Weird and Wonderful: The Dime Museum in America 9780814744215

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W EIR D W O ND

E R F U L

WEIRD W O N D E R F U L The Dim e Museu m i n Americ a

ANDREA STULMA N D E N N E T T

NEW Y O R

K U N I V E R S I T New York and Londo n

Y P R E S

S

N E W YOR K U N I V E R S I T Y PRES S New York and Londo n © 199 7 b y New York Universit y All rights reserve d Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publicatio n Dat a Dennett, Andrea Stulman , 1958 Weird an d Wonderful: th e dim e museum in America / Andre a Stulman Dennett , p. cm . Includes bibliographica l reference s an d index . ISBN 0-8147-1855- X (clothboun d : alk. paper).—ISBN 0-8147-1886- 8 (paperboun d : alk. paper) 1. Museums—United States—Histor y 2 . Dime museums—United States—History . 3. Curiositie s an d wonders—Museums—United States—History . 4 . Eccentrics an d eccentricity—Museums—United States—History . 5 . Popular culture—Unite d States — History. 6 . Barnum, P. T. (Phineas Taylor), 1810-1891 . 7 . Barnum's America n Museum. I . Tide . AM11.D46 199 7 069'.0973—dc21 97-488 0 CIP New York University Press books are printed o n acid-fre e paper , and their bindin g materials are chosen for strengt h an d durability . Manufactured i n the United State s of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

For Alex and Jonathan

Contents List of Illustrations i x Preface an d Acknowledgments x

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1. Th e Origin s of the Dime Museum, 1782-184 0 1 2. Barnu m an d the Museum Revolution , 1841-187 0 2 3. Th e Peak Years: From the Civi l War to 190 0 4

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4. Freak s and Platform Performer s 66 5. Lectur e Room Entertainment s 8 6. Waxwork s and Film 10

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7. Th e Dime Museum Reconfigure d fo r a New Centur y 12 Epilogue 14 4 Appendix A. Chronology 14

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Appendix B. Dime Museums 15 Notes 15 5 Selected Bibliography 17 Index 19 3 About th e Author 20 0

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Illustrations 1. Ede n Musee, New York, 189 9 9 2. Broadside , American Museum, 179 3 1

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3. America n Museum, Cit y Hall Park, 182 5 1 9 4. P . T. Barnum's American Museum, New York, c. 185 1 2 5. Barnum' s "Wha t Is It>" exhibit, c. 186 0 3

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6. Th e First Grand Hall, known a s the Second Saloon, Barnum' s American Museum, 185 3 3 3 7. Georg e Wood's Museum an d Metropolitan Theatre , New York, c. 186 8 3 9 8. "Ruler s of the World," Eden Musee, 189 8 4

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9. "Ruler s of the World," Eden Musee, 190 5 4

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10. "Peopl e Talked About," Ede n Musee, 190 5 5 11. Ede n Musee Winter Garden , 188 7 5 1

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12. Ajeeb , c. 188 9 5 2 13. Barke r at a Bowery dime museum, 188 1 6 2 14. Program , New York Museum o f Anatomy, c. 1863 6 15. Genera l Tom Thumb, c. 185 5 7 16. Krao , c. 1895 7 9 17. Chan g and Eng, 182 9 8

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18. Bosto n Museum, 184 4 8 8 19. Lectur e Room, Barnum's American Museum, 185 3 10

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20. Austi n and Stone's Museum, c . 189 1 10 4 21. "Th e Assassination o f Julius Caesar," Eden Musee, 190 5 10 8 22. "Th e Kin g of Terrors," c. 183 0 11 2 23. Mrs . General Tom Thumb an d Count Magri , c. 188 9 13 5 24-26. Contemporar y example s of body modification 139-4 0

