (2002), Kersley et al. (2006), Chechak and Csiemik (2014)

Sixsmith and Boneham (2007), Delle Fave (2007), Prilleltensky and Prilleltensky (2007), Baptiste (2009)

Authors

3.4 Multidimensional Well-Being Paradigm 35

Perspective

Elements Health promotions (eye tests, healthy eating, gym, flu vaccinations, well-being days): employee support and insurance protection initiatives Provision of meaning and challenging work, provide opportunities to achieve personal aspiration while maintaining work-life balance, safe working environment, provision of tools to get job done, ensuring culture fosters a positive working environment, absolution and praise culture, cultural empowerment, promoting social justice and human rights, clarification and reduction in change initiatives, selection, staff utilisation, role of executive leadership, ensuring the health of human capital, preventing absenteeism and turnover, a set of practices and not a state, performance, anti-harassment culture, biographic data on employees—lifestyles and interests, and equality and diversity management, and compassionate workplaces

Well-being domains

Wellness management

Healthy work/ organisation

Table 3.1 (continued)

Bradbury and Lichtenstein (2000), Adler and Kwon (2002), Baptiste (2007/2009), Kramer (1999), Tehrani et al. (2007), Delle Fave (2007), Schabracq (2005), Perri (2007), Cartwright and Cooper (2009), Guest (2007), Poorkavoos (2016)

CIPD (2019), Putnam (2015), Willis (2014), ShapeUp (2011)

Authors

36 3 Workplace Well-Being: Understanding Psychologically ‘WELL’ …

3.4 Multidimensional Well-Being Paradigm

37

conditions, and annual leave. These elements were all higher in the NW than in the national standard (Forth and Stokes 2006; Kersley et al. 2006). Likewise, one-third of NW workplaces had employment tribunal claims higher than the national average. For bullying and harassment, CIPD’s (2008, 2009) report highlights that the proportion of people experiencing bullying and harassment in the workplace is higher for the public sector compared with the private sector or voluntary sector counterparts. Public sector staff are also more likely to experience violence or to have been threatened with violence, and women are marginally more likely than men to say they are experiencing bullying (CIPD 2007b, 2009). The effects of bullying behaviour have a significant impact at the individual, team and organisational levels (Cooper and Marshall 1976; Hoel et al. 1999). CIPD (2004) estimates that bullying costs UK employers £80 million in lost working days annually and up to £2 billion in lost revenue via sickness absence, turnover, reduced productivity, formal and legal investigations, damage to employer branding, disturbance to working relationships, lower morale, and commitment (CIPD 2009). For individuals, the cost can be even higher, with lasting psychological and physical damage (CIPD 2007a).

3.4.1.2

Physical Well-Being

The key themes outlined by the physical well-being dimension include: physical health, work demands, increasing workloads, work stress, and sickness absence. The World Health Organisation (1999) identifies health as a key driver of socio-economic progress internationally (Grant et al. 2007; Lu et al. 1999). This view is echoed by the physical well-being dimension which relates to bodily health and functioning and influences employees’ health by improving outcomes relating to cardiovascular disease, blood pressure, work-related stress, and health and safety at work (Baptiste 2009; Clarke and Cooper 2004; Danna and Griffin 1999; Grant et al. 2007; Karasek and Theorell 1990). Thus, Tuomi et al. (2004) argue that changes in organisational practices and the demands of work are strongly associated with changes in employee physical well-being. Tuomi et al. further advocate that employee well-being can be improved with less uncertainty at work, decreasing mental and physical work demands, and physical exercise, all of which have favourable effects. Research shows that an estimated 137.3 million working days were lost due to sickness or injury in 2016 (ONS 2016), and in 2014 over half of women and nearly two-thirds of men were overweight or obese (Health and Social Care Information Centre (HSCIC) 2016). In 2014, research conducted by HSCIC reveals that 58% of women and 65% of men were overweight or obese and obesity prevalence has increased from 15% in 1993 to 26% in 2014, with the net cost of obesity to the UK economy was 15 million in 2014 (HSCIC 2016). Promoting good physical health and well-being among employees can reduce levels of obesity, sickness, increase energy levels, and boost levels of concentration (Chen and Cooper 2014). Research also shows that taking breaks, meditation, eating outside the office or in a staff room, and lunchtime walks gives employees a chance to unwind, move away from their desks that can help protect against musculoskeletal problems. Some organisations

38

3 Workplace Well-Being: Understanding Psychologically ‘WELL’ …

promote healthy eating and snacking and encourage cycling to work by providing bike racks so that employees have somewhere safe to chain their bikes; walking up the stairs instead of taking the elevators; physical challenges like walking or marathons for a charitable cause; encouraging contests among employees to encourage healthy living; encourage involvement of employees in company schemes soliciting ideas from employees for the improvement of their health and well-being; and sharing information with employees about the importance of physical well-being (Chen and Cooper 2014; Health and Social Care Information Centre 2016).

3.4.1.3

Intellectual Well-Being

Intellectual well-being explores creativity, agility, and mental ability of individuals (Currie 2001). The key themes outlined by the intellectual well-being dimension include: coaching and mentoring. An organisation can facilitate the learning of all its members and continually transform itself focusing on facilitating the learning and development of its people to improve the overall functioning of the workplace. Grey (2005) and Thompson (2006) state that learning approaches and professional development adopted by organisations can include coaching and mentoring. According to CIPD (2010a), coaching and mentoring have become, in the past decade, buzzwords in organisations and are important tools for supporting personal development. Central to this view, Grant and Spence (2010) argue that coaching interventions are primarily used to enhance goal attainment, positive psychology, and as a means of enhancing well-being to promote a flourishing workforce. For mentoring, Maellaro and Whittington (2009) claim that it is a technique for allowing the transmission of knowledge, skills, and experience, in a supportive and challenging environment, to guide and develop the individual over a long term. The development of intellectual well-being is captured by Thompson and Bates (2009) who advocate that the development of coaching and mentoring in organisations are essential to address well-being and performance (Wilkinson 2007). In support, McGovern et al. (1997) state that looking after human capital is the key factor in organisational success and that looking after the well-being of staff in a nurturing and developmental way, facilitates employee development, being an example of ‘best practice’ which has implications for the reduction in absenteeism and turnover. Extending this view, Baptiste (2007) states that line managers have a central role in employee development and well-being and should be proactive instead of reactive to avoid employee dissatisfaction.

3.4.1.4

Mental Health Well-Being

Mental ill-health is becoming a prevalent factor for employee sickness and absence. The CIPD’s 2019 health and well-being research reveals that mental ill-health is particularly prevalent in the public sector and is the main cause of long-term absence (followed by stress) and among the top causes of short-term absence (CIPD 2019). Furthermore, nearly three-quarters of organisations in the public sector (72%) have

3.4 Multidimensional Well-Being Paradigm

39

experienced an increase in reported common mental health conditions over the past year, compared with just over half (53%) of private sector organisations (CIPD 2019). Mental ill-health has prompted more organisations to have a policy that covers mental health to assist them to take action to manage mental health at work. Approaches used by organisations to manage mental health include: a phased return to work and/or other reasonable adjustments, increasing awareness of mental health issues across the workforce, access to counselling services and employee assistance programmes, provision of mental health first aid training, the use of mental health/well-being champions, organisational leaders encouraging an openness about mental health across the organisation, senior leaders, and line managers promoting and supporting mental health (CIPD 2019). Leaders and line managers are now encouraged to actively support people with mental ill-health through their actions and behaviour to avoid hindering organisational efforts. The CIPD’s (2019) research further reveals that just 44% of public sector organisations train managers to support staff with mental illhealth, although this is higher than the private sector, where 38% provide training. These figures show that we still have a long way to go but often training is curtailed or avoided due to budgetary constraints. Nevertheless, the commitment of senior leaders and managers to health and well-being is a key prerequisite for the success of any organisational programme or initiative (Hesketh and Cooper 2014). According to MacDonald (2005) and Silcox (2007), excessive pressure leads to stress which is linked to mental health conditions such as anxiety, depression, and heart disease all of which have implications for absenteeism (Silcox 2007; Warr 2002). WERS’s 2004 survey reveals that NW workplaces had days lost to sickness absence at 5.3%, slightly higher than the national average, with two-fifths of employees’ agreeing that they never had enough time to get their job done, with a quarter agreeing that they worry a lot about work outside working hours (Forth and Stokes 2006; Kersley et al. 2006). Another challenge faced by employees within organisations is increasing workloads and pressure at work, which can lead to work stress that can negatively impact health and productivity (CIPD 2010b; Jex 1998). Stress and mental ill-health are major factors in human life that can influence people positively and negatively and as such the management of work stress and mental health are crucial for both individual and organisational processes (Cooper et al. 2001; Cooper and Robertson 2001). Stress and mental health literatures advocate that managers and executives need to be positive, supportive and accommodating towards employees (Cartwright and Cooper 2009; Chen and Cooper 2014; CIPD 2019; Hesketh and Cooper 2014; William and Cooper 1998; Schabracq et al. 2003). Thus, Schabracq (2005) argues that employees’ mental health and well-being depend to an important degree on the extent to which leaders and managers realise the functional reality of employees. This can be achieved through effective leadership and HRM interventions (Baptiste 2007). Public sector workers in particular report that their workloads were too much, from (38 to 48%) feeling under excessive pressure at work, and nearly a quarter (23%) saying they feel under excessive pressure every day compared with 13% a year ago. For private sector employees, the results were (16 and 12%) (CIPD 2010b). Green (2006) states that Warr’s three-item index of ‘work strain’ shows a rise in average

40

3 Workplace Well-Being: Understanding Psychologically ‘WELL’ …

work strain between 1992 and 2001, which has implications for worker well-being. The approach to workplace stress in organisations has traditionally been dealt with occupational health and psychological approaches like workplace counselling and employee assistance programmes (MacDonald 2005). Likewise, other less acceptable approaches are adopted which Thompson and Bates (2009) refer to as the ‘ostrich approach’. This involves trying to pretend that the problems do not exist or that they are not important, but Williams and Cooper (1999) point out that this is a very dangerous strategy that can seriously backfire. Furthermore, Harvey et al. (2009) state that mental ill-health is now the leading cause of both sickness absence and incapacity benefits in most high-income countries, and as such, the rising economic and social costs make health at work an increasing priority for policymakers. However, ESRC (2006a) advocates that these measures are reactive approaches to ill-health at work and there is need for a broader proactive approach to be introduced into the organisation through wellness programmes, to encourage attendance and reduce absenteeism. It is important to note here that this book goes a step further than ‘wellness programmes’ and suggests a multidimensional workplace well-being approach that includes: the individual, group, and the organisation have to be viewed holistically to enhance the employment relationship that can foster and maintain the quality of working life and employees’ well-being.

3.4.1.5

Material/Rewards Well-Being

Material/reward well-being explores the working life experiences of individuals that pertain to reward strategies and functioning in the employment relationship (Baptiste 2009; CIPD 2007a; Currie 2001). Ulrich (1997) proposes that line managers need well-designed HR practices in their people management strategies in order to help motivate and reward employees in dealing with performance issues and work needs. CIPD (2010b) report reveals the reward strategies used in British workplaces, which include financial and non-financial schemes to motivate employees and reward high performers. Financial reward strategies used include pay schemes, performance-related pay, bonuses, incentives, pensions, and benefits. Non-financial strategies include recognition schemes (Kersley et al. 2006). Grint (2005) maintains that it is important for senior management to establish an appropriate organisational culture that supports, recognises, and rewards people management behaviours. In essence, once employees perceive that their efforts are valued, respected, and appreciated through various reward strategies, this in turn can positively influence their perception of fairness and overall well-being at work.

3.4 Multidimensional Well-Being Paradigm

3.4.1.6

41

Career Well-Being

Career well-being is based on the concept of professionalism, namely the extent to which individual employees identify with their profession or occupation and endorse its values and behavioural intention towards his/her occupation (Blau 2006; Gould and Penley 1984). Career well-being can represent an individual’s motivation to work in a career he/she chooses or as a degree of centrality of one’s career for one’s identity (Gould 1979; Schein 1978). The conceptualisation of career well-being proposed in this book is identification and satisfaction with one’s career and professional development and functioning, reflected in opportunities for advancement provided by the organisation. The key themes outlined by the career well-being domain include: career development opportunities, identification with an occupation, work-related stress on careers, and the individual’s career responsibility. Holland (1997) advocates that people gravitate towards occupations and work environments congruent with their personal orientations, and the choice of an occupation is construed as an attempt to fulfil a desired way of life through one’s work. Holland further argues that career choices reflect a person’s self-perception regarding his or her abilities, values and personality along with assessment of how these individual’s aspects fit with particular occupations. Becker and Carper’s (1956) work highlighted elements for identification with an occupation as an occupational title and associated ideology, commitment to task, commitment to particular organisations or institutional positions, and significance for one’s position in the larger society. Some key requisites of work for employees are that work meets their professional needs, offers professional growth, satisfaction, and the enhancement of their status (George 2009). According to Baruch (2009), career choices, commitment, and success at the individual level influence organisational interventions like career planning and management of work stress. In support, Clark and Cooper (2004) indicate the importance of understanding the specific impact of work-related stress on people’s careers. This in turn can have implications for career well-being of individuals within organisations. Strickland (1997) and Guthrie et al. (1998) emphasise the need for organisations and individuals to acknowledge and act upon the increased importance for employees to self-manage their careers. This view is echoed by George (2009) who argues that the changing nature of work has led to perceived contract breach on the part of both the individual’s profession and employing organisations and that twenty-first-century career management is seen as the individual’s own responsibility, and one of the social domains in which individuals engage. The ideology of career management in organisations has changed and careers are no longer a long-term relationship between employers and employees (Blau 2006) but rather a series of beneficial transactions based on both organisational and individual needs (George 2009). This can have implications for career management as perceived by employees, and it can be regarded as an expectation that, if violated, can negatively affect the psychological contract, perceptions of fairness, and ultimately well-being

42

3 Workplace Well-Being: Understanding Psychologically ‘WELL’ …

at work. Career well-being can dictate the relationship between affective and continuance commitment, job satisfaction, job involvement, enhanced performance, absenteeism, turnover intentions, and intentions to withdraw from the occupation (Meyer and Allen 1997; Randall and Cote 1991).

3.4.1.7

Spiritual Well-Being

The spiritual domain of well-being relates to an internal coping resource satisfaction with one’s life in relationship to God or a higher power and a perception of life as having meaning that nurtures and celebrates wholeness (Canadian Centre for Management Development 2002; Fisher 2005; Moss 2009). The conceptual definition of spiritual well-being proposed in this study is satisfaction with one’s religious well-being reflected in one’s relationship with a Supreme Being, one’s existential well-being, and one’s sense of meaning and purpose in life. Krishnakumar and Neck (2002) argue that organisations demand more time, psychic energy, loyalty, and imagination from employees than ever before, but continue to treat them as if they were interchangeable parts. Furthermore, Moss (2009) also contends that because of the emotional anxiety and complexities experienced at work, spirituality has been introduced as a profound way of looking at what is happening in the workplace. The notion of spirituality is not a management tool or theory used in an attempt to restore effectiveness and profitability to dysfunctional organisations, but as an invitation to explore challenges creatively and effectively and to suggest a more ‘root and branch’ approach that reflects the underlying values and aspirations (Fisher 2005). Spiritual well-being relates to the problems that employees can experience in the workplace and spirituality can be used as a way to understand what is happening in the workplace as it relates to employees (CCMD 2002). It can explore the extent to which issues such as meaning, purpose, and fulfilment are embedded and lived out within organisations. Freshman (1999) suggests that there is a link between spirituality and individual creativity, increased honesty and trust within the organisation, enhanced sense of personal fulfilment of employees, and an increased commitment to organisational goals (Burack 1999; Delbecq 1999; Wagner-Marsh and Conely 1999).

3.4.1.8

Financial Well-Being

Financial well-being is a more neglected aspect of health and well-being consideration, and few organisations have a financial well-being strategy that takes into account the needs of different employee groups (CIPD 2019). The mental health and physical well-being of employees have been topics high on the agenda for many employers recently, and increasingly this is being joined by a third consideration— financial well-being (www.aegon.co.uk). The Centre for Economic and Business Research (CEBR) and AEGON (brand name for Scottish Equitable Plc.) state that financial well-being is about people having control over their finances, their ability

3.4 Multidimensional Well-Being Paradigm

43

to respond to financial unpredictability and unexpected financial expenses, and their ability to meet financial goals and make choices that allow them to enjoy life (www. aegon.co.uk). Key findings from research completed by CEBR and AEGON which surveyed 2000 employees from diverse industry sectors about financial well-being found that 30% of employees agree they are just getting by financially but that large portions of the workforce live with significant money worries, with many people unable to manage an unexpected expense or worried about their savings. 41% of employees are concerned that the money they have now or will save will not last throughout retirement. 36% of employees do not think that they are in a position to handle a major unexpected expense financially, and 43% of employees usually have money left over at the end of the month, while nearly a third (31%) feel that their finances often or always control their life. The research further points out that there is a generational divide in financial well-being, in that, 40% of under 35 years’ old don’t feel that they would handle an expected major expense, compared to 30% of those aged 55 or above. Financial worries are party seasonal, in that two in five (39%) of workers said they feel under more financial pressure than usual in November and December, while a quarter (24%) feel their finances are stretched more than usual in January and February (CEBR and AEGON 2018). The CEBR and AEGON research found that the causes of low financial well-being entail low pay and insufficient pay rises (56%); high house prices (56%); high cost of living (excluding rent and house prices—50%); lack of understanding about managing money/budget (37%); insufficient pension provision (37%); low interest rates making savings less rewarding (34%); social pressure to spend/lead a certain lifestyle (34%); and high rental costs (48%) (CEBR and AEGON 2018). The financial well-being research further revealed that poor financial well-being costs UK employers GBP 1.56 billion each year through absenteeism and presenteeism. Absenteeism accounts for GBP 0.6 billion, and presenteeism accounts for GBP 0.9 billion, with over 500,000 private sector workers have had to take time off in the last year due to their financial well-being, leading to a loss of over 4.2 million days of work (www.aegon.co.uk). London recorded the highest financial well-being score (52), while Wales recorded the lowest score (49), with North West England, the significant geographical location for the organisational cases mentioned throughout this book, scoring (50), with IT and telecoms sectors recorded the highest financial well-being scores and retail recorded the lowest, and employees are looking for help when it comes to understanding their benefits (CEBR and AEGON 2018). AEGON points out that financial well-being scores are calculated by using four factors which include: first, day-to-day control over finances, including being able to pay bills on time and making ends meet; second, long-term goals, being on track to meet financial goals, including paying off outstanding debt and saving for retirement; third, one-off capacity to absorb a financial shock; and fourth, lifetime goals and ability to make choices and enjoy life. The CIPD (2019) research states that poor financial well-being is a significant cause of employee stress in their organisation, absenteeism, mental ill-health, and suggest that if employees have the knowledge and skills to make the right financial choices, reward and benefit choices to meet their financial needs, this is likely to

44

3 Workplace Well-Being: Understanding Psychologically ‘WELL’ …

improve their well-being and productivity (CIPD 2019). Research by CEBR and AEGON echoes this view and recommends that employers that communicate with employees about the benefits suggestion and to offer greater access to financial education for employees show higher financial well-being scores than those who don’t (CEBR and AEGON 2018). They further argue that employers can equip employees with tools to help them with financial future forecasting, including access to guidance on saving and investment (www.aegon.co.uk). The CIPD (2019) research states that the public sector is less active than private sector services organisations in regularly communicating reward policies to staff so they understand the benefits on offer and the choices available so that employees can assess how well their existing benefit offering is meeting their financial needs. Research by AEGON (2019) reveals that 21% of employees said that their employer does not currently provide information on how to make the most of the benefits on offer, but that they like them to do so. 7% of employees said that their employer offered face-to-face counselling and advice by specialised staff or external consultants.

3.4.1.9

Work/Family Well-Being

The challenges of the changing world of work have a wide-ranging effect on work and family interaction which has major concerns for both employees and employers (Green and Tsitsianis 2004; CIPD 2006; MacDonald 2005). Daniel and French (2006) argue that workers are experiencing life changes and aspirations and family time is coming under pressure, intensifying work–family conflict, resulting in psychological strains and ill-health (Cartwright and Cooper 2009; Helliwell and Barrington-Leigh 2010; Currie 2001; Newell 2002). Cooper et al. (2001) highlight that psychological strain experienced by employees as they strive for more of a balance between work and life mainly affects professionals and managerial workers who are increasingly pressured to work faster and longer hours (Baptiste 2009; George 2009). According to Cooper and Quick (1999), it is essential for organisations to understand this conflict and implement family-friendly policies and wellness interventions that can help employees attain a better balance between work and life (Clutterback 2003; Houston 2005). Clutterback (2003) also regard work-life balance as being aware of different demands on time and energy, having the ability to make choices in the allocation of time and energy, knowing what values to apply to choices and making choices. The literature highlights the importance of work-life balance, working hours, and well-being, advocating the benefits of a business case for organisations (CIPD 2009, DWP 2005; Nadeem and Metcalf 2007; Guest and Conway 2002; HWWE 2010). Thus, long hours working can have negative implications for employees’ health, fatigue, and relationships. This can have implications for more accidents and errors, reduced satisfaction, psychological well-being, and job performance (Houston 2005; HSE 2004a, 2010).

3.4 Multidimensional Well-Being Paradigm

45

3.4.2 Group Well-Being Perspective The group perspective of well-being entails three key domains: social, compassionate leadership, and stakeholders’ well-being.

3.4.2.1

Social Well-Being

The social well-being domain identifies the relational experiences and functioning and focuses on the quality of interpersonal relationships with other people and communities, underpinned with fair treatment for employees (Grant et al. 2007; Keyes 1998; Renwick 2003). The key themes outlined by the social well-being domain include: relationships, valued and supported, trust, blame culture, and line management leadership. Stress management and leader–member exchange literatures show that the leader’s impact is often incorporated into the broader situational variables of social support and supervisor–subordinate relationships experienced by employees within organisations (Cooper et al. 2001; Graen et al. 1982; Rhoades and Eisengerger 2002). Thus, Baptiste’s (2008a) study reveals that management relationship behaviour, in the form of support and development of trust, can promote employee well-being with implications for policy and practice in organisations. Echoing this view, Renwick (2003) claims that HR managers are engaged in the process of enhancing employee well-being at work and also acting against it. Renwick further concludes that while there are advantages to employee well-being through adopting a strategic HR approach led by HR managers, the devolution of HR work to the line are numerous, and the potential costs to employee well-being are also significant. In essence, employee well-being must be addressed by organisations if future employee commitment to these organisations is to be secured. In terms of self-reported relationships within organisations, WERS’s 2004 survey reveals that in the NW 97% of managers agreed that management–employee relations were good, whereas NW employees were less positive about the state of the employment relationship than their managers with 67% describing management– employee relations as good (Forth and Stokes 2006; Kersley et al. 2006). It is also important for employees to feel valued and supported within the organisation that can have positive implications for their well-being. In support, Baptiste’s (2007) research reveals that a culture of blame can promote negative well-being, and through this, promote fear, stifle creativity, and increase reluctance to take risks. Baptiste further concludes that being rewarded through praise and recognition, feeling valued, and being able to trust management are factors that can promote positive well-being at work. The dynamics of leadership and well-being at work is usually influenced by line management which is well defined in the literature (Alban-Metcalfe and AlimoMetcalfe 2000; McGovern et al. 1997; Purcell and Hutchinson 2003, 2007). It refers to a rational approach to organisational decision making and is concerned with executing routines and maintaining organisational stability (Purcell and Hutchinson 2007). McGovern et al. (1997) argue that line management action or support, and

46

3 Workplace Well-Being: Understanding Psychologically ‘WELL’ …

the quality of the relationship between employees and their immediate line manager, is also liable to influence perceptions not only of people management but of leadership and work climate, either positively or negatively. Echoing this view, Purcell and Hutchinson (2003) point out that employees’ relationship with their line manager is especially important and powerful and can be seen in how line managers deliver HR practices, and how responsive they are to workers needs and in quality of leadership shown. Thompson and Bates (2009) advocate that leaders can affect the well-being of those who report to them, both individually and as a group. Central to this point, it is therefore essential for line managers to achieve the right balance in terms of communication, team working, and leadership style adopted (McGovern et al. 1997). Cooper and Robertson (2001) suggest that leaders who are high on emotional intelligence are more likely to use the head–heart connection to make more healthy decisions from a logical decision-making process informed and guided by feelings. This ideology can be a stepping stone towards the enhancement of social well-being in organisations.

3.4.2.2

Compassionate and Relational Leadership Well-Being

Research shows that line management relationship is central to employee satisfaction, perception of fairness, support, and employee well-being (Alban-Metcalfe and Alimo-Metcalfe 2000; Baptiste 2007; McGovern et al. 1997). Cooper and Robertson (2001) hold the view that the leaders with high emotional intelligence are more likely to use the (head–heart connection) guided by feelings for decision making and functioning. This empathetic approach is associated with compassionate leadership that considers the key issue in creating healthier workplaces is through compassion and empathy at work, and in leadership more specifically (Meechan 2018). Compassionate leadership is the opposite of toxic leadership, bullying bosses, psychopathic managers, and colleagues which are commonplace and frighteningly central in most research findings from employee surveys. However, despite these findings, most of us can relate to a time when we worked with a compassionate, empathetic leader or colleague and the difference this made to our sense of purpose, self-worth, empowerment, motivation, in the achievement of our personal and organisational goals, in a way that it enhanced our personal well-being, and ultimately our productivity. Given that employee well-being is now high on senior leaders’ and management agenda, it is now time to better understand the importance of developing the social and interpersonal skills of empathy and compassion to enhance their own and others well-being for the good of the organisation. Compassionate leaders should demonstrate empathy. Sinclair et al. (2016) state that empathy is widely understood as being able to resonate with someone else’s shoes and feel with someone in their given circumstances, this can lead to people feeling recognised and valued. Meechan (2018) takes the ideology of empathy further by suggesting compassion, which relates to recognising the circumstances of another person or group of people and, critically, feeling compelled to take action to improve those circumstances. Armstrong (2011) asserts that compassion is a fundamental human condition, and it has been found to

3.4 Multidimensional Well-Being Paradigm

47

be one concept which underpins all the world’s major ethical, spiritual and religious traditions (Goetz et al. 2010). Meechan (2018) further claims that the outcome of compassion is an improvement, and this is why it is particularly important in a work context. Figley (1995) states that compassion process involves noticing the discomfort of the other person, being able to resonate with that discomfort and taking action to improve the circumstances of the other person. Research from Roffey Park (Poorkavoos 2016) has identified a compassion in the workplace model which highlights five key attributes of a compassionate individual at work to include: alive to the suffering of others, non-judgmental, tolerating personal distress, empathic, and appropriate action (Poorkavoos 2016). If empathy and compassion are not demonstrated in the workplace, it is likely to be associated with unethical practice (Dutton et al. 2006), leadership practices which lead to reduced employee well-being and reduced performance (Baptiste 2007, 2009), in certain service organisations like the health sector, a lack of compassion can lead to serious failings in basic standard of care which can lead to suffering and avoidable deaths, sexual exploitation, poor practices, putting profit over people, a lack of compassion for vulnerable and sick individuals and their families and much more can damage an organizations’ reputation and leave long-lasting psychological and physical scares in the lives of employees, patients and customers’ well-being (Meechan 2018). Meechan further argues that in workplaces lacking empathy and compassion occur on a daily basis. For example, managers are only interested in targets being delivered, with no interest in how that happens or in the people who deliver them; organisational change is implemented with no meaningful consultation with staff; people are dealing with wider life issues such as bereavement and illness and managers are insisting that those things should be kept separate from work; and people are expected to deliver more work with fewer resources due to budget cuts and pressure to increase profits. These practices can lead to staff feeling undervalued, unappreciated, dehumanized and pressurised, which generates suffering (Meechan 2018). Figley (1995) state that suffering at work is a hidden cost to human capability. In support, Poorkavoos (2016) claims that employee suffering within an organisation incurs considerable financial, psychological, and social costs. There is growing evidence emerging to show the business case and positive benefits of empathy and compassion in practice. Avoiding unethical practice and poor productivity are strong enough arguments for ensuring empathy and compassion in organisations. Holt and Marques (2012) state that empathy is an essential aspect of twenty-first-century leadership and can no longer be ignored if we want to prevent the continuation of ethic disasters in the business world. Research associated with transformational leadership has been found to be more ethical and more effective than other forms of leadership and is related to a number of positive work outcomes including improved relationships, motivation, job satisfaction, organisational commitment, creativity, safety, performance and well-being, improved communication, improved innovation, employee engagement, job satisfaction, higher organisational commitment, reduced absenteeism turnover, increase in patient satisfaction, reduction in serious incidents, positive emotions, lower heart rate and blood pressure, strengthen the immune system, decrease employees’ psychological distress, improved employee

48

3 Workplace Well-Being: Understanding Psychologically ‘WELL’ …

performance, acts of altruism, kindness and care, sustains the sufferer through the grieving process and facilitates faster recovery, generates resilience in stressful times among staff, lower stress, and greater resilience (Boyatzis et al. 2006; Lilius et al. 2011; Sinclair et al. 2016; Wang et al. 2013). Poorkavoos (2016) identified a number of studies which demonstrate the positive benefits of compassion in the workplace. Lilius et al. (2008) state that those who experience compassionate leadership at work are more likely to report effective commitment to their organisation and to talk about it in positive terms. Compassion breeds compassion, and those who experience it are then more likely to demonstrate it towards others (Kanov et al. 2004), and supervisors who perceive that their organisation values their well-being are more likely to show supportive behaviour towards the people they manage (Dutton et al. 2006). Compassion at work connects coworkers psychologically and results in a stronger bond between them (Figley 1995); people benefit by seeing compassionate acts being demonstrated in the workplace that has a rippling effect whereby the whole organisation can benefit which leads to relationships which are stronger and more positive and therefore more collaboration in the workplace (Dutton et al. 2006). When compassion is core to organisational values, there is a measurable increase in productivity and financial performance and well-being (Meechan 2018; Poorkavoos 2016). Barriers to compassion are organisational culture, individual circumstances, and policy and procedures. Organisational culture that hinder compassion in the workplace entails pressure from senior management too focused on outputs, and managers not feeling empowered to make decisions themselves that enable them to be compassionate. Policy and procedures that hinders compassion in the workplace include HR policy too restrictive and not able to adapt to individual circumstances. When policies and procedures are followed to the letter, to the point where you can’t see the real compassionate person. Individual circumstances that are a barrier to compassion in the workplace include: being too busy to stop and show care, low emotional intelligence, managers who genuinely don’t care about their teams and focus only on getting the job done whatever the cost, being fearful of accidentally discriminating against a person, crossing unseen boundaries, and being seen as inconsistent (Meechan 2018). Compassion in the workplace can be fostered in many levels in the workplace, at individual, team, and organisational level. From an individual level, compassion can be fostered through self-compassion, which Neff (2003) defines as being open to and moved by one’s own suffering, experiencing feelings of caring and kindness towards oneself, taking an understanding, non-judgmental attitude towards one’s inadequacies and failures, and recognising that one’s own experience is part of the common human experience (Neff 2003). Organisations can develop leaders and people with empathy and compassion training and coaching. Kanov et al. (2004) state that compassionate leaders take pleasure in being able to foster the development and learning of those around them, and they use their own knowledge to support and help others through modelling and setting the tone in the organisation; engaging employees by truly listening to them valuing their wants, needs and contributions, and responding to these in the spirit of improvement; and setting vision and values for the organisation ensuring clarity and ownership for them throughout the organisation (Meechan 2018). Compassion in organisations and teams promotes the culture of an

3.4 Multidimensional Well-Being Paradigm

49

organisation from shared values, assumptions, beliefs, and practices which shape the behaviour of an organisation (Armstrong 2011) and well-being of employees (Baptiste 2007). In order for the culture of an organisation to be compassionate, emphatic and compassionate approaches and practices need to be embedded, through the demonstration of caring actions. For example, having a well-being strategy will be useless if there is a bullying and blame culture, incivility, disrespect, micromanaging, and self-interest because bullying and blame and these undesirable behaviours have a negative impact on employee well-being. Compassion, like well-being, needs to be weaved into the fabric of the organisation and can be done through organisational objectives, compassion fun games, coaching culture, reward and recognition, social networks, and responding to suffering (Meechan 2018). Therefore, compassionate leadership is an integral competence and skill that organisational leaders and managers should develop to promote employee well-being and foster effectiveness in the employment relationship and in organisations in the pursuit of healthy, ‘WELL’, and productive workplaces.

3.4.2.3

Stakeholder Well-Being

Stakeholder domain of well-being identifies collective, community empowerment, and quality relationships with stakeholders (Delle Fave 2007; Sixsmith and Boneham 2007). The key themes outlined by the stakeholder well-being dimension include: relationships with external stakeholders, ethical practice, and corporate social responsibility. Baptiste’s (2009) study revealed that, in the public sector quality relationships between employees and counsellors, members of parliament, and customers are important for employees’ well-being at work. Moreover, Baptiste (2008b) advocates that organisations can convince their stakeholders that they are serious about good governance, ethical practice, and corporate social responsibility by demonstrating their commitment through HRM practices, fairness, compassionate leadership of leaders, line managers, and employees throughout the organisation. Fair work practices and a culture that has compassion as a central thread of its practices and functioning, will deliver high-quality service delivery to its customers and stakeholders, thereby enhancing organisational stakeholders’ well-being and assist with building and maintaining strong relationships.

3.4.3 Organizational Well-Being Perspective The organisational perspective of well-being entails four domains: humanistic and fair practices, organisational financial, workplace well-being management, and work/organisational well-being. This perspective focuses on the interaction that occurs within the work organisational context which influences both individual and group experiences of the employment relationship.

50

3.4.3.1

3 Workplace Well-Being: Understanding Psychologically ‘WELL’ …

Humanistic and Fair Practices

Literature states that humanistic and fair practices enhance employee commitment, job satisfaction, engagement and employee well-being (Guest 2002; Kersley et al. 2006). Baptiste (2009) conducted research with senior managers in the public sector to find out which practices or organisational activities promoted their well-being at work. The research revealed that managers’ well-being is strongly linked to eight organisational factors which include: working time arrangements, stress management, communication strategies, reward strategies, management development, team working, relationships with stakeholders and clarification and reduction in change initiatives. These are all associated with individual, group and organisational perspectives of the multidimensional well-being paradigm. Moreover, the importance of fair treatment and well-being was captured by Currie (2001) who claims that when people feel that they have been unfairly treated they experience a series of injustices, they feel hurt, slighted and in many cases frustrated because feelings of inferiority preoccupy the mind and dominate one’s thoughts (Robertson et al. 2008). Currie also points out that the degree to which individuals are affected by unfair treatment varies, and perceived unfairness is a significant demotivator. In support, Newell (2002) argues that the victims of discrimination become alienated by the way they are treated, which ultimately affects the quality of their work life and performance. Employees may also become less amendable to accepting performance targets, resulting in rising absence rates, increase turnover, and work-related stress (MacDonald 2005; Wentling and Palma-Rivas 1998). One perceived dehumanized and unfair practice is that of bullying and harassment in the workplace. The literature highlights that bullying is a complex and multicausal phenomenon influenced by the interaction between individuals’ situational and organisational factors (Hoel and Salin 2003; Rayner and Hoel 1997). From an individual perspective, bullying can take place between managers and employees and among subordinates. Situations like organisational downsizing and changes can influence bullying in organisations (Peyton 2003). Moreover, Baptiste (2007) asserts that practices like praise and recognition, feeling valued and respected, feeling a sense of purpose, and the ability to trust management are factors that can promote a sense of fairness, support and consequently employee well-being that will positively influence the employment relationship between the employer and employee. From an organisational perspective, organisations can be perceived by their employees as behaving as a bully, based on practices and procedures used to oppress, demean or humiliate the workforce (CIPD 2008; Fineman 2007). These can include external pressures from stakeholder groups; history and culture that can develop behaviours associated with institutionalised bullying (CIPD 2009); senior team tactics resulting in harsh and uncaring actions (Salin 2003); and process bullying involving oppressive organisational practices (e.g. withdrawal of overtime) that are employed so frequently and consistently that employees feel victimised by them (Hoel and Salin 2003; Simpson and Cohen 2004). Central to this view, Fineman (2007) points out that bullying and violence are the dark side of working life, are often hidden but invariably devastating for victims, leading to negative emotions

3.4 Multidimensional Well-Being Paradigm

51

such as discontent, rage, fear, anger, revenge and betrayal. In essence, these experiences may negatively affect the psychological contract, trust, fairness perceptions and ultimately well-being of employees within organisations (Guest and Conway 2009). Furthermore, CIPD research showed that 83% of organisations, 90% in the public sector have anti-bullying policies but highlighted that bullying is still happening (CIPD 2009). However, despite research done in this area, bullying at work still remains an under-researched, under-reported and under-analysed phenomenon (Harrington and Rayner 2010; Lutgen-Sandvik et al. 2007). Even further, there appears to be a ‘silence’ in the literature about employees’ perspectives and reactions to their working life experiences relating to bullying at work and the effects of bullying at work to their well-being. This book seeks to contribute towards the debate in this area.

3.4.3.2

Organizational Financial Well-Being

The key themes outlined by organisational financial well-being domain include: the challenges of economic changes, reformation due to modernisation, and expenditure reduction. The organisational financial domain can be as a result of adverse changes in the external environment due to tough economic conditions—resulting in reformation and expenditure reduction that is likely to have implications on the organisation’s bottom line as well as the employees’ well-being. For example, at the time of writing this book the UK public sector in particular was facing challenges as a result of the recession, downsizing, expenditure reduction, continuous changes and budget limitations. Organisational financial well-being has implications for all the other domains of well-being and underpins the holistic working life experiences of individuals as well as the financial health of the organisation. In support, Cartwright and Cooper (2009) state that organisational financial well-being is important for organisations and their members in order to be able to transform and adapt to changing circumstances more effectively than their competitors. They also point out that the success of an organisation is invariably judged on the basis of its financial performance and its ability to provide high-quality goods and services over time. Echoing this view, Bakke (2005) claims that joy-filled workplaces improve financial performance and ensure that employees have meaningful and enjoyable work in a healthy working environment (Baptiste 2007, 2009; Currie 2001; Newell 2002). If the financial well-being of an organisation is not healthy and leaders and managers have to function with limited budgets and expenditure reduction ideology, these approaches have implications for job insecurity, increased workloads, job-related stress and strain, stress-related absence, and mental ill-health, which all will be perceived by employees as psychological contract breach and consequently negatively impact employee’s well-being and performance.

52

3.4.3.3

3 Workplace Well-Being: Understanding Psychologically ‘WELL’ …

Wellness Management Well-Being

Organisations have adopted different approaches to workplace well-being and wellness management. There is a lot to be explored and discovered in the field of workplace wellness as organisational leaders have to consider workplace diversity, different generations at work, genders, diverse faiths, age groups, obesity-related disease, poor health conditions, mental ill-health, and healthcare costs, are all as daunting as ever (Putnam 2015). There is innovative thinking from other industries that are adopted for workplace wellness by applying promising practices from workplace wellness along with principles from related field like education, learning and development, organisational development, psychology, and even a discipline called ‘design thinking’ is drawn from to promote the overall culture of well-being at work through diverse programmes (Putnam 2015). According to CIPD’s (2019) health and wellbeing research, most organisations take some action to promote employee well-being, but there remains considerable variation in how strategic and proactive approaches to wellness management are implemented. Some organisations have standalone wellbeing strategy, but most act on an ad hoc basis (CIPD 2019). Wellness programmes adopted by most organisations include: programme designed to promote mental health to a large or moderate extent through collective/social relationships, physical health, and values/principles are commonly promoted, personal growth, and good lifestyle choices. Programmes to promote financial well-being are also promoted through well-being benefits on offer by different organisations. Additional well-being management programmes include: health promotion, employee support, insurance/protection initiatives, and lifestyle management programmes. Health promotions entail: free eye tests, advice on healthy eating/lifestyle, in-house gym and/or subsidised gym membership, free flu vaccinations, health screening, programmes to encourage physical fitness, well-being days, regular on-site relaxation or exercise classes, and access to complementary therapies (reflexology and message) (ShapeUp 2011). Employee support provides access to counselling service, employee assistance programme, access to physiotherapy and other therapies, financial education (welfare loans for financial hardship), and stop smoking support (CIPD 2019; Chen and Cooper 2014). Insurance/protection initiatives can include private medical insurance, health cash plans, long-term disability/permanent health insurance, dental cash plans, group income protection, self-funded health plans/healthcare trust, personal accident insurance, and critical illness insurance (Willis 2014). Lifestyle management programme includes weight control programme, fitness, wellness coaching, lunch and learns/on-site seminars, tobacco cession programmes, wellness resources, online programmes/engagement platforms, drug/alcohol abuse programmes, stress management programmes, and disease management (CIPD 2019; Putnam 2015).

3.4.3.4

Healthy Work/Organizational Well-Being

A healthy workplace is one that includes effective policies for dealing with all of the ‘people’ aspects of employment such as diversity and inclusion, communication and

3.4 Multidimensional Well-Being Paradigm

53

consultation, engagement and work-life balance (CIPD 2019). The salient points outlined by the healthy work/organisational well-being domain include: diversity management, job security, job design, performance, and the promotion of a positive and healthy work environment. The UK workforce is multicultural and diverse in nature and, as highlighted by Newell (2002) organisations should pay attention to equal opportunities and diversity management in order to avoid intergroup hostility, frustration and prejudice in order to create a productive environment in which organisational goals are met efficiently and effectively by making best use of individual talent and potential (CIPD 2010b). Echoing this view, Wentling and Palma-Rivas (1998) state that companies that encourage diversity will be happier and healthier places in which to work, as diversity can lead to better work relationships, more effective team working, motivated employees and less conflict and misunderstandings between employees resulting in more satisfied and happy employees (Currie 2001). Wright (2005) critiques this view and suggests that diversity can lead to increasing conflict, lowering morale, resulting in less effective teams and more dissatisfaction. Moreover, Hellgren et al. (1999) point out that feeling comfortable at work is associated with a positive perception of the supportiveness of the organisational climate since insecurity is a key dimension of negative well-being. According to Tehrani et al. (2007) and Bakke (2005), the organisational domain of well-being can be exhibited by healthy institutions promoting an environment that makes work exciting, fulfilling, rewarding, stimulating, and enjoyable. In support, Meechan (2018) argues that organisations that promote a compassionate culture that demonstrates support, caring, and empathetic culture are more likely to promote employee well-being and in turn enhanced performance. Moreover, Mowbray (2009) maintains that the relationship between individual well-being and personal performance is well established, indicating that people who feel well and valued perform better than those who feel ill. Mowbray also states that well-being and performance may be idiosyncratic and the environment in which individuals live and work has a major and significant influence on how individuals respond to their own feelings of well-being (Mowbray 2009). Central to this view, Linley et al. (2010) state that an emotionally healthy workplace is achievement oriented, financially sound, has a solid customer base, emphasises cooperation over competition, enhances motivation and effort and can afford to be optimistic about its future (Currie 2001; MacDonald 2005; Newell 2002). To this end, Baptiste (2009) explains that well-being has become one of the most important issues of the twenty-first-century world of work—a challenge not just for individuals in terms of their mental and physical health but for employers and governments who have started to assess its social and financial implications. Echoing this view, O’Reilly (2009) advocates that well-being has now become a main concern than it was previously and should be embraced by organisations as a priority as it is a common sense approach to business. O’Reilly also contends that organisations that do not view employee well-being as important could find themselves marginalized in the future. Supporting this view, Grant et al. (2007) state that contemporary organisations that foster well-being are perceived as employers of ‘best practice’ and are recognised by current and prospective employees as offering a desirable place to work.

54

3 Workplace Well-Being: Understanding Psychologically ‘WELL’ …

3.5 Conclusion This chapter reviewed the literature that was considered relevant based on the variables studied in this book. The chapter reveals that the history and development of HRM and well-being research have appeared to have come full circle as people management originated from the welfare philosophy and shifted ideologies for decades, resulting in focusing on welfare thinking in the twenty-first century, known now as employee well-being at work. This chapter developed a multidimensional workplace well-being perspective model that highlights individuals, groups, and organisation to give a better understanding of the diverse layers of workplace well-being that should be taken into consideration to facilitate positive employment relations, leader– member exchange, perceived organizational support, justice perceptions, positive well-being, reduction in absences and mental ill-health, and enhanced performance.

References AEGON (Scottish Equitable Plc), and Centre for Economics and Business Research Report (CEBR). (2018). Financial well-being in the workplace: A summary of the Aegon and Centre for Economic and Business Research report. www.aegon.co.uk/financialwell-being. Accessed January 1, 2019. Adler, P. S., & Kwon, S. W. (2002). Social capital: Prospects for a new concept. Academy of Management Review, 27(1), 17–40. Alban-Metcalfe, R. J., & Alimo-Metcalfe, B. (2000). The Transformational Leadership Questionnaire (TLQ-LGV): A convergent and discriminant validity study. Leadership and Organisation Development Journal, 21, 280–296. Armstrong. (2011). Twelve steps to a compassionate life. London: The Bodley Head. Available at https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/labourproductivity/ articles/sicknessabsenceinthelabourmarket/2016. Accessed May 1, 2019. Bakke, D. W. (2005). Joy at work: A revolutionary approach to fun on the job. Penguin Group (USA) Inc. Baptiste, N. R. (2007). Line management leadership: Implications for employee well-being. In G. P. Clarkson (Ed.), Developing Leadership Research, Chapters from the Northern Leadership Academy Fellow 2007 Conference (pp. 229–238). Leeds University Business School, Leeds University Press Financial Services, Leeds. Baptiste, N. R. (2008a). Tightening the link between employee well-being at work and performance: A new dimension for HRM.Management Decisions, 46(2), 284–309. Baptiste, N. R. (2008b). Line management leadership: Implications for employee well-being. In G. P. Clarkson (Ed.), Developing Leadership Research, Chapters from the Northern Leadership Academy Fellow 2007 Conference . Leeds University Press Financial Services, Leeds. Baptiste, N. R. (2009). Fun and well-being: Insights from senior managers in a local authority. Employee Relations, 31(6), 600–612. Baruch, Y. (2009). Stress and careers. In C. Cooper, J. Campbell, & Q. M. Schabracq (Eds.), International handbook of work and health psychology. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. Beer, M., Spector, B., Lawrence, P., Mills, D. Q., & Walton, R. (1984). Human resource management: A general manager’s perspective. New York: Free Press. Beardwell, J., & Claydon, T. (2007). Human resources management: A contemporary approach (5th ed.). Englewood Cliffs: Financial Times, Prentice Hall; London: Pearson Publishers. Becker, H. S., & Carper, J. W. (1956). The development of identification with an occupation. American Sociological Review, 32, 341–347.

References

55

Black, C. M. (2008). Working for a healthier tomorrow. London: TSO. Blau, P. M. (2006). Exchange and power in social life: New introduction by the author (10th ed.). London: Transaction Publisher. Bolton, S., & Houlian, M. (2007a). Beginning the search for the H in HRM. In S. Bolton & M. Houlian (Eds.), Searching for the H in human resource management: Theory, practice and workplace context. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Bolton, S., & Houlihan, M. (Eds.) (2007b). Searching for the human in human resource management: Theory, practice and workplace contexts. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Boyatzis, R. E., Smith, M. L., & Blaize, N. (2006). Developing sustainable leaders through coaching and compassion. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 5(1), 8–24. Bradbury, H., & Lichtenstein, B. B. (2000). Relationality in organizational research: Exploring the space between. Organizational Science, 11(5), 551–564. Brewster, C., Mayrhofer, W., & Morley, M. (2004). Human resource management in Europe: Evidence of convergence? London: Elsevier, Butterworth Heinemann. Burack, E. (1999). Spirituality in the workplace. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 12(4), 280–292. Burke, R. J., & Ng, E. (2006). The changing nature of work organisations: Implications for human resource management. Human Resource Management Review, 16, 86–94. Burke, R. J., Koyuncu, M., & Fiksenbaum, L. (2008). Work experiences, satisfactions and psychological well-being of female and male managers in the hospitality sector in Turkey. Journal of Opportunities International, 27(6), 505–518. Campion, M. A., & McClelland, C. L. (1993). Follow-up and extension of the interdisciplinary costs and benefits of enlarged jobs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(3), 339–351. Canadian Centre for Management Development. (2002). A fine balance: A manager’s guide to workplace well-being. Canada: CCMD Roundtable on Workplace Well-being. Cartwright, S., & Cooper, C. L. (2009). The Oxford handbook of organisational well-being. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Chechak, D., & Csiernik, R. (2014). Canadian perspectives on conceptualizing and responding to workplace violence. Journal of Workplace Behaviour Health, 29, 55–74. Chen, P. Y., & Cooper, C. L. (Eds.). (2014). Work and well-being: A complete reference guide (Vol. 3). UK: Wiley. CIPD (Chartered Institute of Personnel Development). (2004). Flexible working and paternity leave, survey report. London: CIPD. CIPD. (2005). Bullying at work: Beyond policies to a culture of respect. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel Development. CIPD. (2006). Working life: Employee attitudes and engagement, Research Report. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel Development. CIPD. (2007a). Rewarding work—The vital role of line managers, change agenda. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel Development. CIPD. (2007b). New directions in managing employee absence: An evidence-based approach. Research in Practice, London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. CIPD. (2008). Bully at work and the 2007 code of practice. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel Development. CIPD. (2009). Harassment and bullying at work. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. CIPD. (2010a). Employee outlook recovery yet to reach the workplace, Quarterly Survey Report, Spring, London: Chartered Institute of Personnel Development. CIPD. (2010b). The talent perspective: What does it feel like to be talent-managed?. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. CIPD. (2019). Health and well-being at work, in Partnership with Simply Health, April 2019, championing better work and working lives. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Clarke, S., & Cooper, C. L. (2004). Managing the risk of workplace stress. London: Routledge.

56

3 Workplace Well-Being: Understanding Psychologically ‘WELL’ …

Clutterback, D. (2003). Managing work-life balance: A guide to HR in achieving organisational and individual change. London: CIPD. Cooper, C. L., & Marshall, J. (1976). Occupational sources of stress: A review of the literature relating to coronary heart disease and mental ill-health. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 49, 11–28. Cooper, C. L., & Quick, J. C. (1999). Fast facts-stress and strain. Oxford: Health Press Limited. Cooper, C., & Robertson, I. (2001). Well-being in organisations: A reader for students and practitioners. Chichester: Wiley. Cooper, C. L., Dewe, P. J., & O’Driscoll, M. P. (2001). Organisational stress: A review and critique of theory, research and application. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Corrigan, P. W., & Garman, A. N. (1999). Transformational and transactional leadership skills for mental health teams. Community Mental Health Journal, 35(4), 301–312. Cowen, E. L. (1991). In pursuit of wellness. American Psychologist, 46(4), 404-408. Cully, M., O’Reilly, A., Millward, N., Forth, J., Woodland, S., Dix, G., et al. (1999). British at work: As depicted by the 1998 workplace employee relations survey. London: Routledge Publishers. Currie, D. (2001). Managing employee well-being. Oxford: Chandos Publishing Oxford Limited. Daniels, G., & French, S. (2006). Regulating work-life balance. Centre for Industrial Relations, Keele University. Danna, K., & Griffin, R. W. (1999). Health and well-being in the workplace: A review and synbook of the literature. Journal of Management, 25(3), 357–384. Delbecq, A. L. (1999). Christian spirituality and contemporary business leadership. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 12(4), 345–354. Delle Fave, A. (2007). Individual development and community empowerment: Suggestions from studies on optimal experience. In J. Haworth & G. Hart (Eds.), Well-being: Individual, community and social perspectives (pp. 41–56). Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan. Department of Health (DOH). (2004). Choosing health: Making healthier choices easier (Public Health White Paper). London: DH. Department of Works and Pensions (DWP). (2005). Exploring how general practitioners work with patients on sick leave, Research Report 257, June. Department of Works and Pensions. Diener, E. (1984). Subjective wellbeing. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 542–575. Diener, E. (1996). Traits can be powerful, but are not enough: Lessons from subjective well-being. Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 389–399. Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. E. (2003). Personality, culture, and subjective well-being: Emotional and cognitive evaluations of life. Annual Review Psychology, 54, 403–425. Dutton, J. E., Worline, M. C., Frost, P. J., & Lilius, J. (2006). Explaining compassion organizing. Administrative Science Quarterly, 5(1), 59–96. Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC). (2006). Health and well-being at work of working age people. Seminar Series: Mapping the public policy landscape. Swindon: ESRC. Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC). (2010). Well-being and working life: Towards an evidence-based policy agenda. London: HSE/ESRC. Eid, M., & Larsen, R. J. (2008). The science of subjective wellbeing. London: The Guilford Press. Eisenberger, R., Rhoades, L., & Cameron, J. (1999). Does pay for performance increase or decrease perceived self-determination and intrinsic motivation? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1026–1040. Emmons, R. A. (1991). Personal striving, daily life events and psychological and physical wellbeing. Journal of Personality, 59(3), 453–472. Ferraro, F., Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2005). Economics language and assumptions: How theories can become self-fulfilling. Academy of Management Review, 30(1), 8–24. Figley, C. R. (1995). Compassionate fatigue: Toward a new understanding of the costs of caring. Tulane University. Available at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232604330. Fineman, S. (2006). On being positive: Concerns and counterpoints. Academy of Management Review, 31(2), 270–291. Fineman, S. (2007). Understanding emotions at work. London: Sage Publishers.

References

57

Fisher, J. (2005). Dimensions of Spirituality Christian Research Association. Available at https:// www.cre.org.au/pages/00000072.cgi. Accessed June 12, 2010. Fombrun, C. (1996). Reputation: Realizing value for the corporate image. Harvard, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Forth, J., & Stokes, L. (2006). A regional perspective on employment relations: Tabulations from the 2004 workplace employment relations survey, Report to the Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Services (ACAS), Final Report, September 8, 2006. Freshman, B. (1999). An exploratory analysis of definitions and applications of spirituality in the workplace. Journal of Organisational Change Management, 12(4), 318–327. Fried, Y., & Ferris, G. R. (1987). The validity of the job characteristics model: A review and meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 40(2), 287–322. Fryer, B. (2013). The rise of compassionate management (finally). Harvard Business School Blog Network. George, C. (2009). The psychological contract: Managing and developing professional groups, Work and Organisational Psychology. Berkshire: Open University Press. Goetz, J. L., Keltner, D., & Simon-Thomas, E. (2010). Compassion: An evolutionary analysis and empirical review. Psychological Bulletin, 136(3), 351. Gould, S. (1979). Characteristics of planners in upwardly mobile occupations. Academy of Management Journal, 22, 539–550. Gould, S., & Penley, L. E. (1984). Career strategies and salary progression: A study of their relationships in a municipal bureaucracy. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 34(2), 244–265. Gould-Williams, J. (2002). The extent to which HR practices are utilised within local government departments: A preliminary study. Local and Regional Government Research Unit, Cardiff University. Graen, G. B., Novak, M. A., & Sommerkamp, P. (1982). The effects of leader-member exchange and job design on productivity and satisfaction: Testing a dual attachment model. Organisational Behaviour and Human Performance, 30, 109–131. Graham, C. (2009). Happiness around the world: The paradox of happy peasants and miserable millionaires. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Grant, A. M., & Spence, G. B. (2010). Using coaching and positive psychology to promote a flourishing workforce: A model of goal-striving and mental health. In P. A. Linley, S. Harrington, & N. Garcea (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology and work. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Grant, A., Christianson, M., & Price, R. (2007). Happiness, health or relationships? Managerial practices and employee well-being tradeoffs. The Academy of Management, 21(3), 51–63. Green, F. (2006). Demanding work: The paradox of job quality in the affluent economy. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 61(2), 266–268. Green, F., & Tsitsianis, N. (2004). An investigation of national trends of job satisfaction in Britain and Germany. British Journal of Industrial Relations, 43(3), 401–429. Green, F., & Whitfield, K. (2009). Employees experiences at work. In W. Brown, A. Bryson, J. Forth, & K. Whitfield (Eds.), The evolution of the modern workplace. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Grey, C. (2005). A very short, fairly interesting and reasonably cheap book about studying organisations. London: Sage Publications. Grint, K. (2005). Leadership: Limits and possibilities. Basingstoke: Management Work & Organisations, Palgrave Macmillan. Guerrier, Y., & Adib, A. (2003). Work at leisure and leisure at work: A study of the emotional labour of tour reps. Human Relations, 56(11), 1399–1417. Guest, D. (1990). Human resource management and the american dream. Journal of Management Studies, 27(4), 377–397. Guest, D. (1997). Human resource management and performance: A review and research agenda. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 8(3), 263–276.

58

3 Workplace Well-Being: Understanding Psychologically ‘WELL’ …

Guest, D. (2002). Human resource management, corporate performance and employee well-being: Building the worker into HRM. Journal of Industrial Relations, 44(3), 335–358. Guest, D. (2007). HRM and the worker: Towards a new psychological contract? In P. Boxall, J. Purcell, & P. Wright (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of human resource management (pp. 128–146). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Guest, D., & Conway, N. (2002). Pressure at work and the psychological contract, Research Report, London: CIPD. Guest, D., & Conway, N. (2004). Employee well-being and the psychological contract. London: CIPD. Guest, D., & Conway, N. (2009). Health and well-being: The role of the psychological contract. In C. Cooper, J. C. Quick, M. J. Schabracq (Eds.), International handbook of work and health psychology (pp. 9–23). London: Wiley-Blackwell Publication. Gutherie, J. P., Coate, C. J., & Schwoerer, C. E. (1998). Career management strategies: The role of personality. Journal of Management Psychology, 13(5/6), 371–386. Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1980). Work redesign. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishers. Harrington, S., & Rayner, C. (2010). Look before you leap or drive right in? The use of moral courage in response to workplace bullying. In P. A. Linley, S. Harrington, & N. Garcea (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology and work (pp. 265–276). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Harter, J. K., Schmidt, F. L., & Hayes, T. L. (2002). Because-unit-level relationship between employee satisfaction, employee engagement, and business outcomes: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(2), 268–279. Harvey, S. B., Henderson, M., Lelliott, P., & Hotopf, M. (2009). Mental health and employment: Much work still to be done. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 194, 201–203. https://doi.org/10. 1192/bjp.bp.108.055111. Haworth, J., & Hart, G. (2007). Well-being: Individual, community and social perspectives. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan. Health and Safety Executive (HSE). (2000). Work related factors and ill-health: The Whitehall II study (prepared by Stephen Stansfield, Jenny Head, and Michael Marmot, contract research report 266/2000, Crown Copyright 2000). Health and Safety Executive (HSE). (2004a). Management standards for work-related stress, November 3, 2004. London: HSE. Health and Safety Executive (HSE). (2010). New workplace well-being tool. London: HSE. Health and Social Care Information Centre (HSCIC). (2016). Statistics on obesity, physical activity and diet: England 2016. The National Statistics Publication, published 28 April, 2016. www. hscic.gov.uk. Health Work and Well-being Executive (HWWE). (2010). https://www.workingforhealth.gov.uk/. Accessed April 10, 2010. Working in partnership with DOH, DWP, HSE, Welsh Assembly Government, and The Scottish Government. Helliwell, J. F., & Barrington-Leigh, C. P. (2010). Measuring and understanding subjective wellbeing. NBER Working Paper Series, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA, April 2010. Hellgren, J., Sverke, M., & Isaksson, K. (1999). A two-dimensional approach to job insecurity: Consequences for employee attitudes and well-being. European Journal of Work and Organisational Psychology, 8(9), 179–195. Hesketh, I., & Cooper, C. L. (2014). Leaveism at work. Occupational Medicine, 64(3), 146–147. Available at https://academic.oup.com/occmed/article/64/3/146/1439077. Hoel, H., Rayner, C., & Cooper, C. L. (1999). Workplace bullying. In: C.L. Cooper & I. T. Robertson (Eds), International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 14, 195–230. Hoel, H., & Salin, D. (2003). Organisational antecedents of workplace bullying. In S. Einarsen, H. Hoel, D. Zapf, & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Bullying and emotional abuse in the workplace: International perspectives in research and practice (pp. 203–218). London: Taylor and Francis. Holland, J. L. (1997). Making vocational choices: A theory of careers (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Publishers.

References

59

Holman, D. (2002). Employee well-being in call centres. Human Resource Management Journal, 12(4), 35–50. Holt, S., & Marques, J. (2012). Empathy in leadership: Appropriate or misplaced? An empirical study on a topic that is asking for attention. Journal of Business Ethics, 105, 95–105. Houston, D. M. (2005). Work-life balance in the 21st century. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Huselid, M. (1995). The impact of human resource management practices on turnover, productivity and corporate financial performance. Academy of Management Journal, 38(3), 635–72. Hutchinson, S., & Purcell, J. (2010). Managing ward managers for roles in HRM in the NHS: Overworked and under-resourced. Human Resource Management Journal, 20(4), 357–374. Jain, A. K., Giga, S. I., & Cooper, C. (2009). Employee well-being, control and organisational commitment. Leadership and Organisational Development Journal, 30(3), 256–273. Jex, S. M. (1998). Stress and job performance: Theory, research and application. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publication. Kahneman, D., Diener, E., & Schwarz, N. (Eds.). (1999). Wellbeing: The foundations of hedonic psychology. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Kanov, J. M., Maitlis, S., Worline, M. C., Dutton, J. E., Frost, P. J., & Lilius, J. M. (2004). Compassion in organisational life. American Behavioral Scientist, 47(6), 808–827. Karasek, R. A., & Theorell, T. (1990). Healthy work: Stress, productivity, and the reconstruction of working life. NY: Basic Books. Katzell, R. A., & Thompson, D. E. (1990). Work motivation: Theory and practice. American Psychologist, 45(2), 144–153. Kersley, B., Alphin, C., Forth, J., Bryson, A., Bewley, H., Dix, G., et al. (2006). Inside the workplace: Findings from the 2004 workplace employment relations survey. London: Routledge. Keyes, C. L. M. (1998). Social well-being. Social Psychology Quarterly, 61(2), 121–40. Kramer, R. M., & Tyler, T. R. (1996). Trust in organisations. London: Sage Publications. Kramer, R. M. (1999). Trust and distrust in organizations: Emerging perspectives, enduring questions. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 569–598. Krishnakumar, S., & Neck, C. (2002). The ‘what’, ‘why’ and ‘how’ or spirituality in the workplace. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 17(3), 153–164. Legge, K. (2005). Human resource management: Rhetorics and realities. London: Palgrave Macmillan Publishers. Lepak, D. A., & Snell, S. A. (2005). The human resource architecture: Towards a theory of human capital allocation. In S. Little & T. Ray (Eds.), Managing knowledge: An essential reader. London: Sage Publishers. Lewis, D., & Rayner, C. (2003). Bullying and human resource management: A wolf in sheep’s clothing? In S. Einarsen, H. Hoel, D. Zapf, & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Bullying and emotional abuse in the workplace: International perspectives in research and practice (pp. 370–382). London: Taylor and Francis. Lilius, J. M., Worline, M. C., Maltlis, S., Kanov, J., Dutton, J. E., & Frost, P. (2008). The contours and consequences of compassion at work. Journal of Organisational Behaviour, 29(2), 193–218. Lilius, J. M., Dutton, J. E., Worline, M. C., & Kanov, J. (2011). Understanding compassion capability. Human Relations, 64(7), 1–40. Linley, P. A., Harrington, S., & Garcea, N. (Eds.). (2010). Oxford handbook of positive psychology at work. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lu, L., Tsjeng, H., & Cooper, C. L. (1999). Managerial stress, job-satisfaction and health in Taiwan. Stress Medicine, 15, 53–64. Lutgen-Sandvik, P., Tracy, S. J., & Alberts, J. (2007). Burned by bullying in the american workplace: Prevalence, perception, degree and impact. Journal of Management Studies, 44(6), 837–862. MacDonald, L. A. C. (2005). Wellness at work: Protecting and promoting employee well-being. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Maellaro, R., & Whittington, J. L. (2009). Management development for well-being and survival: Developing the whole person. In C. Cooper, J. Campbell, Q. M. Schabracq (Eds.), International handbook of work and health psychology. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

60

3 Workplace Well-Being: Understanding Psychologically ‘WELL’ …

March, J. G. (1991). Exploration and exploration in organisational learning. Organisational Science, 2(1), 71–87. McGovern, P., Gratton, L., & Hailey, H. V. (1997). Human resource management on the line? Human Resource Management Journal, 7(4), 12–29. Meechan, F. (2018). Compassion at Work Toolkit. Alliance Manchester Business School, University of Manchester. Available at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322404395_Compassion_ at_Work_Tooklit. Meyer, J., & Allen, N. (1997). Commitment in the workplace. London: Sage. Morrow, P. C. (1983). Concept redundancy in organisational research: The case of work commitment. Academy of Management Review, 8, 486–500. Morrow, P. C. (1993). The theory and measurement of work commitment. London: Greenwich Publication. Moss, B. (2009). Spirituality in the workplace. In N. Thompson, & J. Bates (Eds.), Promoting workplace well-being (pp. 141–153). London: Palgrave Macmillan. Mowbray, D. (2009). The well-being and performance agenda. https://www.the-stress-clinic.net. Accessed May 15, 2010. Munkes, J. R., & Diehl, M. (2003). Matching or competition? Performance comparison processes in an idea generation task. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 6(3), 305–320. Nadeem, S., & Metcalf, H. (2007). Work-Life policies in great britain: What works where and how? DBIS Employment Relations Research Series No. 77. Newell, S. (2002). Creating the healthy organisation: Well-being diversity and ethics at work. London: Thomson Learning. Office for National Statistics. (2016). Sickness absence in the UK labour market: 2016. Available at https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/labourproductivity/ articles/sicknessabsenceinthelabourmarket/2016. Accessed May 1, 2019. O’Reilly, S. (2009). Well-being: Recession depression, personnel today, human resources news, strategy and community. https://www.personneltoday.com/articles/2009/02/12/49385/ well-being-recession-depression.html. Accessed June 12, 2009. Peccei, R. (2004). Human resource management and the search for the happy workplace. Erasmus Research Institute of Management, Rotterdam School of Management, Rotterdam School of Economics. Perri 6. (2007). Sense and solidarities: Politics and human well-being. In J. Haworth, & G. Hart (Eds.), Well-being: Individual, community and social perspectives. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Peters, T., & Waterman, R. (1982). In search of excellence. New York: Harper and Row. Peyton, P. R. (2003). Dignity at work: Eliminate bullying and create a positive work environment. London: Routledge Publishers. Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Paine, J. B., & Bachrach, D. G. (2000). Organizational citizenship behaviours: A critical review of the theoretical and empirical literature and suggestions for future research. Journal of Management, 26(3), 513–563. Poorkavoos, M. (2016). Compassionate leadership: What is it and why do organisations need more of it? Research Chapter, Roffey Park. www.roffeypark.com. Prilleltensky, I., & Prilleltensky, O. (2007). Webs of well-being: The interdependence of personal, relational, organisational and communal well-being. In J. Haworth & G. Hart (Eds.), Well-being: Individual, community and social perspectives. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Purcell, J., & Hutchinson, S. (2003). Bringing policies to life: The vital role of front line managers in people management. London: CIPD. Purcell, J., & Hutchinson, S. (2007), Front-line managers as agents in the HRM-performance causal chain: Theory, analysis and evidence. Human Resource Management Journal, 17(1), 3–20. Putnam, L. (2015). Workplace wellness that works: 10 steps to infuse well-being and vitality into your organisation. New Jersey: Wiley. Quick, J. C., Murphy, L. R., & Hurrell, J. J. (1992). Stress and well-being at work: Assessments and interventions for occupational mental health. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

References

61

Randall, D. M., & Cote, J. A. (1991). Interrelationships of work commitment constructs. Work and Occupation, 18, 194–211. Rayner, C., & Hoel, H. (1997). A summary review of literature relating to workplace bullying. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 7, 181–191. Redman, T., & Wilkinson, A. (2009). Contemporary human resource management, text and cases. London: Pearson Education. Reichers, A. E., Wanous, J. P., & Austin, J. T. (1997). Understanding and managing cynicism about organisational change. Academy of Management Executive, 11(1), 48–59. Renwick, D. (2003). HR Managers, guardians of employee well-being? Personnel Review, 32(3), 341–359. Renwick, D. (2009). The origins of employee well-being in Brazil: An exploratory analysis. Employee Relations, 31(3), 312–321. Rhoades, L., & Eisenberger, R. (2002). Perceived organisational support: A review of the literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(4), 698–714. Robertson, I. T., Tinline, G., & Robertson, S. (2008). Enhancing staff well-being for organisational effectiveness. In R. J. Burke, C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Building more effective organisations: HR management and performance practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Robinson, D., Perryman, S., & Hayday, S. (2004). The drivers of employee engagement. Institute of Employment Studies Report No. 408 (p. 2). Brighton: IES. Rousseau, D. M. (1995). Psychological contracts in organisations: Understanding written and unwritten agreements. Thousand Oaks, London: Sage Publications. Rousseau, D. M. (2001). Schema, promise and mutuality: The building blocks of the psychological contract. Journal of Occupational and Organisational Psychology, 74, 511–541. Ryan, R. M., & Frederick, C. M. (1997). On energy, personality, and health: Subjective vitality as a dynamic reflection of well-being. Journal of Personality, 65, 529–565. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 141–166. Ryff, C. D. (1995). Psychological well-being in adult life. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4, 99–104. Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisted. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 719–727. Ryff, C. D., & Singer. B. (1998). The contours of positive human health. Psychological Inquiry, 9(1), 1–28. Salin, D. (2003). Ways of explaining workplace bullying: A review of enabling, motivating and precipitating structures and processes in the work environment. Human Relations, 56(10), 1213– 1233. Schabracq, M. J. (2005). Well-being and health: What HRM can do about it. In R. Burke & C. Cooper (Eds.), Reinventing HRM: Challenges and new directions (pp. 187–206). London: Routledge Taylor Francis Group. Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 5–14. Seligman, M. E. P. (2003). Authentic happiness. London: Nicholas Brealey. ShapeUp. (2011). Employer wellness survey: Understanding how large, self-insured employers approach employee wellness. Providence, RI: ShapeUP, Inc. Silcox, S. (2007). Health work and well-being: Rising to the public sector attendance management challenge. ACAS Policy Discussion Chapter, No. 6, May 2007. Simpson, R., & Cohen, R. (2004). Dangerous work: The gendered nature of bullying in the context of higher education. Gender, Work and Organisation, 11(2), 163–186. Sinclair, S., Beamer, K., Hack, T. F., McClement, S., Bouchal, S. R., Chochinoy, H. M., Hagen, N. A. (2016). Sympathy, empathy and compassion: A grounded theory study of palliative care patients’ understandings, experiences, and preferences. Palliative Medicine, 1–11. Sixsmith, J., & Boneham, M. (2007). Health, well-being and social capital. In J. Haworth & G. Hart (Eds.), Well-being: Individual, community and social perspectives (pp. 75–92). Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan. Storey, J. (Ed.). (1989). New perspectives on human resource management. London: Routledge.

62

3 Workplace Well-Being: Understanding Psychologically ‘WELL’ …

Storey, J. (2007). Human resource management: A critical text (3rd ed.). London: Thomson Learning. Strickland, R. (1997). Self-development in a business organisation. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 11, 30–39. Tehrani, N., Humpage, S., Willmott, B., & Haslam, I. (2007). What’s happening with well-being at work? Change Agenda. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel Development. Terkel, S. (1977). Working. Harmondsworth: Penguin Publishers. Thompson, N. (2006). People problems. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan Thompson, N., & Bates, J. (Eds.). (2009). Promoting workplace well-being. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Tuomi, K., Vanhala, S., Nykyri, E., & Janhonen, M. (2004). Organisational practices, work demands and the well-being of employees: A follow-up study in the mental industry and retail trade. Occupational Medicine, 54, 115–121. Ulrich, D. (1997). Human resource champions: The next agenda for adding value and delivering results. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Wang, H., Cheng, Z., & Smyth, R. (2013). Happiness and job satisfaction in urban China: A comparative study of two generations of migrants and urban locals. Discussion Paper No. 08–13, 2013, Monash University, Department of Economics, USA. Wagner-Marsh, F., & Conley, J. (1999). The fourth wave: The spiritually-based firm. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 12(4), 292–301. Warr, P. (2002). Psychology at work. Penguin Group Books Suffolk. Waterman, A. S. (1993). Two conceptions of happiness: Contrasts of personal expressiveness (eudaimonia) and hedonic enjoyment. Journal Person Social Psychology, 64, 678–91. Weick, K. E. (1992). Agenda setting in organisational behaviour. Journal of Management Inquiry, 1(3), 171–182. Wentling, R. M., & Palma-Rivas, N. (1998). Current status and future trends of diversity initiatives in the workplace: Diversity experts’ perspective. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 9(3), 235–253. Whitener, E. M. (1997). The impact of human resource activities on employee trust. Human Resource Management Review, 7(4), 389–404. Wilkinson, A., Bacon, N., Snell, S., & Redman, T. (Eds.). (2008). The Sage handbook of human resource management. London: Sage Publication. Williams, S., & Cooper, L. (1999). Dangerous waters: Strategies for improving well-being at work. Chichester: Wiley. Willis. (2014). The Willis health and productivity survey report 2014. Willis North America Inc. Wilkinson, D. (2007). Distributed leadership briefing paper. The Centre of Innovation in Health Management, Maurice Keyworth Building, University of Leeds, North Leadership Academy. Wilson, F. (2010). Organisational behaviour and work: A critical introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wood, S. (2008). Job characteristics, employee voice and well-being in Britain. Industrial Relations Journal, 39(2), 153–168. Wood, S., & de Menezes, L. (1998). High commitment management in the UK: Evidence from the workplace industrial relations survey and employers WERS’ manpower and skills practices survey. Human Relations, 51, 485–515. World Health Organization (WHO). (1999). The world health report 1999: Making a difference. WHO Library Cataloguing in Publication Data, Geneva: Switzerland. Wright, T. A. (2005). The role of “happiness” in organisational research: Past, present, and future directions. In: P. L. Perrewe’ & D. C. Ganster (Eds.), Research in occupational stress and wellbeing (Vol. 4, pp. 221–264). Amsterdam: JAI Press. Wright, P. M., & Snell, S. A. (1998). Toward a unifying framework for exploring fit and flexibility in strategic human resource management. Academy of Management Review, 23(4), 756–772. Yorges, S. L., Weiss, H. M., & Strickland, O. J. (1999). The effect of leader outcomes on influence, attributions, and perceptions of charisma. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84(3), 428–436.

Chapter 4

Constructing Well-Being at Work: What Does It Mean?

Abstract Unlike the private sector, the public sector requires more evidence to justify how well-being initiatives contribute to employee motivation and performance. Does well-being in both sectors mean the same thing? Businesses seek employee well-being as a vehicle to their sustained competitive advantage and achievement of performance. Most literature in the evaluation of Human Resource Management management (HRM) practices showed the application of two fit theories, ‘fit with best practice’ and ‘fit with contingency’. Empirical research and conceptualisation of a relevant model to standardise, measure, and to better understand the relationships between employee’s reaction to high-commitment HRM practices, the quality of working life and well-being at work is still understudied. Hence, this chapter as part of a larger scale study presents a conceptual framework to address these antecedents and consequences in the context of new public management.

4.1 Introduction The rising dependencies on workers to deliver products and services at a speedy rate has had a negative effect on the health and well-being of workers, resulting in the high cost to business and the public purse (Cox and Jackson 2006; MacDonald 2005). In the case of the public sector, reform has resulted in cutbacks and the shifting focus centred on cost reduction to the human condition, particularly around efficiency (Crouch 2004). Another driver of change in the public sector is the notion of New Public Management (NPM) which advocates the transfer of various management styles and business practices from the private sector (Beaumont et al. 2007). Central to the NPM is a transformation of the nature of work in public sector organisations resulting in new approaches to the delivery of goods and services with greater efficiency (Morphet 2008). This has influenced changes in human resources (HR) role impacting on the function’s ability to act as an ‘employee champion’ due to reduced employee contact and more fragmented HR roles (Harris 2007; Kessler and Coyle-Shapiro 2000).

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 N. Cvenkel, Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health, Approaches to Global Sustainability, Markets, and Governance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3619-9_4

63

64

4 Constructing Well-Being at Work: What Does It Mean?

NPM is concerned with improving the efficiency and performance of employees through tighter control of resources, changes in organisational structures, the use of targets, standards and control systems (Dibben 2007; McLaughlin et al. 2008). But the aim is to develop a high-commitment workforce of motivated, productive, and entrepreneurial people (Clarke et al. 2000). While some argue that high-commitment ‘best practice’ HRM practices within the public sector have been shown to increase employees’ job satisfaction (Gould-Williams 2004), others argue that whatever the rhetoric, within a context where delivering ‘value-for-money’ means cost reductions, constant re-organisations, and work intensification, employees are left feeling stressed, demotivated, and insecure (Baptiste 2008; Noblet and Rodwell 2009; Torres and Pina 2002). The notion of employee well-being at work has increasingly attracted Government attention, as employment continues to change aiming to achieve higher performance, organisational success, and a safer, more satisfying, and healthier working life (Black 2008; DWP 2006; Tehrani et al. 2007). Such claims are also being championed by business writers who advocate that ‘people should love coming to work’ (Bakke 2005); and that creating a workplace culture of well-being is pivotal to enhancing employee motivation and productivity, reducing stress, and increasing customer satisfaction (Kersley et al. 2006). In support, recent analysis of Sunday Times Best Companies to work for (Bolton 2006) notes that a fun and well-being work environment is treated as one of the distinguishing factors of a caring approach to employees and claimed to enhance superior performance. It is a worthy question to explore whether the ‘well-being doctrine’ adopted by cutting-edge companies can be espouse in the public sector? While ‘well-being at work’ prescriptions are common in the literature, it is important to ascertain whether ‘one size fits all’ and whether the ‘best practice’ well-being philosophy used in the private sector can be advocated in the public sector. High-commitment ‘best practice’ HRM is associated with the success of employee well-being at work and yet little is known about how employees, the principal subjects of HRM reacts to its practice (Gibbs 2001; Grant and Shields 2002; Guest 2002). Despite the appeal for such research, until recently there has been relatively little research devoted to gaining an in-depth understanding of employees’ reactions to HRM practices, working life, and well-being at work in the public sector. Given the impact that management implementation of people management practices can have on employees (Guest 2002; Pfeffer 2005; Purcell and Hutchinson 2003) and given the considerable changes, which have occurred in the public sector over the past decade and are still occurring, this is an essential area of investigation. This chapter conceptualises a relevant model to standardise, measure, and to better understand the relationship between employees’ reactions to high-commitment HRM practices, the quality of working life, and well-being at work.

4.2 Theoretical Debates in HRM and High-Performing Organisations

65

4.2 Theoretical Debates in HRM and High-Performing Organisations The dominant prescriptive stream of research within the field of HRM has explored the link between HRM and organisational performance (Gould-Williams 2003; Guest 1998, 1999; Huselid et al. 1997) and is an essential determinant of the organisational success which distinguishes high-performing organisations (Boxall et al. 2007). Over the past decade, there has been much interest in the notion of ‘best practice’ HRM sometimes referred to as ‘high-performance work systems’ (Appelbaum et al. 2000; Keenoy 1990), ‘high commitment’ (Guest 2001; Marchington and Wilkinson 2005) or ‘high involvement’ (Wood 1999). Research on HRM focuses on a particular set of high-commitment HRM practices that are suggested to be able to improve employee and organisational performance and the bottom line for all organisations (Guest 2001; Huselid et al. 1997; Marchington and Wilkinson 2005; Purcell 1999). There is no agreed assumption as to which HRM practices actually constitute ‘best practice’ and the debate is ongoing with researchers using ranges between seven to twenty-eight practices (Becker and Gerhard 1996; Gould-Williams 2003, 2004; Wood 1999). HRM practices associated with high worker satisfaction include trust, team working, involvement/participation, employee voice, fair rewards, job security, job design, equal opportunities, family-friendly and anti-harassment practices (Gould-Williams 2004; Guest 2002; White et al. 2003). The ‘bundles’ of high-commitment HRM practices that signal management dedication towards employee engagement and well-being is drawn from Pfeffer (2005) and are now widely recognised and universally accepted, and have been modified by Marchington and Wilkinson (2005) for the UK context. These include: (1) employment security and internal labour markets, (2) selective hiring and sophisticated selection, (3) extensive training, learning, and development, (4) employee involvement, information sharing, and worker voice, (5) self-managed teams/team working, (6) high compensation contingent on performance, and (7) reduction of status differentials and harmonisation (Redman and Wilkinson 2009). By contrast, HRM is also disdained as a blunt instrument to bully workers’ and is associated with increased job intensity, reduced security, and high levels of worker anxiety (Grant and Shields 2002; Guest 2002; Renwick 2009). In an effort to demonstrate value in organisations, human resource professionals (HRPs) should adopt seemingly contrasting roles of both the strategic partner and employee champion (Storey 2007; Ulrich 1997). There are many debates around such conceptualisations and typologies and the particular challenge of HRM positioning itself as a business partner (Storey 2007). Likewise, there are conflicting debates about HRM role of an employee advocate which places HRPs in an impossible situation of attempting to simultaneously champion employees while being part of the management team (Ulrich 1997). Such a conflict has resulted in the criticism of the philosophy and components of HRM for creating an environment in which bullying can remain unchallenged, allowed to thrive, or actually encouraged in an indirect way, thus becoming a source of bullying itself (Harrington and Rayner 2010; Lewis and Rayner 2003).

66

4 Constructing Well-Being at Work: What Does It Mean?

Proponents of the critical stream claim that HRM views the worker purely as a resource or commodity to be exploited for the benefit of the organisation (Keenoy 1990; Legge 1995; Willmott 1993). HRM is also viewed as another management initiative to secure greater control and reinforcement of management prerogatives, raising the spectra of inhuman resource management (Grant and Shields 2002; Willmott 1993). Yet other researchers claim that HRM looms as a ‘wolf in sheep’s clothing’, that in practice HRM has not worked, performance has not been significantly enhanced, and workers and management remain locked into their conflicting positions (Keenoy 1990; Legge 1995). The third stream of HRM literature is employee-focused literature which is one of the central focuses of the conceptual framework presented in this chapter as well as the empirical research presented in this book. Proponents of this stream of literature argue that there is a neglect of workers’ reactions to HRM and attempts to re-centre the employee as the primary subject of HRM (Browning and Edgar 2004; Gibb 2001; Grant and Shields 2002; Guest 2006; Legge 1995; Wilkinson et al. 2004). The reactions of employees’ to HRM practices have attracted little scholarly attention, and even less research have been conducted into the effects of those practices on employee well-being (Baptiste 2008, 2009; Gibb 2001; Grant and Shields 2002; Guest 2002; Renwick 2009). Researchers’ further argue that studies linking HRM and performance never go beyond considering workers’ as subjects of HRM, instead employees’ are left disenfranchised—their verdict on HRM being seriously ignored (Gallie et al. 2001; Guest 1999, 2002). Yet other researchers’ point out that the growing body of employee-focused literature fails to provide an adequate basis for understanding the association between HRM and the employee. It also ignores inputs from employees’ and believes that the dearth of research into employee reactions leaves us unable to evaluate HRM (Browning and Edgar 2004; Gibb 2001; Guest 2006). Furthermore, there is a lack of clarity as to whether or not employees’ are as enthusiastic about the model as their employers, since their views are not accorded the same space (Gibb 2001; Grant and Shields 2002). However, Grant and Shields (2002) and Gibb (2001) also point out that attempts to assess employee reactions are affected by conceptual and methodological limitations. Where large-scale surveys of HRM do exist, they generally fail to appraise employees’ reactions to HRM, and employee presence is mostly incidental rather than fundamental, leaving us unable to evaluate HRM. This led to a strong call for the ‘employee voice’ to be heard in HRM research (Fiorito 2002; Guest 2001). Research findings reveal a mixed but overall positive picture of the state of HRM highlighting positive results, suggesting employees ‘like’ for HRM which contradicts the views that HRM is ‘talked up’ by management and is ineffectual (Guest 2006). Guest also suggests that the greater number of HR practices used are more likely to enhance a more positive psychological contract, greater satisfaction, fairness of treatment, trust in management, and lower levels of work pressure (Guest and Conway 2004; Guest 2006). Gibb’s study found that employees report areas of strengths and weaknesses of HRM and highlighted strengths to include the provision of training and development, rewards and levels of personal motivation (Baptiste 2008; Gibb 2001).

4.2 Theoretical Debates in HRM and High-Performing Organisations

67

By contrast, weaknesses of HRM in employees’ estimation existed in the management of staffing levels, aspects of recruitment and retention, levels of morale, and a reduction in the worker’s voice (Gibb 2001). It also includes a more responsive management, insufficient line management commitment (Baptiste 2007, 2009; Browning and Edgar 2004), unfairness, inconsistency in the application of HRM policies (Bryson et al. 2006), and poor communication (Baird 2002). According to O’Donnell and Shields (2002) HRM practices are likely to meet with negative employee reactions where they are incompatible with employees’ prior experience and expectations, and where they conflict with the underlying, as opposed to espoused, organisational values. Therefore, O’Donnell and Shields (2002) suggest that, however configured, ‘best practice’ HRM is likely to fall short of its own criteria for success, unless it is attuned to existing employees’ perceptions of the employment relationship.

4.3 Social Exchange and the Employment Relationship Social exchange behaviour originated from Homans (1961), Gouldner (1960), and Blau (1964) as a dominant theoretical framework that is used in the literature to interpret behaviour and to examine the employment relationship as exemplified by research on the psychological contract (George 2009; Guest and Conway 2004; Rousseau 1995), perceived organisational support (Coyle-Shapiro and Conway 2005; Eisenberger et al. 1986), leader–member exchange (Graen et al. 1982; Liden and Maslyn 1998), and organisational justice (Cropanzano 1993) and its consequences on employee attitudes and behaviours. Social exchange theories are used in this study as a lens to explain employees’ perspectives and reactions to HRM Practices, working life and well-being at work. The employment relationship when viewed from a social exchange perspective can be categorised as consisting of social and/or economic exchanges (Aryee et al. 2002). The situation and conditions that are likely to lead to adverse employee responses, such as workplace stressors and negative well-being, are those that are likely to evoke strong feelings of inequality and unfairness (Cropanzano and Folger 1991). By contrast, positive employee attitudes depend on employees’ perceptions of how much the employing organisation cares about their well-being and values their contribution (Coyle-Shapiro and Conway 2005). Proponents of social exchange suggest that organisations treatment of its employees’ is with the expectation that such treatment will be reciprocated in kind (Blau 1964; Gouldner 1960; Homans 1961). Trust is regarded as a critical factor underpinning social exchanges in an act of initiating social exchange relationships (Aryee et al. 2002; Blau 2006). Central to this view, Workplace Employment Relations Survey (WERS’s 2004) survey reveals that British employees are becoming less trusting of their managers and employers (Kersley et al. 2006) and this situation appears to be worse in the public sector (Albrecht and Travaglione 2003).

68

4 Constructing Well-Being at Work: What Does It Mean?

Employees’ perception of how the organisation cares about them and values their well-being is a view that is consistent with social exchange theory (Blau 1964). Managers signal their desire to engage in social exchange relationships with employees (Eisenberger et al. 1986). There is evidence showing that HR practices and the climate in which they are introduced signal the extent to which organisations value and care for employees (Gould-Williams 2007). Some commentators are concerned that high exchange relationships are leading to adverse worker outcomes, such as reduced quality of life and increased work-related pressure (Green 2006; Marchington and Grugulis 2000). As the majority of studies in this field have been undertaken in the private sector, the extent to which public sector experience mirrors that of the private sector is unknown. These limitations are of particular relevance given that ‘New’ labour government attempted to reform and the new coalition government is now attempting to reform and improve public service delivery through the modernisation agenda, a regime based on the assumption that private sector management practice will have similar effects in public sector organisations (Morphet 2008). Thus, this study focuses on exchange relationships between workers and their immediate line manager.

4.4 Employee Well-Being at Work Well-being has become one of the most important issues of the twenty-first century world of work—a challenge not just for individuals, in terms of their mental and physical health, but for employers and governments who have started to assess its social and financial implications (Baptiste 2009). The definition and meaning of work-related well-being is emergent with a number of competing meanings, making a precise definition of it open and can take many forms (Renwick 2003). Proponents of employee well-being indicate that it is a complex concept with multiple dimensions (Baptiste 2009; Diener et al. 2003; Grant et al. 2007; Ryan and Deci 2001; Ryff 1995). Peccei (2004) suggests that well-being at work concerns an overall sense of happiness, physical and mental health of the workforce (Currie 2001; Haworth and Hart 2007). Grant et al. (2007) distinguish between three dimensions: the psychological dimension (satisfaction, attitudes, and emotions in relation to work); the physical dimension (relating to employees’ health and safety at work); and the social dimension (relating to interpersonal relationships, teamwork, and management style). However, a broader and more holistic explanation for well-being in the workplace can be developed by addressing sixteen individual, group, and organisational well-being domains which includes: Individual well-being domains—psychological, physical, mental health, intellectual, material, career, financial, spiritual, work-life balance; Group well-being domains—social, leadership, and stakeholders; and Organisational well-being domains—humanistic and fair practices, wellness management, organisational financial well-being, and the work organisation. This explanation invokes not just specific practices of ‘wellness’ programmes, health

4.4 Employee Well-Being at Work

69

screening, or indeed fun programmes, but employees’ physical, emotional, and psychological needs, material conditions and the wider experience of fulfilment and functioning and work. The concept of employee well-being at work promotes advantages to organisations of having a healthy workforce and is pivotal to understanding of the different domains that affect the quality of life at work (Baptiste 2008, 2009). Personal well-being does not exist in isolation but within a social context (Tehrani et al. 2007), and individual lives are affected by social relations with organisational agents, lifestyle, and employment changes (Kersley et al. 2006). Contemporary organisations that foster well-being are perceived as employers of ‘best practice’ and are recognised by current and prospective employees as offering a desirable place to work (Grant et al. 2007). Yet while well-being at work is being promoted as a potential avenue for providing meaning and fulfilment at work, the factors that foster well-being at work have attracted limited empirical research. Organisations that embrace employee wellbeing appear then to prioritise the protection and promotion of employee satisfaction (Baptiste 2008; Tehrani et al. 2007); embraces a praise and rewards culture (Baptiste 2007); trust (Albrecht and Travaglione 2003), fulfilment and health (Bakke 2005; Ryff 1995). However, a closer look at the realities of the public sector work environment shows the challenges that such an approach can face. Moreover, managers’ daily realities are inundated with social and moral problems in corporate life (Jackall 1988), often further challenging espoused rationality and efficiency. Research by Baptiste (2009) shows that as with any other group of employees, for senior managers material aspects of the employment relationship are key to their well-being. Furthermore, non-managerial employees daily realities are likely to be affected by challenges of increasing workloads, job insecurity, work stress, lack of autonomy, control initiatives, redundancies, etc. In this context, both managerial and non-managerial employees may find it difficult to embrace and instigate ‘well-being at work’ initiatives, and it is an essential question to explore the degree to which these employees’ own experiences of work can be characterised by happiness. This paper conceptualises a relevant model to standardise, measure, and to better understand the relationship between HRM practices, working life, and well-being at work in the public sector. There has been little research done in the area, and this paper begins to address the gap. The next section discusses the conceptual framework, methodological approach adopted, followed by the discussion and conclusion.

4.5 Conceptual Framework The framework for this research is comprised of a set of concepts and is guided by a theoretical framework that begins with the WERS 1998, 2004 survey models that map employment relations and working lives in British workplaces. In particular, WERS 2004 survey maps and reflects on changes in the contours of the employment

70

4 Constructing Well-Being at Work: What Does It Mean?

relations function and employee well-being at the workplace level in the management of employment relations (Kersley et al. 2006; Millward et al. 2000). This study seeks to (a) extend WERS’s research to consider employee evaluation of employment relations and the implications for well-being at work in a NPM environment (b) to consider whether contours of NPM facilitates or promotes employee well-being. The conceptual framework is first expanded to incorporate widely used social exchange variables (i.e. psychological contract—PC; perceived organisational support—POS; leader–member exchange—LMX; and organisational justice—OJ). These concepts address interaction within the employment relationship. In addition, these multiple social exchange concepts are rarely used concurrently to explore employees’ reactions and evaluation of HRM practices, working life, and well-being at work in local government. This paper argues that the interconnection of these social exchange variables can account for a better understanding of employee’s reactions to HRM, the quality of working life, and employee well-being at work in organisations. The psychological contract (PC) has been defined as ‘the terms of an exchange agreement between individuals and their organisations’ (Guest and Conway 2004; Rousseau 1995: 9). POS refers to employee’s global beliefs concerning the extent to which the organisation values their contributions and cares about their well-being (Eisenberger et al. 1986: 501) and is indicative of the quality of the employee-organisation social exchange relationship. LMX, in turn, refers to the perceptions of the quality of the interpersonal social exchange relationship between a leader—the immediate supervisor of a particular employee—and his or her subordinate (Graen et al. 1982). Organisational justice (OJ) is concerned with the mutual consideration and involvement of relationships with others and outcomes that affect others’ physical, psychological, and social welfare (Cropanzano 1993). Each of these four social exchange constructs explains a piece of how cognitive/affective/emotional processes, physical, and relational processes influence intra-organisational activity. In essence, employees’ expectations are reciprocal with respect to the psychological contract with their employers. Part of this reciprocation arrangement shown by employers should be appropriate organisational support which is implemented by line managers through the interpersonal social exchange between leaders and followers in the organisation. A positive interpersonal exchange between managers and employees promotes mutual consideration, involvement, fairness, respect, and relationship that can have an overall positive effect on the psychological, physical, social, and material wellbeing of employees (Baptiste 2007, 2009). There is a great deal of interdependence between these typologies. The holistic positive outcome for organisations that view their human capital as pivotal for making a difference and as ‘key’ to its competitive advantage are more likely to regard an investment in ‘employee well-being’ as worthwhile than organisations that view employees as a disposable resource. The promotion of ‘employee well-being’ as an outcome from the interrelationship between HRM and social exchange typologies counters organisation’s main efforts to improve performance, and to develop and retain the talent in the workforce.

4.5 Conceptual Framework

71

Well-being has been widely researched in literature, and human well-being has been the focus of substantial and ongoing research (Baptiste 2008, 2009; Cooper et al. 2001; Guest and Conway 2004; Grant et al. 2007; Ryan and Deci 2001; Whitfield 2009). Major lines of research that characterise the quality of life and performance originate from stress and health literatures. These argue that worker performance and quality of life are hindered by strain or boredom affecting performance as well as their well-being (Cooper et al. 2001; Warr 1987). Although well-being is very much talked about, it is not effectively defined (Renwick 2003). The literature focuses on psychological, physical, and social well-being dimensions (Grant et al. 2007; Kersley et al. 2006). From a broader perspective, well-being also generally relates to work-life balance, wellness management programmes, job satisfaction, and contentment (Guest 2002; PwC 2008; Warr 1987). However, this paper argues for the need to go beyond the current conceptualisation of well-being in the literature towards a more holistic multidimensional well-being paradigm (i.e. psychological, physical, intellectual, material, career, spiritual, social, stakeholders, financial, and work/organisation) which can be used for policy and practice in organisations to better understand the meaning employees give to well-being at work from an HRM perspective.

4.6 Methodology This research is part of a larger study investigating employees’ experiences of HRM practices, working life, and how such experiences have contributed to their wellbeing at work in the local government context. A local authority was chosen in the North West of England. This authority professed to have adopted well-being policies and practices to establish a positive attendance culture, promote fun at work, and enhance staff welfare. This present study focuses on particular groups within the local authority: senior managers, managers, professionals, associate professional, and clerical/secretarial staff regarding their views concerning HRM practices, the quality of working life, and employee well-being at work. Local government was considered an appropriate context to analyse the relationship between employees’ reactions to HRM practices, working life, and well-being at work. This is in keeping with best value regimes placing a statutory duty on local authorities to review the processes used in delivering services in an attempt to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of service provision and performance. Data collection and sampling for the main study was collected from an electronic questionnaire instead of the traditional postal questionnaire. The decision to use an electronic questionnaire was based on the single alternative given to the researcher by the local government organisation to have access to employees. The electronic questionnaire was uploaded on the staff intranet of the local authority, and a database link was created to accommodate participants’ responses. A final question was also added to the questionnaire requesting employees who were interested in taking part in the interviews to respond. Saunders et al. (2009) state that only employees who are

72

4 Constructing Well-Being at Work: What Does It Mean?

interested in the research topic and consider it important will be willing to devote their time to be interviewed. An incentive prize draw was offered to assist with response rates. Self-selection non-probability sampling was adopted as outlined by Sheehan and Hoy (2004) who state that web-based surveys and emails are used by researchers for data collection and these methods collect broad-based data from individuals who self-select to respond to surveys that are posted on websites. However, Punch (2005) argues that limitations can be overcome by combining them with interviews, as interviews with selected respondents also allow a dynamic investigation within the sample. Follow-up reminders were posted on the staff intranet resulted in 106 usable questionnaires being returned. The sample was representative of all employees with respect to the demographic profile of the workforce. Closed questions about socio-demographic data (i.e. gender, age, salary, length of service, and job title) were asked, so possible responses to these questions provided sufficient detail to compare the characteristics of the sample with the characteristics of the entire population of employees as recorded by the organisation’s computerised personnel system. It was found that there was no statistically significant difference between the proportion of respondents in gender and length of service groups and the data obtained from the computerised personal database. However, employees responding were (statistically) significantly more likely to be in associate professional, clerical/secretarial grades than in managers and senior management grades. Therefore, it is likely that the sample might not be representative of all employees with respect to job titles. Two issues with this sample are that firstly the size of the sample; secondly, as the sample is restricted to one organisation in the North West region of England, with its socio-economic profile and employment relations tradition, there may also be limitations on the generalisability of the findings. However, while these findings concern the employment experiences of local government employees, a moderate generalisation can be made for managerial and non-managerial employees more broadly (Williams 2002: 211). The independent variables in this study are the HRM practices. The study focuses on eleven HRM practices that are generally accepted and forms the core (i.e. job security, internal labour market, rigorous recruitment and selection, opportunities for training and development, involvement in decision making, informed about business issues, opportunities to express own views, team working, formally designed teams, adequately rewarded, and removal of status difference between management and staff encouraging harmonisation). Respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which they agree or disagree with these eleven statements relating to HRM practices using a five-point Likert scale. According to Meyer and Allen (1997) employees’ perceptions of ‘reality’ are likely to influence their performance more so than formal policy documentation. Hence, the importance of collecting employees’ individual perception of and reactions to the HRM practices they are subjected to. It is anticipated that since line managers are responsible for the implementation of HRM practices, they will understand the importance of promoting a motivated and committed workforce. This is consistent with HRM theory (Guest 1998) where it is proposed that managers should recognise the importance of employees and behave in ways consistent with such beliefs (Gibb 2001; Grant and Shields 2002; Redman and Wilkinson 2009).

4.6 Methodology

73

The dependent variables in this study are employee commitment, job satisfaction, work-life balance, work pressures, support and trust in management, and line management leadership that collectively constitute employees’ attitudinal experiences of working life which can affect their ‘well-being at work’. Commitment is frequently associated with an exchange relationship between the employer and employee (Cohen 2003). From the employees’ perspective, they commit to an organisation in return for certain rewards, which can be extrinsic (salary) and intrinsic (belonging, job satisfaction). The commitment scale adopted for this study is from Cook and Wall’s (1980) British Organizational Commitment Scheme (BOCS) that discusses the identification, involvement, and loyalty of employees towards the organisation. Job satisfaction is also an outcome of a motivated and committed workforce, which is likely to develop organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB) among employees (Purcell and Hutchinson 2007). The concept of job satisfaction was adopted from WERS 2004 survey (Kersley et al. 2006) and focuses on employees being satisfied with eight categories (i.e. sense of achievement, scope of using initiative, influence over job, pay, job security, training received, the work they do, and involvement in decision making) of their job. Work-life balance satisfaction was also adapted from WERS 2004 survey, which assesses employees’ reactions to HRM practices that promote satisfaction with worklife balance among employees. The need to balance work and leisure/family activities’ is likely to have a domino effect on employees’ attitudes and behaviour that promote individual and organisational well-being (Baptiste 2008). Measures of work strain were adopted from WERS 2004 survey (Kersley et al. 2006). These measures focused on work strain experienced by employees based on the responsibilities of their job. Measures of supervisory support were adopted from social exchange theory (Blau 2006). These measures focus on the employees’ perception that the organisation cares about their well-being at work. Measures of employee trust in management were based on items adopted from the (Cook and Wall’s 1980) trust scale. These measures focused on good relations and management concern for employees’ best interests. Measures of line management leadership were adopted from WERS 2004 survey (Kersley et al. 2006). These measures focused on manager–employee relationship within employee relations. In-depth, face-to-face interviews were conducted with senior managers, managers, professionals, associate professionals, and clerical/secretarial staff with the aim of understanding their experiences of HRM practices, working life, and the meanings they attach to their individual well-being at work and consequently performance. For simplicity, senior managers, managers, and professionals will be referred to as ‘managerial group’, and associate professionals and clerical/secretarial will be referred to as ‘non-managerial group’. Purposive sampling was used to ensure that all departments within the local government organisation were reflected, and 15 managers (Male = 8, Female = 7) and 12 non-managers (Male = 3, Female = 9) participated in the study. All twenty-seven were Caucasian; (23 respondents) aged from 40 to 59 years, and (4 respondents) aged from 20 to 39 years; had educational attainment and professional qualifications to master’s degree for managers and AGVNQ to HNC/D for non-managers; 25 worked full-time and 2 part-time, reported

74

4 Constructing Well-Being at Work: What Does It Mean?

a range of incomes of (£1000–£10,000) for part-time staff, (£10,000–£30,000) for full-time employees, and (£30,000–£60,000) for the managerial group; and held a variety of tenures with the organisation: less than 5 years (11 respondents), 6– 10 years (6 respondents), 11–15 years (3 respondents), 16–20 years (4 respondents) and 21–25 years (3 respondents). Interviews lasted for 60–90 min and were tape-recorded, transcribed verbatim and analysed using hermeneutic phenomenological analysis (HPA) (Van Mannen 1990). The study commenced with an initial question ‘Can you tell me what it is like to work here?’ The interview schedule covered eleven broad topics: the meaning of the job; understanding of HRM, which HRM practices are most important; understanding of the term employee well-being at work; words that can be used to define individual well-being at work; the importance of well-being at work as described by employees; the responsiveness of line manager to the promotion of well-being at work; different approaches by line manager to promote well-being at work; the effects of change on well-being at work; evaluation of HRM practices to promote well-being; and suggestions for improvement in the local government to promote well-being at work. Both managers and employees were asked to respond in relation to their own experiences and priorities as employees, rather than from an espoused practice point of view. Initial transcripts were reviewed through immersion in the data to establish an orienting gestalt that drove later coding. Interviews were coded line by line, necessary for thematic analysis. Concepts, themes, and sub-themes were identified. Half of the transcripts were separately coded by an independent researcher to identify emerging themes, and the resulting coding match of 85% provides evidence of reliability in the coding process (Silverman 1993). Final themes were also verified by informants to ensure they appropriately captured the meaning that the informant sought to convey. The representation of themes is based on salient points raised (Lyons 2000) and has been structured on the assumption that a theme cited by a larger number of interviewees has more importance to the respondents as a whole (Miles and Huberman 1994). The resulting patterns provide an enriched understanding of the factors pertinent to the relationship between HRM practices, experiences of working life, and employee well-being in local government.

4.6.1 The Pilot Study Prior to undertaking the main data collection, a pilot study was carried out and data was collected from within a single directorate in a local government organisation in July 2006 on a small sample in order to test the questionnaire, interview checklist, and observation schedule to minimise the likelihood of respondents having problems in answering the questions and of data recording problems as well as to allow some assessment of the questions validity and reliability of the data that will be collected (Saunders et al. 2009). Although an attempt was made to incorporate other directorates into the survey, access was limited to the business services directorate

4.6 Methodology

75

only. The sample frame was made up of the total population within the directorate, comprising 100 employees. Within the sample frame, the survey was distributed to the entire population of the business services directorate. Saunders et al. (2009) suggest that it is possible to survey an entire population if it is of a manageable size. The questionnaires were distributed to employees through the internal postal system, accompanied by a cover letter, a participation information sheet, and a return envelope addressed to the researcher. Participants’ anonymity and confidentiality were assured by having completed questionnaires directed to the researcher and a clear agreement with the organisation that the researcher would retain the data and not provide information to the public domain which could identify any individual employee or the organisation. The pilot study resulted in a response rate of 51% completed questionnaires was received. Reminder letters were used as a technique to enhance the response rate. It is also likely that respondents’ questionnaire fatigue could be a contributory factor to the response rate. As a consequence of the sample size, the results presented in the pilot study is not likely to be generalisable but can be related to employees within similar organisations. A survey instrument was developed using variables from the WERS 2004 survey to obtain data from a representative population. The approach adopted was to develop a survey which included: HRM practices—six items; job satisfaction—eight items; employee commitment—five items; work-life balance—five items; and supervisory support and trust in management—seven items. A five-point Likert scale was used to evaluate employee’s attitudes towards the variables used in the survey. Subsequently, semi-structured interviews were also conducted with both managers and employees within the business services directorate in the local government case organisation. Seven individuals were interviewed using an interview schedule that focused on key themes that related to employees’ experiences of the employment relationship, job satisfaction, work-related well-being, and work-life balance. The variable items used in the survey questionnaire are shown in Appendix 1. The six ‘high-commitment’ HRM practices used in the pilot study is essential for promoting employee commitment and well-being as well as social exchanges that exist between line managers and employees in the implementation of such practices. This relationship promotes trust between employees and employers, which in turn contributes to organisational success and performance. The ‘high-commitment’ HRM practices may not be appropriate in all settings, but core practices may be essential in gaining employee well-being at work, reduced absenteeism and improved performance (Baptiste 2008; Guest 2002). Therefore, managers need to consider each of these practices carefully to ascertain their relevance in relation to the context in which they are working. Thus, the following propositions were proposed: Proposition 1 Social relationships that exist between line managers and employees that are built on support and trust in management from HRM practices play an important long-term role in the development of positive employee attitudes and behaviour that consequently influence employee well-being at work and enhanced performance. Organisations that do not engage in these types of relationships will therefore perform worse in the long term than those that do.

76

4 Constructing Well-Being at Work: What Does It Mean?

Proposition 2 Organisations that promote and maintain commitment, job satisfaction and work-life balance satisfaction (well-being) of their employees through the implementation of high-commitment HRM practices will benefit most by superior organisational outcomes and productivity through establishing long-term relationships of support and trust with employees. Organisations that do not pay attention to employee well-being at work will have in the long term to deal with the effects of less motivated and productive employees. The views of employees were explored further with semi-structured interviews using the questions shown in Appendix 2.

4.6.2 After the Pilot Study—Lessons for the Main Study A pilot study is no doubt an essential tool for improving the questionnaire and the efficiency of the study, but as noted by (Moser and Kalton 1992: 51) … ‘it will not necessarily throw up all the troubles of the main survey; the much bigger scale of this is almost a guarantee of snags and headaches of which the pilot survey gave no warning’. The pilot study not only led to refinement and rearrangement of some questions but also major alterations in the focus of the study. The pilot gave clear guidance on the response rate to be expected, the adequacy of the questionnaire, the cost and duration of the main survey, the suitability of the method of collecting data and on determining the objectives of the main survey. The pilot study offered strong support that line management support and trust were pivotal to good relations between managers and employees, and in turn can subsequently promote employee well-being at work. In order to reveal an in-depth account of employees’ views of HRM practices, and well-being characteristics, the main survey would focus on highcommitment HRM practices by Marchington and Wilkinson (2005) and six jobs and well-being characteristics (i.e. employee commitment, job satisfaction, work-life balance, work demands, support and trust in management, and line management leadership) (Kersley et al. 2006). The main survey, respondents was taken across all directorates within the local government organisation. The context of the main questionnaire in this study, as suggested by Oppenheim (2000) every effort was made to ensure that vague and bias questions were avoided since they are likely to lead to meaningless responses. The design of the questionnaire was preceded by a critical theoretical review of literature on HRM practices, social exchange, and employee well-being at work. The questionnaire consisted of closed items, a five-point Likert scaling starting from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree, and a broad range of theoretical issues that the study aimed to address (Appendix 3). Based on the variables used in the study the following propositions were proposed.

4.6 Methodology

77

Proposition 1 There is a significant difference between managers and employees’ views of HRM practices and employee well-being characteristics (i.e. employee commitment, job satisfaction, work-life balance, work demands, perceived support/trust in management, and line management leadership). Proposition 2 The patterns of relationships among human resource management practices, employee commitment, job satisfaction, work-life balance, work demands, perceived support/trust in management, and line management leadership can influence employee well-being at work. Proposition 3 No link can be inferred between human resource management practices and employee well-being at work characteristics.

4.6.3 Main Interview The hermeneutic phenomenological method requires researchers to have several techniques to construct the field text in layers, which serves as the basis of analysis that is, interviewing, observing, and collecting field documents. The views of employees were explored further with semi-structured interviews. The questions asked in the main interview are shown in Appendix 4.

4.7 Discussion The perception and the importance of having a conceptual theoretical model to measure and explore the relationship between employee reactions to HRM practices, the quality of working life, and employee well-being at work is shown in Table 4.1. Line management support and trust were pivotal to good relations between managers and employees that subsequently promoted employee well-being at work. This strengthens the argument that employee well-being at work should be pursued as a business case in the public sector. The argument for the business case for employee well-being at work can stem from an economic perspective where around 35 million working days are lost yearly due to occupational ill-health and injury with absence due to sickness, costing organisations and the economy in the UK an astronomical amount of around £12 billion each year that equates to £600.00 per employee yearly (Cox and Jackson 2006; HSE 2004). Moreover, in the public sector, British employees’ average absence levels are 8.5 days per employee compared to 4.89 days for the private sector costing around £4 billion annually to the taxpayer (DWP 2006; Silcox 2007). It is found that commitment, job satisfaction, and work-life balance satisfaction have important effects on levels of engagement, performance, and intention to quit. Tehrani et al. (2007) suggest that managers can create a more positive environment

Research questions

Propositions

The use of a mixed method research design was the most plausible approach for achieving the aim of the study, which is:

Prop 1 There is a significant difference between managers and employees’ views of HRM practices and To explore employees’ perspectives and reactions to HRM practices, the quality of working life, and how such experiences have contributed to their well-being at employee well-being characteristics (i.e. work in the context of local government in North West England. employee commitment, job satisfaction, workThe aim of the study will be answered Research Questions life balance, work through the following objectives: demands, perceived support/trust in 1. How can employee well-being management, and line 1. To critically examine organisational management leadership) ideology be successfully promoted policies and practices that relate to high- and maintained in an NPM commitment HRM practices, working Prop 2 The patterns of environment given continuous relationships among life, and well-being at work in an NPM proposals for reformation and Human Resource context. expenditure reduction? Management practices, employee commitment, job satisfaction, work2. To critically explore how an NPM 2. How do employees within an NPM life balance, work context impacts on employees’ demands, perceived environment perceive and react to experiences of HRM practices, working HRM practices, working life, and support/trust in life, and well-being at work. management, and line consequently well-being at work? management leadership can influence employee well-being at work 3. To critically investigate and interpret how employees perceive and react to Prop 3 No link can be HRM practices, social exchange

Objectives

Table 4.1 Matrix of research questions, objectives, propositions, interview questions, and linkages

7. Why is well-being at work as defined by yourself important to

6. If you have to use words to define your individual well-being at work what would they be?

5. What do you understand by the term employee well-being at work?

4. Which HRM practices are most important to you and why?

3. What do you understand by the term Human Resource Management?

2. Can you describe what your job means to you?

1. Could you tell me what it is like to work here?

Interview questions

(continued)

Exploring the development of a multidimensional wellbeing model (Obj. 5; RQ 1 and 2; Int. Q. 1–12

Employees views on the effects of changes on their well-being (Obj. 4; RQ 2; Int. Q. 8)

Interpreting employees meaning associated with working life and well-being (Obj. 4; RQ 2; Prop 2 and 3; Int. Q. 5, 6, 7)

Significance of HRM practices on well-being (Obj. 3; RQ 2; Prop 2; Interview Q. 3 and 4)

Ascertaining employees reactions to HRM (Obj. 2 and 3; RQ 2; Prop 1; Interview Q. 1, 2, and 3)

Examining organisational policies and practices (Obj. 1; RQ 1; Prop 2; Interview Q1, 2, and 3)

Linkages

78 4 Constructing Well-Being at Work: What Does It Mean?

7. To develop an integrated model illustrating the nature of relationship that exists between HRM practices, social exchange, and well-being as perceived by employees in an NPM environment

6. To critically explore employees’ suggestions for how HRM practices, working life, and well-being can be modified/and or improved in local government.

5. To develop a multidimensional wellbeing model that is practical for the expansion of well-being theory from an HRM perspective.

4. To interpret employees understanding and meanings associated with their individual well-being at work in an NPM context.

constructs, and well-being in local government.

Objectives

Table 4.1 (continued) Research questions inferred between Human Resource Management practices and employee well-being at work characteristics

Propositions

12. Can you tell me what things you would like to see improved in the Council to promote your well-being at work?

11. How can HRM practices be modified and/or improved to develop your well-being at work?

10. In your opinion, what can your line manager do differently to promote your well-being at work?

9. How responsive is your line manager to the promotion of your wellbeing at work?

8. How has change within the Council affected your well-being at work?

you?