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Preface an d Acknowledgment s The dim e museu m ha s bee n nearl y forgotten, bu t durin g it s heyday in th e latter half of the nineteent h century , it was as popular a n institution i n th e United State s a s th e movie s ar e today . Phinea s Taylo r Barnu m mad e th e dime museum a fixture o f the American cultura l landscape . Although h e is famous fo r hi s circu s career , h e di d no t becom e involve d wit h th e circu s until 1870 , a t th e ag e o f sixty . B y that tim e h e ha d mad e an d los t severa l fortunes an d wa s famou s o n tw o continents . Audience s love d Barnum' s brand o f amusement , an d hi s museu m i n Ne w Yor k ha d mad e hi m ric h years befor e h e brough t Jenn y Lind , th e "Swedis h Nightingale, " t o America i n 1850 , an d decade s before h e entere d int o th e famou s partner ship wit h Jame s Bailey . I n fact , i t wa s throug h hi s America n Museu m i n New Yor k tha t Barnu m earne d hi s reputatio n a s th e fathe r o f America n show business . Hi s museu m wa s th e prototype—al l late r museum s fol lowed his pattern. Weird and Wonderful chronicles the evolution of the dime museum fro m its inception a s a cabinet of curiosities to its demise as a victim of competition fro m newe r amusements . Althoug h I devot e a n entir e chapte r t o Barnum, I concentrat e mainl y o n hi s museu m activities , fro m 184 1 t o 1868, an d have left account s o f his personal, political, and circu s life t o hi s biographers. The dim e museu m wa s a unique institution . I t integrate d man y types o f entertainment unde r on e roo f an d fo r a single price . I n addition , i t wa s a safe environmen t fo r wome n an d childre n an d was ope n fro m earl y morn ing to late at night. Dime museums flourished until the turn o f the century , but by World War I there were hardly any left in America. There wer e dim e museum s throughou t th e Unite d States , bu t mos t o f the earlie r an d mor e importan t one s wer e concentrate d o n th e easter n seaboard an d i n th e Midwest . I a m reluctan t t o sa y outrigh t tha t th e dime museu m wa s a n Eas t Coast/Midwes t phenomenon—ther e was , fo r example, the Pacifi c Museu m o f Anatomy an d Natura l Science , which ca n be date d a s earl y a s 1869—bu t resource s ar e scarce . I t i s clear , however , that th e dim e museum concep t bega n an d flourished i n the Northeas t an d that the existence of the museum circui t was one of the reasons there was a high concentratio n o f museum s i n Ne w York , Boston , an d Philadelphia . Museum manager s were constantly seeking new exhibits; after all , variation was wha t mad e patron s retur n agai n an d agai n t o th e sam e museum . xi

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Consequently, freaks, magicians, and other variety artists shuttled bac k an d forth betwee n museums , hardly eve r staying a t on e institutio n longe r tha n six weeks. After establishin g profitable museum s in the East, many managers sough t to creat e additiona l museum s i n th e Midwest . Georg e Middleton , wh o operated the Globe Dime Museum in New York, ventured west and created his ow n museu m circuit . Th e tremendou s succes s o f th e Ne w Yor k Ede n Musee led to simila r museums i n Boston an d Chicago . Southern citie s like Richmond, Norfolk , an d Atlanta , however , wer e ou t o f th e mai n dim e museum loop . Although the y may have cultivated th e sam e types of itinerant amusement s a s Baltimor e an d Philadelphia , thes e citie s wer e smaller . And sinc e they were part o f a slave-oriented culture , they di d no t hav e th e thriving working-clas s populatio n neede d t o suppor t th e dim e museu m industry.1 The earl y dime museums prospered i n industrialized urba n citie s where i t wa s acceptabl e an d theoreticall y profitabl e t o hav e a n entertain ment environmen t tha t catered to all classes. As a result, the dime museum materia l that I have detailed come s largely from th e industrialize d easter n seaboar d citie s an d th e Midwest . A s wit h most ephemera l amusement s o f thi s period , documentatio n i s sparse . Fo r example, the name of a dime museum might b e mentioned in a nineteenthcentury newspaper , bu t whe n I wen t t o d o researc h o n th e institution , there wer e n o documents . N o archiv e ha s a file labele d "Dim e Museum. " Much o f the informatio n I foun d wa s in the theate r sectio n o f file catalogs and newspapers, and mos t references wer e to th e bi g museums, those wit h reputable theaters. Many of my examples are of New York City institutions, since they were widely imitated, an d becaus e New York was home t o man y types o f museums . I trie d t o includ e detaile d description s o f a variety o f museums in order t o giv e the reader a n exact idea of what the y looked lik e and fel t like ; included i n thi s project ar e description s o f both th e elit e an d the smaller , mor e colorfu l institutions . Luc k ha d a lo t t o d o wit h thi s research, an d man y time s I foun d dim e museu m program s i n file s tide d "Waxworks," "Freaks, " or "Circus. " The museum s discusse d ar e generall y ones tha t wer e popula r wit h nineteenth-centur y patrons . As a result, thei r popularity or their longevity left u s a legacy, however scattered . Competition wa s fierce among th e bi g city museums, and manager s ha d to advertis e thei r exhibit s prominentl y i n th e newspapers . Althoug h thi s sort o f documentatio n wa s valuable , i t i s difficul t t o tel l wha t i s fac t an d what i s fiction whe n on e i s dealin g wit h propaganda . Museu m manager s routinely lie d t o th e publi c i n orde r t o mak e thei r exhibit s soun d mor e