Interview questions

Implications of study for field of HRM, well-being at work; academics; practitioners; economy and performance in the North West

Exploring employment relations exchange processes (Obj. 7 RQ 2; Prop 1; Int. Q. 9 and 10)

Employees suggestions for improvement in HRM and well-being (Obj. 6; RQ. 2; Int. Q. 11 and 12)

Linkages

4.7 Discussion 79

80

4 Constructing Well-Being at Work: What Does It Mean?

where employees can flourish and increase their feelings of well-being at work. The results suggest that well-being at work can certainly contribute to people’s overall sense of happiness that is likely to be displayed through attitudes and behaviour (Peccei 2004). This in turn can provide an understanding of employee commitment, job satisfaction, and work-life balance satisfaction, which is a result of the implementation of HRM practices by line managers. A culture of blame, promotion of fear, stifled creativity, reluctance to take risks are consequences of leadership practices adopted that are likely to promote negative well-being at work and subsequently hinder organisational success (Baptiste 2007). Moreover, it can also reduce morale, and job satisfaction, and eventually performance (Cooper et al. 2001; Tehrani et al. 2007). In contrast, Baptiste (2007) posits that a culture of absolution and praise can be adopted instead of ‘blame’ to promote positive well-being to enhance service delivery and performance. Other research by Baptiste (2009) reveals that being rewarded through praise and recognition and feeling valued was seen as factors that promote positive well-being at work. The leadership practices adopted by management will dictate how these factors are promoted. Trust in management influences positive organisational outcomes. Once employees are able to distinguish trust in public sector management from alternative organisational factors such as procedural fairness and commitment, this in turn can improve efficiency and effectiveness (Albrecht and Travaglione 2003; Cropanzano and Folger 1991). Perceived support from line management leadership facilitates social exchanges between management and employees, once initiated by organisations show the extent to which the organisation values employees’ general contributions and cares for their wellbeing at work. With this in mind, once employees’ perceive that organisations value and deal equitably with them, they will reciprocate these ‘good deeds’ with positive work attitudes and behaviours (Guest 2002). An open climate of communication, fairness, and equity in organisational policies and procedures, perceived organisational support, and satisfaction with the job are significant determinants of effective leadership.

4.8 Conclusions and Implications for Managers The development of line management leadership practices can promote well-being at work, which in turn can enhance the effectiveness of service delivery and performance within local authority organisations in the North. The implication of this study for line managers can thus contribute to developing the well-being of a public sector workforce, which is more committed, satisfied, happy, valued, and more positively predisposed towards organisational change. Moreover, despite the mediating effects of well-being not being fully evidenced, leaders and practitioners can use the conceptual model proposed in this research and chapter to standardise, measure, frame, and focus organisational assessments and intervention. Therefore, line managers, practitioners, policymakers, and leaders throughout the North of England can use the model to target their ‘followers’ (employees) to develop well-being at

4.8 Conclusions and Implications for Managers

81

work, and build a business case for wellness and well-being management. Similarly, this can have far-reaching effect by empowering and promoting distributive leadership that can be used as a catalyst to uproot the talents of individuals and existing leaders and unlock the leadership potential that has lain dormant. Once this sea of leadership talent has been unleashed, it gives access to promoting individual, group, organisational, and community/societal well-being: the ‘key’ that opens the ‘door’ to enhanced leadership, repositioning of employment relations, well-being, and performance in the North of England. In conclusion, the fulfilment of employee well-being can be a process for local government organisations given the complexity, politicised, and performanceoriented work environment these employees function in. Small steps taken in the process can reap great rewards in terms of enhancement of employees’ experiences of working life and well-being at work that can positively influence performance and service delivery. It will take a further step, given the complexities and daily challenges faced by local government employees before their well-being can be enhanced. The mantra of ‘working hard’, is evident for local government managers and employees, as for so many contemporary professionals, however the Utopian state of ‘well-being at work’ is likely to remain a subjective phenomenon in the pursuit of happiness for the foreseeable future. The question is ‘what can HRM do about this?’

82

4 Constructing Well-Being at Work: What Does It Mean?

Appendix 1: (Pilot Study)

HRM practices (Cronbach alpha 0.72) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

(1) The Council tries to fill new positions with people from inside the organisation (2) Organisation provides opportunities for employees to express views about work (3) Organisation keeps employees informed about business issues (4) My pay is performance- or merit-related (5) Received training and development courses to update skills within the last 12 months 6. (6) Involved in decision making in work teams and programmes within the last 12 months Job satisfaction (Cronbach alpha 0.84) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

(7) I am satisfied with the sense of achievement I get from my job (8) I am satisfied with the scope for using initiative (9) I have influence over my job (10) I am satisfied with my pay (11) I feel my job is secure (12) I am satisfied with the training I have received (13) I am satisfied with the work I do (14) My manager involves me in decision making

Employee commitment (Cronbach alpha 0.84) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

(15) I feel loyalty towards the organisation (16) I feel loyalty towards my immediate supervisor (17) I feel loyalty towards my fellow employees (18) I feel loyalty towards customers and clients (19) I am proud to tell people I work for the Council

Work-life balance (Cronbach alpha 0.62) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

(20) My job requires that I work hard (21) There is never enough time to get my work done (22) I worry about my work outside working hours (23) My manager understands about my family responsibilities (24) Flexible working options are available to me if needed

Supervisory support and trust in management (Cronbach alpha 0.87) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

(25) I do receive help from my line manager which improves my performance (26) I am given feedback by my immediate line manager on how I am doing (27) My line manager provides praise and recognition when I do well (28) My line manager supports me when necessary (29) I feel fairly treated by the Council (30) I trust management to look after my best interests (31) There are good relations between managers and employees

Appendix 2: (Pilot Study)

83

Appendix 2: (Pilot Study)

The following questions were asked: 1. In your opinion, can you tell me what you understand by the term employee wellbeing? 2. What sort of HRM practices has the Council implemented to promote employee wellbeing? 3. What are your views about the training received within the last 12 months? 4. How do you feel about being well informed about the business issues that take place in the Council? 5. Do you think there that harmonisation exist between management and staff? Please explain 6. What are your views about team working in the Council? 7. What are your views about recruitment and selection strategies used by the Council? 8. Do you feel that your job is secure? Please explain 9. What are your views about being adequately compensated for the amount of work and effort that you put into your job? 10. How satisfied are you with your job? Please explain 11. What are your views on being able to use your own initiative? 12. What are you views on the influence you have over your job? 13. What are your views on being involved in decision making? 14. In terms of commitment, how committed are you to the organisation? Please explain 15. If you were offered more money with another employer, would you think about changing your job? Please explain 16. In terms of work-life balance, what are your views on work-life balance practices implemented in the Council? 17. What is your opinion about support received from your line manager to assist you to do a good job? Please explain 18. How supportive is your line manager with non-work issues? Please explain 19. How would you describe your relationship with your line manager? 20. How do you feel about trust and fairness being promoted in the Council? Please explain 21. Do you trust your manager to look after your best interest? Please explain 22. How has changes within the Council affected your well-being?

Appendix 3: (Main Study) HRM practices (Cronbach alpha 0.76) 1. 2. 3. 4.

(7) I feel my job is secure (8) Council tries to fill new positions with people from inside the organisation (9) A rigorous selection process is used to select new recruits (10) Provided with sufficient opportunities for training and development

84

4 Constructing Well-Being at Work: What Does It Mean? 5. (11) Management involves people when making decisions that affect them 6. (12) Council keeps me informed about business issues and how well it is doing 7. (13) Council provides me with opportunities to express their own views 8. (14) Team working is strongly encouraged in the Council 9. (15) I work in formally designed teams 10. (16) I am adequately rewarded for the amount of effort I put into my job 11. (17) There is a clear status difference between management and staff in the Council

Employee commitment (Cronbach alpha 0.70)

12. (18) I am quite proud to be able to tell people that I work for Council 13. (19) I feel myself to be part of the Council 14. (20) To know that my own work had made a contribution to the good of the organisation would please me 15. (21) I feel that I am making some effort for the organisation 16. (22) Even if Council was not doing well I am reluctant to change employers Job satisfaction (Cronbach alpha 0.82) 17. (25) I am satisfied with the sense of achievement I get from my job

18. (26) I am satisfied with the scope for using initiative 19. (27) I have influence over my job 20. (28) I am satisfied with my pay 21. (29) I feel my job is secured 22. (30) I am satisfied with the training I have received 23. (31) I am satisfied with the work I do 24. (32) My manager involves me in decision making Work-life balance (Cronbach alpha 0.77) 25. (33) I am satisfied with flexible working time arrangements at the Council 26. (34) I am aware of my rights to request flexible working 27. (35) I am satisfied with arrangements to support employees to manage their work-life balance 28. (36) I have taken time off to care for someone over the past two years 29. (37) My manager understands about my work and family responsibilities 30. (38) I am satisfied with the balance between work and family life 31. (39) The Council helps employees achieve a balance between work and life Work strain (Cronbach alpha 0.75) 32. (40a) I have difficulty in balancing work and non-work commitments 33. (40b) I work extended hours 34. (40c) I work under pressure Perceived support and trust in management (Cronbach alpha 0.73) 35. (41) My immediate supervisor supports me in getting the job done 36. (42) I am given feedback by my supervisor on how I am doing 37. (43) My line manager provides me with praise and recognition when I do well 38. (44) I am fairly treated by my manager 39. (45) I have a good relationship with my immediate boss/supervisor

Appendix 3: (Main Study)

85

40. (46) I trust management to look after my best interests 41. (47) I have experienced bullying at work 42. (48) I work hard because I want to 43. (49) I am very motivated in my present job Line management leadership (Cronbach alpha 0.91) 44. (50a) My manager keep everyone up to date with proposed changes 45. (50b) My manager provides everyone with a chance to comment on proposed changes 46. (50c) My manager responds to suggestions from employees 47. (50d) My manager deals with problems at the workplace 48. (50e) My manager treats employees fairly

Appendix 4: (Main Study) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Could you tell me what it is like to work here? Can you describe what your job means to you? What do you understand by the term Human Resource Management? Which HRM practices are most important to you and why? What do you understand by the term employee wellbeing at work? If you have to use words to define your individual wellbeing at work what would they be? 7. Why is wellbeing at work at work as defined by yourself important to you? 8. How responsive is your line manager to the promotion of your wellbeing at work? 9. In your opinion, what can your line manager do differently to promote your wellbeing at work? 10. How has change within the Council affected your wellbeing at work? 11. How can HRM practices be modified and/or improved to develop your wellbeing at work? 12. Can you tell me what things you would like to see improved in the Council to promote your wellbeing at work?

References Albrecht, S., & Travaglione, A. (2003). Trust in public-sector senior management. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 24(1), 76–92. Appelbaum, E., Bailey, R., Berg, P., & Kalleberg, A. (2000). A manufacturing competitive advantage: The effects of high performance work systems on plant performance and company outcomes. New York, NY: Cornell University Press. Aryee, S., Budhwar, P. S., & Chen, Z. X. (2002). Trust as a mediator of the relationship between organisational justice and work outcomes: Test of a social exchange model. Journal of Organisational Behaviour, 23(3), 267–285. Baird, M. (2002). Changes, dangers, choice and voice: Understanding what high commitment means for employees and unions. The Journal of Industrial Relations, 44(3), 359–375.

86

4 Constructing Well-Being at Work: What Does It Mean?

Bakke, D. W. (2005). Joy at work: A revolutionary approach to fun on the job. New York: Penguin Group (USA) Inc. Baptiste, N. R. (2007). Line management leadership: Implications for employee well-being. In: G. P. Clarkson (Ed.), Developing Leadership Research, Papers from the Northern Leadership Academy Fellow 2007 Conference (pp. 229–238). Leeds: Leeds University Business School, Leeds University Press Financial Services. Baptiste, N. R. (2008). Tightening the link between employee well-being and performance: A new dimension for HRM. Management Decisions, 46(2), 284–309. Baptiste, N. R. (2009). Fun and wellbeing: Insights from senior managers in a local authority. Employee Relations, 31(6), 600–612. Becker, B., & Gerhard, B. (1996). The impact of human resource management on organisational performance: Progress and prospects. Academy of Management Journal, 39(4), 779–801. Black, C. (2008). Dame Carol Black review of the health of Britain’s working age population: Working for a healthier tomorrow. Presented to the Secretary of State for Health and the Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, 17 March, 2008. London: TSO. Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York: Wiley Publishers. Blau, P. M. (2006). Exchange and power in social life: New introduction by the author (10th ed.). London: Transaction Publisher. Beaumont, P., Pate, J., & Fischbacher, M. (2007). Public sector employment: Issues of size and composition in the UK. In: P. Dibben, P. James, I. Roper, & G. Wood (Eds.), Modernising work in public services: Redefining roles and relationships in Britain’s changing workplace. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Bolton, S. (2006, March 7). The UK’s Best could do so much better. Personnel Today Magazine. Boxall, P., Purcell, J., & Wright, P. (Eds.). (2007). The Oxford Handbook of Human Resource Management. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Browning, V., & Edgar, F. (2004). Reactions to HRM: An employee perspective from South Africa and New Zealand. Journal of the Australian and New Zealand Academy of Management, 10(1), 1–13. Bryson, A., Charlwood, A., & Forth, J. (2006). Worker voice, managerial response and labour productivity: An empirical investigation. Industrial Relations Journal, 37(5), 438–455. Clarke, J., Gewirtz, S., & McLaughlin, E. (Eds.). (2000). New managerialism, new welfare?. London: Sage. Cohen, A. (2003). Multiple commitments in the workplace: An integrative approach. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Cook, J., & Wall, T. (1980). New work attitude: Measure of trust, organizational commitment and personal need non-fulfillment. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 53, 39–52. Cooper, C. L., Dewe, P. J., & O’Driscoll, M. P. (2001). Organisational stress: A review and critique of theory, research and application. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Cox, T., & Jackson, C. (2006). Health and wellbeing of working age people: Mapping the public policy landscape. ESRC Seminar Series. Crouch, C. (2004). Post democracy. Cambridge: Polity. Coyle-Shapiro, J. A.-M., & Conway, N. (2005). Exchange relationships: An examination of psychological contracts and perceived organisational support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 774–781. Cropanzano, R., & Folger, R. (1991). Procedural justice and worker motivation. In R. M. Steers & L. W. Porter (Eds.), Motivation and worker behaviour (5th ed., pp. 131–143). New York: McGraw Hill. Cropanzano, R. (Ed.). (1993). Justice in the workplace: Approaching fairness in human resource management. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum. Currie, D. (2001). Managing employee well-being. London: Chandos Publishing. Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. E. (2003). Personality, culture, and subjective wellbeing: Emotional and cognitive evaluations of life. Annual Review Psychology, 54, 403–425. Department for Work and Pensions. (2006). A new deal for welfare: Empowering people at work. CM 6730, Stationery Office, London. Available at: www.dwp.gov.uk/welfarereform/docs/A_ new_deal_for_welfare-Empowering_people_to_work-Full_Document.pdf. Accessed July 2007.

References

87

Dibben, P. (2007) Employment security and job insecurity in public services: Two sides of the same coin? In P. Dibben, P. James, I. Roper, & G. Wood (Eds.), Modernising work in public services: Redefining roles and relationships in Britain’s changing workplace. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchison, S., & Sowa, D. (1986). Perceived organizational support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71(3), 500–507. Fiorito, J. (2002). Human resource management practices and worker desires for union representation. In: J. Bennett, B. Kaufman (Eds.), The future of private sector unionisation in the United States. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. Gallie, D., Felstead, A., & Green, F. (2001). Employer policies and organisational commitment in Britain 1992–1997. Journal of Management Studies, 38(8), 1081–1101. George, C. (2009). The psychological contract: Managing and developing professional groups. Work and Organisational Psychology, Berkshire: Open University Press. Gibb, S. (2001). The state of human resource management: Evidence from employees’ views of HRM systems and staff. Employee Relations, 23(4/5), 318–336. Gould-Williams, J. (2003). The importance of HR practices and workplace trust in achieving superior performance: A study of public-sector organisations. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 14(1), 28–54. Gould-Williams, J. (2004). The effects of high commitment HRM practices on employee attitude: The views of public sector workers. Public Administration, 82(1), 63–81. Gould-Williams, J. (2007). HR practices, organisational climate and employee outcomes: Evaluating social exchange in local government. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 18(9), 1627–1647. Gouldner, A. W. (1960). The norm of reciprocity: A preliminary statement. American Sociological Review, 25(2), 161–178. Graen, G. B., Novak, M. A., & Sommerkamp, P. (1982). The effects of leader-member exchange and job design on productivity and satisfaction: Testing a dual attachment model. Organisational Behaviour and Human Performance, 30, 109–131 Grant, D., & Shields, J. (2002). In search of the subject: Researching employee reactions to human resource management. The Journal of Industrial Relations, 44(3), 313–334. Grant, A., Christianson, M., & Price, R. (2007). Happiness, health or relationships? Managerial practices and employee well-being tradeoffs. The Academy of Management, 21(3), 51–63. Green, F. (2006). Demanding work, the paradox of job quality in the affluent economy. Woodstock: Princeton University Press. Guest, D. (1999). Human resource management: The workers’ verdict. Human Resource Management Journal, 9(3), 5–25. Guest, D. (1998). Is the psychological contract worth taking seriously? Journal of Organisational Behaviour, 19, 649–664. Guest, D. (2001). Human resource management and performance: A review and research agenda. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 8(3), 263–276. Guest, D. (2002). Human resource management, corporate performance and employee well-being: Building the worker into HRM. The Journal of Industrial Relations, 44(3), 335–358. Guest, D., & Conway, N. (2004). Employee well-being and the psychological contract. London: The Chartered Institute of Personnel Development. Guest, D. E. (2006). Human resource management—The workers verdict. Human Resource Management Journal, 9(3), 5–26. Harris, L. (2007). The changing nature of the HR function in UK local government and its role as ‘employee champion’. Employee Relations, 30(1), 34–47. Harrington, S., & Rayner, C. (2010). Look before you leap or drive right in? The use of moral courage in response to workplace bullying. In P. A. Linley, S. Harrington, & N. Garcea (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology and work (pp. 265–276). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Haworth, J., & Hart, G. (2007). Wellbeing: Individual, community and social perspectives. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan. Homans, G. C. (1961). Social behaviour: Its elementary forms. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World.

88

4 Constructing Well-Being at Work: What Does It Mean?

Health and Safety Executive. (2004). Managing sickness absence and return to work: An employers’ and managers’ guide (pp. 1–60). Health and Safety Executive. Huselid, M., Jackson, S., & Schuler, R. (1997). Technical and strategic human resource management effectiveness as determinants of firm performance. Academy of Management Journal, 40(1), 171–188. Jackall, R. (1988). Moral mazes: The world of corporate managers. New York: Oxford University Press. Kersley, B., Alpin, C., Forth, J., Bryson, A., Bewley, H., Dix, G., & Oxenbridge, S. (2006). Inside the workplace: Findings from the 2004 Workplace Employment Relations Survey. London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. Kessler, I., & Coyle-Shapiro, J. (2000). New forms of employment relations in the public services. Industrial Relations Journal, 31(1), 17–34. Keenoy, T. (1990). Human resource management: Rhetoric and reality and contradiction. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 1(3), 363–384. Legge, K. (1995). HRM: Rhetoric, reality and hidden agendas. In: J. Storey (Ed.), Human resource management: A critical text (pp 33–61). London: Routledge. Lewis, D., & Rayner, C. (2003). Bullying and human resource management: A wolf in sheep’s clothing? In S. Einarsen, H. Hoel, D. Zapf, & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Bullying and emotional abuse in the workplace: International perspectives in research and practice (pp. 370–382). London: Taylor and Francis. Liden, R. C., & Maslyn, J. M. (1998). Multidimensionality of leader-member exchange: An empirical assessment through scale development. Journal of Management, 24, 43–72. Lyons, E. (2000). Qualitative data display: Data display model. In C. Fife-Schaw (Ed.), Research methods in psychology (pp. 269–280). London: Sage. MacDonald, L. A. C. (2005). Wellness at work: Protecting and promoting employee well-being. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. McLaughlin, K., Osborne, S.P., & Ferlie, E. (2008). New public management: Current trends and future prospects. London: Taylor and Francis Group. Marchington, M., & Grugulis, I. (2000). ‘Best-practice’ human resource management: Perfect opportunity or dangerous illusion? International Journal of Human Resource Management, 11(6), 1104–1124. Marchington, M., & Wilkinson, A. (2005). Human resource management at work: People management and development. London: The Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. J. (1997). Commitment in the workplace: Theory, research, and application. London: Sage. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded source book. London: Sage. Millward, N., Bryson, A., & Forth, J. (2000). All change at work? British employment relations 1980–98 as portrayed by the Workplace Industrial Relations Survey series. London: Routledge. Morphet, J. (2008). Modern local government. London: Sage. Moser, C., & Kalton, G. (1992). Survey methods in social investigation (2nd ed.). Hants: Gower. Noblet, A. J., & Rodwell, J. J. (2009). Integrating job stress and social exchange theories to predict employee strain in reformed public sector contexts. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory and Advance Access, 19(1), 555–624. O’Donnell, M., & Shields, J. (2002). Performance management and the psychological contract in the Australian Federal Public Sector. Journal of Industrial Relations, 44, 435–457. Oppenheim, A. N. (2000). Questionnaire design, interviewing and attitudes measurement (New ed.). London: Continuum International. Peccei, R. (2004). Human resource management and the search for the happy workplace. Rotterdam School of Management, Rotterdam School of Economics, Rotterdam: Erasmus Research Institute of Management. Pfeffer, J. (2005). Producing sustainable competitive advantage through effective management of people. Academy of Management Executive, 19(4), 95–108. PricewaterhouseCoopers. (2008). Building the case for wellness. www.workingforhealth.gov.uk. Accessed July 20, 2010.

References

89

Punch, K. F. (2005). Introduction to social research: Quantitative and qualitative approaches. London: Sage. Purcell, J. (1999). Best practice and best fit: Chimera or cul-de-sac? Human Resource Management Journal, 9(3), 26–41. Purcell, J., & Hutchinson, S. (2003). Bringing policies to life: The vital role of front line managers in people management. London: CIPD. Purcell, J., & Hutchinson, S. (2007). Front-line managers as agents in the HRM-performance causal chain: Theory, analysis and evidence. Human Resource Management Journal, 17(1), 3–20. Redman, T., & Wilkinson, A. (2009). Contemporary human resource management: Text and cases. London: Prentice Hall, Financial Times. Renwick, D. (2003). HR managers, guardians of employee wellbeing. Personnel Review, 32(3), 341–359. Renwick, D. (2009). Line managers. In T. Redman & A. Wilkinson (Eds.), Contemporary human resource management: Text and cases (3rd ed., pp. 227–242). London: Pearson Education. Rousseau, D. M. (1995). Psychological contracts in organisations: Understanding written and unwritten agreements. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic wellbeing. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 141–166. Ryff, C. D. (1995). Psychological well-being in adult life. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4, 99–104. Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2009). Research methods for business students (5th ed.). London: Pearson Education, Financial Times, Prentice Hall. Sheehan, K., & Hoy, M. (2004). On-line surveys. In C. Seale (Ed.), Social research methods: A reader (pp. 105–110). London: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. Silcox, S. (2007). Health work and well-being: Rising to the public sector attendance management challenge. ACAS Policy Discussion Paper, No. 6, May 2007. Silverman, D. (1993). Interpreting qualitative data: Methods for analysing talk, text and interaction. London: Sage. Storey, J. (2007). Human resource management: A critical text (3rd ed.). London: Thomson Learning. Tehrani, N., Humpage, S., Willmott, B., & Haslam, I. (2007). What’s happening with well-being at work? Change Agenda. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel Development. Torres, L., & Pina, V. (2002). Changes in public service delivery in EU countries. Public Money and Management, 22(4), 41–48. Ulrich, D. (1997). Human resource champions: The next agenda for adding value and delivering results. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Van Mannen, M. (1990). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. New York: State University of New York Press. Warr, P. (1987). Work, unemployment and mental health. Oxford: Oxford University Press. White, M., Hill, S., McGovern, P., Mills, C., & Smeaton, D. (2003). ‘High-performance’ management practices, working hours and work-life balance. British Journal of Industrial Relations, 41(2), 175–195. Whitfield, K. (Ed.). (2009). Employee well-being and working life: Towards an evidence-based policy agenda. An ESRC/HSE Public Policy Project, Report on a Public Policy Seminar held at HSE, London, February 2009. Williams, M. (2002). Generalization in interpretative research. In T. May (Ed.), Qualitative research in action. London: Sage. Willmott, H. (1993). Strength is ignorance; slavery is freedom: Managing culture in modern organisations. Journal of Management Studies, 30(4), 515–552. Wilkinson, A., Dundon, T., Marchington, M., & Ackers, P. (2004). Changing patterns of employee voice: Case studies from the UK and Republic of Ireland. The Journal of Industrial Relations, 46(3), 298–322. Wood, S. (1999). Human resource management and performance. International Journal of Management Reviews, 1(4), 367–441.

Chapter 5

A Methodological Approach to Workplace Well-Being Research in a New Public Management (NPM) Environment

Abstract This chapter presents a methodological approach that can be adopted for well-being research that can delve beneath the surface of employees’ quality of working life experiences to unearth their working life realities, social interactions, and well-being at work. An alternative methodological conceptualisation (mixed-method approach) is explored as most well-being methodologies have been fundamentally quantitative. A mixed approach is considered more appropriate for understanding the in-depth complexity of employees’ perceptions and reactions to HRM practices, the quality of working life, line management leadership, and well-being at work.

5.1 Introduction In this chapter, a research methodological approach that can be used for well-being research is discussed and explored. The chapter is discussed in the ‘first person’ to capture and ‘bring to life’ the author’s experiences as a researcher during the research process, and the use of the methodology underpinning the research discussed in this book. First, the philosophical, theoretical, methodology, and methods used in this book is discussed; the challenges and tensions experienced during the process and how the author was able to ‘jump through the hoops’ of managerialism and bureaucracy in a ‘controlled environment’ while in the field. Research ethical issues undertaken in this research are discussed and the chapter concludes with a summary of the key arguments discussed.

5.2 Assessing Well-Being Methodologies The well-being literature highlights five main measures and methodologies used for assessing employee well-being which include: first, the environmental ‘vitamins’ model which views satisfaction and dissatisfaction as major drivers of organisational life (Warr 2002). Second, the ‘burnout’ model which focuses on work stress that can have negative effects on employees’ health and well-being (Maslach and © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 N. Cvenkel, Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health, Approaches to Global Sustainability, Markets, and Governance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3619-9_5

91

92

5 A Methodological Approach to Workplace Well-Being Research …

Jackson 1984). Third, the ‘job demand-control-support’ model main emphasis is on the influence of work characteristics (i.e. stress and strain) on employee health and well-being (Karasek and Theorell 1990). Fourth, WERS depiction of employee wellbeing which focuses on ‘job satisfaction’ and ‘job-related well-being’ and relates to the extent of pleasure a person gains from their jobs (Kersley et al. 2006). Finally, the ‘ASSET’ model which focuses on perceptions of the job, attitudes towards the organisation, employee health, and biographical information (Cartwright and Cooper 2009). The evaluation of these well-being models reveals that well-being research has been viewed predominantly from a realist tradition. Echoing this view, ESRC (2010) claim that most well-being studies are conceived in a realist tradition where sickness absence is simply seen as an unmediated response to pathology. Moreover, Wainwright and Heaver (2010) argue that research to date has been hampered by a lack of facts and survey data gathering over a prolonged period. ESRC (2010) further claims that most fundamental research of existing studies around the areas which policy interventions are focused is, on the whole, methodologically weak, advocating the need for a multimethod approach to wellbeing research since relying on just one method, cannot possibly produce the evidence required for effective policy decisions in such a complex area (ESRC 2006, 2010). Although well-being has been widely researched in literature, there is a lack of empirical research on employee well-being using an alternative methodological conceptualisation (i.e. a mixed-method approach). Based on these gaps, this chapter seeks to contribute towards the debate in this area through the use of a mixed-method approach which is considered more appropriate for understanding the in-depth complexity of employees’ perceptions and reactions to HRM practices, their quality of working life, and well-being at work.

5.3 Review of Philosophical, Theoretical, and Methodological Approaches It is not my intention to become overly embroiled in the quantitative versus qualitative debate; however, the qualitative and quantitative paradigms represent two very different ways of thinking about the world (Holliday 2002). I cannot say that I am a qualitative (i.e. relativist ontology) or quantitative (i.e. realist ontology) researcher disapproving or seeing no merit in one method over the other as I see merit in either method if this enables me to route to the required knowledge for this book. Quantitative research is concerned with measurement, precisely and accurately capturing aspects of the social world that are expressed in numbers, percentages, probability, values, etc. (King and Horrocks 2010). Whereas, qualitative research aims to capture aspects of the social world in numerous ways that do not rely on numbers as the unit of analysis (Miles and Huberman 1994; Silverman 2005). I embrace the views of

5.3 Review of Philosophical, Theoretical, and Methodological …

93

Johnson and Clark (2006), who advocate that it is not that one research philosophy is better than the other, but that each is better at doing different things. My view of the world and what I believe constitute acceptable knowledge is underpinned by my ontological and epistemological positions. Ontology is concerned with the nature of reality, assumptions about the world and commitments held to particular views (Saunders et al. 2009), with Blaikie (1993: 6) offering a ‘root definition’ of ontology as ‘the science or study of being’ (Crotty 1998) and ‘involves the claims or assumptions that a particular approach to social enquiry makes about the nature of social reality’ (Blaikie 1993: 6). Moreover, epistemology concerns what constitutes acceptable knowledge in the field of study (Punch 2005), relates to the theory of knowledge with regard to methods, validation, and the possible way of gaining knowledge of social reality (Grix 2004). King and Horrocks (2010: 8) view epistemology as ‘the philosophical theory of knowledge’. Marshall and Rossman (2006) use the term ‘epistemology integrity’ referring to the connections between the nature of research, overall strategy, research questions, design, and methods. My ontological position is aligned to the critical realism perspective that takes account of experience and existence with recognition of social structures having an impact on people as social actors and subjects within organisations (Danermark et al. 2002; Fleetwood and Ackroyd 2004). Bhaskar (1991) and Archer et al. (1998) argue that the critical realism retains a core element of ontological realism where behaviour and experience are seen to be generated by underlying structures and these structures and mechanisms do not directly determine people’s actions. Instead structures have tendencies to create inequalities that may impact on our lives and have the potential to influence our existence. This is also captured by Sayer (1984, 2008) claiming that critical realism can and should revolutionise the practice of social science. This view is supported by Alvesson and Skoldberg (2009) who see critical realism as an attractive alternative to social constructionism and postmodernist thinking. Other proponents of critical realism also advocate that both qualitative and quantitative methods are relevant to the adequate explanation of events, and that people can transform their lives, having insight into their own contextually located existence (Ackroyd 2004; Bhaskar 1991; Fleetwood and Ackroyd 2004; Hesketh and Fleetwood 2006). By contrast, criticism of this approach is that of objectivism and exaggerated claims, and the unproductive concepts of structure and mechanism (Danermark et al. 2002). Using critical realist ontology allowed me to adopt a mixed methodology in a case study1 strategy (Creswell 2007; Robson 2002; Yin 2003) and assisted in my exploration of the social structures and mechanisms in an New Public Management 1 Case

study is used for doing research which involves an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context using multiple sources of evidence (Robson 2002: 178) and Yin (2003). Case study allows for honing in on a specific case to be able to identify, uncover, and unpick specific contextual factors in which the event, person or policy of analysis is embedded (Kumar 1999). A single instrumental case study (Stake 2005) was adopted in this study. Advantages for using a case study are that it is relevant for gaining a rich understanding of the context of the research and processes being enacted (Creswell 2007); it generates answers to ‘why’, ‘what’, and ‘how’ questions (Saunders et al. 2009; Yin 2003); used in exploratory research allowing multiple data collection techniques to be used in combination (Saunders et al. 2009; Willig 2001) and

94

5 A Methodological Approach to Workplace Well-Being Research …

context, which underpinned this research, and also assisted in my attempts to make sense of the social reality of employees’ experiences and explanations (Bryman 1992, 2006; Mason 2006). A justification for using a critical realist paradigm in human resource management (HRM) research is that HRM literature has fundamentally adopted a realist ontology (Hesketh and Fleetwood 2006), and though there is credibility in this approach, a fundamental limitation in the association between HRM practices and organisational outcomes is that it does not constitute an explanation and/or understanding of this association, which critical realism will allow me to do. The knowledge produced in the study is dependent on an NPM environment and as such, I used a ‘contextualism’ epistemological approach to connect with my ontological beliefs. Madill et al. (2000) claim that contextualism assumes that the context of a historical, cultural, and social milieu is integral to how we live, understand, and experience our lives. Supporting this view, King and Horrocks (2010) state that the contextualism is founded on the belief that all knowledge is local, provisional, and situation dependent, and acknowledging the impact of context, suggest a critical realist position with particular social mechanisms (practices), having potentiality with regard to both exploring and understanding individual lives. Criticism of this approach is that it can lead to findings that are very contextspecific and relevant to a limited consistency (Pidgeon and Henwood 1997). Conversely, limitations are mediated by the opportunity to potentially retain original and fresh perspectives that may have been inaccessible within a more standardised approach (King and Horrocks 2010). This approach allowed me to view my experience as a researcher and that of employees in an NPM context. As such, I was vigilant in my observations while in the ‘field’, and during the semi-structured interviews to better understand the assorted context of employees’ lives, and became relevant data which was captured in observation field notes discussed later in this chapter. To this end, the perspective from which I approached this study was drawn from the interpretivists’ camp and that of a ‘researcher’ in the field of HRM, with twenty years of being an ‘employee’ in both private and public sector organisations—situate the position from which I write. The research question seeks to investigate employees’ perspectives and reactions to HRM practices, working life experiences and the contribution of these experiences to their well-being at work in the local government context in North West England. This was explored through the following research aims: how can employee wellbeing ideology be successfully promoted and maintained in an NPM environment given continuous proposals for reformation and expenditure reduction? And how do employees within an NPM environment perceive and react to HRM practices, working life, and consequently well-being at work? This study focuses mainly on the allows the results of studies to be compared to broader body of research (Bryman 1992; EasterbySmith et al. 1999). Weaknesses of case studies are that results relate to the unit of analysis only and allow no inductive generalisations, limited access to the field and the personal and subjective information constitute the bias of case studies (Sarantakos 2005). However, there is no method that is free from problems and case studies are no exception, but overall case study strategy is a most useful and popular method used in social research (Bryman 2006; Yin 2003).

5.3 Review of Philosophical, Theoretical, and Methodological …

95

qualitative approach as the quantitative aspect of the research was principally supplementary and used to provide statistical corroboration and reinforcement of some of the relationships that exist between managerial and non-managerial respondents. The theoretical perspective I used to connect the research is rooted in interpretivism and is described as hermeneutic phenomenology as compared to the positivist position. Saunders et al. (2009) state that interpretative research is generally idiographic and concerns how the social world is experienced and understood. Punch (2005) and Grix (2004) state that interpretivism perceives experience and understanding as seldom straightforward, and the social world is far too complex, as the scientific approach presupposes, and people participate in indeterminate lifeworlds, often attaching different interpretations and meanings to seemingly similar ‘facts’ and events. Hermeneutic phenomenology is a branch of interpretivism and a driving force of human consciousness and how we make sense of experience (Van Maanen 1994). Echoing this view, Cohen et al. (2000) argue that the understanding people have of their world and life situation and the meaning they have made of this is usually contained in the narratives or stories they tell, first to themselves to make sense of their own experiences, then to family, friends, and other social actors in their lives, and finally to social scientists who come asking. Sarantakos (2005) states that the central point of hermeneutics is Verstehen, which identify with our understanding of the world, the process, rules, patterns, the implicit conditions, and the ways in which explanation and understanding are transmitted to people from generation to generation. Stemming from the interpretative perspective, I adopted a multimethod approach which allowed me to explore individuals, groups, and organisation, as each level is appropriate to understanding the interaction of structures, procedures, and processes within an NPM environment. Tashkkori and Teddlie (2003) and Creswell (2007) regard mixed methods as a procedure for collecting, analysing, and ‘mixing’ or integrating both quantitative and qualitative data at some stage of the research process within a single study, for the purpose of gaining a better understanding of the research problem. The advantages and disadvantages of a mixed-method approach2 impact on the process and findings if the contextualisation is adequate (Goulding 1999). Underpinning the qualitatively-driven principle for the mixed-method approach adopted guided my practice and allowed me to work in reflexive ways, questioning traditional assumptions, uncertainty about the social world, data, and knowledge (Mason 2006). 2 Advantages

of mixed methods allow the combination of quantitative (deductive) and qualitative (inductive) research in order to provide a general picture; facilitate interpretation of relationships between variables; and triangulation of the findings from one type of study can be checked against the findings derived from another type (Bryman 1992, 2006). Mason (2006) states that social experience and lived realities are multidimensional and that our understanding is impoverished and may be inadequate if we view these phenomena only along a single dimension. Mason further argues that mixing methods encourages us to think outside the box; enhance our capacity for theorising beyond the macro and micro; and enhance and extend the logic of qualitative explanation. Some resist a mixed-method approach on the grounds of epistemological or ontological inconsistency (Punch 2005; Sarantakos 2005).

96

5 A Methodological Approach to Workplace Well-Being Research …

King and Horrocks (2010) state that reflexivity in qualitative research specifically invites us to look ‘inwards’ and ‘outwards’ exploring the intersecting relationships between existing knowledge, our experience, research roles, and the world around us. Figure 5.1 shows a diagrammatical illustration of the research process I have discussed above.

5.3.1 Rationale for Using Mixed Methods Methods used to assess HRM practices, social exchange constructs, and well-being in literature are taken predominantly from a positivist approach using the questionnaire survey method (Conway and Briner 2005; Guest 2002; ESRC 2010). However, in keeping with the nature of the phenomenon under investigation, as well as the aims of the research, rather than follow the methods used by other researchers adopted in the past, I felt that a mixed methodology strategy (i.e. both deductive and inductive methods) was considered the most plausible approach for achieving the aims of the research phenomenon under investigation (King and Horrocks 2010). The following Fig. 5.2 illustrates the relationship between the research aims, research methods, and foci of enquiry.

5.4 Challenges and Tensions Experienced: The Beginning I will discuss the collection of primary data and challenges and tensions experienced between carrying out the research and producing a theoretically coherent discussion in this book, and how I was able to eventually ‘jump through the many hoops’ during the research process. Secondary data was collected by reviewing existing literature on the subject matter from textbooks, journals, and online databases available from ISI Web of Knowledge, ABI Inform, Emerald Databases, Science Direct, European Business, DTI, HSE, ONS, CBI, DWP, IES, CIPD, WERS, ACAS, and other national and North West regional surveys. Saunders et al. (2009) and Grix (2004) claim that the main advantage of using secondary data to complement primary data is the ability to place the findings from the primary data within a more general context, and as a comparative instrument with the primary data. Before I began the fieldwork ethical approval was granted in accordance with Manchester Metropolitan University research ethics standards. At the commencement of the research study, a letter requesting access was forwarded to a local government organisation in Greater Manchester in November, 2004. This letter outlining the aims of the research, and potential benefits to the organisation was signed by myself and the ‘Director of Studies’—a professor of HRM/OB research, as we envisaged a more favourable response based on his signature. I followed up this initial

Hermeneutic Phenomenology

Interpretivism

Theoretical Underpinning

Epistemology and Personal

Reflexivity

(Main Focus)

Interpretive Perspective

(Foundation/ Contextual)

Positivist Perspective

Methodology

Multiple versions of reality. Need to know how employees perceive HRM practices and the quality of their working lives (i.e. psychological contract, support, fairness) and the impact on their well-being.

One version of reality. Need to know how employees react to HRM practices and well-being characteristics

Rationale

Fig. 5.1 Diagram illustrating the philosophical, theoretical, methodological, and methods used in the study

Contextualism Epistemology

Critical Realism Ontology

Philosophical Positions

Semi-Structured Interviews Non-Participant Observation Review of Documents

Questionnaire Survey

Methods

5.4 Challenges and Tensions Experienced: The Beginning 97

98

5 A Methodological Approach to Workplace Well-Being Research … Foci of Enquiry Research Aims

Research Methods

1. How can employee well-being ideology be successfully promoted and maintained in an NPM environment given continuous proposals for reformation and expenditure reduction?

Online Questionnaire Survey uploaded on staff intranet of the local authority; non-probability sampling; 106 responses (Foundational)

Observation Field Notes undertaken in the field

2. How do employees within an NPM environment perceive and react to HRM practices, working life and consequently wellbeing at work?

Review of company documents: HRM policies, newsletters and magazines Semi-structured Interviews with diverse employee groups representing different departments; purposive and snowballing sampling; 27 interviews conducted; each interview lasing 60-90 minutes; tape recorded and transcribed verbatim

1. To critically examine organisational policies and practices that relate to high commitment HRM, working life and well-being in a NPM context. 2. To explore how a NPM context impacts on employees’ experiences of HRM practices, the quality of working life and well-being. 3. To critically investigate and interpret how employees perceive and react to HRM practices, social exchange constructs and well-being in local government. 4. To interpret employees understanding and meanings associated with their individual well-being at work in a NPM context. 5. To develop a multidimensional well-being model that is practical for the expansion of well-being theory from an HRM perspective. 6. To critically explore employees’ suggestions for how HRM practices, working life, and well-being can be modified/and or improved in local government. 7. To develop an integrated model illustrating the nature of relationship that exists between HRM practices, social exchange and wellbeing as perceived by employees in a NPM environment

Fig. 5.2 Relationships between the research aims, research methods and foci of enquiry

5.4 Challenges and Tensions Experienced: The Beginning

99

request with the local authority by contacting the Council official responsible for research. I forwarded several emails and left telephone messages before we were able to meet to discuss the research proposal on 1 February 2005. Discussions were favourable and continued until April, 2005 when I was advised that the local authority was not willing to grant access. Greatly disappointed by this, I had to reposition myself quickly by gaining access to another local authority. Anderson (2005) argues that access is a critical aspect of all research projects, and the difficulty of which is underestimated and suggests the importance of gaining access to participants who are really willing to cooperate, rather than to those whose initial interest fades away quickly. As such, I reviewed information about the local authorities in Greater Manchester (ten in total) from Local Government Association (www.lga.gov.uk) and decided to approach another local authority, and a letter was sent on 13 April 2005. The name of the local authority was kept anonymous throughout the book and a pseudonym of XYZ Metropolitan Borough Council was used instead. The terms ‘local government’ and/or ‘the Council’ were used interchangeably to describe the case organisation. During this process, my Director of Studies left the university to take up another appointment which was quite unnerving for me as we had developed a comfortable working relationship and he understood the challenges I was facing. Nevertheless, another Director of Studies was assigned and the process of gaining access continued with several meetings with the HR Director of the local authority to review the research which was designed to take place in three stages.3 Approval was eventually granted to conduct the pilot study in June, 2006 with the agreement that an interim report of the findings would be presented to the Council after the pilot study. I experienced some challenges and tensions as I had no control over access to employees and was only allowed to distribute the pilot questionnaires to the total sample of HR staff via the HR Director’s personal assistant. The challenges and tensions experienced will be discussed further in the approaches taken in the methods. Furthermore, during the research process after data was collected and analysed, I got a full-time job as an HR Lecturer at Roehampton University and subsequently had the PhD transferred for ease of completion. The ethical aspect of the book was reviewed and approved by Roehampton University Research Committee. Anderson (2005) points out the importance of ensuring the code of behaviour in relation to the rights of those who become the subject of research, or are affected by it, when considering HR research.

3 The

first stage was the review of existing HRM policy documents; stage two—self-completed questionnaire survey; and stage three—semi-structured interviews. The timescale discussed for the pilot study was between June to December 2006 and the main study was between January 2007 and June 2007.

100

5 A Methodological Approach to Workplace Well-Being Research …

5.5 Approach to Method: Questionnaire Survey In this study, the questionnaire is supplementary and was used to provide statistical corroboration and reinforcement of some of the relationships that exist between managerial and non-managerial respondents. The pilot questionnaire was designed in accordance with Sarantakos (2005) measures to improve the response rate4 and was influenced by the literature.5 This took into consideration the characteristics of the respondents in the local authority and taking precautions to ensure that I collected the data required. De Vaus (1996) and Oppenheim (2003) state that a pilot study can be seen as a dress rehearsal and advise that it is required to identify whether questionnaires or interviews have major flaws that can damage the main study. Based on the agreement to use employees in the HR department for the pilot study, on 26 June 2006 one-hundred self-completed questionnaires, with postage-paid returned envelopes, were distributed via the HR Director’s personal assistant as I did not have direct access to employees. The questionnaire was attached to a cover letter which I designed and printed on the university letterhead for added credibility and to create a positive first impression with clear instructions for completing the questionnaire. I also highlighted the confidentiality and anonymity of responses. I petitioned for employees’ participation in the letter and also advised that they could opt out at anytime. In order to encourage responses, careful attention was paid to ensuring that the language used was simple, offering an incentive, and personalising the questions as respondents would believe that their opinions were unique and singularly important to the survey (Punch 2005; Saunders et al. 2009). The questionnaire was divided into seven sections6 and was made up of a closed format with a Likert scale ranging from ‘strongly disagree to strongly agree’. Some questions had a list of possible ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers, and others had a space provided for further explanation where needed (see Table 5.1a, b).

4 Trustworthy

and friendly approach, clear explanation of the purpose, honesty, length of cover letter, principles of anonymity and confidentiality, reminders, rationale, time required, size, degree of difficulty, sensitivity, method of return, time of completion, administration, rewards, return dates, appealing and attracting cover letter, layout and format, appearance, and trust (Sarantakos 2005: 261–262). 5 Human resource management literature with a specific focus on high-commitment HRM practices; social exchange constructs focusing on the psychological contract, perceived support and trust in management, leader–member exchange, and fair treatment; and employee well-being literature focusing on job satisfaction and work demands. 6 The first and seventh section obtained information about the workforce demographics; the second section sought information regarding employees reactions to HRM practices; section three obtained employees reactions to commitment; section four on job satisfaction; section five on work-life balance and work demands; section six on support/trust in management and line management leadership.

5.5 Approach to Method: Questionnaire Survey

101

Table 5.1a Employee Questionnaire: Perspectives on HRM, quality of working life and well-being at work HRM Practices (Cronbach alpha 0.72) 1. (1) The Council tries to fill new positions with people from inside the organisation 2. (2) Organisation provides opportunities for employees to express views about work 3. (3) Organisation keeps employees informed about business issues 4. (4) My pay is performance- or merit-related 5. (5) Received training and development courses to update skills within the last 12 months 6. (6) Involved in decision making in work teams and programmes within the last 12 months Job Satisfaction (Cronbach alpha 0.84) 1. (7) I am satisfied with the sense of achievement I get from my job 2. (8) I am satisfied with the scope for using initiative 3. (9) I have influence over my job 4. (10) I am satisfied with my pay 5. (11) I feel my job is secure 6. (12) I am satisfied with the training I have received 7. (13) I am satisfied with the work I do 8. (14) My manager involves me in decision making Employee Commitment (Cronbach alpha 0.84) 1. (15) I feel loyalty towards the organisation 2. (16) I feel loyalty towards my immediate supervisor 3. (17) I feel loyalty towards my fellow employees 4. (18) I feel loyalty towards customers and clients 5. (19) I am proud to tell people I work for the Council Work-Life Balance (Cronbach alpha 0.62) 1. (20) My job requires that I work hard 2. (21) There is never enough time to get my work done 3. (22) I worry about my work outside working hours 4. (23) My manager understands about my family responsibilities 5. (24) Flexible working options are available to me if needed Supervisory Support and Trust in Management (Cronbach alpha 0.87) 1. (25) I do receive help from my line manager which improves my performance 2. (26) I am given feedback by my immediate line manager on how I am doing 3. (27) My line manager provides praise and recognition when I do well 4. (28) My line manager supports me when necessary 5. (29) I feel fairly treated by the Council 6. (30) I trust management to look after my best interests 7. (31) There are good relations between managers and employees

A total of fifty-one (51%) usable questionnaires were returned after I befriended the HR personal assistant who became the gatekeeper throughout the research process. I had to make follow-up calls, send emails, and extend the time required to improve the response rate. Sarantakos (2005) advocates that the more friendly and personal the delivery of the questionnaire, the more likely it is to be returned by the set date. The pilot study revealed tensions from the HR Director and Leadership

102

5 A Methodological Approach to Workplace Well-Being Research …

Team of the local authority with respect to the results which were presented in an interim report on 16 April 2007. It appeared that the results contradicted the Council’s corporate business plan and I was re-directed from pursuing the ‘employee’ focus to embracing the ‘managerial’ focus, with the other alternative being to discontinue the research. This presented an additional challenge of having to conduct further negotiations with the HR Director to agree for the research to continue to the next stage without the managerial focus or terminating access. After a very stressful and uncertain period of negotiations, the HR Director eventually agreed to allow the commencement of the main data collection with the condition that an electronic version of the questionnaire be designed, instead of the traditional postal questionnaire, which could be uploaded on the staff intranet of the local authority. I embraced this Table 5.1b Employee Questionnaire: Perspectives on HRM, quality of working life and well-being at work HRM Practices (Cronbach Alpha .76) 1. (7) I feel my job is secure 2. (8) Council tries to fill new positions with people from inside the organisation 3. (9) A rigorous selection process is used to select new recruits 4. (10) Provided with sufficient opportunities for training and development 5. (11) Management involves people when making decisions that affect them 6. (12) Council keeps me informed about business issues and how well it is doing 7. (13) Council provides me with opportunities to express their own views 8. (14) Team working is strongly encouraged in the Council 9. (15) I work in formally designed teams 10. (16) I am adequately rewarded for the amount of effort I put into my job 11. (17) There is a clear status difference between management and staff in the Council Employee Commitment (Cronbach Alpha .70) 12. (18) I am quite proud to be able to tell people that I work for Council 13. (19) I feel myself to be part of the Council 14. (20) To know that my own work had made a contribution to the good of the organisation would please me 15. (21) I feel that I am making some effort for the organisation 16. (22) Even if Council was not doing well I am reluctant to change employers Job Satisfaction (Cronbach Alpha .82) 17. (25) I am satisfied with the sense of achievement I get from my job 18. (26) I am satisfied with the scope for using initiative 19. (27) I have influence over my job 20. (28) I am satisfied with my pay 21. (29) I feel my job is secured 22. (30) I am satisfied with the training I have received 23. (31) I am satisfied with the work I do 24. (32) My manager involves me in decision making Work-Life Balance (Cronbach Alpha .77) 25. (33) I am satisfied with flexible working time arrangements at the Council 26. (34) I am aware of my rights to request flexible working 27. (35) I am satisfied with arrangements to support employees to manage their work-life balance 28. (36) I have taken time off to care for someone over the past two years 29. (37) My manager understands about my work and family responsibilities 30. (38) I am satisfied with the balance between work and family life 31. (39) The Council helps employees achieve a balance between work and life

(continued)

5.5 Approach to Method: Questionnaire Survey

103

Table 5.1b (continued) Work Strain (Cronbach Alpha .75) 32. (4 0a) I have difficulty in balancing work and non-work commitments 32. (40b) I work extended hours 33. (40c) I work under pressure Perceived Support and Trust in Management (Cronbach Alpha .73) 34. (41) My immediate supervisor supports me in getting the job done 35. (42) I am given feedback by my supervisor on how I am doing 36. (43) My line manager provides me with praise and recognition when I do well 37. (44) I am fairly treated by my manager 38. (45) I have a good relationship with my immediate boss/supervisor 39. (46) I trust management to look after my best interests 40. (47) I have experienced bullying at work 41. (48) I work hard because I want to 42. (49) I am very motivated in my present job Line Management Leadership (Cronbach Alpha .91) 43. (50a) My manager keep everyone up to date with proposed changes 44. (50b) My manager provides everyone with a chance to comment on proposed changes 45. (50c) My manager responds to suggesons from employees 46. (50d) My manager deals with problems at the workplace 47. (50e) My manager treats employees fairly

opportunity as there was no other option available to me given the circumstances and I saw it as a small window of opportunity even though the condition was not ideal. I later realised that this was the ‘first hoop’ of a series of hoops I had to jump through in the research process. Lessons learnt from the pilot questionnaire led to refinement and re-arrangement of some questions for greater construct and content validity and reliability and also sharpened the focus of the study. Some variables that did not correlate with any other in the pilot analysis were eliminated which eventually saved me time in the final analysis of data facilitated higher reliability (De Vaus 1996). In section one, demographic data7 was collected. Section two, the high-commitment HRM practices adopted by Pfeffer (1998, 2005) and Marchington and Wilkinson (2005) numbered 7–15 were reduced8 to 9 variables moving the reliability coefficient from 0.755 to 0.818. Section three, work-life balance measures adopted from WERS 2004 survey (Kersley et al. 2006) and Tailby et al. (2005) numbered 16–19 were reduced9 to 4 items increasing the reliability coefficient from 0.771 to 0.864. Section four, line management leadership measures adopted from WERS 2004 survey (Kersley et al. 2006) numbered 20–23 comprised 5 items with a reliability coefficient of 0.913 but one variable was repeated in the questionnaire and was removed,10 changing the 7 Demographic

data collected—nature of employment contract, tenure, hours worked, directorate/department worked, occupational group, and members of trade union. 8 HRM practices variables removed included: working in formally designed teams, and the existence of a clear status difference between managers and employees within the Council. 9 Work-life-balance measures reduced includes awareness of the rights to request flexible working, time taken off to care for someone over the past two years, and management understanding about my work and family commitments. 10 Line management leadership measure removed was—line managers treating employees fairly.

104

5 A Methodological Approach to Workplace Well-Being Research …

reliability coefficient to 0.903 which was still a very strong reliability. Section five, perceived support/trust in management measures adopted from WERS 2004 survey (Kersley et al. 2006) and Cook and Wall’s (1980) numbered 24–30 were reduced11 to 7 items changing the reliability coefficient from 0.726 to 0.870. Section six, work demands adopted from Karasak and Theorell (1990) numbered 31–33 comprising three items with a reliability coefficient of 0.745 which was the strongest value that could be derived based on the collected scales within the variable. Section seven, job satisfaction measures adopted from WERS 2004 survey (Kersley et al. 2006) numbered 34–38 were reduced12 to 5 items as variables were repeated in other parts of the questionnaire, changing the reliability coefficient from 0.824 to 0.788. Finally, section eight, employee commitment measures adopted from Cook and Wall’s (1980) British Organisational Commitment Scale (BOCS) numbering 39–43 were reduced13 to 5 items changing the reliability coefficient from −0.163 to 0.700. The final version of the questionnaire had 56 questions. I sought help from an information technology expert at Manchester Metropolitan University who assisted me in the design of an intranet-mediated questionnaire (Dillman 2007) and in creating a database link to which responses could be forwarded. I also requested a separate email account which was linked to the intranet-survey database to accommodate participants’ responses. A final question was also added to the questionnaire requesting employees who were interested in taking part in the interviews to give their contact details, as I had no other means of access to employees. Saunders et al. (2009) state that only employees who are interested in the research topic and consider it important will be willing to devote their time to be interviewed. As such, I offered an incentive prize draw of £40.00 Marks and Spencer’s vouchers to assist with response rates. I had no control over sampling techniques, and self-selection non-probability sampling was adopted as outline by Sheehan and Hoy (2004), who state that web-based surveys and emails are used by researchers for data collection and these methods collect broad-based data from individuals who self-select to respond to surveys that are posted on websites. Sheehan and Hoy also outlined strengths and weaknesses14 of online surveys, but Punch (2005) argues that 11 Perceived support/trust in management measures were reduced removing—experiencing bullying at work and I work hard because I want to. 12 Job satisfaction measures that were reduced by removing—feeling your job is secure, satisfied with the training received, and management involving employees in decision making. 13 Employee commitment measures were reduced by removing—more money will make me think of changing jobs, and I sometimes feel like leaving this job for good. 14 Strengths of online surveys generate a high number of responses, considered superior to the postal survey in terms of access challenges, population characteristics, confidence that the right person has responded, reduction of contamination or distortion, cost effectiveness, suitable types of questions, and the quantity of the data collection, cost collects data quickly, the cost of data collection and analysis can be minimised by the use of web-based survey, and it allows for anonymity in responses since respondents can choose whether to provide his/her name or not (Dillman 2007; Sheehan and Hoy 2004). Limitations of web-based surveys are that it must attract respondents to the web page; population may not be represented in the sample; respondents may not be aware of the survey announcement posted and thus may not have the opportunity to complete the survey, the selfselect nature of web page-based surveys may affect their generalisability; receive responses from

5.5 Approach to Method: Questionnaire Survey

105

limitations can be overcome by combining them with interviews, as interviews with selected respondents also allow a dynamic investigation within the sample. Once I completed the electronic questionnaire it was given to the Council’s IT Specialist, who uploaded it onto the staff intranet in July, 2007. I made several follow-up calls and emailed the HR personal assistant petitioning for reminders to be posted on the staff intranet for employees to complete the questionnaire and as a result 106 usable questionnaires were returned. I used SPSS 16 statistical software to analyse data collected. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the characteristics of the sample and to address the two research aims: independent sample t-test was used to test for significant differences between groups of employees15 and Pearson correlation coefficient was used to describe the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables (Bryman and Cramer 2005; Pallent 2005). The hermeneutic phenomenological (HP) method (Van Maanen 1994) adopted for the main qualitative research involved the use of several techniques to construct the field text in layers which served as the basis of analysis and involved observing semistructured interviews and collecting field documents (Cohen et al. 2000; Outhwaite 1986). Cohen et al. also state that informants tell or inform (hence the label) about their experience in words, and observations are also inscribed in words written down. Data collection involves the construction of a multilayered text about the meaning of the human experiences under inquiry (Steeves and Kahn 1995: 186).

5.6 Approach to Method: Observation Field Notes The first layer of text was obtained through the written accounts of conversations and experiences I observed within the Council environment. The field notes tell the story of my experiences of inquiry and serve as a record of my own interpretation and construction of meaning. Ghauri and Gronhaug (2002) state that observation field notes have the advantage of collecting first-hand information in a natural setting, and also can be more accurate as they are independent of the respondents’ unwillingness to provide information needed by the researcher. Supporting this view, Cohen et al. (2000) claim that observations are important and necessary to construct the field text, providing important context and source of insight for the narrative data collected through interviews, and are fixed or inscribed through the technique of writing field notes (Lofland 1971). Therefore, taking field notes of my observations, individuals outside the population of interest; it is almost impossible to develop response rates to web page-based surveys making it difficult to compare with traditional survey data collection; and it is difficult to generalise research findings beyond those responding to the survey (heehan and Hoy 2004). 15 For ease of reference and analysis, employee groups were consolidated into two groups: (1) managerial employees (i.e. which comprised executive directors, directors, senior managers, managers, and professionals); and (2) non-managerial employees (i.e. comprised of associate professionals, technical, and secretarial/administrative employees).

106

5 A Methodological Approach to Workplace Well-Being Research …

interactions and experiences in the field are aligned to Cohen et al. (2000) view of field notes which allowed me to reconstruct the physical environment and settings in which the Council employees spent most of their time. It also allowed me to record aspects of interviewees’ body language, tone of voice, dress and demeanour, symbols in the office, environmental distractions, etc., that could not be discerned from the transcripts of the tape recording. It assisted me in recording details that emerged, or became clear, after the tape recorder was turned off (e.g. stories told by respondents that were important in understanding their experiences of working life in local government) when there was no time or opportunity for me to record it. Observations also provided me with the opportunity for reflection and self-evaluation in writing and interpreting the text. Van Maanen (1994) claims that observation in HP requires the researcher to be a participant and an observer at the same time while retaining a hermeneutic alertness to situations that allow the researcher to constantly step back and reflect on the meaning of those situations. Observations also allowed me to record early impressions regarding what was happening in the informant’s life in terms of perceptions of HRM practices, quality of working life, and well-being which were invaluable aids in analysis. Another challenge I experienced during my observation in the pilot study was the ‘controlled’, ‘concealed’, and ‘tense’ working environment that existed in the Council causing employees to be reserved, hesitant, and resist being open to discuss issues. This was another ‘hoop I had to jump through’ by continuing to reassure employees, by building their trust that all information given would be kept confidential and anonymous. I also had to be vigilant in securing alternative accommodation to conduct interviews in the main study. In taking field notes, salient points were noted including what happened or didn’t happen. Wolfinger (2002) states that describing interactions that didn’t happen, the material becomes useful when compared to interactions that did happen as it allows the researcher to develop a criteria for defining an event in any given social setting. For example, during the pilot study interviews, I observed that respondents’ comments were one-sided, positive, and appeared rehearsed and as such, I questioned what was being withheld by respondents. Wolfinger (2002) further argues that documenting omissions observed conveys a more comprehensive depiction of the research site allowing valuable insights into the background knowledge that guides subsequent note-taking, which proves useful in better understanding how and why events take place. The method I used to obtain the field notes was done through a chronological log on what was happening in the setting. In order to ensure that relevant information was collected, I first allowed thirty minutes between each interview to allow time to write observations made during the interview. The recorded observations formed an outline when I began the transcription of the interviews. The tacit knowledge gained from the pilot study allowed me to create an atmosphere in which employees felt confident to discuss issues openly without fear of breach in confidentiality and

5.6 Approach to Method: Observation Field Notes

107

anonymity. Field notes were observed and written using the systematic framework outlined by Lofland and Lofland (1984) that comprised seven sections.16

5.7 Approach to Method: Semi-Structured Interviews Another layer of the text was constructed from semi-structured interviews with employees using the (HP) approach. Van Maanen (1994) and Gadamer (1989) claim that HP is concerned with lived experiences into how people go about understanding the world in which they live, how they interpret their lives and make meaning of what they experience (Outhwaite 1986). They also advocate that phenomenology focuses on questions of the ‘meaning of experience’ and hermeneutics involves learning about or understanding the structure of the lifeworld or lived experience (Stake 2005). During the pilot study, I was faced with the challenge of not having contact with employees as well as having no control over which individuals I could interview and, as such, a list of nine employees was given to me by the HR Director’s personal assistant. The list comprised of senior managers, line managers, and personal assistants of the HR Director and Chief Executive Officer. Realising that I had no choice, I also requested an interview with the HR Director and this was granted. I was assigned an office in the middle of the HR department to interview employees, which was very inappropriate in terms of employees being able to speak openly about issues. The tension of this experience formed another hoop that I had to jump through. However, after numerous discussions with the gatekeeper, I was able to negotiate a change of venue from the main Council building to a subsidiary building where the main interviews were held. The change in accommodation allowed employees to be a little more relaxed and open to discuss issues. The responses from the online survey revealed that 45 employees were willing to take part in the interviews as they provided their telephone numbers or email addresses. I systematically reviewed the list of respondents and prioritised this list through purposive sampling to ensure that I had a diverse group of employees that adequately represented the cross-section of directorates/departments in the Council, as well as occupational groups and genders, to be able to gain a deeper and richer understanding of employees’ perspectives and reactions to the aims of the study. Neuman (2005) states that purposive sampling enables the researcher to use judgement to select cases that will best obtain the answer to the research question(s) and to meet the objectives. The shortlisting process reduced the list to 35 employees who I subsequently contacted to make arrangements for the interviews. I had difficulty getting in touch with some employees, while a number of employees changed their minds, and others busy schedules did not permit our meeting. Based on this challenge, I used snowballing to increase the list of respondents. Smith (2006) claims that 16 Field notes systematic framework by Lofland and Lofland (1984) include: who is the respondent; what does he/she does; record of the setting of the interview; salient points; what did he/she do questioning the behaviour; personal impressions and feelings; and notes for further information.

108

5 A Methodological Approach to Workplace Well-Being Research …

snowballing is used when it is difficult to get in touch with members of the desired population. However, I eventually interviewed 27 respondents’ face-to-face (15 managerial and 12 non-managerial employees)17 in a collaborative approach where information was exchanged between the informant (i.e. employee) and myself in both directions and the emphasis was on listening to what the informant said as opposed to guiding and controlling the conversation (Morse 1991). Smith and Osborn (2003) describe that a small sample size is the norm and the sample depends on a number of factors and that there is no ‘right’ sample size. I used a retrospective approach to solicit narratives of experiences from informants asking them to talk about their experiences and, as such, the first question asked was open ended ‘what is it like to work in the Council?’ This was followed by probing questions focusing on eliciting narrative data, as opposed to explanations or opinions until the employees’ experiences were fully described (Ray 1994). The questions asked followed the interview schedule (see Table 5.2a, b), and, before the commencement of interviews, each informant was given an interview consent form that outlined the purpose of the research, the assurance of confidentiality Table 5.2a Semi-Structured Interview Questions: Employees’ reaction to HRM Practices The following questions were asked: 1. In your opinion, can you tell me what you understand by the term employee well-being? 2. What sort of HRM practices has the Council implemented to promote employee well-being? 3. What are your views about the training received within the last 12 months? 4. How do you feel about being well informed about the business issues that take place in the Council? 5. Do you think there that harmonisation exist between management and staff? Please Explain. 6. What are your views about team working in the Cauncil? 7. What are your views about recruitment and selection strategies used by the Council? 8. Do you feel that your job is secure? Please Explain. 9. What are your views about being adequately compensated for the amount of work and effort that you put into your job? 10. How satisfied are you with your job? Please Explain 11. What are your views on being able to use your own initiative? 12. What are you views on the influence you have over your job? 13. What are your views on being involved in decision making? 14. In terms of commitment, how committed are you to the organisation? Please Explain. 15. If you were offered more money with another employer, would you think about changing your job? Please Explain 16. In terms of work-life balance, what are your views on work-life balance practices implemented in the Council? 17. What is your opinion about support received from your line manager to assist you to do a good job? Please Explain 18. How supportive is your line manager with non-work issues? Please Explain. 19. How would you describe your relationship with your line manager? 20. How do you feel about trust and fairness being promoted in the Council? Please Explain 21. Do you trust your manager to look after your best interest? Please Explain. 22. How has changes within the Council affected your well-being?

17 Biographical

details of interview respondents were applied for examination purposes but were removed to ensure confidentiality and anonymity of respondents that took part in the study.

5.7 Approach to Method: Semi-Structured Interviews

109

Table 5.2b Semi-Structured Questions: Quality of Working Life and Well-being at work 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Could you tell me what it is like to work here? Can you describe what your job means to you? What do you understand by the term Human Resource Management? Which HRM practices are most important to you and why? What do you understand by the term employee well-being at work? If you have to use words to define your individual well-being at work what would they be? Why is well-being at work at work as defined by yourself important to you? How responsive is your line manager to the promotion of your well-being at work? In your opinion, what can your line manager do differently to promote your well-being at work? 10. How has change within the Council affected your well-beingat work? 11. How can HRM practices be modified and/or improved to develop your well-being at work? 12. Can you tell me what things you would like to see improved in the Council to promote your well-being at work?

and anonymity, and advised employees of their right to withdraw at anytime should they wish to do so. The change of accommodation created a comfortable and relaxed atmosphere as the room where interviews were held was modern ergonomically, well lit and we benefited from the availability of tea and cold water. Stemming from the challenges experienced during the pilot study, I realised how important it was for informants to feel comfortable to discuss issues openly. Each interview lasted between 60–90 min and was all audio-taped with the permission from respondents and was transcribed verbatim. At the end of each interview, I offered to give a copy of the transcript to respondents for verification. Five employees agreed to view the transcripts which were verified by two respondents only as the remaining three proved difficult to get in touch with. Figure 5.3 shows the data analysis stages that were undertaken in the analysis of the semi-structured interviews. Doing verbatim transcriptions was the most tedious and time-consuming task. To give this task the attention it deserved, I shut myself away and spent some time in a private lodge owned by a friend, free from disturbances from friends and relatives. Occasionally during transcription, there were situations when the tape had to be replayed as many times as possible to satisfy clarification issues. There were, however, a few instances where the tape was played and replayed and it was still difficult to get the actual words and this was resolved by putting a blank space or writing ‘inaudible’ or I wrote down what I thought the informant had said and put in brackets (paraphrase). Observational notes were made of non-verbal signals, such as coughs, laughs, sighs, pauses, and other interruptions like ringing of mobile phones and staff interruptions, etc. Van Maanen (1994) states that the emersion into data is the establishment of an orienting gestalt or some initial interpretation of the data that will drive later coding of the data in subsequent phases of analysis. I undertook data reduction by deciding to eliminate irrelevant data that included digressions, abrupt changes in topics, eliminating things like ‘you know what I mean’, etc., without changing the unique character of it. After the transcription, interviews were prepared for employee verification (discussed above).

110

5 A Methodological Approach to Workplace Well-Being Research …

Labelling and Listening to the Taped Interviews Phase 1

Phase 2

Phase 3

Phase 4

Verbatim Transcription – Typed using a computer

Coding – Search for Categories and Sub-categories

Looking for Super-Ordinate Categories

Diagrams &

Tables

Models

Presentation of the Findings and Conclusions

Fig. 5.3 Data analysis matrix—phases of analysis. Source Cohen et al. (2000)

To provide an indication of the reliability of themes generation and allocation, I invited three researchers from MMU (two within the HRM discipline and one from the Management discipline) to take part in the coding process. This involved the coding of two interview transcripts to enable a coding frame to be identified. After we all agreed on the coding frame, the researchers were invited to code a proportion of four to six transcripts (80% of each transcript) and to identify emerging themes generating reliable results (Silverman 2005). This method allowed themes and explanations to arise inductively from the data. The resulting level of agreement in terms of coding and themes was above 85% providing assurance that the findings presented in this study were an accurate interpretation of the data. A list of emerging themes was used as a framework and then compared to those generated through the remaining transcripts.

5.7 Approach to Method: Semi-Structured Interviews

111

The analysis phases adopted relate to interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) as outlined by Smith (2006), Smith and Osborn (2003). Smith claims that the analysis focuses on the meanings of particular experiences, events, and states hold for participants upon the generation of common themes and explorations derived from the transcripts. Echoing this view, Willig (2001) argues that the objective of the analysis is to obtain an insight into another person’s thoughts and beliefs in relation to the phenomenon under investigation. I began preliminary analysis by reading through the interviews casually on the first occasion and then a little more intently asking important questions as to what should comprise a category, how such a category relates to the research goal, looking at what difference it would make if the category was excluded, and how to go about interpreting the meaning of categories. This dialectic process is often referred to as the ‘hermeneutic circle’ as part of the text is understood in relation to the whole text and vice versa (Van Maanen 1994). The approach adopted for coding the interviews utilised analytic techniques such as microanalysis, open axial, and selective coding borrowed from Strauss and Corbin’s (1990) procedures for developing grounded theory. Microanalysis involved looking for patterns (categories and sub-categories) as they emerged from the data; scrutinising each line of text; writing down some notes, words, and paragraphs that captured the phenomenon being investigated and beginning the process of identifying and naming categories and sub-categories. Axial coding involved re-examining categories identified by open coding, determining linkages and connections between them and then comparing and combining them in order to produce super-ordinate categories. Smith and Osborn (2003) state that super-ordinate categories act as a magnet pulling together a number of categories previously identified by the open coding. Before beginning to write up, I did selective coding by going over the master list of categories (previously identified) one more time to ensure that the list of core categories was exhausted, from which the narrative account would then be constructed. The extract in Table 5.3 shows the first stages of analysis for a small section of the interview with three participants in this study. The emergent themes are then connected together in order to provide a chronological sequence of clusters that seem to meaningfully belong together. Table 5.4 outlines the clustering of themes: The clusters in Table 5.4 are now provided with titles and defining super-ordinate themes which I redefined to improve the clarity of the analysis in light of further reflection. The super-ordinate themes are presented in Table 5.5.

112

5 A Methodological Approach to Workplace Well-Being Research …

Table 5.3 Example of notes and emerging themes Preliminary notes

Respondents views

Emerging themes

In-vivo concepts-the use of actual words taken from transcripts

Employee 1: Limited resources affect staffing levels and service delivery and there is less flexibility in financial resources allocation than previously

Limited resources

Confirms it as a core experience for employees

Employee 2: Limited resources result in less staff, putting more pressure on others to getting the work done, causing employees to feel discontented, irritable, unstable, worried, and very upset as lots of superficial things are taking place at the moment

Limited resources Psychological well-being

Describes feelings about work and life

Employee 3: I am not interested in more money or promotion, rather spend time with family and pursue hobbies, ensure harmony between work and family by maintaining positive relationships with my wife and children is fundamental to my well-being at work…it is about managing your life and enjoying your life

Psychological well-being

Table 5.4 Clustering themes

Limited resources Staffing levels Service delivery Less flexibility in financial resource allocation Psychological well-being Pressures on employees to get work done Feeling discontent Irritable Worried Very upset Superficial things taking place Material well-being (financial rewards) Not interested in money Career well-being Not interested in promotion Work-Life Balance Spend time with family Pursue hobbies Ensure harmony between work and family

5.8 Approach to Method: Review of Documents Table 5.5 Tabulating themes for super-ordinate themes

113

The setting of the experience Limited resources in staffing levels for service delivery Less flexibility in financial resources allocation Pressure on employees to get work done Negative effects on employees’ emotional well-being Participant’s reflections on the meaning of the job Harmony between work and family Not interested in money Not interested in promotion

5.8 Approach to Method: Review of Documents Documents collected in the field added yet another layer to the text and allowed me to answer research objective one (see Fig. 5.2). It also provided me with insight into the context of working life realities of the local government employees in this case. Ricoeur (1981) advocates that field text in data collection is not only multilayered but also symbolic and distanced from the experiences of interest in order to allow hermeneutic interpretation and can be anything that is fixed in some permanent form that can be looked at or viewed again in some way by the researcher. During April 2006 and July 2007, I collected HR policy documents, newsletters, and magazines linked to high-commitment HRM practices adopted in this study. Although the freedom of information legislation has expanded the coverage of documents, I had difficulty in getting relevant documents from the Internet and as such approached gatekeepers (i.e. HR Director, her personal assistant and key informants) in the organisation who provided me with documents. Saunders et al. (2009) say that access to an organisation’s data will be dependent on gatekeepers within the organisation and outlined advantages and disadvantages.18 Cohen et al. (2000) claim that documents would be regarded as relevant if they come from the responding company and are used and implemented in business practice. Furthermore, Van Maanen (1994) states that the usefulness of experiential descriptions in literature including documents offer insight about the experience that is the phenomenon of concern. Once the documents were collected, I focused on the interpretation of the text within the documents from both grammatical as well as psychological interpretation. This approach allowed me to extract the author’s intentions and meaning which required reflection on the nature of the documents, the time written, and place and context of the local government organisation which is aligned to the hermeneutic approach. Van Maanen (1994) claims that an understanding in hermeneutics becomes a very complex process leading to various levels of human life, and takes various forms. I adopted ‘objective hermeneutics’ which works with latent structures of meaning, by constructing them with the meanings employed by individuals 18 Advantages of documents: may have fewer resource requirements, unobtrusive, can provide com-

parative and contextual data, can result in unforeseen discoveries. Disadvantages of documents: may be collected for the purpose that does not match your need; access may be difficult or costly; no real control over data quality (Saunders et al. 2009).

114

5 A Methodological Approach to Workplace Well-Being Research …

(Smith 2006). This allowed me to constantly compare the meanings of individual texts from the documents with those of the relevant lifeworld of employees. This is the ‘hermeneutic spiral’ which rests on the belief that the understanding of texts evolves upwards through a spiral of understanding (Van Maanen 1994). The analysis approach used is associated with the hermeneutic spiral and has been adopted from (Reichertz 2000).19

5.9 Research Ethical Issues According to King and Horrocks (2010) the ethical practice of social research with human participants is a complex and demanding responsibility and researchers should always be mindful of the ethical implications for all those involved in the process. In this research, ethical standards were upheld by adhering to Manchester Metropolitan University (MMU) and later Roehampton University ethical standards during the research process. In the process of seeking access, I did not apply any pressure on intended participants to grant access (Robson 2002) and did not deviate from the aims of the research once access was granted. Silverman (2005) argues that once access has been granted, the aims of the research shared and agreed with the intended organisation and participants should remain the same. Once access was granted, employees were not pressured or coerced into participating in the study and as such I ensured that employees understood the ‘informed consent’ designed to highlight the purpose of the research, giving respondents an option to refuse or discontinue with the research process if they chose to do so (Cooper and Schindler 2008). The informed consent also ensured that there was no deception, and that I had received permission from respondents to use data collected for the purpose of research only, ensuring confidentiality and anonymity (Saunders et al. 2009; Willig 2001). It also ensured that after data collection participants were informed about the full aims of the research and had access to publications that were of interest to their departments. Furthermore, I exercised moral reasoning during the collection of data thinking about how questions may impact on respondents, particularly sensitive questions about their personal working experiences in the organisation. Information collected has remained confidential (Economic and Social Data Service 2007) and has only been shared with the team supervising the book and will only be used for examination purposes. Names, addresses, and any personal information received from the quantitative and qualitative data that can identify individuals have been removed and replaced with pseudonym to ensure that no harm is caused (Easterby-Smith et al. 1999). Email communication during the research process was done with caution verifying respondents, email addresses with them before information was forwarded 19 The

hermeneutic spiral analysis adopted from Reichertz (2000) includes seven steps: eliciting and understanding the meanings of individual texts; identifying themes and sub-themes; identifying thematic clusters; triangulating documentary data contrasting them with other texts (i.e. interview data); checking validity and reliability; re-contextualising documentary data in terms of contrasting with the context of which they are a part; and selecting representative material.

5.9 Research Ethical Issues

115

in an effort to maintain confidentiality and anonymity and to cover data protection issues (Smith 2006). During the interview, I avoided over-zealous questioning and the pressuring of participants to respond. Sekaran (2003) maintains that the pressuring of participants to respond may make the situation stressful or demeaning for the participant. Furthermore, during the observation technique, I avoided attempting to observe behaviours related to participant’s private life and only focused on interactions with employees via conversations, interviews, the organisation environment, symbols, and things that relate to the work environment and employees’ working life (Bryman 1992). Data collected was stored on a disc that was password protected and kept in a locked drawer. The data will be kept for six months after the completion of the Ph.D. and then destroyed. Ethical issues in the analysis and reporting stage were upheld by making sure not to misrepresent the data collected and by not identifying the participating organisation using a pseudonym instead.

5.10 Conclusion This chapter discussed the philosophical, theoretical, methodological methods that can be used for well-being research that was adopted for the research presented throughout this book. This mixed-method research approach was adopted to answer the research aims and objectives. The mixed-method approach adopted for the employee well-being at work studies is highlighted as well as challenges and tensions experienced while in the field and how I was able to ‘jump through the hoops’ to ensure that data collected was in keeping with the aims of the research. Ethical issues in the research process were discussed.

References Ackroyd, S. (2004). Methodology for management and organisation studies: some implications for critical realism. In. S. Fleetwood & S. Ackroyd (Eds.), Critical realist applications in organisation and management studies (pp. 137–163). London: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. Alvesson, M., & Skoldberg, K. (2009). Reflexive methodology: New vistas for qualitative research. London: Sage Publications. Anderson, V. (2005). Research methods in human resource management. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel Development. Archer, M., Bhaskar, R., Collier, A., Lawson, T., & Norrie, A. (1998). Critical realism: Essential readings. London: Routledge. Bhaskar, R. (1991). Philosophy and the idea of freedom. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Blaikie, N. (1993). Approaches to social enquiry. Cambridge: Polity Press. Bryman, A. (1992). Quantitative and qualitative research: Further reflections on their integration. In J. Brannen (Ed.), Mixing methods: Qualitative and quantitative research. Hants: Ashgate Publishing. Bryman, A. (2006). Integrating qualitative and qualitative research: How it is done? Qualitative Research, 6(1), 97–113.

116

5 A Methodological Approach to Workplace Well-Being Research …

Bryman, A., & Cramer, D. (2005). Quantitative data analysis with SPSS 12 and 13: A guide for social scientists. London: Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group. Cartwright, S., & Cooper, C. L. (2009). The oxford handbook of organisational wellbeing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cohen, M. Z., Kahn, D. L., & Steeves, R. H. (2000). Hermeneutic phenomenological research: A practical guide for nurse researchers. London: Sage Publications. Conway, N., & Briner, R. B. (2005). Understanding psychological contracts at work. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cook, J., & Wall, T. (1980). New work attitude measure of trust, organisational commitment and personal need non-fulfilment. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 53, 39–52 Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2008). Business research method. Boston, MA and Burr Ridge, IL: McGraw-Hill. Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. London: Sage Publications. Crotty, M. (1998). Foundations of social research, meanings, perspectives in the research process, meaning and perspectives in the research process. London: Sage Publications. Danermark, B., Ekstrom, M., Jakobsen, L., & Karlsson, J. C. (2002). Explaining society: Critical realism in the social sciences. London: Routledge. De Vaus, D. A. (1996). Surveys in social research (4th ed.). London: UCL Press. Dillman, D. A. (2007). Mail and internet surveys: The tailored design method (2nd ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley Publishers. Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R., & Lowe, A. (1999). Management research: An introduction. London: Sage Publications. Economic and Social Data Service. (2007). A step by step ESDS guide to: Archiving and reusing data: Consent issues. Available at https://www.esds.ac.uk/support/E8.asp. Accessed 10 May, 2008. Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC). (2006). Health wellbeing of working age people: The employer’s perspectives. London: ESRC. Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC). (2010). Wellbeing and working life: Towards an evidence-based policy agenda. London: HSE/ESRC. Fleetwood, S., & Ackroyd, S. (2004). Critical realist applications in organisation and management studies. London: Routledge: Taylor and Francis Group. Gadamer, H. -G. (1989). Truth and method (Tubingen J.C.B. Mohr 1960). New York. (Crossroad originally published as Wahrheit and method). Ghauri, P., & Gronhaug, K. (2002). Research methods in business studies (2nd ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. Goulding, C. (1999). ‘Consumer research, interpretative paradigms and methodological ambiguities. European Journal of Marketing, 33(9/10), 859–873. Grix, J. (2004). The foundation of research. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Guest, D. (2002). Human resource management, corporate performance and employee wellbeing: Building the worker into HRM. Journal of Industrial Relations, 44(3), 335–358. Hesketh, A., & Fleetwood, S. (2006). Beyond measuring the human resources management organisational performance link: Applying critical realist meta-theory. Organisation, 13(5), 677–699. Holliday, A. (2002). Doing and writing qualitative research. London: Sage Publications. Johnson, P., & Clark, M. (2006). Mapping the terrain: An overview of business and management research methodologies. In P. Johnson & M. Clark (Eds.), Business and management research methodologies. London: Sage Publishers. Karasek, R. A., & Theorell, T. (1990). Healthy work: Stress, productivity, and the reconstruction of working life. NY: Basic Books. Kersley, B., Alphin, C., Forth, J., Bryson, A., Bewley, H., Dix, G., et al. (2006). Inside the workplace: Findings from the 2004 workplace employment relations survey. London: Routledge. King, N., & Horrocks, C. (2010). Interviews in qualitative research. London: Sage Publications.

References

117

Kumar, R. (1999). Research methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners. London: Sage Publication. Lofland, J. (1971). Analysing social settings: A guide to qualitative observation. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Lofland, J., & Lofland, L. (1984). Analysing social setting (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Madill, A., Jordan, A., & Shirley, C. (2000). Objectivity and reliability in qualitative analysis: Realist, contextualist and radical constructionist epistemologies. British Journal of Psychology, 91, 1–20. Marchington, M., & Wilkinson, A. (2005). Human resource management at work: People management and development. London: The Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (2006). Designing qualitative research. London: Sage Publications. Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1984). Patterns of burnout among a national sample of public contract workers. Journal of Health and Human Resources Administration, 7, 189–212. Mason, J. (2006). Mixing methods in a qualitatively driven way. Qualitative Research, 6(1), 9–25. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded source book. London: Sage Publications. Morse, J. M. (1991). Qualitative nursing research: A free-for-all? In J. M. Morse (Ed.), Qualitative nursing research: A contemporary dialogue (2nd ed., pp. 14–22). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publication. Neuman, W. L. (2005). Social research methods (6th ed.). London: Pearson Publishers. Oppenheim, A. N. (2003). Questionnaire design, interviewing and attitudes measurement. London: Pinter Publications. Outhwaite, W. (1986). Understanding social life: The method called ‘Verstehen’. London: Allen and Unwin. Pallent, J. (2005). SPSS survival manual (2nd ed.). Berkshire: Open University Press. Pfeffer, J. (1998). The human equation: Building profits by putting people first. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Pfeffer, J. (2005). Producing sustainable competitive advantage through effective management of people. Academy of Management Executive, 19(4), 95–108. Pidgeon, N., & Henwood, K. (1997). Using grounded theory in psychological research. In N. Hayes (Ed.), Doing qualitative analysis in psychology. Hove: Psychology Press. Punch, K. F. (2005). Introduction to social research: Quantitative and qualitative approaches. London: Sage Publications. Ray, M. R. (1994). ‘The richness of phenomenology: Philosophic, theoretic, and methodologic concerns. In J. M. Morse (Ed.), Critical issues in qualitative research methods (pp. 117–133). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Reichertz, J. (2000). Objektive Hermeneutik und hermeneutische Wissenssoziologie. In U. Flick, E. Kardorff, & I. Steinke (Eds.), Qualitative Forschung: Ein Handbuch (pp. 514–524). Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt. Ricoeur, P. (1981). Hermeneutics and the human science. New York: Cambridge University Press. Robson, C. (2002). Real world research (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Sarantakos, S. (2005). Social research (3rd ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2009). Research methods for business students (5th ed.). London: Pearson Education, Financial Times, Prentice Hall. Sayer, A. (1984). Method in social science: A realist approach. London: Hutchinson. Sayer, A. (2008). Realism and social science. London: Sage Publications. Sekaran, U. (2003). Research methods for business—A skill building approach. New York: Wiley. Seligman, M. E. P. (2000). Positive psychology. In J. Gillham (Ed.), The science of optimism and hope, research essays in honour of Martin E.P. Seligman. NY: Templeton Foundation Press. Sheehan, K., & Hoy, M. (2004). On-line surveys. In C. Seale (Ed.), Social research methods: A reader (pp. 105–110). London: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. Silverman, D. (2005). Doing qualitative research: A practical handbook (2nd ed.). London: Sage Publications.

118

5 A Methodological Approach to Workplace Well-Being Research …

Smith, J. A. (2006). Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research methods. London: Sage Publication. Smith, J. A., & Osborn, M. (2003). Interpretative phenomenological analysis. In J. A. Smith (Ed.), Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research methods. London: Sage Publications. Stake, R. E. (2005). Qualitative case studies. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed., pp. 443–466). London: Sage Publications. Steeves, R. H., & Kahn, D. L. (1995). A hermeneutical human science for nursing. In A. Omery, C. E. Kasper, & G. G. Page (Eds.), In search of nursing science (pp. 175–193). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Strauss, A. L., & Corbin, J. A. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Tailby, S., Richardson, M., Danford, A., Stewart, P., & Upchurch, M. (2005). Workplace partnership and work-life balance: A local government case study. In D. M. Houston (Ed.), Work-life balance in the 21st century. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Tashakkori, A., & Teddlie, C. (Eds.). (2003). Handbook on mixed methods in the behavioural and social sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Van Maanen, M. (1994). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. Michigan: Althouse. Wainwright, D., & Heaver, E. (2010). Can a better working life cut sickness absence costs. In ESRC, Wellbeing and Working Life: Towards an Evidence-Based Policy Agenda. ESRC seminar series mapping the public policy landscape. Warr, P. (2002). Psychology at work. Penguin Group Books Suffolk. Willig, C. (2001). Introducing qualitative research in psychology: Adventures in theory and method. Buckingham: Open University Press. Wolfinger, N. H. (2002). On writing fieldnotes: Collection strategies and background experiences. Qualitative Research, 2(1), 85–95. Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and method (3rd ed.). London: Sage Publishers.

Chapter 6

Well-Being at Work: Understanding Employees Working Life Realities in the Public Sector Context—Observations and Documentary Analysis Abstract This chapter provides a deeper insight into the work environment of the UK local government organisation in North West of England that embraced the New Public Management ideology that focused on cost minimisation and enhanced service delivery. The researcher observations of the work environment and the social actors within the organisation, along with the documentary analysis of HRM, well-being, and White Paper policies and government documents provided relevant ‘trivia’ or details that helped to construct the story of the working life realities of managers and employees of this public sector organisation. Central themes of a ‘controlled and tense’ working environment as well as a perceived ‘lack of trust’ between the employer and employees emerged as salient.

This chapter presents the findings from field observation and analysis of company documents that contributes towards answering research objectives from a broader study. Data collection was done when New Labour was in government over the period 2005–2007 which has implications for the study. The observations of the working environment were made by observation of the ‘social actors’ in the organisation. This chapter is discussed in the first person for emphasis. The analysis of documents reveals what can be expected from the public sector adherence to ‘best practice’ standards. This is discussed in the context of: work environment, partnership working, pay and reward strategy, communication, and health, safety and welfare management. The chapter concludes with a summary of the key themes discussed.

6.1 Field Observations The field observation began with communication and interaction with the HR Director, her personal assistant, and informants who provided relevant ‘trivia’ or details that helped to construct the story (Van Maanen 1994) of the working life realities of employees in an NPM environment. Field observations made during the pilot and main studies are discussed below. © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 N. Cvenkel, Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health, Approaches to Global Sustainability, Markets, and Governance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3619-9_6

119

120

6 Well-Being at Work: Understanding Employees Working Life …

6.1.1 Pilot Questionnaire and Interview Observation The pilot questionnaire was controlled by the HR Director’s personal assistant as I had no access to employees. The chapter questionnaire with self-posted envelopes was delivered to this gatekeeper (discussed in Chap. 5), and my observation reveals that the Council was not liberal in exposing their employees to a researcher although access was granted to conduct the study. At the beginning of the pilot interview phase, I was provided with a small office at the end of the HR department between the chief executive and senior managers’ offices to interview respondents. Once again, I had no control over where the interviews were to be held, and this created tensions and challenges that were viewed as salient and given additional consideration in the field notes. The following explains my experience: I was escorted into an extremely large open plan office by the personal assistant to the HR Director. The office was divided into two main sections, dividing the room equally into two main halves with a pathway in the middle of the two sections stretching from north to south of the office. The location of the office where the interviews were to be kept was the north end of the office and we entered from the south end and as I followed the personal assistant I observed that employees were tightly fitted into this open-planned office layout. They were all working; some typing, some using computers, others reading documents and writing, some searching in drawers and cabinets, and some talking on the phone. As we walked towards the allocated office, I observed some employees observing us with curious expressions on their faces; others pretended not to look but observed what was happening; and yet others appeared not to notice. There was a strange and uncomfortable silence in what appeared to be a tense atmosphere as we walked towards the office. The journey felt like thirty minutes but in reality took no more than two minutes. (Field notes, 31st July, 2006)

When I arrived at the allocated office, I observed that the environment was not conducive for keeping anonymity and confidentiality. This experience was also noted as salient and provided clearer insight of the work environment atmosphere and is outlined below: The room was very small and was located between two offices. The first office to the right belonged to the CEO of the council and the office to the left was occupied by some senior managers. The walls of the office appeared to be delicate and I presumed that sounds could be heard easily from this office as I was able to hear some senior managers talking. There was a glass peep hole in the middle of the door to the office where the interviews were held which also contributed to hindering confidentiality and anonymity. Control of the choice of interview candidates was done by the PA to the HR director and a sheet with the names of candidates and the allocated interview times was given to me fifteen minutes after I arrived. The candidates were mixed according to their job roles and gender and comprised of senior managers, managers, and the PA’s for both the HR director and the CEO. As the interviews commenced, managers appeared relaxed as compared to employees who appeared to be slightly uneasy. All candidates appeared almost rehearsed as responses to questions were fundamentally positive and when asked about challenges faced the majority commented that the council was doing an excellent job. However, one candidate from the list was not available and another employee took her place, who was not originally on the list. There was a great contrast in the responses to questions with this employee compared with the other respondents on the list. The employee that was not originally on the list of interview candidates’ responses highlighted positive and negative issues and explored her personal experiences within the council. During the interview she kept asking to be reassured in a

6.1 Field Observations

121

silent almost whispering voice that the information given will be kept private and confidential. Once this reassurance was given she continued to open up and discussed issues with what appeared to be with great ease as compared to the other candidates. The setting was almost relaxed but there was still an atmosphere of tension. (Field notes, 31st July, 2006)

My personal impression and feelings from this observation were that a ‘controlled and tense’ working environment existed. This assumption was substantiated when I was not allowed to have control over how data was collected and which participant could be interviewed. There were instances at the beginning where I had an opportunity to put forward my views about how the research should be conducted, but my views were not taken on board as the process was handled in the way the HR Director felt was appropriate. This experience can be associated to a less obvious form of bullying where powerful agents insist that their way of doing things is always right without discussion (CIPD 2005; HSA 2007). I wondered whether employees’ experiences were the same. This assumption was further demonstrated by an email received from the HR Director after the interim report from the pilot study was submitted.

6.1.2 Observation of Email Communication from the HR Director On 16 April 2007, I received an email from the HR Director giving feedback from the strategic leadership team. The email reveals themes of: bureaucracy, control, tension, hesitation, reluctance to take risks, lack of trust, managerialist instead of employees’ perspectives. The HR Director said in the email: I presented your findings on the Council Human Resources employees to our Strategic Leadership team meeting on Wednesday and they were well received and pointed to some issues for us to address. We will be taking forward the research with our teams to see how we can improve our own performance against the indicators. I am really sorry to tell you that we did not conclude our discussions on your proposed full study. There are some concerns about overlaps between your study and some work that we are in the process of commissioning in terms of an employee survey and there were concerns that we could not afford to be going out to employees with broadly similar studies in a very short space of time. At this stage therefore, we are not saying that your full study cannot go ahead but we will need to consider carefully our options. There is a possibility that we could ask you to cover the key questions in our proposed survey but if we do that we would need to firm up with you when we could have the results and in what format etc. as these results do need to feed in to our strategic plans within Directorates. If you are interested in working with us in this way then I would have to arrange for you to meet with our Head of Organisational Development and Learning and other key players in the development of our employee survey and therefore inevitably there would be further delays I am afraid. I will understand if you feel that this would make your study too difficult and/or the timeliness would not suit so please let me know if you are no longer interested in pursuing your study with our organisation. (Field notes, HR Director’s Email dated 16th April, 2007)

From this email, it appeared that the Council’s strategic leadership team was reluctant to move forward with the main study in keeping with the original research

122

6 Well-Being at Work: Understanding Employees Working Life …

aims and objectives which were initially reviewed and approved by the HR Director. One can deduce that perhaps the Council leadership team was somewhat reluctant and fearful that the findings may not fit into their strategic plans but may instead open a ‘Pandora’s box’ which would reveal ‘evils’ that the leadership team was not prepared for or equipped to handle given the continuous challenges and changes faced in this complex and NPM work environment. Instead, the ‘ostrich’ approach was adopted, and I found myself having to re-negotiate the terms and conditions of access for the main study in an effort to avoid access termination. After several discussions with the HR Director, she agreed to extend access with the original research objectives with a specific condition that the questionnaire had to be re-designed electronically. This was another hoop that I was able to jump through in the research process. I was still unsure of my position given the sensitivity of ‘access’ within the organisation, but I was able to negotiate through the gatekeeper to have a letter prepared from the HR Director of the Council confirming that access was received. This letter was not included in this book to maintain the confidentiality of the case organisation.

6.1.3 Observation from the Main Data Collection Twenty-seven respondents were interviewed (see Table 5.6) in a more relaxed environment as a result of re-negotiating alternative accommodation. At the commencement of the interviews, it was observed that both managerial and non-managerial employees appeared anxious and reluctant to answer questions. A depiction of this salient point was observed as follows: It’s 9:15 am and I keep looking at the clock on the wall in one of the small conference rooms assigned for the interviews. The ergonomic design and decoration of the room was professional and created a relaxed atmosphere. There was a pitcher of water with two glasses in the middle of the table, I sat on one side of the table and ensured that there was enough room for the employee to sit on the opposite side of the table. My writing pad for note taking is in front of me, along with the interview schedule, consent form and the digital recorder to record the interview. The room was well ventilated and well lit. There was a solid door which gave privacy once closed. It was a beautiful sunny morning in Manchester; the sun was peering through one of the windows of the office. The employee eventually showed up at 9:25 am apologising for being late as she walked into the room. She appeared as though she has been rushing as there were small beads of perspiration on her forehead. I offered her some water which she accepted. I thanked her for agreeing to be interviewed and allowed a few more minutes to ensure that she was relaxed before I began to give a brief introduction of who I was and the nature of the research. She listened attentively nodding her head at intervals showing her understanding of issues mentioned. The interview commenced with an open question which allowed the employee to discuss generally about her experiences within the council. Then the interview questions narrowed in scope to discuss specific issues. At this point, the employee paused, and inquired whether the information given will be kept private and confidential with a concerned look on her face. She was reassured that all information shared with me will be kept confidential and will not be disseminated in any way that will identify her. After sharing this, I observed that she appeared more relaxed and continued talking. (Field notes, 28th July, 2007)

6.1 Field Observations

123

Similarly, interviews with managerial employees also revealed some hesitation, caution, and a lack of openness. An example of an interview with a manager was noted as important to support this point: A mature female manager who was smartly dressed was very curious about the questions to be asked. She made several enquiries before the interview began and after her questions were answered she appeared to be satisfied with the responses given and the interview commenced. She answered general questions confidently giving examples to support comments made and appeared very open and the interview progressed well. The questions narrowed from general to specific about her working experiences within the council and her relationship with her line manager and his/her responsiveness to the promotion of her well-being. At this point, there was an apparent reluctance to answer the questions asked by giving irrelevant and broad responses. Puzzled by these responses the questions were rephrased but the same responses were received. I rephrased the question again and asked the manager to talk about her management/leadership style and it was observed that her body language immediately changed as she appeared more relaxed to discuss issues. She smiled and began to answer the questions asked confidently. I questioned this behaviour and was curious to find out more about its source. (Field notes, 9th October, 2007)

The above observations reveal a super-ordinate theme of a less obvious bullying culture existing with sub-themes of control, hesitation, reluctance, lack of trust, employees appearing anxious, lack of openness, and managerialist perspective as opposed to an employee’s perspective. The following section adds another layer to the picture and discusses the analysis of documents.

6.2 Analyses of Company Documents Company documents were collected over the period July to December 2007 and added yet another layer to the ‘text’. Looking through the documentation, it revealed what can be expected from policy documents that were linked to the highcommitment HRM practices and employee well-being1 adopted in this study. The Council strategic perspectives towards HRM policy documents are drawn from ‘best practice’ employment legislation standards. According to Guest (1990), the approach to the management of human resources usually adopted in the public sector is aligned to traditional/conservative strategy.2 Human resources policies adopted by the Council are typical in their nature and were written by the Council’s HR officials and other associated governmental institutions for senior managers, managers, and employees. All documents collected and 1 Redeployment

policy, recruitment and selection, training and development, communication strategy, partnership working, rewards, work-life balance, stress management, sickness absent management, and wellness initiatives. 2 This is one of carrying on as before, with personnel policies centring around administrative efficiency and cost minimisation. This may be selected because it is considered to be working effectively because the external pressures are not sufficiently strong to merit a reappraisal or because the company lacks the resources to know-how to try anything else (Guest 1990).

124

6 Well-Being at Work: Understanding Employees Working Life …

reviewed were dated between 2001 and 2007. They were considered reliable as they were received from the HR department and implemented via partnership working which is central to all HR policies discussed in this research. What is of interest is whether the Council would have considered high-commitment HRM policies as important if they were not governed by employment legislation and ‘best practice’ governing bodies. The analysis of the documents is discussed under five key themes: nature of the work environment, partnership working, pay and rewards strategy, communication, and health, safety and welfare management.

6.2.1 Nature of the Work Environment The work environment of local government is influenced by external and internal factors. Externally, global, political, and socio-economic changes have implications for management and employees experiences within organisations. Internally, the modernisation agenda has implications for budget limitations, workforce transformation, efficiency savings and enhanced service delivery, increasing workloads and workrelated stress (Noblet et al. 2006). The Council’s corporate business plan 2006–2009 advocates that the Council has a duty to demonstrate value for money and to actively engage with the modernisation agenda and view its employees as vital to the attainment of these goals and vision3 (Corporate Business Plan 2006). The documentation also reveals that the Council view the involvement of employees as critical and ensuring that employees continue to have the right skills to enable them to deliver quality services is an important priority for the Council.

6.2.2 Partnership Working This section discusses the analysis of policy documents that relates to partnership working and includes job security, recruitment and selection, internal recruitment, learning and development, team working and rewards. As part of its endeavour to become a ‘best practice’ employer, the Council professes to promote job security and recognises that due to operating procedures in times of budget constraints or capability issues, employees may no longer be able to continue working in their current positions (Recruitment and Selection Policy 2006; Redeployment Policy 2003). As such, ‘redeployment policy’ caters for the redistribution or alternative employment in the first instance before redundancy or dismissal, which is in keeping with ‘best practice’ standards outlined by CIPD (2009a). The policy document was 3 To

achieve a cleaner, greener, safer, stronger borough for the local community through promoting a strong and responsible economy, safe and healthy communities, protecting and promoting the environment and heritage, developing learning communities, improve performance.

6.2 Analyses of Company Documents

125

written to ensure that the Council demonstrated value for money and engaged with the modernisation agenda (Redeployment Policy 2003). In terms of promoting high commitment and employee well-being, this policy document is geared to facilitate commitment and well-being through the provision of an alternative employment option. This can be done via internal recruitment which can mitigate against redundancy and dismissal which has been brought to the forefront due to the economic recession that is affecting job security (CIPD 2010). However, employee-centred practices like the redeployment policy and avoidance of redundancy and dismissal are not likely to prevail when it comes to choices between the economic bottom line and ‘employees’ interests at the level of senior management and strategic decision making. However, employees’ reactions from the questionnaire survey confirm the Council espousal of job security as both managerial and non-managerial employees agreed that their jobs were secured. Documentary evidence revealed that the Council espoused to recruit and select candidates that were most likely to succeed in assisting them to deliver effective services and business aims (Recruitment and Selection Policy 2006). The recruitment and selection policy was produced to ensure that appropriate people were in the appropriate roles to deliver effective services and business aims and it was written to support management in the recruitment and selection process as the Council views the ‘effective recruitment and selection of employees as a key management activity’ (Recruitment and Selection 2006). The Council holds the view that if recruitment and selection is done properly, it can reduce expenditure via e-recruitment and recruitment campaigns. This policy is linked to the ‘best practice’ standard outlined by (CIPD 2007, 2009d) and can be effective in promoting high commitment and employee well-being. It can also be used as a vehicle for the promotion of equal opportunity, diversity, employer branding and allow the Council to be able to attract, recruit, develop, and retain talented individuals (Human Resource Strategy 2006). The economic interest of expenditure reduction and efficiency savings is likely to supersede the ‘human’ interest when it comes to recruitment and selection. This has become evident from proposals of recruitment freezes and redundancies in both public and private organisations as a result of the economic recession. Employee reactions to the recruitment and selection policy adopted by the Council show agreement that a rigorous selection process was used to select new recruits and that new positions were filled with people from inside the organisation. Reviewing the learning and development framework policy document revealed the Council commitment to assisting employees in delivering quality services by adopting a learning culture (Learning and Development Framework 2003). The document highlighted the need for employees to be competent and capable for service delivery, performance, continuous improvement, communication, and organisational development—underpinned by a lifelong learning philosophy in keeping with Investors in People standards (Learning and Development Framework 2006). Learning and development is an important HRM practice that can facilitate commitment, professional development, career advancement, and employee well-being (Redman and Wilkinson 2009). However, in a recession and with the expenditure reduction proposed by the NPM philosophy, emphasis on learning and development can be shrouded

126

6 Well-Being at Work: Understanding Employees Working Life …

and re-prioritised to enable the Council to meet its targets and continue to deliver high quality services with limited resources. From a practice perspective, employees’ reactions were positive as they agreed that they were provided with sufficient opportunity for training and development. Team working is a salient HR practice that is associated with partnership working and well-being at work. The analysis of the document revealed that partnership working facilitates efficient interdepartmental working and espoused that the Council increasingly works in a collaborative way with a range of partners to deliver services across the borough (Pulling Together-Team Working Policy 2007). Partnership working is encouraged due to cost minimisation, enhanced service delivery, and changing customer and employee expectations. The policy has been written to promote the importance of partnership working internally and externally (Human Resource Strategy 2006). Team working can be affected when organisations function in an environment of constant change and restructuring (Bach 1999; Morphet 2008). This view was echoed by respondents who completed the questionnaire and agreed that team working was strongly promoted in the Council.

6.2.3 Pay and Reward Strategies The analysis of the pay and rewards strategy document reveals that reward systems enable the Council to recruit, retain, and motivate people within the constraints of affordability (Pay and Reward Policy 2002). The document reveals that the Council rewards creativity and innovation through different praise and recognition initiatives. This enables the Council to reward employees, enhance motivation, and retain a skilled and flexible workforce while achieving value for money in service delivery and developing a total reward environment (Pay and Reward Policy 2002). This policy is linked to Equality Act (2010) that refers to fair pay in the public sector codes of practice (The Hutton Report 2011). The Council view of a total reward system entails work-life-balance strategies and single status in pay. The Council views these as being attractive to employees and can reduce overheads for the organisation as well as redesign jobs. This can allow the Council to be more productive and can potentially offset some of the cost of single status. The pay and reward strategy can be used to promote high commitment and well-being (Gould-Williams 2004). The tensions and challenges of limited finances can curtail these practices. From a practice perspective, respondents’ views from the questionnaire, employees disagreed that they were adequately rewarded for the amount of effort they put into their jobs.

6.2.4 Communication As part of the Council’s endeavour to become a ‘best practice’ employer, the Council introduced a ‘Communication Strategy’ to establish and maintain ‘clear, efficient,

6.2 Analyses of Company Documents

127

and regular two-way channels of communication with external audiences and staff to encourage an environment of trust and loyalty in which work is supported, aspirations to excellence are valued and achievements are celebrated’ (Communication Strategy 2003). The analysis of the document reveals that communication supports councillors, stakeholders, partners, and local national government bodies in their work. The ongoing changing environment of the Council requires effective and clear communication and training and leadership for managers to implement effectively. The document also reveals that the Council views communication as important for the following reasons: to raise awareness of the services provided, to listen to and involve people in decisions that are important to them, to ensure that they are accountable for and provide a wider understanding of what is done, and to encourage consultation and partnership working (Communication Strategy 2003; Human Resource Strategy 2006). This policy is likely to have implications for commitment, collaboration, involvement/participation, voice, and employee well-being (Marchington and Wilkinson 2005). By contrast, economic interest can supersede human interest in such a complex NPM environment that has to make efficiency savings and is operating with limited budgets. From a practice perspective, employees’ reactions differed to that espoused by the Council. Employees disagreed that management involves them in decision making that affects them; employees also disagreed that managers provided them with the chance to comment on proposed changes or responded to their suggestions and effectively deals with problems at the workplace. However, employees did agreed that the Council keeps them informed about business issues on how well it is doing.

6.2.5 Health, Safety and Welfare Management The analyses of documents reveal that a relationship exists between ‘best practice’ approaches to health, safety, and wellness at the Council and employee well-being (Dignity at Work Policy 2004; Human Resource Strategy 2006; Managing Stress Policy 2003; Managing Sickness Absence Policy 2005; The Reporter 2006; Wellbeing News 2007; Work-Life Balance Policy 2005). These policies drew from the Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992 which cover a wide range of basic health, safety and welfare issues4 that apply to most workplaces (HSE 2007a). A. Managing Stress Documentary evidence from the ‘stress management policy’ reveals that the Council recognises that workplace stress is a health and well-being issue and acknowledges the importance of identifying and reducing workplace stressors by conducting 4 Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999; Provision or use of work equipment

regulations 1998; Manual handling operations regulations 1992; Personal protective equipment at work regulations 1992; Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations 1992; The work at height regulations 2005; heat stress in the workplace; preventing slips and trips at work; workplace transport safety, etc. (HSE 2007a).

128

6 Well-Being at Work: Understanding Employees Working Life …

risk assessment to eliminate and control risks from stress (Managing Stress Policy 2003). HSE (2007b) states that work-related stress is a major cause of occupational ill-health, poor productivity, and human mistakes that can result in sickness absence, high turnover, and possible increase in accidents due to human error. The Council also espoused to provide training for all managers and supervisory staff in good management practices to promote effective leadership in developing a positive and understanding style of management. The understanding style of management is supported by Meechan (2018) views, which claims that compassionate leadership allows leaders and line managers to be empathetic, caring, and understanding to the feelings and needs of others with the view of taking action for improvement to support people that are suffering. Leaders and line managers in the Council can support employees, by providing confidential counselling and other approaches for employees affected by stress caused by either work or external factors. The stress management policy can assist the Council in enhancing employee commitment and well-being through monitoring workloads and other workplace stressors. Workplace stress in the public sector is commonplace given the nature and the complexity of the organisation (CIPD 2019). It is envisaged that it is likely to increase given the recent proposals by the new coalition government to reduce public sector spending and implementation of further changes. Therefore, it is envisaged that this can have implications for rising stress levels. The Health and Safety Executive’s (HSE 2007b) Management Standards approach to risk assessment has been professed to be adopted by the Council. However employees’ reactions to these were mixed. Work Demands, managerial and non-managerial employees disagreed that they had difficulty in balancing work and non-work commitments and worked extended hours. However, managerial employees agreed that they worked under pressure as compared to their non-managerial counterparts. Control, managerial employees agreed that they were satisfied with the scope for using their initiatives as compared to their non-managerial counterparts. Support, both managerial and non-managerial employees agreed that their immediate supervisor supports them in getting the job done. For Relationships and Role, there was overall agreement that good relationships existed with their immediate boss/manager, and that they were satisfied with the work they did. Finally Change, both managerial and non-managerial employees disagreed that their manager provided everyone with a chance to comment on proposed changes. In contrast, both managerial and non-managerial employees agreed that they were kept updated with proposed changes. B. Sickness Absence Management The analysis of the sickness absence policy document reveals that the Council views the prime duty of management is to ensure continuity of service to service users (Managing Attendance-Sickness Absence Policy and Procedure 2005). The Council also espoused the view that employees are the most important resource and that management are concerned that employees are able to attend work regularly and are able to contribute effectively (Managing Attendance-Sickness Absence Policy

6.2 Analyses of Company Documents

129

and Procedure 2005). The Council espoused to be committed to the health and wellbeing of all employees by ensuring a consistent approach to managing attendance and sickness absence (Silcox 2007). The Council view is that effective monitoring and management of attendance will improve the health and morale of the workforce. This can enhance the quality of service provision, identify, and address factors in the workforce which may be affecting employee attendance, establish a culture of high attendance and reduce costs. From a practical perspective, employees self-reported sickness absence over the last 12 months reveals reasons for absence ranging from flu to pregnancy. However, 23% of respondents reported that their sickness absence was as a result of work-related stress resulting in 11 to 20+ days absence at the Council (Managing Attendance-Sickness Absence Policy and Procedure 2005). C. Dignity at Work The analysis of documents revealed that the Council view all forms of harassment and bullying as unacceptable and will not tolerate such behaviour (Dignity at Work Policy 2004). The policy revealed that the Council is committed to a safe, healthy, and productive work environment through the elimination of harassment and bullying and it is an employee’s right to be treated with dignity at work (HSA 2007). This policy is aligned to various legislations5 that facilitate best practice codes of conduct (CIPD 2009d) where employees have a vital role to play in the implementation and support of the policy. Management and supervisors are required to take early and appropriate action to safeguard a stress-free working environment. The Council view harassment as ‘people abusing their powers over others in different ways’. The Council view bullying under two categories: obvious6 and less obvious7 bullying (Dignity at Work Policy 2004). From a practical perspective, both managerial and non-managerial employees highlighted experiencing less than obvious bullying. This was reflected as both groups disagreed that management responded to suggestions from employees and dealt with problems at the workplace. D. Work-Life Balance The analysis of documents revealed that the work-life-balance strategy adopted by the Council led to flexible working as a significant tool in achieving business objectives and employee commitment (Work-Life Balance Policy 2005). This ‘best practice’ approach to work-life balance as outlined by (CIPD 2009b, c) is that it can promote potential benefits to organisations outlined in the business case. The Council professed that work-life balance can facilitate improvements in access to services and 5 Discrimination

law covering harassment 2006; Employment Rights Act 1996; Health and Safety Act 1974; Human Rights Act 1998; Protection from Harassment Act 1997; Breach of Contract; and Common Law rights to take care of the safety of workers. 6 Obvious bullying involves using strength and power to coerce other by fear, attempting to make others toe the line by singling out, demeaning and devaluing, a culture that endorses a ‘macho’ style management, never listening to another’s point of view, etc. 7 Making life difficult for those who have the potential to do the job better than the bully does, deliberately ignoring or excluding individuals from activities, keeping individuals in their place by blocking their promotion, refusing to delegate because bullies feel they can’t trust anyone but themselves, etc.

130

6 Well-Being at Work: Understanding Employees Working Life …

service delivery, stimulate the work environment for employees to feel valued, and establish the Council as an employer of choice (Work-Life Balance Policy 2005). From a practice perspective, both managerial and non-managerial employees agreed that they were satisfied with flexible working time arrangements; arrangements to support employees to manage their work-life balance, and that the Council helped employees to achieve a balance between work and life. E. Wellness Initiatives The Council profess to have adopted the wellness management ‘best practice’ standards outlined by HSE, HWWE, Investors in People, and Price Waterhouse Coopers geared towards promoting employee well-being (HSE 2007a; PwC 2008). These policy standards underpin New Labour government commitment to improve the health and well-being of people of working age (Black 2008; HSE 2007a; PwC 2008). The analysis of the Human Resource Strategy Policy revealed that the Council introduced certain wellness initiatives8 to promote the health and well-being of workers to reduce workplace stress (Human Resource Strategy Policy 2006). The wellness initiatives adopted by the Council were linked to some practices adopted by other organisations in the UK, USA, Canada, and Europe (PwC 2008) as well as practices adopted by other metropolitan borough Councils in Greater Manchester (www.lga.gov.uk). It is important to note here that with the exception of the case organisation, the other nine local government organisations did not have a formal health and well-being policy that was strategically aligned to business processes. Instead, these local authorities appeared to have adopted a piecemeal approach to wellness management which was being used as a short-term stress management strategy. This view was substantiated by the HR Director of the Council who held the view that the organisation adopted ‘best practice’ standards with respect to the promotion of employee health and wellbeing. However, in reality the organisation was at an ‘embryo stage’ in wellness management, and the wellness initiatives implemented were not evaluated to ascertain their effectiveness but instead centred on principal aspects of the employment relationship. This was also corroborated by employees’ meaning given to and their perspectives of their well-being which did not relate to wellness initiatives and programmes but instead focused on key factors that influenced their experiences and well-being at work. These factors and themes are uncovered in more detail in the remaining chapters in this book.

8 The

Council embarked on a number of initiatives designed to increase the well-being of all its employees: a healthcare scheme entitled ‘healthsure’; facilities for hearing loss; the launching of a well-being awareness campaign called ‘healthwise challenge’; an Internet survey used to raise awareness promote and monitor awareness of physiotherapy services, smoking cessation, etc.; daily well-being messages posted on the staff intranet; stepwise competition to predict the number of steps taken weekly; well-being workout that encouraged employees to progress in exercises, healthy eating and stopping for a lunch break; stress busters; fast track physiotherapy service; counselling service; and occupational health services.

6.3 Conclusion

131

6.3 Conclusion This chapter adds the first layer of text of the data collection process in this study and contributed to answering objectives one and two. The salient points observed entailed the existence of a controlled and tense working environment that was observed by employees’ hesitation and resistance to respond openly. Bureaucracy and managerial focus was also evident in the NPM working environment which had implications for an anti-trust and bullying climate. Policy documents analysed were in keeping with ‘best practice’ high-commitment employment standards and wellness management. However, employees’ reactions to that which was espoused by the Council were mixed. Employees’ reactions and perceptions about their working life experiences and well-being will be developed in detail in future chapters.

References Bach, S. (1999). Personnel managers: Managing to change. In S. Corby & G. White (Eds.). Black, D. C. (2008). Working for a healthier tomorrow. TSO: London. CIPD. (2005). Bullying at work: Beyond policies to a culture of respect. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel Development. CIPD. (2007). Recruitment retention and turnover survey. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. CIPD. (2009a). Redundancy. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. CIPD. (2009b). Recruitment: An overview. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. CIPD. (2009c). Harassment and bullying at work. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. CIPD. (2009d). Work life balance, fact sheet. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. CIPD. (2010). Employee outlook recovery yet to reach the workplace. Quarterly Survey Report, Spring 2010. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel Development. CIPD. (2019). Health and well-being at work. In partnership with Simplyhealth, Survey Report, April 2019. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Communication Strategy. (2003). Policy document received from the case local government organisation in North West of England, September 2008. Corporate Business Plan. (2006). Policy document received from the case local government organisation in North West of England, September 2008. Dignity at Work Policy. (2004). Policy document received from the case local government organisation in North West of England, September 2008. Gould-Williams, J. (2004). The effects of high commitment HRM practices on employee attitude: The views of public sector workers. Public Administration, 82(1), 63–81. Guest, D. (1990). Human resource management and the American dream. Journal of Management Studies, 27(4), 377–397. Health and Safety Authority. (2007). Bullying at work. https://www.hsa.ie/eng/Topics/Bullying_at_ Work/. Accessed May 20, 2010. Health and Safety Executive (HSE). (2007a). Workplace health, safety and welfare: A short guide for management. London: Health and Safety Executive. Health and Safety Executive. (2007b). Managing the causes of work-related stress: A step-by-step approach using the management standards (2nd ed.). London: HSE.

132

6 Well-Being at Work: Understanding Employees Working Life …

Human Resources Strategy Policy. (2006). Policy document received from the case local government organisation in North West of England, September 2008. Learning and Development Framework. (2003). Policy document received from the case local government organisation in North West of England, September 2008. Learning and Development Framework. (2006). Policy document received from the case local government organisation in North West of England, September 2008. Managing Attendance-Sickness Absence Policy and Procedures. (2005). Policy document received from the case local government organisation in North West of England, September 2008. Managing Stress Policy. (2003). Policy document received from the case local government organisation in North West of England, September 2008. Marchington, M., & Wilkinson, A. (2005). Human resource management at work: People management and development. London: CIPD. Meechan, F. (2018). Compassion at work toolkit. Alliance Manchester Business School, University of Manchester. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322404395_Compassion_ at_Work_Tooklit. Morphet, J. (2008). Modern local government. London: Sage Publications. Noblet, A., Rodwell, J., & McWilliams, J. (2006). Organisational change in the public sector: Augmenting the demand control model to predict employee outcomes under New Public Management. Work and Stress, 20(4), 335–352. Pay and Reward Policy. (2002). Policy document received from the case local government organisation in North West of England, September 2008. PricewaterhouseCoopers. (2008). Building the case for wellness. www.workingforhealth.gov.uk. Accessed July 20 2010. Pulling Together—Team Working Policy. (2007). Policy document received from the case local government organisation in North West of England, September 2008. Recruitment and Selection Policy. (2006). Policy document received from the case local government organisation in North West of England, September 2008. Redeployment Policy. (2003). Policy document received from the case local government organisation in North West of England, September 2008. Redman, T., & Wilkinson, A. (2009). Contemporary human resource management, text and cases. London: Pearson Education. Silcox, S. (2007). Health work and wellbeing: Rising to the public sector attendance management challenge. ACAS Policy Discussion Paper, No. 6, May 2007. The Hutton Report. (2011). Hutton review of fair pay in the public sector: Final report. London: HM Treasury. Available at: http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/. Accessed March 2011. The Reporter. (2006). Policy document received from the case local government organisation in North West of England, September 2008. Van Maanen, M. (1994). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. Michigan: Althouse. Well-Being News. (2007). Policy document received from the case local government organisation in North West of England, September 2008. Work-Life-Balance Policy. (2005). Policy document received from the case local government organisation in North West of England, September 2008.

Part II

The Employment Relationship: Stress, Mental Health, Limited Resources, Work-Life-Balance and Well-Being in the Workplace

Chapter 7

Workplace Stress and Well-Being in the Workplace: The Workers’ Voice

Abstract This chapter explores through empirical research employees’ perspectives as it relates to stressors that promote workplace stress, ill-health, and negative wellbeing at work as well as organisational factors that can be implemented to improve workplace stress, health, well-being, and performance. A qualitative methodological approach was adopted using thirty-six semi-structured interviews. The findings reveal stressor commonalities and differences exist among employees and managers, managers and executive directors, managers and the union, and the union and employees. Improvements in organisational factors to reduce or prevent workplace stress and burnout included individual, group, and organisational well-being dimensions. This chapter discusses these commonalities and differences and implications for managers, HR and wellness practitioners, and organisational leaders.

7.1 Introduction According to Harrington (2013) the word ‘stress’ is a generic term that can be substituted for words like apprehension, fear, or anxiety though in other contexts, stress could refer to any one of a host of different emotions like irritation, embarrassment, or grief. Harrington (2013) further states that stress is not just limited to emotional experiences but also encompasses the physiological, behaviour, and cognitive. Although the word ‘stress’ today is intuitively understood by most people, it’s precise definition is generally elusive, but it is commonplace to regard stress as undesirable and harmful to one’s health and well-being. The term ‘stress’ dates back to the seventeenth century as a concept that denotes hardship (Lazarus 1993), strain (Hooke’s Law), and the wear and tear of everyday life on the human body (Harrington 2013). Cannon’s (1932) fight-or-flight reaction to a stressor, such as a physical threat, is an example of how one’s body responds with physiological activation to protect itself through either fighting the threat or fleeing from it. Once the threat subsides, the body’s homeostatic mechanisms work to return its biological systems to their normal pre-threat levels. Selye (1956) points out that chronic stressors can be detrimental to one’s health and proposed a three-stage model of chronic stress called the general adaptation syndrome (GAS). According to Selye, the first stage is the alarm © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 N. Cvenkel, Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health, Approaches to Global Sustainability, Markets, and Governance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3619-9_7

135

136

7 Workplace Stress and Well-Being in the Workplace …

stage, such as job losses, financial problems, divorce, to name a few. Following the alarm stage, a person would enter the second stage, the resistance stage, in which you would continue to mobilise your resources to deal with stressors until it begins to experience a depletion of physical reserves. For example, a reaction to the stressors can cause an individual to develop physical symptoms such as heart palpitations or episodes of chest pains. Finally, if there is no relief from stress, an individual can enter the exhaustion stage where overtime the body’s system would break down as they exhaust their biological resources. The final stage can develop an illness from stress that could lead to death from, for example, heart disease leading to a fatal heart attack (Selye 1956). The stress literature shows that stress is not only negative (referred to as distress) but it can also be positive stress (referred to as eustress). The psychology of stress shows that what some find stressful, others find exciting, and yet others may be unaffected. Selye (1956) further argues that eustress is a type of stress that is a challenge in a way that is motivating, satisfying, or even enjoyable. The word ‘stress’ can be used to both the cause and effect of upsetting events. For example, a person may experience stress on the job, usually the word ‘stress’ to mean pressure on the job that causes negative physiological and psychological reactions. The same person may claim to ‘be stressing a lot lately’, using the word ‘stress’ to mean that person’s reactions to pressures or strains. Harrington (2013) states that for clarification purposes, it is more precise to use the word stressor to refer to the cause and stress to refer to the effect of the stressor.

7.2 The Impact of Stress on Health Stressors produce cognitive, emotional, psychological, and behavioural changes that can be detriment to both an individual’s physical and psychological health. Harrington (2013) states that cognitive changes may include worry, loss in concentration, memory loss, and the inability to make decisions as well as other mental changes. Emotional changes may include apprehensiveness, anxiety, irritation, anger, sadness, shame, guilt, and depression. Physiological reactions to stressors involve the central nervous system, the immune system and the autonomic nervous system, and the endocrine system (Harrington 2013). These reactions may include heart rate increases, blood pressure elevation, muscle tension, dry throat and mouth, trembling, teeth grinding, cold hands and feet, headaches, weaknesses, fatigue, and frequent illnesses. Harrington further argues that changes due to stressors typically have negative effects on our health, relationships and on our work performance, overeating and undereating, and others usually set up vicious cycles that amplify stress reactions. Regarding health, Engel (1980) states that health is a product of biological, psychological, and social influences and regards health states as being on a continuum from the very ill to the super well. The concept of health arose from the fields of behavioural medicine, health psychology, and the concept of wellness, to illness prevention and treatment (Schwartz and Weiss 1977). The notion of health has been

7.2 The Impact of Stress on Health

137

researched by multidisciplinary approaches including professionals from the medical field (e.g. preventive medicine specialists), registered dieticians, exercise physiologists, psychologists, health educators, or other professionals to assist those who wish to maximise their health goals through behavioural approaches to illness prevention (Harrington 2013). According to Matarazzo (1980) health psychology focuses on promoting and maintaining health as well as to treat illnesses. The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines health as ‘a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity’ (WHO 2011). In stress management terms, to achieve optimum levels of health, the goal is to work towards staying in an optimal zone of functioning and life satisfaction through the use of health-promoting strategies (Harrington 2013). Moreover, wellness encompasses a global approach to health that includes stress management and emotional self-regulation, and focuses on healthy living, including exercise and proper nutrition as well as activities that promote personal growth (Edlin et al. 2000; Putnam 2015). Furthermore, Putnam (2015) states that wellness may include promoting physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual well-being (Baptiste 2007). When working together as a harmonic whole, these four elements of wellness are believed to lead to the highest level of life satisfaction (Edlin et al. 2000; Harrington 2013; Putnam 2015). Putnam (2015) also points out that there is an evidence of return of investment (ROI) for wellness programmes and workplace wellness that brings a breath of fresh air to the current state of affairs in individual and organisational health. Putman argues that organisations are required to take an outside-the-box, more effective approach to designing wellness programmes as true health and well-being cannot be mandated but must be pursued voluntarily. Putnam posits that there is a need to move beyond top-down compliance wellness initiatives and build well-being directly into the organisational cultures as research shows that simply putting wellness programmes into place does not necessarily guarantee employee participation (Putnam 2015). Organisational leaders, HR, and Wellness practitioners should engage people in their own well-being and tying health and wellness to overall performance improvements as businesses that have taken a more creative approach to workplace wellness have achieved outstanding results (Putnam 2015).

7.3 Well-Being The positive psychology literature has a subjective view of happiness, which is defined as subjective well-being (Diener 1984). Lyubomirsky (2007, p. 32) states that the use of the term ‘happiness’ can be defined as ‘the experience of joy, contentment, or positive well-being, combined with a sense that life is good, meaningful, and worthwhile’ and ‘well-being’ interchangeably. This subjectivist view suggests that each person knows best his or her level of happiness. Harrington (2013) states that because there is no test tube objective measure of happiness we can use to determine a person’s happiness levels accurately, we must then rely on the person’s subjective

138

7 Workplace Stress and Well-Being in the Workplace …

appraisals. These appraisals can be measured by self-report tests to determine what people base their subjective happiness appraisals on. According to Kesebir and Diener (2008, p. 118), subjective well-being consists of ‘general components that include life satisfaction (global judgements of one’s life), satisfaction with important life domains (satisfaction with one’s work, health, marriage, etc.), positive affect (prevalence of positive emotions and moods), and low levels of negative affect (prevalence of unpleasant emotions and moods)’. The second perspective of happiness or wellbeing is taken from Aristotle’s (eudaimonic perspective) of ‘the good life’ that states that to enjoy a good life, a person must possess certain virtues, which in essence, the virtues are the factors that must be present for us to experience happiness. Ryff (1995) and Ryff and Singer (1996) model of ‘psychological well-being’ embodies the eudaimonic concept and substituted virtues for dimensions of positive mental health. In Ryff’s view, a person must exhibit high levels of six dimensions of positive mental health in order to experience the highest levels of well-being. These wellbeing dimensions include self-acceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, and personal growth (Ryff 1995). Further research has also been done that relates to the eudaimonic well-being concept from Ryan and Deci’s (2000) (self-determination theory) and Seligman’s (2002) theory of signature strength. There are other measures of happiness and subjective well-being such as the Fordyce Emotions Questionnaire that measures happiness as emotional well-being and has strong correlations with daily affect and life satisfaction (Diener 1994); The Subjective Happiness Scale (Lyubomirsky and Leeper 1999); and Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWL) (Diener et al. 1985); Workplace Employment Relations Survey (WERS) measurement of well-being at work (Kersley et al. 2013); and the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) measurement of well-being to name a few (CIPD 2019). Stress, health, and well-being at work have fundamentally been researched from a quantitative perspective throughout the literature. However, the research throughout this book adopted a predominately qualitative methodology to understand better the meaning, the quality of lived experiences, and realities of respondents that participated in the diverse research studies. In order to experience happiness and well-being at work, organisational leaders should assist employees to manage their stress levels well and to assist and support staff to have positive thoughts and feelings, which are associated are required for job satisfaction. In order to obtain job satisfaction of employees, managers should try to manage job stress well and strive for job-related well-being (Harrington 2013). If employees are overwhelmed by certain tasks, we are likely to feel anxiety (a stress emotion), and boredom. According to self-determination theory (Ryan and Deci 2000), when we are intrinsically motivated (i.e. the joy of doing it) to move forward realistic goals (i.e. the experience of competence) we choose (i.e. the experience of autonomy), we have a better chance of experiencing well-being (Kerr et al. 2009). When the goals are associated with positive relationship qualities (i.e. the experience of relatedness) like affiliation, community, and self-acceptance rather than purely self-centred goals like financial success, we are even more likely to experience well-being. Warr (2005) states that job satisfaction can be varied and complex

7.3 Well-Being

139

and there are major elements of the job environment that determine well-being at work. Warr points out that these factors include: opportunity for personal control, opportunity to use skills and talents in the job, externally generated goals should be reasonable to avoid job overload, variety and varying routines and changing the nature of work tasks help to prevent boredom, environmental clarity that relates to timely and accurate feedback about worker performance and communication about the consequences of satisfactory and unsatisfactory work behaviour help to reduce ambiguity; availability of money, physical security, supportive supervision, opportunity for interpersonal contact and social relationships at work is important because co-workers provide many of the social rewards (e.g. validation, social support) that come with the job, and valued social position, having a job that has meaning to the worker is important all play an integral part or role in job satisfaction (Warr 2005). As Seligman (2011) states if organisations want employees to flourish and enjoy positive well-being, they have to minimise their misery, and enhance their positive emotion, meaning, accomplishment, and positive relationships in the workplace. Seligman further points out that a person is flourishing when the five elements of positive emotion, engagement, meaning, positive relationships, and accomplishment are experienced.

7.4 Work-Related Stress Work stress is what we experience when the demands of our work exceed our abilities (Harrington 2013). Stress on the job is complex and may relate to different factors specific to job roles and demands, the employing organisation’s culture and leadership, interpersonal stressors related to work, whether the training and resources are available when needed to facilitate completing job tasks, the safety and comfort of the physical work environment, work schedules, job and economic security, technology, and the conflict between the demands of work, and the desire to maintain a satisfying personal life (Harrington 2013). Physiologically, emotionally, cognitively, and behaviourally, job stressors evoke the same fight-or-flight responses as other types of stressors and as a result, job stress can adversely affect individuals’ health and well-being. Job stress can also lead to productivity that affects an organisation that is staffed with overstressed workers (Kerr et al. 2009). Job stress can be dealt with at the personal level or systemically within the organisation and there the goal to managing job stress is to be able to work in the optimal zone where performance levels are best, rather than to eliminate work stress altogether (Harrington 2013). Organisational stress, refers to how the structure and processes of the organisation bring about stress (Kerr et al. 2009), whereas (Warr 2005) states that job stress is specific to the roles, tasks, and demands of a specific job within the organisation. Job stress is affected by organisational stress but in different degrees depending on the nature of the organisational stress and of the jobs most affected within the organisation (Kerr et al. 2009). Work stress applies to all manner of work-related contexts including the stress of informal work, self-employment, a formal job, or work in an

140

7 Workplace Stress and Well-Being in the Workplace …

organisation. Work stress can also lead to burnout which usually results from being physically exhausted, emotional depletion, and that your emotional reserved are exhausted (Harrington 2013). People who experience and feel burnout it is probably caused by work, school, or care-giving stress. Burnout negatively affects motivation and ability satisfactorily to complete your work in a timely fashion or provide your service (e.g. care-giving) with a positive outlook (Harrington 2013). According to Shirom (2011), burnout is an affective reaction to ongoing stress whose core content is the gradual depletion over time of individuals’ intrinsic energetic resources, including the components of emotional exhaustion, physical fatigue, and cognitive weariness. Research shows that burnout involves a low-energy state, sleep disturbances, extreme fatigue, irritability, and feelings of demoralisation, emotional exhaustion, physical fatigue, and cognitive weariness (Melamed et al. 2006; Shirom 2011). According to Sulsky and Smith (2005), several organisational strategies can be implemented for reducing burnout include: hiring additional employees to reduce individual employee work overload; instituting job orientations and realistic job preview programmes for new employees to prevent burnout to dispelling any initial unrealistic perceptions; giving employees realistic and timely job performance feedback to prevent any false perceptions of low self-efficiency; arranging for the use of worker social support groups; and using workplace group cognitive restricting intervention programmes (such as training so that employees can view their situation differently, examine their expectations, goals, and plans) are all strategies that can be implemented to reduce burnout.

7.5 Stress and Occupations Some occupations and jobs appear to be more stressful than others, for example, primarily police, firefighters, social workers, teachers, healthcare workers and office and managerial workers because of the stress associated with these occupations (Johnson et al. 2005). For example, people-oriented service professions such as social workers, teachers, and healthcare workers generally experience high stress and a greater likelihood of burnout (Kerr et al. 2009). These professions like other stress-related occupations usually experience little positive feedback from their jobs or the public; they may work in an unsafe work environment, experience frustration in dealing with bureaucracy and excessive paperwork, a sense of personal responsibility for clients, and work overload (Sulsky and Smith 2005). Research by Tatar (2009) found that teachers indicate that excessive paperwork, lack of adequate supplies/facilities, work overload, lack of positive feedback, student misbehaviour including display of poor attitudes, rudeness, and discipline problems are also salient stressors indicated by teachers (Tatar 2009). A study by Jones and Hodgson (1998) in the UK study found that teachers reported the second highest rates of depression, anxiety, and work stress among all the occupations surveyed. Lambert and Lambert (2001) state that another occupation that has received continued research attention as it relates to workplace

7.5 Stress and Occupations

141

stress is in the nursing field. Research shows that nurse’s occupation includes highdemand, low-control work (low decision latitude), shift work, patient death and dying issues, uncooperative patients or patient family members, and difficulties with physicians and other medical staff, and experience stress due to organisational understaffing issues due to the shortage of nurses. Clerical and secretarial works are highly stressful occupations where research indicated that coronary heart disease rates were nearly twice as high among women clerical workers as homemakers (Haynes and Feinleib 1980) compared to academic and sales work, clerical work rates the highest in work overload and perceived lack of control (Narayanan et al. 1999). Although managers have greater job control than many occupational groups, they also report high levels of stress. Sulsky and Smith (2005) research concluded that some important stressors for managers are work overload, conflict and ambiguity in defining the managerial role, and difficult work relationships. Manages who have difficulty coping with these stressors are more likely to report higher levels of anxiety, depression, and alcohol consumption.

7.6 Workplace Harassment and Discrimination Workplace harassment and discrimination are other forms of stressors in the organisation. Workplace harassment refers to hostile behaviours directed towards workers by other employees because of the target persons’ identity group characteristics such as age, gender, national origin, race, religion, disabilities, or sexual orientation (Maulik 2017). Workplace discrimination refers to workers receiving adverse employment opportunities because of their identity group’s characteristics (Day et al. 2014). In the workplace stress literature, sexual harassment has been predominately researched that highlighted gender-based workplace harassment that included insulting or hostile behaviours targeting gender, unwanted attention, or pressure of a sexual nature that is not tied to job outcomes applied by one worker to another worker (e.g. sex for promotion) (Maulik 2017; Rospenda and Richman 2005). Sexual harassment and bullying at workplace are yet another workplace stressors that can happen in organisations and these stressors are associated with a greater likelihood of job turnover, use of sick leave, loss of work productivity, anxiety, depression, higher level of alcohol consumption including alcohol abuse (Maulik 2017; Richman et al. 1999). Organisations should be cognizant of this and take active measure to ensure that the workplace is safe and a secure place for every worker.

142

7 Workplace Stress and Well-Being in the Workplace …

7.7 Management Standards to Improving Workplace Culture and Reduce Stress The World Health Organisation WHO (2005) highlighted key factors related to stress at work and advocate guidelines to mitigate them. The factors that promote workplace stress according to WHO include workloads (both excessive and insufficient work), lack of participation and control in the workplace, monotonous or unpleasant tasks, role ambiguity or conflict, lack of recognition at work, inequity, poor interpersonal relationships, poor working conditions, poor leadership and communication, and conflicting home and work demands (Day et al. 2014; Chen and Cooper 2014; WHO 2005). The WHO (2005) further points out that analysing the mental health issues, develop policies and strategies, implementing, and evaluating policies and strategies will provide organisational leaders with better strategies to incorporate new developments and/or approved changes. Work-related stress can lead to increased sickness absence, high turnover, and early retirement (Health and Safety Executive, HSE 2009a), with research showing that in the United Kingdom (UK), an estimated 13.5 million working days were loss to stress-related absence (HSE 2009b; Kerr et al. 2009). This finding is not indicative to the UK alone but can be related to other countries. To mitigate these losses, the Health and Safety Executive developed a Stress Management Standards approach to help reduce the levels of work-related stress reported by British workers (Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development CIPD 2007). The HSE Management Standards highlights six key areas of work design that, if not properly managed, are associated with poor health and well-being, lower productivity and increased sickness absence (Cousins et al. 2004; Kerr et al. 2009; HSE 2009b; MacKay et al. 2004). The HSE Management Standards to reduce workplace stress include: demands, control, support, relationships at work, role, and change (HSE 2009b). The Demands standard includes issues such as workload, work patterns, and the working environment. Once this standard is in place, employees will be able to cope with the demands of their jobs, and systems are in place throughout the organisation to respond to any individual concerns. For the ‘demand’ standard state to be implemented, the organisation provides employees with adequate and achievable demands in relation to the agreed hours of work, people’s skills and abilities are matched to the job demands, jobs are designed to be within the capabilities of employees, and employees’ concerns about their work environment are addressed (Cousins et al. 2004). The Control standard relates to how much say the person has in the way they do their work. The ‘control’ standard that is in place, employees will be able to have a say about the way they do their work, and systems will be in place in the organisation to respond to employees’ concerns. Organisational leaders, managers, and HR practitioners that have embraced the ‘control’ standard will, where possible, ensure that employees have control over their pace of work, employees will be encouraged to use their skills and initiative to do their work, where possible, employee will be encouraged to develop new skills to help them undertake new and challenging pieces of work, the organisation will encourage employees to develop skills, employees will

7.7 Management Standards to Improving Workplace …

143

have a say over when breaks can be taken, and employee are consulted over their work patterns (Cousins et al. 2004). The Support standard includes the encouragement and resources provided by the organisation, line management, and colleagues. MacKay et al. (2004) state that when the ‘support’ standard is implemented within an organisation, employees will receive adequate information and support from their colleagues and supervisors, and systems would be in place throughout the organisation to respond to any individual concerns. To achieve these states, organisations with the assistance from management and HR practitioners should develop policies and procedures to adequately support employees, systems are in place to enable and encourage managers to support their staff, systems are in place to enable and encourage employees to support their colleagues, employees know what support is available and how and when to access it, employees know how to access the required resources to do their job, and employees receive regular and constructive feedback (HSE 2009b; MacKay et al. 2004). The Relationships at work standard includes promoting positive working practices to avoid conflict and dealing with unacceptable behaviour. The HSE (2009a) states that once this standard is in place, employees will not be subjected to unacceptable behaviours, such as bullying at work, and systems are in place in the organisation to respond to any individual concerns. Kerr et al. (2009) argue that organisations should focus on attaining the state of promoting positive behaviours at work to avoid conflict and ensure fairness at work for all. Organisational leaders should also share information with employees relevant to their work, the organisation should have agreed policies and procedures to prevent or resolve unacceptable behaviour, systems are in place to enable and encourage managers to deal with unacceptable behaviour, and systems are in place to enable and encourage employees to report unacceptable behaviour (Brown and Ryan 2003; HSE 2009b). The Role standard relates to whether people understand their role within the organisation and whether the organisation ensures that the person does not have conflicting roles. Once the ‘role’ standard culture is implemented, employees will understand their role and responsibilities, and systems will be in place in the organisation to support and respond to concerns. Kerr et al. (2009) state that when the ‘role’ standard state is achieved, the organisation ensures that, as far as possible, the different requirements it places upon employees are compatible, the organisation provides information to enable employees to understand their role and responsibilities, the organisation ensures that, as far as possible, the requirements it places upon employees are clear, and systems are in place to enable employees to raise concerns about any uncertainties or conflicts they have in their role and responsibilities. How organisational Change is managed and communicated is the final management standard highlighted by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE 2009b). When the ‘change’ standard is implemented, employees will indicate that the organisation engages them frequently when undergoing an organisational change, and systems are in place to support and respond to any challenges or concerns. When the ‘change’ standard is achieved, the organisation provides employees with timely information to enable them to understand the reasons for proposed changes, ensures adequate employee consultation on changes and provides opportunities for employees to influence proposals, employees are aware of the probable impact of

144

7 Workplace Stress and Well-Being in the Workplace …

any changes to their jobs, if necessary, employees are given training to support any changes in their jobs, employees are aware of timetables for changes, and have access to relevant support during changes (Cousins et al. 2004; Langer 1989; MacKay et al. 2004; Siegel 2010). Organisational leaders play a vital role in identifying and managing stress within the organisation. They are likely to see the problems which cause stress first hand and will often be the first point of contact when an individual is feeling stressed. It is essential that they have the skills and behaviours to be able to manage these situations.

7.8 Methodology To understand the stressors in diverse organisations that affect stress at work, health, and well-being are essential towards the promotion of a psychologically healthy organisation. Understanding the factors that employees perceive that will reduce workplace stress, health, and well-being at work and subsequently enhance performance, a qualitative methodological approach using 36 semi-structured interviews were used to answer these research questions. The questions asked were taken from the workplace stress, health, and well-being at work literatures (Harrington 2013; Burke and Ng 2006; Chen and Cooper 2014; CIPD 2019; Day et al. 2014). The theoretical perspective adopted in this research is rooted in interpretivism and is described as hermeneutic phenomenology as compared to the positivist position. Saunders et al. (2009) state that interpretative research is generally idiographic and concerns how the social world is experienced and understood. Van Manen (1994) claims that hermeneutic phenomenology is concerned with lived experiences into how people go about understanding the world in which they live, how they interpret their lives and make meaning of what they experience. Outhwaite (1987) advocates that phenomenology focuses on questions of the ‘meaning of experience’ and hermeneutics involves learning about or understanding the structure of the lifeworld or lived experience (Stake 2005). A purposive sample was taken from management employees as well as nonmanagement employees from diverse occupational sectors (i.e. education, health, finance, forestry, public sector, social work, first nations, not-for-profit, hospitality, legal, information technology, and retail). This sample is part of a wider set of participants from a broader research that focused on employees’ reactions and perspectives of HRM practices, the quality of working life, line management leadership, and well-being at work. Patton (2002) states that purposive sampling is typically used in qualitative research to identify and select the information-rich cases for the most proper utilisation of available resources from individuals that are well informed with a phenomenon of interest (Cloninger 2008; Cresswell and Plano Clark 2011). According to Miles and Huberman (1994) purposive sampling allows the researcher to concentrate on people with particular characteristics who will better be able to assist with the relevant research (Etiken et al. 2016). Respondents comprised of 11 males and 25 females, age ranged from 20 to 65 and over, had attained qualifications

7.8 Methodology

145

from a certificate and above to Ph.D. level, worked full-time, reported a range of incomes between $10,000.00 and $70,000.00 plus per annum, and held a variety of tenures with their respective organisation that ranged from 5 to 20 years. Interviews lasted for 60–75 min, and were tape-recorded, transcribed verbatim and analysed using hermeneutic phenomenological analysis (HPA) (Van Manen 1994). The study commenced with an initial question: ‘What is your understanding and definition of employee well-being at work?’ The interview schedule covered three broad topics: (1) What are the stressors in your workplace? (2) What can your employer to prevent or reduce workplace stress? Respondents were asked to respond based on their own experiences and priorities as employees, rather than from an espoused practice point of view. Initial transcripts were reviewed through immersion in the data to establish an orienting gestalt that drove later coding. Interviews were coded line-by-line, necessary for thematic analysis. Concepts, themes, and sub-themes were identified. Half of the transcripts were coded separately by an independent researcher to identify emerging themes, and the resulting coding match of 85% provides evidence of reliability in the coding process (Silverman 2005). Final themes were also verified by informants to ensure they appropriately captured the meaning that the informant sought to convey. Data is presented in this chapter in two forms that include rich descriptions and meanings drawn from interview texts and graphical data display. The tables indicate salient points raised in the interviews (Lyons 2000). While no statistical significance is claimed, the tabular representation of themes has been structured on the assumption that a theme cited by a larger number of interviewees has more importance to the respondents as a whole (Miles and Huberman 1994). The resulting patterns provide an enriched understanding of the factors pertinent to the relationship between employee stress, health, and well-being at work from diverse occupational and industry groups.

7.9 Results: Employees Perspectives of Stressors in the Workplace Respondents shared their perspectives and working life realities that relates to the stressors in their respective workplaces that affects their health, well-being, and subsequent performance and productivity. The themes from respondents’ perspectives are clustered into twelve themes which include: mistreatment at work, unprepared for change, heavy workloads, poor working relationships, long working hours, customer demands, limited resources, the work environment, poor communication, career restrictions, lack of appreciation and support, and inadequate wages or salary. The findings reveal workplace stressor similarities among employees, and managers as it relates to heavy workloads, and poor relationships. Employees and the union agreed that a key workplace stressor is mistreatment at work. The union and senior

146

7 Workplace Stress and Well-Being in the Workplace …

management agreed that a major stressor at work relates to organisational leaders that are not prepared for change. Male and female respondents held the common view regarding heavy workloads, and long working hours as key stressors to work-related stress in their respective organisations. They commented: Heavy Workloads Overworking and heavy workloads, untimely and short notice demands for work projects and tight schedules and having to meet these goals (Employee, Male). Busy days can be overwhelming, there was a great demand to teach the children the academics as well as social skills…we were certainly overworked as there was too much work and not enough academic staff (Employee, Female). There are heavy workloads, too much work overload and a lack of time due to workload demands…there is too much paperwork as well (Manager, Male). When workloads are shared equally amongst workers that will reduce workplace stress for all employees. It’s important to have managed workloads. I would like to see management allocate the work for effectiveness so that one person is not overloaded (Employee, Female). Long Working Hours Long working hours are very stressful. I work twelve hours shifts and at times, that can turn into fourteen hours easily. Long working hours are very stressful on employees (Employee, Male). There was a commonality of not being appropriately prepared for organisational change as a major stressor for both a union representative and an executive director. They both commented. Unprepared for Change At the moment, we are making a huge transition due to a merger. We are moving to a new building, new leaders and so on and no change management preparation was done. We had to work with last minute deadlines, with short timeless on multiple projects (Union, Male). There is a lot of project delays due to changes in the workplace. Unforeseen happenings that get in the way of achieving necessary projects in a timely manner. These obstacles arise due to numerous changes that hinders projects moving forward and this is stressful (Executive, Female). Some employee respondents highlighted customer demands as a key stressor that affects their work-related stress. This theme is echoed by the following respondent.

7.9 Results: Employees Perspectives of Stressors in the Workplace

147

Customer Demands Responding to client’s demands can be very stressful. Irate customers is another stressor…yes, dealing with customers can be difficult at times as well as daily interactions with colleagues and some clients (Employee, Female). Both managers and employees held a common view that poor working relationships and hostility among colleagues and subordinates are key stressors that affect their work-related stress. This point is echoed by the following manager and employee. Poor Work Relationships Not getting on with your colleagues, there is some animosity amongst certain colleagues and subordinates (Manager, Female). Daily interaction with colleagues and clients is stressful. Bad relationships at work and people’s negative and difficult attitudes and behaviors can be stressful (Employee, Female). Managers held the view that having to work with limited resources, to do more with less is a major stress factor for them. Managers also highlighted that experiencing a negative work environment also affects stress levels. These points are highlighted by the below manager. Limited Resources The lack of resources creates workplace stress as not having enough resources hinders our ability to hire additional staff, deliver the services required, or to have appropriate professional development training for staff. As a manager I have to constantly manage limited resources, and this is stressful as how to manage my resources incorporate everything that I do (Manager, Female). Work Environment I am an HSE officer, the nature of the job itself is a stressful one. There are some colleagues and co-workers that are negative and care-free about the facility or work environment (Manager, Female). Ineffective communication was a stressor that was highlight as integral to workrelated stress of most respondents. This point is echoed by the following respondent. Poor Communication Poor and ineffective communication is a challenge and can be stressful. Receiving the silent treatment and being kept in the dark by information being kept from me by my manager is belittling and stressful…there are times I have this fear of making mistakes that could cost me my job due to a lack of communication and information from my manager (Union, Female).

148

7 Workplace Stress and Well-Being in the Workplace …

Most employees and union representatives pointed out that mistreatment at work in the form of unfair practices, disrespect, and discriminatory behaviour were stressors that affected work-related stress among employees. The below comments support this point. Mistreatment at Work Being put down by bosses and co-workers and being treated in a derogatory manner. The poor behavior of people at work is disrespectful to employees (Employee, Male). Employees experience poor treatment from management and inconsiderate authority heads (Employee, Female). The judgement of colleagues as there is a feeling that you are being punished for something that they do not approve of (Employee, Female). Management not following established policy and procedures to the disadvantage of employees (Union, Male). Some employees commented on being restricted in their career progression opportunities at work or being passed over for a promotion affected their work-related stress. This theme is supported below. Career Restriction Being bypassed year after year for promotion is frustrating, demeaning and stressful. Yet you are expected to remain motivated and to continue to meet your targets. These unrealistic expectations are one of the stressors at work (Employee, Female). The lack of appreciation and support were noted as key themes for enhancing work-related stress among employees. One employee commented, Lack of Appreciation and Support Most of my stress at work is triggered by working so hard and not being appreciated whatsoever by management…there is also a lack of support (Employee, Male). The lack of financial well-being at work in the form of inadequate wages was raised as a stressor at work. One employee shared, Inadequate Wages/Salary Not paying adequate wages or salary to staff, this is very stressful to me. Being underpaid affects my life in a negative way and this is worrying…I am looking for another job (Employee, Male).

7.9 Results: Employees Perspectives of Stressors in the Workplace Table 7.1 Commonalities and differences in workplace stressors

149

Workplace stressors

Employees perspectives

Heavy workloads

Employees Manager

Poor work relationships

Manager Employee

Mistreatment at work

Employees Union

Unprepared for change

Union Executive director

Long working hours Customer demands Career restriction Lack of appreciation and support Inadequate wages/salary

Employees

Limited resources

Manager Executive director

The work environment

Manager

Poor communication

Union

The above perspectives shared by the diverse respondents that participated in this study (i.e. employees, union, management, and senior executive) reveal some commonalities and differences regarding the stressors that affects them at work. Table 7.1 highlights the commonalities and differences in workplace stressors (Fig. 7.1).

7.10 Organisational Improvement to Prevent or Reduce Workplace Stress and Burnout Respondent’s perspective that relates to organisational improvements to prevent or reduce workplace stress and burnout are clustered into the individual, group, and organisational well-being domains. The themes that are central to the ‘individual well-being domain’ include: appreciation, rewarded, career promotion, education and training opportunities, and work-life balance. The themes that relates to the ‘group well-being domain’ include: communication, action-oriented leadership, and team building activities. The ‘organisational well-being domain’ that respondents highlighted as essential for improvements to reduce or prevent workplace stress and burnout include: increase resources, fairness at work, wellness and well-being programmes, anti-bullying and harassment, being supported, respected, receiving appropriate leaves, and confidential EAP programmes. The below text highlights respondents’ feedback to improvements that can reduce and/or prevent workplace stress and burnout.

150

7 Workplace Stress and Well-Being in the Workplace …

Stressors of Workplace Stress

Individual Outcomes

Heavy Workloads Poor Working RelaƟonships Mistreatment at Work Unprepared for Change Long Working Hours Customer Demands Limited Resources Work Environment Poor CommunicaƟon Career RestricƟons Lack of AppreciaƟon and Support

WORKPLACE STRESS

Feeling BeliƩled Lack of MoƟvaƟon Lack of Commitment Job DissaƟsfacƟon NegaƟve EmoƟons Possible Burnout Mental Ill-health Reduced Performance OrganisaƟonal Outcomes High Turnover Poor Performance Customer disloyalty/saƟsfacƟon High sickness absence Presenteeism

Inadequate Wage/Salary

Fig. 7.1 Employees’ perspectives of the stressors that causes workplace stress

Employees and the union representatives held the view that improvements in communication between management and employees will enhance their feelings of being part of the organisation as well as reduce work-related stress. Communication Ask employees about how they feel and listen to them. Management can have communication workshops on stress management (Employee, Male). When there is a clear channel of communication throughout the organization this is important. After a project is completed there should be a discussion with staff regarding the project deliverables and outcomes (Union, Male). Most managers and executive directors held a common view regarding the need to increase resources (i.e. financial, staffing, capacity, etc.,) in their respective departments to enable them to function effectively. They all agreed that by increasing resources will improve work-related stress. One executive director shares, Increase Resources When some of my staff requests salary increases, this cannot be considered due to limited resources and budgets (Executive Director, Male).

7.10 Organisational Improvement to Prevent or Reduce Workplace …

151

Employees’ perspective about improving their work-related stress clustered around social interactions within the employment relationship as it relates to leadership and fairness at work. They also highlighted the need for organisational leaders to promote psychological well-being through appreciation and rewards. Employees also wanted their respective organisations to implement wellness and well-being programmes and strategies to assist them to reduce work-related stress. These points are supported by the below respondents. Action Oriented Leadership I would like to see better scheduling and preparation from management…managers need to deal with issues right away and not when they feel like it (Employee, Male). Fairness at Work Managers should not be allowed to hire family and close friends as this is unfair and nepotism creates poor relationships amongst employees. Managers should stop showing favoritism and treat all workers equally (Employee, Female). Appreciation and Rewards Appreciation in the workplace is the key to a good workplace as being stressed at work and experiencing burnout is very tiring….if there is appreciation at work, this will promote a good environment in the workplace (Employee, Female). I would like to see that hard work is rewarded and individuals are celebrated…management should introduce incentives for staff (Employee, Male). Wellness and Well-being Programs It’s important to boost employee’s morale. Having activities to socialize with each other is central to reducing stress and promoting employee wellbeing…. encourage employees to utilize the company’s gym is also beneficial (Employee, Male). Another group of employees commented that anti-bullying and harassment practices, being supported, respected, given the opportunity for career promotion and having access to team building activities are all integral to improve work-related stress. They commented, Anti-Bullying and Harassment When employees are not exposed to bullying and harassment and do not feel harassed and judged by others is significant (Employee, Female). Supported Hire additional support staff for employees. Hire more people to assist with the heavy workloads that can be shared and plan well. Adding support staff will make a big difference to employees’ stress levels (Employee, Female).

152

7 Workplace Stress and Well-Being in the Workplace …

Respect Showing respect and genuine concern for employees…caring for employees is important (Employee, Female). Career Promotion Provide promotional opportunities for staff and other motivational activities for employees. Career progression reduces stress and enhances my well-being (Employee, Male). Team Building Activities Introduce team building work retreats. Presently we are in the process of doing team building exercises to bring workers together and enhance relationships. Introducing non-work activities to the workplace (Employees, Female). Yet other employees highlighted appropriate annual leave, education and training, confidential EAP programmes, and work-life balance as key themes to reduce workrelated stress and prevent burnout. They commented, Appropriate Leaves To develop and implement annual vacation leave and offer more vacation time and time away from work…we should have more free days (Employee, Male). Education and Training To have communication workshops and training to raise awareness on stress management…also delegate more and coach and mentor more employees (Manager, Female). Confidential EAP Program To have someone that you can trust to talk to and share your concerns without feeling that things will be used against you in the future (Employee, Female). Have an incentive to encourage employees to participate in the EAP program that preserves employee’s confidentiality (Employee, Female). Work-Life-Balance Introduce flexible working to minimize long working hours. Allow workers to be able to work from home and have staggered start times due to childcare challenges (Employee, Female). Managers can be more flexible with employee’s requests for flexible working and managers should be flexible on busy days…good work-life-balance will certainly reduce workplace stress and prevent burnout (Employee, Female) (Table 7.2; Fig. 7.2).

7.11 Discussion and Conclusion

153

Table 7.2 Employees perspectives for improvement to prevent or reduce workplace stress and burnout Improvement factors

Multidimensional well-being at work domains

Well-being dimensions

Appreciation

Individual well-being

Psychological well-being

Rewards

Reward well-being

Career promotion

Career well-being

Education and training

Intellectual well-being

Work-life balance Communication

Work-life-balance well-being Group well-being

Action-oriented leadership Increase resources

Social well-being Relational and compassionate leadership

Organisational well-being

Fairness at work Anti-bullying and harassment

Organisational financial well-being Humanistic and fair practices

Respected Supported Appropriate leave Wellness and well-being programmes

Wellness management and Well-being

Confidential EAP programme

7.11 Discussion and Conclusion The findings show that respondent’s desire was for the employment relationship as well as the organisational culture, climate, and social actors to function in a holistic state of health and well-being dimensions that collectively works towards mitigating work-related stress, and enhancing employees’ health, well-being, performance, and the organisation’s productivity, bottom line, and sustainability. This finding extends the World Health Organisation definition of the state of health as the completion of physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity (WHO 2011). The findings from this research recommends the state of health, well-being, and stress reduction in organisations is a completion of psychological, rewards, career, intellectual, work-life balance, social, relational leadership, organisational financial well-being, humanistic and fair practices, and wellness management and well-being as integral and fundamental to improvements in workrelated stress and well-being at work. Physiologically, emotionally, cognitively, and behaviourally, job stressors evoke the same fight-or-flight responses as other types of stressors and as a result, job stress can adversely affect individuals’ health and well-being (Cloninger 2008). Job stress can also lead to productivity that affects an organisation that is staffed with overstressed workers (Chen and Cooper 2014). According to Harrington (2013) job stress can be dealt with at the personal level or

154

7 Workplace Stress and Well-Being in the Workplace …

CommunicaƟon Increase Resources AcƟon Oriented Leadership Fairness at Work

Healthy organizaƟonal resources and pracƟces

AppreciaƟon Rewards Wellness and Wellbeing Programs AnƟ-Bullying and Harassment

Prevent Workplace Stress and Burnout

Healthy Employees

Support Respect Career PromoƟon

Healthy OrganizaƟonal Outcomes

Team Building AcƟviƟes Appropriate Leaves EducaƟon and Training ConfidenƟal EAP Program Work-Life-Balance

Fig. 7.2 Organisational improvement factors to prevent or reduce workplace stress and burnout

systemically within the organisation and there the goal to managing job stress is to be able to work in the optimal zone where performance levels are best, rather than to eliminate work stress altogether (Harrington 2013). The findings that relates to the stressors in the organisation that affects workrelated stress supports four key ‘standards’ from the Health and Safety Executive Management Standard model. The findings that answers research question one, supports the HSE Demand, Support, Change, and Relationships at work Management Standards. The findings that support the ‘demand’ standard include work environment, heavy workloads, long working hours, and customer demands. Organisational leaders, managers, and HR practitioners can revisit job demands, the job designs, employees’ capabilities to do the job effectively and provide the required support systems and training to increase employees’ capabilities and performance. In turn, challenges relating to the work environment should be addressed to ensure that work ‘demands’ does not negatively affect work-related health and well-being. The findings also support the ‘support’ standard and include a lack of appreciation, being supported, limited resources, communication, and adequate wages. The Health and Safety Executive ‘Support’ standard (HSE 2009b) highlights that encouragement,

7.11 Discussion and Conclusion

155

sponsorship, provision of resources by the organisation, line management leadership should underpin the support provided to employees to ensure that they are effectively able to function in their respective roles. The findings also support the ‘change’ Management Standard as it relates to organisations not being adequately prepared for change. It is particularly important for organisation to frequently engage employees and all stakeholders of the proposed changes so that everyone is aware of the rationale for the change, are given an opportunity to discuss the change and to provide input into the change process, that employees are aware of how the proposed change will impact them and their jobs and that the required support, training, and policies and procedures are implemented to support the change. The final HSE Management Standard that supports the findings for the research question one, is the ‘relationships at work’ standard. The findings reveal that poor work relationships and mistreatment at work were stressors that affected work-related stress of respondents. Organisational leaders, managers, and HRM practitioners through the development and implementation of policies and procedures, education, and training should foster an organisational culture that promotes inclusivity, respect, and dignity and civility in the workplace. These ideologies will go towards building positive behaviours at work, sends a clear message that bullying and harassment and mistreatment at work will not be tolerated to prevent and resolve unacceptable behaviour. HR can also support managers to by developing their people management skills so that they can promote positive relationships with their staff and colleagues. The findings for the second research question that relates to organisational improvements to prevent or improve workplace stress and burnout supports two key Management Standards from the Health and Safety Executive (HSE 2009b). The findings focused on key factors of the employment relationship that should exist between employees and their employers to facilitate effective organisational functioning and highlighted the ‘Support’ standard and the ‘Relationships at Work’ standard from the HSE Management Standards to reduce and/or prevent work-related stress. The findings reveal that the ‘Support’ standard results include: appreciation, rewards, education and training, work-life balance, increase resources, being supported, career opportunities, leadership, appropriate leave, communication, wellness and well-being programmes, and confidential employee assistance programme (EAP) were highlighted by respondents as essential for the improvement of workrelated stress and well-being at work. Respondents further highlighted that ‘Relationships at Work’ standard was also essential to reduce work-related stress and the findings include: fairness at work, anti-bullying and harassment, and being respected in the workplace. According to Day et al. (2014), organisations should be cognizant of unacceptable behaviour and any form of mistreatment at work (e.g. bullying at work) and should implement systems, processes, and policies in place to promote positive behaviours at work to avoid conflict and ensure fairness and equality. In conclusion, organisational leaders, managers, HR, and Wellness Practitioners can use the findings from this empirical study to develop greater insight and knowledge regarding diverse employees’ perspectives that relates to workplace stressors and interventions that can be adopted and implement to reduce workplace stress and foster a healthier, more engaged, ‘WELL’ and productive workforce in modern

156

7 Workplace Stress and Well-Being in the Workplace …

organisations. It is also essential that organisations should play a key role in ensuring that policies are in place which address workplace stress to safeguard the mental health and well-being of employees and to protect and sustain productivity and the bottom line.

References Baptiste, N. R. (2007). Line management leadership: Implications for employee well-being. In G. P. Clarkson (Ed.), Developing Leadership Research, Chapters from the Northern Leadership Academy Fellow 2007 Conference (pp. 229–238). Leeds University Business School, Leeds University Press Financial Services, Leeds. Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 822–848. Burke, R. J., & Ng, E. (2006). The changing nature of work organisations: Implications for human resource management. Human Resource Management Review, 16, 86–94. Cannon, W. B. (1932). The wisdom of the body. New York: W.W. Norton. Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD). (2007). What’s happening with wellbeing at work? London: CIPD. Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD). (2019). Health and wellbeing at work. Survey Report, April 2019. www.cipd.co.uk/images/health-and-well-being-at-work-2019.v1_ tcm18-55881.pdf. Accessed October 1, 2019. Chen, P. Y., & Cooper, C. (2014). Work and wellbeing, wellbeing: A complete reference guide. Oxford: Wiley. Cloninger, S. (2008). Theories of personality: Understanding persons (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Cousins, R., MacKay, C., Clarke, S. D., Kelly, C., Kelly, P. J., & McCaig, R. H. (2004). Management standards and work-related stress in the UK: Practical development. Work Stress, 18, 113–136. Cresswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed method research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Day, A., Kelloway, E., & Hurrell, J. J. (2014). Workplace well-being: How to build psychologically healthy workplaces. Oxford: Wiley. Diener, E. (1984). Subjective wellbeing. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 542–575. Diener, E. (1994). Assessing subjective well-being: Progress and opportunities. Social Indicators Research, 31, 103–157. Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75. Edlin, G., Golanty, E., & McCormack Brown, K. (2000). Essentials for health and wellness (2nd ed.). London: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Engel, G. L. (1980). The clinical application of the biopsychosocial model. American Journal of Psychiatry, 137, 535–544. Etiken, I., Abubaker, S., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1), 1–4. Harrington, R. (2013). Stress, health and well-being: Thriving in the 21st century. CA, USA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Haynes, S. G., & Feinleib, M. (1980). Women, work and coronary heart disease: Prospective findings from the framingham heart study. American Journal of Public Health, 70, 133–141. Health and Safety Executive (HSE). (2009a). Stress-related and psychological disorders. https:// www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/causdis/stress. Accessed September 01, 2019. Health and Safety Executive (HSE). (2009b). Tackling stress: The management standards approach. https://ww.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg406.pdf. Accessed August 10, 2019.

References

157

Johnson, S., Cooper, C., Cartwright, S., Donald, I., Taylor, P., & Millet, C. (2005). The experience of work-related stress across occupations. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 20(2), 178–187. Jones, J. R., & Hodgson, J. T. (1998). Self-reported work-related illness in 1995: Results from a household survey. London, UK: HSE Books. Kerr, R., McHugh, M., & McCrory, M. (2009). HSE management standards and stress-related work outcomes. Occupational Medicine, 59, 574–579. Kersley, B., Alphin, C., Forth, J., Bryson, A., Bewley, H., & Dix, G. (2013). Inside the workplace: Findings from the 2004 workplace employment relations survey. London: Taylor Francis Publishers. Kesebir, P., & Diener, E. (2008). In pursuit of happiness: Empirical answers to philosophical questions. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 117–125. Lambert, V. A., & Lambert, C. E. (2001). Literature review of role stress/strain on nurses: An international perspective. Nursing and Health Sciences, 3, 161–172. Langer, E. J. (1989). Mindfulness. Reading, MA: Perseus. Lazarus, R. S. (1993). From psychological stress to the emotions: A history of changing outlooks. Annual Review of Psychology, 44, 1–21. Lyons, E. (2000). Qualitative data display: Data display model. In C. Fife-Schaw (Ed.), Research methods in psychology (pp. 269–280). London: Sage Publications. Lyubomirsky, S. (2007). The how of happiness: A new approach to getting the life you want. New York: Penguin Books. Lyubomirsky, S., & Leeper, H. S. (1999). A measure of subjective happiness: Preliminary reliability and construct validation. Social Indicators Research, 46, 137–155. Mackay, C. J., Cousins, R., Kelly, P. J., Lee, S., & McCaig, R. H. (2004). Management standards and work-related stress in the UK: Policy background and science. Work Stress, 18, 91–112. Matarazzo, J. D. (1980). Behavioral health and behavioral medicine: Frontiers in the new health psychology. American Psychologist, 35, 807–817. Maulik, P. (2017). Workplace stress: A neglected aspect of mental health wellbeing. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 146(4), 441–444. Melamed, S., Shirom, A., Toker, S., Berlliner, S., & Shapira, I. (2006). Burnout and risk of cardiovascular disease: Evidence, possible causal paths, and promising research directions. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 327–353. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Narayanan, L., Menon, S., & Spector, P. E. (1999). Stress in the workplace: A comparison of gender and occupations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 63–73. Outhwaite, W. (1987). New philosophies of social science: Realism, hermeneutics and critical theory. London: Macmillan Publishers. Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Putnam, L. (2015). Workplace wellness that works: 10 steps to infuse well-being and vitality into an organization. New Jersey: Wiley. Richman, J. A., Rospenda, K. M., Nawyn, S. J., Flaherty, J. A., Fendrich, M., Drum, M. L., & Johnson, T. P. (1999). Sexual harassment and generalized workplace abuse among university employees: Prevalence and mental health correlates. American Journal of Public Health, 89, 358–363. Rospenda, K. M., & Richman, J. A. (2005). Harassment and discrimination. In J. Barling, E. K. Kelloway, & M. R. Frone (Eds.), Handbook of work stress (pp. 149–188). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68–78. Ryff, C. D. (1995). Psychological wellbeing in adult life. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4, 99–104.

158

7 Workplace Stress and Well-Being in the Workplace …

Ryff, C. D., & Singer, B. (1996). Psychological well-being: Meaning, measurement, and implications for psychotherapy research. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatic, 65, 14–23. Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2009). Research methods for business students (5th ed.). London: Pearson Education, Financial Times, Prentice Hall. Schwartz, G. E., & Weiss, S. M. (1977). What is behavioral medicine. Psychosomatic Medicine, 39(6), 377–381. Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfilment. New York: Free Press. Silverman, D. (2005). Doing qualitative research: A practical handbook (2nd ed.). London: Sage Publications. Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and wellbeing. New York: Simon and Schuster. Selye, H. (1956). The stress of life. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishers. Shirom, A. (2011). Job-related burnout: A review of major research foci and challenges. In J. C. Quick & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.), Handbook of occupational health psychology (2nd ed., pp. 223–241). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Stake, R. E. (2005). Qualitative case studies. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed., pp. 443–466). London: Sage Publications. Siegel, R. D. (2010). The mindfulness solution: Everyday practices for everyday problems. New York: The Guilford Press. Sulsky, L., & Smith, C. (2005). Work stress. Belmont, CA: Thomson-Wadsworth. Tatar, M. (2009). Teachers turning for help to school counsellors and colleagues: Toward a mapping of relevant predictors. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 37, 107–127. Van Manen, M. (1994). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. Michigan: Althouse. Warr, P. (2005). Work, well-being and mental health. In J. Barling, E. K. Kelloway, & M. R. Frone (Eds.), Handbook of work stress (pp. 547–573). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. World Health Organization (WHO). (2005). Mental health policies and programmes in the workplace. Geneva: World Health Organization. World Health Organization (WHO). (2011). World Health Organisation definition of health. https:// www.who.int/about/definition/en/print.html.

Chapter 8

Mental Health and Well-Being in the Workplace

Abstract This chapter explores empirical research that relates to employees’ perspectives on mental health and well-being in the workplace. This research is part of a broader research project that explored employees’ reactions to HRM practices, the quality of working life, leadership, and well-being in the workplace. Informants were asked five research questions: definition and understanding of mental health and mental ill-health; experiences of mental ill-health at work and support strategies to assist employees; leadership development to respond to mental health concerns; removing the stigma of mental ill-health at work; and enhancing mental health and well-being in the workplace. The methodological approach adopted was mixed qualitative and entailed thirty-six semi-structured interviews and two focus groups with employees, the union, managers, and executive directors, respectively. The findings reveal that informants defined mental health as cognitive and psychological stability and satisfaction. In contrast, mental ill-health was defined as mistreatment at work that results in depression, anxiety, and emotional instability. The findings from the other research questions relate to the material aspects of the employment relationship that will effectively govern and manage the twenty-first-century workforce for sustained mental health and well-being.

8.1 Introduction According to the World Health Organisation (WHO 2018), mental health ‘is a state of well-being in which the individual realises his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community’ (WHO 2018). Mental health problems are prevalent in all working populations around the world (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD] 2013). The OECD (2013) report highlighted that there is an estimate of 5% of the working populations in high-income countries which are affected by severe mental health problems, with a further 15% affected by moderate mental health problems. Hilton et al. (2008) and Memish et al. (2017) point out that mental health problems include depression, anxiety, simple phobia, and generalised distress and are presented in the highest participation rates at work. © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 N. Cvenkel, Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health, Approaches to Global Sustainability, Markets, and Governance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3619-9_8

159

160

8 Mental Health and Well-Being in the Workplace

Mental health problems among the working population naturally negatively affect the individuals that are affected, and the implication of mentally ill employees is a tremendous expense to organisations, the health systems, communities, families, society, and the economy as a whole (OECD 2013); with work-related mental health problems account for 3–4% of the gross domestic product in Europe alone, with the social costs anticipated to only increase (International Labour Organisation (ILO 2000; OECD 2013). According to LaMontagne et al. (2010), poor psychosocial working conditions referred to as ‘job stressors’ can increase the risk of developing disorders such as depression, anxiety, burnout, and distress. Job stressors that influence mental ill-health can be individual-level stressors, work group, or organisational stressors (LaMontagne et al. 2010; Martin et al. 2014; Memish et al. 2017). Research shows that an early detection of the risk factors that triggers mental illhealth at work should be the primary concern of organisational leaders, managers, and HR professionals. According to Martin et al. (2014), the use of primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention and intervention strategies targets both employee and organisational factors. Primary prevention of workplace mental health aims at reducing incidents of mental health problems by modifying or removing potential risk factors. The secondary prevention is worker-directed and aims at providing employees identified as ‘at risk’ with the appropriate skills to cope in stressful conditions. Tertiary prevention involves supporting employees with mental health conditions by providing rehabilitation strategies and the employee’s return-to-work intervention (Kelloway et al. 2008; LaMontagne et al. 2007). Moreover, Page et al. (2013) argue that many existing mental health at work interventions fail to take a holistic and integrated approach as most are unitary in focus. For example, the most common response cited by human resources managers, and occupational health and safety officers, when asked how they would respond to employees’ stress and mental ill-health, is to provide access to an employee assistance programme (EAP) (Memish et al. 2017; Page et al. 2013). According to LaMontagne et al. (2007), for an EAP intervention to be truly preventative, it needs to modify and minimise risk factors related to the nature of work; promote positive and protective factors within the workplace; and manage illness regardless of cause. Kilfedder and Litchfield (2014) argue that work-life challenges of individuals entail burdens facing low-income families which are magnified due to the fact that they more often face greater strains with fewer resources (Heyman and Penrose 2006). In the work–family literature, little distinction is made between the challenges facing working-class versus middle-class professional workers, despite the fact that significant inequities exist across social classes (Nilsen et al. 2012). According to Sweet et al. (2014), flexible working arrangements remain out of reach to most workers and that low-wage workers have the least flexibility of all workers. Perry-Jenkins (2005) argues that working-class employees are more likely to face stressful work conditions involving mandatory overtime, low autonomy, variable work shifts, time-pressured productivity targets, and unpaid family leave than their middle-class counterparts.

8.2 Mental Health in the Workplace

161

8.2 Mental Health in the Workplace Organisations should take mental health seriously in order to be successful in the twenty-first-century workplace. The global economy is changing fast and the capabilities that companies require now centre more on innovation, communication, and emotional intelligence than just requirements of strength, dexterity, and intellect that characterised previous eras (Kilfedder and Litchfield 2014; Department of Health; Health and Safety Executive; and Department of Work and Pensions 2007). Businesses are faced with changing demographics, multigenerational workforce, tightening labour markets, the war for talent, and the increasing diversity in the workplace achieving a rich blend of employees means addressing age, gender, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, disability, as well as employees experiencing mental ill-health (Kilfedder and Litchfield 2014). The World Health Organisation estimates that by 2020, depression will become the second most important cause of disability in the world (WHO 2018). Mental health is more than the absence of mental disorders, but is an integral part of health, as there is no health without mental health as stated that the WHO as mental health is determined by a range of socio-economic, biological, and environmental factors (WHO 2018). Mental health is fundamental to our collective and individual ability to think, emote, interact with each other, earn a living, and enjoy life. On this basis, the promotion, protection, and restoration of mental health can be regarded as a vital concern of individuals, communities, and societies throughout the world (WHO 2018). Therefore, the business case for addressing mental health in the workplace has been established, and organisational should educate and develop their competencies to ensure the overall health of their organisations. According to the Department of Health (DOH 2007), workplace stressors can lead to mental health problems, and the most common forms of clinically diagnosed mental health problems are depression and anxiety. Many of the symptoms are similar to those that people experience when they are under considerable pressure, e.g. sleepless nights, loss of or increased appetite, increased use of alcohol, etc. Organisations should adopt an approach to promote the mental and physical well-being of their staff that will repay their investment in terms of productivity, morale, and creativity (DOH 2007). Promoting employee mental health and well-being, organisational leaders are more likely to overcome barriers around stigma and to achieve buy-in and engagement from staff (LaMontagne et al. 2007). The World Health Organisation recommends that the promotion and protection of mental health will improve psychological wellbeing (WHO 2018) and create an environment that supports mental health that is respectful, protects basic civil, political, socio-economic and cultural rights are all fundamental to mental health (WHO 2018). Chen and Cooper 2014; Kilfedder and Litchfield 2014 state that organisations should develop and implement policies and programmes that will promote education, justice, mental health interventions at work (e.g. stress prevention programmes), violence prevention programmes (prevention training and zero-tolerance policies), anti-discrimination policies and practices, and promotion of rights, opportunities and care of individuals with mental disorders (Chen and Cooper 2014; DWP 2007; WHO 2018). Organisations that would like

162

8 Mental Health and Well-Being in the Workplace

to promote mental well-being and prevent mental ill-health in the workplace and to promote support for employees with mental disorders should develop a mental health plan that is central to its strategic human resource management plan. Chen and Cooper (2014) argue that a mental health plan should focus on strengthening effective leadership and governance for mental health, communicate with colleagues, proactive health promotion, support employees that are off sick, provide comprehensive, integrated and responsive mental health and social care services, implement strategies in the organisation for the promotion and prevention in mental health, strengthen information systems to educate the workforce, and to commission research for mental health in the workplace (Chen and Cooper 2014; Kilfedder and Litchfield 2014). According to (Keyes 2007), organisations should adopt a holistic approach for managing an individual with mental ill-health in the workplace from individual and organisational levels. From an individual and organisational perspectives, management processes entail appraisals, work planning, training and development and assessment, spot signs of mental ill-health early, discuss support or adjustments and to monitor employees that are displaying signs of being mentally unwell. Organisational leaders and managers should have necessary competencies to direct employees in distress requiring support to workplace counselling services, employee assistance programmes, occupational health, human resources, external support or to provide information for where the employee can source professional assistance (Keyes 2007). Employees that are off sick in keeping with the organisations sickness absence policy, managers with the help of HR should support employees from internal and external sources coordinated to meet the individual’s needs. Management should also work with HR to support individuals who have been off sick due to mental ill-health with an effective ‘return-to-work’ strategy that will allow the employee to return to work with dignity through rehabilitation or to exit the organisation with dignity if required (Westman 2001).

8.3 Work–Family Conflict Interconnection From a theoretical perspective, the work–family conflict literature posits that the demands of work and family life can create inter-role conflict where individuals holding multiple roles, such as the parent role and worker role, have trouble meeting the expectations of both roles (Greenhaus and Beutell 1985). According to Lawson et al. (2014), individuals have finite resources, in terms of time and energy, and often times, the resources run dry when meeting the demands of work and family. In these cases, an individual’s effect can transfer from one domain to the other, what has been referred to as work-to-family or family-to-work spillover (Lawson et al. 2014). Much research has addressed the ways in which work demands (e.g. long working hours, schedule, and urgency) can spill over to affect worker wellbeing and family (Chen and Cooper 2014). Furthermore, research shows that the experiences of one partner in the family affect the well-being of another, where one partner’s workplace policies might be related to the other partner’s well-being

8.3 Work–Family Conflict Interconnection

163

(Westman 2001). For example, when one’s partner has a significant parental leave the other has more time to pursue work outside of home with fewer family demands, and similar processes could also occur with workplace flexibility and childcare support (Perry-Jenkins et al. 2017). Therefore, the way one partner’s workplace policies and practices can positively affect their partner’s mental health, in contrast, there is also interindividual crossover where one’s partner policies may predict the other’s mental health (Perry-Jenkins et al. 2017). In considering the effects of workplace policies on employees and their families, Mandel (2011) posits that the impact of family-friendly policies, such as paid leave or childcare support are conditioned by social class as countries with generous family leave policies, women in lower-class positions reap more benefits than upper-class women. In contrast, in companies with less generous family leave policies, like the USA, equality is advanced for women of upper classes but inequality is higher among lower classes (Mandel 2011). Research has demonstrated that workplace policies can positively affect employee retention, job satisfaction, and physical health (Allen 2001; Chen and Cooper 2014); with fewer of these studies examining mental health and well-being at work, a gap in this chapter seeks to bridge. However, less is known about the effectiveness of workplace policies and practices (e.g. HRM policies, flexibility) aimed at enhancing worker’s well-being. Thus, in this current study these areas will be explored through employees perspectives as it relates to their definition of mental health/ill-health, experiences of mental ill-health at work and support received from the organisation; leadership development to support mental health at work, removal of the mental health stigma, and enhancing mental health and well-being at work.

8.4 Mental Well-Being in the Workplace Mental well-being of individuals within an organisation touches every aspect of the business, its employees, as well as its internal and external stakeholders, from the visible (revenue, absenteeism, presenteeism, and turnover) to the invisible (engagement, job satisfaction, motivation, and depressive disorders to name a few) (Chen and Cooper 2014). Mental well-being is compromised when an individual is not able to proactively cope with the level of stress they are being served whether within or outside the workplace (David 2018). Compromised mental health and stress affect the organisation’s ability to meet business goals, attract, motivate and retain top talent, and compete in a complex and ever-changing business world (David 2018). Organisations are functioning in a complex, precarious, and changing working environment that is modern business as the need to reposition themselves is usually present and required in the quest to gain and maintain a competitive advantage and to remain sustainable (Chen and Cooper 2014). Therefore, organisational leaders and HR practitioners have to support employees to be adept and resilient at redefining the role that their emotions play in their overall thoughts and happiness. David (2018) argues that developing employees’ emotional agility is a strategy that should be

164

8 Mental Health and Well-Being in the Workplace

adopted by organisations. This includes the perceiving emotions as indicators, individuals can pause, evaluate why they feel the way they do, and choose the behaviour pattern that best serves their values and who they want to be in difficult situations (David 2018). David further posits that emotional agility is the process that enables us to navigate life’s twists and turns with self-acceptance, clear-sightedness, and an open mind. Creating a work culture that promotes positive emotional feedback and support (as well as the opportunity to make choices that encourage well-being), organisations will find that they also benefit from intrinsic motivation because positive emotional feedback reinforces each health step employees and the organisation needs and takes. The mindfulness of employees is likely to assist employees with positive emotional functioning. Mindfulness is defined as ‘the state of being attentive and aware of what is taking place in the present’ (Brown and Ryan 2003, p. 822). Siegel et al. (2002) also defines mindfulness as the awareness of the present with acceptance. Langer (1989) states that mindfulness is a type of conscious awareness, and Brown and Ryan (2003) argue that people with high mindfulness have an overall higher level of psychological well-being. High mindfulness individuals tend to exhibit less depression, less anxiety, less negative affect, and more positive effect as well as to have a higher level of self-esteem than their lower mindfulness counterparts (Brown and Ryan 2003). Regarding creating a psychologically positive work culture, Putnam (2015) and David (2018) echo that this can be done by developing a well-being programme that provides agency, choice and support from their employer, employees experience improved morale, reduced burnout, a reduction of daily stress, and reduced biases. According to Fogg (2018), long-term behaviour change is created when employers design an environment where new or healthful behaviour is each to choose. For example, if an employer wants employees to exercise more frequently, they need to make exercise easy to do. Many leading organisations are already doing this with on-site fitness centres and workout classes throughout the workweek. Fogg (2018) further points out that individuals don’t need to feel successful all the time or every day, but they do need to feel they are headed in the right direction. The biggest way to foil a well-being programme within any organisation is to ‘force’ employees to choose between behaviours they don’t want to do, or not giving them any choice at all.

8.5 The Stigma of Mental Ill-Health The majority of people experiencing mental health problems do not seek help, and the stigma of mental illness is considered a major barrier to seeing appropriate treatment, with workplace interventions geared towards providing effectiveness of targeting the stigma of mental illness at the workplace (Hanisch et al. 2016). Despite the availability of effective mental health treatment, the majority of people experiencing mental health problems does not seek help because of the negative perceptions attributed to mental ill-health. According to (Thornicroft 2007), several factors contribute to the

8.5 The Stigma of Mental Ill-Health

165

prevalence of mental ill-health stigma and this is due to the lack of knowledge of the symptoms of mental illness and how to access treatment; prejudicial attitudes; and anticipated or real acts of discrimination against people who have mental health problems (Henderson et al. 2013). These factors combined have been defined as ‘stigma’ (Thornicroft 2007), which has far-reaching consequences for those affected. Department of Health (2003) state that in a population survey in England, 63% estimated that less than 10% of the population would be likely to experience a mental health problem at some time in their lives. Mental health problems were shown to have a crucial effect on the ability to recognise signs of mental illness, as well as supporting help-seeking and accepting treatment (Jorm et al. 2005). Negative attitudes or prejudice refer to negative thoughts and emotions, such as anxiety or disgust, a majority group holds against a minority group (Thornicroft 2007). This may include public beliefs concerning mental illness, which often revolves around dangerousness and incompetence, expectations of poor prognosis, and a desire for social distance (Jorm et al. 2005). According to Hanisch et al. (2016), discrimination forms the behavioural dimension of stigma and refers to any acts to the disadvantage of people who are stigmatized. For example, one study reported that 47% of the general public would not be willing to work closely with people diagnosed with depression, and 30% would be unwilling to socialise with them (Pescosolido et al. 2010). Mental health stigma can entail ‘self-stigma’ (internalisation and stigmatising attitudes) and will result in diminished self-esteem and self-efficacy in people with mental health problems (Henderson et al. 2013). The adverse effects of stigma influence various aspects of life and add an additional burden on those already dealing with a mental illness (Sweet et al. 2014). The stigma of mental ill-health is an important contributing factor to the underutilisation of healthcare services at work (Nilsen et al. 2012), failure to get treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) because individuals are concerned about being stigmatized by others for having mental health problems and the utilisation of an employee assistance programme (EAP). Walton (2003) found that employees were worried that their managers would have a negative opinion of them if they were aware of their use of mental health services and employees were reluctant to use counselling services at work if they believed it would negatively affect their career opportunities (Jorm et al. 2005). Hanisch et al. (2016) state that the stigma of mental illness has a negative impact on the utilisation of healthcare services at work and results in employees waiting until their symptoms severely interfere with their daily functioning instead of seeking support early. The debilitating impact of mental illness at work is widely recognised, and resulting total work loss due to absenteeism, presenteeism, and turnover is estimated to cost organisations in the UK GBP 26 billion a year (The Sainsbury Centre for Mental Health 2007). Given the high prevalence of mental health problems in the general and working population, the workplace is increasingly being recognised as an important target of mental health promotion, prevention, and interventions (Walton 2003). It is integral for organisations to support mental ill-health and its stigma by promoting a supportive work environment, and therefore, effective strategies to reduce the stigma of mental illness and to increase help-seeking behaviour at the workplace are needed by all organisations (Hanisch

166

8 Mental Health and Well-Being in the Workplace

et al. 2016). Anti-stigma reduction programmes can be implemented in organisations (i.e. workplace counselling and EAP; knowledge of mental disorders and their treatment and recognition of signs/symptoms of mental illness; attitudes towards people with mental health problems; and supportive behaviours among colleagues (e.g. reduced discriminatory or increased affirmative behaviours, help-seeking, etc.) (Hanisch et al. 2016). Although the stigma of mental illness has been extensively researched among the general population, little is known about its prevalence and consequences of the stigma of mental health in the workplace. This study seeks to bridge the gap in this area.

8.6 Methodology In this study, data was collected using thirty-six semi-structured interviews and two focus groups with employee representatives, union, managers, and executive directors from diverse occupational groups across thirteen diverse organisational sectors (i.e. education, health, finance, forestry, public sector, social work, first nations, notfor-profit, hospitality, legal, information technology, and retail) from Canada, the USA, Europe, and the Caribbean. A mixed qualitative methodological approach was adopted for this study to answer the five research questions: (1) definition and understanding of mental health and mental ill-health; (2) experiences of mental ill-health and the support received from the organisation; (3) leadership development to effectively manage employees with mental ill-health; (4) perspectives on how to remove mental health stigma in the workplace; and (5) what recommendation on how to enhance mental health and well-being in the workplace? A mixed qualitative methodology (i.e. semi-structured interviews and focus groups) is appropriate for addressing the research aims. Qualitative methods focus on interpretative enquiry that is concerned with how the social world is experienced and understand by informants (Saunders et al. 2009). In support, Punch (2005) claims that the social world is seldom straightforward and far too complex for what the scientific approach presupposes as people attaches different meanings and lifeworld experiences to their interpretation and meanings given to their understandings of facts and events (Miles and Huberman 1994). As such semi-structured interviews and focus groups have different strengths and logic and are often used to address questions from different goals (Maxwell 2004; Maxwell and Loomis 2002). Twenty-seven semi-structured interviews were completed by employee representatives, the union, managers, and executive directors from diverse organisations. The semi-structured interviews lasted 60–75 min, was tape-recorded and transcribed verbatim. The two focus groups lasted 45–60 min, one with managers only and the second with union representatives and employees only. This study adopted a hermeneutic phenomenology analysis approach, which is concerned with lived experiences into how people go about understanding the world

8.6 Methodology

167

in which they live, how they interpret their lives and make meaning of what they experience (Outhwaite 1986; van Maanen 1994). The qualitative mixed-method approach facilitates dealing with complex social issues and moves beyond merely stating facts to make sense from human experience. Guba and Lincoln (1989) state that evaluation research presents the meaningful constructions that the individual actors or groups of actors create to make sense of the situations in which they find themselves. The interview and focus groups’ data was analysed using the phenomenological interpretative approach to analyse the qualitative data, assisted with repeated immersion into the data as a whole, leading to the categorisation into themes as described by (Giorgi 1985; Thorne et al. 1997). An interpretative description is uniquely suited to explore sensitive issues, such as mental health in the workplace, where the knowledge of mental ill-health in the workplace has been stigmatized and often misunderstood. The interpretative descriptive approach stays grounded in an interpretative orientation that acknowledges the constructed and contextual nature of much of social science research, similar to health-illness experience and other related employees’ experiences that also allow for shared realities (Thorne et al. 1997, p. 172). Therefore, the experience of workplace mental health, from the perspective of individuals’ historical accounts of events, can have a profound effect on each individual and by extension the organisation, families, and communities associated with them.

8.7 Analysis and Findings 8.7.1 Definition and Understanding of Mental Health and Mental Ill-Health Respondents were asked their perspectives, definitions, and understanding of mental health in the workplace. The themes reveal commonalities and differences between the respondents’ comments. Directors and managers both defined mental health in the workplace as internal locus of control. Likewise, directors and the union define mental health as rationality and stability. Employees and the union both define mental health as being ‘balanced’. In contrast, managers also define mental health as peacefulness and a relaxed mind, and work satisfaction. Employees define mental health as fair treatment at work, being able to manage stress, positive relationships, and thinking positively. Internal Locus of Control Informants’ perspective on mental health relates to an individual’s belief that events that happen in one’s life whether good or bad are caused by controllable factors such as attitudes, preparation, and effort. Informants highlight having the right attitude and control of emotions and appreciation of a happier state of life as appose to fear and worry. Informants’ declaration echoes this point:

168

8 Mental Health and Well-Being in the Workplace

I think mental health is a set of positive characteristics that helps me to have the right attitude to control my emotions and deal with stress…if I can talk about my fears, worries and happier states in my life without becoming overwhelmed by either state, I believe that this shows that I have good mental health as I have the ability to think positively and control my emotions. (Executive Director, Male) Mental health is when your mind is contended emotionally and spiritually, and you have the ability to take charge of your emotions and health. Being able to deal adequately with the ups and downs of life….it is being able to regulate, control and understand your emotions so that you are emotionally and physically healthy. (Manger, Female)

Executives and the union had a commonality in their definition and understanding of mental health as it relates to an individual being rational and stable. Rationality and Stability Good mental health is being able to find sanity in this chaotic world. Trying to find the good in any experiences in life. It’s the ability to deal with life’s stressors in an appropriate manner (Union, Female). I think good mental health is looking at life from a rational point of view and being contended with the things that are out of your control…having the ability to make sound moral decisions that do not break the law, it’s about being stable emotionally and in your social interactions (Executive, Female). Being Balanced Unions and employees’ informants defined mental health as being balanced and steadfast in one’s daily experiences in life whether these experiences are positive or negative. Informants’ perspectives are captured below: Good mental health is the ability to face your daily triumphs and challenges with the balanced understanding that it’s all part of the journey, and to have the ability to move forward. (Union, Male) Being able to maintain balance in all aspects of life…good mental health is the ability to balance your everyday life without being affected by daily stressors…being able to maintain an equilibrium in mind, body and soul. (Employee, Female)

In contrast, managers also defined mental health as peaceful, having a relaxed mind, and work satisfaction. Peaceful and Relaxed Mind Good mental health is getting sufficient rest and relaxation and having a sound mind…its about having peace of mind, being free from worry, and being at peace with God…having healthy thought processes that enables normal functioning (Manager, Female). Work Satisfaction I think work satisfaction promotes mental health. I look forward to come to work and I am able to perform my job and have a positive attitude, I consider myself to be a team player…I have reasonable working hours and work conditions…for me

8.7 Analysis and Findings

169

good mental health is the fulfilment I get from my job and not overworking myself and to be adequately compensated for the work I do (Manager, Male). Alternatively, employees defined mental health as fair treatment, stress management, positive relationships, and positive thinking. Fair Treatment and Managed Stress Good Mental health is when you are treated fairly at work, to me this ensures good mental health in the workplace….not being wholly preoccupied with work stress, that you can deal with stress, problems and difficulties that may come. Good mental health is also the absence of a sense of guilt or blame (Employee, Male). Positive Relationships I would have to say that healthy relationships promote good mental health. Being relatable and being able to relate with self and others. When there is healthy relationships at work there is good communication and trust it helps to promote a healthy workplace…these all help to develop a good mental outlook (Employee, Female). Positive Thinking Good mental health is feeding your mind with positive material and having an overall positive attitude. It’s about choosing to speak and think positively, focusing on opportunities rather than the barriers. It’s about staying positive and feeling good about things (Employee, Female). In contrast, respondents were asked their perspectives regarding their perspectives and understanding of mental ill-health at work. The union and managers’ perceptions of mental ill-health relate to the inability to cope and manage stress at work. Alternatively, employees’ perspectives and understanding of mental ill-health relate to mistreatment at work, depression, anxiety, and emotional instability. Inability to Cope and Manage Stress Mental ill-health is the inability to deal with stress and have a positive attitude and cope with simple life challenges. When you are unable to cope with stress adequately and the inability to make sound moral decisions (Union, Female). Mental ill-health is considered to be those disorders that affect one’s ability to live a normal healthy lifestyle…not knowing how to deal with obstacles that life brings and allowing setbacks to affect you more than they should…allowing things to overpower your life and choices that results in depression and instability (Manager, Female). Employees defined mental ill-health as mistreatment, depression, anxiety, and emotional instability.

170

8 Mental Health and Well-Being in the Workplace

Mistreatment at Work When you are poorly treated at work, I believe that this contributes to mental ill-health (Employee, Female). Depression It is a state of mind, and not being able to control your mind and how you view the world. I think it may be in imbalance of chemicals in the brain….It when you are depressed, anxious and seek isolation… not being able to balance your emotions and produce fruitful thoughts…depression is poor mental health (Union, Male). Anxiety Mental ill-health is having an overall negative attitude where you worry about everything, choosing to think and speak negatively, focusing on the problems rather than the possibilities. If you have anxiety, depression and disorders like bipolar are also aspects of mental ill-health (Employee, Female). Emotional Instability Mental Il-health is the inability to reconcile your beliefs with your behavior…not being able to regulate, control and understand your emotions. It is an imbalance that is as a result of many different factors such as stress, poor diet, vitamin deficiency, generics, etc. (Employee, Female) (Fig. 8.1).

MENTAL HEALTH

Internal Locus of Control

MENTAL ILL-HEALTH

RaƟonality and Stability

Inability to Cope and Manage Stress

Peaceful and Relaxed Mind

Depression

Work SaƟsfacƟon

Anxiety

Balanced

Mistreatment at Work

Fair Treatment and Managed Stress Healthy RelaƟonships PosiƟve Thinking

Fig. 8.1 Informants’ definition of mental health and mental ill-health

EmoƟonal Instability

8.7 Analysis and Findings

171

8.7.2 Experiences of Mental Ill-Health at Work and Organisational Support Respondents’ perspectives of experiences of mental ill-health at work and organisational support received showed commonalities and differences in themes that emerged. All three respondent groups (i.e. employee, the union, and managers) agreed that counselling support was provided by their organisations for employees that were in mental distress to support their rehabilitation. Employees and the union experienced unfair work practices which contributed to the experiences of mental illhealth in the workplace. Employees and managers echo that peer support provided an avenue for employees to communicate about their challenges and contributed towards helping individuals with mental ill-health to recover. The employees and the union experienced mental ill-health at work or knew of someone that experienced mental ill-health and advised that the employee assistance programme (EAP) was provided by their organisations to support employees with mental health challenges or distress. Counselling Support I have a colleague who was mentally unwell and the person had to be counselled and supported medically, but I have no experiences of mental ill-health personally…I would recommend them going for counselling and provide them with the information also suggesting they take some time-off work (Employee, Female). I had a coworker with drinking issues at work, which started to affect his mental health, and the manager assigned a driver to take him to counselling one day in every week, and it helped him to overcome his problem and he works effectively now (Union, Male). I personally haven’t experienced mental ill-health, but I know someone who did. The manager provided professional counselling for the person…a friend of mine had a six-meeting scheme setup through his job with a counsellor. Management also continue to be accommodating when he needs time off to go and meet with his current Therapist (Manager, Female). Unfair Work Practices I was not paid my salary for two months and no one helped me (Employee, Female). Yes, co-workers are given privileges over another. Some people are given more workload than others. My manager intervened and was able to solve the issue by distributing the workload fairly among all workers (Union, Male). Peer Support Peer support was important. I have worked with a person with mental ill-health and the support from the whole team including the managers went a long way to make the person inclusive (Manager, Male).

172

8 Mental Health and Well-Being in the Workplace

I knew of someone who had mental ill-health challenges and we had conversations outside of the workplace. At work people found support sharing their struggles with one another and praying for one another (Employees, Female). EAP and Occupational Health I have experienced mental ill-health at various times over the years. At one workplace, there was an EAP available and this was helpful. At other jobs I had there was no support, so I had to quit two jobs because of this…I did not share much with my colleagues (Employee, Male). I have not experienced mental ill-health in the workplace but employees who experienced this were referred to occupational health and was sent to EAP (Union, Male). Employee and management respondents highlighted the importance of educating management and employees about mental health in the workplace. Though ‘education’ is the key theme highlighted by both managers and employees, their experiences of education of mental health were different. Some organisations provided employees with education on mental health and other organisations did not support employees by providing education. Education I know someone at work who has experienced mental ill-health…one of the senior managers have recently been off work sick due to mental ill-health. The senior managers provided information to staff about mental health and mental ill-health (Manager, Female). Yes, there was an employee claim that he had mental illness and all my manager did was to give him a week off, no advice on how to get help, no advise, help or education to other employees and the managers as well (Employee, Female). Some executive directors shared their experiences of mental ill-health at work and at home and shared how respect and support assisted them with their rehabilitation. One director shared his experience: Respect and Support I have experienced mental illness in the workplace, but as a leader I dealt with it as part of my work and also in my personal life. I have been raised with mental illness in my family, community and nation. I am always treated with respect and support. Understanding mental health and mental ill-health really helps in how you communicate and work with mental illness (Executive Director). In contrast, other respondents held a different view regarding the support they received from their organisation regarding mental health and/or mental ill-health.

8.7 Analysis and Findings

173

One informant comments: Yes, I have experienced mental ill-health at work due to a lack of support for employees and unclear tasks and objectives, not much help was given…there was no assistance for colleagues…some colleagues took time off for stress but it’s not considered as important as the key focus for the dysfunction was not addressed or considered important (Union, Male). Some managerial respondents raised the issue that mental health is managed ineffectively in their respective organisations and that there is a stigma attached to mental ill-health. A lack of confidentiality about employees experiencing mental ill-health was also raised as an issue. Confidentiality and Removal of Stigma Mental health appears to be one major issue plaguing my workplace. Due to the stigma and labelling attached to mental illness in the Caribbean, it is not managed effectively. At my workplace it is managed poorly. Recently a manager experienced a mental breakdown at work and her privacy was invaded and all employees were made aware of what transpired at our Clinic. Doctor/patient confidentiality was breached (Manager, Female). Employees also highlighted themes of the work environment, employee commitment, and turnover as factors of mental ill-health experienced at their respective organisations. Work Environment I worked in a toxic environment and the manager made it worse (Employee, Female). Employee Commitment and Turnover I have got to the point that my workplace was making me depressed and my anxiety levels went through the roof. Nothing was done, so I started only doing part-time and had to look elsewhere for work (Employee, Female) (Fig. 8.2).

8.7.3 Line Management Development to Respond to Mental Health Concerns of Employees There were commonalities and differences in development factors that were outlined by respondents they perceived should be improved by their line managers to respond more effectively to mental health concerns in their organisations. All four respondent groups (i.e. employees, the union, managers, and executive directors) held the view that their line managers should receive education and training in mental health so that they can be more effective in management employees with mental health problems.

174

8 Mental Health and Well-Being in the Workplace

Counselling Support Respect and Support ConfidenƟality and Removal of SƟgma Peer Support EAP and OccupaƟonal Health EducaƟon

Employees Experiences of Mental Ill-Health in the workplace

Employee Commitment and Turnover Unfair Work PracƟces Work Environment

Fig. 8.2 Employees’ experiences of mental ill-health in the workplace

Education and Training It is always good to take training and workshops and have it in the community and at the Nation level. Training everyone on mental health will have this topic up front so everyone knows of mental illness and how to work with it (Executive, Male). Training from the company to detect mental ill-health of employees. Managers should have the ability to identify signs and symptoms of mental ill-health…they should be able to identify and address the problems before it affects someone else…a holistic understanding of workplace health is important (Managers, Female). First management must have knowledge about mental ill-health in the workplace. Training in mental health would help to teach my manager how to deal with such situations. I believe that all workplaces need to have some sort of mental health training (Employees, Female). I would like my manager to have an understanding that mental health affects your ability to perform tasks to your usual standard, it also affects time management and allowances need to be made for this (Union, Male). The union and employee respondents held the view that their line managers should have an understating of workers’ stress levels. This theme is highlighted by the below accounts from the union and employee informants. Understanding Workers’ Stress Levels I would like to see my manager have more understanding of worker fatigue to have activities that help employees to reduce stress…it is important to understand

8.7 Analysis and Findings

175

the mental health of employees by creating opportunities for relaxation and rest (Union, Male). Assess stress levels and develop a mental health plan that will include interventions into the identification of mental health behavior (Employee, Female). I would like management to be more proactive and deal with situations at earlier stages to avoid mental stress on employees (Employee, Male). Both the union and employees’ respondents would like line managers to be more empathic and compassionate, and they also highlighted that fair treatment was also integral for their mental health at work. Empathy and Compassionate I would like to see empathy, consideration and genuine interest in the employees and not just interest in the financial bottom line of the company (Union, Male). Managers need empathy and training…they (managers) need to be more sensitive, open-minded and confidential (Employee, Female). I would like to see my manager have more compassion for employees as I believe that with more compassion, we will be able to trust him more (Employee, Male). Fair Treatment My manager seems to possess fairness and engages us on a personal level. She (manager) also addresses matters quickly and responds when she notices behaviors etc. (Employee, Female). I would like for my manager to be more understanding and fairer to workers. This would promote fairness and better mental health…I would also like for my manager to have more understanding and mindfulness of workloads (Union, Male). Managers and employees mentioned that their line manager should display openness and approachable. Openness and Approachable My managers have tended to be people who are critical and unapproachable, and they should change this behavior. I would like them to be more sensitive and open minded. My manager should be less judgmental and more approachable (Manager, Female). Management could be more available and involved with the day-to-day realities and situations experienced by employees and to support staff with mental illness in this way (Employee, Male). The union representative pointed out that line managers should be patient and good listeners. One union respondent says:

176

8 Mental Health and Well-Being in the Workplace

Patient and Good Listener I would like to see my manager be more patient and a better listener. My boss is excellent and very supportive, and she listens, but she can be better in this area. Having a better open-door policy so that I or employees can go and talk to her at any time regarding any mental challenges that may be experienced by colleagues (Union, Male). Management respondents highlighted that line managers should put employee well-being first in people management issues. The manager highlights this point below. Putting Employee Well-Being First I have not experience colleagues with mental illness, but my managers are very empathetic, and our work environment allows for good work-life-balance. Therefore, I would expect our managers to address mental illness with an approach aimed at putting the employees’ well-being first (Manager, Male). Employee respondents held the view that they would like their line manager competences to be developed to be more effective with the management of mental health in the workplace. The themes echoed include: emotional intelligence, understand the mental health leave policy, allocate resources for a mental health employee assistance programme, equal treatment, confidentiality, recognition and rewards, and fun and team building activities. Emotional Intelligence I would like my manager to have emotional intelligence personality types traits…he (manager) needs to be more observant and communicative (Employee, Female). Understand the Mental Health Leave (Policy) I would like to see mental health sick days should be allowed more. It is also important to acknowledge that different mental illnesses affect different things and so an acknowledgement and understanding of this is important. Furthermore, allowances pertaining to this (i.e. OCD may require longer or more frequent bathroom breaks) (Employee, Female). Resources for Mental Health Employee Assistance Program I would like to see my employer put resources in place to allow workers to have access to mental health professionals and facilities that can help them with mental illness (Employee, Male). Equal Treatment I would like to see management avoid treating the person with mental ill-health any differently from everyone else….I also think that employees should have access to management about this matter (Employee, Female).

8.7 Analysis and Findings

177

Table 8.1 Line management development to respond to mental health concerns Management development factors to respond to mental health at work

Well-being at work domains

Understanding workers’ stress levels Confidentiality Putting employee well-being first

Psychological and physical well-being

Education and training

Intellectual well-being

Recognition and rewards

Career and reward well-being

Empathy and compassionate Openness and approachable Emotional intelligence Patience and good listener

Relational and compassionate leadership well-being

Fun and team building activities

Social well-being

Understanding mental health leave (policy) Equal treatment Fair treatment

Humanistic fair policy and practice well-being

Resources for mental health employee assistance programme

Wellness management

Confidentiality Managers needs to be more confidential and have better work ethics, better listening skills and be more empathetic to employees….yes, managers can be more confidential about mental ill-health experienced by employees in the workplace (Employee, Female). Recognition and Rewards I would like my manager to recognize and reward the skills of employees. This will enhance the mental health of workers (Employee, Female). Fun and Team Building Activities It is important to have fun at the office and away from the office. I would like to see my manager promote this more as this helps with team and relationship building, which goes towards developing positive mental health amongst employees in the workplace (Employee, Male) (Table 8.1).

8.8 Removing the Stigma of Mental Health in the Workplace All respondents (i.e. employees, the union, managers, and executive directors) held the view that to remove the stigma of mental health in the workplace will require education and training the workforce.

178

8 Mental Health and Well-Being in the Workplace

Education and Training Awareness of mental health can be raised through workshops, seminars and maybe a newsletter. We can have seminars yearly to educate staff on mental illness and avenues where staff can access support (Manager, Female). Provide information and resources to improve awareness and provide access to counsellors. We can also have workshops and training at leadership, management, staff, elders, adults, youth and children to encourage employees to get educated in this field (Employee, Male). Having training workshops that talks about mental ill-health in the workplace where people can have an understanding and feel comfortable in the workplace. Managers should organize and attend awareness courses about mental health in the workplace (Union, Female). Managers can educate themselves about the issues of mental health and the effects by hosting frequent and mandatory awareness sessions and having workshops and meetings to discuss the signs and treatment of mental health at the workshop (Executive, Female). Educate the workforce through workshops and seminars by conducting training on mental health for employees. In-house training by professionals can bring awareness to employees and managers on mental health. Training workshops are important to sensitize employees on the reality of mental illness and the triggers and interventions and well as support availability (Manager, Male). Managers perspective regarding the removal of stigma for mental ill-health include employee surveys and the employee assistance programme (EAP). Employee Surveys Promote in-house employee surveys and questionnaires about mental health. Communicate with employees to find out how management can assist them with mental ill-health at work (Manager, Female). EAP Program To introduce an EAP program but employees do not access it as needed due to fear of being stigmatized…there is need to remove the stigma of fear and mistrust for the EAP programs so that more people would access these services to support them during a time of mental crisis…these programs will provide information and access to counsellors (Manager, Female). The union representatives declare that removing the stigma of mental health in the workplace can be done through effective communication and fun and team building days. Effective Communication Communication is important…. meetings, having open meetings or having a guest speaker to come in to talk about mental health in the workplace. Having scheduled

8.8 Removing the Stigma of Mental Health in the Workplace

179

staff meetings and to include information on bulletin boards, newsletters and meetings. This will ensure that mental health awareness is communicated to employees (Union, Female). Fun and Team Building Days Provide fun days and sponsor fun trips for employees. To have team building days, or opportunity for colleagues to get to know one another enough to feel comfortable talking about mental health (Union, Male). Employees’ perspectives with respect to removing the stigma of mental health in the workplace include mental health culture, mental health councillor, employee engagement, flexible working arrangements, and relationships and working conditions. Develop a Mental Health Culture Create an employee mental health culture in the workplace…my employer can foster an environment where the employees feel free to come for help when needed (Employee, Male). Removing Stigma and Fair Treatment Managers can build awareness by breaking stigma and treating everyone fairly…they can educate themselves about the issues of mental health and the effects…make mental health a normal topic of discussion and guarantee employment in spite of employees experiencing mental illness (Union, Male). Mental Health Coordinator To have someone employed that is dedicated to checking-up on team members and individual employees to ensure that everyone is coping well (Employee, Female). Employee Voice Through creating opportunities for employees to express their concerns, showing concern for the well-being of employees…managers talking directly to employees to find out how they can help (Employee, Male). Employee Engagement Direct interaction between management and employees by interacting and talking with employees about mental health in the workplace (Employee, Female). Flexible Working Arrangements Employers should introduce and implement flexible work arrangements to assist employees struggling with mental illness as well as all workers to reduce stress levels (Employee, Male).

180 Fig. 8.3 Employees perspectives: removing the stigma of mental health in the workplace

8 Mental Health and Well-Being in the Workplace

Healthy OrganisaƟonal Healthy OrganizaƟnal Culture Support

Mental Health Coordinator

Develop a Mental Health Culture

EAP Programme

EīecƟve CommunicaƟon

Healthy Employees

Employee Voice EducaƟon and Training

Fair Treatment

Employee Engagement

EducaƟon and Training

Fun and Team Building Days

Employee Surveys

Flexible Working Arrangement RelaƟonships and Working CondiƟons

Relationships and Working Conditions We can improve personal relationships at work by having positive dialogue and genuine relationships. Good relationships is likely to go a long way to remove the stigma of mental illness in the workplace…it will also improve working conditions (Employee, Female) (Fig. 8.3).

8.9 Enhancing Mental Health and Well-Being in the Workplace Respondents’ perspectives regarding enhancing mental health and well-being in the workplace include psychological, social, and organisational well-being as well as fairness at work, and wellness strategies. There was a commonality in views between employees and the union as both groups highlighted that they would like to see ‘anti-discrimination and fairness policies and practices’ in their organisations to enhance mental health and well-being in their workplaces. Similarly, employees and directors also held a common view that ‘respectful workplace culture’ should be enhanced to promote mental health and well-being in their workplaces. In contrast, the other themes that were revealed were different to three employee groups (i.e. employees, the union, and managers). Employees would like to see enhancement in fair and appropriate pay, reduction in heavy workloads, employee engagement and communication, adequate leave entitlement, employee welfare services, relational and attentive line manager, wellness programmes, appreciation and feeling valued, and to receive rewards and career advancement opportunities. The below verbal accounts highlight the employees’ perceptions.

8.9 Enhancing Mental Health and Well-Being in the Workplace

181

Fair and Appropriate Pay Good salary remuneration will enhance my wellbeing. Better pay and paying employees a good and fair salary will enhance employee’s well-being and mental health. Employers should also avoid over working employees (Employee, Female). Reduce Heavy Workloads Management should avoid over working employees and ensure that workloads are appropriate (Employee, Male). Employee Engagement and Communication The employer should be aware and know about the employees and their strengths and ability to deal with and manage the workplace. Purposively take initiatives to have conversations and know my personal struggles. Good communication skills are important… It’s important for management to talk to staff individually and assess all needs (Employee, Female). Adequate Leave Entitlement Having adequate vacation leaves will improve my wellbeing and mental health in the workplace. Extended maternity leave and the opportunity for appropriate leave is essential to my mental health and overall wellbeing (Employee, Female). Employee Welfare Services Employee care services is an excellent starting point. Offer free mental health evaluation and a hot line that employees can trust and call confidentially without problems (Employee, Male). Relational and Attentive Line Managers To would like managers to ask people how they are doing, and then listen to them and do the best to address genuine work-related or affected concerns. I would like to see my manager to be proactive and plan properly to enhance my mental health and well-being (Employee, Female). Wellness Programs Ensure training and updates are provided for staff. Promote a healthy lifestyle through motivation speakers and provide areas that will help develop and implement programs on mental health, and its negative effects and what can be done to lesson it’s occurrences (Employee, Female). Appreciation and Feeling Valued To value each employee as being unique and appreciated…it’s important to occasionally express appreciation to employees (Employee, Female). Rewards and Career Advancement Management should reward the efforts of good work with a decent salary and room for promotion on the job….the opportunity for promotion on the job will enhance my wellbeing and mental health (Employee, Male).

182

8 Mental Health and Well-Being in the Workplace

Employee Involvement and Voice Include employees’ involvement and feedback regarding what should be done to enhance their wellbeing and mental health at work (Employee, Female). Employees and the union had a common view that should be enhanced to promote mental health and well-being in the workplace, which include ‘anti-discrimination and fairness policies and practices’. The following verbal account echoes this theme. Anti-discrimination and Fairness Management should not be partial or racist and should treat everyone the same…encourage positive thinking and treat workers reasonably and with fairness….I would like to see fair treatment for all (Employee, Female). Management should put themselves in the shoes of employees even if they don’t like them. Management should work on the acceptance of people to ensure that employees are treated properly, respectfully and are happy within the workplace (Union, Male). Managerial employees pointed out that they would like to see improvements in job design as they perceived that enhancement with job design will promote mental health and well-being in the workplace. One manager echoes this point. Job Design Ensure that job descriptions are well understood, tasks, responsibilities, duties and reporting lines of authority are well understood and communicated (Manager, Female). Executive directors and employees held a common view that includes promoting a ‘respectful workplace culture’ as integral to mental health and well-being in the workplace. This view is highlighted by the below verbal declarations. Respectful Workplace Culture Changing of the culture in the workplace is essential so that people are respectful of mental health in the workplace (Employee, Male). It is important to encourage healthy dialog and not use victimization as a way to resolve issues and conflict (Executive Director, Male). The union respondents held the view that ‘support, work-life balance, and fun at work’ were essential factors required for the promotion of mental health and wellbeing in the workplace. These themes are echoed in the below verbal expressions. Support Be supportive to employees. The employer should be appropriate, available and aware of mental health and employee wellbeing. Employers should be understanding and encouraging. The more knowledge they have of mental health is the better (Union, Male).

8.9 Enhancing Mental Health and Well-Being in the Workplace

183

Work-Life-Balance Flexible working hours will assist my wellbeing at work. I would like to see management allow employees to work remotely or at home once a week…. management can also establish breaks during the workday…continue to provide good work-life-balance (Union, Female). Fun at work Promote more employee fun activities in the workplace as well as outside the workplace as this will promote trust and good relationships (Union, Female) (Fig. 8.4).

Respecƞul Workplace Culture AnƟ-discriminaƟon and Fairness PracƟces Job Design Fair and Appropriate Pay Reduce Heavy Workloads Employee Engagement and CommunicaƟon Support Adequate Leave EnƟtlement

Mental Health and Employee Well-Being at Work

Employee Welfare Services RelaƟonal and AƩenƟve Line Manager Leadership Work-Life-Balance AppreciaƟon and Feeling Valued Rewards and Career Advancement

Outcomes

Fun at Work

Enhanced Performance Job SaƟsfacƟon MoƟvaƟon Commitment Reduce Turnover Psychologically Healthy and ProducƟve workers Enhanced innovaƟon and creaƟvity

Employee Involvement and Voice

Fig. 8.4 Enhanced employee mental health and well-being at work: worker’s voice

184

8 Mental Health and Well-Being in the Workplace

8.10 Discussion This research was part of a larger study that explored employees’ reactions to HRM practices, the quality of working life, and well-being in the workplace. The focus of the research outlined in this chapter explored respondents’ (i.e. employees, union, manager, and executive director) perceptions of the definition of mental health and ill-health, experiences of mental health in the workplace, leadership development to manage mental health in the workplace, removing the stigma of mental ill-health in the workplace, and enhancing mental health and well-being in the workplace. Definition of mental health/ill-health in the workplace—respondents’ definition of mental health in the workplace is associated with psychological and social well-being and fairness at work. The themes that expressed psychological well-being include: internal locus of control, rationality and stability, peacefulness, relaxed mind, work satisfaction, being balanced, able to manage stress, and thinking positively. The social well-being theme includes positive relationships and fairness at work. In essence, respondents’ definition of mental health in the workplace is a state of having internal locus of control, rationality and stability, ability to manage stress, being balanced and well-adjusted, having a relaxed and peaceful mind, a positive thinker, enjoying work satisfaction, and experiences fairness at work. Respondents ‘in this study definition of mental health in the workplace extends the World Health Organisation (WHO 2018) definition of mental health in the workplace which the WHO says that mental health is the state of well-being in which the individual realises his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community’ (WHO 2018). The findings in this study extend the mental health literature by introducing employees voice into the definition to include rationality and stability, peacefulness, having a relaxed mind, fairness at work, work satisfaction, positive relationships, and thinking positively. Positive mental health will be beneficial to individuals and the organisation. In support, mental health and well-being of individuals within an organisation touch every aspect of the business, its employees, as well as its internal and external stakeholders, from the visible (revenue, absenteeism, presenteeism, and turnover) to the invisible (engagement, job satisfaction, motivation, and depressive disorders to name a few) (Chen and Cooper 2014; Day et al. 2014). In contrast, respondents’ definition of mental ill-health in the workplace is the inability to cope and manage stress at work, mistreatment in the workplace, depression and anxiety, and experiencing emotional instability. Thus, mental ill-health is comprised when an individual is not able to proactively cope with the level of stress they are being served whether within or outside the workplace (David 2018). Compromised mental health and stress affect the organisation’s ability to meet business goals, attract, motivate and retain top talent, and compete in a complex and ever-changing business world (David 2018). In essence, it is important for the organisation to promote and maintain the mental health of its workforce to remain sustainable in the twenty-first century. Experiences of mental health at work and organisational support—respondents shared their personal experiences of mental health in the workplace as well as their

8.10 Discussion

185

colleagues that they have witnessed who were mentally in distress. Employees shared that their experiences of mental health in the workplace problems was as a result of working in a toxic work environment, being subjected to unfair work practices, not receiving support from their managers or the organisation, experiencing a lack of confidentiality regarding personal matters and work-life conflicts, and the stigma held by colleagues and the organisation as a result of mental health in the workplace. In contrast, some employees shared that their organisation assisted them as well as colleagues with mental health problems with counselling support, peer support, referral to employee assistance programme (EAP) and occupational health, and providing education and training to employees about mental health in the workplace. The literature states that organisations should take mental health seriously in order to be successful in the twenty-first-century workplace. The findings also revealed that mental ill-health contributes towards a lack of employee commitment and turnover intentions. Therefore, organisations should educate and develop their competencies to ensure that overall health of their employees and organisation (DOH 2007). Organisations should adopt an approach to promote the mental and physical health and well-being of their staff that will repay their investment in terms of productivity, morale, and creativity. Promoting employee mental health and well-being, organisational leaders are more likely to overcome barriers around stigma and to achieve buy-in and engagement from staff. Leadership development to manage mental health in the workplace—the results from this study found that respondents’ perspectives of leadership development to manage mental health at work centred around social/relational well-being, humanistic and fair working practices, and psychologically healthy work organisational practices. The ‘social/relational’ leadership development themes include empathy and compassionate leadership, openness and approachable, patient and a good listener, understanding workers stress levels, emotional intelligence, exercising confidentiality regarding employees work-life conflict, recognition and rewards, and fun and team building activities. The ‘humanistic/fair work practices’ development themes include fair treatment of all employees and equal opportunities. The ‘psychologically healthy work organisation practices’ include education and training, understanding and implementing the mental health leave policy, and allocating resources for mental health employee assistance programme (MHEAP). From an individual and organisational perspectives, management processes entail appraisals, work planning, training and development and assessment, spot signs of mental ill-health early, discuss support or adjustments and to monitor employees that are displaying signs of being mentally unwell. Organisational leaders and managers should have necessary competencies to direct employees in distress requiring support to workplace counselling services, employee assistance programmes, occupational health, human resources, external support or to provide information for where the employee can source professional assistance (Keyes 2007). Employees that are off sick in keeping with the organisations sickness absence policy, managers with the help of HR should support employees from internal and external sources coordinated to meet the individual’s needs (Chen and Cooper 2014).

186

8 Mental Health and Well-Being in the Workplace

Removing the stigma of mental health in the workplace—the findings revealed that respondents’ perspective of how the stigma of mental health at work can be removed include recruitment and selection of appropriate talent (i.e. mental health coordinator) to work with all social actors in the organisation towards understanding and breaking the stigma of mental health in the workplace. The findings also highlighted themes of employee involvement (i.e. employee voice, opportunities for employees to express their views, and employee engagement); social well-being (i.e. building relationships at work, effective communication, and fair practices and treatment) collectively can raise awareness and understanding of mental health at work. The findings also reveal that wellness practices and programmes (i.e. employee assistance programmes, and flexible working arrangements) can reduce stress levels of employees and support them with work-life conflicts that can positively impact their mental health and wellbeing at work. From an organisational perspective, the findings reveal that work organisation practices (i.e. improved working conditions, education and training, employee opinion surveys, and the development of a mental health culture) are all integral and can work towards removing the stigma of mental health in the workplace. Hanisch et al. (2016) state that the majority of people experiencing mental health problems do not seek help, and the stigma of mental illness is considered a major barrier to seeing appropriate treatment, with workplace interventions geared towards providing effectiveness of targeting the stigma of mental illness at the workplace (Hanisch et al. 2016). Organisational leaders, managers, HR practitioners, and mental health coordinators can use the finding from this study to develop strategies to assist them to remove the stigma of mental health at work. Enhancing mental health and well-being in the workplace—the findings from respondents’ views that relates to enhancing mental health and well-being at work resulted in key themes that relate to psychological well-being (i.e. appreciation, feeling valued, rewards, and career advancement); financial well-being (i.e. fair and appropriate pay/salary); social well-being (i.e. employee engagement, supportive towards employees, communication, relational and attentive line managers, and employee involvement and voice); wellness management (employee welfare services, work-life balance, fun at work, and wellness programmes); humanistic and dignity at work practices (i.e. anti-discrimination and fairness at work); and organisational processes and policies (i.e. job design, reduce heavy workloads, adequate leave entitlement, and promoting a respectful work culture). According to David (2018), creating a work culture that promotes positive emotional feedback and support (as well as the opportunity to make choices that encourage well-being), organisations will find that promoting employees’ mental health and well-being, they will also benefit from intrinsic motivation because positive emotional feedback reinforces each health step employees and the organisation needs and takes. In conclusion, the findings from this study that relates to employees’ definition of mental health and ill-health, experiences of mental health at work and support received, line management development to manage mental health in the workplace, perspectives on how to remove the stigma of mental health at work, and factors that can enhance mental health and well-being at work are relevant for contemporary workplaces to enhance their performance and bottom line. Organisational leaders,

8.10 Discussion

187

managers, HR, and mental health professionals can utilise the findings from this study and relate it to their respective organisation to assist with policy development and implementation strategies that can effectively assist building and sustaining a psychological healthy and ‘WELL’ workforce.

References Allen, T. D. (2001). Family supportive work environments: The role of organizational perceptions. Journal of Vocational Behavior,58, 414–435. Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in advances of experimental social psychology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 822–848. Chen, P. Y., & Cooper, C. (2014). Work and wellbeing, wellbeing: A complete reference guide (vol. III). John Wiley & Sons. David, S. (2018). Employer strategy: Managing stress and mental health wellbeing within your organisation. Virgin Pulse (virginpulse.com). Department of Health. (2003). Attitudes to mental illness. Report 2003. Department of Health, Health and Safety Executive, and Department for Work and Pension. (2007). Line managers’ resource: A practical guide to managing and supporting people with mental health problems in the workplace. Shift, Health Work Wellbeing, www.shift.org.uk/employers (October 1, 2019). Fogg, B. J. (2018). How habits really work, introduction to how habits really work: Let’s talk about habits. Virgin Pulse. https://community.virginpulse.com/bj-foggs-video-guide-to-how-habitsreally-work-virgin-pulse?submissionGuid=4e24cd09-210c-41b4-a56d-448bf8338e40 (accessed September 10, 2019). Giorgi, A. (1985). Phenomenology and psychological research. PA: Pittsburgh Duquesne University Press. Greenhaus, J. H., & Beutell, N. J. (1985). Sources and conflict between work and family roles. The Academy of Management Review,10(1), 76–88. Guba, E., & Lincoln, Y. (1989). Fourth generation evaluation. CA: Thousand Oaks. Hanisch, S., Twomey, C. D., Szeto, A. C. H., Birner, U. W., Nowak, D., & Sabariego, C. (2016). The effectiveness of interventions targeting the stigma of mental illness at the workplace: A systematic review. BMC Psychiatry,16, 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-0150706-4. Henderson, C., Evans-Lacko, S., & Thornicroft, G. (2013). Mental illness stigma, help seeking, and public health programs. American Journal of Public Health,103(5), 777–780. Heyman, S. J., & Penrose, K. (2006). Meeting children’s needs: How does the United States measure up? Merrill-Palmer Quarterly.,52(2), 189–211. Hilton, M. F., Whiteford, H. A., Sheridan, J. S., Cleary, C. M., Chant, D. C., Wang, P. S., et al. (2008). The prevalence of psychological distress in employees and associated occupational risk factors. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine,50, 746–757. International Labour Organisation. (2000). Mental health in the workplace. Geneva: International Labour Office. Jorm, A. F., Jorm, A. F., Christensen, H., Griffiths, K. M., Jorm, A. F., Christensen, H., et al. (2005). The impact of beyond blue: The national depression initiative on the Australian public’s recognition of depression and beliefs about treatments. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry,39(4), 248–254. Kelloway, E. K., Hurrell, J. J., & Day, A. (2008). Workplace interventions for occupational stress. In The individual in the changing working life (pp. 419–441). Keyes, C. L. M. (2007). Promoting and protecting mental health and flourishing: A complementary strategy for improving national mental health. American Psychologist, 62(2), 95–108.

188

8 Mental Health and Well-Being in the Workplace

Kilfedder, C., & Litchfield, P. (2014). Wellbeing as a business priority: Experience from the corporate world. Interventions and Policies to enhance wellbeing, Vol 6. London: John Wiley and Sons. LaMontagne, A. D., Keegal, T., & Vallance, D. (2007). Protecting and promoting mental health in the workplace: Developing a system approach to job stress. Health Promotion Journal of Australia, 18(3), 221–228. LaMontagne, A. D., Keegel, T., Louie, A. M., & Ostry, A. (2010). Job stress as a preventable upstream determinant of common mental disorders: A review for practitioners and policy-makers. Advances in Mental Health,9, 17–35. LaMontagne, A. D., Noblet, A. J., & Landsbergis, P. A. (2012). Intervention development and implementation: Understanding and addressing barriers to organizational-level interventions. In Improving organizational interventions for stress and well-being: Addressing process and context (pp. 21–38). Langer, E. J. (1989). Minding matters: The consequences of mindlessness—mindfulness. Advances of Experimental Social Psychology, 22, 137–173. Lawson, K. M., Davis, K. D., McHale, S. M., Hammer, L. B., & Buxton, O. M. (2014). Daily positive spillover and crossover from mothers’ work to youth health. Journal of Family Psychology,28(6), 897–907. Mandel, H. (2011). Rethinking the paradox: Trade-offs in work-family policy and patterns of gender inequality. Community, Work & Family,14(2), 159–176. Martin, A., Karanika-Murray, M., Biron, C., & Sanderson, K. (2014). The Psychosocial work environment, employee mental health and organizational interventions: Improving research and practice by taking a multilevel approach. Stress and Health. Maxwell, J. A., & Loomis, D. (2002). Mixed methods design: An alternative approach. In: A. Tashakkori & C. Teddie (Eds.), (2002) Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research (pp. 241–271). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Maxwell, J. A. (2004). Causal explanation, qualitative research, and scientific inquiry in education. Educational Researcher,33(2), 3–11. Memish, K., Martin, A., Bartlett, L., Dawkins, S., & Sanderson, K. (2017). Workplace mental health: An international review and guidelines. Preventive Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ypmed.2017.03.017 (0091-7435/© 2017 Elsevier Inc.) All rights reserved (accessed September 10, 2019). Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Nilsen, A., Brannen, J., & Lewis, S. (Eds.). (2012). Transitions to parenthood in Europe: A comparative life course perspective. Bristol, UK: The Policy Press. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). (2013). Employment outlook 2013. Paris: OECD Publishing. Retrieved from https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/employment/oecdemployment-outlook-2013_empl_outlook-2013-en (accessed October 1, 2019). Outhwaite, W. (1986). Understanding social life: The method called ‘Verstehen’. London: Allen and Unwin. Page, K. M., Lamontagne, A. D., Louie, A. M., Ostry, A. S., Shaw, A., & Shoveller, J. A. (2013). Stakeholder perceptions of job stress in an industrialized country: Implications for policy and practice. Journal of Public Health Policy,34, 447–461. Pescosolido, B. A., Martin, J. K., Long, J. S., Medina, T. R., Phelan, J. C., & Link, B. G. (2010). “A disease like any other”? A decade of change in public reactions to schizophrenia, depression, and alcohol dependence. American Journal of Psychiatry,167(11), 1321–1330. Perry-Jenkins, M. (2005). Work in the working class: Challenges facing workers and their families. In Bianchi, S. M. Casper, L. M., & King, R.B. (Eds.), Work, family, health and well-being (pp. 453–472). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Perry-Jenkins, M., Smith, J. Z., Wadsworth, L. P., & Halpern, H. P. (2017). Workplace policies and mental health among working—Class new parents. Community Work Family,20(2), 226–249. Punch, K. F. (2005). Introduction to social research: quantitative and qualitative approaches. London: Sage Publications.