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exciting. I n addition , man y o f th e article s I discovere d o n dim e museu m attractions were undated , whic h lead s t o confusio n abou t wha t wa s takin g place a t an y given time. I hav e don e m y bes t t o sif t throug h man y strang e sources o f informatio n an d piec e togethe r i n a logical wa y som e descrip tions o f these museums . Throughou t m y research I foun d numerou s con tradictions i n bot h primar y an d secondar y sources ; al l discrepancies hav e been mentione d i n th e notes . Ofte n I wa s disappointe d b y th e lac k o f primary material s an d foun d gatherin g informatio n a difficult struggle . A t length, however, the project bega n t o com e into focus . Th e en d result is, I hope, a clear presentatio n o f what a dime museu m was , how importan t i t was t o nineteenth-centur y Americans , an d ho w thi s institution , whic h lasted little more than half a century, affected th e twentieth-century amuse ment industry . Becaus e o f th e ephemera l natur e o f th e dim e museum , however, there will always remain question s that cannot b e answered . Live performance s wer e th e majo r dra w o f th e dim e museums . Man y theater historian s mentio n th e dim e museu m a s contributing t o th e devel opment o f vaudeville , bu t fe w hav e explore d th e theatrica l productions , variety sketches , an d frea k show s tha t entertaine d thousand s i n th e mid nineteenth century . I n m y investigation , I foun d tha t th e qualit y o f play s performed a t th e dim e museum s wa s ofte n ver y high ; grea t actor s an d actresses o f both th e legitimat e stag e an d vaudevill e go t thei r star t i n suc h productions. I n fact , som e dim e museums , suc h a s th e Bosto n Museu m and Wood's Museum an d Metropolitan Theatr e in New York, were eventu ally transforme d int o highl y reputabl e playhouses . Th e large r dim e muse ums eve n ha d thei r ow n residen t stoc k companies . I n th e main , th e play s produced b y these companie s wer e eithe r origina l work s o r adaptation s o f popular melodramas . (Th e yea r i n parenthese s afte r th e titl e o f a pla y corresponds t o the dime museum productio n date. ) When I starte d o n thi s topi c i n 1990 , Brook s McNamara' s 197 4 articl e on th e dim e museu m wa s th e onl y piece writte n o n th e subject . Wit h th e exception o f Bruc e McConachie , mos t scholar s currentl y writin g abou t late nineteenth-centur y cultur e an d amusement s recogniz e th e historica l importance o f th e dim e museu m bu t hav e bee n a t a loss t o full y describ e this entertainment phenomenon . Hopefully , m y research will fill that void. ••

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This projec t ha s consume d mos t o f m y energie s fo r th e pas t si x years an d would no t hav e bee n possibl e withou t th e assistanc e o f man y peopl e an d institutions. I woul d lik e t o than k al l thos e wh o hav e seeme d genuinel y