References

189

Putnam, L. (2015). Workplace wellness that works: 10 steps to infuse well-being and vitality into an organisation. New Jersey: Wiley. Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2009). Research methods for business students (5th ed.). London: Pearson Education, Financial Times, Prentice Hall. Segal, Z. V., Williams, J. M. G., & Teasdale, J. D. (2002). Mindfulness based cognitive therapy for depression: A new approach to preventing relapse. New York: Guilford Press. Sweet, S., Pitt-Catsouphes, M., Besen, E., & Golden, L. (2014). Explaining organizational variation in flexible work arrangements: Why the pattern and scale of availability matter. Community, Work & Family,17(2), 115–141. The Sainsbury Centre for Mental Health. (2007). Mental health at work: developing the business case. https://www.impact.ie/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Mental-Health-at-Work.pdf (accessed October 1, 2019). Thornicroft, G. (2007). Most people with mental illness are not treated. Lancet,370(9590), 807–808. Thorne, S., Kirkham, S. R., & MacDonald-Emes, J. (1997). Interpretive description: A noncategorical qualitative alternative for developing nursing knowledge. Research in Nursing and Health,20, 169–177. van Maanen, M. (1994). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. Michigan: Althouse. Walton, L. (2003). Exploration of the attitudes of employees towards the provision of counselling within a profit-making organisation. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research,3(1), 65–71. Westman, M. (2001). Stress and strain crossover. Human Relations, 54, 557–591. World Health Organisation. (2018). Mental health: Strengthening our response. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-health-strengtheningour-response (accessed October 10, 2019).

Chapter 9

Multigenerational Workforce and Well-Being in the Twenty-First-Century Workplace

Abstract This chapter explores through empirical research the similarities and differences that exist between multigenerational cohorts at work (i.e. Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y or Millennials) and their perspectives that relate to well-being at work. A qualitative methodological approach was adopted using 36 semi-structured interviews and two focus groups. The research questions explored the respondents’ definition of well-being at work, individual well-being at work need perspective, and how employers can enhance their happiness, health, and wellbeing at work of a multigenerational workforce. The findings reveal similarities and differences that exist between the multigenerational cohort definition, well-being needs, and improvements in well-being. This chapter discusses these commonalities and differences and implications for managers, HR practitioners, and organisational leaders. Future research in these areas is proposed.

9.1 Introduction: Well-Being, HRM in the Changing Workforce Today, organisations are existing in the fast-paced global workplace where maintaining the competitive advantage is essential to the success of the bottom line as well as sustaining employee well-being, governance, and sustainability within the context of work and beyond. For the time in modern history, workplace demographics now span four generations, so that 20-year-old new hires can find themselves working side by side with colleagues who are older than they are by 50 years (Murphy 2010). Well-being at work and good mental health are important for employees, managers, and organisational leaders and are beneficial for employees’ psychological health, performance, and overall productivity, with particular reference to understanding the well-being of a multigenerational workforce. Likewise, poor well-being at work

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 N. Cvenkel, Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health, Approaches to Global Sustainability, Markets, and Governance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3619-9_9

191

192

9 Multigenerational Workforce and Well-Being in the …

and mental ill-health can have adverse effects on employee’s morale, commitment, absent levels, engagement, performance, organisational citizenship behaviour, and intention to stay with the organisation. There is existing evidence linking employee well-being and mental health to key organisational outcomes such as performance, organisational commitment, and productivity, and identifying ways, and implementing policy and practices to enhance employee well-being is arguably a core function of HR professionals, managers, and organisational leaders. Furthermore, the focus on employee well-being at work in the twenty-first-century workplace and business climate of doing more with less can create significant challenges for contemporary organisations with a multigenerational workforce that are likely to be faced with intergenerational conflict in the workplace caused by diversity in values and expectations related to age. In this chapter, we explore multigenerational employees’ perspectives, similarities, and differences as it relates to their definition of employee well-being; their individual well-being at work requirements; and multigenerational employee’s perspectives regarding how their employer can enhance to promote their well-being at work and subsequently performance and productivity. The diversity of age and in keeping with the generational workforce literature that popular and academic literature agree on a core group of values found among these workers (Alch 2008; Gibson et al. 2009; Lyons et al. 2005; Massey 2005; Trunk 2007). This chapter focuses on empirical research that relates to three generations at work which are Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y or Millennials. However, the literature presented in this chapter will discuss the four generations that can be found in the modern workforce that will also include the Veteran Generation. Using empirical research, this chapter will present key themes that are pertinent to the relationship that exists between the multigenerational workforce and employee health and well-being in the workplace. This chapter will also provide insights for managers, HR, and wellness professionals and organisational leaders and will propose several areas for future research.

9.2 Well-Being at Work and the Changing Workforce There is a growing interest of national and international levels and importance of wellbeing. This is supported by the United Nations seventeen (17) Sustainable Development Goals with the third goal of ‘good health and well-being’ that focuses on ensuring healthy lives and promoting the well-being at all ages as essential to sustainable development (United Nations 2015). There are other international organisations that have commissioned research on well-being in different countries to identify levels of well-being indicators such as Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2015). National research on well-being was also commissioned by the UK government that produced a Well-being Report by Black (2008) entitled ‘Working for a Healthier Tomorrow’. From an organisational perspective, well-being at work was found to be of growing significance in the importance of employees’ health and well-being and it relates to organisational outcomes and the

9.2 Well-Being at Work and the Changing Workforce

193

bottom line (Health and Safety Executive [HSE] 2007). The HSE developed Management Standards aimed at reducing workplace stress (HSE 2007). Therefore, building and sustaining employee health and well-being as well as a productive workforce continues to remain high on organisational and national agendas. Well-being in the workplace is likely to be even more challenging considering the contemporary workplace with multigenerational workers and ongoing changes to organisations and the wider economic and social environments (Kowalski and Loretto 2017). One of the organisational implications of poor employee well-being is employee ill-health and absence and the potential effect on productivity. Porter (1990) points out that the prosperity of nations is linked to productivity and greater productivity can lead to a competitive advantage for organisations. Robertson and Cooper (2011), Chen and Cooper (2014), and Day et al. (2014) all suggest evidence that enhancing employee wellbeing can lead to improved performance. For example, the Harvard Medical School research as well as the CIPD 2019 Well-being in the workplace report reveal that workplaces with higher levels of well-being were much more productive than those with lower levels of well-being (CIPD 2019; Investors in People 2017). Research has shown that there is a relationship between HRM practices and employee well-being (Baptiste 2008, 2009; Guest 2002). However, there is little research that shows the relationships between employee well-being and the three main generations at work (i.e. Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y or Millennials). This chapter seeks to enhance our understanding, and the aim of this chapter is to explore and identify key factors that are part of the relationship that exists between each generation at work and their understanding and perceptions of well-being at work. This chapter seeks to reveal the similarities and differences of well-being definition and perceptions among Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y or Millennials. The perceived effectiveness of these, from the context of employee health, well-being, and performance, will be discussed.

9.3 Multigenerational Profiles at Work Research into generations at work defines generations as a group of people born and raised in the same general chronological, social, historical context, with different values held by each age group (Mannheim 1953; Massey 2005). The generational cohort literature suggests that each generation has different values and beliefs, and therefore, their behaviours and practices may differ because of their generationalspecific experiences (Brunetto et al. 2011). Massey (2005) further argues that one’s values depend on where you were during the value formation years (0–20 years) and what you experienced during that time. Haynes (2011) points out that the changing demographic trends mean that for the first time there is a possibility that four generations of people could be working alongside each other in today’s workplace

194

9 Multigenerational Workforce and Well-Being in the …

with each generation could have specific workplace expectations and requirements. It has now become essentially important and crucial that managers and organisations become successful at identifying and addressing intergenerational dynamics at work so that they can be more effective at promoting and sustaining employee wellbeing, performance, and productivity. The dynamics faced by modern organisations relate to the competition for talent is escalating as finding skilled employees tops the list of the most important issues facing businesses, with the cost of replacing experienced workers can range from 50 to 150% of their annual salaries (Murphy 2010). Alternatively, more generations are working side by side as there is an ageing society, and the oldest members of the Baby Boomer generation are nearing traditional retirement age with eight out of ten Boomers expect to work at least part time in their so-called retirement years (AARP 2004). Productivity and business results are linked to work environment as companies need engaged employees who are willing and able to contribute to organisational success. Engaged employee can only thrive in inclusive work environments—those that value, reward, and develop employees from all generations and give them opportunities to contribute (Murphy 2010). Generational differences can lead to frustration, conflict, and poor morale. Towers Perrin research found that highly engaged employees have a strong tendency to outperform organisations with less engaged workers. Engaged employees were more likely to produce high-quality products and services to meet customer needs (Hewitt 2015). The business case for addressing intergenerational dynamics in the workplace has been argued by Murphy (2010) who claims that age-neutral workplace supports real communication and understanding across all ages, and builds on the unique values and strengths of each generation. Businesses that pay attention to intergenerational issues will see an impact on their bottom line as it relates to corporate culture, employment engagement, recruitment, retention, and customer service (Hansen and Leuty 2012; Murphy 2010; Schullery 2013). From a corporate culture perspective, educating employees on generational issues boosts understanding, respect, productivity, reduces age discrimination and anti-fairness claims, commitment to age diversity, and builds a company’s reputation as an employer of choice (Murphy 2010). Managers who know what motivates employees of different generations are more effective in keep them engaged. Employee engagement supports financial stability. A 2003 Gallup poll estimates the cost of employee disengagement at $328 billion per year (Sorenson 2003). Employee satisfaction is higher when workers believe that career development opportunities are equal for all, regardless of age. Recruitment messages geared to each generation will attract talent across the age spectrum, and targeted recruitment of mature workers gives employers a competitive advantage in acquiring the right talent and younger workers which is crucial to ensuring future business success and leadership (Murphy 2010; Weston 2001). An engaged workforce results in higher retention and reduced turnover and training costs. Employee benefits which are geared to the needs of different generations can build loyalty and retention. All generations want their contributions to be recognised. Rewards and recognitions should reflect each group preferences and priorities (Weston 2001). From a customer service perspective, each generation has unique

9.3 Multigenerational Profiles at Work

195

service preferences, and businesses that understand and adapt to those preferences will attract and retain customers across the age spectrum. Furthermore, Haynes (2011), states that the four generations include Veterans or World War II Generation, Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y or Millennials. Veterans or World War II Generations are individuals that are born before 1945 and are also classified as Seniors or Traditionalists (Haynes 2011; Hammill 2005). Baby Boomer generation is defined as individuals that were born between 1946 and 1964 as suggested by Strauss and Howe (1997), and Egri and Ralston (2004). Strauss and Howe (1997) further define Generation X as individuals born between 1965 and 1979, and the Millennial Y generation are people born between 1980 and 1997 as defined by Eisner (2005), and Murphy et al. (2006). According to Hammill (2005), Veterans Generation of workers grew up with a sense of duty. Veterans are usually classified as seeing work as an obligation and that authority must be respected. They have an individual work style and a preference for clear leadership through command and control. Veterans tend to have a strong work ethic and prefer an element of discipline in the workplace (Murphy 2010). They also prefer communication that is formal, probably through a memo (Hammill 2005). According to Trunk (2007), the Baby Boomer generation is the largest cohort currently in the workplace and is the group with the most power by virtue of their leadership positions, loyalty to the organisation, competitiveness, and being workaholics (Crampton and Hodge 2007) whose serious and dedicated attitude towards work has been influenced by the Vietnam War and the economic prosperity following World War II (Patota et al. 2007). Baby Boomers tend to have a strong work ethics and value promotion, position, and personal growth (Brunetto et al. 2011), experience much social change in the early years and therefore embraced change and growth, values success, teamwork, inclusion, rule-challenging, and have a determination to fight for a cause (Crampton and Hodge 2007; Gibson et al. 2009), and have the ‘Grit and Will’ or ‘Resilience’ to overcome and to have perseverance and passion for long-term goals and to stick at something until you succeed (Duckworth 2007). Baby Boomer generation are a group of individuals that have ‘Grit or Resilience’ and in keeping with their experiences and the historical time that they were born, Boomers are resilient and can rebound when faced with an obstacle or difficulty. While intelligence is a significant factor in success, ‘Grit or Resilience’ also has a major impact as it provides ‘the stubborn refusal to quit’ (Duckworth 2007; Stoltz 2014). Cultivating ‘Grit or Resilience’ among employees is good people management practice and is likely to be beneficial for smart business practice and the organisational bottom line (Sackett 2017). Research shows that ‘Grit or Resilience’ are highly predictive of achievement, if you want to build a team of people who will stick with a project, fight through the obstacles, and keep going until they find a solution; the characteristic you need to focus on building is ‘Grit’ (Stoltz 2014). Stoltz further argues that ‘Grit’ is found in every great leader and is critical to accomplishing any significant goal. People who have ‘Grit’ are very valuable to an organisation because they achieve bigger goals and more of them.

196

9 Multigenerational Workforce and Well-Being in the …

According to Lyons et al. (2005), Generation X adults are self-reliant, fun-loving, and independent. They are also less loyal than the Baby Boomers having witnessed high numbers of divorces and corporate downsizing (Crampton and Hodge 2007; Gibson et al. 2009). Generation X are better educated, demand a better work-life balance, place lower value on work itself, are unwilling to sacrifice their personal lives for a career, and are less hierarchical (Brunetto et al. 2011). They do not enjoy as much career success as their predecessors and are more concerned with career options, work-life balance, and usually expressed cynicism towards corporations (Crampton and Hodge 2007). At work, they are computer literate and want a fun environment (Patota et al. 2007) and are far more mobile than the Baby Boomers, moving from job to job to improve their careers (Lyons et al. 2005). Generation X experienced economic uncertainty, corporate and governmental scandals, all feeding into their distrust of authority (Johnson and Lopes 2008). Instead, they rely on personal entrepreneurial effort, independence and creativity, and demand fulfilling work (Merrill 2008) but may be perceived by Baby Boomer bosses as ‘slackers’ who lack loyalty (Rottier 2001). Generation X displayed lower continuance commitment and exhibited higher intentions to turnover (Ferres et al. 2003). Similarly, Stuenkel et al. (2005) research found no statistically significant differences between Baby Boomers and Generation X in the USA in terms of peer cohesion, work pressure, clarity, control, and physical comfort, although Generation X employees did report a higher level of job involvement compared with Baby Boomers. Generation Y or Millennials were raised with MTV, cell phones, IPods, computer games and are comfortable with instant communication, technology, the use of social media for social networking (Gibson et al. 2009). This digital generation is optimistic, realistic, globally aware, and inclusive by nature (McNamara 2005). The Millennials are the most computer literature and technology-ready are more likely to pursue training and development opportunities, and are more prepared to move from one organisation to take advantage of those opportunities (Brunetto et al. 2011), are less indulged than Generation X, they accept diversity and different types of families (Alch 2008), and they are civic minded and prone to volunteerism (Leyden et al. 2007), and like Generation X, Millennials value work-life balance and independence, but they are also curious and questioning (Kehrli and Sopp 2006) and results oriented (Streeter 2007). In the workplace, Millennials can try the patience of their Baby Boomers counterparts and bosses and their Generation X colleagues (Gibson et al. 2009). Their entrepreneurial, answer-seeking behaviours coupled with their sense of personal responsibility, and need for feedback can be diminished by their dissatisfaction with entry-level jobs and their tendency to change jobs frequently (Wallace 2001). According to Alch (2008), Millennials want a say in how they do their work; they are collaborative and work well within the modern empowered workplace as long as there are enough challenges and opportunities to keep them interested (2005).

9.4 Lifestyle and Workplace Characteristics by Generation

197

9.4 Lifestyle and Workplace Characteristics by Generation According to Hammill (2005), in order to understand and consider the similarities and differences that exists among diverse generations, it is essential to first understand their underlying values and personal lifestyle characteristics that seem to correspond with each generation as highlighted by broad research and literature done in this area (Brack and Kelly 2012; Hansen and Leuty 2012; Karp et al. 2002; Kersten 2002; Lancaster and Stillman 2002; Schullery 2013). The personal and lifestyle characteristics by generation that are found in the literature as outlined by Hammill (2005), and the above authors (Brack and Kelly 2012; Hansen and Leuty 2012; Karp et al. 2002; Kersten 2002; Lancaster and Stillman 2002; Schullery 2013) are outlined in Table 9.1. The characteristics listed above have been found in the literature (Brack and Kelly 2012; Hammill 2005; Hansen and Leuty 2012; Murphy 2010; Sago 2000; Schullery 2013; Walston 1999; Zemke et al. 2000) through different research studies. Hammill (2005) argues that not every person in a generation will share all of the various characteristics with others in the same generation. There are general patterns in the relationship between and among family members, friends and people in the workplace. Therefore, Generation X cannot understand what their grandparents mean by the traditional family or what fun it was to spend Christmas together as a family (Hammill 2005; Murphy 2010). Views on education for Veterans and Baby Boomers would be different from Generation X and Generation Y. Managers, HR practitioners, and organisational leaders understanding these characteristics about individuals make it easier to look at workplace characteristics and how they manifest themselves in business (Table 9.2).

Table 9.1 Personal and lifestyle characteristics by generation Characteristics

Veterans (1922–1945)

Baby Boomers (1946–1964)

Generation X (1965–1980)

Generation Y or Millennial (1981–2000)

Core values

Respect for authority Conformers Discipline

Optimism Involvement

Scepticism Fun Informality

Realism Confidence Extreme fun Social

Family

Traditional Nuclear

Disintegrating

Latch-key kids

Merged families

Education

A dream

A birthright

A way to get there

An incredible expense

Communication media

Rotary phones One-on-one Write a memo

Touch-tone phones Call me anytime

Cell phones Call me only at work

Internet picture phones Email

Dealing with money

Put it away Pay cash

Buy now, pay later

Cautious Conservative Save, save, save

Earn to spend

198

9 Multigenerational Workforce and Well-Being in the …

Table 9.2 Workplace characteristics by generation Characteristics

Veterans (1922–1945)

Baby Boomers (1946–1964)

Generation X (1965–1980)

Generation Y or Millennial (1981–2000)

Work ethic and values

Hard work Respect authority Sacrifice Duty before fun Adhere to rules

Workaholics Work efficiently Crusading causes Personal fulfilment Desire quality Question authority

Eliminate the task Self-reliance Want structure and direction Sceptical

What’s next multitasking Tenacity Entrepreneurial Tolerance Goal oriented

Work is…

An obligation

An exciting adventure

A difficult challenge A contract

A means to an end fulfilment

Leadership style

Directive Command-and-control

Consensual Collegial

Everyone is the same Challenge others Ask why

Achievement Pulling together Knowledgeable Coaching Collaborative

Interactive style

Individual

Team player Loves to have meetings

Entrepreneur

Participative

Communications

Formal Memo

In person

Direct Immediate

Email Voice mail

Feedback and rewards

No news is good news Satisfaction in a job well done

Don’t appreciate it Money Title recognition

Sorry to interrupt, but how am I doing? Freedom is the best reward

Whenever I want it, at the push of a button Meaningful work

Message that motivates

Your experience is respected

You are valued You are needed

Do it your way Forget the rules

You will work with other bright, creative people

Work and family life

Never the twain shall meet

No balance Work to live

Balance

Balance

9.5 The Changing Nature of Work

199

9.5 The Changing Nature of Work The financial crisis of 2008 led to numerous factors affecting nations, businesses as well as employees, posing a significant number of challenges (i.e. downsizing of companies, increased job insecurity, increased workloads, and workplaces stress) for organisational leaders and HR practitioners in terms of the impact of employee well-being (Kowalski and Loretto 2017). The changing nature of the workplace is likely to cause increased challenges to employers, employees, and stakeholders as organisations try to navigate the introduction of new technologies, to remain sustainable, competitive, with increase diversity in the workplace (Burke and Cooper 2008), and productive as well as to keep employees health and well-being and performance to their highest potential (Burke and Cooper 2008; Day et al. 2014). Other key shifts in the workplace are a move away from permanent contracts and a shift towards less routine systems, such as temporary and zero-hour contracts, allowing for greater flexibility for workers, working from home (Chen and Cooper 2014), increased worklife balance initiatives, intensified workloads as employees are required to do more with less (Kelliher and Anderson 2010). Based on these challenges and this grim climate, there is no doubt that the promotion and maintenance of employee well-being would be something that employers should invest in but something that can be illafforded at present (Kowalski and Loretto 2017). Furthermore, Morris (2004) states that change is incremental rather than transformational and is visible in workplaces globally. The implications of these changes for HR professionals and organisational leaders have challenges in the way of attracting, motivating, and retaining employees in an ongoing unpredictable economic and political climate (Kowalski and Loretto 2017). The sustainability of the twenty-first-century workforce must be a priority for the organisational leaders, in particular for the multigenerational workforce (Gibson et al. 2009) and a greater understanding of what well-being means to different stakeholders in different contexts and how it can be enhanced can only serve to increase the likelihood of sustainability and well-being at work (Kowalski and Loretto 2017).

9.6 Benefits and Managing a Multigenerational Workforce It is important for managers, HR practitioners, and organisational leaders to understand and embrace the benefits of a multigenerational workforce working together for business sustainability and the bottom line. A positive, inclusive work culture can lead to business success by enhancing recruitment, retention, and profitability (Murphy 2010). Managers of a multigenerational workforce can work alongside HR practitioners to attract and retain talented people of all ages. This diverse pool of talented people can benefit the organisation through more flexibility individually and in teams. The organisation can also benefit by gaining and maintaining greater market share because its employees reflect a multigenerational society and market. This also demonstrates that the organisation is a good corporate citizen and will make

200

9 Multigenerational Workforce and Well-Being in the …

them more attractive to potential new talent. Collaboration and engagement with a multigenerational workforce are likely to be robust resulting in more innovative and creative ideas that can shared to facilitate more comprehensive decision making and strategic positioning and functioning. From a productivity and growth perspective, a multigenerational workforce can work to the advantage of the organisation’s bottom line by assisting the organisation to meet the needs of a diverse public of all ages as they can relate to each age cohort group more appropriately. Managers who are responsible for managing a multigenerational workforce should clearly understand the benefits of such a diverse workforce to their teams and by extension the organisation. Managers who are responsible for managing a multigenerational workforce are likely to require demonstrating strong emotional intelligence principles to be successful in managing generations. Murphy (2010) suggests that managers who are responsible for managing a multigenerational workforce should initiate conversations about generations to remove stereotypes and judgements that may exist; they can also initiate conversations that ask people about their needs and preferences and offer options that will allow a mix of generations and a diverse workforce to work together successfully. Murphy (2010) further argues which is echoed by Weston (2001) that managers should personalise their leadership styles to be more flexible, learn about preferences of others on the team, and find creative ways to meet their team’s expectations. Managers should also build on strengths and recognise the strength of each individual rather than trying to blend in with the rest of the team. Managers should also pursue different perspectives and work towards developing and maintaining an inclusive, fair, and respectful work environment that goes beyond tolerance. For example, managers can choose and include a mix of generations, and ethnic and cultural diverse people to work together on work projects. This generational and diverse cohort blend is likely to produce success as it creates an opportunity for inspiration, originality, innovation, and creativity that is likely to benefit employees, the organisation, and its customers.

9.7 Well-Being at Work There are many different definitions to employee well-being in the literature, and the notion of employee well-being has been defined and measured broadly as employee engagement, job satisfaction, or in contrast, in terms of ‘burnout’ that shows the multidimensional definitions used to describe employee well-being at work. There remains much scope as it relates to well-being across diverse disciplines and organisational context, yet it has been argued that to try to create one singular definition of well-being may in fact be more obstructive than helpful and too simplistic (Kowalski and Loretto 2017). Even further, to explore the definition of well-being from the three generations at work (i.e. Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Millennials or Generation Y) requires additional research, which this study seeks to contribute to this gap. There are innumerable definitions and dimensions of employee well-being in the academic literature. Well-being has been distinguished between ‘eudemonic’ and

9.7 Well-Being at Work

201

‘hedonic’ well-being (Ryan and Deci 2001), differentiating between ‘feeling good’ and ‘functioning well’ (Huppert 2009). The Chartered Institute of Personnel Development (CIPD) defines well-being at work as ‘creating an environment to promote a state of contentment which allows an employee to flourish and achieve their full potential for the benefit of themselves and their organization’ (CIPD 2007). Wellbeing is also commonly referred to as physical, psychological, and social (Grant et al. 2007), and financial (CIPD 2019). For the sake of well-being models, it has been conceptualised through the job demand, and control model (Karasek 1979) was the first used to examine the variables affecting well-being at work with the model later being amended to include ‘social support’ dimension (Karasek and Theorell 1990) and more recently, job demand-resource model (Bakker and Demerouti 2007) that was further developed to differentiate between challenges and hindrance demands (Crawford et al. 2010; Van den Broeck et al. 2010). At the centre of these theories is the notion that being equipped with appropriate resources can help offset the potential adverse effects of high job demands in the workplace. Therefore, HR professionals and organisational leaders have to develop practices that consider supporting employees to develop resources to effectively manage the demands of the job and consequently their overall well-being at work. According to Kowalski and Loretto (2017), developing and sustaining well-being requires a clear understanding of HR practices and policies in terms of what practices are offered, but also in terms of how these are designed, delivered, and evaluated. Literature exploring the link between HRM and performance shows extensive research has been conducted highlighting the business case for investing in employee wellbeing and shows a clear link between HRM practices and well-being (Guest 2002), and more importantly for organisations, between HRM, well-being, and performance can provide practitioners and organisational leaders with the information they require to encourage the investment in resources to promote employees’ health and wellbeing in the workplace (Chen and Cooper 2014; Ford et al. 2011; Paauwe 2009). Despite the research that has been conducted in these areas, Guest (2011) claims that there are still gaps in our knowledge and questions to be answered. Wall and Wood (2005), for example, also comment on the need for stronger research methods and on a larger scale if understanding of the relationship is to be advanced. Boselie et al. (2005) argue that well-being is not consistently included in empirical investigations around HRM and performance relationship or theoretical conceptualisations. There are a number of studies that focused on the relationship between HRM and wellbeing (Appelbaum 2002; Baptiste 2007); there are few studies that explored the triadic relationship between HRM, well-being, and performance, making it difficult to draw conclusions about this relationship. However, recent reviews by Van de Voorde et al. (2012), Peccei et al. (2013), and Boxall et al. (2016) have served to redress this balance and to bring well-being ‘centre stage’ and to encourage researchers to embed well-being into these debates (Kowalski and Loretto 2017). Van de Voorde et al. (2012) research focused on quantitative studies using happiness, health, and relationships as dimensions of employee well-being, highlighting that there remains a lack of consensus regarding the relationship between HRM, well-being, and performance. Peccei (2004) research highlighted the distinction of mutual gains versus

202

9 Multigenerational Workforce and Well-Being in the …

conflicting outcomes remaining undetermined. The mutual gains perspective, as a more optimistic model, suggests that HRM enhances both employee well-being and organisation performance. In contrast, the conflicting outcomes perspective or pessimistic model suggests that while HRM benefits organisational outcomes such as performance, employees can lose out in terms of well-being. In this case, Kowalski and Loretto (2017) state that a trade-off situation could be experienced whereby HR practitioners face the dilemma of deciding on a pathway to pursue which distinguishes between practices which may serve to enhance organisational performance, and a different set of practices which might enhance employee well-being. Kowalski and Loretto (2017) further argue that context can determine in terms of what motivates employees to engage in some HR practices over others, but also the issue of employee perceptions of these practices, and of the motivations they attribute to the implementation of these practices is pertinent as this can influence the extent to which the practices in place are effective (Bowen and Ostroff 2004; Nishii et al. 2008) and whether they are likely to have a positive or negative effect on employee well-being (Edgar et al. 2017). Peccei et al. (2013) argue that complexities and complications exist by a multitude of contextual and contingency factors that influence the relationships among HRM, employee well-being, and organisational performance. Furthermore, the changing nature of work and the subsequent changing role of HR as well as the roles of managers and organisational leaders can serve to complicate decision making and observed relationships even further. Moreover, Kowalski and Loretto (2017) also point out that barriers and challenges may be faced by organisational leaders in an effort to improve employee well-being as they try to integrate the issue around which HR practices and policies that should be offered and implemented.

9.8 Challenges to Sustaining Employee Well-Being There are barriers that can exist in the workplace to hinder the enhancement of employee well-being in the workplace. As such, it is important to understand the workplace itself. The changing nature of work poses challenges for HR professionals and organisational leaders to manage but also for sustainability of well-being within the current and future workforce more broadly (Kowalski and Loretto 2017). Challenges may include the rapidly advancing technologies affecting how we work, what work we do, and how we communicate and interact with colleagues. Even further, the new and emerging robotics in the workplace and the use of even faster technology are changing the world of work and the daily functioning of employees within organisations. The changes in the workplace influence long-standing risk factors such as high workload (Chen and Cooper 2014), mental ill-health (Day et al. 2014), bullying and harassment (Woodrow and Guest 2014), workplace violence (Braverman 1999; Whitmore 2011), destructive/toxic leadership (Boddy 2011; Schyns and Schilling 2013), cyberbullying (Coyne et al. 2016), and the increased pressure on organisations to outperform competitors and to remain viable in these pressured economic

9.8 Challenges to Sustaining Employee Well-Being

203

times, recession, and organisational downsizing and restructuring. These challenges prove important to manage employee well-being but are contrasted with an environment of restricted resources, reduced security, and stability of working environments (Kowalski and Loretto 2017). Literature shows that larger organisations are likely to have more resources to pursue and invest in well-being interventions compared with smaller organisations. Mallett and Wapshott (2017) noted that these issues provide further rationale for why a ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach may be ineffective in managing employee wellbeing. Advances in HRM research emphasise the importance of various aspects of implantation process for interventions (e.g. who, when, how, and to what extent) to securing better individual and organisational outcomes (Nielsen 2013; Woodrow and Guest 2014). Much of the research into well-being at work is at the individual level and, as such, investigates ways in which individual employees can understand and manage their own well-being better. Kowalski and Loretto (2017) further argue that the research in this area is important and worthwhile; however, this continuing spotlight on individuals and the individual response to working conditions cast a shadow over looking at the broader organisational and contextual issues which can serve to also influence well-being at work. They propose therefore that a holistic approach, as investigated and advocated by Loretto et al. (2005), would be a useful lens through which to pursue research in this field. ACAS (2012) purports that there should be a joint responsibility (i.e. employees and organisations) when it comes to the managing well-being at work.

9.9 Methodology In this study, data was collected using semi-structured interviews and focus groups with employees, union, managers, and executive directors from twelve diverse industries in the USA, Canada, UK, Europe, and the Caribbean. A mixed qualitative methodological approach was adopted for this study. A qualitative methodology is appropriate for addressing the research questions with the aim of understanding the experiences, perspectives, and meaning attached to the research questions (Silverman 1993). Thirty-six in-person semi-structured interviews were completed with employees, union, managers, and executive directors from twelve diverse organisational industries. The semi-structured interviews lasted 45–60 min were tape-recorded and transcribed verbatim. The two focus groups lasted 45–60 min, one with managers and executive directors only and the second with union representatives and employees only. A purposive sample was taken from employees, union, management, and executive director employees from diverse occupational sectors (i.e. education, health, finance, forestry, public sector, social work, first nations, not-for-profit, hospitality, legal, information technology, and retail). This sample is part of a wider set of participants from a broader research that focused on employees’ reactions and perspectives of HRM practices, the quality of working life, line management leadership, and

204

9 Multigenerational Workforce and Well-Being in the …

well-being at work. Patton (2002) states that purposive sampling is typically used in qualitative research to identify and select the information-rich cases for the most proper utilisation of available resources from individuals that are well informed with a phenomenon of interest (Creswell and Plano Clark 2011). According to Miles and Huberman (1994), purposive sampling allows the researcher to concentrate on people with particular characteristics who will better be able to assist with the relevant research (Etiken et al. 2016). The number of males that participated in the study was 11 which represented 30.56% of the sample compared to 25 females that represented 69.44% of the sample. 63.89% of the respondents were American/Canadian/UK/European Caucasian, 13.89% were African American/Canadian/Caribbean, 5.56% were from Canadian first nations, and 16.67% identified as other. Respondents’ age ranged from 20 to 65 and over, had attained qualifications of a certificate and above to Ph.D. level, worked full-time, reported a range of incomes between $10,000.00 and $70,000.00 plus per annum, and held a variety of tenures with their respective organisation that ranged from 5 to 20 years. Interviews lasted for 45–60 min, were tape-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analysed using hermeneutic phenomenological analysis (HPA) (Van Manen 1994). The study commenced with an initial question: ‘What is your understanding and definition of employee well-being at work?’ The interview schedule covered three broad topics: (1) Defining individual well-being at work; (2) What is your individual well-being at work need preference; (3) What can your employer improve to sustain your happiness, health, and wellbeing at work? Respondents were asked to respond based on their own experiences and priorities as employees, rather than from an espoused practice point of view. Initial transcripts were reviewed through immersion in the data to establish an orienting gestalt that drove later coding. Interviews were coded line by line, necessary for thematic analysis. Concepts, themes, and sub-themes were identified. Half of the transcripts were coded separately by an independent researcher to identify emerging themes, and the resulting coding match of 85% provides evidence of reliability in the coding process (Silverman 1993). Final themes were also verified by informants to ensure they appropriately captured the meaning that the informant sought to convey. Data is presented in this chapter in two forms that include rich descriptions and meanings drawn from interview texts and graphical data display. Table 9.3 indicates salient points raised in the interviews (Lyons 2000). While no statistical significance is claimed, the tabular representation of themes has been structured on the assumption that a theme cited by a larger number of interviewees has more importance to the respondents as a whole (Miles and Huberman 1994). The resulting patterns provide an enriched understanding of the factors pertinent to the relationship between employee well-being and multigenerational employees from diverse occupational and industry groups.

9.10 Results

205

9.10 Results 9.10.1 Defining Individual Well-Being at Work Respondents’ definition and perspectives of what factors contribute to the definition of their individual well-being at work clustered into fifteen themes that defined their well-being at work. The respondents defined their well-being at work to include: healthy work environment, appreciation and fulfilment, stress management, job satisfaction, mental health, work-life balance, relational leadership, employee voice and support, safety at work, fair policies and practices, career advancement, good relationships, clear communication, job security, and adequate salary. The results reveal similarities and differences among diverse generation cohort that were used to define their well-being at work. The findings show that all three generations (i.e. Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Millennials) defined their well-being as job satisfaction, appreciation and fulfilment, safety at work, and stress management. Furthermore, there were similarities in definitions of well-being with two generations cohort. Baby Boomers and Generation X defined their well-being as ‘mental health’. The Baby Boomer generation also defined their well-being at work as ‘relational leadership’. Generation X cohort also defined their well-being at work as work-life balance, employee voice and support, good relationships, clear communication, and job security. The Generation Y or Millennial cohort also defined their well-being at work as fair policies and practices, career advancement and adequate salary. Job Satisfaction Happiness and having a fulfilling and enjoyable job and feeling comfortable and happy at work…. not having any complaints about work or at work (Generation Y or Millennial). Satisfaction at work. Enjoying what you do and your work environment. Wellbeing at work is finding fulfillment and satisfaction through your work. I enjoy coming to work and enjoy what I do and being able to achieve my best work with minimal distractions (Baby Boomer). Healthy Work Environment Working in a comfortable work environment. To work in a stress-free environment where I am not overwhelmed. Working in a friendly work environment that is peaceful and the surrounding work environment is satisfying (Generation Y or Millennial). A work environment where you can go to work without any problems. I need to enjoy my work environment as it is important to enjoy your work environment (Generation X).

206

9 Multigenerational Workforce and Well-Being in the …

Working in a good work atmosphere and being in a safe environment that promotes productivity. The employer has a duty of care to provide a safe and healthy environment for all employees (Baby Boomer). Appreciation and Fulfilment The ability to function at your optimum level of productivity. Having the right attitude and being able to get the work done. I believe achieving all of my needs, both physical, social and emotional is a major sense of well-being at work (Generation X). Wellbeing at work is finding fulfillment and satisfaction through you work and knowing that you are respected and appreciated for the work you are doing (Baby Boomer). Knowing that I am respected and appreciated for the work I am doing, as well as having my opinion listened to (Generation Y or Millennial). Work-Life-Balance Having a good work-life-balance not affected by work. Remaining balanced throughout the day and in my life (Generation X). Relational Leadership For me wellbeing at work relates to professionalism from organizational leaders and colleagues. Managers have an open-door policy and are approachable (Boomer). Employee Voice and Support Being able to share your ideas and have your ideas listened to, and to be given the opportunity to contribute towards decision making…also to get help when needed (Generation X). Safety at Work Feeling safe at work. A safe and healthy work environment is where one can grow and develop, feel safe at work and my employers are committed to looking after my welfare and safety at work (Baby Boomer, Generation X and Millennial). Stress Management Being able to effectively deal with stressors and situations that may arise at work. Taking a step back and deciding how to deal with work challenges (Baby Boomer). A workplace that provides opportunities for workers to manage stress. To have minimal stress at work and feeling safe and stress free will promote and enhance my wellbeing at work (Generation X and Millennial).

9.10 Results

207

Mental Health Having a positive attitude at work and an environment that promotes positive mental health of employees (Baby Boomer). Emotional, physical and mental peace that leads to productivity, a healthy mind and proper mental functioning and good relationships (Generation X). Fair Policies and Practices Fair policies, procedures and practices that govern equality and justice in the workplace. To be treated equally at work is my understanding of wellbeing (Millennial). Career Advancement To have the opportunities for career advancement and development in the workplace (Millennial). Good Relationships Good working relationships with colleagues and managers as well as with students defines my wellbeing at work (Generation X). Clear Communication To me, well-being at work relates to clear, effective and consistent communication throughout the organization (Generation X). Job Security To have job security and not having to worry about whether I am going to lose my job defines my wellbeing at work (Generation X). Adequate Salary Being paid adequately for the work that I do, is essential for my wellbeing at work (Millennial) (Table 9.3). Once managers, HR practitioners, and organisational leaders have a better understanding of how these diverse generational cohorts define their well-being at work, they would be in a much better position to respond with best practices and policies that can enhance motivation, engagement, commitment, and productivity among the workforce. This knowledge and understanding can also assist with the strategic development and implementation of initiatives to enhance the workplace culture that will motivate and enhance the well-being of a multigenerational workforce. Murphy (2010) argues that the right combination of policies and practices is the key to the productive, engaged, and age-neutral workforce. Organisations that are highly successful at managing the multigenerational workplace have adopted many of the best practices and benefits. For example, organisations that focus on building a healthy and positive workplace culture by introducing fair and humanistic HR strategies, by

208

9 Multigenerational Workforce and Well-Being in the …

Table 9.3 Definition and understanding of well-being at work Definition and understanding of well-being at work

Generations profiles

Well-being dimensions

Job satisfaction Achievement and fulfilment Stress management Safety at work

Baby Boomers Generation X Generation Y or Millennials

Psychological well-being

Mental health

Baby Boomers Generation X

Psychological well-being Mental health well-being

Relational leadership

Baby Boomers

Social well-being

Work-life balance Employee voice and support Good relationships Clear communication Job security

Generation X

Work/Life well-being Social well-being Work/Organisational well-being

Fair policies and practices Career advancement Adequate salary

Generation Y or Millennials

Career well-being Financial well-being Humanistic and fair practices and well-being

creating an environment where employee opinions are valued, facilitate greater conversations about generational differences, value and embrace fairness and equality are more likely to create an environment that promotes the well-being of employees at work (Murphy 2010). According to the CIPD (2019) health and well-being report, employers that offer flexible working times arrangements and enhance flexible working options, as well as mental health and wellness support and programs, and financial well-being coaching and support are more posed to creating a psychologically healthy environment that will promote the well-being of employees. Career advancement opportunities and opportunities to develop new skills help to retain talented multigenerational workforce (Western 2001). Even further, Murphy (2010) points out that organisations should reward performance and productivity and not just the years spent on the job as a good pay and performance system encourages and rewards productivity without regard for age or seniority. The CIPD (2019) research found that offering employer–employee matching contribution programs, profit sharing, and extended health benefits are also methods that can be adopted to manage the well-being of a multigenerational and diverse workforce in contemporary organisations. The finding shows that the multigenerational workers definition of their wellbeing at work would benefit managers, HR practitioners, and organisational leaders embracing and implementing these strategies that will go a long way in enhance the multigenerational workforce performance, productivity, and sustainability of the organisation and the community it serves.

9.10 Results

209

9.10.2 Generations Well-Being at Work Need Preference Respondents’ perspectives and discussion as it relates to this question revealed similarities and differences among the multigenerational workers as they highlighted their well-being at work need preference. There were similarities in well-being at work need preference for Baby Boomers and Generation X cohorts who viewed ‘Autonomy’ as integral to their well-being need at work. Baby Boomers also shared a similar well-being at work need with Millennials for a ‘Healthy Work Environment’. Similarly, Generation X and Generation Y or Millennials shared commonality in their well-being at work need preference for ‘Stress Management’ and ‘Appreciation and Recognition’. Each generation cohort group also shared differences as it relates to their well-being at work need preference. Baby Boomers well-being at work preference also include safety at work, leadership, sense of purpose, support, and removal of Millennial work encounters. The Generation X cohort well-being at work need preference also entailed shorter working hours, contentment and happiness, training, and nutritious foods. The Generation Y or Millennials cohort shared their well-being at work need preference to also include finances, career advancement, more break times, work relationships, acceptance and involvement, fun at work, and fair treatment. These findings are revealed in more depth below via verbal accounts as well as a tabular collation of the key themes. Finances Good salary and increased wages is important for my overall well-being (Millennials/Gen Y). Safety at Work I will be assigned the night shift soon from 8 p.m. to midnight so safety is important to my well-being (Baby Boomer). Autonomy To avoid micromanaging or any type of helicopter parenting style be adopted at work (Baby Boomer). To have independence at work (Generation X). Leadership My wellbeing need is good and sound management and leadership (Baby Boomer). Stress Management I am currently experiencing work overload to task which can lead to burnout. My wellbeing need will be for my employer to hire additional support so that I am not spread too thin (Millennials, Generation Y). To be able to practice stress management and communicate stress reduction effectively to have a clear stress-free mind (Generation X).

210

9 Multigenerational Workforce and Well-Being in the …

Shorter Working Hours Shorter working hours is my wellbeing need requirement (Generation X). Contentment and Happiness Positive emotions and mood, contentment and happiness (Generation X). Training Training, educational awareness workshops is my wellbeing need (Generation X). Career Advancement Upward mobility and career progression and promotion is my wellbeing at work requirement (Millennial/Generation Y). More Break Time To have more breaks incorporated in the workday. To have ample time to eat lunch and interactions during the lunch hour as well as during breaks (Millennial/Generation Y). Work Relationships To have good working relationships and a healthy work environment is important to my overall wellbeing (Millennial/Generation Y). Appreciation and Recognition Receiving commendation for work done and effort shown. Having proper recognition for the work I put into the company (Generation X). I feel like myself and other staff members are appreciated. It is important to be recognized for the work that you have done (Millennials/Generation Y). Acceptance and Involvement My wellbeing need to is to feel acceptance and to be able to feel part of the organization (Millennials/Gen Y). Sense of Purpose To get my work done in good order, on time and to the highest standard…it’s a sense of fulfilment and purpose for me (Baby Boomer). Healthy Work Environment A good work environment is my wellbeing need (Baby Boomer). A good and healthy work environment with bathroom access is my wellbeing need (Millennials/Generation Y).

9.10 Results

211

Support Support from my colleagues is my wellbeing need (Baby Boomer). Removal of Millennials Work Encounters Not having to deal with Millennials is my wellbeing need and requirement (Baby Boomer). Nutritious Food To have nutritious food at the Canteen at work meets my wellbeing need (Generation X). Fun at Work To have fun at work is my well-being need (Millennials/Generation Y). Fair Treatment To be treated fairly and equally at work promotes my wellbeing (Millennials) (Table 9.4). Table 9.4 Multigenerational well-being at work need preference Well-being at work need preference

Multigenerational profile

Safety at work Autonomy Leadership Sense of purpose Healthy work environment Support Removal of Millennials work encounters

Baby Boomers Generation (1946–1964)

Autonomy Stress management Shorter working hours Contentment and happiness Training Appreciation and recognition Nutritious food in work canteen

Generation X (1965–1980)

Finances Stress management Career advancement More break times Work relationships Appreciation and recognition Fair treatment Acceptance and involvement Healthy work environment Fun at work Fair treatment

Millennials (Generation Y) (1980–2000)

212

9 Multigenerational Workforce and Well-Being in the …

With an understanding of the well-being at work need preference of a multigenerational workforce, managers, HR, and well-being practitioners and organisational leaders will be better equipped to implement the diversity of policies and practices that can address this well-being at work need preferences of different generation cohorts in the workplace. The findings brought out similar factors and requirements in keeping with the best practice HRM literature (Guest 2002) as well as the generations at work literature (Brack and Kelly 2012; Schullery 2013). What should be mentioned here in particular is that a key finding shows that some Baby Boomers do not want to work with their Millennial counterparts. Likewise, Millennials were the only group that wanted to have fun at work and experience fairness at work. Murphy (2010) states that training and development, continuous learning, and mentoring programs will assist organisations to offer training and professional development on generational diversity in a variety of formats (e.g. classroom styles, online, interactive, in meetings, and through coaching and mentoring) to assist managers and work colleagues on how to lead and communicate with their colleagues, subordinates, and customers.

9.11 Employer Improvements to Sustain Happiness, Health, and Well-Being at Work Respondents were asked their perspective on what improvements their respective organisation can implement to sustain their happiness, health, and well-being at work. The findings reveal similarities and differences as it relates to improvements in happiness, health, and well-being from the perspectives of the diverse generational cohorts. All three generations (i.e. Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Millennials) held the view that they would like to see sustained improvements in ‘support initiatives’ for employees as well as ‘reasonable workloads’ to enhance their happiness, health, and well-being at work. The findings also reveal that there were similarities with Baby Boomers and Millennials when it came to ‘Communication and Listening’. Baby Boomers and Generation X held the same view as it relates to ‘leadership development’ and ‘confidentiality’ as integral to the promotion of these two generation groups happiness, health, and well-being at work. Generation X and Millennial generation groups’ perspective was the same as it relates to the improvements in their happiness, health, and well-being at work. These factors include ‘fair remuneration, education and training, fairness at work, work-life balance, appreciation, healthy meals in the canteen, and employee voice and engagement’. The findings also showed differences in perspectives among the three generational cohorts. The overall finding for this research question is shown in Table 9.5.

9.11 Employer Improvements to Sustain Happiness, Health, …

213

Table 9.5 Multigenerational perspectives of organisational improvements to sustain happiness, health, and well-being at work Theme

Verbal account/Perspective

Generational similarities

Fair remuneration

To pay me well and on time…raise my salary as I believe I deserve an increase in salary (Millennials)

Generation X

I would like competitive pay and annual pay increases. Fair remuneration and wages…I would like to have my salary increased (Millennials and Generation X)

Millennials

Be intentional about supporting employees by providing adequate room and services for employees, such as a room for new mothers so they can pump milk, perhaps a TV in the lunchroom etc. (Millennials and Generation X)

Baby Boomers

Good in-house customer and staff support service. Management can have a greater understanding of who you are. They should be there for you to support you when you need it (Generation X)

Generation X

Good support system to manage time and work…its important to encourage and support staff (Baby Boomers)

Millennials

Reasonable workloads

I would like to have more reasonable workloads (Generation X, Millennials; Baby Boomer)

Baby Boomers Generation X Millennials

Communication and listening

Communicates regularly with staff and provide appropriate feedback (Baby Boomer)

Baby Boomers

Listen to my concerns and maintain communication (Millennial/Gen Y)

Millennials

Support initiatives

Generational differences

(continued)

214

9 Multigenerational Workforce and Well-Being in the …

Table 9.5 (continued) Theme

Verbal account/Perspective

Generational similarities

Fairness at work

Fairness at work and fair treatment with respect to wages and remuneration (Generation X and Millennials)

Generation X Millennials

Work-life balance

Good work-life balance opportunities and practices will enhance my health and wellbeing (Generation X and Millennials)

Generation X Millennials

Appreciation

Individuals and celebrated, appreciated for what they do and that staff are encouraged (Generation X and Millennial)

Generation X Millennials

Employee voice and engagement

Ask employees questions about their experiences at work and listen to their responses. Pay attention to my small requests and implement suggestions or explain why they are not possible (Generation X and Millennials)

Generation X Millennials

Leadership development

Get some training for management so that they can develop interpersonal skills so that they can effectively interact with others. There are few employers, managers and organizational leaders that seem to know how to effectively interact with others (Baby Boomer)

Baby Boomers

Train and enhance the skills of line managers so that they can remove factors that stress employees (Generation X)

Generation X

Employers can be more confidential when it comes to interacting with employees regarding private matters (Baby Boomer and Generation X)

Baby Boomers Generation X

Confidentiality

Generational differences

(continued)

9.11 Employer Improvements to Sustain Happiness, Health, …

215

Table 9.5 (continued) Theme

Verbal account/Perspective

Generational similarities

Healthy meals in canteen

To promote and encourage healthy meals to be served at the Staff Canteen (Gen X and Millennial)

Generation X Millennials

Education and training

To be educated and knowledgeable of well-being in the workplace is essential and to ensure that all follow and work through policy and procedures in the workplace (Generation X)

Generation X

To have workshops and training for employees as well as staff days (Millennials)

Millennials

Generational differences

Workplace culture

The energy and culture of the workplace will sustain a good health and wellbeing at work…a comfortable work environment will sustain my health and wellbeing at work (Baby Boomer)

Baby Boomer

Rewards and benefits

Being rewarded with bonuses and having reasonable benefits for employees. Hard work should be rewarded with proper incentives (Millennials)

Millennials

More employee leave

Having staff days and more holidays (Millennials)

Millennials

Fewer interruptions

To have fewer interruptions when working (Baby Boomers)

Baby Boomers

Flexibility at work

Flexibility in workloads and having flexibility at work in all areas as well as working hours (Millennials)

Millennials

(continued)

216

9 Multigenerational Workforce and Well-Being in the …

Table 9.5 (continued) Theme

Verbal account/Perspective

Generational similarities

Generational differences

Trust

Trust in the workplace between employees as well as employers and employees (Generation X)

Generation X

Safety at work

Uphold Safety at work (Baby Boomer)

Baby Boomers

Performance appraisal

I would like to get regular performance appraisals (Generation X)

Generation X

Relationship building

Keep promoting friendship and comradeship among staff…to have good relationship between management and staff. Management needs to care about employees and build good relationships (Millennial)

Millennials

Wellness management

Keep promoting the wellness programs that are in place that employees will be encouraged to participate in these programs (Millennial)

Millennials

Adequate resources

Provide adequate resources to get things done (Baby Boomer)

Baby Boomer

Mental health evaluation

To introduce annual mental health check-ups and evaluation on employees (Millennials)

Millennials

Eradicate victimisation

Stop victimizing employees for being vocal about issues (Millennial)

Millennials

Recreation

To have recreation for employees, this will promote staff wellbeing (Millennial)

Millennials

Respect

I would like my employer to respect me (Baby Boomer)

Baby Boomer

9.12 Discussion and Conclusion

217

9.12 Discussion and Conclusion Given the overall findings of this study managers, HR and wellness practitioners and organisational leaders will have additional understanding and insight as it relates to how a multigenerational workforce defines their well-being at work, points out their individual well-being at work need preference and the factors that they would like their employers to consider to enhance their happiness, health and well-being at work. This information can be used by organisations for the development and implementation of policies, practices, and programs that can work towards enhancing individual performance, organisational productivity and the bottom line, customer satisfaction, increased market share, and sustainability of the organisation. The findings from this research can also assist organisations to be ahead of the curve and knowledge based for the management, promotion, and maintenance of well-being at work of a multigenerational workforce and future customer base. This study revealed the HRM practices that these multigenerational workers prefer for the promotion and maintenance of their well-being at work. These practices include: fair remuneration, training and development, performance appraisals, communication, work-life balance, employee voice and engagement, and rewards and benefits. With the challenges experienced with the changing nature of the world of work, it is essential for HR practitioners and managers to determine what motivates employees and to engage in some HR practices over others (Kowalski and Loretto 2017). Moreover, Kowalski and Loretto (2017) also state that a trade-off situation could be experienced whereby HR practitioners face the dilemma of deciding on a pathway to pursue which distinguishes between practices which may serve to enhance organisational performance and a different set of practices which might enhance employee well-being. The findings also reveal the importance of keeping the knowledge of what motivates and can potentially retain a multigenerational workforce at the forefront of strategic decisions like career advancement opportunities, and recruitment and selection of new talent. Murphy (2010) states that hiring decisions and promotion decisions that are made by mixed generational groups tend to result diverse generations bringing insightful intervention to decisions, as well as in new hires from various generations.

9.13 Implications for Managers, HR Practitioners, and Organisational Leaders There are many challenges facing managers, HR practitioners, and organisational leaders today as they have to deal with the changing nature of the world of work, along with the diversity of the workforce and the focus of this chapter, the different generations at work. The holistic diversity of employees at work entails gender, religion, ethnicity, age, and various generational values that are found in the workplace today. The findings from this study reveal that there are similarities and differences that exist among Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y or Millennials, but

218

9 Multigenerational Workforce and Well-Being in the …

the reader should be cautioned against over generalising or stereotyping any given individual by virtue of his/her membership in a particular generational cohort. It is therefore important to be sensitive to the general differences in order to bridge the generation gap. Gibson et al. (2009) argue that just as cultural sensitivity to other diverse factors is important to effect management, so too is an appreciation for the differences that exist among workers because of their age-related value systems. The Baby Boomer Generation is found in senior and high-level positions throughout most of the organisations and respondents that participated in this study. The literature highlights that Baby Boomers is a huge cohort of individuals and is characterised by hard work, resistance to authority, and a feeling of having earned the right to be in charge (Solnet et al. 2012). Managers, HR, and wellness practitioners and organisational leaders can likely motive them with money and overtime, recognise them with praise and position, and expect them to be loyal and committed to the organisation and their jobs. Unlike the generation before them, they embrace change and will champion a good cause (Gibson et al. 2009). The findings from this research show that the Baby Boomer generations preferred relational leadership, safety at work, autonomy, a sense of purpose, a healthy work environment, support, preferred not to work with Millennial colleagues, reasonable workloads, fewer interruptions, effective communication, workplace culture, adequate resources, leadership development, confidentiality, and respect as factors that can promote and sustain their well-being at work. As these Baby Boomers retire from the workforce, they will be replaced by Generation X. Generation X, however, reflects the independence and self-reliance they earned as children and tend to be suspicious and cynical (Brunetto et al. 2011). They value family-work balance more than the other two generations and are not particularly loyal to their employer because they do not expect their employer to be loyal to them (Gibson et al. 2009). Managers should try to make work meaningful and fun for this cohort and understand their scepticism for what it is a reflection of their honest observations about the relationship between employer and employee. Managers can use the findings from this research to better understand, manage, and support their Generation X employees. This generation cohort defined and expressed their wellbeing at work using the following factors that include: work-life balance, employee voice and support, good relationships, clear communication, job security, autonomy, stress management, shorter working hours, contentment and happiness, training, appreciation and recognition, nutritious food in work canteen, fair remuneration, reasonable workloads, fairness at work, trust, performance appraisals, appreciation, leadership development, and confidentiality. Generation Y or Millennials are the children of Baby Boomers and, as such, elicit the same incongruity of values that one expect between parents and children (Gibson et al. 2009). The Millennials personify all the technological savvy, social media networking, and constant connectedness that drives Baby Boomers crazy, and they bring to the workplace their need for instant gratification and a sense of entitlement (Haynes 2011). Managers should try to make work exciting and relevant for this group, being careful to show them verifiable career opportunities if they exist. Where Baby Boomers will do their job and like to be left alone, Generation Y or Millennials

9.13 Implications for Managers, HR Practitioners, and …

219

wants attention and feedback. The findings from this study reveal that Millennials perspectives regarding their the promotion and enhancement of their well-being at work include fair policies and practices, career advancement, fair remuneration, stress management, more break times, work relationships, appreciation and recognition, acceptance and involvement, healthy working environment, fun at work, fair treatment, supported, rewards and benefits, education and training, more employee leave, flexibility at work, communication, work-life balance, wellness programs, mental health evaluation, eradicate victimisation, healthy meals in work canteen, employee voice and engagement, and recreation. In conclusion, this chapter asked the research questions (definition of well-being, what is your well-being at work need preference, and how can your employer enhance your happiness, health and well-being at work?) These questions were answered through empirical research to explore the similarities and differences between three generations at work (i.e. Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y or Millennials). Managers, HR, and wellness practitioners and organisational leaders can use the findings from this research to leverage the generations important commonalities and differences to ensure that the leaders understand these similarities and differences to create a work environment (i.e. that will focus on personal fulfilment and satisfaction, workplace culture, flexibility, fairness, career, work-life balance, development to name a few) that is healthy and will support each generational cohort, the organisation achievement of strategic goals as well as the customers that are served. Moving Forward. The researcher was unable to cover all areas that relates to a multigenerational workforce and employee well-being at work. As such, the research suggests future research that will explore a triadic relationship between a multigenerational workforce, employee well-being, and performance. Additional research areas that can be explored are the relationship between multigenerational workers with visible and non-visible disabilities and employee well-being at work, and the relationship between multigenerational workers that are veterans and their well-being at work.

References AARP. (2004). Baby boomers, envision retirement II: Survey of baby boomers’ expectation for retirement, Washington DC, September 2004. Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service (ACAS). (2012). Health, work and wellbeing booklet. London: Author, March 2012. Alch, M. L. (2008). Get ready for a new type of worker in the workplace: The next generation. Supervision, 69(6), 18–21. Appelbaum, E. (2002). The impact of new forms of work organization on workers. In G. Murray, J. Belanger, A. Giles, & P. A. Lapointe (Eds.), Work employment relations in the high-performance workplace (pp. 120–148). London: Continuum. Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2007). The job demands-resources model: State of the art. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22, 309–328.

220

9 Multigenerational Workforce and Well-Being in the …

Baptiste, N. R. (2007). Line management leadership: Implications for employee well-being. In: G. P. Clarkson (Ed.), Developing leadership research. Papers from the Northern Leadership Academy Fellow 2007 Conference (pp. 229–238). Leeds: Leeds University Business School, Leeds University Press Financial Services. Baptiste, N. R. (2008). Line management leadership: Implications for employee well being at work. Developing Leadership Research: Papers from the Northern Leadership Academy Fellows 2007 Conference. UK: Leeds University Business School, Leeds University Press. Baptiste, N. R. (2009). Fun at well-being: Insights from senior managers in a local authority. Employee Relations, 31, 600–612. Black, C. (2008). Working for a healthier tomorrow: Dame Carol Black’s review of the health of Britain’s working age population. London: The Stationery Office. Boddy, C. R. (2011). Corporate psychopaths, bullying and unfair supervision in the workplace. Journal of Business Ethics, 100, 367–379. Boselie, P., Dietz, G., & Boon, C. (2005). Commonalities and contradictions in HRM and performance research. Human Resource Management Journal, 15, 67–94. Boxall, P., Guthrie, J. P., & Paauwe, J. (2016). Editorial introduction: Progressing our understanding of the mediating variables linking HRM, employee well-being and organisational performance. Human Resource Management Journal, 26, 103–111. Bowen, D. E., & Ostroff, C. (2004). Understanding HRM-firm performance linkages: The role of the ‘strength’ of the HRM system. Academy of Management Review, 29, 203–221. Brack, J., & Kelly, K. (2012). Maximizing Millennials in the workplace. UNC Kenan-Flagler Business School. www.execdev.unc.edu. Accessed September 20, 2019. Braverman, M. (1999). Preventing workplace violence: A guide for employers and practitioners. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Brunetto, Y., Farr-Wharton, R., & Shacklock, K. (2011). Communication, training and well-being, and commitment across nurse generations. Science Direct Nursing Outlook, 60(2012), 7–15. Burke, R. J., & Cooper, C. L. (2008). Building more effective organizations: HR management and performance in practice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD). (2007). Absence management survey. London: Author. Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD). (2019). Health and well-being at work. In Partnership with Simply Health, April 2019, championing better work and working lives. Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development, London. Chen, R. Y., & Cooper, C. L. (2014). Work and wellbeing (Vol. III, Edited). West Sussex: Wiley Blackwell. Coyne, I., Farley, S., Axtell, C., Sprigg, C., Best, L., & Kwok, O. (2016). Understanding the relationship between experiencing workplace cyberbullying, employee mental strain and job satisfaction: A disempowerment approach. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 28, 945–972. Crampton, S. M., & Hodge, J. W. (2007). Generations in the workplace: Understanding age diversity. The Business Review, Cambridge, 9(1), 16–23. Crawford, E. R., LePine, J. A., & Rich, B. L. (2010). Linking job demands and resources to employee engagement and burnout: A theoretical extension and meta-analytic test. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 834–848. Cresswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed method research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Day, A., Kelloway, K. E., & Hurrell, J. J. (2014). Workplace well-being: How to build psychologically health workplaces (Edited). West Sussex: Wiley. Duckworth, A. L. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and passion for long-term goals. University of Pennsylvania. Edgar, F., Geare, A., Saunders, D., Beacker, M., & Faanunu, I. (2017). A transformative service research agenda: A study of workers’ well-being. The Service Industries Journal, 37, 84–104.

References

221

Egri, C., & Ralston, D. (2004). Generation cohorts and personal values: A comparison of China and the US. Organization Science, 15, 210–220. Eisner, S. P. (2005, Autumn). Managing Generation Y. SAM Advanced Management Journal, 70(4), 4 p. Etiken, I., Abubaker, S., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1), 1–4. Ferres, N., Travaglione, A., & Firns, I. (2003). Attitudinal differences between generation-x and older employees. International Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 6, 320–333. Ford, M. T., Cerasoli, C. P., Higgins, J. A., & Decesare, A. L. (2011). Relationships between psychological, physical, and behavioural health and work performance: A review and meta analysis. Work and Stress, 25, 185–204. Gibson, J. W., Greenwood, R.A., & Murphy, F. E. (2009). Generational differences in the workplace: Personal values, behaviours, and popular beliefs. Journal of Diversity Management, Third Quarter, 4(3). Grant, A., Christianson, M., & Price, R. (2007). Happiness, health or relationships? managerial practices and employee well-being tradeoffs. The Academy of Management, 21(3), 51–63. Guest, D. (2002). Human resource management, corporate performance and employee wellbeing: Building the worker in to HRM. The Journal of Industrial Relations, 44, 335–358. Guest, D. E. (2011). Human resource management and performance: Still searching for some answers. Human Resource Management Journal, 21, 3–13. Health and Safety Executive. (2007). Managing stress at work—A competency framework for line managers. London: CIPD/HSE. Hammill, G. (2005). Mixing and managing four generations of employees. FDU Magazine Online, Winter/Spring 2005. https://www.fdu.edu/newspubs/magazine/05ws/generations.htm. Accessed October 1, 2019. Hansen, J.-I. C., & Leuty, M. E. (2012). Work values across generations. Journal of Career Assessment, 20(1):34–52. Haynes, B. (2011). The impact of generational differences on the workplace. Journal of Corporate Real Estate, 13(2), 98–108. Hewitt, A. (2015). A business case for workers age 50+: A look at the value of experience. A report prepared for AARP. www.aarp.org/research. Huppert, F. A. (2009). Psychological well-being: Evidence regarding its causes and consequences. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 1, 137–164. Investors in People. (2017). Improving performance with workplace well-being. Investors in People e-book. Published online February, 2017. Retrieved from https://www.investorsinpeople.com/ resources/ideas-and-inspiration/improving-performanceworkplace-wellbeing. Accessed August 2, 2019. Johnson, J. A., & Lopes, J. (2008). The Intergenerational workforce revisited. Organizational Development Journal, 26(1), 31–37. Karasek, R., & Theorell, T. (1990). Healthy work: Stress, productivity, and the reconstruction of working life. New York, NY: Basic Books. Karasek, R. A., Jr. (1979). Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, 285–308. Karp, H., Fuller, C., & Sirias, D. (2002). Bridging the boomer Xer gap: Creating authentic teams for high performance at work. Palo Alto, CA: Davies-Black Publishing. Kehrli, S., & Sopp, T. (2006). Managing Generation Y. HR Magazine, 51(5), 113–117. Kelliher, C., & Anderson, D. (2010). Doing more with less? Flexible working practices and the intensification of work. Human Relations, 63, 83–106. Kersten, D. (2002). Today’s generations face new communications gap. USA Today, November 15. Kowalski, H. P., & Loretto, W. (2017). Wellbeing and HRM in the changing workplace. The International Journal of Human Resources Management, 28(16), 2229–2255. Lancaster, L. C., & Stillman, D. (2002). When generations collide: Who they are, why they clash, How to solve the generational puzzle at work. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc.

222

9 Multigenerational Workforce and Well-Being in the …

Leyden, P., Teixeira, R., & Greenberg, E. (2007). The progressive politics of the millennial generation. New Politics Institute. https://www.ndn.org/paper/2007/progressive-politics-millennialgeneration. Accessed August 21, 2019. Loretto, W., Popham, F., Platt, S., Pavis, S., Hardy, G., MacLeod, G., & Gibbs, J. (2005). Assessing psychological well-being: A holistic investigation of NHS employees. International Review of Psychiatry, 17, 329–336. Lyons, E. (2000). Qualitative data display: Data display model. In C. Fife-Schaw (Ed.), Research methods in psychology (pp. 269–280). London: Sage. Lyons, S., Duxburg, L., & Huggins, C. (2005). Are gender differences in basic human values a generational phenomenon? Sex Roles Journal, 53(9/10). Mallett, O., & Wapshott, R. (2017). Small business revivalism: Employment relations in small and medium sized enterprises. Work, Employment and Society, E-special issue, 1–8. Published online—March 2017. Mannheim, K. (1953). Essays on sociology and social psychology. New York: Oxford University Press. Massey, M. (2005). What you are is where you were when—Again!. Cambridge, MA: Enterprise Media. McNamara, S. A. (2005). Incorporating generational diversity. AORN Journal, The Official Voice of Perioperative Nursing, 81(6), 1149–1152. Merrill, D. (2008). Boomers pass the workplace torch. The Lane Report, 23(5), 34 plus. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Morris, J. (2004). The future of work: Organizational and international perspectives. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 15, 263–275. Murphy, E. F., Jr., Greenwood, R., Ruiz-Gutierrez, J., Manyak, T. G., Mujtaba, B., & Uy, A. (2006, August). Generational value changes: Their history and a cross-cultural empirical test. Paper presented at the Academy of Management Meeting, Atlanta, Georgia. Murphy, S. A. (2010). Leading a multi-generational workforce. AARP. file:///F:/A_ACADEMIC%20BOOK/AA_MAIN%20ACADEMIC%20JOURNALS/GENERA TIONAL%20WORKFORCE%20AND%20WELLBEING/Leading%20a%20Generation%20 workforce.pdf. Accessed October 2 2019. Nielsen, K. (2013). Review article: How can we make organizational interventions work? Employees and line managers as actively crafting interventions. Human Relations, 66, 1029–1050. Nishii, L. H., Lepak, D. P., & Schneider, B. (2008). Employee attributions of the ‘why’ of HR practices: Their effects on employee attitudes and behaviors, and customer satisfaction. Personnel Psychology, 61, 503–545. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2015). How’s life? 2015: Measuring well-being. Paris: Author. Paauwe, J. (2009). HRM and performance: Achievements, methodological issues and prospects. Journal of Management Studies, 46, 129–142. Patota, N., Schwartz, D., & Schwartz, T. (2007). Leveraging generational differences for productivity gains. Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge, 11(2), 1–11. Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Peccei, R. (2004). Human resource management and the search for the happy workplace. Inaugural address. Erasmus Research Institute of Management (ERIM), Rotterdam. Peccei, R. E., Van de Voorde, K. C., & Van Veldhoven, M. (2013). HRM, wellbeing and performance: A theoretical and empirical review. In J. Paauwe, D. E. Guest, & P. M. Wright (Eds.), Human resource management and performance (pp. 15–46). Chichester: Wiley. Porter, M. E. (1990). Competitive advantage of nations: Creating and sustaining superior performance. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster. Robertson, I., & Cooper, C. (2011). Well-being: Productivity and happiness at work. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

References

223

Rottier, A. (2001). Generation 2001: Loyalty and values—Generation X and work. Workforce. https://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_mOFXS/is_10_80/ai_7935245?tag=rbxcra.2.a.3. Accessed September 20, 2019. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 141–166. Sackett, O. (2017). Grit: The will to overcome. A characteristic that winners share and how to instil and nurture it in your team. Virgin Pulse Data Scientist 2017. www.virginpulse.com. Sago, B. (2000). Uncommon threads: Mending the generation gap at work. Executive Update, July 2000. Schullery, N. M. (2013). Workplace engagement and generational differences in values. Business Communication Quarterly, 76(2), 252–265. Schyns, B., & Schilling, J. (2013). How bad are the effects of bad leaders? A meta-analysis of destructive leadership and its outcomes. The Leadership Quarterly, 24, 138–158. Silverman, D. (1993). Interpreting qualitative data: Methods for analysing talk. Text and Interaction. London: Sage Publications. Solnet, S., Kralj, A., & Kandampully, J. (2012). Generation Y employees: An examination of work attitude differences. The Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship, 17(3), 36–54. Sorenson, S. (2003). How employee engagement drives growth. Gallup Workplace, Accessed June 20, 2013. Stoltz, P. G. (2014). Grit: The new science of what it takes to persevere, flourish, and succeed. Climb Strong Press. Strauss, W., & Howe, N. (1997). The fourth turning: What the cycles of history tell us about America’s next rendezvous with destiny. New York: Broadway Books. Streeter, B. (2007). Welcome to the new workplace. ABC Banking Journal, 99(2), 6–7. Stuenkel, D., Cohen, J., & de la Cuesta, K. (2005). The Multigenerational nursing workforce: Essential differences in perception of work environment. Nursing Journal of Administration, 35, 283–285. Trunk, P. (2007). What Generation Y really wants. https://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0. 917131640395.00.html. Accessed October 1, 2019. United Nations. (2015). Sustainable development goals. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/ sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/. Accessed October 1, 2019. Van de Voorde, K. C., Paauwe, J., & van Veldhoven, M. (2012). Employee well-being and the HRM–organizational performance relationship: A review of quantitative studies. International Journal of Management Reviews, 14, 391–407. Van den Broeck, A., De Cuyper, N., De Witte, H., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2010). Not all job demands are equal: Differentiating job hindrances and job challenges in the job demands resources model. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 19, 735–759. Van Manen, M. (1994). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. Michigan: Althouse. Wall, T. D., & Wood, S. J. (2005). The romance of human resource management and business performance, and the case for big science. Human Relations, 58, 429–462. Wallace, J. (2001). After X comes Y—Echo boom generation enters the workforce. HR Magazine from https://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m3495/is_46_ai_73848314. Accessed August 1, 2019. Walston, S. F. (1999). Distinguishing communication approaches across generations (online publication). https://www.walstoncourage.com/pages/articles/generation.htm. Accessed July, 2019. Weston, M. (2001). Coaching generations in the workplace. Nursing Administration Quarterly/Winter 2001, 25(2), 11–21. Whitmore, B. (2011). Potential workplace violence prevention and your organizational success. New York: Highpoint Executive Publishing. Woodrow, C., & Guest, D. E. (2014). When good HR gets bad results: Exploring the challenge of HR implementation in the case of workplace bullying. Human Resource Management Journal, 24, 38–56.

224

9 Multigenerational Workforce and Well-Being in the …

Zemke, R., Raines, C., & Filipczak, B. (2000). Generations at work: Managing the clash of Veterans, Boomers, Xers, and Nexters in your workplace. New York, NY: American Management Association.

Chapter 10

Well-Being at Work with Limited Resources: A Public Sector Context

Abstract This chapter critically examines the reactions of managerial and nonmanagerial employees’ to HRM practices, working life, and well-being initiatives in local government. The implication of these experiences in a time of restricted resources is the central focus. The methodological approach is a case study that draws from an Interpretivism paradigm of hermeneutic phenomenology using mixed methods. The qualitative approach adopted was from a review of company documents, observation field notes, and semi-structured interviews, which provided rich empirical in-depth data that uncovered the understanding and meanings of employees’ lived experiences. The study revealed that the local government organisational practices and observations made were aligned to a NPM environment that is subjected to changing structures. Although the organisation was committed to the adoption of ‘best practice’ HRM and well-being initiatives geared towards promoting employee well-being, there was a discrepancy between the intended effects of policy initiatives and working experiences.

10.1 Modernisation in the Public Sector and New Public Management One of the aims of the last Labour government in the UK (1997–2010) was to transform and modernise the public sector through the introduction of New Public Management (NPM) (Bach 2002; Bach et al. 2005; Dibben et al. 2007). The transformation agenda has also been embraced by the new coalition government that took office in May 2010. Central to the NPM is a transformation of the nature of work in public sector organisations resulting in new approaches to the delivery of goods and services with an emphasis on improved efficiency (Beaumont et al. 2007). Public sector organisations are now expected to emulate ‘best practice’ in the private sector in relation to people management. This involves taking a more proactive and strategic approach rather than focusing on reactive administration. This in turn has led to changes in the function of human resources (Harris 2007; Diffenbach 2009; Truss 2008). NPM is concerned with improving the efficiency and performance © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 N. Cvenkel, Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health, Approaches to Global Sustainability, Markets, and Governance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3619-9_10

225

226

10 Well-Being at Work with Limited Resources: A Public Sector …

of employees through tighter control of resources, changes in organisational structures, the use of targets, standards, and control systems. But the aim is to develop a high-commitment workforce of motivated, productive, and entrepreneurial people (Gould-Williams 2007; Diffenbach 2009). To be a ‘good employer’ within NPM means to attract and retain talented businesslike people and not, as the public sector traditionally aspired to, that is, to provide careers and jobs for life. NPM is also concerned with looking for new ways of delivering services as efficiently and cheaply as possible. While some argue that highcommitment ‘best practice’ HRM practices within the public sector have been shown to increase job satisfaction of employees (Gould-Williams 2007), others argue that, whatever the rhetoric, within a context where delivering ‘value-for-money’ means cost reductions, constant re-organisations, and work intensification, employees are left feeling stressed, demotivated, and insecure (Baptiste 2009; Diffenbach, 2009). This chapter explores the reactions of managerial and non-managerial employees in an English local government authority to HRM practices, working life, and particularly to the adoption of ‘best practice’ employee well-being initiatives. It contributes to a small but growing body of research which attempts to evaluate HRM practices by focusing on employees’ views (Gibb 2001; Grant and Shields 2002; Guest 2002). We explore how HRM practices and well-being initiatives are perceived by managerial and non-managerial employees within an environment in which they are struggling with limited resources, budget cuts, and increased workloads. The research highlights the discrepancies between the intended effects of policy initiatives and the way in which they actually impact on people’s working lives.

10.2 Human Resource Management and Well-Being at Work Over the past decade, there has been much interest in the notion of ‘best practice’ HRM sometimes referred to as ‘high-performance work systems’ (Appelbaum et al. 2000), ‘high-commitment’ (Guest 2001; Boxall et al. 2007), or ‘high-involvement’ (Wood 1999) practices. Research on HRM has focused on identifying a particular set of high-commitment HRM practices that, it is suggested, are able to improve employee and organisational performance and the bottom line for all organisations (Legge 1995; Huselid et al. 1997; Marchington and Wilkinson 2005). There is no agreement as to which HRM practices actually constitute ‘best practice’ and the debate is ongoing with researchers using ranges between seven to twenty-eight practices (Becker and Gerhard 1996; Huselid et al. 1997; Wood 1999; GouldWilliams 2007). But those HRM practices commonly held to be associated with high worker satisfaction, which includes trust, team working, involvement/participation, employee voice, fair rewards, job security, job design, equal opportunities, familyfriendly, and anti-harassment practices (Guest 2002; White et al. 2003; GouldWilliams 2007). These practices overlap with those which form the well-being at

10.2 Human Resource Management and Well-Being at Work

227

work agenda. Within this way of thinking, it can be argued that there is a ‘business case’ for employee well-being in the same way that it can be argued there is a ‘business case’ for diversity. But there are mixed opinions about whether the move towards high-performance HR practices in the public sector is actually improving employee well-being. There is a debate about how far the public sector has actually adopted the ‘best practice’ HR model. Truss (2008) and Harris (2007) argue that, rather than the new ‘best practice’ model replacing the ‘traditional’ model of HRM, the high-performance practices have been grafted on to existing HR functions. This leaves the HR function having to cope with the ambiguities and tensions of managing multiple roles. While HR, as a function, inevitably has to balance several competing roles, the highperformance approach is about privileging ‘business competitiveness rather than employee comfort’ (Ulrich 1998, p. 126). One role which the HR function has traditionally played, especially in the public sector, is that of ‘employee champion’ or ‘guardian of employee well-being’ (Renwick 2003); that is, as the interest group which pushes forward the interests of employees when management decisions are being made. Harris’s (2007) research within the public sector suggested that this employee champion role was being lost. HR staff saw their role primarily as being about providing a service for line managers and no longer saw that they had a responsibility for ‘employee well-being’. Similarly, employees no longer felt that HR was concerned about them. In essence, this has implications for well-being at work in the public sector. Well-being has become one of the most important issues of the twenty-firstcentury world of work—a challenge not just for individuals, in terms of their mental and physical health, but for employers and governments who have started to assess its social and financial implications (Baptiste 2009). The definition and meaning of work-related well-being are emergent with a number of competing meanings, making a precise definition of it open as it can take many forms (Ryan and Deci 2001; Renwick 2003). Grant et al. (2007) distinguish between three dimensions: the psychological dimension (satisfaction, attitudes, and emotions in relation to work); the physical dimension (relating to employees’ health and safety at work); and the social dimension (relating to interpersonal relationships, teamwork, and management style). However, Baptiste (2007, 2009) argues for a broader more holistic definition with ten domains: psychological, physical, intellectual, material, career, spiritual, social, stakeholders, financial, and organisation. This definition invokes not just specific practices of ‘wellness’ programmes, health screening, or indeed fun programmes, but employees’ physical, emotional and psychological needs, material conditions, and the wider experience of fulfilment and functioning at work. Wellbeing, then, is about the development of a ‘healthy workforce’. It is important to define this in broad terms and recognise that well-being at work is affected by social interaction and functioning at work. The well-being of employees may be influenced by a raft of different organisational policies and practices that will include practices that prevent staff from suffering harm at work, (e.g. stress management, health and safety, anti-bullying and harassment, and discrimination practices) but also practices that may positively

228

10 Well-Being at Work with Limited Resources: A Public Sector …

promote health and satisfaction (e.g. ‘wellness’ and fun at work programmes). It is also affected by very narrow initiatives (e.g. whether there is a healthy eating option in the canteen) but also by broad issues such as organisational culture. The notion that ‘good’ employers should concern themselves with the health and welfare of the workforce dates back to at least the eighteenth century with paternalistic employers such as Roundtree and Leverhulme (Pinnington and Edwards 2000; Redman and Wilkinson 2009). But there are several reasons why well-being initiatives have moved up the agenda especially within public sector organisations in recent years. Firstly, there have been pressures from government. Essential to New Labour’s policies was the espousal of wellness initiatives and health and safety ‘best practice’ standards for the promotion of the health and well-being of the working-age population (Black 2008; HWWE 2010). These policies were not just about the improvement of the quality of life for its own sake as stress and ill-health place significant costs on the UK economy (MacDonald 2005). Thus, the average days absent through sickness are significantly higher for workers in the public sector than in the private sector (Silcox 2007; HSE 2009). Well-being at work initiatives has also been promoted as a strand within ‘best practice’ high-commitment HRM. For example, well-being is one of the dimensions which is used within Sunday Times ‘Best places to work’ awards (www.bestcompanies.co.uk). Within the critical management literature, there is scepticism about the extent to which the well-being initiatives which form part of high-commitment HRM actually improve well-being. Critical theorists obviously want to engage with the project of humanizing work and improving the well-being of those at work but see the main barrier to this as the way in which power is institutionalised within organisations, privileging some and disadvantaging others (Fineman 2006). At best, critical theorists view prescribed well-being programmes as, Fineman (2006 p. 283) points out ‘somewhat hit-and-miss instruments of affective liberation and positive experience, held principally within the purview of management, they can sustain oppressive power imbalances and resituate or recolor employee grievances’. Similarly, Marchington and Grugulis (2000) argue that ‘high-commitment’ HRM policies constitute ‘nice’ rhetoric but ‘harsh’ realities as they strengthen rather than weaken management control. Indeed, one impact of NPM is a strengthening of the ideology of the ‘manager’ and the belief that public sector organisations can only be run by ‘managers’ (Deem and Brehony 2005; Diffenbach 2009). The previous discussion does not take into account the economic context in which well-being initiatives are being introduced. But in the public sector in the late 2000s, when the research reported in this chapter was conducted, there was pressure to manage with reduced resources. Finding ways of ‘doing more with less’ is also, of course, part of the NPM philosophy. Restructuring, cuts, redundancies, and the intensification of work have been argued to have a negative effect on employee well-being in that they increase uncertainty and work-related stress (Noblet et al. 2006; Noblet and Rodwell 2009). It may be argued that well-being initiatives are even more important in these circumstances to ensure that people are supported through stressful changes and the morale of those who will be remaining in the organisation is maintained (PwC 2008). But the tensions and ambiguities in relation to the role of the HR function

10.2 Human Resource Management and Well-Being at Work

229

become even more pointed if HR specialists are, on the one hand, being seen as the people managing redundancies and restructuring and, on the other, as the ‘guardians of employee well-being’. This chapter starts from the premise that, to understand how well-being initiatives work in practice, it is necessary to look beyond the rhetoric of policies and to try to understand the way in which these practices impinge on the lived experiences of employees within an organisation. It is also timely to explore the ways in which they affect managerial and non-managerial employees who are also coping with restricted resources and financial cuts.

10.3 Methodology This chapter is based on a case study conducted within a local authority in the North West of England. The authority is located in an urban region and is one of the most socially polarised in the country. The case study was conducted during 2005–2007 when a Labour Government was in power both nationally and within the authority studied. A strategy of the New Labour government was to implement funding reductions in keeping with the modernisation agenda. The authority was selected as appropriate to study because it professed to have adopted well-being policies and practices to establish employee well-being at work, a positive attendance culture, and enhance staff welfare. A number of different types of data were collected. The authority’s written HRM policy and procedure documents were analysed. Field notes were written and analysed of the researcher’s experience conducting research within the authority. Finally, a series of focused semi-structured interviews were conducted with managerial and non-managerial employees exploring their experiences of HRM practices and well-being initiatives. This chapter will draw particularly on these interviews. The process of gaining access was met with challenges and tensions and required the researcher having to jump through several ‘hoops’ of taylorised processes, controlled systems, and a series of negotiations before access to employees was granted. Even further, the researcher had to begin a new process of negotiations with employees to get people to talk honestly about their working life experiences and well-being at work. Twenty-seven semi-structured face-to-face interviews were conducted with managerial and non-managerial employees (15 managers and 12 employees) with the aim of understanding their experiences of HRM practices and well-being initiatives. Purposive sampling was used to ensure that all departments within the Council were reflected in the study. All twenty-seven informants were Caucasian; (23 respondents) aged 40–59 years, and (4 respondents) aged 20–39 years. They were all well-educated up to master’s degree for managerial employees and HND/C for non-managerial

230

10 Well-Being at Work with Limited Resources: A Public Sector …

employees; the majority (i.e. 25) worked full time and reported a range of incomes1 and held a variety of tenures with the organisation.2 The interview approach was collaborative where information was exchanged between the informant (i.e. employee) and the researcher in both directions and the emphasis was on listening to what the informant said as opposed to guiding and controlling the conversation (Morse 1991). A retrospective approach was used to solicit narratives of experiences from informants asking them to talk about their experiences and as such, the first question asked was open ended ‘what is it like to work for the Council?’ This was followed by probing questions focusing on eliciting narrative data, as opposed to explanations or opinions until the employees’ experiences were fully described (Ray 1994; Smith and Osborne 2003). Each interview lasted between 60–90 min and was tape-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analysed using hermeneutic phenomenological analysis (HPA) (Van Manen 1994). The interview schedule covered two broad topics: (1) understanding of wellbeing at work; and (2) views on well-being initiatives in the organisation. Both managerial and non-managerial employees were asked to respond in relation to their own experiences and priorities as employees, rather than from an espoused practice point of view. Initial transcripts were reviewed through immersion in the data to establish an orienting gestalt that drove later coding. Interviews were coded line by line, necessary for thematic analysis. Concepts, themes, and sub-themes were identified. Half of the transcripts were coded separately by an independent researcher to identify emerging themes, and the resulting coding match of 85% provides evidence of reliability in the coding process (Silverman 2005). Final themes were also verified by informants to ensure they appropriately captured the meaning that the informant sought to convey.

10.4 Findings At the time when the data was collected, the authority was going through a process of change, restructuring, and reduction of resources, which, managers acknowledged, was having an impact on morale and well-being. The HR Director explained: People come to work because they want to contribute to society and in particular the Council, but they also come to work because it pays their mortgage and their bills so when there is a discussion around budget reduction and one of the consequences may be deletion of post, in my own department people have written to me expressing anxiety and concern in terms of what they have heard mainly from the grape vine rather than my mouth, yes it will affect people’s morale and well-being, but is how we manage and reassure people and how we take them forward is important. So managing that process and taking staff along with us and reassuring them and putting the whole information as transparently as we can is quite 1 £10,001–£20,000 = 6 respondents; £20,001–£30,000 = 9 respondents; £30,001–£40,000 = 5 respondents; £40,001–£50,000 = 4 respondents; £50,001–£60,000 = 1 respondent. 2 Less than 5 years (11 respondents); 6–10 years (6 respondents); 11–15 years (3 respondents); 16–20 years (4 respondents) and 21–25 years (3 respondents).

10.4 Findings

231

important. It is not unique to this council, in any organisation that is going through financial difficulties it will impact on morals and well-being. (HR Director, Female, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, 6–10 years)

It is important to note here that the HR Director highlighted areas of managing processes, reassuring staff, communication, and transparency as key themes to reduce employees’ anxiety and enhance their morale in this complex environment. It is ironic that there is no mention of using wellness initiatives to promote and maintain employee morale and well-being. At the same time, analysis of the Council’s policy documentation confirmed the adoption of high-commitment HRM practices and well-being initiatives. The HRM policy documents were informed by ‘best practice’ employment legislation standards. The human resources policies adopted by the Council were typical of those adopted across other authorities, and were written by the Council’s HR officials and other associated governmental institutions for senior managers, line managers, and employees. The documents covered such topics as partnership working, the adoption of recruitment, selection and retention strategies in keeping with talent management, and communication strategies with external and internal audiences to facilitate an environment of trust and loyalty, as well as health, safety, and wellness management strategies.3 The HR Director commented specifically on the reasons for introducing the wellbeing initiatives was related to the reduction in absence levels, improvement in health, and the business case for well-being. The well-being programme initiatives used included: smoking cessation schemes, crèche facilities, medical checks, healthy food and water in the canteen, cycling to work, yoga, occupational health, learning days, etc. She explained: The Well-being programme is being promoted because it will reduce our absence levels by 10.6 days per year downwards and was introduced to try and improve employees health in terms of healthy foods in the canteen, cycling to work, walking more and not using our cars as much, staff counselling service, messages etc…they are all linked to the business plans of central government view that we are going to work longer because we are going to live longer. (HR Director, Female, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, 6–10 years)

Although the reasons for introducing well-being programmes relate to an economic, moral, health, and business case perspective; it is interesting that the HR Director described these initiatives in terms of an agenda to keep employees ‘fit’ for work rather than as a mechanism to promote and maintain employee well-being and morale. She had also not considered evaluating these initiatives for their effectiveness in promoting well-being at work or its strategic alignment with the Council’s corporate business plans. Instead she assumed that these programmes would be effective in reducing absenteeism levels and enhancing the health and well-being of the workforce. 3 Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999; Provision or use of work equipment

regulations 1998; Manual handling operations regulations 1992; Personal protective equipment at work regulations 1992; Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations 1992; The work at height regulations 2005; heat stress in the workplace; preventing slips and trips at work; workplace transport safety etc. (HSE 2007).

232

10 Well-Being at Work with Limited Resources: A Public Sector …

10.4.1 The Reality of Working Life The impact of budget reduction was echoed by managerial employees. Their responses to the initial question ‘what it is like to work here?’ reflected the realities they faced, including challenges with money, protecting their resources, budgeting and staffing restrictions, avoiding redundancies, having to promote efficiency savings, manage staff anxieties, and at the same time trying to find the balance to ensure that their services contribute to the greater good of the community. One manager explained, Money, is something that is constantly on my mind – ‘how can I protect my resources, both my staff and my budget, to try and avoid people losing their jobs’. You’ve also got to think about efficiencies and savings –‘how can we do things better, how can we do it cheaper with fewer resources?’….and sometimes that’s a difficult balance. (Manager; Male; Age 40–49 years; Tenure, less than 5 years)

The salient point of limited resources was echoed by the non-managerial employees who claimed that ‘limited resources’ resulted in increasing workloads affecting their stress levels. One employee discussed her experience: The challenges are meeting all these targets and the offices are really crappy offices…it’s not been painted in about 15 years, the floors are filthy, got stairs up and down, there’s not enough technical equipment all that sort of thing is a nuisance…we are expected to do more work with less. (Employee, Female, Age, 50–59 years, Tenure, 6–10 years)

Limited resources were perceived to negatively affect the work-life balance of employees. Although flexible working initiatives had been formally adopted, employees indicated that they experienced challenges with managing work and life. One manager commented: Although there is a fair amount of work-life balance, heavy workloads and working under lots of pressure at work hinders the balance between work and life. This also affects morale and the fact that there is no recognition also affects morale and satisfaction with work and life….the workloads needs to be addressed through increased (resources), and greater efficiency in management leadership. (Manager, Female, Age 40–49 years, Tenure 11–15 years)

One employee described having nightmares about how she could manage her workload. She stated, This is a struggle for me as I have lots of nightmares about work and thinking about how things are at work – this affects my work-life balance. The workloads and stress at work are other issue that affects my work-life balance…there need to be a more structured way to do the job. (Employee, Female, Age 30–39 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

One persistent theme across several interviews was about the existence of bullying as a part of employees’ experience of working life. Respondents spoke of their personal experiences of being bullied or knowledge of others who experienced or were experiencing bullying. These experiences resulted in feelings of inadequacy and removal of dignity, which all had implications for well-being. One manager described bullying between peers. She commented,

10.4 Findings

233

I was a new home support manager and there were other more experienced home support managers there I did feel intimidated by some of them as they made it very clear that they were much more experienced than me and I was the new girl on the block. I did feel quite intimidated as everything I did was ‘no you’ve done that wrong, you should have done it like this or why do you think you did’….it was almost like negative comments all the time. (Manager, Female, Age 50–59 years, Tenure 16–20 years)

Another employee gave a personal account of bullying within her department and how the knowledge that others were being bullied affected her psychological well-being and mental health. She commented, I recognize the difference between somebody being a bit difficult to work with and people being quite serious, nasty persecuting bullies…bullying is absolutely dreadful, I’ve never experienced anything like it in my life. There are quite a number of people on medication for depression as a result of the bullying which was perverse, horrific and really upsetting and seeing people that you care about being absolutely squashed on a daily basis was terrible. (Employee, Female, Age 30–39 years, Tenure less than 5 years)

Limited resources affected trust, team working, status differences, bureaucracy, and autonomy. One manager felt that the emphasis on hierarchy and status differences affected her effectiveness at work. She explained her experience of how certain meetings were arranged: There is a kind of hierarchy that exists here and I find it very, very strange, I do not know why it should exist here but it feels like there is quite a lot of layers and I do not really understand what they are there for and there are things that seem to have more to do with status than usefulness so, there are meetings that are available to people because they are a certain grading rather than because they need to have that information for their job. I find that very peculiar and misguided. (Manager, Female, Age 50–59 years, Tenure 11–15 years)

The above view regarding a bureaucratic environment is echoed by another employee who likened her experiences to ‘Chinese Whispers’. She said: It’s a case of you can’t do anything without asking your manager, who then has to go and ask his manager, who asks her manager who asks his manager and before you know where you are it’s gone through six people and what you actually originally wanted has come out as completely something else because its ‘Chinese Whispered’ up the chain and it comes out with a result and you think ‘what’s that all about, I didn’t ask that’. (Employee, Female, Age 50–59 years, Tenure 6–10 years)

What is striking about the informants’ responses is the mismatch between the formal HR policies and practices, where the rhetoric of high commitment, ‘best practices’ are espoused and adopted, compared with the actual working realities and experiences of managers and employees within the local government organisation, who described a culture where managers and employees were stressed with high workloads and demands, the organisation was hierarchical, bureaucratic, with an evident status differential existing between senior and less senior employees. The reality of working life experiences of the employees also included challenges balancing work and life due to the heavy workloads and work-related stress. Employees also highlighted their perceptions of a widespread culture of bullying (from management) existed, and there was a lack of trust, team working, and autonomy. The

234

10 Well-Being at Work with Limited Resources: A Public Sector …

findings reveal that managers and employees’ working life realities were particularly different to what the HR Director suggestions and organisational policies espoused to do. There is a disconnect with the HRM practices and wellness programmes that are implemented to promote employee well-being and enhanced performance, when employees are experiencing negative well-being as a result of dysfunctional social actions and actors throughout the NPM environment where the focus was on expenditure reduction and doing more with less. It seems almost silly that the well-being ideology adopted was associated with physical well-being only with suggestions like (healthy eating campaigns or smoking cessation programmes) instead of being aligned to strategic business objectives that look more closely into individuals, groups, and the organisational well-being with the view of taking action towards development, absence and stress reduction, positive well-being, and enhanced service delivery and performance.

10.4.2 Understanding Well-Being at Work Respondents were asked how they understood well-being at work. The factors identified include: happiness and job satisfaction, reasonable workloads, mental health, valued and supported, flexibility, duty of care and compassion, financial well-being, motivation, empowerment, healthy organisational environment, reward strategies, fair treatment, work-life balance, stress management, career advancement, and communication. It is important to note here that employees’ perspectives and understanding of well-being at work were not associated with the espoused wellness management programmes that are adopted by ‘cutting-edge companies’. Instead they focused on the material aspect of the employment relationship. One manager’s account touched on the key factors mentioned above. He commented, To get the balance right between work and life and the expectation of the organisation to support this balance…health and safety, feeling valued as an individual, career progression, flexibility, fairness with reward….a duty of care to ensure that people are able to function at their maximum potential and being fully informed about what could benefit employees. (Manager, Male, 50–59 years, Tenure, 11–15 years)

This view is echoed by non-managerial employees’ meanings. One employee said, It is about how you feel in your surroundings and the workloads and the stress associated with work…provided with safety equipment to do the job to ensure that you get satisfaction with the work done….being rewarded for work done and feeling happy and healthy at work….not being stressed that affects your health. (Employee, Female, Age 30–39 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

10.4 Findings

235

10.4.3 Perspectives on Well-Being Initiatives Respondents were also asked about what they thought about the well-being initiatives being introduced in the organisation. The interviews highlighted the discrepancies between the intended effects of policy initiatives and the way in which they actually impact on people’s working lives. Non-managerial employees associated well-being initiatives with unfair treatment at work. One employee likened her experiences of well-being initiatives to management not providing ‘time off’ for the take-up of wellness initiatives, the information about well-being initiatives not effectively communicated, and employees lacking spare time to partake in these initiatives due to heavy workloads. She explained, Initiatives like yoga, occupational health, learning at work shouldn’t be coming out of my time…that’s my time and that’s a big thing…people don’t like doing things because they feel they may lose their hours…so initiatives that do take place during working hours are not well attended….I think senior managers should allow some time off (say one or two hours) to encourage staff to get involved and take up these initiatives…staff are reluctant because they do not feel they’ve got management authority….and also they are aware that it might creep into their personal time. (Employee, Female, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

However, comments from a manager emphasised a practical perspective on how non-work initiatives can promote well-being. He said: I think if I had a shower at work it would be very helpful so I can cycle more. It’s more important than you think, I am a great believer in physical exercise and mental health and if you can combine the two so that as you’re cycling at the beginning of your day; you’re thinking about the day ahead and thinking what you need to do and gearing yourself up, and vice versa on your way back….getting your exercise and dealing with the pressures of the day is important…So I actually think it’s a very healthy thing to do, so facilitating that more is good…I’ve always said, they (the council) should give free sessions at the sports centres for things like swimming and what have you. If it was free for council staff, you’d get a lot more people using it. (Senior Manager; Male; Age 40–49 yrs; Tenure under 5 years)

The above comment highlighted ‘cycling to work, shower at work, free sessions at the sports centre, and swimming’ relates to opportunities to engage in wellness programmes that are not directly related to work but can positively promote mental health and well-being, and consequently enhanced performance. However, few employees mentioned that physical well-being was central to their overall well-being at work and wellness initiatives were raised less frequently, and assigned notably less importance than more material aspects of employment relations such as heavy workloads, work-life-balance challenges, bullying at work, trust, and stress management. One can deduce that wellness programmes appear to have a much lower priority for these employees. This suggests that when the emphasised material aspects of employment relations and well-being at work are fulfilled (e.g. management trust, work-life balance, reduced workloads, fair rewards, stress management, perceived organisational support, line management leadership, allocated time to participate in organisational wellness initiatives, etc.) then employees are more likely to place

236

10 Well-Being at Work with Limited Resources: A Public Sector …

value on initiatives and programmes generally advocated by ‘ministers of wellness management’ such as therapies, messages, and play/fun activities. Taken as a whole, these managerial and non-managerial employees’ comments touched on serious challenges faced from an individual, group, and organisational perspectives. For these respondents, it would seem that material issues like adequate resources, reasonable workloads, satisfaction with work-life balance, avoidance of bullying at work, trust, and stress management are of fundamental importance to the promotion of their well-being (see Table 10.1). To go further, ‘well-being initiative programmes’ are not likely to be readily embraced when these employees are faced with the daily challenges they described, nor are wellness programmes perceived by respondents as particularly high on their list of concerns, in their own right. Table 10.1 Employees’ understanding and definition of well-being at work in a new public management environment Perspective

Well-being domain

Themes

Individual

Psychological

Job satisfaction Happiness Sense of purpose Motivation Spare time

Physical

Showers at work Free subscriptions to the gym and swimming Cycling to work

Reward/material

Fairly rewarded

Career

Career advancement

Financial

Fair benefits

Mental health

Mentally healthy and empowered

Group

Compassionate leadership

Fair treatment Feeling valued and supported Team working Trust Autonomy Duty of care Empathy

Organisation

Work/organisation practices

Reasonable workloads Work-life balance Stress management Communication and collaboration Anti-bullying culture Removal of status differentials Safe working environment Removal of hierarchy and bureaucracy Time off to take-up organisational wellness initiatives Healthy organisational environment

10.5 Discussion

237

10.5 Discussion According to Diffenbach (2009) there are inconsistencies, and even hypocrisies, within NPM. For example, he argues (2009, p. 905); The principles of empowerment and subsidiarity are announced while at the same time more hierarchical structures and taylorised processes, formalized surveillance, and control systems are being implemented.

This study illustrates these inconsistencies. The analysis of documents showed that this local authority had adopted the practices and philosophies of New Public Management (NPM) including practices such as controlled delegation, increased emphasis on user orientation, and the measurement of performance which are the recognised characteristics of NPM (Harrow 2002). The local government organisation had also adopted the rhetoric of ‘best practice’ high-commitment HRM including well-being initiatives. But the Council was also responding to a mandate to improve its efficiency and reduce its expenditure and this was resulting in reductions in budgets and service cuts, workforce transformation by merging departments for greater efficiency and capital asset reduction, the introduction of flexible working initiatives, and partnership working. These changes had implications for workloads, work pressure, and work-related stress. Despite the espousal of well-being policies aimed at reducing absenteeism and promoting a happier and more stress-free workforce, the managers and employees interviewed did not feel that their well-being was being promoted. Rather, the picture was of beleaguered managerial and non-managerial employees needing recognition of their very real day-to-day concerns. Employees working life realities were of limited resources, heavy workloads, work-life-balance challenges, bullying at work, and a distrustful environment within which these managers and employees functioned. The respondents’ depiction of their working life and meaning of well-being in local government in North of England is precisely echoed by Studs Terkel’s depiction of work (1977, p. 1); Work is, by its very nature, is about violence – to the spirit as well as to the body. It is about ulcers as well as accidents, about shouting matches, as fistfights, about nervous breakdown as well as kicking the dog around. It is above all (or beneath all), about daily humiliations. To survive the day is triumph enough for the walking wounded among the great many of us.

Terkel argues that work has been affected by significant changes taking place over the decades, but certain factors have stayed the same. This is evidenced by the employees’ depiction of their working life experiences and well-being. It also reveals that the search for happiness centres on ‘what lies beneath the melting ice’ of employees’ evaluation of the employment relationship, the quality of their working lives, and well-being at work. The working life realities affected managerial and non-managerial employees differently. Managerial employees were challenged with having to find a balance between resource restrictions and having to deal with increasing workloads, protecting their budgets, promoting efficiency savings, staffing limitations, redundancies,

238

10 Well-Being at Work with Limited Resources: A Public Sector …

changing organisational priorities, service delivery, managing staff anxieties while, at the same time, trying to manage their own work-life balance. Non-managerial employees were challenged with increased workloads, work-related stress, anxieties from budget reduction, fears of redundancy, bullying at work, unfair treatment, and functioning in poor work accommodation with inadequate equipment. Tuomi et al. (2004) state that changes in organisational practices and the demands of work are strongly associated with changes in employee physical well-being. In support, Baptiste (2009) and MacDonald (2005) suggest that the negative effects on the level of stress and pressure experienced by employees have implications for the psychological and physical well-being of workers. This case study illustrates how well-being initiative programmes do not necessarily deliver what they profess (PwC 2008). Rather it indicates that employees’ own understanding and definition of well-being is associated with the material aspect of the employment relationship (see Table 10.1) where employees’ defined their well-being at work from an individual, group and organisational perspective. These perspectives are associated with psychological, physical, reward, career, financial, and mental health well-being. The group perspective is associated with compassionate leadership well-being, and the organisational perspective is associated with practices aligned with fostering a healthy work environment. In support, well-being proponents argue that emotional experiences construct individuals’ reality of happiness and well-being (Ryan and Deci 2001; Grant et al. 2007). Literature advocates that physical and mental health and experiencing a safe working environment are areas that can reduce work stress which in turn can promote well-being (MacDonald 2005; Noblet and Rodwell 2009; HWWE 2010). In essence, these material aspects of the employment relationship have to be addressed before the philosophy of ‘wellbeing at work’ can have meaning or relevance. It is hard to imagine that employees would welcome yoga classes, messages and other organised employee assistance programmes, and activities that would encroach even more into their already busy schedules. Therefore, serious consideration is required to address the factors that promote employee well-being at work rather than more prescriptions of wellness programmes. In conclusion, it can be argued that these managerial and non-managerial employees, and perhaps more generally, employees in similar contexts have some way to go before they self-actualise and are fulfilled in their well-being at work. It will take moving away from superficiality, tick boxes ideology, to embrace ‘hard’ but essential issues like ‘walking the talk’ by showing genuine interest in what really promotes employee well-being at work from an employee’s perspective. It will take a further step for public sector employees, given resource restrictions, and the complexities and daily challenges faced before they can welcome managerially led well-being programme activities. The mantra of ‘working hard’, is evident for public sector employees, as for so many contemporary professionals; however, the Utopian state of ‘well-being at work’ is likely to remain a dream for the future rather than a reality of their current work. Further, in the context of the further cuts to public expenditure currently being imposed by the current UK Government (HM Government 2010; Richardson 2010), the challenge for public sector organisations to genuinely improve the well-being of their employees becomes even greater.

References

239

References Appelbaum, E., Bailey, R., Berg, P., & Kalleberg, A. (2000). A manufacturing competitive advantage: The effects of high performance work systems on plant performance and company outcomes. New York, NY: Cornell University Press. Bach, S. (2002). Public sector employment relations reform under labour: Muddling through on modernization? British Journal of Industrial Relations, 40(2), 319–339. Bach, S., Kessler, I., & White, G. (2005). Employment relations and public services ‘modernisation’ under labour. Personnel Review, 34(6), 626–633. Baptiste, N. R. (2007). Line management leadership: Implications for employee well-being. In: G. P. Clarkson (Ed.), Developing leadership research. Papers from the Northern Leadership Academy Fellow 2007 Conference (pp. 229–238). Leeds: Leeds University Business School, Leeds University Press Financial Services. Baptiste, N. R. (2009). Fun and well-being: Insights from senior managers in a local authority. Employee Relations, 31(6), 600–612. Beaumont, P., Pate, J., & Fischbacher, M. (2007). Public sector employment: Issues of size and composition in the UK. In P. Dibben, P. James, I. Roper, & G. Wood (Eds.), Modernising work in public services: Redefining roles and relationships in Britain’s changing workplace. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Becker, B., & Gerhard, B. (1996). The impact of human resource management on organisational performance: Progress and prospects. Academy of Management Journal, 39(4), 779–801. Black, D. C. (2008). Working for a healthier tomorrow. London: TSO. Boxall, P., Purcell, J., & Wright, P. (Eds.). (2007). The Oxford handbook of human resource management. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Deem, R., & Brehony, K. (2005). The case of new managerialism in higher education. Oxford Review of Education, 31(2), 213–231. Dibben, P., James, P., Roper, I., & Wood, G. (2007). Modernising work in public services: Redefining roles and relationships in Britain’s changing workplace. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Diffenbach, T. (2009). New public management in public sector organisations: The dark sides of managerialistic ‘enlightenment’. Public Administration, 87(4), 892–909. Fineman, S. (2006). On being positive: Concerns and counterpoints. Academy of Management Review, 31(2), 270–291. Gibb, S. (2001). The state of human resource management: Evidence from employees’ views of HRM systems and staff. Employee Relations, 23(4), 318–336. Gould-Williams, J. (2007). HR practices, organizational climate and employee outcomes: Evaluating social exchange in local government. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 18(9), 1627–1647. Grant, A., Christianson, M., & Price, R. (2007). Happiness, health or relationships? Managerial practices and employee well-being tradeoffs. The Academy of Management, 21(3), 51–63. Grant, D., & Shields, J. (2002). In search of the subject: Researching employee reactions to human resource management. Journal of Industrial Relations, 44(3), 313–334. Guest, D. (2001). Human resource management and performance: A review and research agenda. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 8(3), 263–276. Guest, D. (2002). Human resource management, corporate performance and employee well-being: Building the worker into HRM. Journal of Industrial Relations, 44(3), 335–358. Harris, L. (2007). The changing nature of the HR function in UK local government and its role as ‘employee champion’. Employee Relations, 30(1), 34–47. Harrow, J. (2002). New public management and social justice: Just efficiency or equity as well? In K. McLaughlin, S. P. Osborne, & E. Ferlie (Eds.), New public management: Current trends and future prospects (pp. 141–159). London: Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group. Health and Safety Executive (HSE). (2007). Health and safety statistics 2007/2008. A National Statistical Publication. London: Crown Publication. https://www.hse.gov.uk/statistics Health and Safety Executive. (2009). Health and safety statistics 2008/2009. London: HSE.

240

10 Well-Being at Work with Limited Resources: A Public Sector …

Health Work and Well-being Executive (HWWE). (2010). https://www.workingforhealth.gov.uk/ working in partnership with DOH, DWP, HSE, Welsh Assembly Government, and The Scottish Government. Accessed April 10, 2010. HM Government. (2010). The coalition: Our programme for government. May 2010. Ref No. 401238/0510. London: Crown Copyright. www.hmg.gov.uk/programmeforgovernment. Accessed July 20, 2010. Huselid, M., Jackson, S., & Schuler, R. (1997). Technical and strategic human resource management effectiveness as determinants of firm performance. Academy of Management Journal, 40(1), 171–188. Legge, K. (1995). HRM: Rhetoric, reality and hidden agendas. In J. Storey (Ed.), Human resource management: A critical text (pp. 33–61). London: Routledge Publishers. MacDonald, L. A. C. (2005). Wellness at work: Protecting and promoting employee well-being. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Marchington, M., & Grugulis, I. (2000). Best-practice’ human resource management: Perfect opportunity or dangerous illusion? International Journal of Human Resource Management, 11(6), 1104–1124. Marchington, M., & Wilkinson, A. (2005). Human resource management at work: People management and development. London: The Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Morse, J. M. (1991). Qualitative nursing research: A free-for-all? In J. M. Morse (Ed.), Qualitative nursing research: A contemporary dialogue (2nd ed., pp. 14–22). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publication. Noblet, A., Rodwell, J., & McWilliams, J. (2006). Organisational change in the public sector: Augmenting the demand control model to predict employee outcomes under new public management. Work and Stress, 20(4), 335–352. Noblet, A. J., & Rodwell, J. J. (2009). Integrating job stress and social exchange theories to predict employee strain in reformed public sector contexts. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory and Advance Access, 19(1), 555–624. Pinnington, A., & Edwards, T. (2000). Introduction to human resource management. Oxford: Oxford University Press. PricewaterhouseCoopers. (2008). Building the case for wellness. www.workingforhealth.gov.uk. Accessed July 20, 2010. Ray, M. R. (1994). The richness of phenomenology: Philosophic, theoretic, and methodologic concerns. In J. M. Morse (Ed.), Critical issues in qualitative research methods (pp. 117–133). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Redman, T., & Wilkinson, A. (2009). Contemporary human resource management: Text and cases. London: Prentice Hall, Financial Times. Renwick, D. (2003). HR managers, guardians of employee well-being. Personnel Review, 32(3), 341–359. Rhoades, L., & Eisenberger, R. (2002). Perceived organisational support: A review of the literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(4), 698–714. Richardson, D. (2010). Austerity measures hit North West of England. World Socialist Web Site. International Committee of the Fourth International (ICFI) Publishers. https://www.wsws.org/ articles/2010/aug2010/nort-a18.shtml. Accessed August 10, 2010. Ricoeur, P. (1981). Hermeneutics and the human science. New York: Cambridge University Press. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 141–166. Silcox, S. (2007). Health work and well-being: Rising to the public sector attendance management challenge. ACAS Policy Discussion Chapter, No. 6, May 2007. Silverman, D. (2005). Doing qualitative research: A practical handbook (2nd ed.). London: Sage Publications. Smith, J. A., & Osborn, M. (2003). Interpretative phenomenological analysis. In J. A. Smith (Ed.), Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research methods. London: Sage Publications. Terkel, S. (1977). Working. Harmondsworth: Penguin Publishers.

References

241

The workplace engagement specialist. The Sunday Times ‘Best companies to work for’ in the UK. https://www.bestcompanies.co.uk/Overview.aspx. Accessed March, 2011. Truss, C. (2008). Continuity and change: The role of the HR function in the modern public sector. Public Administration, 86(4), 1071–1088. Tuomi, K., Vanhala, S., Nykyri, E., & Janhonen, M. (2004). Organisational practices, work demands and the well-being of employees: A follow-up study in the mental industry and retail trade. Occupational Medicine, 54, 115–121. Ulrich, D. (1998). Delivering results: A new mandate for human resources professionals. New York: Harvard Business Review Press. Van Manen, M. (1994). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. Michigan: Althouse. White, M., Hill, S., McGovern, P., Mills, C., & Smeaton, D. (2003). ‘High-performance’ management practices, working hours and work-life balance. British Journal of Industrial Relations, 41(2), 175–195. Wood, S. (1999). Human resource management and performance. International Journal of Management Reviews, 1(4), 367–374.

Chapter 11

Work-Life Balance and Well-Being at Work: Strategies for Individual and Organisational Health and Potential

Abstract The objective of this chapter and empirical research study is to explore managerial and non-managerial employees’ perspectives that relate to work–family conflicts that affect work-life balance, health and well-being initiatives to promote work-life-balance satisfaction, and the employers’ implementation of family-friendly support to promote a more psychologically healthy workplace. The methodological approach adopted in this study is qualitative. Thirty-six semi-structured interviews were conducted with key informants and two focus groups with managerial and non-managerial employees from diverse occupational groups (i.e. education, health, finance, forestry, public sector, social work, first nations, not-for-profit, hospitality, legal, information technology, and retail). The findings reveal that work–family conflicts that affect employees’ work life include limited resources, stress, poor relationships, substance abuse, and other external factors. Factors to support a familyfriendly workplace include fun and family-friendly activities, counselling, periodic breaks, trust, and confidentiality. Health and well-being initiatives to promote worklife balance and well-being satisfaction include company group health plan, EAP, Gym membership, flexible working arrangements, wellness strategies, and fairness at work. Organisational leaders, managers, HR and well-being professionals, and researchers may find these factors relevant and insightful for policy and practice, in contrast to the management literature.

11.1 Introduction Several research studies have reported that work-life issues such as stressful work environments and inadequate human resources management as major contributing factors to employees’ decisions to leave their jobs (Boamah and Laschinger 2015). Poor work environments have been linked to a number of deleterious and costly individual and organisational outcomes, such as job dissatisfaction, burnout, absenteeism, decreased productivity, poor customer satisfaction, and increased turnover (Chen and Cooper 2014; Hayes et al. 2006). These concerns have sustained a continuing interest of worker satisfaction with their work environment to ensure that the working conditions are positive to foster motivation, engagement, well-being, © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 N. Cvenkel, Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health, Approaches to Global Sustainability, Markets, and Governance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3619-9_11

243

244

11 Work-Life Balance and Well-Being at Work: Strategies …

performance, and retention. Hayes et al. (2006) state that there are numerous factors associated with employee turnover including heavy workloads, high-level stress, and burnout. Studies indicate that work interference with personal life also influences employees’ decision to leave the organisation and their profession (Greenhaus et al. 2006) because of job dissatisfaction and psychological distress. Work-life balance is commonly thought to promote individual’s psychological well-being and overall sense of satisfaction (Chen and Cooper 2014). In contrast, work-life imbalance culminates in high levels of stress, which affect the quality of life, and eventually reduces individuals’ work effectiveness (Greenhaus et al. 2003). While many studies have linked the factors that influence work-life conflict and work satisfaction, employees’ perspectives of work-life conflicts that affect work-life balance, well-being initiatives that promote work-life satisfaction, and family-friendly support strategies to promote a psychologically health workplace have received little attention to date. Given the diversity and complexity of the contemporary and multigenerational workforce, research on work-life balance, worker health, and well-being is warranted. Therefore, the purpose of this study and chapter is to answer these research questions, and subsequently provide greater insight for organisational leaders, managers, HR and wellness professionals.

11.2 Work-Life Balance Work-life balance is a concept still lacking consensus in its definition, but fundamentally, the definition includes ‘a state wherein an individual’s work and family lives experience little conflict while enjoying substantial facilitation (Frone 2003; Nielsen et al. 2002); work-life balance is also defined as ‘the accomplishment of role-related expectations that are negotiated and shared between an individual and his/her role-related partners in the work and family domains’(Grzywacz and Carlson 2007). Work-life balance is suggested as being attainable in spite of short-term experiences of work–family conflict and shifts the construct from the psychological into the social domain, reflecting the dynamic and complex realities of daily work and family life (Grzywacz and Carlson 2007). Consequences of poor work-life balance (or absence thereof) have been reported fewer still and have focused on the association with sickness absence (Bratberg et al. 2002; Frone 2003). Differences in work-life balance across countries are often due to variations in the implementation of policies that reconcile work and family life (Jansen et al. 2006), including family-friendly policies, e.g. childcare services, extended and flexible parental leave scheme, and generous support to single parent (Crompton and Lyonette 2006), the best overall work-life balance being reported among women (Antai et al. 2015). According to Maslach and Leiter’s (1997) work-life model and Greenhaus et al. (2003) work-life balance, Maslach and Leiter (1997) theorized that a person-job match in six areas of work-life is central to the employees’ degree of engagement in work or burnout. The six areas include manageable workloads, control over

11.2 Work-Life Balance

245

work, rewards for contribution, fair treatment, a sense of community, and congruence between personal and organisational values. A ‘manageable workload’ refers to the job-related physical and emotional demands an employee encounters under time and resource constraints. ‘Control’ is the professional capability of employees to make important decisions about their work, as well as their ability to gain access to resources necessary to do their job effectively. ‘Reward’ is the extent to which an employee’s expectations are fulfilled by the social reward systems, which can be intrinsic and extrinsic. ‘Community’ is the quality of social interaction at work, including relationships with colleagues, managers, and subordinates. ‘Fairness’ is the extent to which the decision-making process at work is perceived by employees as being impartial and the existence of managerial support in the organisation. Finally, ‘values’ represent how an organisation’s priorities and ethics are congruent with those of the employee (Maslach and Leiter 1997). Maslach and Leiter (1997) argue that when an employee experiences high levels of these six areas of worklife, it reflects a high person-job match, and therefore, the employee is less likely to experience burnout and has turnover intentions. In contrast, incongruences in these six areas can result in burnout, performance, and retention challenges (Maslach and Leiter 1997). Research and literature have supported the relationship between person-job fit with these six work-life factors and work-related outcomes. Cho et al.’s (2006) research in nursing found that a good fit with the six areas of work life was related to lower emotional exhaustion, which in turn, affected organisational commitment. In contrast, a mismatch in one of more of the areas of work-life, such as unmanageable workload, has been strongly related to emotional exhaustion (Cho et al. 2006) and feelings of cynicism in employees (Leiter and Maslach 2004). Further research found that unmanageable workload and perceived lack of fairness predicted emotional exhaustion among employee, which subsequently influenced their physical and mental health (Boamah and Laschinger 2015). The findings from diverse research studies are consistent with the areas of work-life model and suggest ways that organisations can address situational factors that affect employees’ relationships with their work but do not address personal factors, such as work-life interconnection, that may influence the way employees experience stress at work, mental health and well-being at work, and their intentions to remain with the organisation. Work and family characteristics are distinct domains of a person’s life and are antecedents of work-family balance since they impact role performance and subsequently impact role pressures (Michel et al. 2011). Achieving good work-life balance requires the implementation of organisational policies for improved work-life balance (Michel et al. 2011), work domain variables, non-work or household domain variables, and individual and demographic variables. Work domain variables may include type of contract, which is a reflection of the extent of certainty of continuing work; fixed-term or short contracts increase the risk of unemployment and job insecurity (Bosch 2004) and may result in poor work-life balance. Job tenure (i.e. the length of time [in years] a worker has been in the current workplace) is known to increase job security and the likelihood of good work-life balance (Virtanen et al. 2003). Weekly working hours (i.e. excessive work demands assessed by intensive or long working

246

11 Work-Life Balance and Well-Being at Work: Strategies …

hours or more than 48 h a week) are reported to be the most consistent predictor of poor work-life balance (Voydanoff 2004) and are linked to psychological ill-health, and adverse physical effects such as occupational injuries and accidents, musculoskeletal disorders, and unhealthy behaviours (Bosch 2004). Organisational practices that reflect the erosion of power of organised labour and employer-determined employment relations have been linked with constant variations in work schedule, which influences employees to work-life balance (Voydanoff 2004). Job insecurity, which reflects concerns about future job loss, is regarded among the most important sources of work stress (Antai et al. 2015; Beauregard and Henry 2009). Job insecurity is suggested to affect work-life balance through employees’ fear of losing their jobs pressurising them to perform in excess of explicit work demands. Job insecurity may also create anxiety about uncertain income and working hours (Serena 2014). A company’s size affects the extent and type of work-life-balance policies an organisation can provide, with large companies offering longer and paid parental leave and flexible working time arrangements (Beauregard and Henry 2009). Non-work domain variables include living together with a spouse or partner in the household with responsibilities that can create competing demands for work and family-related roles (Jacobs and Gerson 2004). Contributing to household earnings is important to work-family life balance, given that employees in low-wage jobs have limited control over their work hours and schedules (Lambert and Waxman 2005). Low-income employees are reported to have predisposed to poor work–family life balance as a result of reduced access to leave, income replacement, greater caregiving responsibilities, and inability to benefit from childcare services (Bond et al. 2005).

11.3 Work-Life Conflict or Interference Work-life conflict or interference is an important factor in determining organisational commitment, job satisfaction, and turnover (Akintayo 2010). Parasuraman and Greenhaus (1997) define work-life interference as a form of inter-role conflict whereby the demands of one’s work and the demands of personal life are mutually incompatible, such that meeting demands in one domain (i.e. work) makes it difficult to meet demands in the other (i.e. home). Frone et al. (1997) state that a lack of balance between work and non-work activities is often associated with lower psychological and physical well-being. Frone et al. (1997) further point out that workrelated stressors primarily cause work-life interference that can lead to feelings of frustrations and negative job and health outcomes, such as job dissatisfaction and psychological distress (Akintayo 2010). Studies have found that work demands such as workloads, number of hours worked, shift work, and overtime are strongly associated with work-life interference among employees, especially individuals working in service-oriented professions such as nursing, teaching, hospitality to name a few (Cho et al. 2006). Moreover, employees with heavy workload and irregular work

11.3 Work-Life Conflict or Interference

247

schedules are more likely to experience work-life conflict or interference as compared with their counterparts and are likely to be less satisfied with their job and life (Burke and Greenglass 2001; Simon et al. 2004). High levels of work-life conflict or interference have been associated with job dissatisfaction, absenteeism, psychological burnout, emotional exhaustion, and cynicism among employees (Boamah and Laschinger 2015). High turnover intentions among employees are a major concern because they can result in high costs to the organisation and impact negatively on the organisation’s capability to remain competitive, and meet customers’ needs (Hayes et al. 2006), and subsequently enhance productivity, the bottom line, and remain sustainable.

11.4 Work-Life Balance and Satisfaction According to Antai et al. (2015), poor work-life balance is associated with selfreported sickness absence and more health problems; work-related characteristics and job insecurity increase the likelihood of sickness absence. Moreover, Antai et al. (2015) state that sickness absence is a complex phenomenon influenced by personal, social, demographic, and organisational factors include work factors within and outside the work environment, and family responsibilities. Changes in the work environment within the past decades have led to steady increases in work intensity and job demands (Kossek et al. 2011). Employees increasingly find themselves struggling to balance the competing demands of work and family life; the resulting pressures have increased interest in achieving work-life balance, both for women as wage earners/home carers, and greater involvement in family responsibilities for men (Kossek et al. 2011).

11.5 Methodology The objectives of this study was to explore managerial and non-managerial employees’ (i.e. employee representatives, supervisors, managers, and executives administrators) perspectives that relate to work–family conflicts that affect work-life balance, health and well-being initiatives that promote work-life balance satisfaction, and employer implementation of family-friendly support to promote a more psychologically healthy workplace. The methodological approach adopted in this study is qualitative. Thirty-six semi-structured interviews were conducted with key informants and two focus groups with managerial and non-managerial employees from diverse occupational groups (i.e. education, health, finance, forestry, public sector, social work, first nations, not-for-profit, hospitality, legal, information technology, and retail). The informants are comprised of 12 men and 24 women that participated in the interviews and focus groups. The semi-structured interviews and focus groups

248

11 Work-Life Balance and Well-Being at Work: Strategies …

were conducted and guided using an interview and focus group scripts that covered broad domains with follow-up questions and prompts for each domain. The informants’ group that participated in the interviews and focus groups was relatively homogeneous to their occupational type regarding position held, income, age, marital status, and tenure with their respective organisation. Purposive sampling (Saunders et al. 2009) was used to target the range of employees from each occupational group, which emerged a balance proportion of informants of lower, medium, and high-income workers. The key informers were recruited from a broader study that focused on employees’ reactions and perspectives to HRM practices, quality of working life, line management leadership, and well-being at work. The interviews and focus group were conducted in person. The interviews and focus groups were tape-recorded with permission from the informants. Each interview and focus group discussions were transcribed and coded to identify main themes related to work–family conflicts, health and well-being factors that promote work-life balance satisfaction, and organisational family-friendly support initiatives to promote a psychologically healthy workforce. Transcriptions were entered into QSR International’s NVivo 12 software (QSR International Pty Ltd.), and all were coded by two independent raters using a predefined code book based on the domains in the interview and focus groups scripts (Patton 2002). After the initial coding and consensus of all transcripts, hermeneutic phenomenological analysis (HPA) was applied to find the ‘essence’ and ‘meaning’ or common themes across individual experiences (Miles and Huberman 1994; van Manen 1994). The thematic analysis was used to answer the research questions in this study. Through systematic review and discussion, codes were merged and grouped under main themes. Each transcript was re-read and re-coded for consistency.

11.6 Results 11.6.1 Work-Family Conflicts that Affects Work-Life-Balance Informants highlighted fourteen key themes that interfered and conflicted with their work-life balance. These themes include long working hours, limited finances and resources, bills, divorce, stress, poor family relationships, family conflict, expensive childcare, excessive traffic, lack of time, substance abuse, family illness, and unfair pay practices. There were commonalities and differences in the factors that contributed to work-life conflict for employees. Three employee groups (i.e. executive directors, managers, and employees) held the view that ‘long working hours’ affected their ability to spend quality time with their family and affected their stress levels, health and well-being at work and home. Union and managers held a common view that ‘poor family relationships’ were another factor that interfered with worklife balance. Executive directors and managers held the view that ‘a lack of time’ affected their work-life balance. In contrast, employees highlighted limited finances,

11.6 Results

249

bills, divorce, stress, family conflict, expensive childcare, substance abuse, family illness, and unfair pay practices are all work-life conflicts that affected their work-life balance, stress levels, well-being, and performance at their respective organisations. These themes are captured in the verbal accounts presented in the next section. Long Working Hours Working for an NGO Religious organization sometimes the work bleeds into family time…working late evenings and weekends when my family is home affects my work-life-balance (Executive Director, Male). Working too much and seeing family less, this overworking cuts into family time and the desire family time is curtailed (Manager, Female). Not having enough time to spend with my family due to long hours of work. I had a father that overworked himself and this was a major factor in my childhood and now I overwork. Therefore, working too many hours and not being able to always have time for myself or my family affects my work-life balance and overall well-being (Employee, Female). Poor Family Relationship When there is conflict with colleagues, and you don’t get along with co-workers. When there is a disagreement with your spouse there is work-family conflict or challenges (Manager, Male). Marriage, poor relationships with your spouse. Poor relationships with my spouse. When someone is sarcastic and breathing down my neck. Having a poor relationship with my husband (Union, Female). Lack of Time Lack of quality time to spend with family and friends. The lack of time to get everything done (Director, Male). Appointments conflicts with schedule time and not being able to have time off on special dates and occasions or at short notice to help family members or to attend important appointments (Manager, Female). In contrast, employees’ perspectives of work–family-conflict interference that affects their work-life balance include limited finances, bills, divorce, stress, family conflict, expensive childcare, excessive traffic, substance abuse, family illness, and unfair pay practices. The executive directors also highlighted ‘excessive traffic’ as work–family conflict that affects his work-life-balance. The below verbal accounts echo these themes. Limited Finances Lack of basic needs at home as well as a lack of finances (Employee, Male).

250

11 Work-Life Balance and Well-Being at Work: Strategies …

Bills Bills are a main cause for work-family conflict (Employee, Male). Divorce Divorce is a cause for my work-family-conflict (Employee, Male). Stress Feeling overwhelmed and stressed (Employee, Female). Family Conflict Family challenges and conflict with family affects my peace and work-life balance (Employee, Male). Expensive Childcare Childcare is very expensive and sometimes inaccessible (Employee, Female). Excessive Traffic Excessive traffic impacts on my work-life-balance (Director, Female). Substance Abuse Drunkenness affects my work-life-balance (Employee, Male). Family Illness Big changes in my family life like major sickness (Employee, Female). Unfair Pay Practices Knowing that new employees in lower departments, who are less experience and don’t do their work, are making more than a hard-working people, who have been in this organization for 10–12 years (Employee, Male) (Fig. 11.1).

11.6.2 Health and Well-Being Initiatives to Promote Work-Life-Balance Satisfaction The informants highlighted that key factors that they perceive should be implemented to promote work-life-balance satisfaction. These seventeen factors include flexible working arrangements, hiring a work-life balance and wellness coordinator, healthy meals and dietitian, EAP, education and training, day care services, fun at work initiatives, healthy working conditions, company group health plan, gym membership and exercise classes, meditation room, water cooler in the office, team working, reduction of working hours, appreciation and respect, fairness at work, and vacation leave.

11.6 Results

251

Work-Family-Conflict that affects Work-Life-Balance

Long Working Hours Poor Family Relationships Lack of Time Limited Finances Bills Divorce

Individual and Organizational Outcomes Increased Stress Job Dissatisfaction Mental Ill-health Burnout Absenteeism Lack of Commitment Poor Performance Substance Abuse Depression and Anxiety Turnover

Stress Family Conflict Expensive Childcare

Work-FamilyConflicts and Interruptions

Excessive Traffic Lack of Time Substance Abuse Family Illness Unfair Pay Practices

Fig. 11.1 Work–family conflict that affects work-life balance

There are commonalities and differences in the themes that were highlighted. Both employees and the union expressed the desire to have flexible working arrangements, healthy meals in the work canteen as well as a dietitian that workers can access to assist with obesity problems. Executive directors and employees declared that employers should hire a work-life balance and well-being coordinator that will assist employees and management to facilitate and manage these processes. Managers highlighted that EAP programme, education and training, and day care services should be promoted. The union highlighted that employers should implement fun at work team building practices, as well as promote healthy working conditions throughout the organisation that will enhance work-life balance satisfaction. Finally, employees’ perspectives include the implementation of a company group health plan, gym membership and exercise classes, meditation room, to have a water cooler installed in the office, team working, reduction of working hours, appreciation and respect, fairness at work, and vacation leave.

252

11 Work-Life Balance and Well-Being at Work: Strategies …

Flexible Working Arrangements Provide more flexibility such as flex days, compressed work week and flexible working hours. Flexible start and finish time to work (Employee, Female). Management can be more insightful as to how work times affect different families (Union, Female). Work-Life-Balance and Wellbeing Coordinator My employer should hire a person specifically to advocate for work-life-balance and wellbeing in the organization. This person will be able to intervene if stress levels are unbearable. This person will also be able to deal with confidential issues and their focus will be to assist staff with any health, well-being and work-lifebalance matters (Employee, Female). To have an occupational health advisor, Nurse or Doctor at the office so that staff can visit a professional if they have problems that needs attention (Manager, Male). Healthy Meals and Dietitian Healthy meals to be made available for purchase at work that will assist employees to maintain a balanced diet (Employee, Female). Hire a dietitian to assist employees who are struggling with obesity to assist them to manage their weight, health and well-being (Union, Female). Managerial respondents highlighted EAP programmes, education and training, and day care services should be promoted to enhance work-life balance satisfaction and well-being at work. EAP Program An employee care service or an employee assistance program where employee can access support confidentially…it would be good to have counselling options available as well (Manager, Female). Education and Training Provide workshops and Training. Promote more health-related training topics and bring in a guest speaker to educate and train employees and management to raise awareness about health-related issues…there should be workers retreats to discuss these matters (Manager, Male). Day Care Services To implement Day Care services for all employees’ children that they can access before and after school (Manager, Female). The union respondents highlighted fun at work initiatives, and healthy working conditions are integral to work-life balance satisfaction.

11.6 Results

253

Fun at Work To have non-competitive fun stuff where workers can come together and enjoy themselves with recreational activities (Union, Male). Healthy Working Conditions To have regular meetings between HR and Staff to strategize on ways to improve working conditions for all employees (Union, Female). Employees’ representatives declared that employers should implement a company group health plan to promote work-life balance satisfaction. Other key factors include group membership and exercise classes, meditation room, install a water cooler in the office, team working, reduction of working hours, appreciation and respect, fairness at work, and vacation leave. Company Group Health Plan I would like to see management implement a company group health plan that is accessible by all employees (Employee, Male). Gym Membership and Exercise Classes Start exercise classes with an Instructor. For. E.g. Yoga classes during the lunch break or after work. Management can also establish gym membership for employees or Zumba classes. These things assist with work-life-balance and wellbeing (Employee, Female). Meditation Room To have a meditation room for staff to relax and be refreshed will be nice to promote work-life balance and wellbeing at work (Employee, Female). Water Cooler in Offices Access to drinking water in the office via a water cooler because at the moment employees have to walk with their own water so it would be nice if there is a water cooler at the office, this will help with well-being (Employee, Female). Team Working Team working amongst colleagues and departments. Having interactive groups where we collaborate on improving our workplace will assist in promoting worklife-balance and wellbeing at work (Employee, Male). Reduction of Working Hours To reduce the workday from ten hours to eight hours (Employee, Female).

254

11 Work-Life Balance and Well-Being at Work: Strategies …

Appreciation and Respect To appreciate all employees for the work that they do and respect employees as individuals (Employee, Male). Fairness at Work Treat all employees fairly and equitably (Employee, Female). Vacation Leave Allocate and Implement more annual vacation leave for all employees (Employee, Female) (Fig. 11.2).

Health and Well-Being Initiatives to Promote Work-Life-Balance Satisfaction

Flexible Working Arrangements Work-Life-Balance and Wellbeing Coordinator Healthy Meals and Dietitian Company Group Health Plan Employee Assistance Program (EAP) Gym Membership and Exercise Classes Meditation Room Education and Training Water Cooler at Office Team Working

Outcomes Job Satisfaction Mental Health Psychologically healthy employees Commitment Trust Innovation Creativity Customer Satisfaction Performance

Day Care Services Fun at Work Healthy Working Conditions Reduction of Working Hours Appreciation and Respect Fairness at Work

Fig. 11.2 Health and well-being initiatives to promote work-life balance satisfaction

11.6 Results

255

11.6.3 Employer Implementation of Workplace Family-Friendly Support to Promote a Psychologically Healthy Workplace The respondents highlighted eleven key factors that they perceive employers should implement for workplace family-friendly support to promote a psychologically healthy workplace. These factors include fun and family activities, good working relationship, peer support, work-life conflict counselling, quit break time, bring your child to work day, improved trust and confidentiality, respect and fairness at work, after school programmes for employees’ children, time management, and flexible working arrangements. There were commonalities in views between employees and union who both agreed that ‘fun and family activities’ in the workplace will promote a psychologically healthy workplace. The following text echoes employees and unions views. Fun and Family Activities Family days and trips for staff. For e.g. the Christmas lunch or dinner celebration should include the entire family or staff members (Employees, Female). Plan events quarterly to incorporate family and friends. My employer has several annual activities which involves all family members. This practice should be continued and increased (Union, Female). More sporting and social events for workers. Introduce a breakfast club. For e.g. once a week a group of people can collaborate to bring breakfast for participants of the club (Employee, Female). Executive directors echoed that support to assist them to manage their time will enhance their health and well-being and work towards promoting a psychologically healthy organisation. The following director supports this point. Time Management To implement systems that will assist in the management of time to facilitate health and wellness needs (Executive Director, Male). Managerial respondents held the view that counselling for work-life conflict problems for employees is likely to be effective in promoting a psychologically healthy organisation. One manager echoes this point. Work-Life Conflict Counselling To have access to mental health counselling and support for staff as required. There should also be more counsellors to support work-life conflict and any domestic violence problems at home as well (Manager, Female).

256

11 Work-Life Balance and Well-Being at Work: Strategies …

The union respondents highlighted that improved trust and confidentiality between employer and employees and authorizing afterschool programmes for employees’ children are support initiatives that will promote a psychologically healthy organisation. The following echoes these points. Improved Trust and Confidentiality When a concern is shared with employers and manager and it results in being talked about by other employees then there is no trust and confidentiality and that can lead to psychological stress at the workplace. Therefore, improved trust and confidentiality has to be significantly improved to promote a more psychologically healthy workforce (Union, Male). After School Programs for Employees Children The employer should introduce after school programs for the children of employees. This will provide a peace of mind for employees with the knowledge that their children are taken care of by professionals until they finish work. If this is implemented this will go a long way to building a psychologically healthy workforce (Union, Female). Employees declared that good working relationships, peer support, quiet break time, bring your child to work day, respect and fairness at work, and flexible working arrangements are key factors to promote a psychologically healthy workplace. The following verbal account supports these themes. Good Work Relationships To have good healthy relationships with staff and their line managers (Employee, Male). Peer Support Introduce a peer support, buddy system to motivate, support and car for staff (Employee, Female). Quiet Break Time To introduce a quiet time, break for all employees during the workday. This will not take too much time perhaps each employee being allowed a 10–15 min’ quiet time break will promote a more psychologically healthy workforce in my opinion (Employee, Female). Bring your Child to Work Day There should be a day specifically allocated to ‘bring your child to work day’ where employees can bring their children or child to work with them (Employee, Female).

11.6 Results

257

Workplace Family-Friendly Support Factors

Fun and Family Activities Good Working Relationships Work-Life-Conflict Counselling Peer Support Quiet Break Time

Psychologically Healthy Workplace

Bring Your Child to Work Day Improved Trust and Confidentiality After School Programs for Employees’ Children Time Management Respect and Fairness at Work Flexible Working Arrangements

Fig. 11.3 Employees’ perspectives: employer workplace family-friendly support to promote a psychologically healthy workplace

Respect and Fairness at Work Deal with workplace problems right away and treat everyone with respect, fairness and equality (Employee, Female). Flexible Working Arrangements Introduce flexible working arrangements to allow employees to have staggered start and finish times in keeping with their individual requirements, like having to drop their kids off to school before work or if you have caring responsibility for elderly parents (Employee, Female) (Fig. 11.3).

11.7 Discussion and Conclusion The chapter explored managerial and non-managerial employees’ perspectives to answer research questions that relate to work–family conflicts that affect work-life balance, health and well-being initiatives to promote work-life balance satisfaction,

258

11 Work-Life Balance and Well-Being at Work: Strategies …

and employees’ perspectives regarding the implementation of family-friendly support initiatives to promote a psychologically healthy workplace. Using a mixed qualitative methodological approach (i.e. semi-structured interviews and focus groups) from diverse occupational groups, key and central themes emerged to answer the research questions. The findings centre around subordinate themes of personal and family challenges, social well-being at work, wellness management strategies, and factors that employees perceive will promote a healthy work organisation. Work–family conflicts that affects work-life balance—The findings reveal that work-life conflicts and interference that affects positive work-life balance include ‘personal individual challenges’ of employees (i.e. limited finances, bills, divorce, poor family relationships, family conflicts, expensive childcare, substance abuse, family illness, communication challenges, long working hours, stress, and a lack of time). The findings also show that employees perceived that ‘unfair pay practices’ were another key factor that negatively affect their work-life and subsequently, positive well-being. The study shows that employees’ life challenges and stressors are psychologically distressing and are interconnected to their work-life and create a disparity that increases stress, affects employees’ quality of life, effectiveness, and performance. According to Chen and Cooper (2014) work-life balance is commonly thought to promote an individual’s psychological well-being and overall sense of satisfaction. In contrast, work-life imbalance culminates in high levels of stress, which affect the quality of life, and eventually reduces individuals’ work effectiveness (Greenhaus et al. 2003). Numerous life challenges experienced by individuals interfere with their ability to function effectively at work, and it can also impact organisational commitment, job satisfaction, and turnover (Akintayo 2010). Parasuraman and Greenhaus (1997) define work-life interference as a form of inter-role conflict whereby the demands of one’s work and the demands of personal life are mutually incompatible, such that meeting demands in one domain (i.e. work) makes it difficult to meet demands in the other (i.e. home). This study shows that meeting the demands of ‘home’ forms an inter-role conflict of meeting the demands at ‘work’, thereby creating stress and psychological imbalance for employees. The work stressor experienced by employees is their perception of ‘unfair pay practices’ which is the cause of their work-life interference that can lead to feelings of frustrations and negative job and health outcomes, such as job dissatisfaction, psychological distress, and negative work-life balance (Akintayo 2010). The findings show that these employees are less satisfied with their life and job and (Boamah and Laschinger 2015) state that high levels of work-life conflict and interference are associated with absenteeism, psychological burnout, emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and turnover. It is essential for organisational leaders to have greater insight into the life challenges that individuals experience in their personal lives that are interconnected to their ability to perform and be creative and innovate at work. This knowledge can assist policymakers, unions, and managers to develop strategies and policies to effectively support workers to bridge the ‘life-work divide’ so that more employees can enjoy the balance between life and work. In turn, organisations will also benefit from this major concern of having a ‘tighter balance’ of work life for their

11.7 Discussion and Conclusion

259

employees, which will pay dividends through lower turnover intentions, more satisfied employees, higher performance and productivity, enhance customer satisfaction, increased competitiveness, and growing bottom line and sustainability. Health and well-being initiatives to promote work-life-balance satisfaction—The findings clustered into four key strategic themes, which include wellness practices, social and relational practices, HRM practices, and organisational practices. ‘Wellness practices’ that employees perceive will promote their work-life balance satisfaction that include introduce a company group health plan, gym membership and exercise classes, meditation room, install a water cooler in the office, healthy meals and dietitian available to employees, fun at work initiatives, day care services, and an EAP programme). The ‘social and relational practices’ include showing appreciation and respect to employees and ensuring that employees experience fairness at work. The ‘HRM practices’ related to high commitment, high performing, stress reduction, and mental health and include team working, education and training, recruitment and selection of a work-life balance, well-being coordinator, flexible working arrangements, and vacation leave. The ‘organisational practices’ include review job design to reduce long working hours and healthy working conditions. Changes in the work environment within the past decades have led to steady increases in work intensity and job demands (Kossek et al. 2011). Employees that are satisfied with their work-life balance are likely to enjoy positive mental health and well-being at work as they are unlikely to be prone to being absent from work due to sickness as a result of work-related stress and life challenges. Antai et al. (2015) state that poor work-life balance is associated with self-reported sickness absence and more health problems; work-related characteristics and job insecurity increase the likelihood of sickness absence. Organisations that view work-life-balance satisfaction as one of the strategic tools that are required for managing the twenty-first-century workforce are businesses that will reap the rewards of being a socially responsible employer, and the return of investments (ROI) is likely to far exceed the investment and focus of work-life-balance satisfaction. Employer implementation of family-friendly support initiatives to promote a psychologically healthy workplace—The findings reveal that employees’ perspectives for family-friendly initiatives that will promote a psychologically healthy workplace were clustered into three key themes, which include wellness management initiatives, social and relational aspect of employment relations, and human resources management policies and practices. The ‘wellness management initiatives’ include work-life-conflict counselling, fun and family activities, quiet break time, bring your child to work days, and after school programme for employees’ children. The social and relational aspect of employment relations includes good working relationships, peer support, respect and fairness at work, and improved trust and confidentiality. The ‘human resources management’ employee champion policies and practices include flexible working arrangements, job redesign to facilitate more effective time management). The findings from this research show that organisations have to focus on three domains, i.e. wellness, social/relational support, and HRM practices, to implement family-friendly policies and practices to reconcile work and family life. The findings

260

11 Work-Life Balance and Well-Being at Work: Strategies …

support the literature as it relates to family-friendly policies that are adopted in organisations. The findings also present additional family-friendly policies and information as perceived by employees that are required to promote work-life-balance connection. Bratberg et al. (2002) state that the consequences of poor work-life balance are associated with sickness absence, and Jensen et al. (2006) point out that familyfriendly policies that have been adopted in diverse organisations include childcare services, extended and flexible parental leave schemes, and generous support to single parents. The concern for work-life balance and well-being at work has sustained a continuing interest of worker satisfaction with their work environment to ensure that the working conditions are positive to foster motivation, engagement, well-being, performance, and retention. In conclusion, the findings from this study will assist organisational leaders, managers, HR and well-being professionals as they work towards developing and implementing strategies to manage and motivate their most important resource—people.

References Antai, D., Oke, A., Braithwaite, & Anthony, D. S. (2015). A ‘balanced’ life: Work-life balance and sickness absence in Four Nordic Countries. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 6(4), 205–222. Akintayo, D. I. (2010). Work-family conflict and organization commitment among industrial workers in Nigeria. Journal of Psychology and Counselling, 2(1), 1–8. Beauregard, T. A., & Henry, L. C. (2009). Making the link between work-life balance practices and organizational performance. Human Resource Management Review, 19, 9–22. Boamah, S. A., & Laschinger, H. (2015). The influence of areas of worklife fit and work-life interference on burnout and turnover intentions among new graduate nurses. Journal of Nursing Management, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.12318. Bond, J. T., Galinsky, E., Kim, S. S., & Brownfield, E. (2005). National study of employers. NY: Families and Work Institute. Bosch, G. (2004). Towards a new standard employment relationship in Western Europe. British Journal of Industrial Relations, 42, 617–636. Bratberg, E., Dahl, S. Å., & Risa, A. E. (2002). The double burden. Do combinations of career and family obligations increase sickness absence among women? European Sociological Review, 18, 233–249. Burke, R. J., & Greenglass, E. R. (2001). Hospital restructuring, work-family conflict and psychological burnout among nursing staff. Psychology and Health, 16, 583–594. Cho, J., Laschinger, H. K. S., & Wong, C. (2006). Workplace empowerment, work engagement and organizational commitment of new graduate nurses. Nursing Leadership, 19(3), 43–60. Chen, P. Y., & Cooper, C. L. (2014). Wellbeing: A complete reference guide, work and wellbeing. Oxford, UK: Wiley. Crompton, R., & Lyonette, C. (2006). Work-life ‘balance’ in Europe. Acta Social, 49, 379–393. Frone, M. R., Yardley, J. K., & Markel, K. S. (1997). Developing and testing an integrative model of the work-family interface. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50, 145–167. Frone, M. R. (2003). Work-family balance. In J. C. Quick, & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.), Handbook of occupational health psychology (pp. 13–162). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

References

261

Greenhaus, J. H., Collins, K. M., & Shaw, J. D. (2003). The relation between work-family balance and quality of life. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 63, 510–531. Greenhaus, J. H., Allen, T. D., & Spector, P. E. (2006). Health consequences of work-family conflict: The dark side of the work family interface. Research in Occupational Stress and Wellbeing, 5, 61–98. Grzywacz, J. G., & Carlson, D. S. (2007). Conceptualizing work– family balance: Implications for practice and research. Advances Developing Human Resources, 9, 455–471. Hayes, L. J., O’Brien-Pallas, L., Duffield, C., et al. (2006). Nurse turnover: A literature review. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 43, 237–263. Jacobs, J. A., & Gerson, K. (2004). The time divide: Work, family, and gender inequality. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Jansen, N. W., Kant, I. J., van Amelsvoort, L. G., et al. (2006). Work-family conflict as a risk factor for sickness absence. Occupational Environment Medicine, 63, 488–494. Kossek, E. E., Pichler, S., Bodner, T., et al. (2011). Workplace social support and work-family conflict: A meta-analysis clarifying the influence of general and work-family specific supervisor and organisation support. Personal Psychology, 64, 289–313. Lambert, S. J., & Waxman, E. (2005). Organizational stratification: Distributing opportunities for work-life integration. In E. E. Kossek & S. J. Lambert (Eds.), Work and life integration: Organizational, cultural and individual perspectives (pp. 103–126). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Leiter, M. P., & Maslach, C. (2004). Areas of worklife: A structured approach to organizational predictors of job burn-out. In P. I. Perrewe & D. C. Ganster (Eds.), Research in occupational stress and well-being (pp. 91–134). Oxford: Elsevier. Maslach, C., & Leiter, M. P. (1997). The truth about burnout. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Michel, J. S., Kotrba, L. M., Mitchelson, J. K., et al. (2011). Antecedents of work-family conflict: A meta-analytic review. Journal Organization Behaviour, 32, 689–725. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Nielsen, M. L., Kristensen, T. S., & Smith-Hansen, L. (2002). The Intervention Project on Absence and Well-being (IPAW): Design and results from the baseline of a 5-year study. Work Stress, 16, 191–206. Parasuraman, S., & Greenhaus, J. H. (1997). The changing world of work and family. In S. Parasuraman & J. H. Greenhaus (Eds.), Integrating work and family: Challenges & choices for a changing world (pp. 3–14). Westport, CN: Quorum Books. Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2009). Research methods for business students (5th ed.). London: Pearson Education, Financial Times, Prentice Hall Serena, Y. (2014). Work-life balance—Work intensification and job insecurity as job stressors. Labour & Industry, 24, 203–216. Simon, M., Kummerling, A., & Hasselhorn, H. M. (2004). Work home conflict in the European nursing profession. International Journal of Occupational Environmental Health, 10, 384–391. Van Manen, M. (1994). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. New York, NY: State University of New York Press. Virtanen, M., Kivimäki, M., Elovainio, M., et al. (2003). From insecure to secure employment: Changes in work, health, health related behaviours, and sickness absence. Occupation Environment Medicine, 60, 948–953. Voydanoff, P. (2004). The effects of work demands and resources on work-to-family conflict. Journal of Marriage Family, 66, 398–412.

Part III

Well-Being at Work in the New Public Management Environment

Chapter 12

The Work Environment and Well-Being at Work: Employees’ Experiences in the Public Sector

Abstract Most of the research that has been published in occupational health psychology relates the role of work and working life to the management of chronic ill-health (Cox et al. 2000), which has implications for sickness absence (Collins et al. 2005; Cox et al. 2014); and the impact of working on the quality of life of people at work. From an HRM and Employment Relations perspectives, in the case of public sector employees, there is also the questions of the role that work can play in the quality of their working life, the meaning they give to their jobs and how work experiences have contributed to their well-being at work. This chapter is based on ongoing research into well-being at work with British Local Government, focusing on 27 semi-structured interviews of managerial and non-managerial employees verbal accounts of their own experiences of work, quality of working life, and the meanings of the job perceptions. The data reveals that work and the quality of working life were challenging for both managerial and non-managerial employees and was strongly associated with four super-ordinate themes that impacted the individuals, groups, and the organisation, which include restricted resources and controlled work environment, workplace incivility and mistreatment, relationships, and work-life balance. Furthermore, the findings from the respondents’ account for the meaning of their job are clustered into one super-ordinate theme of identity-work-life integration. The impact of the findings for work, quality of working life, the meaning of the job, and employee well-being and performance are discussed.

12.1 The Global Economy and New Public Management In the middle of the twenty-first century, the British economy experienced recessionary challenges which resulted in financial turmoil, a fall in output, employment, and the decline in labour productivity (Van Wanrooy et al. 2011). Both private and public sector organisations were affected by the recession with a pattern of unstable growth and uncertainty. Public sector organisations, in particular, were stretched further to endure the challenging financial crisis which places a tighter squeeze and pressure on there already limited resources within a New Public Management (NPM) environment. The key principles and political context of the NPM have been applied to © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 N. Cvenkel, Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health, Approaches to Global Sustainability, Markets, and Governance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3619-9_12

265

266

12 The Work Environment and Well-Being at Work …

the public sector because of funding limitations and the growing expenditure due to technological progress, and an ageing population (Simonet 2013). Simonet (2013) further states that NPM theory reforms can be traced to the neoliberal ideas of the early 1980s, economic shocks, and the desire for governments to balance their budgets. Boyne (2002) states that the NPM ideology and the way decisions are made with respect to declining budgets, increasing demands for service and productivity, and human resources activities, have implications for human resources management, working life, and well-being at work for public sector employees. The public sector has been the centre for continuous politically sensitive reform that has been underpinned by the NPM approach that focuses on the move from hierarchical formalised approach, with an emphasis on avoiding mistakes and application of rules (Butterfield et al. 2005). It also involves the existence of bureaucracy and red tape (Bozeman 1993, 2000) to espousal of decentralisation, values of innovation, enterprise, and management problem solving (Clarke et al. 2000; McLaughlin et al. 2008). Other features involve a shift towards value for money, supported by techniques of performance management, budgeting, costing, balance scorecard, and key performance indicators (Jackson and Lapsley 2003). The modernisation of the public sector consequently affected, and still affects, public sector workers in the areas of declining public service ethos (Needham 2007), increasing criticism of the quality of public services and failure to meet citizens expectations (Dibben et al. 2007), work intensification and delivery of public services (Noblet et al. 2006), pay and rewards (Folger 1977), fairness and equity (Harrow 2002; Leventhal 1980; Marsden 2007), employment security (Dibben 2007), increased absenteeism, mental health challenges, financial well-being, presenteeism, and leaveism (CIPD 2019; Hesketh and Cooper 2014), and even less discussed employee well-being (Baptiste 2007, 2009; Emmott 2006). The challenges of limited resources in the public sector have diminished the confidence and trust in government, which in turn is likely to erode the morale and well-being of public sector employees (Anderson and Bateman 1997). Berman et al. (2010) assert that rebuilding trust is an important challenge facing the public sector at all levels. Central to this view, Pate et al.’s (2007) research reveals a relative distrust of senior management in the public sector. Research from the CIPD’s health and well-being at work survey reveals that employees noted that relationships with management were the second major cause of work-related stress, and mental ill-health, which in turn have implications for negative well-being, absenteeism, presenteeism, and leaveism behaviours in the public sector (CIPD 2019).

12.2 The Crisis of Work The implications of reform changes, restructuring, downsizing in the public sector resulted in closing departments, discontinuation of services, with numerous employees facing layoffs and organisational changes and restructuring, requiring the delivery

12.2 The Crisis of Work

267

of more efficient services and performance within minimum budget levels. This situation created what Braverman (1999) referred to as ‘a crisis work environment’ (p. 20). This represents the workplace turning into a stressful environment that threatens to destroy the health and, in some cases, the lives of working people. Braverman further argues that some of the causes of stress derive from unions and company management embattling and mistrusting the other, human resources and employee relations departments overwhelmed by the demands of unrelenting organisational change, and domestic challenges spilling into the workplace. Such environments foster control over limited resources, competition, and uncertainty that set people against one another, pushing many past their limits, and for many workers, these conditions have turned the workplace into a place of desperation, isolation, and despair (Braverman 1999; Tehrani 2012). The sources of stress on organisational systems represent multiple and complex issues that can originate from the work situation itself and from outside the work environment, deriving from the community and family (Braverman 1999). Pauchant and Mitroff (1992) argue that leaders in crisis-prepared organisations understand that stress, which directly affects the people in their companies, can derive from diverse sources. This stress will have a direct impact on the health and well-being of their people and the success of their businesses (Baptiste 2008). Pauchant and Mitroff (1992) further posit that crisis-prepared organisations would have systems to alert them to stressors and danger signs that could trigger workplace bullying and harassment, and mistreatment (Hanrahan and Leiter 2014). Workplace mistreatment or incivility starts with personal experience of being left out of a meeting, not being asked to sit in on a call relevant to your work, catching a co-worker slip out an exaggerated sigh as you express your opinion, and outward rude remarks, are some of the meanings and incidents that can be used to define our interpersonal experiences of incivility (Hanrahan and Leiter 2014). Workplace incivility relates to the negative, harmful and inappropriate behaviours that can occur in the workplace. Anderson and Pearson (1999) argue that workplace incivility should be viewed as a social interaction as involving and influencing the instigator, the targets or recipients, any observers, and the social context in which the interaction occurs. Anderson and Pearson define workplace incivility “as low intensity deviant behaviour with ambiguous intent to harm the target, in violation of workplace norms for mutual respect. Uncivil behaviours are characteristically rude and discourteous, displaying a lack of regard for others” (p. 457); as well as acts of inappropriate behaviours that had a clear intent to cause harm and falls under a large scope of antisocial behaviours that brings harm, or is intended to bring harm to an organisation, its employees, or it’s stakeholders (Anderson and Pearson 1999; Giacalone and Greenberg 1997). Researchers also looked at how these less intense behaviours of ambiguous intent were related to the more serious acts of aggression and violence (Anderson and Pearson 1999). Incivility in the workplace interferes with the ability of individuals, groups, and entire organisations to meet their full potentials and positive well-being. Individuals, groups, and organisations that can counteract the dysfunction of mistreatment or incivility in the workplace may recover positive employee well-being and productivity that

268

12 The Work Environment and Well-Being at Work …

workplace incivility often impacts employee’s health and well-being and the bottom line (Hanrahan and Leiter 2014). The relentless pace of change, both inside the workplace and in society, continues to cause stress and disruptions that affect individuals and the work organisations they inhabit, causing a loss of job security for employees at all levels (Baptiste 2008). Furthermore, with respect to the public sector, greater increased service delivery performance pressure causes stress levels to heighten for many employees, creating mounting concerns about limited resources, bullying and harassment and conflict within the workplace. Braverman (1999) suggests that the signs of an organisation in crisis might involve a single employee submitting a claim for stress, complaining of harassment, or reporting domestic abuse. The employment relationship provides a context in which employers can act effectively to evaluate and resolve the threat to safety, personal health, and financial health as well as to prevent and stop the damage of bullying and violence in the workplace (Cvenkel 2018; Namie and Namie 2011). A workplace can thrive only when its members feel positively connected and when employees at all levels trust the organisation as a whole (Baptiste 2008; Cvenkel 2018). When one mismanages change and trauma, people at all levels of the organisation become nervous, unsure of their duties, and hesitant of their interdependence concerning others in the structure, which results in critical breakdowns in trust and communication (Baptiste 2008; Chechak and Csiernik 2014; Cvenkel 2018). Chechak and Csiernik (2014) further argue that within the employment relationship, when a breakdown of trust and communication occurs, people suffer in silence rather than reaching out for help; moreover, managers and supervisors hide worrisome or explosive situations rather than bringing them to the attention of their supervisors. Braverman (1999) posits that without trust in an organisation’s system, people do not communicate. Without communication, no early warning may occur; therefore, no opportunity will exist to take action to correct the error (Baptiste 2009). Consequently, stresses affecting contemporary workplaces manifest directly in system-level crises, involving breakdowns in communication between workers and management, loss of morale and loyalty to the company, and the failure of systems designed to deal with conflict resolution, fairness, and physical security (Pauchant and Mitroff 1992). From an individual perspective, increasing alienation, stress, and helplessness lead inevitably to dysfunctional, disruptive, and even dangerous behaviours (e.g., violence or bullying and harassment).

12.3 Methodology The methodological approach adopted is a case study that draws from an Interpretivism paradigm of Hermeneutic Phenomenology using semi-structured interviews and focus groups with managerial and non-managerial employees from a local government organisation in North West England. Twenty-seven semi-structured interviews were completed with a diverse range of managerial and non-managerial

12.3 Methodology

269

employees from different departments in the public sector local government organisation. Each interview lasted 60–75 min, tape-recorded, and transcribed verbatim. The two focus groups last 45–60 min, one with managers only and the second with non-managerial employees only. The interviews and focus groups explored the subjective perceptions of managerial and non-managerial employees regarding their views concerning their experiences of work, working life realities, and the meaning of their jobs in the local government organisation. The interview and focus group data were analysed using the phenomenological interpretative approach to analyse the qualitative data, assisted with repeated immersion into the data as a whole, leading to the categorisation into themes as described by Giorgi (1985), Thorne et al. (1997). Narrative analysis was also used to assist with the analysis of the qualitative data retrieved from semi-structured interviews and focus groups. Thorne et al. (1997) point out that one of the foundations of knowledge from human subjects includes that, although shared aspects of experience exist, each person lives that experience from an individual perspective generated by unique life events. Thorne et al. (1997) further argue that one could use interpretative description research to explore the uniqueness of each person’s experience while identifying the aspects of the phenomenon, familiar to everyone. The interpretative description is uniquely suited to explore sensitive issues, such as workplace well-being in the public sector, where the knowledge of workplace wellbeing may seem familiar to all. However, the experience of work and the quality of working life from the perspective of individuals’ historical accounts of events can have a profound effect on each and by extension the organisation, families, and communities associated with them. The interviews and focus group schedules comprised open-ended questions. This allowed the interviewer to have an element of control over the questions posed, although it permitted some findings and explanations to arise unexpectedly. The interview and focus group processes were collaborative and emphasised the participants as the primary experts in keeping with the aims of the interpretative research approach. There were crucial lines of exploration comprising the interview and focused groups’ schedules. These include primary questions on respondents’ views and experiences of work, the quality of working life, and the meanings of their job. The relationship between these questions was explored from the researcher’s interpretation of the data extracted from the interviews and focus groups. That is, the researcher interpreted the language discourse constructed by participants’ interpretation of their reality.

12.4 Exploring Lived Experiences The semi-structured interviews and focus groups findings reflect individuals’ own experiences about the quality of their working life realities, and the meaning of their jobs in the public sector organisation (e.g. The Council) in North West England. This chapter presents the findings from 27 semi-structured interviews and two

270

12 The Work Environment and Well-Being at Work …

focus groups conducted with public sector managerial and non-managerial employees to explore these workers voice as it relates to their working life realities, and consequently how these experiences have impacted on their well-being at work and performance. The chapter is presented in two main sections: (1) working life realities and (2) the meaning of the job to employees. Informants were asked to respond in relation to their own experiences and priorities as employees, rather than from an espoused practice point of view. Van Maanen (1994) and Cohen et al. (2000) argue that individual employees have different experiences of their working environment and interpret the meaning of their experiences differently. Van Maanen (1994) and Cohen et al. (2000) further state that the notion of ‘difference’ recognises that there is more than one valid form of representing human experience, behaviours, activities, perspectives, insights, and priorities. Purposive sampling was used to ensure that all departments within the local government organisation (the Council) were represented and as such, 15 managerial employees (male = 8, female = 7) and 12 non-managerial employees (male = 3, female = 9) participated in the study. All twenty-seven were Caucasian; (23 respondents) aged 40–59 years, and (4 respondents) aged 20–39 years. They were all well-educated up to master’s degree for managerial employees and diploma/certificate (HND/C) for non-managerial employees. The majority of respondents (i.e. 25) worked full time and reported a range of incomes1 and held a variety of tenures with the organisation.2 The findings show mixed responses (i.e. similarities and differences) between managerial and non-managerial employees. Data is presented in two forms: rich descriptions and meanings drawn from interview texts, and graphical data display. Tables 12.1, 12.2, 12.3 and 12.4 indicate salient points raised in the interviews (Lyons 2000). While no statistical significance is claimed, the tabular representation of themes has been structured on the assumption that a theme cited by a larger number of interviewees has more importance to the respondents as a whole (Miles and Huberman 1994). The resulting patterns provide an enriched understanding of the factors employees consider pertinent to the employment relationship, their quality of working life, and the meaning employees give to their job in local government. A ‘road map’ of the structure of the chapter is outlined in Table 12.1.

12.5 Working Life Realities The question asked to trigger reflection on this category was ‘can you tell me what it is like to work here’? Respondents were also prompted using subsequent questions based on issues raised as well as exploring good things and challenges experienced

1 £10,001–£20,000 = 6 respondents; £20,001–£30,000 = 9 respondents; £30,001–£40,000 = 5 respondents; £40,001–£50,000 = 4 respondents; £50,001–£60,000 = 1 respondent. 2 Less than 5 years (11 respondents); 6–10 years (6 respondents); 11–15 years (3 respondents); 16–20 years (4 respondents); and 21–25 years (3 respondents).

12.5 Working Life Realities

271

Table 12.1 Employees’ perspectives of their working life realities and the meaning of their job in local government Sections

Key themes

1. Working life realities

Restricted resources (i.e. budgets and staff) Redundancy and anxiety Efficiency savings Workplace stress Heavy workloads Pressurised environment Doing more with less Stress sickness absence Job insecurity Government grant funding Instability Talent brain drain Anxiety and depression Presenteeism and retention Bureaucracy and control Red tape Control and lack of autonomy Nepotism Constant change and instability Persistent restructuring Time limitation Realignment of resources Bullying and psychological violence Humiliation Blame culture Incivility Mental ill-health Persecution Lack of trust Them and Us culture Tensions between teams Hierarchical and status differentials Fighting off attacks and protecting limited resources Excessive emails Hinders communication and relationships building Controls workday and increase workloads Job dissatisfaction and public sector ethos Unhappy employees and lack of career ambition Lack of enthusiasm for work and demotivation Dilapidated office environment Limited budgets Inadequate technical equipment Work-life balance Flexible working arrangements Support for employees with dependent children (continued)

272

12 The Work Environment and Well-Being at Work …

Table 12.1 (continued) Sections

Key themes

2. The meaning of the job

Professionally stimulating and engaging Contribute professionally Not routine or repetitive Job design Financial stability Pays mortgage Pays bills and rent Facilitate life enjoyment Community contribution Helping people Engaging others Making a difference Confidence and self-esteem Sense of purpose Fulfilment and gratitude Sense of purpose Thankfulness Accomplishment Career advancement Enhance experience Formal qualifications Professional development Identity Relationships Internal stakeholders External stakeholders Social engagement Personality of line manager Politics Close proximity to home Can walk to work

within the local government organisation. The findings clustered into four superordinate themes the impacted the individuals, groups, and the organisation, which include restricted resources and controlled work environment, workplace incivility and mistreatment, relationships, and work-life balance. The prominent points cited by respondents as those most frequently mentioned are highlighted.

12.5 Working Life Realities

273

12.5.1 Restricted Resources and Controlled Work Environment 12.5.1.1

Restricted Resources

The findings reveal critical issues managerial employees experienced within their working life realities which include challenges with money, protecting their resources budgeting and staffing restrictions, avoiding redundancies, having to promote efficiency savings, manage staff anxieties, and at the same time trying to find the balance to ensure that their services contribute to the greater good of the community. They also have to avoid the deletion of positions as employees’ jobs are important to ensure that individuals are able to pay their mortgage, bills, and have financial stability (financial well-being). These tensions are likely to affect the psychological contract, mental health, and well-being of managers. One manager’s depiction of his working life experiences highlighted some of these salient points. He shares: Money, is something that’s constantly on my mind – ‘how can I protect my resources, both my staff and my budget, to try and avoid people losing their jobs’. You’ve also got to think about efficiencies and savings – ‘how can we do things better, how can we do it cheaper with fewer resources?’.…and sometimes that’s a difficult balance……Budget restrictions are challenging because people come to work to contribute to society and the Council in particular but they also come to work because it pays their mortgage and their bills so when there is a discussion around budget reduction and one of the consequences may be deletion of post, causes anxiety amongst employees.…yes it will affect people’s morale and well-being. (Manager; Male; Age 40–49 years; Tenure, less than 5 years)

12.5.1.2

Workplace Stress

Managers and non-managerial employees all mentioned that they have heavy workloads which results in increased stress and a pressurised working environment of having to do more with less. The work-related stress experienced by employees has an impact on stress-related sickness absence at the Council. One manager comments: Some staff, particularly the operational staff are stressed and our sickness absence levels show this as it is high. Staff like the home carers and some others can be work-related, like back pains, that sort of thing. Some people are working with people with incredibly challenging behaviour and so you have to think about that and the wear and tear of this, and sometimes the physical assault of that…staff in these positions are offered Counselling and other support. (Manager, Female, Aged 40–49 years, Tenure 6–10 years)

274

12.5.1.3

12 The Work Environment and Well-Being at Work …

Job Insecurity

Managerial and non-managerial employees highlighted job insecurity as a factor that is part of their working life realities with the Council. The respondents relate job insecurity to budget restrictions and government grant funding, worrying, staff anxiety, retention issues, talent and brain drain. One manager states: Mostly, we have job security, if you have a permanent position, because the Council is committed to avoid compulsory redundancies, but this is associated with budgets. However, the Council is committed to keeping jobs and I have seen this in practice. What is more worrying, and it’s not the Council’s fault, it is the Government’s fault, with grant funding. A lot of positions are time limited and temporary. That’s the problem. (Manager, Female, Aged 50–59 years, Tenure, 21–25 years)

Another manager echoes the view of government grant funding as being problematic for job security, retention, and talent management. She said: Government grant funding is an extreme challenge. I have got three members of staff, twopart time admin and a full time other officer whose funding is the national training strategy grant which ends in March. Now I don’t really know what’s going to happy come September it’s only six months away so you really need to start planning. And what do I do? And the staff have started to get very twitchy and anxious. The big danger is one of the admin people have already gone. She’s got herself another job that is permanent, and she’s fine. I would have liked to keep her as she is very good at her job.… you know these sort of things is problematic, but that isn’t the Council, that is Government funding. (Manager, Female, Aged 40–49 years, Tenure 11–15 years)

Yet another manager discussed the challenges of job insecurity at the Council and related this to work-related stress, worry, anxiety, depression, lack of enthusiasm, negative well-being, presenteeism, limited time to complete projects, work-related stress, lack of commitment, and challenges with accuracy and productivity. He said: Limitations in budgets can affect job security, well-being and performance. It can go both ways. I have an employee who is at the beginning of a one-year contract and is working so hard to get the project plan and other things in place because she knows that there’s limited time. I am hoping that at the end of it there might be an extension to the contract. I have no idea. It’s a different pot of money. She is working her socks off, she is working exceptionally hard over and above her hours. However, there is another member of staff who’s okay but she is a bit dispirited because of what is going to be the end of her contract. While she is not a problem, the enthusiasm is not there…. she is anxious. So naturally of accuracy and productivity can drop off a bit. (Manager, Female, Aged 40–49 years, Tenure, 11–15 years)

Another manager spoke about job insecurity being devastating to employees placed in the situation of not being able to continue in a role due to budget limitation. Challenges such as this can affect an individual’s mental health, stress levels, psychological, physical, and financial well-being. He states: Well, I think job security is perplexed and upsetting, but it’s part of life and you get used to it. Luckily, I have always managed to have people whose contracts ended go back into something else, I have had some disappointed but I’ve have never actually made somebody totally redundant at the end of a project. I’ve never had to say “well, that’s it, you’ve got nothing left” but other managers have not been that lucky. I had somebody that had been on

12.5 Working Life Realities

275

a secondment to me and desperately didn’t want to go back to her previous post and when it came to renewal, instead of having three posts, I had two. I interviewed everybody and this person didn’t get it and she was devastated, absolutely devastated, and I found that I was upset about it. I felt unnaturally responsible for it. I mean your logic tells you that you have done everything you can but you know when somebody’s that unhappy it’s not nice. (Manager, Male, Age 50–59 years, Tenure, 16–20 years)

Employees’ perspective about job insecurity differed to that of managerial employees as it relates to permanent staff. In contrast to managerial employees’ perspectives, employees highlighted the negative attitudes and behaviours that are associated with the perception of having a job for life, which can result in a laisserfaire attitude towards the job and organisation. In turn, these negative attitudes and behaviours can cause more passionate employees to feel depressed and demotivated. One employee claims: Oh yes definitely, job security is good for permanent staff. I would have to moon the Chief Executive Officer at a Board Meeting or something like that to get dismissed…it’s just ridiculous. But that’s not helpful when people are so secured in their jobs because you also get negative attitudes and behaviours from people because they know that their jobs are secure and this contributes to feelings of depression and sickness I think. (Employee, Female, Aged 40–49 years, Tenure 6–10 years)

12.5.1.4

Bureaucracy and Control

Other salient features of employees’ experiences of the work environment were highlighted by respondents as bureaucracy, control, and lack of autonomy. One employee likened her experiences to ‘Chinese Whispers’—she said: It’s a case of you can’t do anything without asking your manager, who then has to go and ask his manager, who asks her manager who asks his manager and before you know where you are it’s gone through six people and what you actually originally wanted has come out as completely something else because its Chinese Whispered up the chain and it comes out with a result and you think ‘what’s that all about, I didn’t ask that. (Employee, Female, Age 50–59 years, Tenure 6–10 years)

The above view was echoed by a manager from adults and communities who described his experiences as ‘red tape’ and bureaucratic structures and administration. He states: The Council still has a bit of red tape.…not in my directorate but as you get further and wider there’s issues between different directorates and different teams and how they operate…a scenario where somebody would do something wrong instead of having a word with them very often the manager would go to their manager, who goes to the manager of the manager that goes across to their manager and comes back down and its takes weeks to actually get back to the point to tell someone they’ve done something wrong…by which time it’s been blown out of all proportion. (Manager, Male, Age 30–39 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

276

12 The Work Environment and Well-Being at Work …

An employee’s work experience also entails the existence of bureaucracy and red tape. He said: Bureaucracy! That’s one of the downside of local government, bureaucracy far too much of it, if you want some money you have to jump through about 30 hoops and hoops are increasing and getting smaller and it’s just a tremendous awash with bureaucracy, it’s dreadful, far too much red tape that’s something we definitely have to improve. (Employee, Male, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, 11–15 years)

Another employee states that the challenge of working for the Council is associated with a bureaucratic organisational structure along with nepotism in management. He said: There’s a lot of bureaucracy and red tape to get anything done, and there does appear to be some kind of nepotism in some managerial posts. (Employee, Male, Age, 40–49 years, Tenure, 6–10 years)

12.5.1.5

Constant Change and Instability

Another managerial employee shared that continuous changes to services, persistent restructuring, heavy workloads, and budget constraints are central to her working life reality at the Council, and she likened here experiences to ‘shifting sand’ that has implications for her well-being at work. She comments: It’s almost like shifting sands all the time, when a new director comes in they bring new ideas and new things they want to see happening, new changes and that brings very little stability within the council as we are always asked to make changes to our services…there is always re-structuring going on within services and that’s unsettling…so for me personally my work loads are too heavy and although it has been recognised budgetary constraints does not allow that to change. (Manager, Female, Age 50–59 years, Tenure, 16–20 years)

Another manager likened his experience of constant organisational changes to increased workloads, anxiety, time limitation, the need for more staff and capacity, and realignment of existing resources. He states: Change initiatives is giving me a bit more work. I do understand some of the need for change and I have the capacity intellectually, it’s just the time capacity that I am concern with. I also believe that they could provide just a bit more staff…a little bit more capacity would do it. There is also re-alignment within existing resources…I am having to think about all of this. (Manager, Male, Aged 50–59 years, Tenure, 21–25 years)

The view of continuous change is echoed by employees who claim that continuous changes result in increasing workloads that affects employees’ stress levels, without appreciation for the extra work done. One employee discussed her experience likening it to increasing stress and pressure. She said: Continuous changes have contributed to my stress levels, it is just the pressure I have been put under…no help, no thank you and you have to do this extra work as well and you can’t get anything wrong, it’s just crazy, absolutely crazy. (Employee, Female, Age 50–59 years, Tenure, 20–25 years)

12.5 Working Life Realities

12.5.1.6

277

Dilapidated Office Accommodation

Employees revealed that due to the challenges faced with budget limitations and having to do more with less, also has a negative impact on their workplace accommodation. One employee shares: The challenges are meeting all these targets and the offices are really crappy offices…it’s not been painted in about 15 years, the floors are filthy, got stairs up and down, there’s not enough technical equipment all that sort of thing is a nuisance. (Employee, Female, Age, 50–59 years, Tenure, 6–10 years)

12.5.1.7

Excessive Emails

Some managers highlighted that they received an excessive amount of emails daily that contributed to their workloads and stress. One manager says: There are too many emails to be honest that you have to keep on top of, and it makes me feel frustrated. (Manager, Male, Age 30–39 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

Another manager’s experience of excessive emails echoes this view as he relates it to controlling his work day and hinders communicating in other ways as well as relationship building in the Council. He commented: Emails is the nuisance of my life in a lot of respects, and it controls my whole working day now…… I attend manager’s conferences and the biggest issues is always emails there’s too many and it should be cut down…you send an email instead of going and talking to people or picking up the phone…I think emails has stopped people communicating in other ways–verbally and face to face which hinders relationships in the Council. (Senior Manager; Male; Age 40–49 years; Tenure under 5 years)

12.5.1.8

Job Dissatisfaction and Public Sector Ethos

Respondents shared their experiences about what it is like to work for the Council. The views highlighted by employees’ experiences are varied and are dependent on the department worked. Themes that emerged include unhappy employees, lack of career ambition, and depressed about job. She said: There is a kind of feeling really in the public sector that you are not necessarily working with the happiest bunch of people. You tend to feel that quite a lot of people are here just because they haven’t got aspirations to be anywhere else. I think this is probably the thing. This can be demotivating to be honest why people feel a bit depressed about being here…. I don’t really feel so much like that in my current department. It’s people that I meet at meetings share this with me. (Employee, Female, Aged 40–49 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

278

12 The Work Environment and Well-Being at Work …

Another employee echoes the view of public sector employees not being passionate about their jobs and relates this experience to having a sense of purpose, retention, and desire to be in a more stimulating and engaging environment. She states: My husband and I both work for the Council and he told me that now is the time to move to an environment that’s a bit more uplifting rather than feeling quite run-down. My husband is going to leave for the private sector and he just can’t wait to be surrounded by people who are just a bit more enthusiastic about being at work…so this is also influencing me as well to move to the private sector where there is people who think there is a purpose to work other than sitting it out to your retirement. (Employee, Female, Aged 20–29 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

The above findings that relate to restricted resources and controlled working environment reveal the challenges that both managerial and non-managerial employees experienced daily as their working life realities in the local government organisation in North West England. The challenge and pressure of working with restricted limited budgets have a negative impact on workplace stress, increased workloads, job insecurity, manage staff anxieties, and constant changes, in a bureaucratic and controlled working environment. In support, Braverman (1999) says that a crisis work environment represents the workplace turning into a stressful environment, overwhelmed by the demands of unrelenting organisational change that threatens to destroy the health and, in some cases the lives of working people, turning the workplace into a place of desperation, isolation, and despair. The findings also reveal that managers highlighted having to find the difficult balance of efficiency savings and delivering high-quality services to the community, realignment of existing resources to facilitate restructure changes, staffing capacity to support project development and completion, and excessive emails controlling their time and day’s productivity. In contrast, employees shared their experiences of having to work in dilapidated office conditions with inadequate equipment in a pressurised environment that requires more from them with little to no appreciation.

12.5.2 Workplace Incivility and Mistreatment 12.5.2.1

Bullying and Psychological Violence

The findings reveal the existence of an inherent bullying environment within the context of the local government organisation. Respondents’ perspectives reveal an awareness of bullying and psychological violence, existing within the organisation either from the perspective of personal experiences of bullying or knowledge of others who experienced or are experiencing bullying. The analysis of Council HRM policy documents reveals the existence of a ‘Dignity at Work’ policy and the Council espousal and commitment not to tolerate such behaviour in keeping with ‘best practice’ standards and employment legislation. However, irrespective of a dignity at work policy, respondents claim to experience bullying and psychological violence within the organisation. Kelly (2005) argues that organisational changes have resulted in

12.5 Working Life Realities

279

increased control for managers and a reduction in the power of employee voice when bullying behaviour occurs. Organisational downsizing frequently increases internal competition and workload, creating higher pressure, anxiety, powerlessness, and a lower threshold for aggressive behaviour (Peyton 2003). Both managerial and non-managerial employees profess to have experienced bullying or some undignified and uncivil behaviour at work or know of someone who has. The findings show managerial employees experiencing more bullying at work as compared to non-managerial employees. The bullying behaviour professed existed between peers, as well as between manager and employees. Bullying and uncivil behaviours existed between managerial peers resulting in intimidation is captured in one manager’s experience. She commented: I was a new home support manager and there were other more experienced home support managers there I did feel intimidated by some of them as they made it very clear that they were much more experienced than me and I was the new girl on the block. I did feel quite intimidated as everything I did was ‘no you’ve done that wrong, you should have done it like this or why do you think you did’…it was almost like negative comments all the time. (Manager, Female, Age 50–59 years, Tenure 16–20 years)

Another manager described his bullying and psychological violence experience with his line manager as humiliating, uncivil, blaming culture, with allegations of being called a liar, Them and Us culture, and not apologising when wrong. He claims: There was an issue that cropped up…I was taken into an office with my manager and saw a much senior manager who was very ferocious and bullish in his office and accused me of being a liar. And I thought “oh gosh, twenty years of working and I’ve never been spoken to like that”….so I stood my ground and said you know “I don’t take very kindly to being called a liar”.…another senior member of staff had to go and call her member of staff to prove the point that I was a liar…another member of staff came in and proved the point that I wasn’t a liar and she went bright red but failed to apologise, which is always a bit annoying…it’s a bit above them to apologise. (Manager, Male, Age 40–49 years, Tenure 6–10 years)

In contrast, non-managerial employees also shared their experiences of being bullied at work and gave a personal account of her experience as well as describing how the knowledge of others being bullied affected her psychological and mental well-being. She likened the experience as persecution. She comments: I feel much better than I did when I felt that I was in an environment where we were bullied, that was absolutely horrific. I recognise the difference between somebody being a bit difficult to work with and people being quite serious, nasty persecuting bullies…bullying is absolutely dreadful, I’ve never experienced anything like it in my life. There are quite a number of people on medication for depression as a result of the bullying which was perverse, horrific and really upsetting and seeing people that you cared about being absolutely squashed on a daily basis was terrible. There was a poem that goes “first they came for the Communists and I did not speak up because I was not a Communist” …that’s what it felt like there, it was really odd and eventually it did get around to you, so people who sat and said nothing, you thought, ‘well just keep awake because one day it will be your turn to and they’ll persecute you and make you feel absolutely miserable’. (Employee, Female, Age 30–39 years, Tenure 6–10 years)

280

12 The Work Environment and Well-Being at Work …

The findings reveal an environment where bullying, psychological violence, and incivility were evident in the Council, which is echoed by the above respondents’ account of their working experiences. These accounts also captured the existence of ‘blaming, incivility, humiliation, Them and Us culture, being called a liar, persecution, and psychologically violent environment’. These behaviours are likely to create greater challenges and anxieties among employees given the increasing workloads and work pressures which have implications for work-related stress, mental ill-health, the psychological contract breach, and well-being at work. Salin (2003) argues that a constantly changing high-stress environment can lead to greater risk of bullying as employees seek to improve their own position at the expense of their colleagues. Echoing this view, Simpson and Cohen (2004) indicate that changes result in managers adopting autocratic styles of management to meet increasingly aggressive targets. Anderson and Pearson (1999) point out that workplace incivility includes deviant behaviours that are harmful to an organisation or its individual members and also violates the norms that have been established within the organisation (Robinson and Bennett 1997).

12.5.3 Relationships 12.5.3.1

Lack of Trust

Both managerial and non-managerial respondents highlighted a lack of trust exists from within the Council with managerial colleagues, line managers, and with external stakeholders of the Council. Managerial respondents highlighted that tensions exist between departments affecting team working and trust, silos mentality, Them and Us culture, and managers protecting their limited resources. One manager shares her views and said: There are tensions between sections and departments inevitably and we try and break that down as much as possible and I think for a long time we had a bit of a silo mentality that ‘we’re in this section and this is what we do’.…in large organisation there’s going to be tensions and difficulties…not understanding, misunderstanding, fighting your own corner which a lot of managers have had a history of. (Manager, Female, Age 50–59 years, Tenure 11–20 years)

Another manager likened his experience of a lack of trust to the negative perceptions and attacks on Council officers by diverse external stakeholders. He states: Local government is a bit of a mystery to people and the perception of it is a town hall clerk ethos and we’re all pushing bits of paper and pushing pens. But it still sometimes feels like we’re in an environment where we are fighting off all sort of attacks from customers who aren’t happy with the service, from members who might be outside councillors who might have had unhappy constituents, and Members of Parliament (MPs) doing the same. (Manager, Male, Age 40–49 years, Tenure less than 5 years)

12.5 Working Life Realities

281

Another manager’s experience of a lack of trust was likened to the existence of a hierarchy and status difference throughout the organisation. She explained her experience of how certain meetings were arranged. She explains: There is a kind of hierarchy that exists here and I find it very strange, I do not know why it should exist here but it feels like there is quite a lot of layers and I do not really understand what they are there for and there are things that seem to have more to do with status than usefulness so, there are meetings that are available to people because they are a certain grading rather than because they need to have that information for their job. I find that very peculiar and misguided. (Manager, Female, Age 50–59 years, Tenure 11–15 years)

In contrast, non-managerial employees’ perspectives of a lack of trust are associated with the existence of a ‘Them and Us culture’, a lack of harmonisation, conflicts, autocratic and target-oriented leadership approach. One employee’s view captures these themes as she explores her experience. She explains: I feel though that there is still a feeling within the council that it is a Them and Us situation in terms of the bosses and the workers…the management are coming from one side and the workers are coming from another side and there is a lot of conflict going on there…two sides locking against each other a lot of the time and management just saying things in terms of targets and how they can get the most out of the workers is sometimes an approach that is still taken even today rather than looking at things more holistically. (Employee, Female, Age 40–49 years, Tenure 21–25 years)

Another employee likened his experiences of a lack of trust in the Council to centralisation, control, not taking risks, lack of confidence in employees’ ability to do the job, a lack of autonomy, and budget restrictions. He said: Trust is not at all promoted and is lacking because of centralisation, it’s about control, not taking risks and if you trust people to do things you have to trust they are capable of doing their jobs and making decisions that can affect change…if these changes actually costs money…it always comes down to money at the end of the day, then you’ve lost control of a particular budget, you’ve lost control of the way something has been done…so trust isn’t something that is readily available. (Employee, Male, Age 40–49 years, Tenure 11–15 years)

Trust is vitally important for psychological contract breach and well-being. Helliwell and Wang (2010) state that trust is widely seen as an essential element in any social setting and without trust people are loath to reach out and to make the social connections that underpin any collaborative action which needs to be matched with trustworthiness. The possible benefits and consequences of trust relate to the economic effects, physical health, subjective well-being, and an individual evaluation of the quality of life (Helliwell and Wang 2010; Knack 2001; Kawachi et al. 2007).

282

12 The Work Environment and Well-Being at Work …

12.5.4 Work-Life Balance 12.5.4.1

Flexible Working Arrangements

In contrast, from a positive perspective, there are similarities existing between managerial and non-managerial employees’ perspectives as it relates to working for the Council. Both groups of respondents state that the Council is a good place to work with an ‘employee focus’ evidenced through the introduction of working time arrangements and wellness management initiatives to assist with workplace stress and the promotion of the physical and mental health of the employees. This view is captured by a manager’s account of working for the Council. She commented: Generally, it’s very good; I think a lot of effort is made to look after us. The policies are automatically in place and I and my team particularly benefit from flexible working which is a good experience…I think it’s patchy and some of the operational teams are very stretched and we’re very busy. But I think generally, in terms of staff care, we are quite well cared for. (Manager, Female, Age 50–59 years, Tenure 11–15 years)

Another employee echoes the view that the Council is a good employer that looks after the welfare of staff and also highlights benefits such as flexible working as a positive benefit for working at the Council despite the constant changing environment. He commented: I quite like working for the council…I’ve had a lot of different experiences in terms of change and changing management structures but I don’t think it’s a particularly bad local authority as such it’s been okay and I quite enjoy working here especially with the fringe benefits like flexible working for individuals with dependent children. (Employee, Male, Age 40–49 yrs, Tenure, 11–15 years)

The findings reveal that both managerial and non-managerial employees held similar positive perspectives in terms of their working life experiences at the Council as it relates to the provision of work-life balance opportunities through flexible working arrangements to assist employees with stress management due to heavy workloads and constant changing environment. Flexible working arrangements is likely to promote employee well-being as supported by Cooper et al. (2001) that state mental anxiety experienced by employees as they strive for more of a balance between work and life mainly affects professionals and managerial workers who are increasingly pressured to work faster and more extended hours (Baptiste 2009; George 2009). Further, Cooper and Quick (1999) state that it is essential for organisations to understand this conflict between work and life and implement family-friendly policies and wellness interventions that can help employees attain a better balance between work and life (Clutterback 2003; Houston 2005) (Fig. 12.1).

12.6 The Meaning of the Job

283

The Work Environment

Organisational Outcomes

Restricted Resources

Retention (turnover)

Workplace Stress Job Insecurity

Customer/Stakehol der satisfaction

Bureaucracy

Attractiveness to Recruits

Control Sources of (Stressors) Working Environment

Constant Change and Instability

Doing more with less

Excessive Emails Dilapidated Office Environment

Well-being Domains

Job Dissatisfaction

Psychological

Work-Life-Balance

Physical

Reduce sickness absence Reduce Presenteeism & Leaveism

Mental Health Career

Realities of Social Actors Bullying and Psychological Violence Social & Group (Stressors) Relationships

Lack of Trust Tensions between Teams Negative perceptions and attacks from stakeholders

Social

Individual Outcomes

Stakeholder

Commitment

Work/Life

Morale & Motivation

Leadership Organisational Financial Work/ Organisational

Status Differentials Protecting Limited Resources

Productivity & Satisfaction Enhanced Service Delivery Employee Engagement Health & Wellbeing Resilience

Silo Mentality

Fig. 12.1 Work environment and well-being: an employee’s perspective

12.6 The Meaning of the Job Delving deeper into employees’ experiences of their working life realities, and its’ implications for their well-being at work, respondents were asked to discuss what their job meant to them? The meaning of the job revealed a super-ordinate theme of identity-work-life integration. The meaning of the job for management employees relates to, professionally stimulating and engaging, financial stability, a sense of

284

12 The Work Environment and Well-Being at Work …

purpose that promotes confidence and self-esteem, gratitude and fulfilment, career advancement, relationships, and the job in close proximity to home.

12.6.1 Professionally Stimulating and Engaging Work One manager’s explanation of the meaning of his job relates to being satisfied from the challenges of the job. He states: I am satisfied to be able to contribute professionally, the job is satisfying because it is not routine or repetitive and I am satisfied with the challenges of the job, it stretches me and I enjoy my work. (Manager, Male, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, 6–10 years)

In contrast, employees reveal that their jobs are boring and do not motivate them. One employee shares her views: My current job is not particularly challenging. I feel quite bored and demotivated at the moment, which is a shame considering its diversity and equality and it’s an area that I feel really passionate about. (Employee, Female, Age 30–39 years, Tenure 6–10 years)

12.6.2 Financial Stability Another manager revealed that his job allowed her to enjoy financial well-being and stability. He says: The job pays the mortgage and provides financial stability and allows me to pay my bills which feeds into other areas of life. (Manager, Female, Age 50–59 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

12.6.3 Confidence and Self-Esteem Another manager relates the meaning of the job as contributing to her self-esteem, confidence and feeling valued, and a sense of purpose. She states: I get a sense of worth and self-esteem and it increases my confidence and gives me a sense of purpose knowing that I can make a difference. (Manager, Female, Age 50–59 years, Aged 20–25 years)

12.6 The Meaning of the Job

285

12.6.4 Career Advancement Yet another manager likened the meaning of his job to career advancement. He comments: My job means a lot to me because when you have put that effort into getting qualified and building up that level of experience then doing another degree later in your life then the career becomes more and more important. It defines you some of the time rather than you defining it so it is pretty important. (Manager, Male, Age, 40–49 years, Tenure, 6–10 years)

In contrast, non-managerial employees meaning given to their jobs relate to financial stability, community engagement, and for the greater good of the community.

12.6.5 Financial Stability and Community Contribution One employee’s response captures the themes of financial stability, relationships through social interaction and community contribution. She said: The job pays my bills, I enjoy the social interaction and it means a lot to me because I feel I’m helping people in the community as I was born in this borough. (Employee, Female, Age 50–59 years, Tenure, 11–15 years)

Echoing this view, another employee’s meaning of the job highlights community empowerment, and that the job is close proximity to home. He indicated: One of the reasons why I work at the council is that I enjoy enabling people and another main reason for coming to work and staying with the council is that it is local, I can walk to work it only takes me 25 minutes. (Employee, Male, Age 50–59 years, Tenure less than 5 years)

12.6.6 Gratitude and Fulfilment Yet another employee likened the meaning of her job to fulfilment and gratitude. She said: For me, I didn’t stumble on this job, I came through the bureau unto this job and I do every day thank God that this particular opportunity came at that particular time in my life and it does mean a lot to me. (Employee, Female, Age 30–39 years, Tenure less than 5 years)

286

12 The Work Environment and Well-Being at Work …

12.6.7 Relationship Some employees relate the meaning of their job to the relationship with their line manager, the manager’s personality, and political agendas. One employee’s view captures these themes. She says: So I feel quite crossed that my relationship with my manager makes me feel so demotivated about my job. I don’t know if it’s just him or the politics around the diversity agenda. (Employee, Female, Age 40–49 years, Tenure 6–10 years)

The findings reveal that both managerial and non-managerial employees held similar perspectives in what their job meant to them as it relates to financial stability and community contribution that are associated with psychological, intellectual, financial, and stakeholder well-being. In contrast, managerial employees’ views of what their job means to them are associated with psychological, intellectual, and career well-being (i.e. professionally stimulating and engaging, career advancement, and confidence and self-esteem). Non-managerial employees’ views of what their job means to them relates with psychological, physical, spiritual, social, and compassionate leadership well-being (i.e. relationships with stakeholders, non-repetitive job, social interaction, gratitude and fulfilment, the job is in close proximity to home, and relationship with their line manager). The meaning both employee groups gave to their jobs are captured by Steger and Dik (2010), who argue that meaningful work arises when people have a clear sense of self, an accurate understanding of the nature and expectations of their work environment and understand how to transact with their organisations to accomplish their work objectives. They further point out that the comprehension of the self in work provides the foundation for people to develop a sense of purpose and mission about their work. They claim that this motivates engagement, well-being, and performance and helps individuals to transcend their own immediate interests to achieve their contributions to their organisation and the greater good. In summary, the above findings reveal respondents’ working life realities are expressed through four super-ordinate themes: restricted resources and controlled work environment, workplace incivility and mistreatment, relationships, and worklife balance. The meaning of employees’ jobs was expressed through one superordinate theme and identity-work-life equilibrium. The discussion above as it relates to employees’ working life realities as well as the meaning of the job paints a picture of the organisation environment through the voices of different groups of social actors (i.e. managerial and non-managerial employees). Moreover, it provides the rationale as to why it is essential for employee well-being to be researched, understood, and viewed as a strategic objective that is to be included in senior management business plans and implemented at the Council and all organisations alike. The themes mentioned are vital to managerial and non-managerial experiences within this local government organisation. These challenges or stressors are likely to jeopardise employees’ perception of the psychological contract, perceived organisational support, employer–employee relationship, justice perceptions, and consequently wellbeing which in turn can affect individual and organisational outcomes. To this end,

12.6 The Meaning of the Job

287

it is essential to gain a better understanding of the ‘worker’s voice’ and the meanings given to explain their working life realities and the meanings attached to their jobs and well-being at work experiences. The multidimensional well-being nature of employees’ working life realities and meaning of their jobs are outlined in the working life and meaning of job model3 that emerged from managerial and non-managerial employees’ perspectives of their experiences at work, and the meanings they give to their jobs in local government are illustrated in Table 12.2. Given the working life experiences of respondents, the question of whether employee well-being can be effectively promoted in a New Public Management environment with budgetary restrictions and the drive towards efficiency savings and enhanced services are actually attainable? The findings reveal that the material aspects of employment relations, budget limitations, constant changes, bureaucracy, the controlled work environment, workplace stress, heavy workloads, excessive emails, the lack of trust, removal of bullying and psychological violence, job security, career advancement and financial stability have to first be addressed before employees can begin to experience a ‘crisis-free’ and respectful quality of working life and consequently enjoy positive well-being at work in the local government environment. Moreover, organisational leaders, managers, HR and Health and Safety practitioners, and policymakers in local government organisations and private sector industries can draw from this research to better understand the meanings that employees give to their jobs as well as their perspectives that relates to the quality of their working life and the stressors and drivers that contributes negatively and positively to their well-being in a NPM work environment. This knowledge can be used to target factors to prevent or minimise workplace individual, group, and organisational stressors that have a negative impact on employee well-being, service delivery, performance, and turnover intentions. Similarly, this can have far-reaching effect by empowering and promoting well-being, leadership, respectful, and civil employment relations in a public sector environment. The findings from this study can assist public sector organisational leaders to better understanding the factors that hinder and promote employee well-being and performance to that they can in turn prevent the high price of ‘crisis’ attached to individuals, organisations, community, and the society as a whole, for doing nothing.

3 Multidimensional

Nature of Employees’ Working Life Realities are associated with the individual, group, and the organisation, and relates to psychological, mental health, work/family, social, compassionate leadership, stakeholder, humanistic and fair practices, and organisational financial well-being, as well as work/organisation. The meanings employees gave to their jobs are associated with the individual and groups and relate to psychological, physical, career, spiritual, financial, and stakeholder well-being.

288

12 The Work Environment and Well-Being at Work …

Table 12.2 Multidimensional well-being: employees’ perspectives of working life realities and meaning of the job Multidimensional nature of employee well-being at work

Working life realities at the Council

Meaning of the job

Psychological well-being

Wellness programmes Powerlessness Lack of appreciation Lack of support Fear of making mistakes Lack of enthusiasm and motivation

Confidence Self-esteem Sense of purpose Feeling valued

Physical well-being

Heavy workloads Workplace stress

Ability to walk to work

Intellectual well-being

–

Professionally stimulating and engaging work

Mental health well-being

Bullying and psychological violence Workplace stress Increased pressure Heavy workloads Managing staff anxieties Depression Mental ill-health Powerlessness Fear of making mistakes

–

Material/rewards well-being

–

–

Career well-being

–

Career advancement

Spiritual well-being

–

Gratitude and fulfilment

Financial well-Being

–

Financial stability

Work–Family well-being

Flexible working arrangements

–

Social well-being

Excessive emails Poor relationship building Tensions between teams

Relationship with manager Politics

Compassionate leadership well-being

Lack of trust Blame culture Them and Us culture Relationship with line manager

–

Stakeholders well-being

Community contribution Lack of trust Attacks from stakeholders

Community contribution

(continued)

References

289

Table 12.2 (continued) Multidimensional nature of employee well-being at work

Working life realities at the Council

Meaning of the job

Humanistic and fair practices

Managing redundancies Deletion of jobs Nepotism Status differentials Humiliation Incivility Lack of dignity

–

Organisational financial well-being

Restricted resources (budget and staffing) Financial instability Budgetary constraints Balancing fewer resources

–

Work/organisation Well-being

Efficiency savings Job insecurity Constant and continuous change Constant restructuring Bureaucracy and control Red tape Deprived office accommodation Changing management structures Inadequate tools and equipment to function effectively

–

References Anderson, L. M., & Bateman, T. S. (1997). Cynicism in the workplace: Some causes and effects. Journal of Organisational Behaviour, 18, 449–469. Anderson, L. M., & Pearson, C. M. (1999). Tit for tat? The spiraling effect of incivility in the workplace. Academy of Management Review, 24(3), 452–471. Baptiste, N. R. (2007). Line management leadership: Implications for employee well-being. In: G. P. Clarkson (Ed.), Developing leadership research. Papers from the Northern Leadership Academy Fellow 2007 Conference (pp. 229–238). Leeds: Leeds University Business School, Leeds University Press Financial Services. Baptiste, N. R. (2008). Line management leadership: Implications for employee well-being at work. In Developing leadership research. Papers from the Northern Leadership Academy Fellows 2007 Conference. UK: Leeds University Business School, Leeds University Press. Baptiste, N. R. (2009). Fun and wellbeing: Insights from senior managers in a local authority. Employee Relations, 31(6), 600–612. Berman, E. M., Bowman, J. S., West, J. P., & Van Wart, M. R. (2010). Human resource employment relations in the public services. London: Routledge. Boyne, G. A. (2002). Public and private management: What’s the difference. Journal of Management Studies, 39(1), 97–122.

290

12 The Work Environment and Well-Being at Work …

Bozeman, B. (1993). A theory of government “red tape”. Journal of Public Administration Research and Policy, 3, 273–303. Bozeman, B. (2000). Bureaucracy and red tape. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Braverman, M. (1999). Preventing workplace violence: A guide for employers and practitioners. London, England: Sage. Butterfield, R., Edwards, C., & Woodall, J. (2005). The new public management and managerial roles: The case of the police sergeant. British Journal of Management, 16, 329–341. Chechak, D., & Csiernik, R. (2014). Canadian perspectives on conceptualizing and responding to workplace violence. Journal of Workplace Behavior Health, 29, 55–74. CIPD. (2019). Health and well-being at work, in partnership with simplyhealth. Survey Report, April 2019. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Clarke, J., Gewirtz, S., & McLaughlin, E. (Eds.). (2000). New managerialism, new welfare? London: Sage Publications. Clutterback, D. (2003). Managing work-life balance: A guide to HR in achieving organisational and individual change. London: CIPD. Cohen, M. Z., Kahn, D. L., & Steeves, R. H. (2000). Hermeneutic phenomenological research: A practical guide for nurse researchers. London: Sage Publications. Collins, J. C., Baase, C. M., Sharda, C. E., Ozminkowski, R. J., Nicjolson, S., Billotti, G. M., et al. (2005). The assessment of chronic health conditions on work performance, absence and total economic impact for employers. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health, 47, 547–557. Cooper, C. L., & Quick, J. C. (1999). Fast facts-stress and strain. Oxford: Health Press Limited. Cooper, C. L., Dewe, P. J., & O’Driscoll, M. P. (2001). Organisational stress: A review and critique of theory, research and application. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Cox, T., Griffiths, A. J., & Rail-Gonzalez, E. (2000). Work-related stress. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Cox, T., MacLennan, S., & N’Dow, J. (2014). Cancer, work and the quality of working life: A narrative review. In P. Chen & C. Cooper (Eds.), Work and wellbeing, a complete reference guide. Oxford, UK: Wiley. Cvenkel, N. (2018). Employee well-being at work: Insights for business leaders and corporate social responsibility. In S. Seifi & D. Crowther (Eds.), Stakeholders, governance and responsibility, developments in corporate governance and responsibility (Vol. 14, pp. 71–90). Dibben, P. (2007). Employment security and job insecurity in public services: Two sides of the same coin? In P. Dibben, P. James, I. Roper, & G. Wood (Eds.), Modernising work in public services: Redefining roles and relationships in Britain’s changing workplace. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Dibben, P., James, P., Roper, I., & Wood, G. (2007). Modernising work in public services: Redefining roles and relationships in Britain’s changing workplace. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Emmott, M. (2006). Employee attitudes in the public sector. In Reflections on employee well-being and the psychological contract. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Folger, R. (1977). Distributive and procedural justice: Combined impact of voice and improvement on experienced inequality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35(2), 108–119. George, C. (2009). The psychological contract: Managing and developing professional groups. Work and organisational psychology. Berkshire: Open University Press. Giacalone, R. A., & Greenberg, J. (Eds.). (1997). Antisocial behaviour in organisations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishers. Giorgi, A. (1985). Phenomenology and psychological research. PA: Pittsburgh Duquesne University Press. Hanrahan, M., & Leiter, M. P. (2014). Workplace mistreatment: Recent developments in theory, research and interventions. In P. Chen & C. Cooper (Eds.),Work and wellbeing, a complete reference guide. Oxford, UK: Wiley.

References

291

Harrow, J. (2002). New public management and social justice: Just efficiency or equity as well? In K. McLaughlin, S. P. Osborne, & E. Ferlie (Eds.), New public management: Current trends and future prospects (pp. 141–159). London: Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group. Helliwell, J. F., & Wang, S. (2010). Trust and wellbeing. NBER Working Paper Series 15911. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Hesketh, I., Cooper, C., & Ivy, J. (2014). Leaveism and work-life integration: The thinning blue line? Policing, 9(2), 1–12. Houston, D. M. (2005). Work-life balance in the 21st century. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Jackson, A., & Lapsley, I. (2003). The diffusion of accounting practices in the new managerial public sector. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 16(5), 359–372. Kawachi, I., Subramanian, S. V., & Kim, D. (Eds.). (2007). Social capital and health. New York: Springer. Kelly, D. J. (2005). Review of workplace bullying: Strengthening approaches to a complex phenomenon. Journal of Occupational Health and Safety: Australia and New Zealand, 21(6), 551–564. Knack, S. (2001). Trust associational life and economic performance. In J. F. Helliwell & A. Bonikowska (Eds.), The contribution of human and social capital to sustained economic growth and wellbeing (pp. 172–202). Ottawa: Human Resources Development Canada and OECD. Leventhal, G. S. (1980). What should be done with equity theory?: New approaches to the study of fairness in social relationships. Social Exchange, 27–55. Lyons, E. (2000). Qualitative data display: Data display model. In C. Fife-Schaw (Ed.), Research methods in psychology (pp. 269–280). London: Sage Publications. Marsden, D. (2007). Pay and rewards in public services: Fairness and equity. In P. Dibben, P. James, I. Roper, & G. Wood (Eds.), Modernising work in public services: Redefining roles and relationships in Britain’s changing workplace. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. McLaughlin, K., Osborne, S. P., & Ferlie, E. (2008). New public management: Current trends and future prospects. London: Taylor and Francis Group. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded source book. London: Sage Publications. Namie, G., & Namie, R. F. (2011). The bully free workplace: Stop jerks, weasels, and snakes from killing your organization. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Wiley. Needham, C. (2007). A declining public sector ethos? In P. Dibben, P. James, I, Roper, & G. Wood (Eds.), Modernising work in public services: Redefining roles and relationships in Britain’s changing workplace. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Noblet, A., Rodwell, J., & McWilliams, J. (2006). Organisational change in the public sector: Augmenting the demand control model to predict employee outcomes under new public management. Work and Stress, 20(4), 335–352. Pate, J., Beaumont, P., & Stewart, S. (2007). Trust in senior management in the public sector. Employee Relations, 29(5), 458–468. Pauchant, T. C., & Mitroff, I. I. (1992). Transforming the crisis-prone organization: Preventing individual, organizational and environmental tragedies. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Peyton, P. R. (2003). Dignity at work: Eliminate bullying and create a positive work environment. London: Routledge Publishers. Robinson, S. L., & Bennett, R. J. (1997). Workplace deviance: Its definition, its manifestations, and its causes. In R. Lewicki, B. Sheppard, & R. Bies (Eds.), Research on negotiation in organisations (Vol. 6, pp. 3–27). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Salin, D. (2003). Ways of explaining workplace bullying: A review of enabling, motivating and precipitating structures and processes in the work environment. Human Relations, 56(10), 1213– 1233. Simonet, D. (2013). The new public management theory in the British health care system: A critical review. Administration & Society, I47(7), 1–25. Simpson, R., & Cohen, R. (2004). Dangerous work: The gendered nature of bullying in the context of higher education. Gender, Work and Organisation, 11(2), 163–186.

292

12 The Work Environment and Well-Being at Work …

Steger, M. F., & Dik, B. J. (2010). Work as meaning: Individual and organisational benefits of engaging in meaning work. In P. A. Linley, S. Harrington, & N. Garcea (Eds.) Oxford handbook of positive psychology and work (pp. 131–142). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Tehrani, N. (2012). Workplace bullying: Symptoms and solutions. London, England: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. Thorne, S., Kirkham, S. R., & MacDonald-Emes, J. (1997). Interpretive description: A noncategorical qualitative alternative for developing nursing knowledge. Research in Nursing and Health, 20, 169–177. Van Maanen, M. (1994). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. Michigan: Althouse. Van Wanrooy, B., Bewley, H., Bryson, A., Forth, J., Freeth, S., Stokes, L., & Wood, S. (2011). The 2011 workplace employment relations study: First findings. The Workplace Employment Relations Study (WERS).

Chapter 13

Beneath the Melting Ice: Definition, Importance, and Improvement in Well-Being at Work in Local Government

Abstract The notion of employee well-being at work is growing in momentum as employment continues to change aiming to achieve higher performance, organisational success, and a safer, more satisfying and healthier working life. Whilst ‘well-being at work’ prescriptions are common in the literature, it is important to ascertain whether ‘one size fits all’ and whether the ‘best practice’ well-being philosophy used in the private sector can be advocated in the public sector. This research adopted a qualitative methodological approach, and twenty-seven semi-structured (60–90 min) interviews were conducted with managers and employees in a UK local government organisation in North West of England. The interviews were analysed using interpretative phenomenological analysis. The findings reveal that although wellness management initiates were implemented throughout the organisation, managers and employees depicted that the material aspects of the employment relationship had to be developed further, as well as stressors from the NPM environment needs to be addressed first, before the well-being ideology can be considered and improved.

13.1 Employee Well-Being at Work Well-being has become one of the most important issues of the twenty-first century world of work—a challenge not just for individuals, in terms of their mental and physical health, but for employers and governments who have started to assess its social and financial implications (Baptiste 2009). The definition and meaning of work-related well-being are emergent with a number of competing meanings, making a precise definition of it open and can take many forms (Renwick 2003). Proponents of employee well-being indicate that it is a complex concept with multiple dimensions (Baptiste 2009; Diener et al. 2003; Grant et al. 2007; Ryan and Deci 2001; Ryff 1995). Peccei (2004) suggests that well-being at work concerns an overall sense of happiness, physical and mental health of the workforce (Currie 2001; Haworth and Hart 2007). Grant et al. (2007) distinguish between three dimensions: the psychological dimension (satisfaction, attitudes, and emotions in relation to work); the physical dimension (relating to employees’ health and safety at work); and © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 N. Cvenkel, Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health, Approaches to Global Sustainability, Markets, and Governance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3619-9_13

293

294

13 Beneath the Melting Ice: Definition, Importance …

the social dimension (relating to interpersonal relationships, teamwork, and management style). However, Baptiste (2010) proposes a broader and more holistic explanation for well-being at work which includes the individual, group, and organisation that are addressed through sixteen domains which include Individual Dimension (i.e. psychological, physical, mental health, intellectual, reward/material, career, spiritual, financial, and work/family well-being); Social Dimension (i.e. social, compassionate leadership, and stakeholders well-being); and Organisational Dimension (i.e. humanistic and fair practices, organisational financial, wellness management, and work/organisation well-being). Baptiste (2010) further argues that this explanation invokes not just specific practices of ‘wellness’ programmes and initiatives, such as health screening, healthy eating, subscriptions to the gym, employee assistance programmes or indeed fun programmes, but a broader and more material aspects of the employment relationship, individual satisfaction, mental health, and emotions related to work and life, interpersonal relationships and management styles, fairness at work, and other social and financial factors associated with wider experience of fulfilment and functioning and work. The concept of employee well-being at work promotes advantages to organisations of having a healthy workforce and is pivotal to understanding of the different domains that affect the quality of life at work (Baptiste 2008, 2009). Personal well-being does not exist in isolation but within a social context (Tehrani et al. 2007) and individual lives are affected by social relations with organisational agents, lifestyle and employment changes (Kersley et al. 2006). Contemporary organisations that foster well-being are perceived as employers of ‘best practice’ and are recognised by current and prospective employees as offering a desirable place to work (Grant et al. 2007). Yet whilst well-being at work is being promoted as a potential avenue for providing meaning and fulfilment at work, the factors that foster well-being at work have attracted limited empirical research. Organisations that embrace employee wellbeing appear then to prioritise the protection and promotion of employee satisfaction (Baptiste 2008; Tehrani et al. 2007); embrace a praise and rewards culture (Baptiste 2007); trust (Albrecht and Travaglione 2003), fulfilment and health (Bakke 2005; Ryff 1995).

13.2 Public Sector Working Environment and Employee Well-Being The realities of the public sector work environment show the challenges that employee well-being at work approach can face. Managers’ daily realities are inundated with social and moral problems in corporate life (Jackall 1988), often further challenging espoused rationality and efficiency. Research by Baptiste (2009) shows that as with any other group of employees, for senior managers material aspects

13.2 Public Sector Working Environment and Employee Well-Being

295

of the employment relationship (i.e. working time arrangements, stress management, communication, rewards, training and development, team working, relationships, and reduction in change initiatives) are key to their well-being. Furthermore, non-managerial employees’ daily realities are likely to be affected by challenges of increasing workloads, job insecurity, work stress, lack of autonomy, control initiatives, redundancies, etc. Based on these findings from research done in the public sector, managerial and non-managerial employees may find it difficult to embrace and instigate ‘well-being at work’ initiatives, and it is an essential question to explore the degree to which these employees’ individual experiences of work can be characterised as happiness or well-being. This chapter conceptualises a relevant model to better understand and normalise employees’ perspective as it relates to employees’ concepts of well-being at work in the public sector, as well as employees’ voice regarding line management leadership and its implications on employee well-being. There has been little research done in these areas, and this chapter begins to address these gaps and proposed recommendations for policymakers, leaders, managers, employees, and researchers.

13.3 Methodology This research is part of a larger study investigating employees’ experiences of HRM practices, working life, and how such experiences have contributed to their wellbeing at work in the local government context. A local authority was chosen in the North West of England. This authority professed to have adopted well-being policies and practices to establish a positive attendance culture, promote fun at work, and enhance staff welfare. This present study focuses on particular groups within the local authority: senior managers, managers, professionals, associate professional, and clerical/secretarial staff regarding their views concerning concepts of employee well-being at work in the public sector1 and line management leadership and employee well-being.2 The prominent points cited by respondents as those most frequently mentioned are highlighted in the findings. Local government was considered an appropriate context to examine employee’s concepts and definition of their well-being at work in the public sector as well as respondents’ voice that relates to line management leadership and well-being at work. This is in keeping with best value regimes placing a statutory duty on local government organisations (i.e. Councils) to review the processes used in delivering services in an attempt to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of service provision and performance with 1 Questions

related to meanings of well-being are what do you understand by the term employee well-being at work? If you have to use words to define your individual well-being at work, what would they be? Why is well-being at work as defined by yourself important to you? And what things would you like to see improved in the Council to promote your well-being? 2 Questions related to meanings for line manager’s leadership and well-being are how responsive is your line manager to the promotion of your well-being at work? And what can your line manager do differently to promote your well-being at work?

296

13 Beneath the Melting Ice: Definition, Importance …

limited government funding. Can well-being at work philosophy be promoted in the NPM work environment given the government mandate of budget reduction and efficiency savings? This study seeks to address this question as well as the other research questions. In-depth, face-to-face interviews were conducted with senior managers, managers, professionals, associate professionals, and clerical/secretarial staff with the aim of understanding their perspective of employee well-being at work as well as employees’ line management leadership and well-being at work. For simplicity, senior managers, managers, and professionals will be referred to as ‘managerial employees’, and associate professionals and clerical/secretarial will be referred to as ‘non-managerial employees’. Purposive sampling was used to ensure that all departments within the Council were reflected, and 15 managers (Male = 8, Female = 7) and 12 non-managers (Male = 3, Female = 9) participated in the study. All twenty-seven were Caucasian; (23 respondents) aged from 40 to 59 years, and (4 respondents) aged from 20 to 39 years; had educational attainment and professional qualifications to master’s degree for managers and AGVNQ to HNC/D for non-managers; 25 worked full-time and two part-time, reported a range of incomes of (£1000–£10,000) for part-time staff, (£10,000–£30,000) for full-time employees, and (£30,000–£60,000) for the managerial group; and held a variety of tenures with the organisation: less than five years (11 respondents), 6–10 years (six respondents), 11–15 years (three respondents), 16–20 years (four respondents) and 21–25 years (three respondents). Interviews lasted for 60–90 min and were tape-recorded, transcribed verbatim and analysed using hermeneutic phenomenological analysis (HPA) (Van Manen 1994). The study commenced with an initial question ‘Can you tell me what you understand by employee well-being?’ The interview schedule covered five broad topics: the meaning and definition of well-being; importance of well-being; how employee wellbeing can be improved; responsiveness of line manager to promote employee wellbeing; line manager’s approach that can promote well-being. The findings from this research are concerned with the employment experiences of local government employees, and a moderate generalisation can be made for managerial and nonmanagerial employees more broadly (Williams 2002: 211). Both managerial and non-managerial employees were asked to respond in relation to their own experiences and priorities as employees, rather than from an espoused practice point of view. Initial transcripts were reviewed through immersion in the data to establish an orienting gestalt that drove later coding. Interviews were coded line by line necessary for thematic analysis. Concepts, themes, and sub-themes were identified. Half of the transcripts were separately coded by an independent researcher to identify emerging themes, and the resulting coding match of 85% provides evidence of reliability in the coding process (Silverman 1993). Final themes were also verified by informants to ensure they appropriately captured the meaning that the informant sought to convey. The representation of themes is based on salient points raised (Lyons 2000) and has been structured on the assumption that a theme cited by a larger number of interviewees has officiated more importance to the respondents as a whole (Miles and Huberman 1994). The resulting patterns provide an enriched understanding of the factors pertinent to employees’ perspectives of the concepts

13.3 Methodology

297

of well-being at work in a NPM environment as well as their perspectives about their line manager’s leadership and the implication of the leadership styles on their well-being at work in local government.

13.4 Employees’ Concepts of Well-Being at Work 13.4.1 The Setting of the Experience and Resources The research findings reveal from observations made that the practices and philosophies of a New Public Management (NPM) environment are central to this local authority. These include a managerialist approach, cost-containment, efficiency savings, changing structures, controlled delegation, and the production of more efficient, effective, and responsive services. Harrow (2002) corroborates this view and highlights that the nature of NPM as a collection of government-led activities displaying recognisable characteristics including controlled delegation increased emphasis on user orientation and the measurement of performance, most commonly by ‘business’ style measures. The review of company documents reveals that the Council experienced external economic, political and demographic challenges. These include the changing expectations and demands of citizens for speedier responses to inquiries and service provision, attracting and retaining talent, and responding appropriately to the needs of a more diverse society. The modernisation agenda also challenged the Council to improve its efficiency, demonstrate value for money, improve service delivery, to make a reduction in expenditure, and to improve the well-being of the local community. The Council’s response to this mandate resulted in reductions in budgets and service cuts; workforce transformation by merging departments for greater efficiency; capital asset reduction; the introduction of flexible working options like ‘the new ways of working’; and partnership working. These changes have implications for work demands from workforce reductions, dispersed teams as a result of flexible working, challenges with relationship building due to centralisation, silo working and the use of excessive emails, increased workloads, work pressures, and work-related stress. These factors affected managerial and non-managerial employees differently. Respondents were asked via the semi-structured interviews to delve into their work experiences in the NPM environment and share their perspective, meaning, and understanding of well-being at work. Open-ended questions associated with the meaning of well-being, definition of well-being, importance of well-being, the effects of change on well-being, and what things you would like to see improved at the Council to promote your well-being at work.