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excited by the project an d who helped me with their expertise. In particula r I a m gratefu l t o Rober t Bogdan , Joh n Frick , an d Te d Barber , who share d their researc h wit h me , an d t o Jane t Boulton , whos e editoria l skill s wer e indispensable. I ow e thank s t o th e Ne w Yor k Publi c Librar y fo r th e Per forming Arts, the Museum o f the City of New York, the New-York Histori cal Society, th e Cincinnat i Historica l Society , th e Harvar d Theatr e Collec tion, th e Chicag o Historica l Society , th e Philadelphi a Fre e Library , th e San Francisc o Performin g Art s Librar y an d Museum , th e Sa n Francisc o Historical Society , the Mutte r Museu m a t Philadelphia' s Colleg e o f Physicians, the Barnu m Collectio n locate d a t the Bridgepor t Publi c Library , and the Baltimore Cit y Life Museum. Thanks also are due t o Steve Kantrowitz , Nancy Levita n Kelly , Laur a Stulman , Lis a Schwartz , Rosemari e Garlan d Thomson, an d Ki m Fritsch i fo r al l thei r hel p an d t o Pegg y Phela n fo r al l her encouragement . I a m gratefu l t o Eri c Zinner , m y edito r a t Ne w York University Press, for truly believing in the merits of this project an d makin g the transitio n fro m manuscrip t t o boo k a n eas y one . A specia l wor d o f appreciation goe s t o m y dea r frien d th e lat e Pete r Arnott , whos e intellect , talent, and humanity I deeply respected an d sorely miss. Special thank s ar e du e t o Brook s McNamara , wh o woul d neve r le t m e give u p o n thi s projec t eve n whe n i t go t tough . Hi s enthusias m fo r th e topic an d hi s belie f in m e were a n inspiration ; I than k hi m fo r hi s years o f guidance an d friendship . Finally , it' s n o secre t tha t withou t th e lov e an d support o f my family, m y parents, Elg a an d Stephe n Stulman , m y in-laws, Lissy and Leonar d Dennett , m y children, Alexandra an d Jonathan , an d m y husband, Rick , I would never have completed thi s book .

1. Th e Origin s o f th e Dim e Museum , 1 7 8 2 - 1 8 4 0 Come hither , com e hithe r b y nigh t o r b y day , There's plenty t o loo k a t an d littl e t o pay ; You ma y strol l throug h th e room s an d a t ever y tur n There's somethin g t o pleas e yo u an d somethin g t o learn . I f wear y an d heated , res t her e a t your ease , There's a fountain t o coo l yo u an d musi c t o please . —Advertisement fo r th e Wester n Museum o f Cincinnati , 183 4

The earlies t museum s i n thi s country , unlik e dim e museums , wer e create d in th e spiri t o f the Enlightenmen t an d wer e mean t t o b e center s o f scientifi c study. 1 Privat e collections—ofte n calle d "cabinet s o f wonder s an d curiosi ties"—were generall y owne d b y wealth y citizen s o r b y organization s suc h as libraries o r so-calle d philosophica l societies. 2 Mos t o f the object s i n thes e cabinets wer e labele d an d displaye d accordin g t o th e Linnaea n syste m o f classification, whic h relate d eac h objec t t o anothe r i n th e so-calle d grea t chain o f being. 3 Cabinet s als o include d painting s an d books , an d man y functioned a s libraries. Postrevolutionary America , however , wa s n o t a wealth y country , an d philanthropy di d no t abound . Bu t patriotis m an d a sens e o f democracy , coupled wit h th e hop e o f disseminatin g knowledg e an d preservin g N e w World culture , cause d man y eighteenth-centur y American s wh o ha d amassed collection s o f book s an d object s t o invit e th e publi c t o vie w their assemblages , sometime s fo r a smal l fee . Som e bega n gatherin g an d displaying thei r collection s a s a wa y t o ear n a livelihood , o r a t leas t t o supplement a meage r income . Unlik e th e wealth y privat e cabine t owners , this ne w bree d o f museu m proprieto r depende d o n ticke t sale s t o maintai n his collection . Man y museu m manager s wh o pride d themselve s o n exhib iting onl y high-qualit y items , however , wer e soo n compelle d t o displa y sensational noveltie s t o attrac t crowd s an d remai n solvent . A s museum s began t o compet e wit h on e anothe r fo r patrons , proprietor s wer e drive n t o 1