298

13 Beneath the Melting Ice: Definition, Importance …

13.4.2 The Meaning and Understanding of Well-Being Managerial and non-managerial employees discussed their understanding and definition of employee well-being at work and shared their perspectives that revealed eight key themes which include work-life satisfaction, wellness management, stress management, flexible working, safety at work, respect, fairness at work, and equality (Table 13.1). Table 13.1 Managerial and non-managerial employees’ perspectives on the understanding and definition of employee well-being at work Dimension

Well-being domains

Managerial employees

Non-managerial employees

Individual

Psychological

Feeling valued Performance Good morale Reduced pressure Time constraints

Safety at work Satisfaction Healthy emotions

Physical

Heavy workloads Improved employee health Healthy food Cycling and walking to work Walking up stairs

–

Intellectual

Autonomy Interesting work Job design practices

–

Mental health

Stress management Stress reduction Anxiety Depression Long working hours Enjoy life

Anxiety Opposite of Worry or Fear

Rewards/material

Adequately rewarded Holidays Leave allowance

Pay

Career

Job enrichment Job variety Enough time to perform at work

Career development

Spiritual

–

–

Financial

–

Paid fairly (continued)

13.4 Employees’ Concepts of Well-Being at Work

299

Table 13.1 (continued) Dimension

Group

Organisation

13.4.2.1

Well-being domains

Managerial employees

Non-managerial employees

Work/family

Work-life balance Work-life satisfaction Stop evening meetings Enjoy life Flexible working Quality of life

Access to flexible working Allowed time off

Social

Supported

Team working Supported Communication

Compassionate leadership

Listened to

Approachable manager Clear instructions Listened to Regular feedback Respect

Stakeholders

–

–

Humanistic and fair practices

Stop evening meetings Decision making with beleaguered staff

Fairness at work Respect

Organisational financial

–

–

Wellness management

Health benefits notes to staff about weight loss Healthy eating at staff canteen Encouraged to walk stairs instead of using elevator Staff counselling Messages Yoga sessions Discount for gym membership

–

Work/organisation

Reduced absence levels Staff retention

–

Work and Life Satisfaction

Respondents were asked about their understanding and definition of well-being. Managerial employees’ responses reveal a wide range of themes that include feeling valued and supported, listened to, autonomy to do job, job enrichment and variety, can manage the balance between work and life, adequate remuneration and holidays. One manager shares her perspective. She says: My understanding of employee well-being is where somebody is feeling valued and supported, listened to, can do their job, are sufficiently stretched but isn’t bored, sufficient variety, that they can manage the balance between work and life, that there’s some leeway there. That

300

13 Beneath the Melting Ice: Definition, Importance …

there’s adequate remuneration and holidays. (Manager, Female, Aged 50–59 years, Tenure 11–16 years)

Another manager echoes the point of work and life satisfaction as essential to his understanding and definition of well-being and performance at work. Salient points raised are work and life satisfaction, heavy workloads, interesting work, more holidays and leave allowances, and pay and rewards. He claims: I think work and life satisfaction does make me more productive at work. I’m lucky, I am a positive thinking person and while there are things that irritate me, I’ve got a bit too much to do but what I have to do is interesting. That counts for a lot doesn’t it. I would like a little bit more in the way of holidays leave allowance. I think we are poor on that…. (Manager, Male, Aged 30–39 years, Tenure, 20–25 years)

13.4.2.2

Wellness Management Programmes

The findings reveal that both managerial and non-managerial employees understanding and definition of well-being relate to the salient point of wellness management programmes. The wellness initiatives highlighted include healthy food in the canteen, cycling and walking to work, walking up the stairs instead of using the elevators, staff counselling and messages. One managerial employee’s account for their understanding and definition of employee well-being was the introduction of a wellness programme by the Council called ‘The Health Wise Challenge’ that addressed a diverse range of wellness management initiatives that were implemented to reduce employee absence levels and promote employees’ health, well-being, and performance. She said, The Health Wise challenge is being promoted because it will reduce our absence levels by 10.6 days per year downwards and was introduced to try and improve employees’ health in terms of healthy foods in the canteen, cycling to work, walking more and not using our cars as much, staff counselling service, messages…all linked to the business plans of central government view that we are going to work longer because we are going to live longer. (Manager, Female, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, 6–10 years)

Managers discussed their awareness of the wellness management programmes that were implemented by the Council. Initiatives such as walking up the stairs, losing weight, discounts for gym memberships, yoga sessions, and healthy eating options at the staff canteen. One manager shares: The Council offers wellness opportunities like nice little note at the bottom of the stairs telling you how much weight you will lose if you went up the stairs instead of using the lift, and that you can get discount for gym memberships. Then you have yoga sessions and various things like that…. there is some unhealthy food in the canteen but there are also very healthy options. There’s always salads and baked potatoes and all that sort of thing. There are always good portions of vegetables…these are some of the ways to do it. (Manager, Male, Aged 40–49 years, Tenure 6–11 years)

13.4 Employees’ Concepts of Well-Being at Work

13.4.2.3

301

Stress Management

Another manager’s understanding and definition of employee well-being at work were associated with stress management, good morale, stress and pressure reduction, improve health and performance. He explains: Managing stress equates to good morale by not being under too much stress and pressure which can affect health and performance so it is important to manage stress…not being too anxious or uptight…stress can make you feel unwell and not perform. (Manager, Male, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

Another manager’s perspectives on understanding and meaning of well-being echo the notion of stress management associated with long hours working. She also highlighted the removal of evening meetings, decision making is best when staff are not beleaguered, team morale, stretched team, and rewarding staff. She reveals a personal experience that gives meaning to the theme of long working hours and stress management. She explains, Somehow we have to persuade the members that we can’t have evening meetings, they must meet during the daytime….persuade them that the best place to make decisions is when officers are not tired having worked for maybe twelve hours before the meeting starts…I don’t think that is the best place to make decisions…or helpful to my team to be there at 10:00 pm or 11:00 pm at night…it’s not the best decision making for the Council either and if that can be removed this will improve my well-being at work…possibly rewarding staff as well. (Manager, Female, Age 40–49 years, Tenure 6–10 years)

Another manager highlights the meaning and definition of her well-being by likened it to the reduction of time constraints, heavy workload, feeling pressured, stress management, managing and enjoying life. She said: Just having enough time to have lunch would be good, but maybe I should control that myself. Feeling you’ve got enough time to work hard but to achieve. I think one of the problems is that you work so hard but there’s always more to do. That’s my sense of things. I feel quite pressured at times…so it’s about managing my stress, managing and enjoying my life. (Manager, Female, Aged 50–59 years, Tenure 11–16 years)

13.4.2.4

Flexible Working

Respondents also discussed that flexible working and work-life balance were their understanding and definition of employee well-being at work. One manager shares: flexible working is really the key one for me…I just think it adds so much to the quality of your life…and the business case of work-life balance assisting in the retention of staff is certainly true and the feedback we have had from staff has been good. (Manager, Female, Age 50–59 years, Tenure, 20–25 years)

302

13.4.2.5

13 Beneath the Melting Ice: Definition, Importance …

Safety at Work

Non-managerial employees’ understanding and definition of well-being at work relates to safety at work. Contentment and satisfaction with the job were also raised; negative emotions, team working, approachable line manager, supported, and absence of worry at work. One employee stated I hope that the Council would not put me in any danger and attempt to maintain my wellbeing…I would say that I am reasonably happy and content…not causing us to feel any negative emotions…I work in a nice team…my manager is approachable so there is that support, I don’t worry about coming into work as I did when I first started. (Employee, Female, Age 20–29 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

13.4.2.6

Respect and Fairness at Work

Another employee associated well-being at work to being respected, rewarded, team working, and flexibility. She asserts that to be treated with respect as part of a team, to be given clear instructions, that my development needs are addressed, to be communicated to about things that are going on, to have access to flexible working or being allowed time off to do things, paid fairly….just that whole great big package. (Employee, Female, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, 16–20 years)

13.4.2.7

Fair Treatment and Equality

Another manager relates fair treatment to his definition of well-being. He said: I would say that recognition, ensuring that my pay is up to the level, keeping on with my development, giving me support that I need so that I’m happy and confident in work and not changing things for the sake of it’. (Manager, Male, Age 30–39 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

13.4.3 Importance of Well-Being at Work 13.4.3.1

Sense of Purpose, Appreciation, and Achievement

The analysis of company documents reveals a central theme of the Council espousal of recognising and valuing its employees as important assets to the organisation. However, respondents’ perspectives were mixed in terms of feeling valued and supported. Rhoades and Eisenberger (2002) argue that employers value employees’ dedication and loyalty, whereas employees who are emotionally committed to the organisation show heightened performance, reduced absenteeism, and a lessened

13.4 Employees’ Concepts of Well-Being at Work

303

likelihood of quitting their job (Mathieu and Zajac 1990; Meyer and Allen 1997). Employees who perceive that they are valued by the organisation can yield benefits of approval, respect, pay, and promotion (Rhoades and Eisenberger 2002) and are likely to reciprocate in positive attitudes and behaviour. The findings highlight themes of autonomy, more people-focused, sense of worth, job design, support and motivation, feeling valued, trusting people to do the job, a sense of achievement, praise and recognition and being respected. One manager shared his perspective regarding the importance of well-being and the key themes highlighted relates to a sense of purpose, making a difference, appreciation, adequately rewarded, team working, and career advancement. He said; It is important to know that what you do counts, that what you do is making a difference, that there is a purpose to your life…and in order to do that you have to be valued, you need to be rewarded and be a part of a team…at the end of your career you need to be able to look back and say ‘I did this, I did that’. (Manager, Male, Age 40–49 years, Tenure 6–10 years)

Another manager echoes the above view and claims that well-being is important as people need to feel valued, exposed to humanistic practices, respect employees’ contribution, workplace civility, removal of bureaucratic tick-box management approach, appreciation, anti-career stagnation, autonomy, employee commitment, and employee retention. He comments People need to feel valued even if my manager got that performance agenda, she can still, within that, be human and value what you’re doing and bring out from you what she needs, if she’s skilled enough…I understand where she’s coming from I’m not politically naive and I know she has to tick these boxes and I’ll help her tick these boxes, but if she does not value me or doesn’t clip my wings, maybe I’ll start to think I want to be somewhere else and stuff her boxes. (Manager, Male, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

In contrast, non-managerial employees also pointed out that it is important to feel valued and appreciated by their employer. They also echo similar themes of the managerial employees regarding the importance of well-being. Their comments touched on some additional themes which include equal opportunities, embracing workplace diversity, anti-discrimination practices, fair treatment, support, training and development, and mentoring and coaching. These themes are captured by an employee’s comments regarding the importance of well-being. She states: It’s important that people feel valued in terms of what they can offer to the organisation as an individual…respecting people’s differences in terms of childcare, religious, cultural backgrounds or disability…that your needs are respected and the organisation does what they can to try and support you to be the best employee you possibly can…whether that’s in your specific post or you wanting to carve out a career within the organisation. (Employee, Female, Age 30–39 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

Another employee relates the importance of well-being to valued and supported by the organisation. He also highlighted themes of involvement and participation, anti-discrimination, workplace civility, and dignity at work. He states: Looking after employees so they feel part of the organisation….we feel like individuals and don’t feel as though they’re discriminated against…that you are supported in line with other employees. (Employee, Male, Age 50–59 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

304

13 Beneath the Melting Ice: Definition, Importance …

The above respondents’ views about the importance of well-being are clustered into key salient points that relates to fairness at work, workplace civility, appreciation, a sense of purpose, supported, training and development, career advancement opportunities, and involvement and participation in decision making. These salient points are associated with individual, group, and organisational well-being dimensions. Table 13.2 outlines managerial and non-managerial employees’ perspective as it relates to the importance of well-being at work. Table 13.2 Managerial and non-managerial employees’ perspectives on the importance of wellbeing at work Dimensions

Well-being domains

Managerial employees

Non-managerial employees

Individual

Psychological

Sense of worth Feeling valued Making a difference Appreciation Motivation Employee commitment Retention

Feeling valued

Intellectual

Autonomy Sense of achievement

–

Rewards/material

Rewarded

Training and development

Career

Career advancement

Career advancement Mentoring and coaching

Social

Support Teamwork

Support Involvement Participation

Compassionate and respectful Leadership

Respect Approval Trust Motivation Humanistic approach to people management Dignity at work Civility at work

Respect Looking after employees Engagement

Humanistic and fair practices

People-focused Humanistic practices Workplace civility

Respecting people’s differences Equal opportunities Embracing workplace diversity Anti-discrimination practices Fairness at work Dignity at work

Group

Organisational

(continued)

13.4 Employees’ Concepts of Well-Being at Work

305

Table 13.2 (continued) Dimensions

Well-being domains

Managerial employees

Non-managerial employees

Healthy/work organisation

Job design Anti-bureaucratic tick-box/target approach to work

–

13.4.4 The Local Government Improvements to Promote Employee Well-Being at Work 13.4.4.1

Budget Restrictions

Most managers held the view that they face challenges with the budgets and all face problems with government mandates for efficiency savings with finite resources. The budget challenge is associated with political and government pressures, increased workloads, work-related stress, a New Public Management environment, being stretched, and having to deliver more with less. One manager comments: Everything we do relates to the budgets, like organisational development, but yet again you have to think in the context of the budget. That is the difficult thing about working in a local authority, the political necks are assuring, the resources are very finite, sometimes too finite. I know that budgets have to be finite but sometimes it just feels too hard. We have had quite a crisis in the budget. I would like to see more discussions and arguments about budget pressures at national and local levels. It’s not just the Council, it’s government across the board. I think about the demographic pressures we encounter, it’s phenomenal. (Manager, Male, Aged 50–59 years, Tenure 20–25 years)

Another manager shared her views about budget restrictions having a negative impact on well-being, worry and anxiety, heavy workloads, budget challenges being an unpleasant part of managerial employees working life realities. One manager shares Budget restrictions makes me feel worried, worried. We work hard with what we have but it’s a perpetual thing, particularly in social services. It (budgets) has a negative effect on everyone’s well-being and that’s worrying. It’s part of life, you get used to it but its awful. (Manager, Female, Aged 40–49 years, Tenure 6–11 years)

13.4.4.2

Work-Life Balance

Some managers highlighted work-life balance as important to them to improve and promote their well-being at work. Other salient points mentioned are flexibility, less pressure, supporting staff, more holidays, and pay. The manager says: I am very committed to the Council but I will like less pressure. In terms of work-life-balance, I would like it to balance a little more…slightly more in favour of home, but not much as I

306

13 Beneath the Melting Ice: Definition, Importance …

am at the stage of life where I have not got young kids. I try to manage people as flexibly as I can and you always get the rewards back. If someone needs some time, they get it because I know I’ll get it back in performance – it’s very important. I have been there so I know what it is like to be having to rush off and the pressure of being part-time as well….I would also like some more holidays and pay and they all go together. (Manager, Female, Aged 50–59 years, Tenure 11–20 years)

13.4.4.3

Sickness Management

Managerial respondents highlighted the importance of sickness management and the support from HRM to assist them to manage sickness absence in their respective department. Additional key themes mentioned include employee health, team morale, employee disciplinary, termination, and HR support to evaluate genuine cases and evaluate HR systems for effectiveness. He stated Sickness management is important to me as it assists me to cope with absence and sickness in the department…this affects team morale, the individual, their health, the fact that you may end up sacking someone rightly or wrongly so that has been key in terms of what I wanted out of HR….the policy restricts effectiveness and needs evaluation to help support genuine cases as there are loopholes in the present system. (Manager, Male, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

13.4.4.4

Derelict Working Environment

Non-managerial employees highlighted that they were exposed to derelict working environment and working conditions and claim that once the Council improves what they perceive as basic factors, this will improve their well-being at work. Themes highlighted include depression, poor working conditions, inadequate office lighting, inadequate workplace ergonomics, dilapidated physical work environment, safety at work, and feeling anxious at work. These factors were captured by one employee’s view of factors that should be improved by the Council to promote her well-being at work. She states The offices are absolutely the pits – the physical environment was really disgusting very depressing, poor daylight, really basic stuff they just weren’t meeting quality standards…I used to be very edgy and I actually felt unsafe…it took me a long time to relax. (Employee, Female, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, 6–10 years)

13.4.4.5

Feeling Valued and Making a Contribution

Employees’ perspectives reveal the importance of feeling valued and being able to make a contribution to the Council and communities. Additional themes mentioned

13.4 Employees’ Concepts of Well-Being at Work

307

include receiving more feedback, communication about employee contribution, feeling appreciated, respected, more flexibility, fairness at work, and dignity at work. One employee shares: I would like the Council to make sure that employees feel more valued and that they are contributing. It’s important to make sure that employees get more feedback about the way that they are contributing to the organisation because this is difficult in the public sector. If you work in the private sector, you can clearly see contribution by profits or targets or sales outputs as these are all very measurable, whereas in the public sector it is not. In the public sector, people get in trouble for overspends rather than anything else and its always negative. I think it would be much better for everybody’s well-being if they felt much more appreciated. Having the ‘WOW’ awards event is okay, but it’s once a year so what about the rest of the days in the year when people are feeling a bit grumpy ….so making people feel more valued and giving them more flexibility, and treating people like individuals are all important to promote employee well-being. (Employee, Female, Aged 40–49 years, Tenure 15–20 years)

Both managerial and non-managerial respondents account on the factors that they would like to see the Council improve to promote their well-being at work were clustered into five super-ordinate themes which include budget restrictions, worklife balance, sickness management, derelict working conditions, and feeling valued and feedback about making a contribution. These themes are in alignment with the individual, group, and organisational dimensions and the multidimensional domains of well-being at work. Table 13.3 explores these findings. Table 13.3 Managerial and non-managerial employees’ perspectives on Council’s improvements to promote employee well-being at work Dimension

Well-being domains

Managerial employees

Non-managerial employees

Individual

Psychological

Budget pressures Commitment Motivation Negative well-being Committed

Feeling valued Appreciated

Physical

Sickness absence Employee health

Safety at work

Intellectual

–

–

Mental health

Worry Anxiety Heavy workloads Less pressure

Depression Anxiety

Rewards/material

Holiday Leave allowance Pay

–

Career

–

–

Spiritual

–

– (continued)

308

13 Beneath the Melting Ice: Definition, Importance …

Table 13.3 (continued) Dimension

Group

Organisation

Well-being domains

Managerial employees

Non-managerial employees

Financial

–

–

Work/family

Work-life balance More balance in terms of home working Managing people flexibly

More flexibility

Social

Team morale Disciplinary Termination HR support

Respected

Compassionate leadership

–

Respected

Stakeholders

Pressure to deliver services to communities

More feedback about work making a contribution to communities

Humanistic and fair practices

Evaluate HR systems for effectiveness

Fairness at work Dignity at work

Organisational financial

Budget restrictions Budget pressures Limited resources

Wellness management

–

–

Work/organisation

Political environment Organisational development Performance management Sickness absence management

Poor working conditions Inadequate office light Inadequate workplace ergonomics Dilapidated physical environment

13.5 Discussion Definition of Well-Being—The findings that relate to understanding and meaning of well-being, the importance of well-being, and factors that the Council can improve to promote employee well-being at work reveal similarities and differences between managerial and non-managerial employees. Baptiste (2009) and George (2009) argue that significant differences can exist between organisations in the degree to which their organisational cultures tolerate, facilitate, embrace, or embedded well-being. Currie (2001) and Warr (2002) point out that individuals are likely to differ in their attitudes regarding the importance, appropriateness, and perceived consequences of having well-being at work. These differences can be aligned to different groups of workers’ having different psychological contracts (George 2009; Rousseau 1995).

13.5 Discussion

309

The meaning and definition of employee well-being at work according to respondents touched on the individual, group, and organisational dimensions. Both managerial and non-managerial employees defined well-being as a psychological well-being domain as they claimed that well-being is promoted when an individual feels valued and supported by their employer. They both also highlighted that promoting an individual’s mental health can also define well-being at work. Being adequately rewarded, given the opportunity for career development and work-life balance can contribute towards employee well-being at work. They further define employee well-being as being supported, respected, and listened to by their line managers in the employment relationship, and from an organisational perspective, to have humanistic and fair practices that will provide equal opportunities for all employees. In contrast, managerial employees’ definition of well-being at work was extended to include the physical, intellectual, wellness management, and work/organisation well-being domains. Managerial employees also define their well-being to include the absence of heavy workloads and pressure at work, promoting employee health practices and diverse wellness management initiatives. Intellectually, managerial employees define their well-being through having autonomy over their jobs, stimulating job design practices, and having interesting work and the opportunity to work on exciting projects. Managerial employees also define their employee well-being through the reduction of absence levels and staff retention. These findings suggest that managers are concerned about their ‘human resources’ that they need to be able to respond to their heavy workloads, increased targets within limited budgets. In contrast, non-managerial employees also define their well-being differently through financial well-being domain. These respondents define their well-being as being paid fairly as being compensated equitably contributes to their overall wellbeing at work and quality of life. Grant et al. (2007) argue that perceptions of wellbeing at work may be dependent on employee’s personal outlook, socialisation processes, gender, work experiences, and personality characteristics—each accounting for varying attitudes and perceptions regarding the importance of workplace wellbeing. The findings of this research extend the perceptions of well-being at work and suggest that it is also dependent on employees’ working within certain work environments as there is no one size fits all as it relates to work environments. For example, employees working in a NPM environment of the public sector are likely to define their well-being differently compared to private sector employees that embrace the well-being ideology through the provision of wellness management initiatives. The findings clearly reveal that these public sector employees’ definition of well-being touched on the financial stability of the organisation, limited government funding and budgets, adequate resources, talent retention, heavy workloads, fairness at work, and the material aspects of the employment relationship have to be addressed first before these public sector employees’ well-being at work can be promoted. Van Wanrooy et al. (2011) assert that the British economy has been facing economic challenges due to the recession which resulted in a financial crisis with the public sector employment falling with a pattern of unstable growth and uncertainty compared with the private sector (CIPD 2019). Van Wanrooy et al., further points out that public sector organisations are stretched further to withstand the challenging financial crisis which

310

13 Beneath the Melting Ice: Definition, Importance …

places a tighter and perhaps unforgiving squeeze on their already limited resources within the New Public Management (NPM) environment. The Importance of Well-Being—Managerial and non-managerial employees were asked their perspectives regarding why well-being at work is important to them. The findings reveal that there are similarities and differences that exist between managerial and non-managerial respondents. Both groups held the view that the importance of well-being relates to individual, group, and organisational dimensions. From an individual perspective, the importance of well-being to respondents relates to psychological, rewards/material, and career well-being domains. These respondents view that once they are appreciated, rewarded, given an opportunity for career advancement, access to training and development, as well as coaching and mentoring, these practices are important for the promotion of their well-being at work. In contrast, managerial employees also highlighted intellectual well-being domain in terms of working with autonomy and being able to accomplish successes with work projects are the importance they place on well-being at work. From a group perspective, both groups state that employee well-being is important because it provides support for employees, builds trust, respect, dignity at work, workplace civility, and facilitates teamwork, involvement and participation, motivation, employee engagement, and will promote a more humanistic approach to people management by line managers and organisational leaders. MacDonald (2005) argues that employee well-being at work promotes the advantage to organisations of having a healthy workforce and the quality of life at work (Green and Whitfield 2009). Individual lives are affected by social relations with organisational agents, lifestyle and employment changes (Tehrani et al. 2007) and employees expect their employers to value, support, and respect their efforts towards attainment of organisational goals and objectives (Guest 2002). From an organisational perspective, both employee groups claim that employee well-being is important because it fosters an organisational culture of dignity, fairness, civility, anti-discriminatory practices, embraces diversity in the workplace and respecting people’s differences, advocates equal opportunities, and a more ‘peoplefocused’ and employee-centred approach to human resources management, organisational practices, line management leadership, and the psychological contract within the employment relationship. Wilson (2010) argues that a substantial portion of our lives is spent at work that provides individuals status, economic reward, and growth potential. For others, working provides a sense of worth, dignity, and that people and employment structure our lives and shape the inequalities that we face (Terkel 1977). Bolton and Houlihan (2007) claim that maintaining dignity at work is something that workers from all walks of life struggle to achieve and can be attained through taking pride in productive accomplishments, and assistance against abusive bosses or bad management. In contrast, managerial employees also felt that well-being is important for job design practices and as a trade-off for a bureaucratic tick-box target approach to work adopted in the New Public Management environment. Weick (1992) argues that managerial practices can have implications on employee well-being and can lead to well-being trade-offs or exchange, which is a common feature of organisational life.

13.5 Discussion

311

Organisational Improvements to Promote Employee Well-Being—The findings reveal similarities and differences between both employee groups. Respondents’ perspective on what they perceive the Council should do to promote their well-being entails individual, group, and organisational dimensions. From an individual perspective, respondents’ suggestions for improvements in the Council to promote their well-being involve psychological, physical, mental health, rewards/material, and work/family well-being domains. The budget restrictions that formed the working life realities of workers resulted in heavy workloads and a highly stressed and pressurised working environment that had a negative impact on employees’ well-being. These pressures affected employees’ physical and mental health resulting in high sickness absence, anxiety, and depression among employees. Both employee groups would like to see improvements in these areas, which they perceive will improve their wellbeing at work, commitment, motivation, and performance. Simonet (2013) asserts that the New Public Management ideology influences how decisions are made in the public sector environment and have implications for human resource management, working life, and well-being at work for public sector employees working with diminishing confidence in government, declining budgets, increasing demands for service and productivity, and human resource activities (Livesey et al. 2006). Respondents also mentioned improvements in work-life balance with more flexibility with the new ways of working in terms of working more from home and access to work-life balance opportunities for employees. MacDonald (2005) posits that the challenges of the changing world of work have a wide-ranging effect on work and family interaction which has major concerns for both employees and employers. In support, Cooper and Robertson (2001) point out that workers are experiencing life changes and aspirations, and family time is coming under pressures, intensifying work–family conflict, resulting in psychological strains and ill-health. The strive for more of a balance between work and life mainly affects professionals and managerial workers who are increasingly pressured to work faster and longer hours (Baptiste 2009; George 2009). In contrast, managerial employees would like to experience less pressure in their jobs and respective departments. They would also like to have more remuneration in terms of holiday, leave allowance, pay, and more flexibility in managing people to balance work and their lives. Non-managerial employees would like to feel valued and appreciated by the Council and would like the Council to address employees safety at work. From a group perspective, both employee groups wanted to be respected by their employer for their contribution to the Council and the communities they serve. In contrast, managerial employees claim that they would like improvements in team morale, and HR support when it comes to disciplinary and terminations. Managers are pressured to deliver more services to stakeholders with less resources and would like the Council to alleviate or improve the pressure that managers are faced with daily which fundamentally are as a result of budget restrictions, so managers are having to jump through many hoops to meet target expectations and

312

13 Beneath the Melting Ice: Definition, Importance …

service outcomes. In contrast, from a group perspective, non-managerial employees would like more feedback and communication from their line managers regarding their work contributing to communities. Meechan (2018) argues that given that employee well-being is now high on senior leaders’ and management agenda it is now time to better understand the importance of developing the social and interpersonal skills of empathy and compassion to enhance their own and others well-being for the good of the organisation. From an organisational perspective, both groups’ perspectives reveal improvements in humanistic and fair practices and work/organisation practices. The findings reveal differences in perspectives between managerial and non-managerial employees. From fair practices perspective, managers would like to see improvements in the evaluation of HR systems for greater effectiveness. They would also appreciate the reduction in budget restrictions and less pressure, which in turn will have implication on sickness absence management. They would like to see improvements in organisational development, performance management, and a less political environment, which all have implications for a NPM ideology and employee well-being at work. The importance of fair treatment and a ‘people-focused’ approach to social interactions within organisations will improve experiences of a series of injustices, hurt feelings, frustrations, and feelings of inferiority preoccupying the minds and thinking of employees (Robertson et al. 2008). Dehumanised and unfair practice is that of bullying and other mistreatment in the workplace that has negative implications for mental ill-health, workplace absence, stress levels, and well-being at work. In contrast, non-managerial employees would like to see improvements in fairness and dignity at work. The working conditions of the offices were regarded as poor, with inadequate office lighting, poor workplace ergonomics, and dilapidated physical work environment. These employees pointed out that improvements in these areas will improve their well-being at work in the local government organisation (i.e. the Council). In conclusion, the fulfilment of employee well-being can be challenging for this case local government organisation and other public sector organisations alike given the complexity, politicised, and efficiency savings ‘doing more with less’-oriented work environment that these employees function in. Small steps taken in the process can reap great rewards in terms of enhancement of employees’ experiences of working life and well-being at work that can positively influence performance and service delivery. It will take a further step, given the complexities and daily challenges faced by local government employees before the well-being ideology can be successfully promoted and implemented. The mantra of ‘working hard’ is evident for local government managers and employees, as for so many contemporary professionals, however the Utopian state of ‘well-being at work’ is likely to remain a subjective phenomenon in the pursuit of happiness for the foreseeable future.

References

313

References Albrecht, S., & Travaglione, A. (2003). Trust in public-sector senior management. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 14(1), 76–92. Bakke, D. W. (2005). Joy at work: A revolutionary approach to fun on the job. Penguin Group (USA) Inc. Baptiste, N. R. (2007). Line management leadership: Implications for employee well-being. In: G. P. Clarkson (Ed.), Developing Leadership Research, Papers from the Northern Leadership Academy Fellow 2007 Conference (pp. 229–238). Leeds: Leeds University Business School, Leeds University Press Financial Services. Baptiste, N. R. (2008). Tightening the link between employee wellbeing at work and performance: A new dimension for HRM.Management Decisions, 46(2), 284–309. Baptiste, N. R. (2009). Fun and wellbeing: insights from senior managers in a local authority. Employee Relations, 31(6), 600–612. Baptiste, N. R. (2010). Beneath the melting ice: The relationship between employee well-being, HRM practices and social exchange in local government. Doctoral Thesis at Roehampton University, London. Bolton, S., & Houlian, M. (2007). Beginning the search for the H in HRM. In S. Bolton & M. Houlian (Ed.), Searching for the H in human resource management: Theory, practice and workplace context. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. CIPD. (2019). Health and well-being at work. In Partnership with Simply Health, Public Sector. April 2019. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Cooper, C., & Robertson, I. (2001). Well-being in organisations: A reader for students and practitioners. Chichester: Wiley. Currie, D. (2001). Managing employee well-being. Oxford: Chandos Publishing Oxford Limited. Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. E. (2003). Personality, culture, and subjective wellbeing: Emotional and cognitive evaluations of life. Annual Review Psychology, 54, 403–425. George, C. (2009). The psychological contract: Managing and developing professional groups, Work and Organisational Psychology. Berkshire: Open University Press. Grant, A., Christianson, M., & Price, R. (2007). Happiness, health or relationships? Managerial practices and employee well-being tradeoffs. The Academy of Management, 21(3), 51–63. Green, F., & Whitfield, K. (2009). Employees experiences at work. In W. Brown, A. Bryson, J. Forth, & K. Whitfield (Eds.), The evolution of the modern workplace. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Guest, D. (2002). Human resource management, corporate performance and employee wellbeing: building the worker into HRM. Journal of Industrial Relations, 44(3), 335–358. Harrow, J. (2002). New public management and social justice: Just efficiency or equity as well? In K. McLaughlin, S. P. Osborne, & E. Ferlie (Eds.), New public management: Current Trends and future prospects (pp. 141–159). London: Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group. Haworth, J., & Hart, G. (2007). Wellbeing: Individual, community and social perspectives. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan. Jackall, R. (1988). Moral mazes: The world of corporate managers. New York: Oxford University Press. Kersley, B., Alphin, C., Forth, J., Bryson, A., Bewley, H., Dix, G., & Oxenbridge, S. (2006). Inside the workplace: Findings from the 2004 workplace employment relations survey. London: Routledge. Livesey, D., Machin, A., Millard, B., & Walling, A. (2006, December). Public sector employment 2006: Seasonally adjusted series and recent trends. Office for National Statistics, Labour Market Trends. Lyons, E. (2000). Qualitative data display: Data display model. In C. Fife-Schaw (Ed.), Research methods in psychology (pp. 269–280). London: Sage Publications. MacDonald, L. A. C. (2005). Wellness at work: Protecting and promoting employee well-being. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development.

314

13 Beneath the Melting Ice: Definition, Importance …

Mathieu, J. E., & Zajac, D. M. (1990). A review and meta-analysis of the antecedents, correlates and consequences of organisational commitment. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 171–194. Meechan, F. (2018). Compassion at work toolkit. Alliance Manchester Business School, University of Manchester. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322404395_Compassion_ at_Work_Tooklit. Meyer, J., & Allen, N. (1997). Commitment in the workplace. London: Sage. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded source book. London: Sage. Peccei, R. (2004). Human resource management and the search for the happy workplace. Erasmus Research Institute of Management, Rotterdam School of Management, Rotterdam School of Economics. Renwick, D. (2003). HR managers, guardians of employee wellbeing? Personnel Review, 32(3), 341–359. Rhoades, L., & Eisenberger, R. (2002). Perceived organisational support: A review of the literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(4), 698–714. Robertson, I. T., Tinline, G., & Robertson, S. (2008). Enhancing staff well-being for organisational effectiveness. In R. J. Burke, C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Building more effective organisations: HR management and performance practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rousseau, D. M. (1995). Psychological contracts in organisations: Understanding written and unwritten agreements. Thousand Oaks, London: Sage. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic wellbeing. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 141–166. Ryff, C. D. (1995). Psychological well-being in adult life. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4, 99–104. Silverman, D. (1993). Interpreting qualitative data: Methods for analysing talk, text and interaction. London: Sage. Simonet, D. (2013). The new public management theory in the British Health Care System: A critical review. Administration & Society, I47(7), 1–25. Tehrani, N., Humpage, S., Willmott, B, & Haslam, I. (2007). What’s happening with well-being at work? Change Agenda. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel Development. Terkel, S. (1977). Working. Harmondsworth: Penguin Publishers. Van Manen, M. (1994). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. New York, NY: State University of New York Press. Van Wanrooy, B., Bewley, H., Bryson, A., Forth, J., Freeth, S., Stokes, L., & Wood, S. (2011). The 2011 workplace employment relations study: First findings. The Workplace Employment Relations Study (2011 WERS). Warr, P. (2002). Psychology at work. Suffolk: Penguin Group Books Suffolk. Weick, K. E. (1992). Agenda setting in organisational behaviour. Journal of Management Inquiry, 1(3), 171–182. Williams, M. (2002). Generalisation in interpretative research. In T. May (Ed.), Qualitative research in action. London: Sage. Wilson, F. (2010). Organisational behaviour and work: A critical introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Chapter 14

Quality of Working Life, Leadership, and Well-Being in the Public Sector: Insights from Employees

Abstract This chapter discusses the empirical results based on research that explored employees’ reactions to HRM practices, the quality of working life, line management leadership, and well-being at work in a UK’s local government organisation in the North West of England. The key findings from this main research are presented throughout this book and have implications and insights for the academic literature, leaders, managers, practitioners, and employees alike. This chapter also presents some empirical findings from 27 semi-structured interviews conducted with managers and employees to ascertain their perspectives regarding their line management leadership approach that is responsive to the promotion of their well-being at work. Managers and employees also shared how they would like to see their line managers’ leadership style improved to promote their well-being at work. Both managers and employees opted for a more ‘people-focused’ humanistic, relational, communicative, involvement, transparency, trustworthiness, compassionate, fairness at work, and dignity and civility at work approach to leadership as apposed to their present working life realities.

14.1 Introduction This chapter discusses the empirical results presented throughout this book and their implications for the academic literature. The chapter also presents some empirical results as it relates to line management leadership and its responsiveness to employee well-being. The book was introduced as an attempt to understand the meaning of what lies ‘beneath the melting ice’ of employees’ reaction to HRM practices, working life realities, line management leadership, and well-being at work in local government in the North West of England. This chapter discusses the findings as they relate to the aims of the main research discussed throughout this book. This chapter discusses the intricacies of the salient themes in this chapter, which includes respondents’ evaluation of their working life realities as public sector employees in a local government organisation in North West of England. The chapter also explores the meanings public sector employees give to their jobs and its implication for employees’ identity-work-life integration; the lack of trust is shown as an integral thread that © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 N. Cvenkel, Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health, Approaches to Global Sustainability, Markets, and Governance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3619-9_14

315

316

14 Quality of Working Life, Leadership, and Well-Being …

runs through the fabric of the New Public Management (NPM) work environment and social interactions between line managers and employees. The exploration of employees’ reactions as it relates to their line manager responsiveness to promote well-being at work, as well as employees’ perspectives regarding improvements in line management leadership to promote their well-being at work in the NPM work environment is explored. The chapter concludes with an integrated model of the relationship between HRM practices, the quality working life, leadership, and wellbeing in the public sector as perceived by employees. The chapter concludes with a summary and conclusion of the key issues discussed.

14.2 Working Life Realities and Well-Being The first aim of the main study in this book is to explore whether employee wellbeing ideology can be successfully promoted and maintained in a NPM environment given continuous proposals for reformation and expenditure reduction. This research critically examined organisational policies and practices that relate to highcommitment HRM practices, working life, and well-being at work in a NPM context. Furthermore, an exploration of how a NPM context impacts on employees’ experiences of HRM practices, working life, line management leaders, and well-being at work was completed. Methodologically, the main research adopted the hermeneutic phenomenological analysis approach, which facilitated employees’ consciousness, meanings, and how they understood and made sense of their working world, the processes, conditions, interactions, structures, and experiences. This approach helped to uncover key principles that formed part of employees’ working life realities and, through this, reveals the implications for employee well-being at work. This was reflected in managerial and non-managerial employees’ mixed responses relating to experiences of HRM practices, working life realties, line management leadership, and consequently well-being at the Council. Salient points emerged from the research and include: restricted resources, workplace stress, job insecurity, bureaucracy and control, constant change and instability, bullying and psychological violence, a lack of trust, excessive emails adding to the pressurised work environment, job dissatisfaction and poor public sector ethos, dilapidated office environment, and work-life balance. These factors framed the working life realities of both managerial and nonmanagerial employees’ work life. These factors clearly outline that both employee groups were not having fun at work and their well-being at work was far from being met as they had to face multiple challenges working within a NPM environment as well as jump through many bureaucratic hoops to meet service delivery targets with already limited and stretched resources. Although wellness management initiatives were adopted and implemented in the local government organisation like the private sector, these public sector employees were so pressurised with heavy workloads, long working hours, meeting targets, faced with constant changes, they lacked the crucial elements of ‘time’ and ‘motivation’ to appreciate and participate in the wellness management programmes provided.

14.2 Working Life Realities and Well-Being

317

Furthermore, for these two groups of employees, for their working life realities and well-being to be improved and promoted requires focusing on Government funding mandates and policies, organisational structure and culture, the strategic approach to change management, and the psychological contract that frames the relationship between line managers and their staff within the employment relationship. The focus on improving the aesthetics and safety of the work environment, and be open to introducing a broad range of flexible working arrangements to cater for both employee groups work-life-balance and well-being. Clarke (2001) argues that both men and women have significant responsibilities both at work and with the families, now with the growing number of single parents, working women, dual-career couples, and fathers heavily involved in parenting (Fullerton 1995). For these individuals and for others interested in both work and family, balance between these two spheres has become a major life issue (Clarke 2001; Kemske 1998). In response to this need to balance work and life, employers have implemented a number of pragmatic changes to working. For the local government case organisation (i.e. the Council), mentioned in the main research, this organisation implemented what they referred to as the ‘new ways of working’ that involved flexible working arrangements of working from home, working from different physical locations, flexitime, job-sharing, hot-desking for managerial employees, and other types of flexible arrangements to support employees and assist them to manage work-related stress. Flexible working arrangements also assisted the organisation with the budget limitations by offsetting the financial burden of having to find office space to accommodate all employees. By introducing the need to balance work and life, through flexible working arrangements, the Council showed their corporate social responsibility as a supportive employer. Feeney and Stritch (2017) point out that modern public sector workplace, informal family-friendly culture, and formal family-friendly policies are considered important components of creating a healthy work environment. Daniel and French (2006) view that workers are experiencing life changes and aspirations and family time are coming under pressure intensifying work–family conflict resulting in psychological strains and ill-health (Cartwright and Cooper 2009). In contrast, with such a broad range of flexible working arrangements, line managers show resilience in response to now being faced with another challenge of having to supervise and manage dispersed teams to ensure that service delivery and targets are met in keeping with set objectives, limited resources, and radical (UK) public sector reform, in which Hesketh et al. (2014) state has implications for and results in changes with the employees’ relationship with their organisation. Furthermore, with the adoption of the flexible working arrangements, line managers will also have to work beyond their fear of making mistakes to ensure that they effectively manage the relationships with their employees so that they perform and trust the process, are mentally healthy, and are enthusiastic, motivated, committed, and experience positive well-being to prevent sickness absence, presenteeism, or leaveism of employees. Cooper et al. (2005) argue that the cost of employee absence and employees being anything than fully productive can have an enormous impact on operational effectiveness as there is a proven link between well-being and increased performance.

318

14 Quality of Working Life, Leadership, and Well-Being …

Hesketh et al. (2014) posit that ‘leaveism’ emphasises that sickness among employees can be a hidden phenomenon and that effective workplace well-being strategies can contribute to successful work-life integration that reduce these practices. Hesketh et al. (2014) further argue that the practice of leaveism may cease or reduce as employees reach their personal resilience limits and may impact significantly on sickness absence levels. Looking at employee absence from the workplace and workload overload, Hesketh and Cooper (2014) introduced the concept of ‘leaveism’, which is the practice of employees utilising allocated time off such as annual leave entitlements, flexi hours banked, and re-rostered rest days, to take time off when they are in fact unwell. Leaveism also entails employees ‘taking work home’ that cannot be completed in normal working hours and employees working while on leave or holiday to catch up. The practices and attitudes of leaveism and presenteeism as a result of heavy workloads and sickness absence have negative implications for work-life integration and employee well-being, with particular reference to public sector managers who the research shows work long working hours and do not have the leisure time in respect of ongoing responsibilities to decide the balance between work and life as it is perceived that there work is ongoing, so they expend their effort trying to separate, aspiring for balance. Robertson and Cooper (2011) state that the notion of having a sense of purpose and meaning is important to leading a successful working life and work ought to be interesting, challenging, and suite to an individual’s personality (Diener and Biswas-Diener 2008). Moreover, Hesketh et al. (2014) argue that the challenge is to know where to draw the line and on whose terms? It is important to question whether these beleaguered public sector managers and employees can ‘draw the line’ or distinguish between the pressure of the workplace (i.e. attending diverse daily meetings, answering emails at night, increasing demands on service delivery, reading reports outside of the workplace, etc.) and finding that much needed balance to facilitate their work-life integration. One can question whether the North West, UK, local government organisation expect managerial and non-managerial employees to be ‘present for work’, at work, and at home? Hesketh et al. (2014) states that organisations need to pay attention to the weakening personal resilience of employees who may abandon the practice of ‘Leaveism’, with potentially far reaching consequences, with reference to sickness absenteeism that would rise sharply, work would radically be slowed or stopped as a consequence of changes in employee behaviour and a break in the psychological contract (Rousseau 2003). The quantitative part of the main research outlined in this book is the leanest part of the methodological approach adopted in the study. The findings from the questionnaire reveal that there is a significant difference between managerial and non-managerial employees’ working life experiences, HRM practices, the psychological contract and social exchange constructs, and their views about their well-being at work.

14.3 Identity-Work-Life Integration

319

14.3 Identity-Work-Life Integration Managerial and non-managerial employees’ perspectives that relate to the meaning they give to their job highlighted eight key salient points, which includes that the job is; professionally stimulating and engaging, conveys financial stability, community contribution, a sense of purpose that promotes confidence and self-esteem, fulfilment and gratitude, career advancement, relationships, and the job is in close proximity to the home. Both employee group responses were associated with the individual and group perspectives. From an individual perspective, the meaning of the job touched on the psychological, physical, intellectual, career, spiritual, and financial well-being domains. From the group perspective, the meaning of the job focused on relationships with their line manager as well as their job making a contribution towards the community. For these public sector employees, their job provided a sense of purpose and identity that allowed them to feel valued and appreciated and provided satisfaction that their contribution and efforts mattered for the greater good of the communities they served. Wilson (2010) states that work is perceived and can have a different meaning for individuals and the prime reasons that individuals give for working are to earn money, to use their skills, and to feel a sense of worth and a sense of dignity (Bolton and Houlihan 2007; Terkel 1977). Both groups also identified that their job provided the opportunity for career advancement and achievement. Furthermore, managers attributed the meaning of their job to job design practices as they appreciated that they were professionally stimulated and engaged in their jobs. Both groups agreed that their job provided them with financial well-being and life satisfaction as the job provided an avenue where they can pay their mortgage, rent, and enjoy life satisfaction. Percy (2018) points out that in 2017, research by the UK’s Money and Mental Health Policy Institute found that over two-thirds of employees are struggling financially, which is one sign of poor mental health that could affect their ability to function at work. These signs include loss of sleep, poor concentration, and reduced motivation. Therefore, financial wellbeing is clearly an issue that leaders and managers need to take seriously. In contrast, non-managerial employees highlighted spiritual and social well-being domains to describe the meaning of their job and attributed it to relationships with line manager, and gratitude and fulfilment. Non-managerial employees meaning is associated with their perception of the psychological contract, justice, and fairness perception and their experiences with leader–member exchange relations with their line manager. Therefore, having good relationships at work is integral to non-managerial employees’ views of their job. The CIPD (2010) research reveal that line managers sit at the heart of the relationship between the employer and the employee and if this relationship is challenged it can lead to serious problems within the employment relationship. The CIPD further states that managing the employment relationship rests heavily on the shoulders of line managers, but their competence in this area is, in general, seriously neglected. As such, organisations need to focus on building line management capability, which is a common factor within organisations.

320

14 Quality of Working Life, Leadership, and Well-Being …

14.4 Trust Makes Lives Better The findings from the review of company HRM policy documents from the main research throughout this book that explored employees’ reactions to HRM practices, quality and working life, and well-being at work were different to that which was espoused. The findings reveal that the Local Government organisation advocated working in partnership to facilitate efficient inter-departmental working, collaboration with the delivery of services, and cost minimisation were not in alignment with the employees’ reactions to company policy and practices, their working life realities and well-being at work. Although these practices were professed to be adopted, employees’ reactions to these practices were different to that which was alleged. For example, the local government organisation (i.e. the Council) professed that team working was promoted throughout the Council. In reality, according to both employee groups, there exist tensions between teams and different departments, creating an atmosphere of mistrust with managers in particular fighting to protect their already stretched resources in keeping with their political and work agendas. The lack of team working also fostered a ‘Them and Us’ and ‘Blame’ culture, silos working, ineffective partnerships across the Council, which all had implications for employee well-being as well as service delivery and stakeholders’ satisfaction and well-being. Both employee groups also highlighted the existence of status differentials and a lack of harmonisation between line managers and employees as well as senior leaders and line managers. The presence of status differentials nurtured a lack of trust and anti-harmonisation environment throughout the Council between social actors that in turn negatively affected relationship building, partnership working, service delivery, and employee well-being. The notion of an antitrust environment was captured from the findings from the questionnaire and interviews. The findings from the questionnaire disclosed that managerial and non-managerial as well as male and female employees disagreed that they trusted management to look after their best interests. Males were less trusting than females as their responses were statistically significantly different from their female counterparts. The interviews reveal that both employee groups held the view that trust was not promoted in the Council. Managerial employees pointed out that the ‘lack of trust’ also extended to outside the organisation with Council officers have to frequently ‘fight off attacks’ from external stakeholders like councillors, members of parliament (MPs), and customers. From an internal perspective, the ‘lack of trust’ was as a result of senior leaders’ reluctance to take risks and trust individuals in decision making that could affect change. Managerial employees also held the view that there was a ‘lack of trust’ from senior leaders to line managers and employees as senior leaders were fearful of losing control of particular budgets, organisational structures and processes, and the formal and informal culture (i.e. the way things are done here). In contrast, non-managerial employees held the view that they lacked confidence and trust in their line manager as they were not given autonomy, independence, and shown confidence and trust from their line manager that they had the ability to do their jobs. These non-managerial

14.4 Trust Makes Lives Better

321

employees felt controlled and inadequate which had implications for negative wellbeing and performance. They perceived that this lack of trust from their line manager about their ability to perform effectively contributes to the existence of a ‘controlled’ working environment—which the researcher observed as a prominent point in this working environment. Respondents also related the lack of trust to bureaucracy. Managerial and nonmanagerial employees described the work environment as being saturated with bureaucracy and ‘red tape’. They regarded that this resulted in individuals having to ‘jump through many hoops’ before decisions were made—this was also observed and experienced by the researcher. They also perceived that bureaucracy contributed to employees not being able to use their initiative or work independently, which stifles creativity and innovation throughout the organisation. Morphet (2008) and Cooper and Robertson (2001) state that to promote employee performance it is important to create a sense of trust, which forms the basis of all professional and personal relationships and interactions. Organisation, particularly the public sector that is able to create and promote trust in the workplace, is better able to weather the storms of budget restrictions and cost minimisation to promote harmonisation, improved morale, team working, built relationships, increased productivity, and a clear vision throughout the organisation (Baptiste 2007). The lack of trust was also implied by the high neutral responses from the questionnaire. Non-managerial employees had higher neutral responses than managerial employees. Managerial employees’ neutral responses were in relation to the existence of employee voice, management responding to suggestions from employees and dealing with problems in the workplace. Non-managerial employees’ neutral responses are related to the existence of internal recruitment, involvement in decision making, the existence of team working, trust, motivation, work-life balance, autonomy, and work demands. Trust is central to team working, support, and fairness perceptions found in the psychological contract. This is a key principle of the psychological contract, perceived organisational support, and organisational justice. Trust relates to respondents’ cognitive expectations of the psychological contract and underpins relational and transactional obligations. It also forms employees’ perceptions of support and fairness at work. Sharkie’s (2009) research found that there was strong evidence that the vulnerability of employees in the employment relationship had increased the importance of trust in encouraging employee extra-role behaviour outside their contractual obligations. Grant et al. (2007) and Guest (2007) posit that trust is built through actions and words of social agents within the employment relationship. Managers need to demonstrate that they trust employees or team not merely by saying the word ‘trust’ but by supportive and justice actions through empowering staff to be accountable and responsible for their daily work. Manager should also involve staff in decision making that affects them and will benefit the organisation, avoid nepotism, show appreciation and acknowledgement for a good job done, and show respect, equality, and workplace dignity to all employees.

322

14 Quality of Working Life, Leadership, and Well-Being …

14.5 Line Management Leadership and Well-Being This section reveals both employees’ group voices and perspectives about their line manager as it relates to the responsiveness of their line manager to promote their wellbeing at work and improvement that the line manager can implement to promote their well-being at work. This section presents empirical research from twenty-seven semistructured interviews that formed part of the major research outlined in this book. The respondent’s perspective as it relates to the responsiveness of their line manager to promote their well-being clustered into three prominent points and include; supportive with work responsibilities, trust employees’ capabilities, and knowledge transfer are the key themes that respondents highlighted that their line manager displays that they claim promotes their well-being at work and subsequently mental health and performance.

14.5.1 Responsiveness of Line Manager to Promote Well-Being at Work 14.5.1.1

Supportive with Work Responsibilities

Non-managerial employees held the view that their line manager was supportive of them and trusted their capability to do a good job. Other themes highlighted include receipt of positive feedback, appreciation, respectful, attentive, and considerate. One employee shares her experience. She said: My manager is exceptionally supportive and knows my capabilities…he challenges me, and trusts me and knows that I can go ahead and do things, he promotes my confidence by providing me with feedback….he always asks me “how has your day been?” “have a good evening, have a good weekend?” (Employee, Female, Age 20–29 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

Similarly, managerial employees held the view that their line managers were supportive to them and the team in terms of assistance with reprioritisation and heavy workloads. One manager comments: My manager is very supportive. I have no complaints at all. I’ve have just changed managers and my existing manager is in the room as well with my former manager and both of them are very good. They realise when I am a bit snowed under…it’s the same way I support my teams, I will say ‘well let’s have a look a things’. I think sometimes it’s just having somebody else help you take that step back and reprioritize perhaps. (Manager, Male, Aged 40–49 years, Tenure, 6–11 years)

Employees echo the view that their managers are supportive to them by giving direction to the work. One employee shares: My manager directs the work that we’re going to this is how he supports me in terms of he very much decides the work programme which we’re going to follow, so that’s probably how he supports me. (Employee, Female, Aged 20–25 years, less than 5 years)

14.5 Line Management Leadership and Well-Being

14.5.1.2

323

Trust Employee Capabilities

Managerial employees highlighted that their line manager is responsive in promoting their well-being by trusting their capabilities to do a good job. Providing feedback, praise and recognition, and admiration were also mentioned. One manager’s comments echo this theme. He said: I get interesting projects to do. He is pleased usually with what I do. I get fairly immediate feedback. He provides me with praise and give recognition for work done. I’ve worked with him for a while and trust and admire him. (Manager, Male, Aged 40–49 years, Tenure, 6–11 years)

14.5.1.3

Knowledge Transfer

Some managers reveal that sharing knowledge with their line manager in an exchange of information, learning from each other, brainstorm exercises, or to resolve workplace challenges promotes their well-being and empowers them to learn and develop in skill areas that require development. One manager shares her perspective regarding this theme. She states: He is very different, he is more low key, very driven and very task oriented. There is that want of support. He comes to me sometimes on some of the people management stuff…he is very strategic, very bright, but sometimes the relationship stuff he comes to me for help on this. So there is a recognition there that I have a lot to learn from him, I’m quite looking forward to working with him more because he is so much of a strategist and a political animal, and those are less skills of mine. He says to me ‘well, there’s quite a lot I can gain back from you’…. (Manager, Female, Aged 40–49 years, Tenure 6–11 years)

The above findings reveal similarities and differences in employees’ perspective regarding their view about how responsive their line manager is to the promotion of their well-being at work. Both employee groups agreed that their line manager promotes their well-being by being supportive with respect to work responsibilities. In contrast, managerial employees touched on their line manager trusting their capabilities and ability to do a good job as well as knowledge sharing with their line manager. Managerial respondents all agreed that these two themes demonstrate to them that their line manager cares about them and this leader–member exchange fosters the promotion of their well-being at work.

14.5.2 Line Management Improvement to Promote Employee Well-Being 14.5.2.1

Empowerment and Autonomy

Some employees’ perspectives reveal that they would like their line manager to provide them with autonomy regarding their job to foster creativity and performance.

324

14 Quality of Working Life, Leadership, and Well-Being …

Yet other employees highlighted the need to be empowered towards professional development and advancement, which these employees claim will enhance their well-being at work. One employee’s comments echo these points. She shares: I would like my manager to be more responsive to me. He knows my personality as he has worked with me for eighteen months and I had two performance reviews where I made it perfectly clear that I would like more responsibility, I want to develop, I’d like to be left alone to get on with some more work, be more creative about things…so he knows all of this but he still doesn’t take it on-board and that’s extremely frustrating and I don’t know what more I can do to spell it out about what I would like from him. I just don’t think he’s interested, I don’t think he cares. (Employee, Female, Aged 30–39 years, Tenure less than 5 years)

Another employee’s perspective about the lack of autonomy touched on being able to use own initiative and trusted to do a good job is echoed by the comments of this employee. She explained: Employees are not allowed to think and use their own initiatives and there is no autonomy…employees should feel motivated at work and be able to use their own initiatives and trusted to do a good job. (Employee, Female, Age 20–25 years, less than 5 years)

Other employees’ comments reveal the lack of autonomy and poor relationship as central to the employment relationship, the psychological contract, and their wellbeing at work. One employee shares her experience: I much prefer if my line manager allows me to be able to determine some of the work within the work programme…because of this my relationship with him is dreadful…it’s absolutely dreadful at the moment although I don’t know whether he realises it’s as dreadful. I try to be professional about how annoying I find him. I am sure he does realise that he’s not my favourite person in the entire world but we are not to the stage where we’re rude to each other and ignoring each other because that will be deeply unpleasant when you are sharing a room. (Employee, Female, Aged 40–49 years, Tenure 6–10 years)

14.5.2.2

People-Focused Approach to Leadership

Managers held the view that their line manager required to have a more peoplefocused approach to their leadership style to promote their well-being at work. Additional themes mentioned include team management, trusting staff competencies, support to do your job, and more delegation. One manager’s comments highlighted these points. He said: More people oriented and he can develop more specific skills around team management, facilitation of teams, and team building, those sort of things. Complimentary skills like believing in you, and believing in your skills and supporting you to do your job. He does not scrutinise, there’s not that requirement, there is a nice balance…he sometimes need to delegate a bit better. (Manager, Male, Aged 40–49 years, Tenure 6–10 years)

14.5 Line Management Leadership and Well-Being

14.5.2.3

325

Empathetic and Compassionate

Some employees highlighted that their line manager was indifferent and apathetic, lacking interests in their satisfaction, motivation, and well-being. Employees held the view that they would like their line manager to have more empathetic and compassionate skills which are in alignment with a more people-focused approach to people management. These respondents perceive that if their line managers possess these people-focused skills, it will promote their well-being at work, mental health, and performance. One employee highlights these themes. She said: My manager has to be replaced or I get another role within the organisation. I think I am just going to have to look at moving jobs as nothing seems to be working in terms of getting her to change. I have been giving her some indicators in her 360 feedback and with some gentle conversations with her but it does not matter….so I think, I will have to look for another job. (Employee, Female, Aged 20–25 years, Tenure less than 5 years)

14.5.2.4

Dignity and Civility at Work

Managerial respondents shared their experiences of there being a ‘Blame culture’ that exists within the organisation that leaves managerial employees fearful of experiencing the growing pattern of psychological violence behaviours such as threats, being shouted at, intimidation and other incivility and mistreatment. Managerial employees reveal that improvements in dignity and civility in the workplace through their line managers will improve their mental health, well-being, and performance. One manager shares his experience that highlights these themes. He said: I almost feel that there are managers out there that are ready looking for something to pounce on, on some individuals when something has gone wrong…there is this fear of getting blamed when things go wrong when you are dragged in and practically shouted at…you can feel quite threatened and almost bothered and intimidated and it gets to a point, that you almost become immune to it. (Manager, Male, Age 40–49 years, Tenure 6–10 years)

Another account of incivility at work, a lack of dignity at work, and psychological violence were revealed by a manager’s account of her experiences with her line manager who used power, victimisation, and threats to control her. The manager likened her experiences to feelings of powerlessness, bullying, and unfairness. She said: After my manager was told by HR that he was wrong he apologised afterwards but I did not think it was a sincere apology ….you read the dignity at work act and you think this is not acceptable to the council standards...it doesn’t feed through and if I put in a grievance against my boss, I still have to work with him on the daily basis, he can make my life hell and he let me know he would make my life hell if I took it further…it made me feel powerless and I thought that I have to get out of this job”. (Manager, Female, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, 21–25 years)

Another manager relates her experiences of a lack of dignity at work to her experiences of the ‘back to work’ interview with her line manager which she describes as

326

14 Quality of Working Life, Leadership, and Well-Being …

unsupportive and confrontational and also noted the lack of following things through and mistrust of her line manager. This manager shares her experience. She states: I was off sick for three and a half weeks as I dislocated my shoulder …I have never been off sick before and when I came back to work I was given one of these back to work interviews which made me feel that I made up being ill…I didn’t feel supported, it felt like I was being quizzed, it certainly did not feel like “how can we make things comfortable for you or what could be done for you?” …there was a tiny bit of that and there was some reference to physiotherapy but after that meeting I never heard another word, my manager told me that I was referred for physiotherapy and just like everything else it was never done, never ever done…and it made me feel cynical. (Manager, Female, Age, 50–59 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

Another manager’s experience of incivility at work and psychological violence was associated with his knowledge of the existence of poor relationships with his line manager and his manager. Managerial respondents held the view that respecting people at work, anti-bullying, and violence, and fostering dignity and civility will promote their well-being at work. One manager explains: “My boss who had this awful relationship with his line manager and it affected him all day every day, he was taking it home with him and I’m sure it must have been awful”. (Manager, Male, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

14.5.2.5

Impartiality and Fairness at Work

Some managerial respondents held the view that there was a lack of gender equality as it relates to the access to flexible working arrangements as it relates to home working. Some male managers felt that they experience unfair treatment when they applied to work from home based on their gender. This practice was perceived as bullying and unfair. Managers reveal that line managers being impartial and fair as it relates to work-life-balance practices will improve their stress, mental health, well-being, and performance. One employee shares his experience. He commented: My manager had the biggest resistance to a lot of these changes…he did not feel they were appropriate for everybody and it was seen as a perception that people weren’t working….there was this fear that people working at home wouldn’t be working…they’re other managers in the section which were totally against the principles….my manager eventually embraced it but it wasn’t an altruistic act as he wanted to do home working as his circumstances changed where he became a career and he could see the benefits for himself….I had a big gripe about the sexist thing and I think that sexism should apply both ways…I have had comments from management saying “well, looking after kids, can’t your wife do that?” …”this is not fair on us as an employer because your wife should be staying at home and looking after kids” …I went to HR and made an issue and things were resolved eventually. (Manager, Male, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

Another manager’s account of unfair treatment was highlighted as she described her experience after taking out a grievance against her line manager. She likened the experience of not receiving an apology from her line manager and the strained relationship that now exists between herself and her line manager. This manager

14.5 Line Management Leadership and Well-Being

327

reveals that better relationship and fairness at work from her line manager would promote her well-being. She said: I took out a grievance against my manager as I thought that I was unfairly treated because I brought various issues up at a supervision meeting and I think I was then treated unfairly and I put in a formal complaint about it…my managers manager addressed the complaint and the judgement came that I won the grievance and was sent a formal letter giving the verdict stating that ‘she has now apologised’ except that she never apologised to me, she apologised to her manager but it was I who was aggrieved…I never received an apology…she was asked to develop an action plan to address some issues and it must be 6 months since the verdict and nothing has been done….I think I made my point but it has brought up all wariness in the relationship. (Manager, Female, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, 6–10 years)

Another manager related unfair treatment to being denied access to training courses and career development opportunities by his line manager. Managerial respondents reveal that fair treatment and access to opportunities by their line manager would enhance and promote their well-being at work. One manager shares: To be unfairly denied courses that would have been perfectly suitable, despite the fact that all this talk about what sort of training and career development needs and so on they all get documented, but nothing happens about them anyway…I was asking to do this course and I was blocked and I do feel there is a blocking and I feel there is a way in which, there is a lot of fear about staff and junior managers becoming more competent than the senior managers”. (Manager, Male, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

In contrast, non-managerial employees related unfair treatment to rewards and pay scales compared to their counterparts in other Councils. Employees would like their line managers to improve their well-being at work through pay and reward increases. One employee stated: The pay scales are lower in the Council as compared to other authorities it is as if there is a glass ceiling on pay scales…I am not happy about my pay”. (Employee, Female, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

Other employees related unfair treatment to the lack of equal opportunities and access to flexible working arrangements for all employees regardless of their work– family circumstances. Employees would like their line manager to be impartial, compassionate, and people-focused in decisions that relates to flexible working arrangements. One employee commented: Flexible working is definitely skewed to people with families and those that are single or divorced like myself you don’t feel like the opportunities are quite the same. (Employee, Male, Age 50–59 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

The above discussion regarding impartiality and fairness at work was revealed by both managerial and non-managerial employees as a key factor that they declared that they would like their line manager to improve, which would consequently enhance their mental health, workplace stress, well-being, and performance. The findings reveal that these two groups of employees have experiences of disrespectful social interactions with their line managers that hindered their dignity at work and perception of fair treatment. Fairness is underpinned in the organisational justice literature

328

14 Quality of Working Life, Leadership, and Well-Being …

that relates to the quality of social interaction at work and focuses on perceptions of fairness in organisations that can affect individuals’ psychological, physical, and social welfare (Cropanzano 1993; Greenberg 1987). This section explains the views and feelings of respondents about their own treatment and that of others within the local government environment reviewing the extent to which respondents were treated fairly. The review of company documents discloses that the Council views employees as valuable assets and professed that policies have been implemented (i.e. dignity at work) to ensure the promotion of a fair and conducive environment to promote employees’ mental and physical health. In contrast, the working life realities of both employee groups were the opposite of what was espoused by the Council leadership and written in policy documents. The research shows that these public sector employees were exposed to a pattern of incivility at work; psychological violence such as threats, blaming, and intimidation; deliberating withholding access to training and career development; the lack of equal opportunities; unfair pay and reward practices; poor relationships between employees and their line manager; victimisation; and bullying and harassment. Fineman (2007) argues that psychological violence begets violent emotions such as rage, anger, revenge, and betrayal, inevitably trades on fear, and is intimately connected with the subjective meaning of the event to the victim. Fineman further points out that organisational violence is embedded in the values of the organisation and is translated into practices that systematically cause danger, risk, or exploitation to employees. From a government perspective, ‘fairness at work’ legislation was promoted by the New Labour Government’s 1998 White Paper that focused on unfair dismissal, the rights of the trade union, grievance and disciplinary, and extending family-friendly policies. Proposals for employment legislation were intended to form employment relation settlement (CIPD 1998; Lourie 1998). The White Paper points out that employment security, guarding against the exploitation of vulnerable individuals by introducing safeguards through employment tribunals, is geared towards assisting with the building of effective partnership relationships between employers and employees in the progress towards better healthier workplace relations. This ‘best practice’ ‘fairness at work’ ideology was embraced by the local government organisation (i.e. the Council) through the implementation of policy documents (i.e. job security, recruitment and selection, internal recruitment, learning and development, team working, work-life balance, rewards, dignity at work to name a few). Furthermore, ‘fairness at work’ ideology was also declared by senior leadership of the Council, who claimed that fairness assisted with partnership working and the Council’s leadership expressed their commitment to adhere to these best practice principles. The findings demonstration disparities in the Council’s espousal of high commitment HRM ‘best practices’ and ‘fairness at work’ ideology compared to the working life realities of both managerial and non-managerial employees. In particular, the results show that managerial employees were experiencing more incivility at work and psychological violence compared to the non-managerial employees. However, the findings reveal that there was a prevalence of mistreatment, incivility, disrespect, psychological violence, and bullying and harassment occurring between the social interactions between line managers and the employees that reports to them.

14.5 Line Management Leadership and Well-Being

329

In support, the WERS’s 2004 survey revealed self-reported claims of employee experiencing bullying at work, poor relationships with line managers, unfair treatment, pay conditions, and annual leave in the public sector compared to their private sector counterparts (Kersley et al. 2006). The WERS 2004 research went on to disclose that these ‘uncivil, unfair, and mistreatment’ practices were all higher in the North West of England compared to the national standard (Forth and Stokes 2006; Kersley et al. 2006). For bullying and harassment, the CIPD (2008, 2009) reports highlight that the proportion of people experiencing bullying and harassment in the workplace is higher for the public sector compared with the private sector or voluntary sector counterparts. Public sector staff are also more likely to experience violence or to have been threatened with violence, and women are marginally more likely than men to say they are experiencing bullying (CIPD 2007, 2009). The effects of bullying behaviour have significant impact at the individual, team, and organisational levels (Cooper and Marshall 1976; Hoel et al. 2001). CIPD (2004) estimates that bullying costs UK employers £80 million lost working days annually and up to £2 billion lost revenue via sickness absence, turnover, reduced productivity, formal and legal investigations, damage to employer branding, disturbance to working relationships, lower morale, and commitment (CIPD 2009). For individuals, the cost can be even higher, with lasting psychological, mental health and physical damage (CIPD 2007). The above managerial and non-managerial accounts of psychological violence can negatively affect the psychological contract of respondents as well as the perception of being supported, justice perceptions, and well-being at work. The perception of psychological contract breach can negatively affect the psychological, physical, mental health, intellectual, career, work–life, and social well-being of employees which in turn has implications for commitment, absenteeism, presenteeism, leaveism, turnover, and citizenship behaviour.

14.5.2.6

Effective Communication and Involvement

One manager equates her experiences of downward communication and dissemination of information ineffective. Claims of status differentials and a lack of appreciation were highlighted. One manager shares her experience. She states: There needs to be better communication with staff from above that needs to be filtered down better…when they have these corporate meetings, these thinking outside the box and samples of staff attend these meetings, and it’s the division that causes problems…but when staff know that they are appreciated you will get the best from them…they need to communicate better with staff and improve things. (Manager, Female, Age 50–59 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

Another manager echoes the above view and suggests that improvements are required with upward communication, employee voice, participation, and involvement in decision making. He also related that these practices are important to his well-being at work and that of others throughout the organisation. He comments: I will like to see improvements in upward communication because it’s linked to creating an environment that staff will be able to say what they want to say…to come up with even

330

14 Quality of Working Life, Leadership, and Well-Being …

wacky ideas without thinking “I would not be disciplined for wacky ideas” …this can create job satisfaction and therefore will improve people well-being. (Manager, Male, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

Another manager discussed her experiences with her line manager with respect to ineffective communication and the lack of involvement, team working, and coaching and mentoring to facilitate professional development. She said: My manager doesn’t harness all the energy or initiatives of her team…she could communicate more effectively and try to encourage a bit more team working or involving us more so we can improve”. (Manager, Female, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, 21–25 years)

Non-managerial employees also shared the view the communication, involvement, and employee voice are integral to their feeling of appreciation and well-being at work. One employee commented: It is important to communication with staff and involve people, front line staff in decision making much earlier in the process, just asking for your views, if you bring in this policy – how this and this affects you… (Employees, Female, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, 16–20 years)

Other employees claim that communicating and listening to people will motivate the staff teams and facilitate engagement and well-being among employees. One employee shares her perspective regarding the importance of communication towards the promotion of her well-being at work. She states: I think communicating with people and listening to people is very important…finding ways which can benefit the staff team by asking the staff team what they want will go a long way towards staff morale. (Employee, Male, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, 11–15 years)

Another employee highlighted the importance of receiving clear instructions through effective communication, which will create a positive respectful atmosphere, empower individuals, and facilitate knowledge transfer and career opportunities. One employee shares her views about improvement in communication to enhance her well-being at work. She shares: …working as part of a team is also important and receiving clear instructions with development needs being addressed…similarly effective communication, encouragement, creating a nice atmosphere to work, to be respected and feeling like an individual is empowering…knowledge transfer and career development are also quite important as well. (Employee, Female, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

In the local government case organisation (i.e. the Council), leadership claims that they endeavour to become a ‘best practice’ employer and introduced a ‘Communication Strategy’ which the Council espoused was established to maintain clear, efficient, and regular two-way channels of communication with internal and external audiences, to encourage an environment of trust and loyalty in which work is supported. The findings reveal disparities existing with respect to what the Council espoused and the working life realities and experiences of respondents. The findings expose that both employee groups experience challenges with effective downward and upward communication with their line managers and the organisation as a whole.

14.5 Line Management Leadership and Well-Being

331

This pattern of ineffective communication and the lack of involvement, employees viewed these practices as bullying and unfairness at work. They also claimed that these practices promoted status differentials and the lack of appreciation, stifle employee voice, do not facilitate their line manager listening to their views, hinder clear instructions, do not create a positive atmosphere of trust and respect, and do not allow for effective team working, coaching, and mentoring or knowledge transfer that will facilitate professional development. Dietz et al. (2009) state that employee involvement/participation and employee voice are a group process, involving groups of employees and their bosses, a process by which the individual employee is given greater freedom to make decisions on his/her own. In support, Marchington and Wilkinson (2005) suggest that participation can be differentiated into direct communication, upward problem solving, or representative participation. Moorman (1991) states that effective leadership is integral to organisational effectiveness, creating positive organisational cultures, strengthening motivation, clarifying mission and organisational objectives, and steering organisations to more productive and highperforming outcomes. At the heart of this, Atkinson (2007) and Reichers et al. (1997) indicate that a great place to work requires effective communication, trust, and mutual respect between senior executives and their employees and value-driven leadership performance with purpose.

14.5.2.7

Transparency and Trustworthiness

Some managers pointed out that there is a lack of trust and openness with their line manager that hinders transparency, confidence, and openness which they believe are integral towards the promotion of their well-being at work. One manager’s comments echo these points. He shares: I don’t think you can be totally open with management because they’re not open with you back…they may try to put a bit of spin on things and almost pretend to be open but, you know, deep down they’re doing deals…and there’s things going on behind the scenes”. If we can come to a place of honesty and openness, this will go a long way. (Manager, Male, Age 40–49 years, Tenure 16–20 years)

14.5.2.8

Decisiveness—Take Action

Another manager associated communication and leadership to his line manager’s ability to solve problems at work relating it to ‘talking to a family member’ that does not result in a resolution. He commented: It’s very difficult sometimes to get a slot and be able to pin him down but he does try and make an effort and understand but I never feel that it gets any resolution…it’s like talking to a family member about a problem instead of talking to your line manager and asking him for help and assistance…it’s just talk, you don’t feel as though it’s going to resolve anything”. (Manager, Male, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, 6–10 years)

332

14.5.2.9

14 Quality of Working Life, Leadership, and Well-Being …

Attentive, Considerate, and Responsive

Non-managerial respondents claim that their line manager is aware of what they require to improve their working life realities but chooses to ignore feedback received from staff so that changes can be made to improve employees work-life experiences and well-being at work. Employees view this practice as disrespectful and unfair to individuals and the work team. Employees reveal that if their line manager is attentive, considerate, and responsive to their needs and demonstrates fair treatment to everyone this will reduce employees’ stress levels and improve their mental health at work, commitment, motivation, and well-being at work. One employee shares her experience that highlights these themes: Yes, my manager is aware of the things that would be really helpful to change and the things that would make my experience of the job so much better…he knows all that so I don’t think that he treats me fairly. Because he can’t claim that he is not aware of those facts and still he chooses not to do anything about it. We are a very small team for him to manage, so I find that very annoying. I think to myself that if you have a team of thirty, fair enough, it’s quite difficult to respond to the needs of your team, but when you have a team of three, it can’t be that difficult. (Employee, Male, Aged 30–39 years, Tenure 6–11 years)

14.5.2.10

Support with Opportunities for Career Advancement

Some employees held the view that their line managers deliberately withheld training and career advancement opportunities relevant to their job from them. Employees also claim that their line managers were not transparent with the sharing of information that can support and empower them in their jobs. Employees view these practices and social interaction as bullying, uncivil, mistreatment, and unfairness, which results in the development of a lack of trust between employees and their line managers. Employees claim that being supported with opportunities for career advancement and transparency and sharing of information will improve their well-being at work. One employee says: I don’t trust my manager as she does not do anything for me at all. She doesn’t even identify training courses that she thinks might be interesting to me or conferences. She held legal framework’s changes in key areas of my portfolio and all that stuff to do with human rights. Now, she knows that’s important, and it’s important for me to know about it as well as her. But she puts herself on a conference some time ago and never bothered to tell me anything about it and when I finally said ‘have you heard anything about any training around here in this area?’ she sent me something that she clearly responded to back in October last year…and this is recently and you just think ‘you sat on information that would be useful and empowering to me and is that because you’re forgetful or is that because you did it on purpose? I am undecided as to whether it is because she is forgetful or she does it on purpose. I’d like to think it’s because she is forgetful. (Employee, Female, Aged 30–39 years, Tenure 6–11 years)

14.5 Line Management Leadership and Well-Being

14.5.2.11

333

Building Relationships and Narrowing Priorities

Employees’ perspective about their line manager’s interaction in the workplace highlighted themes such as the reluctance to build relationships or use of conflict management skills to deescalate and resolve issues, engaging people, respecting the views of others, and embracing diversity and equality, people-focused approach, team working, and change management. One employee shares: My manager scrolls himself away, he’s not very assertive but he can be when he is fighting his corner about his stuff. I think he’s always felt very beleaguered, him against the world. I think he created quite a lot of problems for himself by being very much stuck on ‘this is legislation, you will be sued, these are the facts, rah, rah, rah’. This approach really antagonised a lot of people so I don’t know if he’s then been very good in terms of how you work around those problems, and change management as well in the public sector is a difficult skill I think. So he tends to back away from issues where he’s had confrontation which I think is interesting. He does not get along with the marketing department for e.g. but that’s so important in terms of diversity and equality, in terms of engaging people in the organisation, and he is reluctant to build these relationships with them. He doesn’t have much to do with the rest of the team…he is just a private bloke and very much a family guy and comes into work, does his job, overworks at home and is on emails at 9 O’clock at night…he is just into his job and into his family. (Employee, Female, Aged 40–49 years, Tenure 15–20 years)

Some managers held the view that the relationships with stakeholders require improvement as these social interactions with stakeholders have negatively affected managers and the entire organisation and contributed to their heightened stress levels and negative well-being. Clarity about what is important and narrowing priorities are also integral towards the promotion of managers’ well-being at work. One manager shares his experience. He explains: Improve the relationship with some of our stakeholders because some of our stakeholders the very few of them are having a disproportionate impact on me and the rest of the organisation…we need a bit more clarity about our priorities and need to narrow down our priorities rather than wanting to do everything. (Manager, Male, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

The above findings in this section outline managerial and non-managerial employees’ perspectives regarding how responsive their line managers are to promote their well-being at work, as well as respondents claim regarding what their line managers can do to improve their well-being at work. The findings contribute to the body of knowledge as it relates to the ‘employee-focused HRM’ literature as well as well-being at the work literature that focuses on public sector employees’ voice, evaluation of HRM, quality of working life, and well-being at work. These areas afforded little space in the literature, and the results of this study and the main research outlined in this book have contributed to the gap in these areas. Table 14.1 outlines the workers’ voice regarding their line managers’ responsiveness to promote their well-being at work, as well as their perspectives regarding improvements that their line managers can make to promote their well-being.

334

14 Quality of Working Life, Leadership, and Well-Being …

14.6 Discussion Table 14.1 reveals employees’ voice as it relates to the psychological contract, social interactions, and justice perceptions within the employment relationship. Employees claim that if these factors are implemented, it will change the organisational culture and working life experiences in this local government organisation Table 14.1 Workers’ voice: line manager’s responsiveness and improvements to promote wellbeing at work Workers’ voice: line manager responsiveness to promote employee well-being

Workers’ voice: improvement in line manager leadership to promote employee well-being

Supportive with work responsibilities Trust employees’ competencies Positive feedback Appreciation Respect Attentive and considerate Assistance and support with heavy workload Directs work projects Knowledge transfer Exchange and sharing of information Learning from each other Brainstorming Professional development Trust employees’ capabilities Trust employees’ abilities and proficiencies Provide feedback Praise and recognition

People-focused approach Leadership styles Team management Trust employees’ competencies Delegation Dignity and civility at work Anti-blame culture Anti-fear and control Anti-psychological violence Anti-bullying and harassment Respect Employee engagement Supported Fairness at work Impartiality and fairness at work Gender equality Fair treatment Anti-bullying and harassment Grievance and disciplinary management Respectful relationships Equal opportunities Career advancement opportunities Fair treatment for pay and rewards People-focused Compassionate Empowerment and autonomy Fostering creativity and innovation Professional development Use own initiative Trust employees’ competencies Build relationships Effective communication and involvement Upward and downward communication Removal of status differentials Harmonisation Appreciation Employee voice Involvement and participation Listening to employees (continued)

14.6 Discussion

335

Table 14.1 (continued) Workers’ voice: line manager responsiveness to promote employee well-being

Workers’ voice: improvement in line manager leadership to promote employee well-being Team working Coaching and mentoring Giving clear instructions Knowledge transfer Career opportunities Empathetic and compassionate People-focused Satisfaction Motivation Care about people Transparency and trustworthiness Trust and openness Decisiveness—take action Problem solving Attentive, considerate, and responsive Listen to feedback received Respect Appreciation Proving support Opportunities for career advancement Open access to training and development Transparency Information sharing Trust Building relationships and narrowing priorities Building positive relationships Conflict management skills Employee engagement Respecting the views of others Embracing diversity and equality People-focused approach Team working Effective change management Clear instructions Narrowing priorities

and other employees in similar related organisations alike. Employees further argue that once these factors are operationalised and positive behaviours and practices are realised, it will come into alignment with the government White Paper for fairness at work and the legislative and adopted ‘best practice’ HRM policy documents. At present, there is a huge disparity between what the local government organisation declares and the quality of working life of employees. The findings reveal that key themes such as people-focused approach to leadership, fairness at work, civility at

336

14 Quality of Working Life, Leadership, and Well-Being …

work, effective communication and involvement, trust, building relationships to mention a few are integral enhancing the quality of working life, stress reduction, mental health, and well-being of public sector workers. Against this backdrop, the findings revealed that despite the espousal of the adoption of ‘best practice’ high-commitment HRM practices and wellness management aimed at promoting a committed, healthy, and happy workforce, the majority of the sampled respondents that took part in the main research were not happy. Rather, they indicated challenges and tensions experienced by managerial and non-managerial employees operating in an environment with budget limitations, job insecurity, continuous organisational changes, heavy workloads and work pressures, the existence of mistrust and a lack of team working, and challenges with their line manager’s leadership practices. These all have implications for increasing levels of work-related stress, which in turn are likely to affect employee mental health, sickness absence, presenteeism, leaveism, job satisfaction, morale, and well-being. The above working life experiences of respondents can be viewed as oppressive as a result of organisational practices. These can cause employees to feel unfairly treated and oppressed and are associated with a bullying environment. It is important to note here that the apparent challenges and complexities that exist within this work context can stem from the history and ethos of the public sector that has developed over a long time, resulting in behaviours associated with institutionalised bullying. The complexities and challenges of producing more with less are likely to affect the actions of senior management whose responsibility would be to ensure the successes of the modernisation agenda in keeping with proposals commissioned by central government. This in turn is likely to affect senior management actions and decision making in the process of organisational functioning; resulting in practices that can cause employees to feel victimised while in pursuit of organisational objectives. This view is echoed by Bozeman (1993) who states that public sector organisations are viewed as bureaucratic with red tape, and is as a result of the emphasis on accountability to government, often having more red tape than private organisations (CIPD 2009). From a medical perspective, it can become dangerous to leave a wound untreated and as such the organisation can adopt this principle in terms of ensuring that their key resources (i.e. employees) are not exposed to circumstances and situations that may result in psychological and physical harm. Moreover, the survival strategy depicted by employees’ explanation of their working life realities, the lack of trust, bullying and unfair treatment, and line manager social interactions affecting their well-being at work are all clustered into the multidimensional well-being model which goes beyond ‘satisfaction, contentment, fulfilment, and anxiety’ ideologies but instead includes a holistic approach to an individual’s life at work and includes factors that affect the individual, groups, and the organisation that are all geared towards the positive psychological contract within the employment relationship that enhances work experiences and organisational functioning. To this end, more than four decades have passed from Terkel’s 1977 depiction of work, but work appears to hold the same challenging experiences for individuals. The findings from managerial and non-managerial perspectives introduce an alternative

14.6 Discussion

337

conceptualisation of how the quality of working life and well-being should be as perceived by employees. This is illustrated by an integrated model (Fig. 14.1) that can be used by policymakers, management, and practitioners to minimise or eliminate destabilising experiences like bullying, incivility, psychological violence, and unfair treatment at work. Thus, the notion of ‘well-being at work’ can allow individuals and organisations to unlock the mysteries of individuals, groups, and organisational health and potential in the pursuit of happiness of local government public sector employees in the North West of England. Employees’ reactions were used to develop an integrated model illustrating the nature of relationship that exists between HRM practices, social exchange, the quality of working life, and well-being as perceived by employees in the NPM environment in the North West of England. In the last twenty years, the message of being happy has become a complex collection of theories around the quest to help people find enduring joy (Ulrich 2010). Thus, the quest for personal happiness, fulfilment, peace, and a sense of purpose is ever more important in an increasingly hectic world that places increasing emotional demands on people. More particularly, the emotional demands of employees in the public sector are likely to be numerous given the complexities and challenges faced by those employees who spend a large percentage of their time at work. Ulrich (2010) further argues that too many organisations have failed to help people find happiness in work settings because leaders have not appreciated that employee well-being relates to organisation success and have not fully understood the ways that they can shape organisation setting for individual well-being (Burke and Cooper 2008). Even further, leaders in the public sector may not view employee well-being as an integral ‘vehicle’ that can be used for enhancing service delivery and efficiency savings but may view employee well-being from a narrow perspective of predominant physical health instead of the holistic approach to employee well-being within the organisation that covers the individual, groups, and the organisation as a whole. Wellness management programmes were claimed to be adopted by the local government organisation to promote the well-being of employees as well as an accolade that can be used for employer branding and corporate social responsibility initiatives. Thus, it is likely that the ideology of well-being at work can be re-prioritised for what may be perceived as more important, for example, expenditure reduction. To this end, the findings from this study seek to contribute towards the debate in this area by introducing an integrated model that explains employees’ perspectives on HRM practices, working life realities, and well-being at work that should be in the employment relationship. Employees perceive that these factors can act as enablers and/or barriers to their happiness, fulfilment, well-being, and productivity at work. The integrated model is shown in Fig. 14.1. The search for happiness and well-being in local government is depicted by respondents in the above model which reveals ‘what lies beneath the melting ice’ of employees’ perspectives and reactions to HRM practices, the quality of working life, and well-being at work in the public sector. This is highlighted by working life realities, the meaning of well-being, line management leadership, enablers, and barriers. Social exchanges and fairness at work are key principles of the psychological

-Trust -Support -Respect / Civility -Voice - Resilience - Dignity

Social Exchange Factors

FAIRNESS AT WORK

-People-Focused Approach -Supportive -Dignity & Civility at Work -Positive Feedback -Appreciation -Trust -Openness and Honesty -Communication and Involvement - Listen to Employees -Decisiveness -Empathy & Compassionate - Autonomy & Empower -Attentive and Considerate -Career Advancement -Coaching and Mentoring -Positive Relationships -Respectful -Team Management

Line Manager Leadership

Multidimensional Well-being in the Workplace

-Bullying and Harassment -Dignity/Civility at work -Fair Treatment -Employee Voice -Sickness Absence Monitoring -Stress Management -Team Working -Equal Opportunity -Honesty and Openness -Trust -Internal Recruitment -Career Management -Succession Planning -Reward Strategies -Psychological Violence -Good Relationships

Enablers/ Barriers

-Commitment and Engagement -Motivation and Effort -Individual Empowerment and productivity -Citizenship Behaviour - Mental Health & Satisfaction

Individual Outcomes

-Performance Improvement -Increased Efficiency -Enhance Service Delivery -Reduce Sickness Absence -Reduce Presenteeism and Leaveism -Customer Satisfaction/Wellbeing -Improve Retention of Staff -Attractive to Recruits -Community Well-being

Organisational Outcomes

Fig. 14.1 Integrated model of HRM, social exchange and well-being at work in local government: an employee’s perspectives

Meanings of Well-being -Anti-bullying environment -Equal Opportunities -Happiness and Contentment -Praise and Recognition -Employee Voice -Mental and Physical Health -Job Design -Coaching and Mentoring -Creativity and Innovation -Reward Strategies -Career Advancement -A Sense of Purpose and Fulfilment -Communication -Involvement and Participation -Relationships with stakeholders -Clarifying and narrowing priorities -Work-Life-Balance -Better work accommodation

-Modernisation -Expenditure Reduction -Efficiency Savings -Changing Structures -Limited Resources -Redundancy -Heavy Workloads and Pressure -Increase Work Stress -Wellness Management -Team Working -‘Them and Us’ and ‘Blame’ culture -Honesty and Openness -Trust -Controlled Work Environment -Bureaucracy

Working Life Realities

338 14 Quality of Working Life, Leadership, and Well-Being …

14.6 Discussion

339

contract that are necessary for a positive employment relationship and consequently employee well-being at work. All factors are antecedents to the multidimensionality of well-being at work. Therefore, once well-being at work is promoted, it is likely to have implications for individual and organisational outcomes. Working Life Realities—The findings reveal factors that are part of the daily working life realities of respondents in this local government organisation. This brings out the uniqueness and complexity of the working environment. Central themes of changing structures, limited resources, redundancy, heavy workloads and pressures, wellness management, team working, ‘Them and Us’, ‘Blame’ culture, tensions between teams, honesty and openness, trust, controlled environment and bureaucracy forms part of the day-to-day life and functioning. These can all have implications for the psychological contract, justice perceptions, and well-being at work. The Meaning of Well-Being—It reviews respondents’ perspective and meanings associated with the multidimensional well-being at work that forms part of the employment relationship. These include anti-bullying environment, equal opportunities, happiness and contentment, praise and recognition, employee voice, mental and physical health, job design, coaching and mentoring, creativity and innovation, reward strategies, career advancement, a sense of purpose and fulfilment, communication, involvement and participation, relationships with stakeholders, clarifying and narrowing priorities, and better work accommodation. These perspectives relate to what employees expectations are of the psychological contract between themselves and their employer. If employees perceive that these expectations are not met, this can result in the psychological contract breach or violation that can have negative implications for individual, group, and organisational well-being. Contract breach can also influence individual and organisational outcomes. Line Management Leadership—It shows the social interactions that should exist between employees and their line managers to promote employee well-being at work in the local government organisation in North West England. The research findings that relate to line management leadership and well-being reveal that employees’ quality of work-life was plagued with psychological violence, the existence of a blaming and controlled culture, a lack of trust between managers and employees, and a lack of transparency. The findings also reveal that, ineffective communication and change management processes, bullying and harassment, incivility and unfairness at work, poor relationships, a lack of appreciation, and other uncivil and undignified behaviours framed the quality of working experiences of employees, who evidently were like the ‘walking wounded’ as proclaimed by Terkel’s 1977 depiction of work, which in reality still exists for these public sector employees. These experiences of being subjected to constant pressure, heavy workloads, increased stress and lack of control over decisions and outcomes rendered these employees powerless to the functioning of the local government organisation that is working towards efficiency savings based on the UK Public Sector Modernisation agenda that focused on cost minimisation and enhanced service delivery. The promotion of the ‘best practice’ HRM philosophy and well-being ideology adopted by the private sector in the public sector makes for a challenging transition and implementation given governmental, political, and limited funding agendas.

340

14 Quality of Working Life, Leadership, and Well-Being …

Enablers and Barriers—The findings reveal fourteen categories that are enablers and/or barriers to fairness at work, people-focused approaches, and civility at work, which are antecedents to well-being at work. Each factor if explored from negative and positive experiences at work can have implications for the psychological contract, justice perceptions, leader–member exchange, perceived support, and well-being at work. Social Exchange—It is the mediating factor that drives the employment relationship. Employees who perceive that their employer supports and trusts them to do the job, shows respect, and treats them fairly are more likely to reciprocate with positive attitudes and behaviours in terms of commitment, engagement, motivation, effort, satisfaction, and citizenship behaviour. This in turn affects organisational outcomes in the form of employee engagement, enhanced performance, increased efficiency, enhanced service delivery, reduction in sickness absence, retention, customer satisfaction, and community well-being (MacLeod and Clarke 2009). While these findings concern the employment experiences of local government managerial and non-managerial employees, a moderate generalisation can be made for managers and employees more broadly (Williams 2002: 211). The findings also point to the need for a balance between ideals of ‘well-being at work’ and human needs (Fineman 2006). In conclusion, it can be argued that these managers and employees and perhaps more generally managers and employees in similar contexts have some way to go before they self-actualise and are fulfilled in their well-being at work. It will take a further step towards the strategic focus of a more ‘peoplefocused’ ideology and leadership approach to eliminate incivility in the workplace, bullying and harassment, antitrust, unfairness, and Blame and controlled culture that exists in this local authority to usher in a climate of ‘respect’, ‘trust’, ‘civility’, ‘resilience’, and ‘fairness’. These are viewed by the respondents as essential themes that management can embrace to enhance the quality of their working life and wellbeing at work at this local government organisation in the North West of England. The complexities and daily challenges faced by managers and employees in this local authority may be comparable to those of contemporary professionals at work. An understanding of the organisational practices that are required to promote employee ‘happiness and well-being’ in local government can be the ‘dawning of a new day’ in terms of meaning that can contribute to bringing an end to the ‘bullying unfair and disrespectful environment’ by navigating to the beginning of the way forward. However, the Utopian state of ‘employee well-being at work’ is likely to remain a subjective phenomenon in the pursuit of happiness for the foreseeable future.

14.7 Summary and Conclusion This chapter evaluated the empirical findings from the main research outlined in this book as it relates to the quality of working life experiences of managerial and nonmanagerial employees of a local government organisation in North West England. Key themes emerged from this research that reveal the challenges faced by these two employee groups were in keeping with the UK’s government modernisation agenda

14.7 Summary and Conclusion

341

of cost minimisation and enhance service delivery. The meaning of the job as declared by both employee groups related identity-work-life integration, which denotes that employees saw their job as part of their being which flows into other parts of their life. Managerial and non-managerial employees highlighted factors, behaviours, and social interactions with their line manager that promoted and hindered their wellbeing at work. Employees pointed out areas that can be improved by their line managers to enhance their quality of working life, well-being, mental health, and performance at work. The findings revealed key principles that relate to ‘what lies beneath the melting ice’ of employees’ reactions to HRM practices, the quality of working life, line management leadership, and consequently well-being at work. The research contributes to the employee-focused literature as it relates to employees’ reactions to HRM practices, quality of working life, line management leadership, and well-being at work. This research also contributes to the well-being literature by producing a multidimensional well-being model that is practical for the expansion of the wellbeing theory from an HRM perspective. The study also contributes to the bullying at the work literature by highlighting managerial and employees’ perspective on their experiences of bullying at work and its implications for their well-being. The study also contributes to the social exchange literature by highlighting managerial and non-managerial employees’ view of the psychological contract, fairness perceptions, and well-being at work. The study contributes to the NPM literature as it relates to employee well-being. It also extends the employment relation literature as it relates to employee relations and well-being in North West of England. Finally, the study demonstrates that the use of an alternative methodological conceptualisation allowed the researcher to delve beneath and uncovers an in-depth understanding of the meanings of employees’ perspectives of work, the quality of their working life, line management leadership, and well-being in local government in North West of England. Theoretically, the research expanded the debates in the NPM, HRM, well-being, social exchange, and employee relation literatures. Methodologically, the research expanded the debate through the use of an alternative conceptualisation (i.e. interpretative mixed-method approach). The research also developed a new multidimensional well-being conceptualisation that can be used to expand the well-being literature and research from an HRM perspective. Moreover, the research also developed a model depicting employees’ perspectives of how their working life relationship and well-being should be. This can be used for the development of theory and practice. Practical implications for policymakers, management, practitioners, and employees were discussed along with research limitations and thoughts on what could be done differently.

342

14 Quality of Working Life, Leadership, and Well-Being …

References Atkinson, C. (2007). Trust and the psychological contract. Employee Relations, 29(3), 227–246. Baptiste, N. R. (2007). Line management leadership: Implications for employee well-being. In G. P. Clarkson (Eds.), Developing leadership research, papers from the Northern Leadership Academy Fellow 2007 conference (pp. 229–238), Leeds University Business School, Leeds University Press Financial Services, Leeds. Bolton, S., & Houlihan, M. (Eds.), (2007). Searching for the human in human resource management: Theory, practice and workplace contexts. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Bozeman, B. (1993). A theory of government “Red Tape.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Policy, 3, 273–303. Burke, R. J., & Cooper, C. L. (2008). Building more effective organisations: HR management and performance in practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cartwright, S., & Cooper, C. L. (2009). The Oxford handbook of organisational wellbeing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. CIPD. (1998). IPD welcomes thrust of ‘Fairness at Work’ white paper, but warns that statutory union recognition could backfire. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel Development. CIPD. (2004). Bullying at Work—employers get the policy right, but run the risk of leaving the root causes unchallenged. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. CIPD. (2007). Tackling bullying at work: A good-practice framework. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel Development. CIPD. (2008). Bully at work and the 2007 code of practice. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel Development. CIPD. (2009). Harassment and bullying at work. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. CIPD. (2010). CIPD, IIP and HSE join forces to issue management guidance to help employers tackle increasing levels of stress at work as recession bites. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Clarke, S. C. (2001). Work cultures and work/family balance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 58(3), 348–365. Cooper, C. L., & Marshall, J. (1976). Occupational sources of stress: A review of the literature relating to coronary heart disease and mental ill-health. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 49, 11–28. Cooper, C., & Robertson, I. (2001). Well-Being in Organisations: A Reader for Students and Practitioners. Chichester: Wiley. Cooper, C., Cartwright, S., & Robertson, S. (2005). Work, environments, stress and productivity: An examination using asset. International Journal of Stress Management, 12(4), 409–423. Cropanzano, R. (Eds.), (1993). Justice in the workplace: Approaching fairness in human resource management. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum. Daniels, G., & French, S. (2006). Regulating work-life balance. Centre for Industrial Relations: Keele University. Diener, E., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2008). Happiness: Unlocking the mysteries of psychological wealth. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. Dietz, G., Wilkinson, A., & Redman, T. (2009). Involvement and participation. In A. Wilkinson, N. Bacon, T. Redman, & S. Snell (Eds.), The Sage handbook of human resource management. London: Sage Publishers. Fineman, S. (2006). On being positive: Concerns and counterpoints. Academy of Management Review, 31(2), 270–291. Fineman, S. (2007). Understanding emotions at work. London: Sage Publishers. Forth, J., & Stokes, L. (2006). A regional perspective on employment relations: Tabulations from the 2004 workplace employment relations survey, Report to the Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Services (ACAS), Final Report September 8, 2006.

References

343

Freeney, M. K., & Stritch, J. (2017). Family-friendly policies and work life balance in the public sector. Review of Public Personnel Administration, September 27, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0734371X17733789. Fullerton, H. N. (1995). The 2005 labour force: Older and larger. Monthly Labor Review, 118(11), 29–44. Grant, A., Christianson, M., & Price, R. (2007). Happiness, health or relationships? Managerial practices and employee well-being tradeoffs. The Academy of Management, 21(3), 51–63. Greenberg, J. (1987). A taxonomy of organisational justice theories. Academy of Management Review, 12, 9–22. Guest, D., (2007). HRM and the worker: Towards a new psychological contract? In P. Boxall, J. Purcell, & P. Wright (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of human resource management (pp. 128–146). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hesketh, I., & Cooper, C. (2014). Leaveism at work. Occupational Medicine, 64(3), 146–147. Hesketh, I., Cooper, C. L., & Ivy, J. (2014). Leaveism and work-life integration: The thinning blue line? Policing Advance, 9(2), 1–12 from https://policing.oxfordjournals.org/ September 14, 2014. Hoel, H., Rayner, C., & Cooper, C. (2001). Workplace bullying. In C. L. Cooper & I. T. Robertson (Eds.), Wellbeing in organisations: A reader for students and practitioners (pp. 55–90). Chichester: Wiley. Kemske, F. (1988, January). HR (2008): A forecast based on our exclusive study. Workforce, 77, 46–60. Kersley, B., Alphin, C., Forth, J., Bryson, A., Bewley, H., Dix, G., & Oxenbridge, S. (2006). Inside the workplace: Findings from the 2004 workplace employment relations survey. London: Routledge. Lourie, J. (1998). ‘Fairness at work’, Business and transport section, house of commons library. Research Paper 98/99, House of Commons cm 3968. Macleod, D., & Clarke, N. (2009). Engaging for success: Enhancing performance through employee engagement. A Report to Government, Department for Business, Innovation and Skills. Marchington, M., & Wilkinson, A. (2005). Human resource management at work: People management and development. London: CIPD. Moorman, R. H. (1991). Relationship between organisational justice and organisational citizenship behaviours: Do fairness perceptions influence employee citizenship? Journal of Applied Psychology, 76(6), 845–855. Morphet, J. (2008). Modern local government. London: Sage Publications. Percy, S. (2018). Why leaders need to look after their employees financial well-being. https:// www.forbes.com/sites/sallypercy/2018/11/20/why-leaders-need-to-look-after-their-employeesfinancial-wellbeing/#311bc63b67d0 (accessed February 20, 2019). Reichers, A. E., Wanous, J. P., & Austin, J. T. (1997). Understanding and managing cynicism about organisational change. Academy of Management Executive, 11(1), 48–59. Robertson, I., & Cooper, C. (2011). Well-being. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Rousseau, D. M. (2003). Extending the psychology of the psychological contract: A reply to putting psychology back into psychological contracts. Journal of Management Inquiry, 12(3), 229–238. Sharkie, R. (2009). Trust in Leadership is vital for employee performance. Management Research News, 32(5), 491–498. Terkel, S. (1977). Working. Harmondsworth: Penguin Publishers. Ulrich, D. (2010). The abundant organisation. In P. Linley, S. Harrington, & N. Garcea (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology at work (pp xvii–xxi). Oxford: Oxford University Press Williams, M. (2002) ‘Generalisation in Interpretative Research’ in May, T. (Ed.), Qualitative Research in Action, London: Sage Publications. Wilson, F. (2010). Organisational Behaviour and Work: A Critical Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Chapter 15

Evaluation of Workplace Well-Being Research: Developing Healthy, Resilient and Sustainable Organisation—A Public Sector Case Study

Abstract Evaluating the well-being at work research that was conducted with managers and employees at the local government organisation of North West of England relates to Terkel (1977: 1) depiction of work, which is likened unto violence to the spirit and the body, about ulcers, accidents, shouting matches, fistfights, nervous breakdown as well as kicking the dog around; it is about daily humiliations for the walking wounded among the great many of us. A mixed-method approach was adopted which was predominantly qualitative, conducting 27 semi-structured interviews, observations, documentary analysis of company and government policy documents, and the analysis of a questionnaire survey. The findings reveal that these public sector workers were not privileged to embrace or accept well-being ideology as the cost minimisation government strategy expected employees to produce more with less. This resulted in increased stress levels, workloads, anxiety, mental ill-health, workplace absence, tensions between teams, mistreatment and incivility behaviours and attitudes at work. Managers and employees’ depiction of well-being at work centred around dignity and fairness at work.

15.1 Introduction Work is, by its very nature, is about violence – to the spirit as well as to the body. It is about ulcers as well as accidents, about shouting matches, as fistfights, about nervous breakdown as well as kicking the dog around. It is above all (or beneath all), about daily humiliations. To survive the day is triumph enough for the walking wounded among the great many of us. (Terkel 1977: 1)

The managerial and non-managerial employees’ depiction and evaluation of HRM practices, quality of working life, the meaning of the job, line management leadership, and well-being at work in local government in North West of England are precisely echoed by Studs Terkel’s depiction of work. Terkel argues that workers have been exposed to diverse psychological violent behaviours throughout the course of their work life that they were powerless to control, which in turn, affected their work-related stress levels, mental health and well-being at work. One can argue that employees in contemporary organisations and working life experiences would be © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 N. Cvenkel, Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health, Approaches to Global Sustainability, Markets, and Governance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3619-9_15

345

346

15 Evaluation of Workplace Well-Being Research: Developing Healthy …

different given policy and legislation developments, but regrettably today, certain factors have stayed the same. The search for appreciation, happiness, mental health, and well-being at work has been depicted by both managerial and non-managerial employees that participated in the main research outlined in this book who shared their experiences and evaluation of practices and social interactions. This chapter provides an evaluation of well-being at work research as explained by public sector managers and employees. It provides a greater insight and reveals the key themes that expose ‘what lies beneath the melting ice’ of employees’ experiences of the psychological contract and employment relationship, as it relates to well-being at work. The theoretical and methodological developments of the well-being research space are discussed. The practicalities of the research outlined in this book for policymakers and management are presented along with research limitations, future research and the way forward for employee well-being at work. The chapter concludes with a summary of the key issues outlined.

15.2 Evaluation and Meaning of the Results A first key aim of the main research was first to investigate whether employee wellbeing ideology can be successfully promoted and maintained in an NPM environment given continuous proposals for reformation. The second aim was to explore how employees within a NPM environment perceive and react to HRM practices, working life, and consequently well-being at work. The research findings answered the research objectives as depicted by Terkel’s (1977) description of “Work is, by its very nature, is about violence”—psychological violence can relate to the governmental and political mandates and reform changes that inform the culture, operations, and workloads of the UK public sector workers. This NPM environment focused on cost minimisation and enhanced service delivery resulted in increased stress levels, long working hours, and work within a pressurised environment that have implications for the quality of working life, functioning, and well-being at work. The change in government on 11 May 2010 from New Labour to the coalition Conservative/Liberal Democrats shifted the ‘schools of thought’ for leadership from ‘fairness at work’ to ‘freedom, fairness, and responsibility’ (HM Government 2008). Central to New Labour and the new coalition government’s ideology is the proposal to reduce public expenditure. The coalition government proposes saving of £6.24 billion in 2010 as a result of the present economic recession, public borrowing of £145 billion, and debts of £893 billion (Barr 2010). Against this backdrop, major political reform, expenditure reduction, and reduction of inefficiencies in various government departments are espoused by the coalition government (Management Today 2010). External pressures like the proposal for expenditure reduction and enhanced service delivery can be likened to ‘violence’, ‘bullying’, and ‘unfair treatment’ that public sector employees are exposed to, which in turn, are likely to breach the psychological contract and negatively affect employees’ mental health within a complex work environment such as local government. This was evident as the HR Director

15.2 Evaluation and Meaning of the Results

347

was faced with challenges of ensuring that the Council adopted and implemented the required ‘best practice’ high-commitment HRM practices and employment legislation standards. At the time data was collected under the New Labour government, ‘well-being at work’ was a new initiative, and as such, the HR Director from the local government case organisation embraced the opportunity to be interviewed and to provide access to further explore the notion of well-being at work at this local government organisation. The HR Director highlighted the adoption of various wellness management initiatives that have been implemented by the organisation towards enhancing the health and well-being of the workforce. From her perspective, the organisation considered itself as a ‘best practice’ employer, but she failed to mention or possibly consider the importance of evaluating the implementation of these initiatives and practices to see whether her assumptions were correct. She did not consider the essential principles of finding out how well these initiatives were communicated, understood, or perceived by employees and line managers. Were these two groups aware of these ‘best practices’ HRM and wellness management programs? Furthermore, did they even cared about the implementation and prioritisation of these initiatives. The HR Director could not confirm that these HRM practices and wellness initiatives were strategically aligned with the Council’s corporate business plans; rather, they were stand-alone initiatives that Council leaders can perhaps pat themselves on the back that they have ticked off a few more boxes in keeping with governmental targets and agendas. An interesting finding was that on the one hand, the Council takes pride in professing the implementation of various wellness management initiatives geared towards promoting the health and well-being of its workforce. Although employees had a number of wellness management initiatives provided by the organisation (e.g. the healthwise challenge, subsidised gym membership, healthy food in the staff canteen, messages, etc.), the employees did not describe their well-being through the use of wellness initiatives, but instead the meaning employees gave to their understanding and definition of well-being at work was centred on ‘people-focused approach to leadership’ and ‘fairness at work’ (discussed later in the chapter). Employees did not embrace the wellness initiatives provided by the organisation for three key reasons: due to heavy workloads and the pressurised environment, employees did not have extra time to take away from their work to participate in the wellness initiatives available. Employees worked in an extremely controlled environment and were fearful that they did not have their line managers’ permission to use their work time to take part in the wellness initiatives; and employees did not want to use their spare time that should be focused on their family and personal lives to access or participate in the Council’s wellness management initiatives. They perceived that their personal time should not be used in accessing wellness practices but that it belonged to them. In essence, the lack of transparency in communication, implementation, and prioritisation of these policies, without employee involvement and evaluation of the effectiveness of these policies, they perceived these practices and wellness programs central to a bullying and unfair culture. Another notion of ‘violence’ experienced is the challenges of limited resources and increasing work stress that can influence the nature of work experienced by

348

15 Evaluation of Workplace Well-Being Research: Developing Healthy …

employees. Moreover, due to the New Labour government’s plans and the now new coalition government’s plans for expenditure reduction, it is hardly likely that ‘head massages and yoga classes’ will be given priority as the organisation struggles to balance its budgets and to meet what appear to be impracticable targets. The challenges of having to balance budgets and deliver effective and efficient services for less may create an environment where trust is not easily promoted, resulting in managers and employees protecting their already limited resources or budgets. Thus, managers adopt an autocratic, controlled, and risk-averse leadership style, which resulted in a bullying, blaming, disrespectful, and unfair work environment. It is also probable that given the lack of money, well-being and wellness management initiatives may be minimised, re-prioritised, or removed for other pressing and perceived important programs or priorities. The second aim of this research concurs with Terkel’s (1977) view about employees’ daily working life realities. These experiences have implications for the nature of the psychological contract, perceptions of fairness, support, trust, respect, and contract breach or violation in the employment relationship. These can all influence employees’ attitudes and behaviours that can result in outcomes associated with trust, commitment, citizenship behaviour, absenteeism, performance, and turnover. Terkel’s (1977) view of “work is about violence to the spirit as well as to the body” was revealed by managerial and non-managerial employees’ perception of their working life realities. Managerial employees highlighted challenges of work pressure, long working hours, having to balance their budgets, manage their staff anxieties, manage dispersed teams, answer excessive emails, respond to attacks and criticisms from external stakeholders along with their other daily concerns. Non-managerial employees highlighted heavy workloads, stress, a lack of access to training and career development opportunities, the lack of transparency of information, negative social interactions with their line manager, and anxiety as central to their daily work realities. These challenges experienced by both employee groups have implications for the individual, group, and organisational well-being domains (i.e.psychological, physical, intellectual, mental health, career, social, stakeholders, leadership, and work/organisation). The research reveals similarities and differences of both managerial and non-management employees’ perspectives of HRM practices, the quality of working life, line management leadership, and well-being at work, which formed part of the day-to-day concerns of both employee groups. The quantitative aspect of the research provided statistical corroboration and reinforcement of some of the relationships that exist between managerial and nonmanagerial employees. Managerial employees’ perspectives and reactions were statistically significantly different from non-managerial employees as they depicted their experiences of being satisfied with the balance between work and life, motivation in the job, working under pressure, being satisfied with the scope for using own initiative, and knowing that own work contributes to the good of the organisation. Merali (2003) argues that the views of managers provide a useful insight into the effects of policies and practices within organisations. Clark and Salaman (1998) state that managers have certain distinct functions as compared to owners of the organisations or its employees, and despite their importance, there has been limited

15.2 Evaluation and Meaning of the Results

349

research in this area. Moreover, non-managerial employees’ views have also been under-researched in the ‘employee-focused’ literature. This research contributes to the debates in these areas. The research found that there is a statistically significant difference between male and female employees’ view of HRM practices, social exchange, and well-being characteristics. The findings confirmed this proposition and showed employees reacting to the work/life and social well-being domains in terms of work-life balance and trust. The results reveal that there is a statistically significant difference existed between male and females, with respect to their evaluation of HRM practices, social exchanges, and well-being at work, with male employees disagreeing that they were satisfied with arrangements to support employees to manage their work-life balance, satisfaction with the balance between work and family, and trusting management to look after their best interests. It is interesting to note that although the research found some statistical differences between male and females, gender significance is beyond the remit of the focus of this book and may be associated with other variables like part-time, full-time, directorate worked, etc., which can be explored in future research. The sample size was not large enough to be able to be representative as less than one per cent of employees within the organisation took part in the questionnaire survey. This figure might be slightly more based on the number of office workers as compared to manual workers, but information confirming these figures was not accessible from the Council and unavailable from the Internet at the time date was collected for this main research. The main research also assessed whether there is a relationship between HRM practices and social exchange constructs that can influence employee well-being characteristics in the public sector. The findings confirmed this intention as it showed that there is a statistically positive relationship that exists between HRM practices and social exchange constructs that can influence employee well-being characteristics based on the sample size. The results disproved proposition four which suggested statistically that there is no difference that exists between managerial and non-managerial employees as well as male and female views of HRM practices, social exchange, and well-being characteristics. Accordingly, Terkel (1977) highlighted ‘work’ as “ulcers, accidents, shouting matches, fistfights, nervous breakdown, kicking the dog around, and daily humiliations for the walking wounded among the great many of us”. This was reflected in the internal tensions and challenges experienced by managerial and non-managerial employees work experiences, which in turn affected their stress levels, mental health and well-being at work. The findings from the main research reveal the existence of a bullying and anti-trust working environment that can be likened to internal and external ‘ulcers’ that can have a debilitating influence on employees’ well-being resulting in mental and physical ill-health at work. Central to employees meaning of their work and well-being was ‘fairness at work’ which they related to experiences of bullying and unfairness at work. Managerial employees experienced more bullying than non-managerial employees and highlighted prominent points of fear of being blamed, discrimination, accusations, humiliation, victimisation, and the rigidity of organisational practices, all of which were perceived as bullying. Non-managerial

350

15 Evaluation of Workplace Well-Being Research: Developing Healthy …

employees related the existence of a ‘controlled’ environment, and the lack of transparency, being denied access to training and career development opportunities, as well as wellness management initiatives as bullying. Uppermost in a bullying climate was the verbal display of aggression and power matches as managers who focused on protecting their budgets and meeting targets created an environment where employees perceived that they were being victimised. In essence, managers and employees that took part in the research may be a sample of ‘the walking wounded’ among the great many employees in the local government organisation in the North West of England.

15.3 Fairness at Work and Well-Being The findings from the interviews that relate to the meaning respondents give to their experiences at work and well-being centred on ‘fairness at work’. Respondents were not asked about these issues directly. They were questioned about the meaning of their working life experiences and well-being, but their responses centred on bullying and unfairness without prompting. The results highlighted a silence in the well-being literature in terms of employees’ experiences of work and the meaning of their well-being in the context of local government in North West of England. It indicates the employment relations practices which have first to be addressed before the philosophy of ‘well-being at work’ can have meaning or relevance. It is hard to imagine that managerial and non-managerial employees would welcome organised wellness initiatives to promote their well-being that would encroach even more into their already busy schedules. Instead, these employees have highlighted ‘fairness at work’ as important for the promotion of their well-being at work. Therefore, serious consideration is required to address the factors that promote ‘fairness at work’ and ‘employee well-being at work’ rather than more prescription to wellness initiatives.

15.3.1 Bullying and Unfair Treatment The findings from the review of documents in the main research reveal that the Council espousal of the dignity at work policy advocating bullying and harassment as unacceptable and will not be tolerated. The Council also professed that they were committed to promoting a safe, healthy, and productive work environment. The findings from the interviews did not corroborate with that which was professed by the Council. Instead, managers and employees pointed out that an anti-bullying environment as essential and integral for the promotion of their well-being at work. The results show that managerial employees experienced more bullying at work as compared to non-managerial employees. Respondents indicated that they had experienced bullying personally, or knew of someone who had been or was being bullied. In essence, it appears that the closer one functions to the top and executive levels within

15.3 Fairness at Work and Well-Being

351

an organisation the ‘colder’ and possibly more ‘ruthless’ it can become, resulting in bullying, incivility, a lack of dignity, which can be overlooked and underplayed as assertiveness in getting the job done. Both employee groups also highlighted that the bullying experienced was associated with working in certain departments, with certain managers. Managerial and non-managerial employees viewed bullying from three perspectives: individual, between peers, and organisational practices. From an individual perspective, bullying existed between managers and employees. The events entail cases where employees were denied access to training courses that were relevant for career advancement, and line managers resisting requests for flexible working, subjecting employees to discriminatory and humiliating practices. One managerial employee recalled his experience. He explained, I have had comments from management saying “well, looking after kids, can’t your wife do that?”…”this is not fair on us as an employer because your wife should be staying at home and looking after kids”…I went to HR and made an issue and things were resolved eventually. (Manager, Male, Age 40–49 years, Tenure, less than 5 years)

Further relevant points were highlighted by managerial employees meaning of their working experiences and well-being as it relates to fairness. These included feeling humiliated after being called a liar, fear of getting blamed when things go wrong, threats of victimisation, feelings of powerlessness, the lack of ability to express views openly without fear of being treated unfairly, management failure to apologise to the aggrieved once the grievance proceedings were resolved. These, in turn, are likely to result in poor relationships between individuals and their line managers. In contrast, non-managerial employees related individual bullying to their line manager not being sincere and open about decision making. They perceived that feelings of powerlessness as a result of bullying, and unfair treatment can result in fear, cynicism, intimidation, depression, and increased stress. Fairness is a key element of the psychological contract, and once breached, it can affect employees’ reciprocal attitude and behaviours, and through this, their well-being at work. Robinson and Rousseau (1994) characterise contract violation as inherently perceptual as experienced by the employee, is cognitive and reflects a mental calculation of what one has received relative to what one was promised, with implications for emotional and effective state accompanied by feelings of bitterness, indignation, perception of betrayal, or mistreatment. Managerial respondents relate peer bullying to feelings of intimidation and inadequacy among colleagues. They had a strongly held view that some colleagues were more difficult to work with than others, and as such, it was difficult to foster positive relationships. They regarded that these experiences affected their confidence and ability to perform. Both managers and employees related some organisational practices as bullying. Such practices highlighted by both groups include the inequality in the pay, rewards, and leave strategies compared to other local government organisations, access to relevant training and career advancement opportunities, the absence of coaching and mentoring, the absence of equal opportunities in internal recruitment, the rigidity and inflexibility of the recruitment and selection process, the

352

15 Evaluation of Workplace Well-Being Research: Developing Healthy …

absence of effective team management and development, effective downward communication, the rigidity of the sickness absence monitoring policy, and disciplinary actions as a result of sickness absence monitoring. Extending this view, managerial employees also relate confrontational back-towork interviews, threats of victimisation, being called a liar at a meeting as bullying. They also viewed the lack of importance and focus for health and safety monitoring as it relates to workplace ergonomics, and the mechanistic and inadequate services/support provided by the HR department to line managers for daily people management functions as bullying. They held a strong view that the HR department’s operations were overly bureaucratic and mechanical in its processes in the delivery of HR services. They considered this as obstructive, lacking efficiency, and lacking a ‘human’ focus. Managerial employees perceived that the overall disregard for ‘people’ was considered as bullying. Managerial employees also regarded late evening meetings with councillors and members as bullying. There was a strong view that staff were not valued and that their well-being at work was not catered for or promoted as a result of these long working hours. These findings confirmed research by Namie and Namie, (2011) that regarded organisational practices as bullying such as the way sickness policy, threats of dismissal and discipline were used against employees. Fineman (2007) points out that organisations can be perceived by employees as behaving as a bully, based on practices and procedures used to oppress, demean, or humiliate the workforce. In contrast, non-managerial employees regarded the lack of transparency on wellness management initiatives and other important information relative to their jobs as bullying. They felt that there were insufficient, ineffective, channels of communication in place concerning wellness initiatives, internal recruitment, training and development opportunities. There was a strong feeling that wellness initiatives were not embraced or taken up by employees. This was as a result of the existence of heavy workloads which had implications on employees’ time to be able to participate in initiatives available. Employees were uncertain and fearful that they did not have their line managers’ approval to partake in the wellness initiatives during working hours. Ultimately, employees did not want to use their spare time to access these initiatives as they felt that their personal time belonged to them. Other organisational practices that non-managerial employees regarded as bullying included age discriminatory practices used in promotional opportunities, the lack of access to flexible working opportunities for all employees, and that the ‘employee champion’ focus practices were ignored. It is apparent that the Council adoption of the dignity at work policy was in keeping with ‘best practice’ and employment legislation standards but possibly overlooked the importance of its communication, implementation, and strategic alignment to well-being at work, resulting in leaving the root causes unchallenged. Central to this view, Fineman (2007) also argues that from a cultural perspective on bullying, it raises the possibility of the bully being the organisation and victims seeing features of the organisation’s style, expectations, or procedures as oppressive, and in their eyes, bullying (Peyton 2003). The summary of respondents meaning of bullying and unfair treatment is summarised in Table 15.1.

15.4 The Meaning of Well-Being to Employees

353

Table 15.1 Summary of respondents meaning of bullying and unfair treatment Fairness at work

Similarities in managerial and non-managerial views

Managerial employees

Non-managerial employees

Bullying and unfairness at work 1. Individual bullying

– Treats of victimisation – Feelings of powerlessness

– Denied access to training courses linked to career advancement opportunities – Resistance of request to working flexibly – Discriminatory and humiliating practices – Accusations of being a liar – Fear of being blamed – Failure to apologise to the aggrieved – Poor relationships

– Line manager not sincere and open in decision making – Fear – Cynicism

2. Peer bullying

–

– Intimidation and inadequacy affecting confidence and performance – Difficult colleagues – Poor relationships

–

3. Organisational bullying

– Rigidity of sickness absence policy – Sickness absence monitoring – Inflexibility of recruitment and selection process (i.e. internal recruitment) – Reward strategies – Holiday entitlement – Career advancement opportunities – Absence of succession planning – Absence of equal opportunities – Bureaucracy

– Confrontational ‘back to work’ interviews – Support from HR in the delivery of HR services bureaucratic, mechanistic, obstructive, lacking efficiency, and require a more human focus – Evening meetings with councillors – Long hours working – Staff not valued – The lack of importance for health and safety monitoring as it relates to ergonomics in the workplace

– Lack of transparency in communication on wellness management initiatives and relevant job information – Age discriminatory promotional practices – The lack of an ‘employee champion’ people focus to practices – Lack of access to flexible working for all staff

15.4 The Meaning of Well-Being to Employees The second aim of the research is captured under the understanding and meaning of well-being to employees. The aim critically explores how employees within an NPM environment perceive and react to HRM practices, the quality of working life, line management leadership, and consequently well-being at work. This is associated

354

15 Evaluation of Workplace Well-Being Research: Developing Healthy …

with the research objectives (see Chap. 1) which developed a multidimensional wellbeing model that is practical for the expansion of HRM, social exchange, leadership, and well-being literatures from an HRM perspective. The main research explored employees’ perspectives for how HRM practices, the quality of working life, line management leadership, and well-being at work can be modified and improved in the local government organisation. The findings from the interviews on the meaning of well-being, importance of well-being, and improvements in well-being were clustered into a multidimensional well-being model, as perceived and articulated by employees (see Table 15.2). The results clearly show that well-being at work is broader than psychological, physical, and social wellbeing domains. It also shows that well-being at work goes beyond wellness management initiatives, work-life balance, satisfaction, contentment, anxiety, and fulfilment. Instead, it reveals a range of individual, group, and organisational factors that need to be taken into account in the employment relationship for well-being at work to be successfully promoted and maintained. Both employee groups were not questioned about the different well-being domains, but their perspectives and reactions on the meaning of their well-being clustered into the fourteen well-being domains without prompting. Table 15.2 demonstrates employees’ perspectives, understanding, and meaning of well-being at work. Important points associated with the psychological well-being domain relate to some factors highlighted in respondents’ depiction of their working life realities mentioned above. The results were consistent across all managerial and non-managerial employees. Managerial and non-managerial respondents’ regarded the meaning of well-being as the promotion of an anti-bullying environment, being respected, equal opportunities, the existence of work-life balance, feeling valued, satisfaction and contentment, commitment, confidence, autonomy, recognition and appreciation, employee voice, avoidance of negative emotions, and enhanced performance. Proponents of psychological well-being suggest that it entails subjective experiences and functioning, involving positive or negative thoughts or feelings in an individual judgment, which influences a perception of stress, anxiety, happiness, and other emotional states (Bakke 2005; Baptiste 2009; Grant et al. 2007; Seligman and Csikszenthmihalyi 2000). The psychological contract literature states that fulfilment of expectations within the employment relationship relates to employees reciprocating positively through enhanced performance, effort, and citizenship behaviour. Employees who perceive that they are treated fairly by their employers are more likely to have positive psychological well-being because people who perceive they are unfairly treated can display negative well-being through a rise in work stress, absence rates, and turnover. Psychological well-being is associated with the psychological contact that underpins policy and practice and employee outcomes in the organisation. Psychological well-being concerns cognitive perceptions of employees meaning of what the quality of their working life and well-being should entail. Leader–member exchange theory advocates that employees’ work experiences are associated with line management leadership behaviour and practices (Baptiste 2009). The promises made and obligations of employers have implications for the psychological well-being of employees.