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concoct gimmick s an d creat e phon y relics . Th e "associated-valu e items " (artifacts tha t achieve d importanc e b y virtu e o f thei r associatio n wit h a famous person, for example George Washington's shavin g brush and nightcap o r th e bedroo m curtain s o f Mar y Quee n o f Scots ) becam e essentia l displays. Obtaining th e most novel and unusual exhibits , in fact, eventuall y became more important tha n maintaining a museum's pedagogical goals. By the earl y nineteenth century , suc h liv e performers a s musicians, hypnotists, an d freak s ha d penetrate d scientifi c museums. 4 Manager s justifie d this innovation by claiming that their museums were repositories of rational amusements, establishment s tha t helpe d diver t pleasur e seeker s fro m suc h vices a s gambling , drinking , an d prostitution . Thes e manager s clearl y ex pected liv e performers t o attrac t rathe r tha n repe l th e bourgeoi s public . I t was difficult , however , fo r the m t o strik e th e righ t balanc e betwee n high brow scientifi c exhibit s an d popula r theatrica l displays . Som e collections , once reputed to be rational amusements, transformed themselve s into exhibitions tha t pointedl y favore d th e amusin g ove r th e rational. 5 Thi s shif t i n emphasis pave d th e wa y for a totally ne w genr e o f popular entertainment , the dim e museum . Th e raiso n d'etr e o f the dim e museu m was the one-of a-kind liv e exhibit , an d a museum' s reputation , popularity , an d longevit y resided in its diversified progra m o f live performance . ••

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The ris e of the dim e museu m i n th e middl e o f the nineteent h centur y was a by-product o f the enormou s expansio n o f the American urban landscape . Rural migration an d European immigration create d cities filled with diverse peoples who desperately needed new and respectable forms o f cheap enter tainment. Th e clas h o f nationalities , religions , an d classe s create d feeling s of displacement an d anxiet y in city dwellers. Immigrants ha d t o adjus t t o a new and alien culture, farm laborers were transformed int o factory workers, and white-collar employee s lik e sho p assistants , clerks, and sale s and offic e personnel surfaced a s the new middle class, uprooting older notions of class and social status. Although heterogeneity gave the modern city its distinctiy American character , ther e was , a s Lawrenc e Levin e wrote , a "sens e o f anarchic change , o f loomin g chaos , an d o f fragmentation." 6 Traditiona l forms o f culture bega n t o erod e and new cultural expressions developed i n response to the dynamics of city life. Demographic growt h an d industrialization destroye d local communities, produced slums , an d threatene d t o chang e th e structur e o f th e nuclea r family. Whil e democrati c capitalis m promote d fait h i n th e ide a tha t a n

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individual could achieve comfort an d success, the realities of life in crowde d cities an d ding y factorie s perpetuall y challenge d th e validit y o f thi s belief . People ha d t o mak e fundamenta l change s i n thei r lives , thoughts , an d culture.7 Life becam e less home-centered, becaus e fo r many , home wa s n o longer a private house . Quie t famil y gatherings , wher e peopl e exchange d stories, songs, and jokes, were no longe r possible in the boardinghouse s o r the dark, airless, and overcrowded tenement s of the period, where stranger s were force d t o liv e together an d diseas e wa s rampant. Boardinghous e an d tenement lif e playe d a n importan t rol e i n th e emergenc e o f a ne w mas s culture. While th e domesti c chore s o f tenemen t apartments—washin g clothes , dishes, an d floor s an d preparin g meals—kep t bot h employe d an d unem ployed wome n bus y a t home , working-clas s me n foun d man y diversion s that allowed them t o escape appalling residential an d working conditions — the most common lure being the saloon. Drink, food, shelter , and compan ionship coul d al l b e foun d there . Madelo n Power s ha s writte n tha t "th e primary functio n o f the saloo n was to offe r th e basi c amenities o f home i n a public space. " The saloon , Powers claimed, "offere d th e emergin g work ing clas s a wid e arra y o f facilities , services , an d contact s ofte n availabl e nowhere else." 8 Neighborhoo d saloon s wit h regula r patron s fostere d a camaraderie, a grou p identit y amon g working-clas s me n tha t provide d solace durin g thi s perio d o f economi c an d socia l upheaval . Bu t man y families neede d severa l income s t o survive , an d workin g wome n an d chil dren, wh o ha d n o clai m t o thei r ow n wages , watche d helplessl y a s thei r husbands an d father s sometime s dran k u p thei r pay . Mone y fo r food , clothing, and shelte r was squandered a t the saloon , and women wer e ofte n beaten o r abandone d b y thei r drunke n husbands . Alcoholis m becam e a formidable proble m fo r man y urban families . Between 184 0 an d 185 0 numerou s antiliquo r organization s wer e formed. The y include d peopl e fro m al l classes , bot h sexes , an d variou s ethnic groups . Th e temperanc e crusad e wa s b y n o mean s monolithi c o r even roughl y unified ; advocate s looke d a t th e growt h o f citie s an d th e connection t o drin k fro m man y differen t perspectives . The y ha d distinc t agendas, but mos t agree d tha t intemperanc e wa s the grea t destroye r o f the American family. 9 "Ther e seem s t o b e littl e doubt, " wrot e Rut h Bordin , "that the Temperance movemen t develope d in response to a social evil that was bot h rea l an d widespread." 10 Whil e som e reformer s believe d tha t th e abuse o f alcoho l wa s fostere d b y th e socia l force s o f industria l capitalis m and th e problem s create d b y burgeonin g cities , historia n Joh n Fric k ha s

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postulated tha t th e hatre d o f drunkennes s an d th e drea d o f it s conse quences fo r th e nex t generatio n an d th e country' s futur e "becam e a 'symbolic expressio n o f deepe r fear s abou t th e directio n o f America n Soci ety.' " n Th e drunke n husban d thu s cam e t o epitomiz e th e evil s o f a fragmented moder n society , and , a s hea d o f th e household , h e wa s ofte n seen as an oppressor o f his wife an d family . In th e mids t o f th e socia l an d economi c chao s o f antebellu m America , new form s o f culture emerge d i n respons e t o th e problem s create d b y th e modern city . Th e workin g an d middl e classe s neede d t o for m a commo n urban identity , a share d cultur e tha t minimize d th e housin g an d labo r inequities cause d b y urbanizatio n an d industrialization . On e o f th e func tions o f th e ne w commercia l amusement s tha t go t thei r star t befor e th e Civil War was to knit, momentarily, a heterogeneous audienc e int o a cohesive whole b y promoting assimilation , patriotism , an d temperance , an d b y diminishing th e contras t betwee n th e wonder s o f th e machin e ag e an d the impoverishment , injustice , an d huma n degradatio n tha t accompanie d them. 12 At the beginnin g o f the nineteenth centur y the theater catere d t o a wide range o f socia l an d economi c classes , whic h wer e distinguished—withi n the theater—b y wher e the y wer e seated . Accordin g t o Rober t Toll , eac h section o f a theater forme d a society o f its own. 13 Bo x an d orchestr a seat s were reserve d fo r th e uppe r classe s an d gentee l women , whil e th e pi t wa s for mechanic s an d artisan s an d th e galler y fo r th e lowe r classes . The thir d tier, wit h it s separat e entranc e an d bar , wa s reserve d fo r "unescorte d women." Prostitute s di d not atten d th e theate r t o se e a play; their primar y business wa s t o mak e arrangement s fo r th e evening , an d the y eithe r too k their clients to a brothel o r conducted thei r trade right in the theater. 14 An evening's entertainment wa s not restricte d t o a five-act play . Between the act s o f a full-lengt h dram a wer e variet y numbers : jugglers , acrobats , dancers, trained animals, and human anomalies . The heterogeneous theate r audience ofte n drank , ate , and smoke d durin g th e performance, an d i t was not unusua l for audienc e members to swear at performers the y did not car e for. I f they enjoyed a performance, the y yelled, cheered, an d insisted o n a n encore. America n theate r ha d a reputatio n fo r condonin g prostitution , liquor consumption , an d rud e behavio r an d wa s not considere d a respectable for m o f entertainment . Ne w York' s blood y Asto r Plac e Rio t o f Ma y 1849 confirme d tha t a singl e theate r coul d no t hous e culturally an d eco nomically differen t people . Som e ma y argu e tha t th e rio t spurre d th e division between what is commonly referred t o a s high culture and popula r