15.4 The Meaning of Well-Being to Employees

355

Table 15.2 Respondents perspectives and meaning of well-being at work Multidimensional domain of employee well-being at work

Individual meaning of well-being

Importance of well-being

Improvements in well-being

Psychological well-being

– Happiness and contentment – Sense of achievement – Confident – Avoiding negative emotions – Autonomy – Job satisfaction – Feeling valued – Appreciated – Sense of purpose

– Employee motivation – Commitment – Avoid negative emotions – Enjoyment – Sense of achievement – Happiness – Enhance performance – Acknowledgement – Encourage confidence – Sense of purpose

– Use of initiative – Happiness and confident – Employee voice – Feeling valued – Appreciation – Sense of purpose

Mental health well-being

– Mental health – Stress management – Anti-bullying and harassment – Anxiety – Sick absence

– – – –

– – – –

Physical well-being

– Physical health – Reduction in workloads and work pressure – Health and safety – Occupational health

– Avoiding burnout – Mentally healthy – Manageable workloads

– Improve health and safety monitoring – Reduced sickness absence

Intellectual well-being

– Job design – Training and development – Coaching and mentoring

– Improve competence and confidence

– Creativity and innovation – Training and development – Job design – Coaching and mentoring

Rewards/material well-being

– Reward strategies – Adequate remuneration – More holidays – More leave strategies – Praise and recognition

– Rewarded – Praise and recognition – More adequate pay

– Reward strategies – More holidays and leave strategies – Praise and recognition

Career well-being

– Career advancement – Succession planning – Internal recruitment

– Professional development – Confidence – Knowledge transfer

– Career advancement – Internal recruitment

Spiritual well-being

– Gratitude and fulfilment

– Gratitude and fulfilment

– Fulfilment and gratitude

Financial well-being

– Affordability of mortgage, rent and other expenses

– Financial satisfaction – Life satisfaction

– Pay and leave benefits – Life satisfaction – Control over finances

Work/life

– Work-life balance – Flexible working arrangements

– Work-life balance – Managing life – Flexible working arrangements

– Flexible working arrangements – Equality with access to work-life balance

Mentally healthy Avoid depression Stress management Reduction of sickness and workplace absence

Less pressure at work Stress management Anti-bullying culture Reduced absence levels

(continued)

356

15 Evaluation of Workplace Well-Being Research: Developing Healthy …

Table 15.2 (continued) Multidimensional nature of employee well-being at work

Individual meaning of well-being

Importance of well-being

Improvements in well-being

Social well-being

– – – – – –

Relationship Team working Employee voice Involvement Reduction in email volume HR support with recruitment and selection – Fair treatment

– Team working – Commitment – Fair treatment

– Collaboration – Respond to suggestions from employees – Relationships – Involvement/participation – Employee views – HR support with recruitment and selection – Fair treatment

Stakeholders well-being

– Positive Relationships with Stakeholders

– Reduced stress for organisational employees

– Positive relationships with stakeholders – Reduction of stress of organisational employees

Compassionate and relational leadership

– – – – – – – –

– – – – – – –

Respected Team working Respected Dignity at work Fairness at work Supported Trust

– Trust environment – Collaboration – Removal of them and us culture – Appreciation – Harmonisation – Equal opportunities – Fairness at work – Supported – People-focused approach

Humanistic and fair practices

– – – –

Equal opportunities Fairness at work Dignity at work Anti-bullying and harassment – Anti-discrimination – Anti-psychological violence

– – – –

Treated humanely Respected Appreciated Removal of status differentials

– – – – – – –

Organisational financial well-being

– Cost minimisation – Limited resources (staff and budgets)

– Reduction of stress – Reduction of heavy workloads – Reduced pressure

Clear instructions Trust Respected Effective communication Equal opportunities Fairness at work Supported People-focused approach

Equal opportunities Harmonisation Fairness at work Dignity at work Civility at work Anti-violence at work People-focused approach

– Adequate resources (staff and budgets) for organisational operations – Reduced work pressure and stress – Reduction in workplace absence – Enhance performance (continued)

15.4 The Meaning of Well-Being to Employees

357

Table 15.2 (continued) Multidimensional nature of employee well-being at work

Individual meaning of well-being

Importance of well-being

Improvements in well-being

Wellness management well-being

– – – –

– Stress reduction – Employee mental health

– Wellness management initiatives – Stress reduction – Employee mental health

Healthy work/organisation well-being

– Absent management – Ergonomically designed workplace – Recruitment and selection

– Prevent poor performance – Retention – Performance and service delivery

– Improvement in absent management – Stop evening meeting – Clarify and narrow change priorities – Better accommodation – Equality in recruitment and selection – Reduction in bureaucracy and red tape

Wellness initiatives Gym membership Messages Yoga

Managerial and non-managerial employees’ depiction of physical well-being domain reveals some key issues that are concerned with work-related stress, mental and physical health, health and safety monitoring, and avoidance of burnout and depression. Both managerial and non-managerial employees responded similarly to each question asked. Health and safety at work is a legal requirement that organisations should ensure that employees’ health and safety and stress levels are effectively managed in keeping with ‘best practice’ standards (HSA 2007). Echoing this view, Warr (2002) argues that for employees working in a stress-free and physically safe environment, it can be exciting, rewarding, stimulating, and enjoyable. Danna and Griffin (1999) state that physical and mental health and experiencing a safe working environment are areas that can reduce work stress which in turn can promote well-being (Karasek and Theorell 1990). Physical well-being draws from perceived organisational support theory. It ensures that employees will be supported and valued by the organisation when needed to assist them to carry out their job effectively and to deal with stressful situations in the workplace. Salient points depicted by managers and employees as it relates to mental health well-being domain highlighted factors that can prevent sickness absence, mental illhealth, and negative well-being. Both employee groups discussed work-related stress, pressurised work environment, sickness absence, presenteeism, depression, anxiety and bullying and harassment at work. Mental health can form part of employees’ expectations of the psychological contract and justice perceptions so that employees will have the discernment that their employer cares about them and are likely to reciprocate with positive behaviours and attitudes. The CIPD’s (2019) report states that mental ill-health is becoming a prevalent factor for employee sickness and absence, and that mental ill-health is particularly prevalent in the public sector compared with

358

15 Evaluation of Workplace Well-Being Research: Developing Healthy …

private sector organisations. MacDonald (2005) points out that excessive pressure leads to stress which is linked to mental health conditions such as anxiety, depression, and heart disease, all of which imply absenteeism (Silcox 2007). Prominent points identified concerning the intellectual well-being domain involve job design, training and development, coaching and mentoring, improved competence and confidence, and creativity and innovation. The literature highlights that intellectual well-being explores creativity, agility, and mental ability of individuals and is used to enhance goal attainment, positive psychology as a means of enhancing well-being to promote a flourishing workforce (CCMD 2002; Currie 2001; Grant and Spence 2010). Intellectual well-being can form part of employees’ expectations of the psychological contract that facilitates trust, commitment, and respect. Important points identified in respect to the rewards/material well-being domain involve rewards strategies, adequate remuneration, more holidays and praise and recognition. The literature purports that the rewards/material well-being domain explores the working life experiences of individuals that pertains to reward strategies and functioning in the employment relationship (Baptiste 2009; CIPD 2007; Currie 2001). Employees who perceive that they are valued by their employers through adequate rewards are likely to enjoy positive rewards/material well-being. This, in turn, influences distributive justice, which has important consequences for employee performance and overall well-being at work. Relevant points that relate to career well-being domain include the absence of internal recruitment, career advancement, and succession planning. Career wellbeing can represent an individual’s motivation to work in a career he/she chooses or as a degree of centrality of one’s career for one’s identity (Cohen 2003; Gould 1979; Holland 1997). Career well-being can form part of employees’ expectations of the psychological contract, organisational support, and justice perceptions. It can also dictate employees’ perceptions of the type of psychological contract that exists— relational or transactional. Employees who perceive that there are opportunities for career well-being are likely to believe that the organisation cares about their welfare and are likely to reciprocate with positive organisational citizenship behaviours, engagement, enhanced performance and reduced turnover and sickness absence. Managerial and non-managerial employees relate the spiritual well-being domain to involve a sense of purpose, and fulfilment and gratitude. Moss (2009) states that spiritual well-being relates to the problems that employees can experience in the workplace, and spirituality can be used as a way to understand what is happening in the workplace as it relates to employees. It can explore the extent to which issues such as meaning, purpose, and fulfilment are embedded and lived out within organisations (CCMD 2002). Spiritual well-being can be used to understand employees’ expectations of the psychological contract, given the complexity and diversity of the twenty-first century workforce. Relevant points highlighted that relate to financial well-being domain includes employees being able to be financial sound so that they can afford to pay their mortgage, rent and other expenditure, experience financial satisfaction, life satisfaction, to be in control over their finances and to receive adequate pay and leave benefits. The Centre for Economic and Business Research states that financial well-being is about

15.4 The Meaning of Well-Being to Employees

359

people having control over their finances, their ability to respond to financial unpredictability and unexpected financial expenses, and their ability to meet financial goals and make choices that allow them to enjoy life (AEGON 2019). The CIPD’s (2019) research points out that poor financial well-being is a significant cause of employee stress in their organisations, absenteeism, and mental ill-health and suggests that if employees have the knowledge and skills to make the right financial choices, reward and benefit choices to meet their financial needs, this is likely to improve their wellbeing and productivity. Employers that will assist employees with their financial well-being, practices good corporate governance and this will likely reinforce the psychological contract, trust, fairness, support, and justice perceptions, which can go a long way towards employees’ perceptions that they are valued and appreciated by their employer. Such actions are likely to reduce stress, anxieties, and mental ill-health and enhance well-being at work. Respondents identified factors that identified work/family well-being domain to include working times arrangements, flexible working arrangements, work-lifebalance practices, managing life, and equal access to work-life-balance practices such as working from home. In support, Green and Tsitsianis (2004) argue that the challenges of the changing world of work have a wide-ranging effect on work and family interaction which has major concerns for both employees and employers. Daniels and French (2006) state that workers are experiencing life changes and aspirations, and family time is coming under pressure, intensifying work–family conflict, resulting in psychological strains and ill-health (Cartwright and Cooper 2009), which in turn can result in work-related stress, burnout, and mental ill-health. Employers seeking to help employees to strive for more of a balance between work and life will strengthen the psychological contract and the employment relationship and will likely get more from their employees in the way of commitment, reduced sickness and absence levels, positive well-being, and enhanced performance. Respondents identified factors in respect of the social well-being domain involve being supported, relationships, team working, employee voice, and management responding to suggestions from employees. The finding reveals that managerial and non-managerial employees regarded their ‘voice’ and ‘involvement’ as important in decision making earlier in the change processes. They also regarded ‘voice and involvement’ as essential for the promotion of their well-being. Managerial employees regarded ‘involvement’ as good relationship with line managers, stakeholders, and councillors. Grant et al. (2007) state that the social well-being domain identifies the relational experiences and functioning and focuses on the quality of interpersonal relationships with other people and communities, underpinned with fair treatment for employees (Keyes 1998). Baptiste (2009) posits that management relationship behaviour, in the form of support and development of trust, can promote employee well-being with implications for policy and practice in organisations. Another central theme of social well-being is feeling valued and supported. The findings from the questionnaire revealed that managerial and non-managerial employees’ view of being supported was positive. Moreover, managerial employees’ view was statistically significantly different to non-managerial employees about their motivation in the job. Managerial and non-managerial employees revealed that being

360

15 Evaluation of Workplace Well-Being Research: Developing Healthy …

valued and supported is essential for their well-being at work. They perceived that knowing that they mattered to the organisation was important for their well-being. They also highlighted the importance of being treated humanely in the attainment of performance targets; receiving support from HR during the recruitment and selection processes; and the provision of specialist knowledge from HR to support people management functions. Non-managerial employees related feeling valued and supported to issues mentioned above. They also included the need for affective commitment and to be respected. The findings concur with literature that employees who feel that they are valued reciprocate and show heightened performance, reduced absenteeism, and a lessened likelihood of quitting their job (Mathieu and Zajac 1990; Rhoades and Eisenberger 2002). In essence, employees’ perception of a positive psychological contract can relate to the positive state of the social well-being domain. Employees’ relationship with their line managers within the employment relationship is an essential antecedent of social well-being. Managerial and non-managerial employees identified factors that relate to compassionate and relational Leadership Well-Being domain to identify the line management leadership style that is required to promote their well-being at work. The factors highlighted include communication, involvement, clear instructions, equal opportunities, fairness at work, supported, and people-focused approach. Alban-Metcalfe and Alimo-Metcalfe (2000) state that line management relationship is central to employee satisfaction, perception of fairness, support and employee well-being. Cooper and Robertson (2001) points out that leaders with high emotional intelligence are more likely to use the “head-heart connection” guided by feelings for decision making and functioning. In support, Meechan (2018) posits that the empathetic approach is associated with compassionate leadership that considers the key issue in creating healthier workplaces is through compassion and empathy at work, and in leadership more specifically. Managerial and non-managerial employees’ depiction of the leadership style of their line managers to promote their well-being centred around a leadership style that was opposite to toxic leadership, bullying and threatening bosses, managers that victimises and blamed employees, instilled fear, were controlling, was fearful of taking risks, withheld relevant job information and psychopathic managers. Furthermore, managerial employees highlighted the importance of upward and downward communication and regarded the existence of too many emails as a stressor that hinders them from having sufficient time to function effectively in their management roles as well as to spend time with their staff. They viewed too many emails as frustrating in their daily functions which can hinder relationship building. This finding confirms Taylor et al.’s (2008) research that reveals the impact of electronic communication on employees in the workplace in particular has a negative effect upon workplace stress, ill-health, and well-being. Non-managerial employees related communication to receiving clear instructions, collaboration, and involvement. Dundon and Wilkinson (2009) argue that communication is a central theme in employee involvement and participation initiatives that organisations can adopt which can have positive implications for employees’ dignity, health and well-being at work. Thus, compassionate and relational leadership well-being domain that depicts line management

15.4 The Meaning of Well-Being to Employees

361

leadership style to promote employee well-being at work will embrace and encourage involvement, employee voice, effective communication, and fair treatment that forms part of the psychological contract and by extension, well-being at work. A prominent point identified concerning the stakeholder well-being domain involves improved relationships with stakeholders. This confirms the literature as Baptiste’s (2009) research revealed that in the public sector quality, relationships between employees and councillors, members of parliament, and customers are important for employees’ stress levels, mental health and employee well-being at work. Thus, stakeholder well-being can relate to the psychological contract expectations that employees have for stakeholders, which can influence well-being at work. Delle Fave (2007) states that stakeholder well-being identifies collective, community empowerment, and quality relationships with stakeholders. Baptiste (2009) advocates that organisations can convince their stakeholders that they are series about good governance and corporate social responsibility by demonstrating their commitment through HRM practices, fairness at work, compassionate leadership approaches, and the fostering of a healthy employer-employee-stakeholders’ relationships. Managers and employees identified prominent points concerning humanistic and fair practices well-being domain that identified the practices that both employee groups declared as essential and integral to the promotion of their well-being at work. These practices include equal opportunities, fairness at work, dignity at work, anti-bullying and harassment, anti-psychological violence, civility in the workplace, respect for individual differences, removal of status differentials, harmonisation, and a people-focused approach. Guest (2002) states that humanistic and fair practices enhance employee commitment, job satisfaction, engagement, and employee wellbeing. Baptiste’s (2009) research with senior managers in the public sector regarding practices they considered fair and promoted their well-being include working time arrangements, stress management, communication strategies, reward strategies, management development, team working, relationship with stakeholders, and clarification and reduction in change initiatives. Organisational practices, which employees perceive to lack justice perceptions, are likely to be met with cynicism and can result in psychological contract breach. Currie (2001) claims that when people feel that they have been unfairly treated, they experience a series of injustices, they feel hurt, slighted and in many cases, frustrated because feelings of inferiority preoccupy the mind and dominate one’s thoughts, which leads to employees feeling demotivated, discriminated against, which can have implications for rising absence rates, increase turnover, and increased work-related stress and negative well-being (MacDonald 2005). The relevant points identified with respect to the organisational financial wellbeing domain involve budget limitation, restricted resources (i.e. staff and funding), cost minimisation. The economic and recessionary challenges faced by the UK government resulted in reformation and modernisation of the UK public sector that focused on cost minimisation and increased service delivery, which has cascading effects on expenditure reduction and the bottom line as well as the well-being of public sector workers. Restricted budgets were the central theme that affected the HRM

362

15 Evaluation of Workplace Well-Being Research: Developing Healthy …

practices that were delivered, the quality of working life, line management leadership, and the well-being of employees. The lack of organisational financial wellbeing was like a ‘cancer’ that heightened employees stress, anxiety, mental health and prohibited healthy flourishing, growth, well-being, and performance. Cartwright and Cooper (2009) argue that financial well-being has implications for all the other domains of well-being and underpins the holistic working life experiences of individuals as well as the financial health of the organisation. Newell (2002) shares that if organisational financial well-being is not healthy and leaders and managers have to function with limited budgets and expenditure reduction ideology, these challenges will have implications for job insecurity, increased workloads, increased job-related stress, stress, burnout, stress-related absence, and psychological contract breach and perceptions of unfairness at work. This, in turn, will result in employees displaying negative behaviours, attitudes, and well-being at work. Key principles identified by managers and employees with respect to wellness management well-being domain include wellness programs, subsidised gym membership, messages, yoga, stress reduction, and mental health. Putnam (2015) states that organisations have adopted different approaches to workplace well-being and wellness management. Putnam further argues that organisational leaders have to consider workplace diversity, different generations at work, genders, diverse faiths, age groups, obesity-related disease, poor health conditions, mental ill-healthy, and healthcare costs when they consider the implementation of wellness management. Wellness programs that are adopted by organisations are designed to promote the mental health through a group of personal growth and good lifestyles choices like health promotion, employee support, insurance/protection, lifestyle management (Newell 2002; MacDonald 2005). The findings from the main research found that employees did not have time to participate in any wellness management programs due to their heavy workloads, lack of communication and clarity about what these programs entail, and not wanting to take their personal family time to participate in any wellness management programs. Although these wellness programs are geared towards improve the mental health and eventually the well-being of employees, in reality, it did not have any effect on these public sector employees who defined their mental health and well-being at work through ‘fairness at work’ and not through good lifestyle choices. Key principles identified with respect to the healthy work/organisation wellbeing domain involved absence management, ergonomically designed workplace, recruitment and selection, enhanced performance, retention, enhanced service delivery, stopping evening meetings, clarifying and narrowing down of priorities, better workplace accommodation, equality in recruitment and selection, and reduction in bureaucracy and red tape. Bakke (2005) points out that organisational dimension of well-being can be observed through institutions promoting an environment that makes work exciting, fulfilling, rewarding, stimulating, and enjoyable. A healthy workplace is one that includes effective policies for dealing with all of the ‘people’ aspects of employment such as diversity, and inclusion, communication and consultation, engagement and work-life balance (CIPD 2019). The healthy work/organisational well-being domain demonstrates the employer’s commitment

15.4 The Meaning of Well-Being to Employees

363

to employees of adopted a ‘people-focused’ approach to all policies and practices within the employment relationship, which in turn will have implications with mental health, well-being, performance, and service delivery. The process of social exchange and interrelationships between employers and employees makes it possible for trade-offs to exist between the differing well-being domains by enhancing one aspect of well-being (i.e. psychological) while decreasing another aspect of well-being (i.e. physical). For example, changes in individual well-being can result from making changes in organisational contexts. This can include embedding and promoting an anti-bullying and trust culture, management of resources, stress management, team working, promote good relationships, career advancement opportunities, job redesign practices, and adequate and safe work accommodation. These factors are all interdependent and make up the multidimensional well-being paradigm. The non-fulfilment of one well-being domain can negatively affect the other well-being domains. However, what is important to note, is that, given the complexities and challenges facing organisations, budgets, managers, and workers, promoting and viewing employee well-being are important is likely to be traded off or re-prioritised for the bottom line and perceptions of sustainability.

15.5 Practicalities for Policymakers and Management The findings of this research have implications for policymakers, local government, management practice, employees, the community, and the society as a whole. The external pressure of expenditure reduction required by New Labour and now the coalition government is likely to negatively impact local government operations. It is expected that this may have implications for budget reduction, job security, staffing levels, workloads, and stress management. The multidimensional well-being models (see Table 15.2) as well as the workers’ depiction of the responsiveness and improvements of their line manager’s leadership styles to promote their well-being at work and employees depiction of the relationship between HRM, social exchange, line management leadership, and well-being in local government can be used by the local government organisation to evaluate the current systems and processes, for policy evaluation, formulation, implementation, and prioritisation, in the management of stress and promotion of well-being among workers. Management of the local government organisation and other organisations as a whole can use this information to develop line management competencies in people management and well-being at work. This research and book can assist line managers to understand better what contributes towards the employment relationship and development of employee well-being in the public sector. This can result in a more committed, happy, and empowered workforce who can voice their views openly. This may result in public sector employees being more predisposed towards organisational change and spending reduction. This research also has implications for the role of HRM in the public sector. The literature highlights the contradictory nature of the role of HR demonstrated by HR

364

15 Evaluation of Workplace Well-Being Research: Developing Healthy …

as a strategic partner and change focus versus a process and employee champion focus (Ulrich 1997). The findings from this research can be used to evaluate the two conflicting HR roles within the local government organisation. The HR Director of the case local government organisation and other HR professionals can use the key models developed in this research to strategically align the importance of well-being at work that can lead to the business case and its integration with the Council’s corporate business plans. The findings also show that HR processes and employee champion focus can be evaluated. It is time to put the ‘people-focus’ back as the central and integral focus of HR. The results and recommendations of this research can assist with the evaluation of the existing high-commitment HRM practices, and wellness management practices adopted by the Council. The research revealed that employees required HR to be more transparent in welfare matters as opposed to disciplinary matters. Managerial employees related the need for more support from HR to assist with their daily people management concerns, indicating that the bureaucratic and mechanistic processes involved in the delivery of HR services were obstructive and lacking efficiency, suggesting a more ‘human’ focus. As such, HR professionals can use the two models developed from the main research to promote ‘the employee champion’ focus and a culture of ‘fairness at work’ where employee well-being can be fostered and allowed to thrive. The root cause of bullying and anti-discriminatory practices can be addressed by educating senior managers and other managers to view these practices as unacceptable and to understand the implications of these practices to employee mental health, stress levels, sickness absence, the bottom line, performance, individual, group, and organisational well-being.

15.6 Future Research This research is an original research on employees’ perspectives and reactions to HRM practices, the quality of working life, line management leadership, and wellbeing at work in a New Public Management context in the North West of England. Therefore, I can claim that this research has attempted as much as possible, to achieve its objectives and produce important findings and conclusions as well as significant implications for theory and practice as mentioned in the above sections. But with any research, new questions have to be raised for future research. It may perhaps be considered as a base for future research of this type. It is important to mention that this research was conducted in an NPM environment in a local authority in the North West of England. The question to be raised is whether the results of the research would be the same if it were conducted with any of the ten Greater Manchester Councils or perhaps in comparison with a local government organisation in the South or other parts of England or the private sector. Although the research presented throughout this book addressed numerous issues related to work experiences and employee well-being, it is practically impossible within the context of one book, to cover all the issues of work attitudes considering

15.6 Future Research

365

the parameters of the research and the book. A key point is that the research revealed that a statistically significant difference exists between males and females, and it would be interesting to find out why. The sample size can be hiding things that might be relevant, for example, that the men were likely to be in one particular specialism, a certain age group, worked in a particular department, etc. Therefore, future research in this area is suggested to develop an understanding of reactions to HRM, working life experiences, line management leadership, and well-being from a gender perspective. Another important point that may inspire topics for future research is research into diversity and employee well-being as it relates to younger workers (i.e. generation Y and new millennium groups) as four-fifths of respondents in the main research were older employees (i.e. 30–60+ years). Another aspect of diversity includes the wellbeing of different ethnic groups as the present research only reviewed respondents from the dominant white ethnic group. The British workforce is extremely diverse and multicultural, and as such, research on ethnic groups and well-being can certainly contribute to our understanding of the quality of working life, line management leadership, and well-being at work of a diverse workforce. Research in these areas can contribute significantly to theory, policy formulation, and practice.

15.7 What Happens Next The research developed employees’ perspectives and reactions to HRM practices, working life, line management leadership, and well-being into two key models that highlight what employees perceive as important for fairness at work and their wellbeing. It appears that the notion of ‘fairness’ seems to be a political manifesto of an egalitarian approach used by politicians to captivate the masses without thought or possible care about its ethical connotation and implementation for public sector employees’ well-being. The implications of funding reductions on the future of well-being at work are captured by the severity measures being imposed by the Conservative/Liberal Democrat coalition (HM Government 2010). These are beginning to be felt throughout Britain, alongside those already put in place by the previous New Labour government. These initiatives proposed by central government are likely to affect many if not all Councils in England and in particular North West of England which is the region of focus in this research. Richardson (2010) points out that the proposed cuts by city Councils in the North West of England can result in the loss of critical social services, and Greater Manchester (GM) and Merseyside areas in the North West are among the worse to be hit nationally. This is as a result of the ten Councils comprising GM losing department for communities and local government funding totalling (£30 million) (BBC 2010; Richardson 2010). It is likely that these cuts in funding will cause severe reduction in services and have implications for job insecurity, reductions, and termination of departments’ budgets (BBC 2010; HM Government 2010; Richardson 2010). Thus, it is apparent that employees are moving towards an even more restricted and straightened public sector environment. These have implications for public sector workers’ well-being,

366

15 Evaluation of Workplace Well-Being Research: Developing Healthy …

the region’s well-being, and the British society as a whole, as the public sector battle to stay afloat in the weeks, months, and years to come.

15.8 Summary and Conclusion The aims of the research were achieved, which were to investigate how employee well-being ideology can be successfully promoted and maintained in a NPM environment given continuous proposals for reformation and expenditure reduction. The research also explored how employees within a NPM environment perceive and react to HRM practices, working life, line management leadership, and consequently wellbeing at work. Key principles highlighted by employees’ experiences about their quality of working life relate to working with limited resources, heavy workloads, increase work-related stress with tensions between teams, and other challenges within the cost minimisation work environment. The meaning of well-being at work was depicted by employees as ‘fairness and civility at work’. This research has made several contributions to knowledge in the areas of NPM theory, HRM theory, quality of working life, social exchange theory, line management leadership, and well-being at work literature. This chapter and book can be used as a reference source for policymakers, leadership, managers, practitioners, employees, and researchers. One can only question what is likely to happen in the future with employee well-being at work in the public sector as a result of the coalition government proposals for further expenditure reduction.

References AEGON. (2019). Financial well-being at work. https://www.aegon.co.uk/workplace/employers/ support-for-employers/financial-wellbeing.html. Accessed March 20, 2019. Alban-Metcalfe, R. J., & Alimo-Metcalfe, B. (2000). The transformational leadership questionnaire (TLQ-LGV): A convergent and discriminant validity study. Leadership and Organisation Development Journal, 21, 280–296. Bakke, D. W. (2005). Joy at work: A revolutionary approach to fun on the job. New York: Penguin Group (USA) Inc. Baptiste, N. R. (2009). Fun and wellbeing: Insights from senior managers in a local authority. Employee Relations, 31(6), 600–612. Barr, R. (2010). UK government details spending cuts. UK: The Associated Press. BBC Business New. (2010). Public sector job cuts ‘to hit Wales and North’. https://www.bbc.co. uk/news/business-11130269. Accessed August 31, 2010. Canadian Centre for Management Development (CCMD). (2002). A fine balance: A manager’s guide to workplace wellbeing. Canada: CCMD Roundtable on Workplace Wellbeing. Cartwright, S., & Cooper, C. L. (2009). The Oxford handbook of organisational wellbeing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. CIPD. (2007). Rewarding work—The vital role of line managers, change agenda. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel Development.

References

367

CIPD. (2019). Health and well-being at work. Survey Report, April 2019, in partnership with Simplyhealth. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Clark, J., & Salaman, G. (1998). Telling tales: Management gurus’ narratives and the construction of managerial identity. Journal of Management Studies, 35(2), 137–161. Cohen, A. (2003). Multiple commitments in the workplace: An integrative approach. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Cooper, C., & Robertson, I. (2001). Well-being in organisations: A reader for students and practitioners. Chichester: Wiley. Currie, D. (2001). Managing employee well-being. Oxford: Chandos Publishing Oxford Limited. Daniels, G., & French, S. (2006). Regulating work-life balance. UK: Centre for Industrial Relations, Keele University. Danna, K., & Griffin, R. W. (1999). Health and wellbeing in the workplace: A review and synthesis of the literature. Journal of Management, 25(3), 357–384. Delle Fave, A. (2007). Individual development and community empowerment: Suggestions from studies on optimal experience. In J. Haworth & G. Hart (Eds.), Wellbeing: Individual, community and social perspectives (pp. 41–56). Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan. Dundon, T., & Wilkinson, A. (2009). Employee participation. In T. Redman & A. Wilkinson (Eds.), Contemporary human resource management: Text and cases (3rd ed., pp. 405–416). London: Pearson Education. Fineman, S. (2007). Understanding emotions at work. London: Sage Publishers. Gould, S. (1979). Characteristics of planners in upwardly mobile occupations. Academy of Management Journal, 22, 539–550. Grant, A. M., Christianson, M. K., & Price, R. H. (2007). Happiness, health or relationships? Managerial practices and employee well-being tradeoffs. The Academy of Management, 21(3), 51–63. Grant, A. M., & Spence, G. B. (2010). Using coaching and positive psychology to promote a flourishing workforce: A model of goal-striving and mental health. In P. A. Linley, S. Harrington, & N. Garcea (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology and work. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Green, F., & Tsitsianis, N. (2004). An investigation of national trends of job satisfaction in Britain and Germany. British Journal of Industrial Relations, 43(3), 401–429. Guest, D. (2002). Human resource management, corporate performance and employee wellbeing: Building the worker into HRM. Journal of Industrial Relations, 44(3), 335–358. Health and Safety Authority. (2007). Bullying at work. https://www.hsa.ie/eng/Topics/Bullying_at_ Work/. Accessed May 20, 2010. HM Government. (2008). Improving health and work: Changing lives, the government’s response to Dame Carol Black’s review of the health of Britain’s working-age population. November 2008. Cm 7492. HM Government. (2010). Healthy lives, healthy people: Our strategy for public health in England. Available online at https://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publichealth/Healthyliveshealthypeople/ index.htm. Accessed 12th December 2012. Holland, J. L. (1997). Making vocational choices: A theory of careers (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Publishers. Karasek, R. A., & Theorell, T. (1990). Healthy work: Stress, productivity, and the reconstruction of working life. NY: Basic Books. Keyes, C. L. M. (1998). Social wellbeing. Social Psychology Quarterly, 61(2), 121–140. MacDonald, L. A. C. (2005). Wellness at work: Protecting and promoting employee well-being. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Management Today. (2010). Cameron: UK’s problems even worse than we thought. June 7, 2010. https://www.managementtoday.co.uk/newsalerts/dailynews/news/1008288/CameronUKs-problems-even-worse-thought/?DCMP=EMC-Daily%20News. Accessed June 7, 2010. Mathieu, J. E., & Zajac, D. M. (1990). A review and meta-analysis of the antecedents, correlates and consequences of organisational commitment. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 171–194.

368

15 Evaluation of Workplace Well-Being Research: Developing Healthy …

Meechan, F. (2018). Compassion at work toolkit. https://researchgate.net/publication/322404395. Accessed May 30, 2019. Merali, F. (2003). NHS managers’ views of their culture and their public image: The implications for NHS reforms. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 16(7), 549–563. Moss, B. (2009). Spirituality in the workplace. In N. Thompson & J. Bates (Eds.), Promoting workplace wellbeing (pp. 141–153). London: Palgrave Macmillan. Namie, G., & Namie, R. F. (2011). The bully free workplace: Stop jerks, weasels, and snakes from killing your organization. Upper Saddle River, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Newell, S. (2002). Creating the healthy organisation: Wellbeing diversity and ethics at work. London: Thomson Learning. Peyton, P. R. (2003). Dignity at work: Eliminate bullying and create a positive work environment. London: Routledge Publishers. Putnam, L. (2015). Workplace wellness that works: 10 steps to infuse well-being and vitality into any organisation. New Jersey: Wiley. Rhoades, L., & Eisenberger, R. (2002). Perceived organisational support: A review of the literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(4), 698–714. Richardson, D. (2010). Austerity measures hit North West of England. World Socialist Web Site, International Committee of the Fourth International (ICFI) Publishers. https://www.wsws.org/ articles/2010/aug2010/nort-a18.shtml. Accessed August 2010. Robinson, S. L., & Rousseau, D. M. (1994). Violating the psychological contract: Not the exception but the norm. Journal of Organisational Behaviour, 15, 245–259. Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An Introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 5–14. Silcox, S. (2007). Health work and wellbeing: Rising to the public sector attendance management challenge. ACAS Policy Discussion Paper, No. 6, May 2007. Taylor, H., George, F., & Altman, Y. (2008). E-mail at work: A cause for concern? The implications of new communication technologies for health, wellbeing and productivity at work. Journal of Organisational Transformation and Social Change, 5(2), 159–173. Terkel, S. (1977). Working. Harmondsworth: Penguin Publishers. Ulrich, D. (1997). Human resource champions: The next agenda for adding value and delivering results. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Warr, P. (2002). Psychology at work. Suffolk: Penguin Group Books.

Part IV

Striving Towards Promoting Healthy, Respectful and ‘WELL’ Organizations

Chapter 16

Workplace Violence, Mistreatment, and Well-Being at Work: A Forestry Sector Perspective

Abstract This chapter critically explores workers’ experiences of workplace violence in the forestry sector in British Columbia, Canada. The chapter examines employees’ definition and experiences of workplace violence, and the drivers of workplace violence as perceived by managers, employees, and the union. Questionnaire survey, telephone interviews, and focus groups were used to focus on managers, employees, and the union representatives verbal accounts of their own experiences and perceptions of workplace violence. A mixed methodology is appropriate for addressing the research aims and provided insight into the lifeworld of participants as it relates to their experiences of workplace violence. The findings reveal that workplace violence is defined and perceived as physical, psychological, social/relational. The findings also reveal that definition, experiences and drivers of workplace violence are associated with threatening behavior, discrimination, bullying and harassment, work-life conflict, seniority and overtime, poor job design, workplace stress, mental health, substance abuse, blue color male-dominated environment, jealousy, and distrust. Implications of the findings for workplace violence, employee well-being, HRM, leadership and policy are discussed.

16.1 Introduction This chapter critically explores workers’ experiences of workplace violence in the forestry sector in British Columbia, Canada. The chapter examines the dynamics that exist between employees’ experiences of workplace violence, employees’ understanding and definition of workplace violence, and the drivers of workplace violence as experienced and perceived by managers, union, and employees in the forestry sector context in British Columbia, Canada. The purpose of this research is to understand better employees’ experiences of workplace violence, and the problems of violence and its implications for well-being, leadership and corporate social responsibility, with specific types of violence that occur in forestry organisations in British Columbia, Canada. Questionnaire survey, telephone interviews, and focus groups were used to focus on managers, union, and employees’ verbal accounts of their own experiences and © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 N. Cvenkel, Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health, Approaches to Global Sustainability, Markets, and Governance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3619-9_16

371

372

16 Workplace Violence, Mistreatment, and Well-Being at Work …

perceptions of workplace violence. Three hundred and sixty-seven (367) questionnaire surveys completed by managers, union, and employees from across five different organisations were analysed. Twenty (20) telephone interviews were conducted with each interview lasting (60–75 min), tape-recorded, and transcribed verbatim. Two focus groups: one with 15 managers only and the other with 10 union representatives. Each focus group lasted (45–60 min), tape-recorded and transcribed verbatim. This research adopted an interpretivist approach, which allows a positivist and an interpretivist viewpoint that examines situations to establish the norm by using questionnaires, interviews, and focus groups. The mixed methodology is appropriate for addressing the research aims and provided insight into the lifeworld of participants, providing the opportunity for managers, union, and employees to share their personal experience of workplace violence. The data revealed that workplace violence was defined as physical, psychological, and social/relational factors. Physical factors include hitting a person, pushing, shoving, and throwing objects at a person. Psychological factors include different forms of threatening behaviour. Social/relational factors include offensive statements about one’s family, swearing at a person, name-calling, yelling at the person, family members threatening a person at work, criticising a person in front of co-workers, negative comments about looks and religion. The findings reveal that definition, experiences, and drivers of workplace violence are associated with threatening behaviour, discrimination, bullying and harassment, work-life conflict, seniority and overtime, poor job design, workplace stress, mental health, substance abuse, blue colour male-dominated environment, and jealousy and distrust. These salient points provide a basis for broader research in this area. Therefore, organisations in the forestry industry, other Canadian industries, and organisations in other countries wishing to understand better workplace violence could focus efforts through these salient issues to prevent workplace violence through the promotion and implementation of employee well-being, leadership, corporate social responsibility to promote an organisational environment and conditions that fosters a respectful workplace and greater support for employees mental health and safety at work. This research has relevance for employee well-being, employee support that focuses on personal and emotional difficulties, the employment relationship, mental health at work, corporate social responsibility, human resources management, leadership, and performance, and for practitioners and academics alike. Insights obtained from this research might help to develop educational tools and resources, and new policies to foster workplace practices conducive to reducing drivers to workplace violence towards a more respectful workplace and overall employee well-being.

16.2 Workplace Violence in the Forest Sector

373

16.2 Workplace Violence in the Forest Sector This research investigates employees’ experiences of workplace violence in forestry organisations in British Columbia, Canada. Research has shown the dangers at work in some Canadian workplaces (Chechak and Csiernik 2014). Research has also shown that health care, hospitality, and social service workers experience the highest rates of workplace violence and injury among Canadian workers (Boyd 1995; Pizzino 2000; Statistics Canada 2009). Given the broad amount of research conducted on workplace violence in diverse occupations, little to no research has occurred on workplace violence in the forestry industry in British Columbia, Canada. Little understanding exists of forestry workers’ experiences of workplace violence; furthermore, the drivers of violence against forestry workers in BC largely undocumented. Therefore, this research seeks to address these gaps. Section 4.27 of BC regulation on violence in the workplace defines workplace violence, in this context, as Incidents of violence including attempted or actual exercise(s) of physical force by a person, other than a worker, so as to cause injury to a worker and incudes any threatening statements or behavior which causes a worker to reasonably believe he or she is at risk of injury. (WorkSafeBC 2012, p. 2)

The Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety ([CCOHS] 2012) defines workplace violence as any act in which people experience abuse, threats, intimidation, or assault while employed. Workplace violence includes threatening behaviour, verbal/written threats, harassment, verbal abuse, and physical attacks.

16.3 Violence in the Workplace: Mapping the Terrain Research has suggested that workplace violence existed in the early twentieth century; however, the topic has only recently received earnest attention (Chechak and Csiernik 2014). Workplace violence has grown in popularity in academia, in occupational health and safety, mental health, and now includes employment and human rights legislation in all provinces in Canada. Research has also suggested that workplace violence developed into an increasing concern over the last decade, particularly in Canada, the USA, the United Kingdom (UK), Europe, and Australia. Workplace sectors most exposed to violence include health and social work, with healthcare workers at a higher risk of workplace violence (Henderson 2010). Elliot (1997) estimated that healthcare workers face 16 times the risk of violence from patients/clients as compared to what other service workers face. Other sectors exposed to violence include the transportation sector, public administration and defence, hotels and restaurants, education, and other service activities. For occupations, workers in life science and health professions are among the highest affected occupations for workplace violence. Personal and protective service workers represent the second occupational group affected by workplace violence, followed

374

16 Workplace Violence, Mistreatment, and Well-Being at Work …

by life science and health associate professionals, drivers and mobile plant operators, customer service clerks, and teaching professionals (Parent-Thirion et al. 2007).

16.4 The Crisis of Work—the Canadian Context Natural Resource Industry organisations in Canada produce and ship large quantities of lumber to Canadian manufacturers and international organisations. Natural Resource Industry organisations contribute to the economic condition of the Canadian wood industry and Canada’s GDP (Statistics Canada 2015). BC has beautiful forests; however, for over a decade, tragedy has unfolded in BC’s interior forests. The forests have experienced massive climate change, induced by the mountain pine beetle infestation (Henderson 2010). The implications of this change resulted in many Natural Resource Industry organisations closing, with numerous employees facing layoffs and or experiencing organisational changes and restructuring, requiring the faster production of logs/timbers and other materials within minimum budget levels. This situation created what Braverman (1999) referred to as ‘a crisis work environment’ (p. 20). This represents the workplace turning into stressful environment that threatens to destroy the health and, in some cases, the lives of working people. Braverman further argues that some of the causes of stress derive from unions and company management embattling and mistrusting the other, human resources and employee relations departments overwhelmed by the demands of unrelenting organisational change, and murderous domestic violence spilling into the workplace. Such environments foster competition and uncertainty that set people against one another, pushing many past their limits, and for many workers, these conditions have turned the workplace into a place of desperation, isolation, and despair (Braverman 1999; Tehrani 2012). The sources of stress on organisational systems represent multiple and complex issues that can originate from the work situation itself and or from outside the work environment, deriving from the community and family (Braverman 1999). Tehrani (2012) and Namie and Namie (2011) state that the causes of workplace violence range from the continuing stress of organisational restructuring; to an incident that kills, sickens, or maims; to an episode or pattern of abuse or harassment. Pauchant and Mitroff (1992) argue that leaders in crisis-prepared organisations understand that stress, which directly affects the people in their companies, can derive from diverse sources. This stress will have a direct impact on the health of their people and the success of their businesses (Baptiste 2008). Pauchant and Mitroff (1992) further posit that crisis-prepared businesses would have systems to alert them to stressors and danger signs that could trigger workplace violence. Some of the stressors and danger signs include conflicts between employees, including harassment, fights, threats, or severe breakdown in work group functioning; increasing diversity of the workforce, which can result in sexual harassment allegations and discrimination claims; morale, productivity, and a lack of safety arising in the midst of a downsizing or restructuring (Cobb 2015).

16.4 The Crisis of Work—the Canadian Context

375

The relentless pace of change, both inside the workplace and in society, continues to cause stress and disruptions that affect individuals and the work organisations they inhabit, causing a loss of job security for employees at all levels (Baptiste 2008). Furthermore, greater increased performance pressure causes stress levels to heighten for many employees, creating mounting concerns about violence and conflict within the workplace. Managers and health and safety professionals must confront confusing and complex workplace issues, involving drug and alcohol abuse, domestic violence, and mental health and behaviour problems, creating concerns about safety at work (Great Place to Work Institute Canada 2011). Additionally, employees in high-risk industries (e.g. retail, transportation, and health care) suffer high rates of fatal and nonfatal assault and threat at the hands of criminals, patients, and customers. Pauchant and Mitroff (1992) declared that as stress increases, both at home and at the everchanging workplace, instances of unstable and problematic behaviour increase as well. One may also view workplace violence as a crisis where every situation, involving a threat or act of violence, precedes early signs of trouble. Organisations that face crisis may experience high levels of grievances, indicating poor morale or labourmanagement conflict; incidents of assaults or threats from employees, clients, or customers; or requests for increased security on entering or leaving the facility at night (Pauchant and Mitroff 1992). Braverman (1999) suggested that the signs of an organisation in crisis might involve a single employee submitting a claim for stress, complaining of harassment, or reporting domestic abuse. The employment relationship provides a context in which employers can act effectively to evaluate and resolve the threat to safety, personal health, and financial health as well as to prevent and stop the damage of bullying and violence in the workplace (Namie and Namie 2011). A workplace can thrive only when its members feel positively connected to one another and when employees at all levels feel trusting towards the organisation as a whole (Baptiste 2008). When one handles change and trauma incorrectly, people at all levels of the organisation become nervous, unsure of their duties, and hesitant of their interdependence in relation to others in the structure, which results in critical breakdowns in trust and communication (Baptiste 2008; Chechak and Csiernik 2014). Therefore, within the employment relationship, when a breakdown of trust and communication occurs, people suffer in silence rather than reaching out for help; moreover, managers and supervisors hide worrisome or explosive situations rather than bringing them to the attention of their supervisors. Braverman (1999) stated that without trust in an organisation’s system, people do not communicate. Without communication, no early warning may occur; therefore, no opportunity will exist to take action to correct the error (Baptiste 2009). Therefore, violence at work occurs in the context of a larger system. Consequently, stresses affecting contemporary workplaces manifest directly in system-level crises, involving breakdowns in communication between workers and management, loss of morale and loyalty to the company, and the failure of systems designed to deal with conflict resolution, fairness, and physical security (Pauchant and Mitroff 1992). From an individual perspective, increasing alienation, stress, and helplessness lead

376

16 Workplace Violence, Mistreatment, and Well-Being at Work …

inevitably to dysfunctional, disruptive, and even dangerous behaviours (e.g. violence). Braverman (1999) opined that one could prevent workplace violence only by confronting these phenomena on a system level and only through proactive strategies. A key fundamental characteristic of the modern workforce includes that most employees remain at risk of workplace violence (Namie and Namie 2011). Chechak and Csiernik (2014) stated that a healthy workplace represents one where its employees, customers, and visitors do not feel subjected to actions or events that jeopardise their safety. Essentially, the responsibility to alleviate threats and violence represent values espoused by leaders in organisations. However, in reality, workplace violence does not contrive a rare occurrence with more than one-half of organisations with greater than 1000 employees in the USA acknowledging at least one incident in the year 2005 (Bureau of Labour Statistics 2006). Furthermore, despite the best efforts and intentions, not all actions seem foreseeable and preventable (Chechak and Csiernik 2014). Therefore, leadership at workplaces must develop an understanding of the range of actions that constitute workplace violence and a corresponding range of prevention initiatives. Research has demonstrated the number of challenges faced by leadership in the forestry industry in Canada, specifically in BC. For example, these challenges include: organisational restructuring, plant closures, job losses, job insecurity, increased production demands, and changes in working hours, workplace stress, work-life conflict, bullying and harassment, mental health issues, etc. These all represent factors that can contribute to: workplace violence. Furthermore, these issues have a negative influence on workers, leading to: significant social costs, negative health affects for safety and well-being and, productivity obstacles in BC, Canada, and trade partners abroad.

16.5 Workplace Violence and Harassment: Mapping the Canadian Terrain Work can represent a dangerous place in some Canadian workplaces (Chechak and Csiernik 2014; Pizzino 2000). Pizzino (2000) further argued that Canada has seen violence in the workplace emerge as a significant occupational health and safety problem in the last decade. For example, Boyd’s (1995) research on workplace violence in BC showed the face of workplace violence in BC between 1982 and 1992. The research included provincial workers and revealed the high existence of workplace violence in the healthcare industry between nurses, care aides, and their patients. The findings also revealed that occupations and environments, most likely to experience workplace violence, include nurses and healthcare workers in institutions, door attendants, bartenders, and servers in the alcohol-hospitality industry, taxi drivers, bus drivers, police officers, correctional officers, private security officers, and retail clerks and cashiers (Boyd 1995). Researchers have shown that violence, experienced by these workers, included punching in the head, jaw, and back; biting; kicking; and

16.5 Workplace Violence and Harassment: Mapping the Canadian …

377

robbing one by knifepoint (Chechak and Csiernik 2014). Consequences and injuries, sustained from violent incidents, entailed a strained back, broken arm, muscle strain to shoulder and neck, post-traumatic stress from the violent incident, injuries to back and head, and knee injury (Chechak and Csiernik 2014). According to the 2004 General Social Survey on victimisation, 17% of selfreported incidents of violent victimisation occurred in the workplace (as cited in Statistics Canada 2009). The reported incidents included sexual assault, robbery, and physical assault, which equated to 356,000 violent workplace incidents in 10 Canadian provinces throughout 2004. Newfoundland and Labrador experienced the highest level of workplace violence at 40%, followed by Saskatchewan and Alberta at 20% each, and Nova Scotia at 11% (Statistics Canada 2009). The survey showed that these victims of violence worked in social assistance or health care (33%), accommodation or food services (14%), and in education (11%; Statistics Canada 2009). In two out of three incidents, someone who knew the victim committed the violent act. Moreover, in 18% of these incidents, the victim knew the accused and was a coworker of the perpetrator. The researchers also found that in 38% of the reported incidents, the accused was someone known by the victim or had an ‘other’ type of relationship with the victim (e.g. a patient, a client, a customer, or a former coworker; Statistics Canada 2009). In 46% of incidents, the victim believed the incident related to the perpetrator’s use of drugs or alcohol (Statistics Canada 2009). The most commonly reported emotional consequences influencing victims included feelings of anger (21%); upset, confusion, or frustration (20%); and fear (15%; Statistics Canada 2009). Poll (2014) published that 45% of workers have felt bullied at their job; 26% of victims have left a job because of bullying; 26% of respondents said they felt bullied in their current position; 49% of victims said bosses were the perpetrators; 44% of victims reported the problem to HR; and 54% of those victims said no action was taken to resolve the problem. Poll (2014) found that nearly half (45%) of Canadian workers felt bullied on the job, and one in four workers who felt bullied had left a job because of bullying. Poll (2014) studied over 400 workers across industries and company sizes. The results showed that despite the prevalence of workplace bullying, many workers do not come forward to report it, and many of those who do, feel their complaints are not heard. For example, ‘Workers should feel comfortable coming forward if they feel they are being bullied, and employers should take these complaints seriously, as they can lead to larger problems that affect not just the individual employee, but the entire organisation’ (Poll 2014, para. 2). Respondents were asked to define bullying (Poll 2014). From intimidation to insults, bullying occurs in many forms. Respondents were asked how they felt bullied, and workers’ responses included: • 54% stated that they were falsely accused of making mistakes; • 51% stated they were ignored—their comments were dismissed or not acknowledged; • 37% said that the boss or co-workers constantly criticised them;

378

16 Workplace Violence, Mistreatment, and Well-Being at Work …

• • • • • •

35% said different standards or policies applied to them that did not apply to others; 35% stated that they were the topic of office gossip; 32% stated that co-workers made belittling comments about them during meetings; 24% said that the boss yelled at them in front of other co-workers; 21% stated that others purposely excluded them from projects or meetings; 16% stated that others picked on them for personal attributes (e.g. race, gender, appearance); and • 15% said that someone stole credit for their work (Poll 2014, para. 2). Of those who felt bullied at work, at least 2 in 5 (43%) said it was more than a one-time incident (Poll 2014). Poll (2014) also revealed that when it comes to the worst workplace bullies, those who have felt bullied at work said that bosses represented the number one tyrants (49%) followed by co-workers (47%). Thirty-two per cent of workplace bully victims said a customer was the culprit, and 23% felt victimised by management at the company, other than their boss (Poll 2014). Half of the office bullying victims said their bullies were older compared to them (50%), and nearly 3 in 10 (28%) said their bullies were younger. About 1 in 5 (22%) were bullied by people their own age (Poll 2014). With respect to reporting the problem, the majority of office workers chose to keep silent (Poll 2014). Only 44% of workplace bully victims reported the problem to HR, and half of those workers said no action occurred to relieve the situation (54%). More than half of those, who say they felt bullied, decided to take matters into their own hands (55%) with varying results (Poll 2014). Twenty-six per cent of workers said the bullying stopped when they confronted their tormenter; however, nearly the same number (28%) also confronted their bully only to see the bullying continue, and another 2% said the bullying got even worse (Poll 2014). With a pure probability sample of 422, one could say with a 95% probability that the overall results among Canadian employees have a sampling error of ±4.77 percentage points (Poll 2014). Sampling error for data from sub-samples is higher and varies (Poll 2014). The Queen’s School of Business (2014) concluded that harassment in Canadian workplaces had decreased by a small but significant amount since 2012. The Queen’s School of Business (2014), in which a Leger Marketing poll questioned a sample of 1501 Canadian workers in April 2014, found that 2% of respondents had personally experienced some form of workplace harassment at some time in their lives, while about 25% of the sample had witnessed co-workers harassing others. These numbers had lowered from 28% and 33%, respectively, from a similar poll conducted in 2012 (Queen’s School of Business 2014). While 31% of female respondents had experienced or were currently experiencing workplace harassment, as opposed to 22% of males. Furthermore, about 3 out of 10 men said they had witnessed harassment, while only 2 in 10 women had been witnesses (Queen’s School of Business 2014). Despite the slight decline in the research findings from 2012 and 2014, the researcher pointed out that workplace harassment remains a problem in Canada (Cobb 2015). The researcher also suggested that employers could tackle the problem through establishing policies with education and clear messages using a code of

16.5 Workplace Violence and Harassment: Mapping the Canadian …

379

conduct policy. The researcher also identified training as an approach that one may adopt to help with understanding workplace violence parameters. The researcher highlighted that one of the best predictors of whether an organisation will have high versus low levels of harassment include whether supervisors take harassment at work seriously. Therefore, the researcher called for leadership training and leadership enforcement to prevent and foster a harassment-free workplace (Cobb 2015). The Mental Health Commission of Canada ([MHCC] 2013) reported that in any given year, one in five people in Canada experience a mental health problem or illness, with a cost to the economy estimated to be in excess of $50 billion annually. Canadian voluntary standard for psychological health and safety in the workplace aims to promote employees’ psychological health and prevent psychological harm due to workplace factors to help Canadian workplaces address this issue (MHCC 2013). These standards provide a systematic approach to develop and sustain a psychologically healthy and safe workplace, including • the identification of psychological hazards in the workplace; • the assessment and control of the risks in the workplace associated with hazards that cannot be eliminated (e.g. stressors due to organisational change or reasonable job demands); • the implementation of practices that support and promote psychological health and safety in the workplace; • the growth of a culture that promotes psychological health and safety in the workplace; and • the implementation of measurement and review systems to ensure sustainability (MHCC 2013, para. 2).

16.6 Methodology In the present study, data was collected using questionnaire survey, semi-structured interviews, and focus groups with managers, union, and employees at five forestry organisations in British Columbia, Canada. A mixed methodological approach was adopted for this study. The study analysed 367 questionnaire surveys (41.24%) that were completed by managers, union representatives, and employees. Twenty semistructured interviews were completed with a diverse range of managers, union, and employees from five different organisations, with each interview lasting (60–75 min), tape-recorded, and transcribed verbatim. The two focus groups lasting (45–60 min), one with managers only and the second with union representatives and employees, explored the subjective perceptions of senior managers, directors, union representatives, and employees regarding their views concerning their experiences or workplace violence in the forestry industry. The five forestry organisations were to represent a variety of other forestry organisations throughout British Columbia and Canada. Respondents were interviewed with an aim of gaining information about his/her experiences, definition and drivers of workplace violence and implications for

380

16 Workplace Violence, Mistreatment, and Well-Being at Work …

employee well-being, leadership and corporate social responsibility. The questionnaire survey was analysed using descriptive and multivariate statistical analysis. The interview and focus group data were analysed using the phenomenological interpretative approach to analyse the qualitative data, assisted with repeated immersion into the data as a whole, leading to the categorisation into themes as described by (Giorgi 1985; Thorne et al. 1997). Narrative analysis was also used to assist with the analysis of the qualitative data retrieved from semi-structured interviews and focus groups. Thorne et al. (1997) pointed out that one of the foundations of knowledge from human subjects includes that, although shared aspects of experience exist, each person lives that experience from an individual perspective generated by unique life events. They argued that one could use interpretative description research to explore the uniqueness of each person’s experience while identifying the aspects of the phenomenon, common to everyone. The interpretative descriptive approach stays grounded in an interpretative orientation that acknowledges the constructed and contextual nature of much of social science research, similar to health-illness experience and other related employees’ experiences that also allows for shared realities (Thorne et al. 1997, p. 172). Therefore, in this research study, interpretative description provided the parameters regarding the collection and analysis of personal and highly sensitive data from participants. Interpretative description is uniquely suited to explore sensitive issues, such as workplace violence in Natural Resource Industry organisations in BC, where the knowledge of workplace violence may seem common to all. However, the experience of workplace violence, from the perspective of individuals’ historical accounts of events, can have a profound effect on each individual and by extension the organisation, families, and communities associated with them.

16.7 Results and Discussion The questionnaire survey, interviews, and focus groups findings reflect individuals’ own experiences about workplace violence in the forestry industry in British Columbia. 890 surveys were distributed to a total sample of workers across five forestry organisations in British Columbia. Participants completed 367 surveys, which represented a response rate of 41%, which remains statistically adequate for social science research in this field.

16.7.1 Demographics The findings show that 92.1% (338) of respondents were males; 7.4% (27) were females; and 0.5% (2) were transgendered individuals. More than half of respondents (51.5%) were over 50 years; 22.9% were 40–49 years; 24.2% were between 21 and 39 years; and 1.4% of respondents were less than 20 years. 60.5% (222) of

16.7 Results and Discussion

381

respondents were married; 19.9% were single, 13.6% were living with a partner; and 6% were divorced. More than half of respondents (52.3%) were educated to grade 12; 26.7% of respondents received a college and university education; and 20.7% were educated in trades. A small percentage of respondents (0.3%) did not have any formal education. Close to two-thirds of respondents, 64.6% (237), declared themselves Canadian; however, 8.4% defined themselves as Aboriginals; 8.2% East Indians; 6.3% English; 5.4% British Isles origins; 4.9% Scottish and German; and 4.6% Irish and Scandinavian origins. The rest of the sample derived from different ethic groups. For example, 3% of respondents (N = 11) checked the other box, which included ethic origins from German-Icelandic, Punjabi, Switzerland, Danish, Greek, African, Finnish, and Slovenia. More than three-quarter of respondents (84.5%) were hourly workers; 11.2% were management; 2.5% were administrative staff; and 1.9% indicated other. Regarding length of tenure with the organisation, 39% (143) of respondents worked at their organisation for 16 plus years. More than a quarter (28.6%) of respondents worked for 6–15 years; close to a quarter of respondents (23.7%) worked for one to five years; and 8.7% had worked for less than one year. The majority of respondents worked full-time (94%) and 6% worked part-time and on call.

16.7.2 Results As the participants give their portrayals of what their views and experiences were such as their thoughts, feelings, experiences, as well as situations, events, places, and people connected with their work experiences and definition of workplace violence are discussed. On occasions, the responses and explanations of the definition of workplace violence and experiences were different but yet familiar to others in similar situations. The findings will be discussed in the context of three perspectives: (1) Physical; (2) Psychological; and (3) Social/relational. Within these three perspectives, the study highlighted eleven superordinate themes that emerged from the analysis. These dimensions include threatening behaviour; physical, verbal, and emotional abuse; prejudice and discrimination; harassment and demeaning behaviour; mental health and substance abuse; work-life conflict; seniority and overtime; personality conflict; workplace stress; poor job design; and damage to personal and work property which are discussed in the following sections.

16.7.3 Employees’ Definition of Workplace Violence Respondents defined workplace violence as physical and psychological. More than 8% of respondents defined workplace violence as physical perspective. A total of 87.2% defined workplace violence as hitting a person; 86.6% defined workplace violence as pushing and shoving; and 85.8% defined workplace violence as throwing

382

16 Workplace Violence, Mistreatment, and Well-Being at Work …

objects at a person. Participants also defined workplace violence as using psychological perspective through different forms of threatening behaviour. A total of 80.9% of respondents defined violence as threatening to hit a person and threatening an individual’s personal safety (81.7%). More than 75% of respondents highlighted diverse threatening behaviour as violence. These includes threatening personal safety off work (79.6%), threatening the personal safety of family (77.1%), threatening messages (75.2%), kicking or shoving personal items (73.8%), giving the impression that they want to hurt a person (73.6%), and threatening the personal safety of friends (71.1%). Participants also defined workplace violence from a social/relational perspective. For instance, 64.6% of respondents defined violence as saying something about one’s family that was offensive. Respondents also defined workplace violence as • • • • • • • • • • • •

swearing at a person (64.3%), calling person names that are offensive (64%), yelling at a person (61.9%), having family members coming to work and threatening a person (61%), having someone come to work and threaten a person (60.5%), threatening a person about personal debt (59.9%), criticising a person in front of workers (56.4%), making negative comments about a person’s religion (54.8%), gossiping about a person (51%), telling a person that he or she will be fired (50.1%), saying something offensive about how a person conducts work (49.9%), and making fun of a person’s looks (48.8%).

Other definitions of workplace violence associated with the physiological and social/relational continuum. More than half of the respondents, 55.9% (N = 205), indicated other in their definition of workplace violence. The other category highlighted behaviours associated with verbal abuse, destroying property, shaking fists, throwing objects, harassment and demeaning behaviour, threatening behaviour, threats to commit suicide, age discrimination, and defacing personal property.

16.7.3.1

Threatening Behaviour

Psychological violence behaviour. Respondents defined this as behaviour that created mental and emotional distress to a person. Psychological violence behaviour also encapsulates the impact of workplace violence on the victim and other co-workers that remains associated with threatening behaviour that affects an individual personal safety at work, their personal safety off the worksite, and the personal safety of family and friends off the worksite. Threatening behaviour also entails individuals receiving threatening emails, a person giving the impression that they want to hurt a person, and work/domestic violence. All respondents highlighted threatening behaviour in their definition of workplace violence. This theme occurs in Table 16.1,

16.7 Results and Discussion

383

Table 16.1 Respondents’ experiences of threatening behaviour Management

‘Employees are using their cell phones to send threatening messages while they were at work. There was an employee who was threatening to bring a gun to work to shoot others, things like this actually happens……there are frustrations that spill over and results in verbal threats’

Union

‘Emotional threats, threatening emails, threatening sign language, verbal and physical threats are all part of violence that threatens a person’s emotional and physical well-being’

Employees

‘Threatening behavior and physical gestures and sign language like pointing to a co-worker making a sign like a gun – threatening sign language and other perceived threats to persons directly……anyone that is threatened by anyone, from how people talk to me or react around me, this can be my co-workers or employer if they are threatening my personal safety, this is workplace violence and this is not supposed to happen’

demonstrating the narratives from managers, union, and employee respondents. Psychological violence behaviour. Most respondents defined workplace violence as verbal abuse and threatening behaviour, which they personally experienced at the forestry organisation. One respondent’s experience captured this theme: Verbal abuse or any expression of any intent to inflict harm…. I experienced verbal abuse daily at the mill. Workers destroying property, set up equipment to hit you, throwing objects at you, chasing you, and having someone you know but who does not work with you, come on the work site and threaten you…. any threats of violence communicated in any way or form is violence. (Employee 10)

Physical violence behaviour. Most respondents defined physical aggression as carnal altercations at the workplace associated with hitting, pushing, shoving, throwing objects at a person, kicking at or shoving personal belongings, fighting, and pranks. One employee shared an experience of physical violence: I had a radio and a co-worker thought I had his radio and he was saying something as he walked towards me but I could not hear what he was saying because of the noise, when he came up to me, he was swearing at me and accusing me of having his radio. I told him that this was my radio and I did not appreciate being spoken to like that. I turned around and began to walk away and he jumped on my back; so I preceded to remove him from off my back. (Employee 5)

Threats. This represented another theme that explained Natural Resource Industry organisation workers’ experiences of workplace violence. Threats experienced by respondents include verbal violence/threats to personal and family safety, gun violence threats, and physical threats such as poking co-workers. One manager’s narrative highlighted this theme: There were some gun violence threats and this was very violent and the rumor mill ran with lots of talk in the community regarding this incident…. but we kept everyone updated on this. (Manager 2)

384

16.7.3.2

16 Workplace Violence, Mistreatment, and Well-Being at Work …

Prejudice and Discrimination

Social/relational violence behaviour. Respondents also defined workplace violence with the theme social/relational violence. This researcher categorised workplace violence by using this theme and included behaviours that seemed psychological and emotional to individuals, which could affect their emotional and mental health. The researcher found that behaviours associated with this theme related to prejudiced behaviour, such as racial, gender, age, and sexual orientation discrimination. One employee’s definition of workplace violence that existed in the Natural Resource Industry organisation captured prejudiced behaviour: Prejudice behavior at work is another form of workplace violence. I have experienced being told to ‘go back to India!’….any type of violence that can hurt and harm a group of people is violence and racism is another form of violence. Saying things to harm somebody is a form of bullying and violence. (Employee 13)

Discrimination. This also described Natural Resource Industry organisation workers’ experiences of workplace violence. Respondents highlighted gender and racial discrimination as well as unfair work practices as discrimination that have been experienced at the Natural Resource Industry organisation. An employee’s narrative explained this theme: I have seen management put a job posting up and they will see who wants the position and if someone who they don’t like applies for the position, they will take the posting down and you will not hear about the job again because they will make sure that the person they want to get the job, gets the job, instead of keeping it fair with all employees…. I will call this practice as violence. (Employee 1)

Racial discrimination. This represented another driver of workplace violence in Natural Resource Industry organisations. An employee statement captured this point: There are usually groups of people among the workers that bully and harass people from different ethnic groups. If somebody don’t like something that was done, the comments would be like….’ that East Indian did it’, the comments will always be derogatory. (Employees 12)

16.7.3.3

Harassment and Demeaning Behaviour

A sub-theme associated with social/relational violence behaviour included bullying and harassment. The findings revealed that workers in the Natural Resource Industry organisations defined bullying and harassment behaviour as swearing, inappropriate language, yelling, shouting, name-calling, mobbing, intimidation, taunting, belittling, gossiping, and isolating a person. One respondent’s narrative on harassment defined workplace violence. The employee stated: Mobbing happens at the Natural Resource Industry organisation, it can be verbal and physical and it’s all about singling you out. Mobbing is the culture that we have here, when group efforts are made to make you feel that you are not wanted here, and I have experienced this

16.7 Results and Discussion

385

personally…they (group of co-workers) get the green light from the manager to do this. They don’t like a woman with an opinion. (Employee 8)

Bullying and harassment theme. Respondents shared their experiences of being yelled at, made fun of in front of co-workers, being criticised in front of other workers, gossiped about, called offensive names, experiencing facial expressions that let them know dissatisfaction levels; setting one up to fail, humiliation and shaming, intimidation, mobbing, vandalism, and aggression and physical violence. One union representative narrative captured this theme: Physical violence still occurs in the workplace…yes, an old scolding still exists, but the new generation uses new methods to bully others. One guy was physically poking another guy in the chest saying things like you are late coming back from lunch …violence still happens. (Union Representative 6)

Psychological violence behaviour: Respondents also defined workplace violence as behaviour that feels harassing, demeaning, belittling, and discriminating. One respondent’s comments capture these themes: Harassment and any behavior that demeans, embarrass or humiliate. I experience being told over and over again that you should retire now as I am 62. I have experience people trying to put me in trouble with the company. I witnessed a guy personal photo defaced with a felt pen, and the picture was posted throughout the Mill. (Employee 18)

16.7.3.4

Work-Life Conflict

This represented another theme that explained Natural Resource Industry organisation workers’ experiences of workplace violence. Respondents discussed poor family relationships, substance and alcohol abuse, mental health problems, financial challenges, personality and personal challenges, and childhood molestation as factors that contribute to work-life conflict that spills over into the workplace in the form of violence. One manager captured this theme: Yes, I have witnessed violence at work and it makes you feel that when you are at work you better watch your step. People coming to work and they all face different challenges for the day, night and during the week and they come to work because they are trying to make a living. If Uncle Harry beat up Aunty Martha and if someone comes to work with this stress it acts out at the workplace. Some people will be mentally abusive, like ignoring people and doing things to get under a person’s skin at work. There is no place for this in the workplace and you have to try not to act up at work. A person may have had a deficient childhood or you were molested as a child, these people are the ones that show up at work. It may be something that went on at home that actually causes this. It is another thing that people harbor these things that eventually plays out as violence at work. Some people have grief support…if not dealt with the volcano can erupt into violence. (Manager 8)

This theme highlighted personal challenges in a small community that spills over into the workplace. An employee commented on work-life conflict that drove workplace violence in Natural Resource Industry organisations. He stated:

386

16 Workplace Violence, Mistreatment, and Well-Being at Work …

People don’t see what people are challenged with. Someone may have a mental issue, family issues, debt, etc. Living in a small community you will know who has issues and who people’s friends are. We need to take a different approach on how to handle and assist people … stress at home is a driver of workplace violence…the fear of losing your job is another driver of workplace violence. (Employee 17)

Financial challenge represented another work-life conflict that drove workplace violence. A union representative shared his experience. The new era, they are spending lots of money like water and they flip out easily and they stress out when they are in debt. This causes people to stress out and flip out easily so they are finding it difficult to control their anger. We need to have education on anger management and how to cope with stress. There is also a need to put out posters and make information available to everybody. (Union Representative 3)

16.7.3.5

Seniority and Overtime

This represented another theme that explained Natural Resource Industry organisation workers’ experiences of workplace violence. The research findings revealed that workers with seniority were bullied and harassed by less senior employees regarding overtime. An employee’s narrative highlighted this theme: Everybody comes to work and they want to get away with things and doing less than the next person and this whole seniority thing, they want the same privileges as people who have been in place for 30-40 years compared to someone who have been working for 5 years. People with less seniority would like overtime like people with more seniority. People with less seniority will start to bully and harass those with more seniority and tease them saying things like ‘money bag’ and other derogatory things … I have experienced this personally. People will lie, steel and backstab to get what they want. (Employee 15)

16.7.3.6

Mental Health and Substance Abuse

This represented another theme that reflected the Natural Resource Industry organisation workers’ experiences of workplace violence. Respondents highlighted factors, such as bipolar disorder, alcohol abuse, family disorder and crisis, grief and anger, and mental health disorder as challenges that have affected their experiences of workplace violence. A supervisor/manager narrative supported this theme: I had my life threatened by one of the workers. He was held off work for a while and he returned to work and I was not told anything about his return. I am not impressed on the way it (violence incident investigation) was handled … I believe that the perpetrator had a bipolar disorder, was an alcoholic and his kids were killed in an accident a few years ago…so he has a lot of issues that he was dealing with, but he threatened my life, so that’s violence. (Supervisor/Manager, 9)

16.7 Results and Discussion

387

16.7.4 Employees’ Experiences of Workplace Violence Respondents were asked about their experiences of violence at their respective forestry organisation. Most of respondents’ experiences of violence associated with social/relational and psychological violence. For instance, 63.5% of respondents experienced yelling; 48% of respondents experienced swearing; and 31.6% of respondents experienced offensive name-calling. Moreover, 39.5% experienced gossiping; 33.8% were made fun of in front of other workers; 18.8% were made fun of in private; and 33% were criticised in front of co-workers. A trend of harassment and demeaning behaviour seemed to exist at the forestry organisation with more than half of respondents (52.6%) experiencing being the subject of others’ amusement, and they were made fun of in private and in front of other workers. In addition, 25.9% said that they experienced facial expressions that let them know someone felt dissatisfied with them; 24.3% experienced being set up to fail by not receiving information to do their job; and 20.4% experienced someone saying something offensive about how people did their work. Other violence experiences included: threatening emails, pushing and shoving, hitting, throwing objects at a person, kicking personal belongings, saying something about one’s family that was offensive, giving the impression that they would hurt a person, being told that a person might get fired, being told that a person cannot stand or sit near them, experiencing negative comments about a person’s looks and religion, and receiving threats about personal safety on and off the worksite as well as the personal safety of a person’s friends and family. Respondents were asked if they witnessed workplace violence over the last 12 months at their respect organisations. 89.6% of respondents witnessed inappropriate language; 77.7% of respondents witnessed co-workers being yelled at. Respondents also witnessed co-workers experiencing the following violent acts in Table 16.2. Respondents were asked that over the last 12 months or tenure at the organisation to share their personal experiences of workplace violence. Close to half of the respondents (47.1%) personally experienced being yelled at by another worker at the organisation. A little more than a third of respondents (34.1%) never experienced workplace violence at the organisation; 31.3% of respondents experienced being poked fun of by another worker at the organisation; 30.5% were sworn at by another worker at the organisation; 21.3% felt bullied by another worker at the organisation; and 21.5% felt harassed by another worker at the organisation. A small percentage of respondents (3.5%) experienced threatening and inappropriate behaviours. Respondents were asked to indicate the direction of violence that has been witnessed at their organisation in the last 12 months. Most respondents (93.5%) indicated that workplace violence occurred between employee and employee. A little more than a quarter of respondents (25.9%) indicated that violence occurred between employee and supervisor. A small percentage of violence occurred between union official and supervisor (2.5%), former employee and supervisor (2.2%), and union official and union employee (2.2%).

388

16 Workplace Violence, Mistreatment, and Well-Being at Work …

Table 16.2 Witnessed workplace violence Witnessed workplace violence over the last 12 months

Percentage (%)

Being sworn at

57.2

Being called offensive names

52.6

Experienced gossiping

53.1

Saying negative things about someone

52

Verbal abuse

51

Making negative comments about someone in front of co-workers

42.8

Saying something offensive about how another co-worker was doing his/her job

42

Gossiping about them

39.5

Talking negatively about immigrants

33

Saying negative things about the way someone looks

30.8

Talking negatively about older workers

30.5

Joking about interfering with someone’s work

30

Talking negatively about people who were non-white

29.6

Talking negatively about gay people

29.4

Talking negatively about females

28.9

Threatening to hit someone

27

Talking negatively about Aboriginal people

26.7

Verbal threats of violence

18

Physical violence

8.2

Sexual harassment

4.6

Suicide and self-directed violence

3.8

Respondents were asked about how they responded to workplace violence at their forestry organisation. For example, 62% of respondents strongly agreed and agreed that they tried to stop violent behaviour when they see it; 32.7% of respondents were neutral in their response. More than half of the respondents (52.8%) indicated that they would talk to the victim when they witness violent acts; 37.6% of respondents indicated that they talk to the aggressor when they witness violent acts; and 72.3% of respondents state that if someone were violent to them, they would tell them to stop. More than half of the respondents (58.6%) indicate that they would report violent incidents to the supervisor. More than one-third of respondents (38.4%) state that they would report violent incidents to the union representative. Neutral responses ranged from 23.8 to 47.8%. A low percentage of respondents strongly disagreed to responding to violent behaviours at work (Table 16.3).

Strongly agree (%) 15.5 12.3 10.4 25.5 20.1 10.5

Answer options

a. I try to stop violent behaviour when I see it

b. I talk to the victim when I witness violent acts

c. I talk to the aggressor when I witness violent acts

d. If someone is violent with me, I tell them to stop

e. I report violent incidents to the supervisor

f. I report violent incidents to the union representative

Table 16.3 Answers to survey about violent behaviours at work

27.9

38.5

46.8

27.2

40.5

46.6

Agree (%)

47.2

32.1

23.8

47.8

38.9

32.7

Neutral (%)

11.0

6.9

2.7

13.2

7.7

4.9

Disagree (%)

3.3

2.5

1.1

1.4

0.5

0.3

Strongly disagree (%)

2.69

2.33

2.07

2.68

2.44

2.28

Rating average (%)

362

364

365

364

365

367

Response count (%)

16.7 Results and Discussion 389

390

16 Workplace Violence, Mistreatment, and Well-Being at Work …

16.7.5 Drivers of Workplace Violence Respondents were asked about behaviours that they have experienced and perceived to be drivers of workplace violence. 62.9% of respondents state that personality conflict is a driver of workplace violence. Half of respondents indicated that work-related stress (49.9%) represented a driver of workplace violence. Poor working relationships (36%), mistrust or miscommunication (33.8%), job dissatisfaction (31.1%), emotional problems (28.9%), drug alcohol abuse (24%), and mental illness (21.8%) all represented key drivers of workplace violence in Natural Resource Industry organisations in BC. Other drivers of workplace violence associated with the employment relationship, the work environment, organisational restructuring and change, and personal difficulties.

16.7.5.1

Poor Job Design

The findings from the interviews and focus group, the majority of respondents highlighted workplace stress as a major driver of workplace violence. Managers and union representatives discussed ‘monotonous jobs and poor job design’ as factors that drove workplace stress and eventually workplace violence. A manager shared his experience. He stated: The monotony of some jobs, some guys who have extra time on their hands and they are trying to poke fun at other workers…..this happens because of boredom. (Manager 04)

Union representatives also highlighted monotonous jobs and poor job design as factors that drove workplace violence. One union representative shared: The employees need education in this area…the employers create the shifts, production numbers, workloads, and people having boring jobs that they have no control over – it is a boring, repetitive job. Some of these jobs can change to create variety so we can get over long hours shifts. (Union Representative, 5)

16.7.5.2

Workplace Stress

An employee’s comment also captured the theme workplace stress because of experiencing a ‘high paced environment with pressure to perform and produce’ as drivers of workplace violence. He noted: The Mill is a very stressful environment and you have 150 people that work at the mill that don’t want to be there … it is a stressful and high paced environment. Then you have stress factors from outside the workplace. The Mill is a busy and very high volume fast-paced environment where you have to keep working to keep up, and there is pressure to perform and produce. (Employee 7)

16.7 Results and Discussion

16.7.5.3

391

Mental Health and Substance Abuse

This represented another driver of workplace violence. One manager’s narrative captured this point. He said: There is mental health and substance abuse issues as well that contribute towards workplace violence … because of these issues how the guys communicate with each other becomes an issue. We have a lot of employees that work with each other for a very long time and due to mental health problems, violence happens. (Manager 11)

16.7.5.4

Blue Colour Male-Dominated Environment

This represented another theme that reflected a driver of workplace violence in Natural Resource Industry organisations in BC. One employee’s comments reflected this theme: You don’t have to have a college education to get a job so this is not a high skilled labor force so they have some old school type of mentality … it is predominately male dominated environment so guys are going to puff out their chest and intimidate others to get their way. (Employee 8)

16.7.5.5

Jealousy and Distrust

This entailed another factor that drove workplace violence at Natural Resource Industry organisations in BC. An employee’s narrative captured this point: The person doing the bullying is usually jealous of the person that they are bullying and the reason they don’t like that person at all. They are so many different variables but most of the time, it is jealousy and mistrust. (Employee 9)

16.8 Discussion and Conclusion The study found that threatening behaviour, verbal abuse, physical aggression, disrespectful workplace, demeaning culture, mental health, substance abuse, work-life conflict, and blue colour male-dominated environment promoted negative well-being at work (i.e. distrust, poor working relationships, discrimination, jealousy, etc.), which are consequences of leadership practices and corporate social responsibility that are likely to hinder employee well-being, engagement, and productivity, and more likely to promote workplace violence. Moreover, it can also reduce morale, job satisfaction, and eventually performance (Warr 2002).

392

16 Workplace Violence, Mistreatment, and Well-Being at Work …

In contrast, a culture of positive well-being, health, resilience, optimism, and fostering and maintaining a respectful workplace are likely to promote positive wellbeing and demonstrate a culture of feeling valued were seen as factors that promote well-being and provided zero tolerance for workplace violence. Respectful workplaces, trust, and good working relationships were seen as factors that promote well-being at work (Baptiste 2008). The leadership practices and CSR adopted by management and HR will dictate how these factors are promoted. Employees’ definition and experiences of workplace violence were associated with physical, psychological, and social/relational factors. Physical factors were associated with hitting, pushing, and shoving a person. Psychological factors included threatening behaviour from employees to employees, as well as threats to personal safety, threats about personal debt, friends and family of employees threatening workers on behalf of their family member, and threatening to fire a person. The social/relational factor is associated with swearing, name-calling, yelling, criticising a person in front of co-workers, negative comments about religion, gossiping, offensive statements, and making fun of a person’s looks. Experiences of violence include inappropriate language, verbal abuse, harassment, discrimination, demeaning behaviour, fighting, pranks, and mobbing. The research found that the direction of violence is fundamentally employee to employee. Violence also occurs between employees and supervisors. The drivers of workplace violence include personality conflicts, work-related stress, work-life conflict, mental health, discrimination, poor working relationships, mistrust and miscommunication, job dissatisfaction, and other personal and work organisational factors. The research finding associated with employees’ definition of workplace violence supports the literature conceptualisation and theorisation of workplace violence with reference to threatening behaviour. The findings show that forestry workers definition and experiences of violence are associated with threats to their personal safety on and off work. The findings also extended the understanding of threatening behaviour, because in addition to receiving threats to their personal safety on and off work, respondents also received threats about personal debt, and they experienced family members of co-workers coming on the worksite to threaten them. Employees also received threats about the safety of their friends and family on and off work that caused them to believe that their personal safety and that of their friends and family were at risk. Edwards’ (2009) research found that each day workers face potential threatening experiences that include, but are not limited to, bullying, harassment, or physical aggressive acts by co-workers, supervisors, clients, or people extraneous to the work environment. These threatening behaviour findings supported WorkSafeBC’s (2012) definition of workplace violence. Moreover, vast literature exists on the social phenomenon of workplace violence and the behaviours and activities associated with its definition. Threats to individuals at work is a common conduct found in the literature to describe workplace violence. However, threats to individuals off work, threats due to personal debt, having family members come on the worksite to threaten an individual, as well as threats to workers’ family and friends seem understated in the literature; as such,

16.8 Discussion and Conclusion

393

these findings contribute to the body of knowledge, with particular reference to the forestry organisations in BC, Canada. Employees’ definition, experiences and drivers of workplace violence in the forestry industry are associated with the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) Management Standards of demands, control, relationship, and support. The HSE (2009) implemented Management Standards, which the forestry industry employers could use to reduce workplace stress, promote a positive working environment, avoid worklife conflict, and deal with unacceptable behaviour that could lead to workplace violence. Demands. These findings showed that the work environment was challenging on forestry workers who faced exposure to poor job design, monotonous jobs, high job demands, fast paced, and pressured environment. The workers felt subjected to high workloads with varying shift patterned working, long hours working, and for some employees, working alone was common. This pressurised environment resulted in employees experiencing work-related stress, negative well-being, and job dissatisfaction. The demands of this high-pressure environment also resulted in workplace violence that respondents described by defining their experiences of workplace violence. Control. This included respondents not having much control over their pace of work to develop new skills or feel encouraged to develop new skills to help them undertake new and challenging pieces of work (HSE 2009). These findings showed that the current forestry industry system does not facilitate the employees having control over work patterns and the work that they do. These repetitive and uninteresting jobs result in workers using pranks against each other as well as displaying attitudes and behaviours that foster a violent workplace (e.g. harassment, threats, and discrimination). Relationships. The Health and Safety Management Standard that is associated with relationship theme includes employers promoting positive behaviours at work to avoid conflict and ensure fairness, so that workers were not subjected to unacceptable behaviours, such as bullying at work, and that systems remained in place to respond to any individual concerns. The findings expressed by the blue colour male-dominated environment, the forestry workers experience poor relationships where there was a lack of trust, miscommunication, jealousy, unfairness, inequity, discrimination, and unacceptable behaviour in the employment relationship. This dysfunction resulted in fostering a stressful and disrespectful atmosphere, which resulted in workplace violence. Poor relationships off work also played a key role as workers with worklife conflict brought additional challenges to the workplace, especially to forestry organisations that resided in smaller communities in BC, Canada, conflicts from home spilled over into the work environment. Support suggests that forestry organisations should develop manager’s leadership capacity, CSR, policies and procedures, and employee well-being to support employees adequately, to promote and maintain a respectful and resilient workplace (HSE 2009). Therefore, forestry organisations should focus attention to removing the drivers of workplace violence through promoting the health, safety, and well-being of workers. Bronfenbrenner (1979) and the Health and Safety Executive (2003) state that

394

16 Workplace Violence, Mistreatment, and Well-Being at Work …

violence is multifaceted and is a product of various levels of influence in behaviour and focuses on the individual, relationship, community, and societal levels. Bronfenbrenner further argues that violence could be caused by different factors that an individual brings to his or her work. This could relate to biological and demographic factors, such as impulsivity, low educational attainment, substance abuse, and prior history of aggression and abuse. This knowledge will assist leaders to develop policies, practices, and systems to better support people that come to work. The implications of this study for workplace well-being, leadership, and corporate social responsibility can contribute to developing a respectful forestry industry workforce, which has zero tolerance for workplace violence, and more positively predisposed towards organisational change, work stress, mental health, work-life conflict, individual challenges, and other employment relationship challenges. Moreover, despite the mediating effects and experiences of workplace violence being evident and the existence of negative well-being, leadership, and CSR, leaders and practitioner can use the model in Fig. 16.1 to frame and focus organisational assessments and intervention against workplace violence. Therefore, organisational leaders, managers, HR and health and safety practitioners, policymakers and leaders throughout BC, Canada, and other countries can use this model to better understand the definition,

DefiniƟon & Experiences of Workplace Violence Threatening behaviour; verbal abuse; inappropriate language; physical aggression; harassing and demeaning behaviour; swearing; name calling; yelling at a person; prejudice and discriminaƟon; seniority and overƟme

Drivers of Workplace Violence Personality conflict; Work-life conflict; mental health; substance abuse; emoƟonal problems; job dissaƟsfacƟon; workplace stress; poor job design; jealousy and distrust; blue color male dominated environment; and poor working relaƟonships

OrganizaƟonal Factors Leadership; HRM, Corporate Social Responsibility, OrganizaƟonal Restructuring & Change, ProducƟvity (levels of stability)

Personal & OrganizaƟonal Outcomes Employee Well-Being; Health; Resilience; OpƟmism; Trust; Respecƞul Workplace

Fig. 16.1 Dynamic model of workplace violence: employees perspective

16.8 Discussion and Conclusion

395

employees’ experiences, and drivers of workplace violence. This knowledge can be used to target factors that prevent workplace violence and promote a respectful organization, which in turn can be used to influence productivity, sustainability, health and safety at work, and turnover intentions. Similarly, this can have far-reaching effect by empowering and promoting well-being, leadership and corporate social responsibility that can be used as catalysts to uproot and eliminate workplace violence in organisations. Once workplace violence is tackled effectively in organisations, it will prevent the high price of ‘crisis’ attached to individuals, organisations, community, and the society as a whole, for doing nothing.

References Baptiste, N. R. (2008). Line management leadership: Implications for employee well-being at work. In: Developing Leadership Research: Papers from the Northern Leadership Academy Fellows 2007 Conference. UK: Leeds University Business School, Leeds University Press. Baptiste, N. R. (2009). Fun at well-being: Insights from senior managers in a local authority. Employee Relations, 31, 600–612. Boyd, N. (1995). Violence in the workplace in British Columbia: A preliminary investigation. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 37(4), 491–519. Braverman, M. (1999). Preventing workplace violence: A guide for employers and practitioners. London, England: Sage. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2006). Survey of workplace violence prevention. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor. Canadian Center for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS). (2012). Violence in the workplace. Retrieved from www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/psychosocial/violence.html. Chechak, D., & Csiernik, R. (2014). Canadian perspectives on conceptualizing and responding to workplace violence. Journal of Workplace Behavior Health, 29, 55–74. Cobb, E. P. (2015). Workplace bullying, violence, harassment, discrimination and stress: International laws, developments, resources and tools. Workplace Bullying, Violence, Harassment, Discrimination and Stress 2014/2015. Edwards, C. (2009). Workplace violence: Ever-evolving OH&S obligations and worker rights. Canadian Occupational Safety, 47(1), 9. Elliot, P. (1997). Violence in health care: What nurse managers need to know. Nursing Management, 28(12), 38–41. Giorgi, A. (1985). Phenomenology and psychological research. PA: Pittsburgh Duquesne University Press. Great Place to Work Institute Canada. (2011). Mental health in Canadian workplaces: Investigating employer’s best practices. Human Resources and Skills Development Canada, Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, 2011. Health and Safety Executive. (2003). Preventing workplace harassment and violence: Joint guidance implementing an European partner agreement. Project organized with support from the European Commission. Retrieved from https://www.hse.gov.uk/. Health and Safety Executive. (2009). How to tackle work-related stress: A guide for employers on making management standards work. Retrieved from www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg430.pdf. Henderson, A. (2010). Nurses experience of workplace violence: Towards effective intervention. Canada: WorkSafeBC.

396

16 Workplace Violence, Mistreatment, and Well-Being at Work …

Mental Health Commission of Canada. (2013). Press release. Retrieved from https://www. mentalhealthcommission.ca/English/system/files/private/document/Standard_MediaRelease_ FINAL_ENG.pdf. Accessed April 16, 2016. Namie, G., & Namie, R. F. (2011). The bully free workplace: Stop jerks, weasels, and snakes from killing your organization. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Wiley. Parent-Thirion, A., Fernandez Macias, E., Hurley, J., & Vermeylen, G. (2007). Fourth European conditions survey. European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Pauchant, T. C., & Mitroff, I. I. (1992). Transforming the crisis-prone organization: Preventing individual, organizational and environmental tragedies. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Pizzino, A. (2000). Dealing with violence in the workplace: The experience of Canadian unions. Security Journal, 13(1), 53–62. Poll, H. (2014). Bullying in the Canadian Workplace Poll 2014. Retrieved from https://www. careerbuilder.ca/ca/share/aboutus/pressreleasesdetail.aspx?sd=11%2F13%2F2014&id=pr68& ed=12%2F31%2F2014. Accessed January 20, 2018. Queen’s School of Business. (2014). Research on workplace harassment in Canada workplaces. Retrieved from http://www.ohscanada.ca/health-safety/study-reveals-slight-decline-inworkplace-harassment/1003140322/=Fer?NA. Accessed April 4, 2018. Statistics Canada. (2009). The Canadian lumber industry: Recent trends. Retrieved from https:// www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-621-m/11-621-m2007055-eng.htm. Accessed June 5, 2017. Statistics Canada. (2015). Natural resource industry organisations. Retrieved from www.23.statcan. gc.ca/imdb/p2SV.pl?Function=getSurvey&DDS=2134. Accessed August 10, 2017. Tehrani, N. (2012). Workplace bullying: Symptoms and solutions. London, England: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. Thorne, S., Kirkham, S. R., & MacDonald-Emes, J. (1997). Interpretive description: A noncategorical qualitative alternative for developing nursing knowledge. Research in Nursing and Health, 20, 169–177. Warr, P. (2002). Psychology at work. Suffolk: Penguin Group Books. WorkSafeBC. (2012). Take care: How to develop and implement a workplace violence prevention program. Canada: Author.

Chapter 17

Line Management Leadership, Governance, and Sustainability for Employee Well-Being at Work

Abstract Though essential, the achievement of business-oriented performance outcomes has obscured the importance of employee well-being at work, which is a neglected area of inquiry within the field of HRM. Focusing on employees’ views of line management leadership and its implications for employee well-being at work has received little attention. This study discusses preliminary findings from ongoing research and presents a better understanding of the diversity of experiences employees receive within their organization based on leadership practices and its implications for well-being at work, service delivery, and performance. The research described in this chapter was conducted at a local government organization in North England. Using the technique of interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) provided insight into the lifeworld of participants, providing the opportunity for employees to share their personal experience of leadership on the front line and its implication for employee well-being at work. The impact of the findings for line management leadership and employee well-being at work and performance is discussed.

17.1 The Global Market The rising dependencies on the global market have and continue to place an everincreasing burden on those of working age in the delivery of products and services. In turn, this has had an adverse effect on the health and well-being of workers, resulting in high cost to business and the public purse (MacDonald 2005). For example, public sector absence levels (and associated costs) are now estimated to be nearly ten days per employee every year (DWP 2005); with stress and other mental health conditions now being the leading causes of employee absence (CIPD 2007). Moreover, the issue of employee well-being at work has increasingly attracted government attention, as employment continues to change (DWP 2005), and concentration on problems such as absenteeism and accidental injury is giving way to a broader vision of what a healthier, happier, and more productive workforce can achieve in terms of higher performance and productivity (DWP 2005; ESRC 2006). Therefore, the fundamental principle outlined by policymakers is that all working-age people have the opportunity to make the maximum contribution to their organisations while enjoying © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 N. Cvenkel, Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health, Approaches to Global Sustainability, Markets, and Governance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3619-9_17

397

398

17 Line Management Leadership, Governance …

a safer, more satisfying, and healthier working life (DWP 2006). This vision has been embraced by cutting-edge companies that have invested deeply in the well-being of their workforce and is now reaping the benefits as it appears that well-being at work is increasingly being recognised as an essential factor in determining organisational success (Peccei 2004; Tehrani et al. 2007; Warr 2002). Similarly, organisational leadership has multiple effects on the performance of businesses, directly and indirectly, through the impact of success on employee well-being at work. Despite the appeal for such initiatives, recently there has been relatively little research devoted to gaining an in-depth understanding of the relationship between leadership practices, well-being at work, and performance. This is certainly true for employees’ well-being at work within the public sector, even though government dissatisfaction with public sector performance and failure to deliver services was contributable primarily to a shortage of leadership and perceived lack of innovation (Dibben and James 2007; Pratt et al. 2007). Given the impact that management implementation of people management practices can have on employees (Guest 2002; Pfeffer 2005; Purcell and Hutchinson 2003) and given the considerable changes which have occurred in the public sector (Dibben et al. 2007) over the past decade and are still happening, this is a fascinating and essential area of investigation. While the issue of employee well-being at work has reached a new level of importance in the minds of managers, there is still little evidence that attention has been paid to the relationship between leadership and employee well-being at work in the public sector. Research within this area remains relatively untapped. With this in mind, this study aims to begin to address this gap.

17.2 The Dynamics of Leadership and Well-Being at Work Line management is well defined in the literature (McGovern et al. 1997; Purcell and Hutchinson 2003, 2007) and refers to a rational approach to organisational decision making as well as a concern with executing routines and maintaining organisational stability. There is clear evidence that line managers’ roles in people management (and in management generally) have broadened while maintaining their traditional supervisory duties (McConville and Holden 1999), but they may not transmit the articulated values of top management, as instead, they reflect the informal culture of the firm (Truss 2001). Therefore, people management practices perceived or experienced by employees will be enacted by line managers and can include HR duties of selecting, appraising, developing, communicating, employee involvement, consultation, team working, etc., which are all linked to leadership behaviours (Purcell and Hutchinson 2007) which aim to influence employee attitudes and behaviour and are also likely to affect absenteeism, presenteeism, and performance. Similarly, line management action or support and the quality of the relationship between employees and their immediate line manager are also liable to influence perceptions not only of people management, but leadership and work climate, either positively or negatively

17.2 The Dynamics of Leadership and Well-Being at Work

399

(McGovern et al. 1997). Therefore, management practices are aligned with leadership amelioration through adaptive leadership where openness to change, flexibility, and ‘thinking outside the box’ are commonplace. Glover et al. (2002) support this view and claim that adaptation allows a flexible approach to sharing information and resources, decisions, and leadership. Moreover, leadership has been widely researched in the literature (Alban-Metcalfe and Alimo-Metcalfe 2000; Bakke 2005; Pratt et al. 2007; Purcell and Hutchinson 2007), but Grint (2005) suggests that leadership is concerned with direction setting, with novelty and is intrinsically linked to change, movement, relationships, morality, and persuasion. For example, good leadership starts with a person’s character, which is essential to creating a fun place to work (Bakke 2005). Arguably, the essential character trait of a leader is the embracing of the principles and values of humility, willingness to give up power, courage, integrity, love, and passion for the people, values, and mission of the organisation (Grint 2005). The concept of employee well-being at work promotes advantages to organisations of having a healthy workforce (MacDonald 2005). Therefore, the dynamics of wellbeing at work are pivotal in the understanding of the different domains that affect the quality of life at work. Peccei (2004) suggests that well-being at work concerns an overall sense of happiness, physical and mental health of the workforce (Currie 2001). However, the more restricted concern in this paper is for job-related wellbeing, that is, individuals’ feelings about themselves and their job. Warr (2002) argues that job-related well-being refers to people’s satisfaction with their jobs regarding facets like pay, colleagues, supervisors, working conditions, job security, training opportunities, involvement, team working, and the nature of the work undertaken. Therefore, if employees are working in a stress-free and physically safe environment, this can be exciting, rewarding, stimulating, enjoyable, and Bakke (2005) proposes that joy-filled workplaces improve financial performance. Personal well-being does not exist on its own or in the workplace but within a social context (CIPD 2007). Thus, individual lives are affected by social relations with organisational agents, lifestyle, and employment changes (Guest 2002). However, despite these shifts, Tehrani et al. (2007) suggest that people still have the same basic physical and mental needs for social support, feeling valued, physical safety, health, and a feeling that they can cope with life. With this in mind, employees are looking to employers to help them to achieve this since a large proportion of their lives are spent at work. In order for employers to assist employees with their well-being at work, they will need to embrace and embed distributive leadership (Wilkinson 2007) by creating an environment to promote a state of contentment, which allows an employee to flourish and achieve their full potential for the benefit of themselves and their organisation (Tehrani et al. 2007). The HRM performance literature makes a clear link between the employee experiences of people management as well as the formation and modification of attitudes towards the employing organisation and the job and the encouragement these provide to engage in certain types of discretionary behaviour (Purcell and Hutchinson 2007). These behaviours and experiences are associated with employee beliefs and attitudes towards their employer, which is reciprocated through behaviour as seen

400

17 Line Management Leadership, Governance …

in organisational commitment and job satisfaction (Gallie et al. 2001). Employees’ relationship with their line manager is especially important and influential and can be seen in how line managers deliver HR practices, as well as how responsive they are to worker needs and in the quality of leadership shown (Purcell and Hutchinson 2003). The people management activities engaged in by line management have a twin aspect of leadership behaviour and the application of HR practices as argued by Purcell and Hutchinson (2003) and imply a symbiotic relationship. Ulrich (1997) purports that line managers need well-designed HR practices in their people management strategies to help motivate and reward employees and deal with performance issues and work needs. The way and the extent to which line managers enact these practices are influenced by their leadership behaviour (Grint 2005) and that of senior management in establishing an appropriate organisational culture that supports, recognises, and rewards people management behaviours. Kinnie et al. (2005) point out those employees are likely to be influenced both by the people management practices they experience and by their managers’ leadership behaviour. Therefore, poorly designed or inadequate policies can be rescued by good management behaviour in much the same as good HR practices can be negated by poor line manager behaviour or weak leadership.

17.3 Research Methods In the present study, data was collected using semi-structured interviews with employees at the local government organisation in the North. Thirty-six interviews were conducted from a diverse range of employees with each interview lasting (45–60 min), tape-recorded, and transcribed verbatim. The research investigated the subjective perceptions of senior managers, managers, senior officers, and clerical/secretarial staff regarding their views concerning line management leadership on employee wellbeing at work. This local authority was chosen to represent a variety of other local authorities in the North West. Employees were interviewed with an aim of gaining information about their experiences of line management leadership and implications for employee well-being and performance at work. The interview data was analysed using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) (Smith and Osborn 2003; Smith 2006). IPA is committed to the detailed exploration of the personal experience of an individual’s world and engagement with participants’ account in such a way to encourage an insider perspective. The objective of the analysis is to obtain an insight into another person’s thoughts and beliefs about the phenomenon under investigation (Willig 2001). The interview schedule comprised of open-ended questions. This allowed the interviewer to have an element of control over the questions posed although it permitted some findings and explanations to arise unexpectedly. The interviews were conducted face-to-face, and the interview process was collaborative and emphasised the role of the participants as the primary experts, thus keeping with the aims of

17.3 Research Methods

401

IPA research. There were four lines of exploration which comprised of the schedule. These include initial questions on employees’ views and experiences about working for the organisation and the individual meaning of the job. The main purpose of the interview was to explore employees’ views and experiences of line management leadership and its effects on employee well-being at work. Therefore, a key question in the schedule was presented as follows: ‘Can you tell me your views about your line managers’ leadership practices and how it has affected you personally?’ Another question was ‘How responsive is your line manager to the promotion of your well-being at work?’ and ‘How can your line manager improve to enhance your overall well-being?’ These relationships were explored from the researchers’ interpretation of the data extracted from the interviews. That is, the researcher interpreted the language discourse constructed by participants’ interpretation of their reality. The discussion was centred on employees’ personal experiences of work, line management leadership, and their interpretation of well-being at work.

17.4 Results and Discussion The interview findings reflect individuals’ own experiences about their place of work. As the participants give their portrayals of their views and experiences, their thoughts, feelings, behaviours as well as situations, events, places, and people connected with these experiences are discussed. On occasions, the explanations of experiences were different but yet familiar to others in similar situations. The findings will be discussed from both a positive and negative viewpoints in the context of three perspectives: (1) the work organisation, (2) the meaning of the job, and (3) the people. Within these three perspectives, the study highlighted five superordinate themes that emerged from the analysis. These dimensions (Blame Culture; Rewards; Trust in Management; Support; and Communication) are discussed below.

17.5 The Work Organisation 17.5.1 Blame Culture Participants expressed their enjoyment for their jobs within the organisation and felt that fundamentally the organisation was honest in its vision to focus on employee perspectives, commitment, and satisfaction by creating opportunities for career development, training, and flexibility for greater organisational effectiveness. It was also reported that individual experiences of the work organisation varied depending on their line manager:

402

17 Line Management Leadership, Governance …

I think they’re quite honest and it’s quite pleasing that they are trying to drive things from the employees’ perspective. (P1) My experiences have varied depending on my manager. I’m on my fourth job with the Council. I would admit that I enjoy it sufficiently to stay and the opp-opportunities with the Council. I would agree that I enjoy it enough to stay and the opportunities have been interesting. (P2)

Nevertheless, the participants expressed the fact that the reality of their experiences has been different from the rhetoric that was promoted by the organisation. The most prevalent experiential dimension in the interviews was the experience of a blame culture and heavy workloads. This theme emerged in every interview although the meaning of ‘blame culture’ and ‘heavy workloads’ in defining the experience differed significantly across respondents. The blame culture that existed within the organisation acted as a catalyst that promoted fear and the reluctance to take a risk and implement change. It was further reported that managers’ inability to lead and avoidance of responsibility for decision making resulted in fault finding, mutual suspicion, and lack of trust among employees for managers. Heavy workloads experienced by employees were reported because of limited resources (i.e. financial and human capital) which increased the workloads of the existing employees. Employees also claimed that some managers showed nepotism to particular staff and gave employees more or less work resulting in inequality in the distribution of work responsibilities. Rhode (2006) suggests that culture is a result of a complex learning process that is influenced by leader behaviour. Schein (2004) further expresses that culture and leadership are two sides of the same coin and neither can be understood by itself because leadership creates and changes cultures and practices: I think there’s still an inherent culture of blame. The biggest thing that I fear is the reluctance to take any risks: trying to do something different, try and go out of the system, try and go out of the box. The danger then is if it goes wrong, senior management will just say: “Well, what are you playing at? You shouldn’t be doing that.” However, if it goes right, nobody says a thing, “Oh, right, that’s what you get paid for.” (P3) They have this vision of what should be achieved, but they don’t know how to do it. Therefore, they say, “You go and make sure we get there, but that’s your responsibility. You achieve that and let me know how it goes at the end,” and “When we get there, we’ll have a meeting and decide how you should have done it.” (P4)

In another group of participants for whom ‘blame culture’ seemed to define the experience, the meaning was from more a ‘Them and US’ perspective that negatively affected team working, not only among employees but also within the management structures themselves. The apparent lack of team working promoted negative attitudes among employees who were not prepared to be team players and displayed negative discretionary behaviour, which in turn is likely to affect service delivery and performance: I think sometimes even the staff below us have an attitude that conveys this sentiment: “Oh tell us what you want, and we’ll get on with it” – begrudgingly. I think the higher up it gets, the further it gets. It’s not necessarily a team where we’re all in the same club, and we’re all trying to get on with it. It’s, “Look, that’s your responsibility, you get on with it.” (P5)

17.5 The Work Organisation

403

I do feel certainly with my line manager that there was an obvious kind of “them and us” sort of situation, which I find irritating. (P6)

Yet another group of participants defined their experience through the lens of ‘heavy workloads’ as they held the perspective that ‘heavy workloads’ negatively affected employees’ stress levels, mental health, perception of the employer, and overall well-being. One employee shares her experiences. She says, My manager is insensitive to employee’s well-being and gives some workers more tasks than others. She is way too busy and there is not enough capacity because of the lack of funding that forces us to have heavy workloads…all she cares about is getting the job done. I believe that she is more concerned about the work than she is about employees. (P12).

The second perspective (the meaning of the job) and emerging theme (rewards) in this study are suggested by respondents’ answers to the question asking them to describe what their job meant to them personally.

17.6 The Meaning of the Job 17.6.1 Rewards The most common aspect of this theme expressed by more than half of the respondents interviewed related to having a career focus and drive, which has now been reduced as a result of other interests and not feeling adequately rewarded and valued in the job. Respondents noted that the job was no longer challenging and this contributed to employees having different interests. Similarly, other participants expressed challenges with their jobs as a result of having a negative relationship with their line managers, which impacts negatively on their well-being at work and what the job means to them: Well, the job used to be everything…my career and that was my focus. But in the last few years, I think it’s probably dropped in significance. I don’t feel rewarded, particularly from the job that I’m doing. In certain respects, it’s possibly too easy now…and I don’t think it’s as challenging as it used to be. I’ve got other interests that have surpassed that now, and the job is almost a way of paying for those. (P7) I feel quite bored and demotivated at the moment, which is a bit of a shameI feel quite bored and demotivated at the moment, which is a bit of a shame considering that I feel passionate about my job. Therefore, I am quite cross that my relationship with my manager makes me feel so demotivated about my job. (P8)

The commitment of participants was tied to their careers, which seemed to be the predominant and motivating factor for most participants. However, organisational commitment and loyalty were affected due to the lack of praise and recognition for good work. Similarly, respondents noted that the existing work climate does not motivate and cultivate excellence among professional staff who is looking to progress in their jobs:

404

17 Line Management Leadership, Governance …

I’m not reluctant to change jobs and I’m going to go where I think is going to be best t for me career-wise. (P9) You know, you can do part of a job, and people will react to it like: “Right, okay.” You can do an excellent job, and people react to it: “Right, okay.” Sometimes, people get away with a lousy job, and the response is: “Yeah, okay.” It doesn’t seem to have the real impact unless you make a real clangor for what your case is. (P10)

Respondents expressed satisfaction with the actual jobs they did but desired to have more praise, recognition, and rewards for good work done. Respondents state that teamwork is working, and managers are looking after their self-interest, and personal goals reduced their trust and satisfaction levels. Respondents indicated that their satisfaction would be improved through improved motivation by having defined goals and objectives, feeling valued, and being intellectually challenged: At the moment, I am not satisfied at all really; I’m entirely cheesed off. To me, satisfaction is feeling valued and challenged. I don’t feel very intellectually challenged at the moment, and that will make a huge difference. (P11)

The third and final perspective (the people) and emerging themes (trust in management; support; and communication) in this study are suggested by respondents’ answers to questions asking them: (1) how line management leadership practices affected employees individually; and (2) to describe how responsive their line managers were to the promotion of their well-being at work.

17.7 The People 17.7.1 Trust in Management; Support; and Communication: The most common aspect of having trust in management and being supported was expressed by more than two-thirds of respondents who suggested that their line managers treated them fairly and with respect. In contrast, others noted that they were not fairly treated by their line managers. Moreover, respondents also expressed that they were not certain whether they can fully trust their line managers. Support received was embraced but was regarded as being toothless, controlled, and stifling autonomy: My manager is fair. I think that’s the important thing. Yes, I think we’ve got a sort of genuine respect for each other, but then I’m never really sure whether I can fully trust him. (P9) Yes, I think my manager will support me, but it is toothless. My manager will back me up on certain things, or try and back me up at a meeting, but then not back that up with anything substantial… (P10) My manager directs the work that we’re going to do so I suppose that’s how he supports me regarding the work program, which we’re going to follow. However, I don’t find that very supportive. I’d much prefer to be able to determine some of that work within the work program. (P4)

17.7 The People

405

Communication was another major theme that emerged as a role that managers play in promoting the well-being of employees at work. Most respondents noted that feedback was very important to their well-being, but some felt that feedback received was relatively unhelpful, and in some instances, employees got feedback in response from other comments. Similarly, there also existed a reduction in communication between management and employees, with communication flow being inadequate in certain instances: Yes, I receive feedback, but it tends to be a reaction from some other comment, so it’s entirely unhelpful in certain respects, and it does leave you bewildered sometimes, (P13) Not having helpful feedback has changed my focus. (P7) I used to communicate and talk to my manager quite a lot. Now, I can’t be bothered. I’m just going to do my job, and if he says something, okay I’ll do it, but I try to not have that much communication with either of them now. (P12) I’m not sure about good communication flow; messages can be quite succinct Almost to the point of tactlessness. (P5)

In another group of respondents where communication described their experience of management response to the promotion of their well-being at work, they noted that they appreciated the managers’ knowledge as well as skills and indicated that this contributed to the promotion of well-being at work. It was also noted that development for management was pivotal. In contrast, other respondents indicated that their managers’ inability to be an effective problem solver and change management agent hindered their well-being at work. It is suggested that management should develop people skills regarding listening, fewer time constraints, support and promoting autonomy, which all promote well-being at work: Management could do with some development. My manager is one of those cases where he is a perfect policy person and capable regarding his specialist area, as he knows his stuff and can interpret well. He’s got that. (P13) I don’t think my manager is very good regarding how he works around problems and change management, but in the public sector, this is a difficult skill. (P11) I don’t think managers are going to be able to change their spots. I think if they listen more and have fewer time constraints, this will help the quality of my work life and well-being at work. (P12) Perhaps being a bit more responsive to me…. I would like more responsibility. I want to develop. I’d like to be left alone to get on with some more stuff, be More creative about it. My manager knows all of this but still doesn’t take on board, which is extremely frustrating. (P13)

These explanations can be termed a ‘Continuum of Well-Being Influence’, which stems from leadership practices. This highlights a variety of experiences that can affect individual well-being at work, either positively or negatively. It was clear that there was a strong association between line management leadership practices and blame culture, rewards, trust, support, and communication. The investigation sheds light on these associations by showing that line management leadership has

406

17 Line Management Leadership, Governance …

Fig. 17.1 Leadership and well-being influence model

Leadership

Well-Being at Work AbsoluƟon /Praise Culture, Reward, Trust, Support and CommunicaƟon

Individual SaƟsfacƟon/ Behaviorr

Service Delivery and Performance

been more influential in affecting employees’ attitudes, behaviour, and performance, which have implications for well-being at work. This relationship is illustrated in Fig. 17.1.

17.8 Discussion and Conclusion The study found that a culture of blame promoted negative well-being at work (i.e. promoted fear, stifled creativity, reluctance to take risks, etc.), which are consequences of leadership practices adopted that is likely to hinder organisational success. Moreover, it can also reduce morale, and job satisfaction and eventually performance (Warr 2002). In contrast, a culture of absolution and praise can be adopted instead of ‘blame’ to promote positive well-being to enhance service delivery and performance. Being rewarded through praise and recognition and feeling valued was seen as factors that promote well-being at work. The leadership practices adopted by management will dictate how these factors are promoted. Trust in management influences positive organisational outcomes. Once employees can distinguish trust in public sector management from alternative organisational factors such as procedural fairness and commitment, this, in turn, can improve efficiency and effectiveness (Albrecht and Travaglione 2003). Perceived support from line management leadership facilitates social exchanges between management and employees. Once initiated by organisations, this shows the extent to which the organisation values employees’ general contributions and cares for their well-being at work. With this in mind, once employees perceive that organisations value and deal equitably with them, they will reciprocate these ‘good deeds’ with positive work attitudes and behaviours (Guest 2002). Communication and people skills are vital to the promotion of well-being at

17.8 Discussion and Conclusion

407

work. An open climate of communication, fairness, and equity in organisational policies and procedures in addition to perceived organisational support and satisfaction with the job is significant determinants of effective leadership. The development of line management leadership practices can promote wellbeing at work, which in turn can enhance the effectiveness of service delivery and performance within local authority organisations in the North. The implication of this study for line managers can thus contribute to developing the well-being of a public sector workforce which is more committed, satisfied, happy, valued and which is more positively predisposed towards organisational change. Moreover, despite the mediating effects of well-being not being fully evidenced, leaders and practitioners can use the model in (Fig. 17.1) to frame and focus organisational assessments and intervention. Therefore, line managers, practitioners, policymakers, and leaders throughout the North can use the model to target their ‘followers’ (employees) to develop well-being at work, which in turn can be used to influence organisational commitment, attitudes to change, and turnover intentions. Similarly, this can have far-reaching effect by empowering and promoting distributive leadership that can be used as a catalyst to uproot the talents of existing leaders and unlock the leadership potential that has lain dormant. Once this sea of leadership talent has been unleashed, it gives access to promoting employee well-being at work: the ‘key’ that opens the door to enhanced leadership and performance in the North.

References Alban-Metcalfe, R. J., & Alimo-Metcalfe, B. (2000). The Transformational Leadership Questionnaire (TLQ-LGV): A convergent and discriminant validity study. Leadership and Organisation Development Journal, 21, 280–296 Albrecht, S., & Travaglione, A. (2003). Trust in public-sector senior management. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 14(1), 76–92. Bakke, D. W. (2005). Joy at work: A revolutionary approach to fun on the job. Penguin Group (USA) Inc. Chartered Institute of Personnel Development (CIPD). (2007). Rewarding work—The vital role of line managers, change agenda. London: CIPD. Currie, D. (2001). Managing employee well-being. Oxford: Chandos Publishing Oxford Limited. Department for Work and Pensions. (2005). Exploring how general practitioners work with patients on sick leave. Research Report 257, June, Department of Works and Pensions Department for Work and Pensions. (2006). A new deal for welfare: Empowering people at work. CM 6730 London: Stationery Office. Online version also available at: https://www.dwp.gov.uk/welfarereform/docs/A_new_deal_for_welfare-Empowering_ people_to_work-Full_Document.pdf (Accessed July 19, 2007). Dibben, P., & James, P. (2007). Introduction: Is ‘Modern’ necessarily better? In P. Dibbens, P. James, I. Roper, & G. Wood (Eds.), Modernising work in public services: Redefining roles and relationships in Britain’s changing workplace (pp. 1–2). Dibbens, P., James, P., Roper, I., & Wood, G. (2007). Modernising work in public services: Redefining roles and relationships in Britain’s changing workplace. Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke

408

17 Line Management Leadership, Governance …

Economic and Social Research Council. (2006). Health and well-being at work of working age people. Seminar series: Mapping the public policy landscape. Swindon: Economic and Social Research Council. Gallie, D., Felstead, A., & Green, F. (2001). Employer policies and organisational commitment in Britain 1992–1997. Journal of Management Studies, 38(8), 1081–1101. Glover, J., Friedman, H., & Jones, G. (2002). Adaptive leadership: When change is not enough (Part One). Organisation Development Journal, 20(2), 15–32. Grint, K. (2005). Leadership: Limits and possibilities (Management, work & organisations). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Guest, D. (2002). Human resource management, corporate performance and employee well-being: Building the worker into HRM. The Journal of Industrial Relations, 44(3), 335–358. Kinnie, N., Hutchinson, S., & Purcell, J. (2005). Satisfaction with HR practices and commitment to the organisation: Why one size does not fit all. Human Resource Management Journal, 15(4), 9–29. MacDonald, L. A. C. (2005). Wellness at work: Protecting and promoting employee well-being. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. McGovern, P., Gratton, L., & Hailey, H. V. (1997). Human resource management on the line? Human Resource Management Journal, 7(4), 12–29. McConville, T., & Holden, L. (1999). The Filling in the sandwich: Managers in the health sector. Personnel Review, 28(5/6), 406–424. Pfeffer, J. (2005). Producing sustainable competitive advantage through effective management of people. Academy of Management Executive, 19(4), 95–108. Pratt, J., Plamping, D., & Gordon, P. (2007). Distinctive characteristics of public sector organisations and the implications for leadership. Northern Leadership Academy, The Centre for Innovation in Health Management Purcell, J., & Hutchinson, S. (2003). Bringing policies to life: The vital role of front line managers in people management. London: CIPD. Purcell, J., & Hutchinson, S. (2007). Front-line managers as agents in the HRM-performance causal chain: Theory, analysis and evidence. Human Resource Management Journal, 17(1), 3–20. Peccei, R. (2004). Human resource management and the search for the happy workplace. Erasmus Research Institute of Management, Rotterdam School of Management, Rotterdam School of Economics. Rhode, D. L. (2006). Moral leadership: The theory and practice of power, judgment, and policy. CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Schein, E. H. (2004). Organizational culture and leadership. CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Smith, J. A., & Osborn, M. (2003). Interpretative phenomenological analysis. In J. A. Smith (Ed.), Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research methods. London: Sage Publications Smith, J. A. (2006). Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research methods. London: Sage Publication. Tehrani, N., Humpage, S., Willmott, B., & Haslam, I., (2007). What’s happening with well-being at work? Change agenda. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel Development Truss, K. (2001). Complexities and controversies in linking HRM with organisational outcomes. Journal of Management Studies, 38(8), 1121–1149. Ulrich, D. (1997). Human resource champions: The next agenda for adding value and delivering results. Cambridge MA: Harvard Business School Press. Warr, P. (2002). Psychology at work. Suffolk: Penguin Group Books. Willig, C. (2001). Introducing qualitative research in psychology: Adventures in theory and method. Buckingham: Open University Press. Wilkinson, D. (2007). Distributed leadership briefing paper. The Centre of Innovation in Health Management (Maurice Keyworth Building, University of Leeds, North Leadership Academy).

Chapter 18

Can Fun and Games at Work Replace Well-Being in the Workplace?: Perspectives from Senior Managers in the Public Sector

Abstract This chapter aims to critically examine the dynamics of fun and wellbeing at work, as experienced and perceived by senior managers in a public sector context. This chapter is based on research into well-being at work with a British Local Authority, focusing on 12 senior managers through verbal accounts of their own experiences and perceptions of fun initiatives. The data revealed that managers were not having ‘fun’. However, well-being at work emerged as central to influencing and enabling ‘fun at work’ and was strongly linked to eight organisational factors: working time arrangements; stress management; communication strategies; reward strategies; management development; team working; relationships with stakeholders; clarification and reduction in change initiatives. Thus, while ‘fun at work’ prescriptions are common in the literature, findings from these accounts indicate people might be happier to experience better well-being at work.

18.1 Introduction The research implications show that senior managers’ accounts of well-being identified salient issues, thus providing a basis for broader research in this area. Practical implications outline that attention to the material aspects of employment relations is recommended over ‘silly hat day’ prescriptions. Organisations wishing to enhance fun at work could focus efforts on creating organisational conditions that encourage well-being through the eight identified factors. This has relevance for the employment relationship and for practitioners and academics alike. The study outlined in this chapter makes a distinctive contribution to the ‘fun at work’ literature by providing rich empirical data and extending the ‘tenets of fun’ to consider an alternative conceptualisation of ‘well-being at work’ instead of the organised/managed fun activities presently embraced in the literature.

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 N. Cvenkel, Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health, Approaches to Global Sustainability, Markets, and Governance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3619-9_18

409

410

18 Can Fun and Games at Work Replace Well-Being in the Workplace …

18.2 Fun at Work Fun at work. Play culture. Humour. Laughter. Skiing trips. Weekends in Spain. Fishing trips. Boozy barbecues. Award ceremonies. Hula hoop marathons. Paper mummy fashion shows. Wild-wacky activities. How do these terms fit into the manager’s glossary in the twenty-first-century world of work, with its profoundly changing character as well as the shifting and uncertain environment (Burke and Ng 2006)? What do they deliver to organisations facing the challenges of globalisation, cost efficiency, profit maximisation, and, more recently, global recession? Historically, fun has not been readily associated with the workplace, but a growing body of evidence suggests that fun at work can enhance quality of work life, reputation, performance, employee development programmes, diversity initiatives, communication, group cohesiveness, enthusiasm, satisfaction, creativity, generate fewer human resource problems and employee retention (Ford et al. 2004; Guerrier and Adib 2003; Jeffcoat and Gibson 2006; Karl and Peluchette 2006; Karl et al. 2007; Newstrom 2002). Such claims are also being championed by business writers, who advocate that ‘people should love coming to work’ (Bakke 2005) and that creating a workplace culture of fun is pivotal to enhancing employee motivation and productivity, reducing stress and increasing customer satisfaction (Kersley et al. 2006). Indeed, there are many parallels between the claims of advocates of both workplace fun and well-being initiatives. What is of particular interest to the discussion presented here is whether the same philosophy can be extended to the public sector. The UK public sector, as with many public sectors worldwide, continues to undergo significant reform processes around efficiency and costs. The push towards New Public Management (NPM) has led to considerable changes within funding models, governance structures, and initiatives such as joint procurement and joint public service delivery (Morphet 2008; Noblet et al. 2006). In particular, local government reforms tend to focus on improved management of resources and redefinition of roles and responsibilities (Noblet et al. 2006). All these changes place additional demands on public sector employees, leading to an increase in the stresses they face, relative to their normal work (Morphet 2008). And, of course, public sector employees are at times subject to intense scrutiny by their stakeholders, who may regard recourse to ‘fun’ as a poor use of the public purse. In this context, it is not at all clear whether a fun culture can thrive or deliver all that is espoused, and the fun at work literature has made a little comment on its applicability to differing contexts, not least the public sector. There is an acknowledgement, however, that implementation of a fun philosophy in the workplace may not be easy, and recognition that significant differences can exist between organisations in the degree to which their organisational cultures tolerate, facilitate, or reward fun (Aldag and Sherony 2001; Plester 2009). More broadly, individuals are likely to differ in their attitudes regarding the importance, appropriateness, and perceived consequences of having fun at work (Karl et al. 2007). These tensions, along with questions about the underlying motivations of the fun philosophy, can cause some employees to respond with cynicism and resistance (Fineman 2006; Warren 2005). Whether employees find fun at work appropriate or not is

18.2 Fun at Work

411

dependent on their personal outlook, socialisation processes, work experiences, and personality characteristics—each accounting for varying attitudes and perceptions regarding the importance of workplace fun (Aldag and Sherony 2001). Thus, while many supporters of fun have argued that fun can and should be infused into every workplace (Ford et al. 2004), more account is needed of the complexities of diverse organisational cultures, structures, and employment relations practices, as well as the day-to-day realities faced by contemporary employees, including managers themselves. Research is needed to expand this literature, particularly as it pertains to the public sector. To this end, this article takes local government as its setting. Based on findings stemming from research with 12 senior managers about their own experiences as employees, it will be argued that the promotion of wellbeing at work is a more pivotal requirement and perhaps a precursor to workplace fun, in place of the narrow focus on organised activities proposed by ‘ministers of fun’ (Ford et al. 2004; Karl and Peluchette 2006; Karl et al. 2005). In so doing, it is intended that the research findings presented here will contribute to the emerging debate on workplace fun by shining a light on its under-explored relationship with well-being.

18.3 Well-Being and Fun at Work Well-being has become one of the most important issues of the twenty-first-century world of work—a challenge not just for individuals, regarding their mental and physical health, but for employers and governments who have started to assess its social and financial implications. Well-being is multifaceted, and for this paper, employee well-being is defined as employee welfare which includes material conditions and the wider experience of organisational life. This definition invokes not just specific practices of ‘wellness’ programmes, health screening, or indeed fun programmes, but employees’ physical, emotional and psychological needs including issues of stress, anxiety, insecurity, exhaustion, and depression (Kersley et al. 2006). In support, Grant et al. (2007) state that well-being is the overall quality of an employee’s experience and functioning at work (Warr 2002). The concept of employee well-being at work promotes the advantages to organisations of having a healthy workforce and is pivotal to understandings of the different domains that affect the quality of life at work (Baptiste 2008a). Personal well-being does not exist in isolation, but within a social context (Tehrani et al. 2007) and individual lives are affected by social relations with organisational agents, lifestyle, and employment changes (Kersley et al. 2006). Contemporary organisations that foster well-being are perceived as employers of ‘best practice’ and are recognised by current and prospective employees as offering a desirable place to work (Grant et al. 2007). While well-being at work is being promoted as a potential avenue for providing meaning and fulfilment at work, the factors that foster well-being at work have attracted limited empirical research. Although not formalised within a well-being framework, the philosophy of ‘fun at work’ is also embraced as a means of promoting employees’ satisfaction through

412

18 Can Fun and Games at Work Replace Well-Being in the Workplace …

organised activities (Karl and Peluchette 2006). Experienced fun is the extent to which a person perceives the existence of fun in their workplace (Karl et al. 2007). In support, a recent analysis of the Sunday Times ‘Best Companies to Work For’ (Bolton 2006) notes that fun at work environment is treated as one of the distinguishing factors of a caring approach to employees and is claimed to enhance superior performance. Taylor and Bain’s (2003) research exposes perhaps a darker side to fun programmes and highlights that for some employees, fun is regarded as a smokescreen disguising real conflicts. Other researchers go further in finding exhortations to be fun expressions, reserving autonomy in when people do and do not have fun (Warren 2005). On the other hand, some employees may embrace the introduction of fun activities into the workplace, seeing them as a welcome release from a stressful job (Ford et al. 2004). The middle ground for fun programmes, as argued by Fineman (2006), is likely to be characterised by a mixture of reactions—with compliance, discomfort, or feeling used on the one hand, and temporary light-heartedness or relief from repetitive work on the other. This ambivalence may mean that the fun philosophy faces challenges and even curtailment, where occasions of stress, anxiety, anger, pessimism, and unhappiness within work life are silenced or marginalised (Fineman 2006). The results that fun at work would appear to aim to achieve include relaxed, engaged (even happy!) employees as an immediate factor in the enrichment of the quality of working life. However, deeper questions must be asked about whether the invocation to fun can be a false route to happiness and well-being. Where the fun literature focuses on performance-related outcomes through fun initiatives, wellbeing at work focuses on the organisational climate and work arrangements that hold the potential for making employees happier and healthier as a primary goal, with acknowledged implications for effort, contributions, and productivity. Grant et al. (2007) argue that employee well-being comprises three dimensions: (1) The psychological dimension is where employees’ well-being is shaped by experiences of satisfaction with their job and lives. In support, Haworth and Hart (2007) argue that these subjective experiences entail pleasure, the balance of positive and negative thought and feelings in an individual’s judgement, which influences a perception of stress, anxiety, happiness, and other emotional states. (2) The physical dimension involves influencing employees’ health regarding improvement of outcomes relating to cardiovascular disease, blood pressure, workplace health and safety (Danna and Griffin 1999), and work stress (Karasek and Theorell 1990). (3) The social dimension focuses on the quality of interpersonal relationships and the dimensions of fair treatment for employees (Renwick 2002) regarding the trust, social support, reciprocity, leader–member exchange, cooperation, coordination, and integration (Keyes 1998). Organisations that embrace employee well-being appear then to prioritise the protection and promotion of employee satisfaction (Baptiste 2008a; Tehrani et al. 2007), embracing a praise and rewards culture, trust (Baptiste 2008b), fulfilment and health (Bakke 2005; Danna and Griffin 1999).

18.3 Well-Being and Fun at Work

413

However, a closer look at the realities of managerial work shows the challenges that such an approach can face. Managers have certain distinct functions as compared to owners of the organisations or its employees. In the contemporary business environment, managers increasingly need to focus on cost management and competitive strategies. Clark and Salaman (1998) observe that the key characteristics of management work emerging from studies over the last 40 years include brevity, spontaneity, fragmentation and discontinuity, adaptation to circumstances, unreflective thinking or actions, and a focus on immediacy, doing, and on tangible, concrete activities. Moreover, senior managers’ daily realities are inundated with social and moral problems in corporate life (Jackall 1988), often further challenging espoused rationality and efficiency. In these contexts, senior managers may find it difficult to embrace and instigate ‘fun at work’ initiatives, and it is a worthy question to explore the degree to which managers’ own experience of work can be characterised by fun. As with any other group of employees, for senior managers, material aspects of the employment relationship are key to their well-being. This paper, therefore, seeks to explore workplace fun through the window of ‘well-being at work’ as it relates to senior managers. There has been little research done in the area, and this paper begins to address the gap. The next section discusses the methodological approach adopted, followed by the findings, discussion, and conclusion.

18.4 Methodology This research is part of a larger study investigating employees’ experiences of HRM practices, and how such experiences have contributed to their well-being at work in the local government context. A local authority was chosen in the North West of England. This authority professed to have adopted well-being policies and practices to establish fun and well-being, a positive attendance culture, promote fun at work, and enhance staff welfare. This present study focuses on a particular group within the local authority, i.e. senior managers, and their experiences of the relationship between fun and well-being. As has been noted, limited empirical research has been done on this demographic. In-depth, face-to-face interviews were conducted with senior managers with the aim of understanding their experiences of working life and the meanings they attach to their well-being at work. Purposive sampling was used to ensure that all departments within the Council were reflected, and six male and six female managers participated in the study. All twelve were Caucasian, aged from 30 to 59 years, had attained qualifications of a first degree and above, worked full-time, reported a range of incomes between £30,000 and £50,000, and held a variety of tenures with the organisation: • • • •

0–5 years (five respondents); 6–10 years (three respondents); 11–20 years (two respondents); and 21–25 years (two respondents).

414

18 Can Fun and Games at Work Replace Well-Being in the Workplace …

Interviews lasted for 60–90 min, were tape-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analysed using hermeneutic phenomenological analysis (HPA) (Van Manen 1990). The study commenced with an initial question: ‘Can you tell me what it is like to work here?’ The interview schedule covered three broad topics: (1) defining individual well-being at work; (2) why well-being at work as defined by the respondent was important; and (3) what things they would like to see improved at the Council to promote their well-being at work. Managers were asked to respond based on their own experiences and priorities as employees, rather than from an espoused practice point of view. Initial transcripts were reviewed through immersion in the data to establish an orienting gestalt that drove later coding. Interviews were coded line-by-line, necessary for thematic analysis. Concepts, themes, and sub-themes were identified. Half of the transcripts were coded separately by an independent researcher to identify emerging themes, and the resulting coding match of 85% provides evidence of reliability in the coding process (Silverman 1993). Final themes were also verified by informants to ensure they appropriately captured the meaning that the informant sought to convey. Data is presented in this paper in two forms: (1) rich descriptions and meanings drawn from interview texts and (2) graphical data display. Table 18.1 indicates salient points raised in the interviews (Lyons 2000). While no statistical significance is claimed, the tabular representation of themes has been structured on the assumption that a theme cited by a larger number of interviewees has more importance to the respondents as a whole (Miles and Huberman 1994). The resulting patterns provide an enriched understanding of the factors pertinent to the relationship between employee well-being and fun in local government.

18.5 Findings Managers’ perception of the initial question ‘What is it like to work here?’ reflected realities faced and included themes that relate to budget pressures, workplace stress, and stakeholder relationships. Managers’ perceptions of well-being at work were explored through interpretation of the discourse constructed by informants. All three dimensions of well-being (psychological, physical, and social) emerged in managers’ responses without prompting, as illustrated in Table 18.1. Stemming from this, informants’ reports of working life and conditions that fostered their well-being were clustered into eight categories:

18.5 Findings

415

Table 18.1 Managers’ interpretations of well-being at work Multifaceted nature of employee well-being

Individual definition of well-being

Importance of well-being

Improvements in well-being

Psychological well-being

• Work-life balance • Recognition and rewards • Appreciation • Honesty • Transparency • Confidence • Competence • Happiness • Empowerment • Fun at work • Job satisfaction • Relaxed environment • Job enrichment • Autonomy

• Sense of belonging • Commitment • Intellectual challenge • Job satisfaction • Purpose and identity • Making a difference • Job enrichment • Appreciation • Recognition • Performance • Encouragement • Flexible working • Retention • Career development

• Work-life balance • Clear and reduced priorities • Creativity and innovation • Develop management competencies • Rewards and recognition • Reduction in working hours • Reduction in anxiety • Trust • Home working

Physical well-being

• Safe environment • Work stress • Physical and mental health • Health and safety

• Stress reduction • Health and safety

• Stress management • Therapies to de-stress

Social well-being

• • • • • • •

• • • •

• • • •

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

Support from HR Team working Feedback Avoiding bullying Reduce absenteeism Attendance culture Retention

Team working Retention Avoiding bullying Support from manager

Team working No evening meetings Communication Relationships

working time arrangements; stress management; communication strategies; reward strategies; management development; the team working; relationships with stakeholders; and clarification and reduction in change initiatives.

The following findings are organised according to the initial question and the three interview topics.

416

18 Can Fun and Games at Work Replace Well-Being in the Workplace …

18.6 Working Life Realities The most prominent points cited by managers, interpreted as those most frequently mentioned, were budget pressures, heavy workloads, staffing issues, fragmented teams, and stakeholder relationships. Illustrating this, one manager stated: It’s very good. I think a lot of effort is made to look after us. The policies are automatically in place and my team and I particularly benefit from flexible working. On the other hand, I think it’s patchy, and some of the operational teams are very stretched, and we’re swamped. There are budget pressures and staffing pressures. My team is down here, and I’m at another location. There are some disadvantages regarding some banter and the bouncing ideas off each other…There are tensions between sections and departments inevitably, and we try to break that down as much as possible. I think for a long time we had a bit of a silo mentality that, “We’re in this section and this is what we do.” I mean in a large organization there’s going to be tensions and difficulties, but I don’t think we’re any worse than anybody else... Not understanding, misunderstanding, fighting your corner which you know many managers have had a history of that, haven’t they? You know, they’ve got to make sure things are for their benefit, and you get used to That. (Female manager, aged 50–59 years, tenure 11–20 years)

Another senior manager built this picture further, highlighting external pressures on his work in particular. He said: Local government is a bit of a mystery to people I think. The perception of it is centered on this town hall clerk ethos, and we’re all pushing bits of paper and pushing pens. However, it still sometimes feels like we’re in an environment where we are fighting off all sort of attacks from customers who aren’t happy with the service; from members who might be outside counselors, who might have had unhappy constituents, MPs doing the same… dealing with staffing issues takes a lot of time here because we try to do things properly. At times it could feel a bit cumbersome, or still, sometimes it will all clash, and the days of feeling that it’s a job for life have gone with budget problems. However, you still get the public sector ethos in parts of what you do. It always can depend on what job you do within the council, but there’s still that motivation, ‘Well I’m doing something that is benefiting the people of the community.’ (Senior Manager, male, aged 40–49 years, tenure under five years)

Such descriptions give a strong flavour of the working realities for these senior managers and suggest that their working context offers little by way of fun.

18.7 Managerial Work and Well-Being When asked to define individual well-being at work from a personal point of view, the most significant aspects cited by these managers were the work-life balance, stress management, and a sense of purpose. For example, one assistant director invoked all three, as she shared her definition: It’s about the balance between work and life in a nutshell really, and obviously not feeling stressed at work. Work-life balance is a huge bonus for me now. I can work mainly from home now, and it’s a big help. It is a big help. That’s probably one reason why I wouldn’t necessarily look for another job just now because the work-life balance is quite good. I can work around things to suit my other demands. Also, I think stress is a problem at the council,

18.7 Managerial Work and Well-Being

417

and I don’t think many people want to admit it. Stress affects people coming to work or not coming to work and results in poor attendance. The issue of stress needs to be looked at because a lot of people suffer from anxiety. (Assistant Director, female, aged 40–49 years, tenure 6–10 years)

Another male manager had this to say: To me, my well-being at work is not waking up in the morning and thinking, ‘Oh God, I have to go to work. I hate my job.’ I guess I’m lucky in the fact that I have always had jobs that I have quite enjoyed doing. I never really had a job that is routine, so new things happen all the time. If I ever get to the stage where I think, ‘I am not going to work tomorrow,’ I will go and look for another job. I think it is all about the ethos of the organization, and the freedom to get on and do your job without being bullied or abused. (Manager, male, aged 40–49 years, tenure 6–10 years)

It is clear that for these managers, the material dimensions of their working experience are keenly felt and have a significant effect on their sense of well-being. How important is that well-being, and what does it mean to them? When this question was put to respondents, it became evident that the attitudes of these managers towards their psychological well-being were complex, and the influence of individual characteristics such as personality, age, and previous working experiences in local government suggests itself. Their comments on ‘the importance of well-being at work’ tended to invoke further ingredients of well-being, and again, according to frequency noted, the most important of these was an opportunity to make a difference, work-life balance, support from management, and feeling valued. The following quote illustrates the emphasis put on making a difference: I suppose it is most important to know that what you do counts; that what you do is making a difference; that there is a purpose to your working life; that you’re not just turning up and hitting the keyboard for a few hours, so that at the end of the day when asked, ‘What did you do today?’ you say, ‘The same thing I do every day,’ and when asked, ‘What is that?’ your response is, ‘I’m not sure.’ Instead, you can say that you have had a good day and you have achieved something and made a difference. What you do is essential, and to do that you have to be valued, you need to be rewarded, you need to be part of a team. You need to know that your work is going somewhere and doing things, but not just things for the sake of it. At the end of your career, you need to be able to look back and say, ‘I did this. I did that.’ (Senior Manager, male, aged 40–49 years, tenure 6–10 years)

Another manager spoke more directly about the importance of well-being to her at work, and what that represented. She explained: Without flexible working and support from my manager, it makes the job harder. I can’t imagine working in any environment without the support of my manager; that’s probably the most important thing. It would make me want to look elsewhere for a job. If you don’t get that reinforcement that you’re doing a good job – if you don’t get that support for the decisions that you make, it can make your working life unbearable. (Manager, female, aged 50–59 years, tenure 11–20 years)

To develop an understanding of managers’ experiences further, the research explored suggestions from respondents on how their well-being could be enhanced. Managers were asked: ‘Can you tell me what things you would like to see

418

18 Can Fun and Games at Work Replace Well-Being in the Workplace …

improved in the Council to promote your well-being?’. A key example cited was the communication climate, as the following comments testify: I would like to see something that improves upward communication. The reason why I say this is because it’s linked to creating an environment where staff will be able to say what they want. Staff should be able to share their wacky ideas about fun and well-being without thinking, ‘I would be disciplined for wacky ideas.’ This environment creates some job satisfaction and therefore will improve people’s well-being because you would want to come to work. It’s better to think that you work for an organization that allows you to experiment and do things differently, and if you get it wrong, then what is stressed is that you learned from it, rather than thinking, ‘Do, I want to take the risk? If I do, I might be on my own.’ (Director, male, aged 40–49 years, tenure under five years)

Some aspects of this director’s comments relate to the promotion of a culture that encourages open communication that would support ‘wacky’ ideas and more creative thinking. While it can be speculated that a fun work environment would allow such a culture to be more readily embraced, it is not clear that fun has a cultural fit with this environment, nor that fun at work ethos is the only means of promoting the creativity and involvement that is being aspired to. Continuing the communication theme, another manager shared her perception of how improvements in this area would promote her well-being. She explained: Communication with staff from above needs to be filtered down much better. When they have these corporate meetings, these ‘thinking out of the box’ and samples of staff attend these meetings. It’s the division that causes problems. However, when staff knows that they are appreciated, you’ll get the best out of them. If you don’t do that, you will never get the best out of them, and you’ll get more absences. They need to communicate better with the staff and improve things. They need to offer staff things that will enhance their well-being like therapies that will help them to de-stress. Offer them the opportunity to do things that are not necessarily work-related. There should be a promotion for those who are doing high-levelled jobs like myself. Allow us to work from home or promote us. Encourage managers not to look at it as a bad thing and allow flexible working hours. For me, coming into the office from 9.30 am to 10.00 am is perfect for me. (Manager, female, aged 50–59 years, tenure under five years)

An issue raised in the above comments, ‘…offering staff things to enhance their well-being like therapies opportunities to do things that are not necessarily workrelated’ invokes aspects of the ‘fun at work’ philosophy. However, although certainly mentioned, such initiatives were raised less frequently and assigned notably less importance than more material aspects of employment relations such as work-life balance, stress management, and team working. It is fair to say that such ingredients appear to have a much lower priority for these managers. This suggests that only when the more material aspects of well-being are fulfilled is their value in the initiatives advocated by ‘ministers of fun’, such as therapies and play activities. However, comments from another manager raise a different, more practical, perspective on how non-work initiatives that can promote well-being and possibly fun could be enhanced. He said: I think if I had a shower at work it would be beneficial and I could cycle more. It’s more important than you think. I am a great believer in physical exercise and mental health. If you can combine the two so that while you’re cycling at the beginning of the day, for example,

18.7 Managerial Work and Well-Being

419

you’re thinking about your day and gearing yourself up and doing the same on your way home, would certainly, be beneficial. Getting your exercise and dealing with the pressures of the day is important. It’s a healthy thing to do, so facilitating more of that is good…I’ve always said that they [the Council] should give free sessions at the sports centers for things like swimming and other activities. If it were free for Council staff, you will get a lot more people using it. (Senior Manager, male, age 40–49 years, tenure under five years)

Returning to the theme of work organisation related improvements that would contribute to well-being, another such example was the desire for more conducive working patterns: Somehow we have to persuade the members that we can’t have evening meetings; they must meet during the daytime. Persuade them that the best place to make decisions is when officers are not tired after having worked for maybe 12 hours before the meeting starts, because it’s not just me but my director, and my team leaders and my lawyers going to those meeting in the evenings as often as once a month and even more frequently sometimes. I don’t think it’s the best place to make decisions. Also, I don’t think it’s helpful to my team and my lawyers to be there at 10.00 pm or 11.00 p.m. I don’t think it’s the best decision-making time for the Council either. That is the first thing I will say can be removed to improve my well-being at work. In addition, they should perhaps look at the possibility of rewarding staff as well. (Assistant director, female, age 40–49 years, tenure 6–10 years)

Another director had similar comments to make. He explained: Improve the relationship with some of our stakeholders because of some of them are having a disproportionate impact on me and the rest of the organization. We need a bit more clarity about our priorities and need to narrow down our priorities, rather than wanting to do everything... Stress management, rightly or wrongly, is becoming a massive problem in society and the public sector and it’s significant… If we can do some more work with regards to developing staff and managers’ capacities to be able to recognize and manage stress and respond positively to signs of stress, it will benefit everyone’s well-being in the organization. (Director, male, age 40–49 years, tenure 6–10 years)

Taken as a whole, these managers’ comments touched on serious challenges faced by an individual and organisational perspective. For these respondents, it would seem that material issues like a relationship with stakeholders, clarification and narrowing down of change priorities, stress management, and management development are of fundamental importance to the promotion of their well-being. To go further, ‘fun initiatives’ are not likely to be readily embraced when managers are faced with the daily challenges they describe, nor is fun perceived by respondents as particularly high on their list of concerns.

18.8 Discussion The study shows that in this local authority, despite the espousal of well-being policies aimed at promoting a happier and more stress-free workforce, none of these managers were having much fun. Instead, it indicates beleaguered managers, needing recognition of genuine day-to-day concerns. This is reflected in managers’ responses

420

18 Can Fun and Games at Work Replace Well-Being in the Workplace …

to working life realities regarding budget and staffing pressures, team working, and stakeholder relationships within which these managers function. The results highlight a silence in fun at work literature around the conditions of fun and indicate that experiences of well-being at work are strongly associated with material aspects of employment relations, which have to be addressed before the philosophy of ‘fun at work’ can have meaning or relevance. It is hard to imagine that these managers would welcome organised fun activities that would encroach even more into their already busy schedules. Therefore, serious consideration is required to address the factors that promote employee well-being rather than more prescriptions to have fun. The articulated individual definitions of well-being (Table 18.1) indicated important points associated with the psychological perspective of well-being to include work-life balance, reward strategies, management development, trust, and autonomy. In support, well-being proponents argue that emotional experiences construct individuals’ reality of happiness and well-being (Ryff and Keyes 1995; Kersley et al. 2006). This was consistent across all managers. The salient points that focused on the physical perspective entailed health and safety and work stress. Managers responded similarly for each question asked. The literature advocates that physical and mental health and experiencing a safe working environment are areas that can reduce work stress, which in turn can promote well-being (Danna and Griffin 1999; Karasek and Theorell 1990). Prominent points identified concerning the social perspective involved support, team working, feedback, avoidance of bullying, and reduction in absenteeism. In support, Keyes (1998) denotes that all qualities of employees’ relationships with other people and communities within the organisation provide opportunities for interpersonal relationships (Grant et al. 2007). Advocates of fun propose that employee ‘happiness’ can result from ‘fun activities,’ which in essence is rhetoric when considering the reality faced by these managers in their daily working lives. Managers’ responses to the importance of well-being seemed to be essentially associated with the psychological perspective, noting the importance of a sense of purpose and belonging, reward strategies, support, work-life balance, and performance, all of which shape employees’ satisfaction with their jobs and lives (Tehrani et al. 2007). These crucial points were cited by all managers. Similarly, the physical and social perspectives were reflected by the same issues discussed previously. Subsequently, managers had much to say on the topic of improvements in their well-being. Each was concerned with fulfilment and realisation of their human potential. The psychological perspective for improvements touched on issues previously discussed and also included the effect of clarification and reduction in the volume and frequency of change initiatives. The physical aspect noted problems discussed earlier, and the social perspective noted previous factors and also included communication strategies, relationships, and discontinuance of evening meetings with members. These points resonate with the views of Grant et al. (2007) regarding the importance of social support, cooperation, coordination, and integration to be associated with relational interactions. Overall, the often highly bureaucratic and slow-to-change culture of public sector organisations (Noblet et al. 2006) is likely to be less tolerant of ‘fun’, as this

18.8 Discussion

421

can bring about heavy scrutiny from stakeholders. In this context, fun initiatives can be perceived as yet another programme to drain more effort out of already overworked employees. While these findings concern the employment experiences of local government managers, a moderate generalisation can be made for managers and employees more broadly (Williams 2002, p. 211). The findings also point to the need for balance between ideals of ‘workplace fun’ and human needs (Fineman 2006). In conclusion, it can be argued that these senior managers, and perhaps more generally, employees in similar contexts have some way to go before they selfactualise and are fulfilled in their well-being at work. It will take a further step, given the complexities and daily challenges faced, before they can welcome managerially led fun activities. The mantra of ‘working hard’ is evident for these managers, as for so many contemporary professionals; however, the Utopian state of ‘fun at work’ is likely to remain a subjective phenomenon in the pursuit of happiness for the foreseeable future (Fig. 18.1).

ClarificaƟon and ReducƟon in Change IniƟaƟves

Working Time Arrangements Stress Management

RelaƟonship with Stakeholders

Communication

Strategies

WELLBEING

Team Working

Reward Strategies Management Development

Fig. 18.1 Organisational factors that foster well-being to enable fun

422

18 Can Fun and Games at Work Replace Well-Being in the Workplace …

References Aldag, R., & Sherony, K. (2001). A spoonful of sugar: Some thoughts on ‘fun at work’. Current Issues in Management, 1(1), 62–76. Bakke, D. W. (2005). Joy at work: A revolutionary approach to fun on the job. New York, NY: Penguin. Baptiste, N. R. (2008a). Tightening the link between employee well-being and performance: A new dimension for HRM. Management Decision, 46(2), 284–309. Baptiste, N. R. (2008b). Line management leadership: Implications for employee well-being. In: G. P. Clarkson (Ed.), Developing Leadership Research, Papers from the Northern Leadership Academy Fellow 2007 Conference. Leeds: Leeds University Press Financial Services. Bolton, S. (2006, March 7). The UK’s best could do so much better. Personnel Today Magazine. Burke, R. J., & Ng, E. (2006). The changing nature of work organisations: Implications for human resource management. Human Resource Management Review, 16, 86–94. Clark, J., & Salaman, G. (1998). Telling tales: Management gurus’ narratives and the construction of managerial identity. Journal of Management Studies, 35(2), 137–161. Danna, K., & Griffin, R. W. (1999). Health and well-being in the workplace: A review and synthesis of the literature. Journal of Management, 25(3), 357–384. Fineman, S. (2006). On being positive: Concerns and counterpoints. Academy of Management Review, 31(2), 270–291. Ford, R. C., Newstrom, J. W., & McLaughlin, F. S. (2004). Making workplace fun more functional. Industrial and Commercial Training, 36(3), 117–120. Grant, A., Christianson, M., & Price, R. (2007). Happiness, health or relationships? Managerial practices and employee well-being tradeoffs. The Academy of Management, 21(3), 51–63. Guerrier, Y., & Adib, A. (2003). Work at leisure and leisure at work: A study of the emotional labour of tour reps. Human Relations, 56(11), 1399–1417. Haworth, J., & Hart, G. (2007). Well-being: Individual, community and social perspectives. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Jackall, R. (1988). Moral mazes: The world of corporate managers. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Jeffcoat, K., & Gibson, J. W. (2006). Fun as serious business: Creating a fun working environment as an effective business strategy. Journal of Business and Economic Research, 4(2), 29–34. Karasek, R. A., & Theorell, T. (1990). Healthy work: Stress, productivity, and the reconstruction of working life. New York, NY: Basic Books. Karl, K., & Peluchette, J. (2006). How does workplace fun impact perception of customer service quality. Journal of Leadership and Organisational Studies, 13(2), 2–13. Karl, K., Peluchette, J., Hall-Indiana, L., & Harland, L. (2005). Attitudes towards workplace fun: A three sector comparison. Journal of Leadership and Organisational Studies, 12(2), 1–17. Karl, K. A., Peluchette, J. V., & Harland, L. (2007). Is fun for everyone? Personality differences in healthcare providers’ attitudes toward fun. Journal of Health and Human Services Administration, 49(4), 409–447. Kersley, B., Alpin, C., Forth, J., Bryson, A., Bewley, H., Dix, G., & Oxenbridge, S. (2006). Inside the workplace: Findings from the 2004 workplace employment relations survey. London: Routledge. Keyes, C. L. M. (1998). Social well-being. Social Psychology Quarterly, 61(2), 121–140. Lyons, E. (2000). Qualitative data display: Data display model. In C. Fife-Schaw (Ed.), Research methods in psychology (pp. 269–280). London: Sage. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded source book. London: Sage. Morphet, J. (2008). Modern local government. London: Sage. Newstrom, J. W. (2002). Making work fun: An important role for managers. SAM Advanced Management Journal, 67(1), 4–21.

References

423

Noblet, A. J., McWilliams, J., Teo, S. T. T., & Rodwell, J. J. (2006). Work characteristics and employee outcomes in local government. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 17, 1804–1818. Plester, B. (2009). Crossing the line: Boundaries of workplace humour and fun. Employee Relations, 31(6), 584–599. Renwick, D. (2002). HR managers, guardians of employee well-being. Personnel Review, 32(3), 341–359. Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 719–727. Silverman, D. (1993). Interpreting qualitative data: Methods for analysing talk, text and Interaction. London: Sage. Taylor, P., & Bain, P. (2003). ‘Subterranean worksick blues’: Humour as subversion in two call centres. Organization Studies, 24(9), 1487–1509. Tehrani, N., Humpage, S., Willmott, B., & Haslam, I. (2007). What’s happening with well-being at work? Change agenda. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Van Manen, M. (1990). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. New York, NY: State University of New York Press. Warr, P. (2002). Psychology at work. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Warren, S. (2005). Humour as a management tool? The irony of structuring fun in organisations. In U. Johannson & J. Woodilla (Eds.), Irony and organisation: Epistemological claims and supporting field stories (pp. 174–199). Copenhagen: Copenhagen Business School, Liber. Williams, M. (2002). Generalization in interpretative research. In: T. May (Ed.), Qualitative research in action. London: Sage.

Chapter 19

Striving Towards a Violence ‘Free’ and Healthy Workplace: Insights from Canadian Natural Resource Industry Workers

Abstract This chapter critically examines what signals the prevalence of workplace violence in Canada’s Natural Resource Industry. This chapter also seeks to understand the consequences of workplace violence and explores the degree to which workplace violence can be stopped; and how employers can strive for violence-‘free’ and healthy workplace. A questionnaire survey, telephone interviews, and focus groups were used to focus on managers, union, and employees’ perceptions of their experiences and perceptions of workplace violence. Employees from across five different natural resource organisations completed three hundred and sixty-seven (367) questionnaire surveys that were analysed. Twenty (20) semi-structured telephone interviews were conducted with each interview lasting 60–75 min, tape-recorded, and transcribed verbatim. Two focus groups were conducted: one with 15 managers only and the other with 10 union representatives. Each focus group lasted 45–60 min, tape-recorded, and transcribed verbatim. The findings reveal thirteen key themes emerged as salient to natural resource workers’ perspectives of workplace violence, prevalence of violence, consequences of violence, prevention of violence, and how employers can strive towards a violence-‘free’ and healthy workplace. These themes include the work environment, trust, relationships, generational differences, workplace stress, work-life conflict, employee well-being, leadership, mental health, job redesign, communication and collaboration, education and training, and violent prevention policies and activities. This research has relevance for workplace well-being, leadership, corporate social responsibility, governance, work-life balance, and overall organisational health and sustainability for practitioners and academics alike. The findings and insights from this research can be extrapolated to other organisations in British Columbia, Canada, and other parts of the world.

19.1 Introduction Given the extensive research conducted on workplace violence in diverse occupations, little to no research has occurred on workplace violence in the forestry industry, mainly referencing the forestry industry in British Columbia, Canada. Little understanding exists of forestry workers’ experiences of workplace violence; furthermore, © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 N. Cvenkel, Well-Being in the Workplace: Governance and Sustainability Insights to Promote Workplace Health, Approaches to Global Sustainability, Markets, and Governance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3619-9_19

425

426

19 Striving Towards a Violence ‘Free’ and Healthy Workplace …

the prevalence of workplace violence, the consequences of violence, solutions for how violence can be stopped, and how organisations can strive towards violence‘free’ workplaces among forestry workers in BC remains mostly undocumented. Therefore, this research seeks to address these gaps.

19.2 Understanding Workplace Violence It is important to understand what causes some people to become violent and be able to identify the violent employee. Baron et al. (1999) conceptualise workplace violence and aggression to include a variety of behaviours, ranging from psychological acts (e.g. shouting) and physical assaults (e.g. fighting and hitting). Baron et al. further argue that aggressive workplace behaviours can entail three categories: expressions of hostility, which include hostile verbal or symbolic behaviours (e.g. the silent treatment); obstructionism, which involves behaviours designed to hamper the target’s performance (e.g. refusing to provide needed resources); and overt aggression that involves assaults and the destruction of property. Edward (2009) states that each day, workers face potentially threatening experiences, including but not limited to bullying, harassment, or physically aggressive acts by co-workers, supervisors, clients, or people extraneous to the work environment. WorkSafeBC (2012) defines workplace violence as ‘Incidents of violence include attempted or actual exercise[s] of physical force by a person, other than a worker, to cause injury to a worker and included any threatening statements or behaviour which causes a worker to reasonably believe he or she is at risk of injury’ (p. 2). The Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety [CCOHS] (2012) defines workplace violence as any act in which a person experiences abuse, threats, intimidation, or assault in his or her employment. Workplace violence includes threatening behaviour, such as shaking fists, destroying property, or throwing objects; verbal or written threats with the expression of an intent to inflict harm; and harassment, including any behaviour that demeans, embarrasses, humiliates, annoys, alarms, or verbally abuses a person. These actions include words, gestures, intimidation, bullying, or other inappropriate activities. These also include verbal abuse (e.g. swearing, insults, or condescending language) and physical attacks (e.g. hitting, shoving, pushing, or kicking) (CCOHS 2012). CCOHS further states that workplace violence is not limited to incidents that occur within a traditional workplace. Work-related violence can occur at off-site, business-related functions (e.g. conferences and trade shows), at social events related to work, in clients’ homes, or away from work but resulting from work (e.g. a threatening telephone call to a home from a client). The Health and Safety Executive [HSE] (2003) in the UK defines work-related violence as any incident in which a person feels abused, threatened, or assaulted in the circumstances relating to their work. These instances can include verbal abuse or threats as well as physical attacks (Cobb 2015). The European Union’s definition

19.2 Understanding Workplace Violence

427

of workplace violence includes physical, psychological, and or sexual behaviour. Cobb’s defines violence as a one-off incident or more systematic pattern of behaviour; violence amongst colleagues and between supervisors, subordinates, or by third parties (e.g. clients, customers, patients, pupils) (Cobb 2015). Violence can range from minor cases of disrespect to severe actions, which may include criminal offences that require the intervention of public authorities (HSE 2003). The National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health [NIOSH] in the USA (cited in Cobb 2015, p. 110) defines workplace violence as simply any physical assault, threatening behaviour, or verbal abuse occurring in the work setting. It covers traditional forms of physical violence and more recently recognised forms of violence, such as psychological harassment. Under NIOSH’s working definition, workplace violence includes beatings, stabbings, shootings, and rapes, along with psychological traumas, such as threats, obscene phone calls, intimidating presences, harassment experiences, and includes suicides and near suicides as types of workplace violence as well (cited in Cobb 2015, p 110; Folger and Baron 1996). According to Chechak and Csiernik (2014), as a social phenomenon, workplace violence lacks a uniform definition, resultant theoretical framework, and suffers from what Crawshaw (2009) calls a ‘growing problem of conflicting terms and definitions’ (p. 263). Workplace violence research identifies some behaviours and activities associated with verbal threats, sexual harassment, spreading gossip, shaking fists, throwing property, humiliating or annoying a person, swearing, using condescending language, engaging in pranks, or spreading rumours (Ashforth 1994; CCOHS 2012; Kraus et al. 1995). Therefore, in an attempt to uncover the patterns and consequences of workplace violence, researchers have borrowed and applied conceptual frameworks to the workplace in more prominent areas of concern, such as bullying (Monks et al. 2009; Tehrani 2012), emotional abuse (Keashly 1998), interpersonal violence (Ontario Safety Association for Community and Healthcare 2009), and sexual harassment (Barling et al. 2001). The World Health Organization [WHO] (1995) defines workplace violence as ‘the intentional use of power, threatened or actual, against another person or against a group, in work-related circumstances, that either result in or has a high degree of likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment or deprivation’ (p. 20). The definition used by the WHO (2002) associates intentionality with the committing of an act itself, irrespective of the outcome it produces. The use of the word power implies that the nature of violence includes those acts that result from a power relationship, including threats, intimidation, and various other types of physical, sexual, and psychological abuse (WHO 2002). A review of modern literature recognises that workplace violence fluctuates and violence in the workplace has occurred since leadership first enacted organised labour (Chehak and Csiernik 2014). According to Bowie et al. (2005) and Howard (1996), one may define violence in the workplace according to the relationship between the perpetrator and the victim, which includes four types of violence.

428

19 Striving Towards a Violence ‘Free’ and Healthy Workplace …

1. Type I: External/intrusive violence, which entails workplace violence events of criminal intent by unknown assailants as in a robbery, including terrorist acts, protest violence, mental illness or drug-related aggression, and random violence. 2. Type II: Consumer-related violence includes workplace violence events involving customer/patient/client and family violence against staff, vicarious trauma to staff, and staff violence to clients/customers, as in terrorist acts. 3. Type III: Relationship violence includes worker-on-worker violence (including bullying) involving current or former co-workers and managers and includes domestic violence, sexual harassment at work, and third-party violence. 4. Type IV: Organisational violence occurs against staff, consumers/clients/patients, and other organisations or communities. Research on the ecological model of violence was first published in the late 1970s to help understand the multifaceted nature of violence (Bronfenbrenner 1979) that derived from various levels of influence in behaviour and focuses on the individual, relationship, community, and societal levels. Hence, different factors at different stages of life might cause violence. The individual level identifies the biographical and personal history factors that an individual brings to his or her behaviour. This perspective also includes biographical and demographic factors, such as impulsivity, low educational attainment, substance abuse, and prior history of aggression and abuse. This level focuses on the characteristics of the individual that increase the likelihood of being a victim or a perpetrator of violence (Reiss and Roth 1993). The second level of the ecological model explores how social relationships (i.e. with peers, intimate partners, and family members) increase the risk for violent victimisation and perpetration of violence. In the case of partner violence, interacting on an almost daily basis or sharing a common dwelling with an abuser may increase the opportunity for violent encounters. Peers, intimate partners, and family members all have the potential to shape an individual’s behaviour and range of experiences (Bronfenbrenner 1979). The community level examines the community contexts in which social relationships are embedded (e.g. schools, workplaces, and neighbourhoods) and seeks to identify the characteristics of these settings that are associated with being victims or perpetrators of violence. Research on violence shows that opportunities for violence are more significant in some community contexts compared to others (i.e. in areas of poverty, physical deterioration, or where few institutional supports exist (Thornberry et al. 1995). The broader societal factors that influence rates of violence include factors that create an acceptable climate for violence, those that reduce inhibitions against violence, and those that create and sustain gaps between different segments of society or exacerbate tensions between different groups or countries. Larger societal factors include cultural norms that support violence as an acceptable way to resolve conflicts and norms that entrench male dominance over women and children. Societal factors also include the health, educational, economic, and social policies that maintain high levels of economic or social inequality between groups in society (Lipsey and Derzon 1998).

19.2 Understanding Workplace Violence

429

Workplace violence, in which an employee or former employee acts in a threatening or destructive manner towards fellow employees, supervisors, or the property of the workplace, derives from the interaction between a violence-prone individual and a system that provokes the violence or allows it to happen (Braverman 1999). Braverman (1999) further argues that the primary barrier to effective violence prevention is the tendency of employers to continue leading their organisations the same way when the question of threatening behaviour exists or when an act of violence has occurred. The legal and bureaucratic origins of the style of employer–employee relationships do little to address these issues. This situation partly occurs because the relational constraints set the employer and employee against one another, ultimately leading to disaster.

19.3 The Continuum of Workplace Violence According to Chechak and Csiernik (2014), the continuum of violence represents a theoretical construct that includes recognising that physical, social, and even religious violence represent equally essential forms of workplace violence. This continuum validates the experiences of victims of all forms of violence, not just physical, which are only now beginning to develop recognition as legitimate forms. For instance, Lippel and Quinlan (2011) state that the relative invisibility of psychological effects and outcomes, compared to obvious physical or illness-related risks, might explain the absence of regulatory frameworks in this domain. All forms of violence are harmful and ultimately detrimental to the employee and organisational wellness. Lippel and Quinlan (2011) further point out that the violence continuum model includes recognising the fluidity of violence risk, which can change unexpectedly based on fluctuations in any number of occupations, environmental, and personal characteristics of the workforce. Braverman (1999) supports this point, stating that violence derives from unbearable stress experienced by a person who can become violent when the relevant conditions occur. Braverman further states that if a person feels pushed daily beyond their limit to endure abuse and humiliation by a bully or person in a position of power, violence occurs (e.g. most human behaviours) and represents an attempt to take action in response to a condition, a need, or a demand (Henderson 2010; Namie and Namie 2011). Under conditions of unbearable stress, some people become violent, and some do not. Braverman (1999) extrapolates that unbearable stress can be catastrophic to a person’s life and can result in severe or chronic physical illness, emotional breakdown, suicide, or violence. An individual’s interpersonal functioning in the relationship with other people (e.g. interaction, mutual agreement or manipulation, and intimidation, blaming others or the system for what goes wrong in his/her life, and the state of his self-esteem) can have implications for violence. The risk of violent behaviour is also associated with the personal and cultural background that can shape a person’s attitudes about the uses and acceptability of violence. Understanding a person’s background and emotional functioning can assist in the evaluation of a

430

19 Striving Towards a Violence ‘Free’ and Healthy Workplace …

person’s ability to withstand stress and to find acceptable, useful ways to deal with conflict, anger, frustration, and pressure (Braverman 1999). The second condition to predict and understand violence includes the situation or context that pushes the person towards violent or threatening behaviour. Braverman (1999) and Pauchant and Mitroff (1992) state that in the workplace context, factors associated with loss of employment in mid- or late-career include demotion or loss of job security, injury, or illness leading to disruption of body image or sense of competence and control, rejection or threat of abandonment at home (which is often the cause of domestic violence), humiliation, and being cut off from other people (p. 20). Tehrani (2012) argues that stressors relate directly to the personality issues with feelings of powerlessness in an organisational context and can cause some people to begin to feel at risk of violent or threatening behaviour. An employee can blame the organisation or the system for his or her misfortunes; for example, a worker experiencing disconnection with the organisation will progressively alienate the people around him or her and use the resources and goodwill of the systems designed to support him or her (Namie and Namie 2011). Feeling no support, a person can feel isolated and desperate, and depression can occur, which can remove supports to the individual’s physical, financial, and social well-being (Namie and Namie 2011; Tehrani 2012). Violence exists in settings where an individual with a predisposition for violence enters into a situation that pushes that individual past his or her ability to cope nonviolently; therefore, this represents the foundation for violence to occur (Braverman 1999). Braverman (1999) and Flannery (2012) further states that for violence to occur, leadership or employees must allow it to happen. A violence-proactive organisation will have the capacity to recognise the warning signs of stress-related breakdowns and to take action that will interrupt or affect these processes (Henderson 2010; Flannery 2012). Achieving this capacity represents the basis and goal of violence prevention policies and activities. However, a change in working conditions or a layoff may remain relatively out of the control of the employer (Edwards 2009). Therefore, effective violence prevention depends on the ability of the social or organisational setting to mediate or moderate the effect of those stressors on the individual.

19.4 Employer Obligations, Intervention, and Prevention of Workplace Violence Effective violence prevention in the workplace entails early notification and stress reduction (Braverman 1999; Flannery 2012; Namie and Namie 2011). A crisis-prone organisation can lead to a violent or self-destructive outcome. An employee subjected to stressors (e.g. injury, illness, job changes, financial stress, exposure to

19.4 Employer Obligations, Intervention, and Prevention …

431

violence, family stress, and job loss) may display behaviours similar to threatening behaviour, change in performance, lowered performance, disability, and negative well-being (Baptiste 2009; Cvenkel 2018; Namie and Namie 2011; WorkSafeBC 2012). When these behaviours and warning signals appear, the response of crisis-prone organisations can contribute directly to tragic or destructive outcomes. Organisations and management must develop proactive strategies to prevent workplace violence. WorkSafeBC (2012) outlines specific factors that organisations should consider when developing a violence prevention programme. These factors include written policies and procedures, regular risk assessments, prevention procedures, work and supervisor training, procedures for reporting and investigating incidents, as well as incident follow-up and programme review. WorkSafeBC also notes that organisations could develop strategies to prevent violence in the workplace for workers travelling to and from work, working alone, and dealing with irate customers. According to Cobb (2015), workplace violence exerts a human and economic toll on organisations, and it costs economies billions of dollars each year in health care, legal costs, absenteeism from work, and lost productivity (Braverman 1999; Cobb 2015; Cvenkel 2018). Violence in the workplace causes immediate and often long-term disruption to interpersonal relationships and to the working environment entirely (Tehrani 2012). The direct costs of such violence include accidents, illness, disability, death, absenteeism, and turnover of staff. Indirect costs include reduced work performance, a lower quality of products or services, slower production, and decreased competitiveness. The World Health Organization (1996) notes that more intangible costs include damage to the image of the organisation, decreased motivation and morale, diminished loyalty to the organisation, lower levels of creativity, and a less cohesive working environment. Poll (2014) argues that employers remain responsible for identifying and managing the risk of harassment and violence at work. Employers should provide clear policies about harassment and violence, detailing their responsibilities and those of their workforce to raise awareness of related issues among the workforce and set standards for workplace behaviour. The Health and Safety Executive (2012) posits that, in larger organisations, these policies will generally remain formalised to ensure consistency and fairness of application. In smaller organisations, these policies may seem less formalised, but in any case, workers should remain aware of the behaviour expected of them and the options available to them should they feel they have experienced violence and or harassment (Namie and Namie 2011). Many organisations already have policies and procedures in place for dealing with harassment and violence. The HSE (2009a, b) states that the measures to prevent workplace violence introduced by employers should occur in consultation with their workforce representatives (HSE 2010). Alternatively, Baptiste (2009) says that employers must ensure, as far as reasonably practicable, that the health, safety, and welfare of their workers are promoted and maintained (Baptiste 2008; Cvenkel 2018; Namie and Namie 2011). Employers should also assess the risks to their workers (including the risk of reasonably foreseeable violence), decide how significant these risks are and what to do to prevent or

432

19 Striving Towards a Violence ‘Free’ and Healthy Workplace …

control the risks, and develop a clear management plan to achieve these goals. Cobb (2015) points out that employer should also establish a clear grievance and disciplinary procedure consistent with codes of practice. Employers must consult with the workforce and their representatives about risk assessments and action arising from them (WorkSafeBC 2012). Best practice approaches to a violence-free workforce entail that employers should ensure that everyone stays aware of his or her harassment and violence policies and his or her responsibilities concerning these policies (Lippel and Quinlan 2011). Chehak and Csiernik (2014) profess that employers should prevent violence by providing a clear statement to staff and service users that they will not tolerate harassment and violence, and they will treat these as disciplinary offences (up to and including dismissal or, if appropriate, criminal action). Chehak and Csiernik (2014) further suggest the importance for organisations to remain clear about what constitutes unacceptable behaviour on the part of managers/other workers as well as service users or members of the public. Namie and Namie (2011) argue that organisations should provide a statement of their overall approach to preventing and dealing with the risks of harassment and violence, including training that is tailored to the organisation’s context. Edwards (2009) states that organisations should also provide advice to workers on relevant legislation applicable to them/their responsibilities within the workplace. Tehrani (2012) states that anti-violence prevention measures include security measures, work environment improvements, restricted access, worker behaviour protocols, a culture of dignity at work, punishment for the offender, respect at work, screening procedures for employees, training and education, zero-tolerance policy, access to employee assistance programme (EAP), legal counselling, anger management classes, training on conflict resolution, and training to identify potential victims of violence (Flannery 2012; Namie and Namie 2011). Reporting violent incidents should follow a systematic procedure that involves the victim(s) keeping a diary of all incidents (and possible witnesses) and copies of anything relevant (Elliott 1997). Elliott (1997) further points out that organisations should make clear that all parties involved will receive an impartial hearing and fair treatment and that the dignity and privacy of all will stay protected (i.e. no information sharing). The HSE (2009b) states that when reporting violence, the leadership of organisations should make clear that they will not tolerate false (i.e. malicious) accusations, and these may result in disciplinary action. Organisations should make explicit what support is available to the victim(s) (including with reintegration if necessary). Even further, organisations must include information about how leadership plans to implement, review, and monitor policies (HSE 2010). The HSE (2010) also highlights some informal approaches that leadership may implement to prevent workplace violence. For example, sometimes people remain unaware that their behaviour feels unwelcome, and an informal discussion can lead to greater understanding and an agreement that the behaviour will cease. It may entail that individuals will choose to do this themselves, or they may need support from HR, a manager, an employee representative, EAP’s, conflict resolution, restorative justice services, emotional support, public education/prevention, or a

19.4 Employer Obligations, Intervention, and Prevention …

433

counsellor (Allen 2014). Employers can use these victim support services to assist workers who have experienced workplace violence.

19.5 Methodology In this study, data was collected using questionnaire survey, semi-structured interviews and focus groups with managers, union, and employees from five forestry organisations in British Columbia, Canada. A mixed methodological approach was adopted for this study. A mixed methodology is appropriate for addressing the research aims. Quantitative and qualitative methods are not simply different ways of doing the same action. Instead, these methods have different strengths and logic and are often used to address different kinds of questions and goals (Maxwell 2004; Maxwell and Loomis 2002). The analysis of the data presented in this chapter is more qualitative. The study analysed 367 questionnaires, with a response rate of 41.24%. Twenty semi-structured interviews were completed by managers, employees, and the union from different forestry organisations. The semi-structured interviews lasted 60–75 min, were tape-recorded, and transcribed verbatim. The two focus groups lasted 45–60 min, one with managers only and the second with union representatives and employees only. This study adopts an interpretivist approach, which allows a positivist and an interpretivist viewpoint that examines situations to establish the norm by using interviews, questionnaires, visual records made, and even sound (Walliman 2011, p. 12). This mixed-method approach facilitates dealing with complex social issues and moves beyond merely stating facts to make sense from a human experience. Guba and Lincoln (1989) state that evaluation research presents the meaningful constructions that the individual actors or groups of actors create to make sense of the situations in which they find themselves. The questionnaire survey was analysed using descriptive and multivariate statistical analysis. The interview and focus groups data were analysed using the phenomenological interpretative approach to analyse the qualitative data, assisted with repeated immersion into the data as a whole, leading to the categorisation into themes as described by (Giorgi 1985; Thorne et al. 1997). An interpretative description is uniquely suited to explore sensitive issues, such as workplace violence in the forestry industry in BC, where the knowledge of workplace violence may seem common to all. The interpretative descriptive approach stays grounded in an interpretative orientation that acknowledges the constructed and contextual nature of much of social science research, similar to health-illness experience and other related employees’ experiences that also allow for shared realities (Thorne et al. 1997, p. 172). Therefore, the experience of workplace violence, from the perspective of individuals’ historical accounts of events, can have a profound effect on each individual and by extension the organisation, families, and communities associated with them.

434

19 Striving Towards a Violence ‘Free’ and Healthy Workplace …

19.6 Results The findings reveal thirteen key superordinate themes that emerged as salient to forestry workers’ perspectives of workplace violence, prevalence of violence, consequences of violence, prevention of violence, and how employers can strive towards a violence-‘free’ and healthy workplace. These themes include the work environment, trust, relationships, generational differences, workplace stress, work-life conflict, employee well-being, leadership, mental health, job redesign, communication and collaboration, education and training, and violent prevention policies and activities.

19.6.1 The Work Environment Employees were asked about their perspective regarding the safety of their work environment. Table 19.1 outlines employees’ responses of their respective work environment. More than three quarters (77.8%) of employees strongly agreed that they felt safe at work; 28.2% strongly agreed and agreed that they knew of a situation that could lead to violence at the Natural Resource Industry organisation; and 67.5% of respondents know the Natural Resource Industry organisations’ policies regarding workplace violence. For example, more than half of the respondents (53.2%) knew that bullies existed at the mill; 48.2% agreed that the mill had done enough to protect their safety; 73% of respondents stated that they must report incidences of violence at the mill; 68.7% knew how to report workplace bullying or workplace violence; 44.6% stated that their mill took suitable corrective action against workplace bullying; 55.2% stated that the mill took suitable corrective action against sexual harassment; 51.6% stated that the mill took suitable corrective action for racial harassment; 49.6% stated that their mill took correction against inappropriate behaviour; and 55.9% stated that the organisations took suitable correction action against workplace violence. Overall, the findings reveal that more than three-fourth of employees profess that they felt safe at work, a little more than a one-fourth of employees agreed that they knew of situations that could lead to violence at their Natural Resource Industry organisation. More than two-thirds of respondents are aware of organisation policies regarding workplace violence but a little more than a half of employees claim that violence and bullying still exist at their Natural Resource Industry organisation.

19.6.1.1

Communicating Violence

The study explored employees’ perspectives about who they communicated with about experiencing workplace violence on and off the job. The findings in Table 19.2 show that a greater percentage of employees spoke to their spouse, family, friends,

0.8

7.7

22.4

13.7

15.4

3.3

d. I missed work because of fear of violence at my mill

e. I know of a situation that could lead to violence at my mill

f. I know what policies my mill has regarding workplace violence

g. I know that we have bullies at my mill

h. My mill has done enough to protect my safety

i. I am concerned about working alone with a certain employee at my mill

b. I was informed about the risks of workplace violence at my mill

0.8

11.5

a. I feel safe at work

c. I missed work because of being ridiculed or teased at my mill

Strongly agree (%)

24.9

Answer options

14.5

32.8

39.5

45.1

20.5

3.8

5.7

36.1

52.9

Agree (%)

24.9

32.2

28.2

19.4

29.0

16.8

17.2

27.9

16.4

Neutral (%)

Table 19.1 Participant survey responses about the work environment

25.8

13.5

12.1

8.5

18.0

25.5

24.9

14.8

4.7

Disagree (%)

31.5

6.1

6.6

4.6

24.9

53.0

51.4

9.8

1.1

Strongly disagree (%)

3.68

2.62

2.58

2.28

3.32

4.26

4.20

2.75

2.04

Rating average

365

363

365

366

366

364

366

366

365

(continued)

Response count

19.6 Results 435

Strongly agree (%)

15.9

20.1

26.2

20.8

11.3

10.7

14.2

Answer options

j. I feel comfortable that I would know how to handle a violent co-worker

k. My mill has a system for reporting workplace bullying

l. I am required to report incidences of violence at my mill

m. I know how to report workplace bullying or workplace violence

n. We discuss workplace violence at safety meetings at my mill

o. My mill takes suitable corrective action against workplace bullying

p. My mill takes suitable corrective action against sexual harassment

Table 19.1 (continued)

41.0

33.9

26.7

47.9

46.8

42.6

37.0

Agree (%)

38.8

33.9

33.6

19.7

17.4

24.2

29.3

Neutral (%)

3.8

14.9

23.4

8.8

7.2

9.1

14.5

Disagree (%)

2.2

6.6

5.0

2.7

2.5

4.1

3.3

Strongly disagree (%)

2.39

2.73

2.84

2.25

2.13

2.35

2.52

Rating average

366

363

363

365

363

364

365

(continued)

Response count

436 19 Striving Towards a Violence ‘Free’ and Healthy Workplace …

2.7

6.3

v. I have received training in recognising workplace violence

15.3

s. My mill takes suitable corrective action against workplace violence

u. People that I work with talk among themselves about how to handle violence at my mill?

11.0

r. My mill takes suitable corrective action against inappropriate worker behaviours

4.4

14.2

q. My mill takes suitable corrective action against racial harassment

t. People that I work with talk among themselves about how to handle bullies at my mill

Strongly agree (%)

Answer options

Table 19.1 (continued)

17.2

20.5

20.8

40.6

38.6

37.4

Agree (%)

35.5

46.4

48.1

32.2

34.2

40.2

Neutral (%)

27.6

23.8

20.8

9.5

11.5

5.7

Disagree (%)

13.4

6.6

6.0

2.5

4.7

2.5

Strongly disagree (%)

3.25

3.11

3.03

2.43

2.60

2.45

Rating average

366

366

366

367

365

366

(continued)

Response count

19.6 Results 437

4.1

5.8

4.1

3.6

x. I have received training in dealing with workplace violence

y. I have received training on the security devices and or measures available to me to protect my safety

z. I have received information about domestic violence in the workplace

Strongly agree (%)

w. I have received training in preventing workplace violence

Answer options

Table 19.1 (continued)

16.3

13.3

16.4

15.4

Agree (%)

33.0

36.2

34.0

38.5

Neutral (%)

30.5

31.5

27.9

28.0

Disagree (%)

16.6

14.9

15.9

14.0

Strongly disagree (%)

3.40

3.40

3.32

3.32

Rating average

361

362

365

364

Response count

438 19 Striving Towards a Violence ‘Free’ and Healthy Workplace …

19.6 Results

439

Table 19.2 Communicating workplace violence Communicating workplace violence

Percentage (%)

Employees spoke to their spouse about bullying and violence at the organisation

48.8

Employees talked about bullying and workplace violence with their friends

35.1

Employees talked about bullying and workplace violence with their family

28.3

Employees talked to their co-workers about bullying and workplace violence at work

50.1

Employees spoke to their supervisor/manager about workplace bullying and violence at the organisation

36.5

Employees talked to the union about bullying and violence

15.3

Employees spoke to HR personnel about bullying and violence

8.2

Employees spoke to the Health and Safety Coordinator about bullying and workplace violence

4.1

and co-workers about workplace bullying and violence compared to a lesser number of employees who talked to management, the union, HR, and the Health and Safety Coordinator.

19.6.1.2

Reporting Violence

More than a quarter of respondents (26.7%) state that they would not report negative or violent behaviour because they did not think anyone would do anything. Furthermore, 18.5% of respondents would not report violence because they did not want to get in the middle of the problem; 16.9% states that they would not report violence as they might have misunderstood what they saw; 13.1% states that they would not report violence because they should handle it themselves; 12% of respondents did not report violence because they held the view that violence would get worse; and close to half of respondents (49%) indicated ‘other’ as their response to not reporting negative or violent behaviour. 14.4% did not report violence because they did not know what to do. Some employees held the view that what they witnessed was incidents that occurred in fun and not in violence. One employee captured this point: I did not report violence as it is usually in jest. Most of the time it’s a joke. If it’s serious, it will be reported. (Employee 5)

19.6.1.3

Lack of Trust

Some employees indicated a lack of trust in management/supervisors as well as the process of reporting workplace violence, as reasons why they did not report violence. Once respondent captured this theme:

440

19 Striving Towards a Violence ‘Free’ and Healthy Workplace …

I did not report violence because I did not think anyone will do anything effective about it. Workplace violence is not anything this mill seems concerned about so why bother…my supervisor is behind the few experiences I have witnessed. A few times, I have said something and nothing was done, there is no help. Supervisors will ignore the situation…no one wants to share; it is difficult to get workers to formally come forward. (Employee 18)

19.6.2 Prevalence of Workplace Violence 19.6.2.1

Psychological Threatening Behaviour

The research findings reveal that the prevalence of workplace violence is associated with six themes, which include psychological threatening behaviour, leadership, culture of disrespect, generational cultural differences, male-dominated industry, and work–family conflict in a small community. The survey results revealed that over the last 12 months, respondents witnessed the prevalence of inappropriate language (89.6%), verbal abuse (51%), and verbal threats of violence (18%). The findings from the telephone interviews and focus groups highlighted psychological threatening behaviour as prevalent in workplace violence. Managers and union representatives hold similar views regarding psychological violence being prevalent in Natural Resource Industry organisations. One manager stated: The days of the physical violence is very few and far between. We moved into an era of psychological bullying but we have managed to keep the work environment worker-friendly. (Manager 04)

The union representatives also highlighted psychological violence as a prevalence of workplace violence. A union representative narrative stated: The violence is there at the lower and higher levels but not a lot of attention is given. However, every year or so we see something popping up and we need to deal with things like this. A year ago, one of the younger workers came to work and made some threats after he was messed around concerning his pay/overtime for some time, by his supervisor, and he was escorted out… That person lost his job and the police took him away. Now every time somebody makes a threatening statement, everybody takes it seriously. (Union Representative 8)

19.6.2.2

Poor Leadership

Leadership was another theme that centres on the prevalence of workplace violence. One employee comment supports this view. He said: There are triggers and people are irrational…we had that incident in lower BC and no one saw that coming. I see things and we try to motivate the leadership to deal with them. We will hold leadership accountable…and we don’t have the knowledge to deal with the violence properly. (Employee 15)

19.6 Results

19.6.2.3

441

Culture of Disrespect

A culture of disrespect represents another theme that centres on the prevalence of workplace violence. One manager highlighted the disrespectful culture as prevalent of workplace violence in Natural Resource Industry organisations: There is an underlying, unacceptable and disrespectful culture that is something which is prevalent for us. Disrespect is part of that culture. Unacceptable levels of disrespect, as part of the culture is not accepted. We are dealing with this as part of the culture…This is something that is prevalent for us. (Manager 10)

19.6.2.4

Generational Cultural Differences

Generational cultural differences were another theme that respondents reveal as a prevalent factor of workplace violence in Natural Resource Industry organisations. Respondents highlighted that older workers seemed more likely to act violently compared to younger workers. One manager stated: Violence is more prevalent with older workers. Some of the employees are younger in their late 20’s and they bring a different culture and set of behaviours. They tend to be more open and report any confrontation that they have, compared to senior employees. We really have pretty bad behaviours. (Manager 05)

19.6.2.5

Male-Dominated Work Environment

Male-dominated work environment represents another theme that reveals the prevalence of workplace violence in Natural Resource Industry organisations in BC. An employee stated: I don’t think it is any worse in a Natural Resource Industry organisation or any maledominated industry. Physical violence is more prominent in a male work environment. I would suspect other forms of harassment and intimidation in a female-dominated environment because I have seen instances where an individual may be ostracized by a group when they don’t fit in. It is more how the male tends to deal with things. (Employees 06)

19.6.2.6

Work–Family Conflict

Respondents highlighted work–family conflict in a small community as a factor that contributed to the prevalence of workplace violence in Natural Resource Industry organisations. One employee shared his experience that supported this theme: Working in a Natural Resource Industry organisation is our small community and we have always worked with each other so we need to pay attention to people who are having family and work issues to bring a resolution to it. It is happening quite often; we have done lots of work but it is still happening. (Employee 10)

442

19 Striving Towards a Violence ‘Free’ and Healthy Workplace …

The findings reveal that the prevalence of workplace violence in the five case forestry organisations was mainly because of psychological threatening behaviour, poor leadership, culture of disrespect, generational cultural differences, maledominated environment, work–family conflict in a small community.

19.6.3 Consequences of Workplace Violence Respondents were asked to indicate how workplace violence has impacted them or someone who has experienced workplace violence. The majority of employees’ state that workplace violence increased their stress levels and has caused them to feel angry, upset, confused, frustrated, reduced their trust in co-workers and management, create tensions between co-workers, decreased performance, a sense of safety and decreased productivity. Table 19.3 shows the consequences of workplace violence to respondents. More than two-thirds of respondents (69.2%) state that workplace violence increases their stress levels. Close to half of (47.1%) highlights that workplace violence causes them to feel angry; confused; and frustrated (46%); affects trust in Table 19.3 Consequences of workplace violence

Consequences of workplace violence

Percentage (%)

Workplace violence increases stress levels

69.2

Workplace violence causes employees to feel angry

47.1

Feeling upset, confused and frustrated

46

Decreased levels of co-worker trust

41.4

Decreased levels of management trust

41.4

Conflict and tensions between co-workers

37.9

Decreased work performance

33

Decreased sense of safety and security

32.7

Decreased productivity

30.5

Depression and anxiety attacks

28.6

Decreased commitment

27.8

Decreased employee engagement

27

Sleep disruption

26.7

Shock and disbelief

26.4

Low self-esteem

26.2

Hurt and disappointment

25.3

Victimised

24.3

Greater concern for work-life balance

23.2

Increased fear

22.9

19.6 Results

443

co-workers and management (41.4%); conflict and tension (37.9%); decreased work performance (33%); decreased sense of safety and security (32.7%); decreased productivity (30.5%); feelings of depression and anxiety attacks (28.6%); decreased commitment (27.8%); decreased employee engagement (27%); sleep disruption (26.7%); shock and disbelief (26.4%); low self-esteem (26.2%) hurt and disappointment (25.3%); victimised (24.3%); greater concern for work-life balance (23.2%); and increased fear (22.9%). Additional impact of violence includes negative emotions, poor relationships, and abusive behaviour affiliated with drugs and alcohol. The findings from the telephone interviews and focus groups revealed five themes that respondent view as consequences of workplace violence. These include workplace stress, lack of trust, employee turnover, damage to machinery, mental ill-health, and absenteeism. Managers and union representatives had different views of the consequences of workplace violence.

19.6.3.1

Workplace Stress

The consequences of workplace violence are employee turnover, lack of trust, unrest and anxiety among workers. (Manager 5) Workplace stress is a consequence of workplace violence. (Union representative 8)

The findings reveal that the work environment was toxic, which fosters bullying, harassment, violence, and stress among workers. A union representative’s narrative supports this theme: Witnessing violence and bullying on someone else causes stress and it is uncomfortable and creates a toxic environment. When bullying and violence happen at the end of the day, people are stressed. (Union Representative 03)

19.6.3.2

Lack of Trust

Employees highlighted that the lack of trust as a consequence of workplace violence. One employee’s narrative supports this point: I have a negative outlook when something is brought forward to the company and they don’t react the way they should. It leaves a bitter taste in my mouth and there is no trust. (Employee 14)

19.6.3.3

Employee Turnover

Employee turnover represented another consequence of workplace violence. One manager stated:

444

19 Striving Towards a Violence ‘Free’ and Healthy Workplace …

People look at leaving the organization so employees who can add value to the company will also leave the organization… Workplace violence also affects trust so we have senior managers in place to establish a level of trust with employees. (Manager 03)

19.6.3.4

Damage to Property

Damage to property represents another consequence of workplace violence. Negative emotions of feeling angry, nervousness, and intimidation were highlighted as central to causing damage to property because of workplace violence. One employee noted his experience: I ended up hurting a lot more. When I get yelled at, it makes me feel angry and I am a lot rougher on the equipment and I drive that thing as if it was stolen and it hurts me more. It makes you feel as though you were walking on eggshells until something is done. It makes you feel more nervous and intimidated. (Employee 18)

19.6.3.5

Mental Ill-Health and Absenteeism

Mental ill-health and absenteeism represent another consequence of workplace violence in Natural Resource Industry organisations. This was likely to affect one’s performance and attendance negatively at work. An employee shared his experience of absenteeism. He stated: Workplace violence makes everybody else uncomfortable. Every day, you come to work, you are walking on eggshells and you tippy-toe around the person, because you think this person is unstable. It affects your performance and the way you do your job. You question coming to work, asking yourself, “Do I want to do this?” This results in people taking more days off. (Employee 01)

The study shows that the consequences of workplace violence are numerous to individuals, the organisation and eventually to the community and society. Violent incidents influence victims and or witnesses by increasing their stress levels, which resulted in negative emotions, such as anger, confusion, frustration, lack of wellbeing, and or lack of trust for co-workers and management. It may also create conflict and tension between co-workers and decrease work performance, commitment, and employee engagement. Workplace violence can also cause depression, anxiety attacks, low self-esteem and impact one’s ability to attend work (i.e. absenteeism) and sleep peacefully at night. The findings also reveal negative attitudes and behaviours that could hinder psychological and physical well-being of workers as well as the bottom-line performance for the forestry organisations.

19.6 Results

445

19.6.4 Stopping Workplace Violence in Natural Resources Organisations The research findings from the telephone interviews and focus groups reveal nine themes that address the question of how to stop workplace violence in Natural Resource Industry organisations in BC. The themes include education, employee violence assistance programmes (EVAP), mandatory violence reporting and investigation, work-life conflict, work cameras, coffee breaks, respectful work culture, job redesign and employee appreciation. At the focus groups, managers and union representatives were asked about their perspectives concerning how workplace violence can be stopped. Both managers and union representatives highlighted that workplace violence can be stopped through education and training. Managers also suggested that workplace violence could be stopped through a restorative justice programmes as well as a zero-tolerance policy. The union representatives recommended that workplace violence could be stopped through job redesign, support for work-life conflict, fostering a respectful workplace, and addressing mental health issues.

19.6.4.1

Education

Both managers and union representatives agreed that workplace violence could be stopped through education. One manager’s comments highlighted this point: We bring things up in the crew to deal with this situation… Although we have all the information available for employees and we have the EAP information, yet the employees are not aware of the programs. The EAP has a stigma of drugs and alcohol attached to it so it should be promoted from a different perspective. (Manager 7)

The union representatives’ perspective echoes the point raised by management: Education is part of the solution. We need more education- you need that driving force. As union members we don’t have any power…all the power is in the hands of the employer. We need some backing to make things move forward. In my 44 years of working at the Natural Resource Industry organisation, this is the first survey done on workplace violence. (Union Representative 05)

19.6.4.2

Employee Violence Assistance Programme (EVAP)

Respondents also highlighted violence assistance support programmes as approaches that could assist with putting a stop to workplace violence as well as assist victims of violence. One manager’s comments supported these themes: We need more of a crackdown on actions and accountability. There needs to be resources that people can anonymously use to assist them if they are feeling bullied. People who need that step are not willing to call, as they feel ashamed by it. (Manager 01)

446

19 Striving Towards a Violence ‘Free’ and Healthy Workplace …

Respondents also recommended the development of an employee violence assistance programme (EVAP) to include factors that better cater for workplace violence, victims of violence, drivers, consequences, and the impact of violence on a person’s overall well-being as well as the work environment. One employee comments: Restructuring the current EAP is essential…there is need for management to introduce a more specialized and streamlined employee violence support program, tools and resources to better support employees and co-workers who have experienced and witnessed workplace violence. A toll-free line can be used to remove barriers for people calling in. (Employee 07)

Management had a similar perspective regarding the development of an employees’ support programme and/or initiative that will support employees exposed to workplace violence (e.g. EVAP). One manager stated: A system can be developed to provide that extra support for employees who have experienced workplace violence. This would reduce the crisis inflicted from being exposed to workplace violence because there would be a 24-hour violence crisis line continuum of support that will be available as a sounding board and gatekeeper for workers…management can also identify “crisis leads” at their Natural Resource Industry organisations to provide support to workers and to assist with debriefing, decompressing, and allowing workers the opportunity to call and get the required support. (Manager 06)

Another manager’s comments reinforced the importance of utilising an employee support system that focuses on workplace violence (e.g. EVAP). He stated: There should be more use of the EAP or a system that supports employees who experience workplace violence. There is a lot of power about something that happened 10 years ago and how it made a person feel. This can be done in a safe environment so that a worker’s peers would not see how this (violence incident) has affected him. Workers can get help by using a counsellor even if they were not being bullied and experiencing violence. (Manager 08)

19.6.4.3

Mandatory Violence Reporting and Investigation

Mandatory workplace violence reporting and investigation represent another theme that respondents state and could stop workplace violence in Natural Resource Industry organisations in BC. One manager noted: As soon as a violent incident is brought forth, they need to start the investigation and ensure that it is completed. If there is an issue between co-workers when it comes to a head, management should intervene, then both of these people will have to be addressed as you can’t go by what one person says, as something has to be worked out between the two and not just one person. (Manager 12)

19.6.4.4

Work-Life Conflict

Reduction in work-life conflict represents another theme that respondent suggests and could stop workplace violence at Natural Resource Industry organisations in BC. A manager commented:

19.6 Results

447

You are in a production-oriented environment and you have a wide variety of people with problems and baggage that they can bring to work. I am not sure if workplace violence can be stopped if these problems and baggage are not resolved. (Manager 04)

19.6.4.5

Work Cameras

Respondents pointed out that workplace violence in Natural Resource Industry organisations could be stopped through installing cameras throughout the mill to reduce employee safety and workplace violence. One employee shared: I will tell them to put cameras everywhere…if there are cameras you can see how employees behave in the workplace. People think that they are not being seen so they go off the wall. (Employee 05)

19.6.4.6

Coffee Breaks

Another key theme that emerged was the introduction of a coffee break that will work towards the reduction of workplace violence. One employee shared: Making us work through our coffee breaks adds to the fatigue. Coffee breaks are meant for us to chat with co-workers and to talk to friends, it is very important. It is not effective when they make us work through coffee breaks, as it makes us hold on to aggression more. (Employee 10)

19.6.4.7

Respectful Work Culture

Respondents agree that promoting and maintaining a respectful workplace could stop workplace violence. An employee commented: There are occasional incidents where violence comes from stress because that person needs to get a lot of work done in a certain period of time. Management needs to influence and encourage a respectful culture rather than policies. There is an odd culture as you have people approaching 70 who are swearing and cussing and that culture is accepted. (Employee 09)

A union representative’s statement echoed the suggestion of fostering a respectful workplace as an approach that could stop workplace violence. The union representative stated: I don’t think workplace violence can be stopped, it can be managed. How can it be managed better? We have different characters working together so some employees would not like certain co-workers and that can create an environment where violence can take place. I don’t think we have a respectful workplace right now, so we have to strive to reduce workplace violence. (Union Representative 10)

448

19 Striving Towards a Violence ‘Free’ and Healthy Workplace …

Respondents suggest that fostering and maintaining a respectful workplace culture represent a strategy that leadership could promote and maintain to prevent and stop workplace violence. Respondents view that generational cultural differences were associated with violence in the workplace. An employee’s narrative captured this point. He stated: Stopping workplace violence-that’s like trying to take the whole jesting (joking and/or pranks) thing from the Natural Resource Industry organisations. To take that attitude out of the Natural Resource Industry organisation, it would be like changing the American society’s attitude about their gun laws. Older people are set in their ways. This may change when the older people retire and the younger generation comes in the workplace. We have to hope that the younger generation don’t adopt the seniors’ ways of doing things as they are phased out. (Employee 17)

Employees state that promoting a respectful workplace culture is essential and should be associated with training, mutual respect, dignity at work, reduced frustration, and lowered stress levels. One employee commented: We have to move away from yelling at people. There has to be a matter of teaching people how to respect each other, reduce frustration as machinery does not operate. People need to come to accept that a job is a job and things are not that serious. People need to know that there will be consequences for physical violence. There needs to be zero tolerance and mutual respect … if education does not work, and someone is aggressive to others, that person needs to be dealt with firmly. (Employee 20)

Other respondents likened a respectful workplace to the promotion of fairness, equality, openness, and trust. One employee stated: It is very important that everyone is treated equally. There is a broad spectrum of people (regarding age, gender and ethnicity) who work in the Natural Resource Industry organisation. There needs to be open lines of communication so people can approach their supervisor with a problem confidentially. People are afraid to come forward…you may be a tough guy, so you are afraid to come forward to say that this person is harassing you… People want to see results. Employers need to understand their employees. People go through bad times in their lives and we don’t have to condone violence, but you should not take little jabs at their lives. (Employee 17)

19.6.4.8

Job Redesign

Respondents also highlight that job redesign as an approach that could stop workplace violence in Natural Resource Industry organisations in BC. A union representative stated: Eliminate the shift work and do something about boring and repetitive jobs. There is need for shift change… We need employers who are willing to take a step back about changing the shifts. This will be a “win-win” option. It will reduce work-place stress and violence. (Union Representative 04)

Respondents held the view that employers need to be educated on the importance of reviewing and revising jobs to create different shifts, production numbers, and

19.6 Results

449

workloads. Job redesign is likely also to reduce job tediousness that employees have no control over. Employers can work on changing some of these jobs. One manager stated: Some jobs are monotonous, and guys have extra time on their hands. They try to poke some fun at other co-workers because they are bored. At the mill, you get some guys who are long-term employees, and they get upset because they fear change and that continues very negatively. (Manager 15)

Employee respondents also echoed job redesign and work-life conflict as important to reducing stress and workplace violence. One employee said: There is need to conduct a needs analysis to see what is going on with individuals. There may be something going on at home that is causing people to get angry. We also need upper management looking more into workloads. They should go to each of the jobs and talk to a few persons at each Natural Resource Industry organisation to find out if they want to make changes. They should talk to people doing the jobs before they try to add more to the job. People who don’t do the jobs are the ones trying to change the jobs. (Employee 16)

19.6.4.9

Employee Appreciation

Employee appreciation represents another factor that respondents suggest and could stop workplace violence in Natural Resource Industry organisations. One employee commented: I don’t know if workplace violence can be stopped as you cannot know how people will feel daily. However, by showing people a friendly work environment and showing them that the employer cares and they are appreciated makes them feel worthy of what they are doing. Some other way of showing that they are important, is by showing them that they are an integral part of the operation and organization. (Employee 11)

19.6.5 Striving Towards a Violence-‘Free’ and Healthy Workplace The study found that seven (7) key themes emerged as recommendations that can be used by employers to strive towards a violence-‘free’ workplace. These themes include communication and collaboration, zero-tolerance violence response policy and procedures, education, training, employee engagement, employee well-being stress management, and mental health in the workplace (Fig. 19.1).

450

19 Striving Towards a Violence ‘Free’ and Healthy Workplace … Violence Prevalence

Work Environment Threatening behaviour Lack of Trust Poor Leadership Culture of Disrespect Generational cultural differences Male dominated workplace Work-Life Conflict Mental Health Production oriented environment High Stress

Perpetrators

Older Workers Employees Co-workers Managers Family Friends

Psychological: hostility, threatening behaviour; verbal abuse Physical: hitting, pushing, shoving Social/Relational: offensive statements; negative comments; personality; and poor relationships

Consequences of Violence Workplace Stress Lack of Trust Anger & Confusion Anxiety Employee Turnover Damage to Property Mental Ill-health Performance Absenteeism Toxic workplace

Training Anger Management Stress Management Conflict Management Bullying & Harassment Mental Health Workplace Violence Financial Management

Employers and Leadership Commitment Trust, Openness, Equality, Fairness, Leadership Development, Governance, Employee Well-Being, Employee Involvement and Engagement, Education and Training, Communication and Collaboration, focus on promoting mental health at work; fostering a Respectful Work Culture

Stopping Violence Education; Employee Violence Assistance Program (EVAP); Mandatory Violence Reporting and Investigation; Work-Life-Conflict Support; Work Cameras; Coffee Breaks; Respectful Work Culture; Job Redesign; and Employee Appreciation

Respectful Healthy and Productive Organization

Violence ‘FREE’ and Healthy Workplace Communication and Collaboration; Zero Tolerance Violence Response Policy and Procedures; Education & Training; Employee Engagement; Employee Well-Being; Stress Reduction; and Mental Health in the workplace

Fig. 19.1 Framework towards a violence ‘free’ and healthy workplace: an employees’ perspective

19.6.5.1

Communication and Collaboration

Managers, unions, and employees all agreed that joint venture communication and collaboration represent a critical approach to fostering and maintaining a violencefree workplace. In the forestry environment, the research findings reveal that, on average, most workers have worked at the mill for over 15 years; therefore, the long-tenured employees remained likely to have knowledge of their co-workers and to have developed comradeship with each other. All respondents held the view that communication and collaboration are essential for employers to respond to workplace violence better. One manager narrative echoed this view: Ongoing communication, education and collaboration with all workers should be the first step for success. We also need to look at Provincial and Federal legislation across all industries.

19.6 Results

451

Violence is more of a societal thing that employers have to deal with…. There is a history of workplace violence everywhere. (Manager 04)

Respondents embraced communication and collaboration as a key theme in which one could generalise these research findings to other workplace environments. Effective Communication and Collaboration without the use of power from management is likely to create a more open and respectful work environment. A union representative’s comment supports that of the manager, as he stated: We need to create a joint venture committee where union and management can work together, where management is committed to meetings and they cannot walk away. We need to come up with something as I have a few years’ around the block, and I have realized that if the company wants to push the union aside and to move forward with an initiative, they do, and if you say something that they don’t like, things get squashed. (Union Representative 9)

Employee respondents also held the view that communication remains important to addressing workplace violence. Employees further argue that employers should listen to workers for effective communication and the development of strategies to prevent workplace violence. One employee shared: Employers would like to hear but they would not listen. Last year the owner of the mill came in and sat with the whole safety committee. He is about 50 years old. His dad used to run the show and used to head the safety committee. The people at the senior level want to hear but they don’t listen. I don’t want to waste my breath so I don’t give any feedback. There is lots of politics in management. If the superintendent wants to do something, his hands are tied from the management perspective. (Employee 03)

Some respondents likened better communication of workplace violence to more effective leadership by employers and training for organisational leaders. An employee’s narrative explained this point: Better communication about the challenges the industry faces concerning workplace violence is necessary. In a lot of ways, they are going about this correctly, as this research (workplace violence) would not have happened 10-15 years ago. The leadership is getting better and I would hope to see more people in leadership positions attend workplace training and meetings. (Employee 6)

All respondents held the view that it remains beneficial for both management and the union to communicate effectively and work collaboratively without power and politics to strategize possible solutions to address workplace violence in Natural Resource Industry organisations and the forestry sector, which can be generalised for other industries in Canada and globally.

19.6.5.2

Zero-Tolerance Violence Response Policy and Procedure

Most respondents spoke about the importance of having a violence response protocol for all Natural Resource Industry organisations and other workplace environments. One manager noted:

452

19 Striving Towards a Violence ‘Free’ and Healthy Workplace …

There should be a high level of communication and immediate response to address any evidence of fear and conflict from the employees. (Manager 02)

Union representatives and employees also highlighted effective management of violent workplace incidents. One union representative stated: From the company side it is easy to suspend both guys who are involved in the violent incident. This is the way the company deals with it. From the union’s point of view, we can suggest and guide the employees, but as a union, we don’t have a tool to resolve this issue. (Union Representative 08)

Employees also highlighted proper workplace violence investigation and intervention as crucial themes that one could generalise to all workplaces. One employee shared: As soon as a violent incident is brought forth they need to start the investigation and ensure that it is completed. They have to handle us (women) differently as we are more emotional, but we are here working like everyone else. I have been working for 20 years and I have not asked for special treatment. (Employee 03)

All respondents shared that employers should have zero-tolerance workplace violence policy with consequences for the perpetrators. One manager stated: It is important for employers to have consequences that are practiced and implemented. This will slow people down if they are going that route. There should be repercussion for employees who do not respect the policy or practice. (Manager 08)

Employees supported the idea that employers should have policies on workplace violence that follow legislation. One employee said: Accidents happen because we don’t follow regulations. There is multiple legislation regarding how we deal with our fellow citizens and workers when they are violent. We help employers to fill positions so we need people to follow the regulations and not just fill the position. There is need to keep on top of things and make sure that people who break the policy are reprimanded. (Employee 19)

19.6.5.3

Education

Respondents indicate that they must receive education on how to manage stress levels when the machinery does not work correctly. Management and the union can work together to educate workers on workplace violence using posters and making information available on flyers and on the notice boards. One union representative stated: Employers need to educate people on how to get information about workplace violence out on the floor (Natural Resource Industry organisation environment). We need to get commitment from the employer to go on the shop floor to solve these problems. We need to have proper tools to deal with the issues and to identify some of these issues. (Union Representatives 7)

19.6 Results

453

Most employees highlighted that educating workers was important to prevent and stop workplace violence in all industries. An employee’s narrative supported this view: It is important to educate people on what workplace violence is. What was said and done 30 years ago is no longer acceptable because things have changed over the years, like online stuff, emails … Violent behavior has changed as people are now texting violent threats to each other at work…It has changed because in this new era (new millennials) there are new ways to communicate and send messages. (Employee 07)

19.6.5.4

Training

Most respondents held the view that continuous training is essential to edify and to raise the awareness of workplace violence at forestry organisations. The trainings that most respondents identify as essential include anger management and stress management. Respondents also suggest that an online toolkit and resources on how to deal with workplace violence represent a best practice solution to assist with training and education on workplace violence. Some respondents highlight that employers should have worker orientation training that reinforces a violence-free work environment. One union representative stated: When the employer knows there is a problem it is hard to put a grip on it. We have a new generation of employees and there should be new worker orientation training to start with the training to prevent workplace violence – how many places have achieved this? If we can reduce workplace violence by 4-5% it would be a good achievement. (Union Representative 9)

An employee echoed the view that anger management training is an important solution to workplace violence. The employee stated: You have to deal with yourself first before you can stop it (workplace violence). Anger management will help people deal with personal challenges. This is one of the proper tools to deal with the issues and to identify some of these issues. (Employee 03)

Respondents also suggest that respectful workplace training should be encouraged at the Natural Resource Industry organisations and all work environments. One union representative stated: We should have respectful workplace training to educate workers on what workplace violence is. There is a need to develop a training program that includes our workers and how it (workplace violence) affects them. (Union Representative 04)

Respondents also highlighted behaviour modification and employability skills’ training as an essential training that Natural Resource Industry organisations, and the forestry industry can adopt. An employee stated: Behaviour is a big problem. How do you get workers to behave themselves on the job when they come and when they go…this is the employer’s responsibility. There needs to be some basic training on guidelines on how to sit with your buddies and interact and how to follow the guidelines and behave in a certain way and how to approach people and work with others. (Employee 01)

454

19 Striving Towards a Violence ‘Free’ and Healthy Workplace …

Other training highlighted as important for both management and workers, included conflict management, workplace violence awareness and policies training, bullying and harassment, respectful workplace training, mental health in the workplace training, and communication. One employee commented on the importance of communication training. He stated: Communication training is important to make sure that communication is stressed to make sure both management and employees receive the same training. Regarding the obvious physical altercation, it is straightforward. We would have the training to deal with that. It is the subtle issues around harassment, bullying and mental health – training in these areas would be beneficial. (Employee 02)

19.6.5.5

Employee Engagement

This represented another key theme that respondents highlight as essential for Natural Resource Industry organisations and the forestry industry to promote a violence‘free’ workplace. A union representative comments: It is important to convince the forestry industry that an engaged workforce is profitable so that they should look into creating a workplace where people look forward to going to work. People will be looking at employee engagement, which is not viewed seriously in the forestry industry…we need a driving force to get things going. (Union Representative 01)

Employees also raised employee engagement as a key point to reduce workplace violence. One employee noted: A family-oriented work environment will build trust. Help people to get involved with the crew and the community. This will assist and prevent workplace violence at the Natural Resource Industry organisations. You need to have feelings for people and assist them, do something good for staff, and approach staff and keep an eye on them. (Employee 06)

19.6.5.6

Employee Well-Being: Stress Management

Respondents suggest the promotion of employee well-being through the introduction of stress reducing strategies to prevent workplace violence. Employees suggest stress management methods such as discounts for gym members for employees to have an avenue to relieve stress and stay mentally and physically healthy. Another stress reduction strategy includes counselling on financial management to assist workers with the management of their finances to avoid excessive debt and feeling stressed at work. Employees suggest that stress reduction would reduce the likelihood of workplace violence. One employee stated: It’s a Natural Resource Industry organisation; it is a production job and you can’t take away all the stress but the employer can make the Natural Resource Industry organisation a good place where people can work together…they can make life easier for everyone. (Employee 11)

19.6 Results

19.6.5.7

455

Mental Health in the Workplace

Respondents state that their employer could hire a mental health therapist to help workers deal with stress and personal challenges that they are experiencing. Mental health and substance abuse represent areas that employers have to deal with in the twenty-first-century workplace, with particular reference to the Natural Resource Industry organisation industry. One union representative stated: I would like to see mental health issues addressed. Every 4-5 people have mental health issues. We need to have management and union to be part of this issue. (Union Representative 9)

The managers also identified mental health as a challenge for Natural Resource Industry organisations and all industries. One manager commented: I would like to see something related to the mental health issues at work and how to recognize the signs and symptoms relating to workplace mental health in saw-mills – this is huge. If managers and supervisors know how to deal with this (mental health), they will know how to deal with workplace violence. This is important as every 5th person is dealing with mental health in the workplace. (Manager 03)

Employees also highlighted mental health as an issue that employers in Natural Resource Industry organisations and other industries in Canada faces. The employee narrative states: We pay lip service to mental health issues but we need effective strategies to deal with this issue. We have problems like EAP, which is there for a purpose but workers don’t trust EAP or understand its purpose. The analogy I use is when somebody is suffering with mental health, they are probably incapable of getting the help they need. It is the same for someone suffering from substance abuse. They lack the skills to follow channels and engage the health network to facilitate their treatment. (Employee 12)

Some workers held the view that mental health challenges were like societal problems that permeate into the workplace and result in workplace violence. A supervisor shared: It is something that society is struggling with. There are incidences where people post things on social media and people ask “why didn’t someone do something”. It is hard to know if a person is a real threat. I don’t think anybody could have seen this (incident in lower BC) coming. There was no overt threats or precursors to the act in lower BC that I am aware of and this is the most dangerous situation. The guy that is throwing the odd tantrum can be sat down or disciplined and sent for counselling but it is the one whom you don’t know. (Supervisor/Manager 13)

The theme of mental health in the workplace was also considered as a consequence of employees’ actions that can arise from job layoffs, termination, and/or discipline at work. One employee stated: My biggest concern would be around mental health in the workplace and I think it is incumbent upon employers to recognize the consequences of their actions and what the fallout may be and I think that goes around dealing with employees when they are in a layoff situation or terminated, or disciplined. I think we need to be more aware of what might be going on in this person’s life. (Employee 14)

456

19 Striving Towards a Violence ‘Free’ and Healthy Workplace …

Respondents also associated mental health issues at work to work–life conflict experienced by workers who live in small communities. The findings reveal that most Natural Resource Industry organisations have workers who brought issues and anxiety from home to the workplace. One manager commented: Most of the mills are located in small communities and everyone knows every-body and occasionally workplace conflict bubbles from the job and is brought into the community … issues from the workplace spills over into the community. (Manager 09)

19.7 Discussion and Conclusion The findings from this study have contributed to the body of knowledge as it relates to workplace violence, with particular reference to Natural Resource Industry organisation workers in the forestry sector in British Columbia, Canada. The findings reveal that the five Natural Resource Industry organisations that participated in this research are a very macho and male-dominated industry that is associated with forestry industries in remote and/or small communities. The findings also found that relative isolation of the communities that these Natural Resource Industry organisations were located resulted in the prevalence of workplace violence. Opie et al. (2008) research on workplace violence and remote nurses indicate that increases in all incidents of reported violence (verbal aggression, property damage, physical violence) in the workplace are the most frequently experienced forms of violence as perpetrated directly towards remote area nurses, and due to the remoteness of the work area, they are fearful for their personal safety. The findings from this study indicate that Natural Resource Industry organisation workers in smaller remote communities are likely to experience a worse prevalence of violence than in many other industries in larger communities and metropolitan cities. Opie et al. (2008) further point out that remote professionals in smaller communities experienced more workplace violence that their metropolitan counterparts. Little is known in the literature about Natural Resource Industry organisation workers experience of workplace violence in British Columbia, Canada. This study has contributed towards addressing this gap. Workplace violence exists across all industries and is prevalent in more serviceoriented industries such as nursing, teaching, police, hospitality to name a few. This research has added Natural Resource Industry organisation industries to this list as this industry also delivers products and services in remote regions and is usually one of the main employers in smaller communities. The findings reveal that violence is an integral thread that is central to the work organisation, the individual, work–family conflicts, relationships at work, and the community and is a broader phenomenon from a societal perspective. The work organisation of the Natural Resource Industry organisations was production oriented with tight timelines to get the work done that resulted in high stress among employees. Although some employees felt safe at work, there was an inherent prevalence of workplace violence and bullying that took place. Violence was

19.7 Discussion and Conclusion

457

rarely reported as workers did not trust management to effective resolve this issue. Braverman (1999) and Flannery (2012) states that for violence to occur, leadership or employees must allow it to happen. A violence-proactive organisation will have the capacity to recognise the warning signs of stress-related breakdowns and to take action that will interrupt or affect these processes (Henderson 2010; Flannery 2012). Natural Resource Industry organisation workers experienced threatening behaviour at lower and higher levels of the organisation, poor employer–employee relationships, and ineffective leaders who did not have the knowledge to deal with workplace violence properly. They also experienced a culture of disrespect predominantly from older workers that acted more violently than younger workers. Older workers resisted change and job insecurity compared to their younger counterparts. Work-life conflicts of Natural Resource Industry organisation workers in smaller communities also affected the work environment. Workers had long-standing relationships with each other, and family issues (e.g. family violence, financial challenges, mental ill-health, marital challenges, issues with children, etc.) were brought into the workplace and workplace issues also spilled into the community. These worklife conflicts were the catalyst for workplace violence. Edwards (2009) argues that a change in working conditions or a layoff may remain relatively out of the control of the employer. Therefore, effective violence prevention depends on the ability of the social or organisational setting to mediate or moderate the effect of those stressors on the individual. Violence exists in settings where an individual with a predisposition for violence (i.e. older Natural Resource Industry organisation workers) enters into a situation that pushes that individual past his or her ability to cope non-violently; therefore, this represents the foundation for violence to occur (Braverman 1999). From an individual perspective, most of the workers in this sector had little education and have been working in the Natural Resource Industry organisation for fifteen plus years. The work-life conflict, diverse personalities, employees’ attitudes, ability to cope with stress and life challenges, inability to manage their finances, emotional functioning, frustrations, pressure and workplace stress resulted in the prevalence of violence at the Natural Resource Industry organisation. Braverman (1999) states that under conditions of unbearable stress, some people become violent, and some do not. Unbearable stress can be catastrophic to a person’s life and can result in severe or chronic physical illness, emotional breakdown, suicide, or violence. The risk of violent behaviour is also associated with the personal and cultural background that can shape a person’s attitudes about the uses and acceptability of violence. Understanding a person’s background and emotional functioning can assist in the evaluation of a person’s ability to withstand stress and to find acceptable, useful ways to deal with conflict, anger, frustration, and pressure (Braverman 1999; Great Place to Work Institute Canada 2011). The consequences of violence on Natural Resource Industry organisation workers are in keeping with the literature that highlights negative effects to employees’ psychological and physical well-being (Cvenkel 2018). The findings found that workplace violence heightened stress levels among employees, increased lack of trust,

458

19 Striving Towards a Violence ‘Free’ and Healthy Workplace …

increases feelings of anger, nervousness, intimidation, anxiety, depression, discomfort, and instability. Based on these feelings, employees acted out by damaging property, employee turnover, mental ill-health, absenteeism, and poor performance. The findings drew from managers, union, and employees’ perspectives on how violence can be stopped. Nine themes were highlighted and include education, employee violence assistance programme (EVAP), mandatory violence reporting and investigation, work-life conflict, work cameras, coffee breaks, respectful workplace, job redesign, and employee appreciation. The Natural Resource Industry organisation workers held the view that education will assist in raising the awareness of workplace violence and to edify workers about workplace violence in keeping with changing legislation. The EVAP can facilitate workplace violence crisis intervention in the workplace for employees and for those who prefer confidential support. This EVAP programme should focus specifically for employees that have experienced and/or witnessed workplace violence. Employees suggest that this programme should be developed with management and employees to promote a safe and trustful environment. The findings highlight that an employee violence assistance programme (EVAP) should be developed that employees can trust and would better support employees with workplace violence. Respondents’ perspective regarding the current EAP suggests that a lack of trust and suspicion exists for the current EAP programmes at the diverse forestry organisations. Respondents suggest that leadership should restructure the current EAP programme and develop a new employee violence assistance programme (EVAP) that workers can trust; therefore, victims and witnesses of violence can access the support provided through this programme. The development and introduction of the employee violence assistance programme (EVAP) will be a pioneering initiative for Natural Resource Industry organisation workers and workers in all industries to provide specific support for workplace violence victims and co-workers who witnessed the violence. This finding contributes to the body of knowledge that related to employee well-being and related employee assistance support that is associated with workplace violence. The findings reveal that Natural Resource Industry organisation workers’ suggestion towards fostering a violence-‘free’ workplace includes the implementation of communication and collaboration in the workplace, develops, and implements a zero-tolerance violence response policy and procedures. Poll (2014) argues that employers should provide clear policies about harassment and violence, detailing their responsibilities and those of their workforce to raise awareness of related issues among the workforce and set standards for workplace behaviour. Many organisations already have policies and procedures in place for dealing with harassment and violence. The HSE (2009a, b) states that the measures to prevent workplace violence introduced by employers should occur in consultation with their workforce representatives (HSE 2010). Another factor suggested by Natural Resource Industry organisation workers to foster a violence-‘free’ workforce was to educate workers on how to handle stress through the use of educational information on posters, flyers, and the use of notice boards. Commitment from employers to resolve workplace violence by creating a job position that specifically handles workplace violence and

19.7 Discussion and Conclusion

459

mental health in the workplace, as well as to develop tools and resources to deal with workplace violence, was another recommendation. Ongoing training was highlighted as essential to foster a violence-‘free’ workplace. The findings reveal that training in key areas (e.g. anger management, stress management, worker orientation, respectful workplace, conflict management, bullying and harassment, mental health in the workplace) to name a few are some key training that should be implemented in the workplace. Respondents also suggested that training programmes should be developed using Natural Resource Industry organisation workers as case studies showcasing how workplace violence affects Natural Resource Industry organisation workers. Training should be part of the management leadership plan on how to combat violence in the workplace. Namie and Namie (2011) argue that organisations should provide a statement of their overall approach to preventing and dealing with the risks of harassment and violence, including training that is tailored to the organisation’s context. Baptiste (2009) says that employers must ensure, as far as reasonably practicable, that the health, safety, and welfare of their workers are promoted and maintained (Cvenkel 2018; Namie and Namie 2011). Employers should also assess the risks to their workers (including the risk of reasonably foreseeable violence), decide how significant these risks are and what to do to prevent or control the risks, and develop a clear management plan to achieve these goals. The research also found that the promotion of employee engagement among the workforce is likely to promote positive morale and positive employee well-being which will make workers feel involved and that their voices are heard in the management of their daily working life. Stress reduction and employee well-being strategies can foster a violence-‘free’ workplace, and these include gym membership to relieve stress and counselling for financial management. Mental health in the workplace was found to be a major theme to foster a violence‘free’ workplace as perceived by managers, the union, and employees. Mental illhealth is usually associated with unstable personalities and people with poor functioning and coping abilities to stress and is usually triggered from job layoffs, terminations, disciplinary procedures at work, work-life conflict, issues of anxiety, depression, drug use, domestic violence, financial challenges, and in small communities, the spilling over of life challenges into the workplace and vice versa. Employers are now tasked with being able to identify and support workers who may be affected with mental ill-health that can result in workplace violence. Employers should have policies, training, procedures, and systems in place of identifying employees that possess a threat to themselves (e.g. suicide) and/or to others. Namie and Namie (2011) state that all forms of violence are harmful and ultimately detrimental to employee and organisational wellness (Cvenkel 2018; Elliott 1997). Braverman (1999) supports this point, stating that violence derives from unbearable stress experienced by a person who can become violent when the relevant conditions occur. Chehak and Csiernik (2014) further suggest the importance of organisations remaining clear about what constitutes unacceptable behaviour on the part of managers/other workers as well as service users or members of the public.

460

19 Striving Towards a Violence ‘Free’ and Healthy Workplace …

The promotion of a functional, productive, healthy, and violence-‘free’ workplace can be accomplished when certain leadership, health, safety, and well-being factors are in place to promote a respectful workplace and organisational wellness. While the issues of workplace violence and health and safety at work have long been acknowledged by government and organisations as a threat to employee well-being, employee mental health, and performance, there is little documented evidence that workers, such as Natural Resource Industry organisation workers experience frequent and serious episodes of violence, with threatening behaviour, verbal abuse, property damage, and physical violence are the most common. Natural Resource Industry organisation workers can benefit from reduced work demands and work stress, more control over their job design and shifts, the implementation of an employee violence assistance programme support, better relationships with each other and with management, and allowed to be engaged and involved through communication and collaborative discussions on the roles and responsibilities of dignified behaviour; and employees’ involvement and voice that relate to change management initiatives (HSE 2009c). Working in a violent prone and toxic environment can function as a major occupational stressor. It is important for employers in all industries to address and respond to workplace violence effectively. Employers must acknowledge that workplace violence still occurs at the workplace, and this issue should not be ignored. Educating the workforce about workplace violence, its consequences, impact, and prevention contributes to the business case for workplace violence. This research has implementation of workplace violence policies and activities that target the identification, management, and prevention of violence of Natural Resource Industry organisation workers in small communities.

References Allen, M. (2014). Victim services in Canada 2011/2012. Canada: Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. Ashforth, B. (1990). Detection of pseudodiarrhoea by simple clinical assessment of intestinal transit rate. BMJ, 300(7), 439–778. Baptiste, N. R. (2008). Line management leadership: Implications for employee well-being at work. Developing Leadership Research: Papers from the Northern Leadership Academy Fellows 2007 Conference. UK: Leeds University Business School, Leeds University Press. Baptiste, N. R. (2009). Fun at well-being: Insights from senior managers in a local authority. Employee Relations, 31, 600–612. Barling, J., Rogers, A. G., & Kelloway, E. K. (2001). Behind closed doors: In-home workers’ experience of sexual harassment and workplace violence. Journal of Occupational Healthy Psychology, 6(3), 255–269. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.6.3.255. Baron, R. A., Neuman, J. H., & Geddes, D. (1999). Social and personal determinants of workplace aggression: Evidence for the impact of perceived injustice and the Type A Behavior Pattern. Aggressive Behavior, 25, 281–296. Bowie, V., Fisher, B. S., & Cooper, C. L. (Eds.). (2005). Workplace violence issues trends and strategies. London, England: William. Braverman, M. (1999). Preventing workplace violence: A guide for employers and practitioners. London, England: Sage.

References

461

Bronfenbrenner, V. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Canadian Center for Occupational Health and Safety. (2012). Violence in the workplace. Available at www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/psychosocial/violence.html. Accessed January 10, 2018. Chechak, D., & Csiernik, R. (2014). Canadian perspectives on conceptualizing and responding to workplace violence. Journal of Workplace Behavior Health,29, 55–74. Cobb, E. P. (2015). Workplace bullying, violence, harassment, discrimination and stress: International laws, developments, resources and tools. Workplace Bullying, Violence, Harassment, Discrimination and Stress 2014/2015. Crawshaw, L. (2009). Workplace bullying? Mobbing? Harassment? Distraction by a thousand definitions. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 61(3), 263–267. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/a0016590. Cvenkel, N. (2018). Employee well-being at work: Insights for business leaders and corporateSocial Responsibility. In S. Seifi & D. Crowther (Eds.), Stakeholders, governance and responsibility, developments in corporate governance and responsibility (Vol. 14, pp. 71–90). Edwards, C. (2009). Workplace violence: Ever-evolving OH&S obligations and worker rights. Canadian Occupational Safety, 47(1), 9. Elliot, P. (1997). Violence in health care: What nurse managers need to know. Nursing Management, 28(12), 38–41. Flannery, R. B. (2012). Violence in the workplace. Riverdale, New York: American Mental Health Foundation Inc. Folger, R., & Baron, R. A. (1996). Violence and hostility at work: A model of reactions to perceived injustice. In G. R. Vandebos & E. Q. Bulatao (Eds.), Violence on the job (p. 25). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Giorgi, A. (1985). Phenomenology and psychological research. PA: Pittsburgh Duquesne University Press. Great Place to Work Institute Canada. (2011). Mental health in Canadian workplaces: Investigating employer’s best practices. Human Resources and Skills Development Canada, Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada. Guba, E., & Lincoln, Y. (1989). Fourth generation evaluation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Health and Safety Executive. (2003). Preventing workplace harassment and violence: Joint guidance implementing and European partner agreement. Project organized with support from the European Commission. Available at https://www.hse.gov.uk/. Health and Safety Executive. (2009a). How to tackle work-related stress: A guide for employers on making management standards work [pdf]. Available at www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg430.pdf. Health and Safety Executive. (2009b). Developing the management standards approach within the context of common health problems in the workplace: A Delphi Study. Retrieved from the University of Nottingham for the HSE 2009 (RR687). Health and Safety Executive. (2009c). Health and safety statistics 2008/2009. London: HSE. Health and Safety Executive. (2010). New workplace wellbeing tool. London: HSE. Henderson, A. (2010). Nurses experience of workplace violence: Towards effective intervention. Canada: WorkSafeBC. Howard, J. (1996). State of local regulatory approaches to preventing workplace violence. Journal of Occupational Medicine: State of the Art Reviews, 11, 293–301. Keashly, L. (1998). Emotional abuse in the workplace: Conceptual and empirical issues. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 1(1), 85–117. https://doi.org/10.1300/J135v01n01_05. Kraus, J. F., Blander, B., & McArthur, D. L. (1995). Incidence, risk factors and prevention strategies for work-related assault injuries—A review of what is known, what needs to be known, and countermeasures for intervention. Annual Review of Public Health, 16, 355–379. Lippel, K., & Quinlan, M. (2011). Regulation of psychological risk factors at work: An international overview. Safety Science, 49(4), 543–546.

462

19 Striving Towards a Violence ‘Free’ and Healthy Workplace …

Lipsey, M. W., & Derzon, J. H. (1998). Predictors of serious delinquency in adolescence and early adulthood: A synthesis of longitudinal research. In R. Locber & D. P. Farrington (Eds.), Serious and violent juvenile offenders: Risk factors and successful interventions (pp. 96–101). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Maxwell, J. A. (2004). Causal explanation, qualitative research, and scientific inquiry in education. Educational Researcher, 33(2), 3–11. Maxwell, J. A., & Loomis, D. (2002). Mixed methods design: An alternative approach. In A. Tashakkori & C. Teddie (Eds.), Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research (pp. 241–271). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Monks, C. P., Smith, P. K., Naylor, P., Barter, C., Ireland, J. L., & Coyne, I. (2009). Bullying in different contexts: Commonalities, differences, and the role of theory. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14(2), 146–156. Namie, G., & Namie, R. F. (2011). The bully free workplace: Stop jerks, weasels, and snakes from killing your organization. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Wiley. Ontario Safety Association for Community and Healthcare. (2009). Addressing domestic violence in the workplace: A handbook (2nd ed.). Toronto, Canada: Author. Opie, T., Lenthall, S., Dollard, M., Wakerman, J., MacLeod, M., Knight, S., et al. (2008). Trends in workplace violence in the remote area nursing workforce. Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing, 27, 4. Pauchant, T. C., & Mitroff, I. I. (1992). Transforming the crisis-prone organization: Preventing individual, organizational and environmental tragedies. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Poll, H. (2014). Bullying in the Canadian Workplace Poll 2014. Available at https://www. careerbuilder.ca/ca/share/aboutus/pressreleasesdetail.aspx?sd=11%2F13%2F2014&id=pr68& ed=12%2F31%2F2014. Accessed February 12, 2018. Reiss, A. J., & Roth, J. A. (Eds.). (1993). Violence in families: Understanding and preventing violence. Panel on the understanding and control of violence behavior. Washington DC: National Academy Press. Tehrani, N. (2012). Workplace bullying: Symptoms and solutions. London, England: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. Thornberry, T. P., Huizinga, D., & Loeber, R. (1995). The prevention of serious delinquency and violence: Implications from the program of research on the causes and correlates of delinquency. In J. C. Howell (Ed.), Sourcebook on serious, violence and chronic juvenile offenders (pp. 213–237). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Thorne, S., Kirkham, S. R., & MacDonald-Emes, J. (1997). Interpretive description: A noncategorical qualitative alternative for developing nursing knowledge. Research in Nursing and Health, 20, 169–177. Walliman, N. (2011). Your research project: Designing and planning your work. London, England: Sage. WorkSafeBC. (2012). Take care: How to develop and implement a workplace violence prevention program. Canada: Author. World Health Organization. (1995). Violence: A public health priority. Geneva: Author. World Health Organization. (1996). Violence: A public health priority. Geneva: Author. World Health Organization. (2002). World report on violence and health: Summary. Geneva: Author.