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culture an d marke d th e momen t whe n th e theate r divorce d itsel f fro m variety performers . Th e boundar y betwee n th e tw o cultures , however , i s permeable an d fluctuating . Lawrenc e Levin e argue s tha t th e ter m "popu lar" ha s bee n use d t o describ e creation s tha t no t onl y comman d larg e audiences bu t als o displa y questionabl e artisti c merit . Th e us e o f suc h imprecise cultura l categories , say s Levine, has helped obscur e th e dynami c complexity of American societ y in the nineteenth century , where fo r a long time ther e existe d a share d publi c culture. 15 Whil e th e theate r n o longe r functioned a s an amusement that embraced al l classes, new forms o f culture surfaced tha t had bot h a respectable reputation an d mass appeal. ••

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In th e middl e o f th e nineteent h century , th e dim e museum— a distincti y American for m o f popula r entertainment—emerge d a s a nove l for m o f recreation tha t could divert a heterogeneous audienc e while supporting th e new industria l moralit y o f har d work , temperance , an d perseverance . Th e exhibits displaye d i n dim e museum s affirme d th e commo n person' s wort h and restored his dignity while perpetuating th e dream of a better life. Dim e museums attempte d t o bridg e th e eve r growin g ga p betwee n elit e an d popular audiences . The museum s offere d a democratic an d ostensibl y "ed ucational" for m o f entertainmen t i n whic h neithe r language , literacy , sex , nor the size of one's wallet was an issue. The dim e museum nourishe d throughou t th e late nineteenth century . As an entertainmen t venu e i t peake d betwee n 188 0 an d 190 0 an d wa s i n decline b y th e followin g decade . Fo r a low , onetim e admissio n charge , the dim e museu m dazzle d men , women , an d childre n wit h it s dioramas , panoramas, georamas , cosmoramas , paintings , relics, freaks , stuffe d ani mals, menageries , waxworks , an d theatrica l performances . Nothin g quit e like i t ha d existe d before. 16 N o previou s amusemen t ha d eve r appeale d t o such a diversifie d audienc e o r integrate d s o man y diversion s unde r on e roof. The proces s o f uniting individua l amusement s an d marketin g the m a s a single, "walk-through " entertainment , suitabl e fo r th e entir e family , wa s what mad e th e dim e museu m novel . I n a sense i t was a so-called environ mental entertainment, amon g whose fixed exhibits mobile spectators coul d organize thei r ow n journey . Th e arrangemen t o f space within a dime mu seum, with its display cabinets set around th e periphery and grouped i n th e center o f a room, create d a n environmen t i n whic h customer s wer e com pelled t o se e eac h othe r a s well a s the exhibit s themselves . I n suc h a space

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the crow d becam e par t o f th e performance , a n importan t aspec t o f th e experience. The atmospher e o f respectability—i n th e large r museums , a t least — revitalized man y ailin g entertainments an d introduce d ne w one s t o a mass audience. Th e theater , whic h b y midcentur y ha d becom e associate d wit h prostitution an d decadence , wa s revive d i n th e famil y atmospher e o f th e dime museums , whic h offere d "chea p an d comprehensibl e entertainmen t that was seemingly accepte d o n mora l an d religiou s grounds." 17 Th e pro duction o f biblica l an d temperanc e play s helpe d th e museum s establis h a reputation fo r moralit y an d attrac t patron s wit h a n antitheate r bias . Frea k shows, onc e though t t o b e simpl y a lo w for m o f itineran t amusement , gained a certai n respectabilit y an d a n undoubte d popularit y i n th e muse ums. Ventriloquists, magicians , musicians , an d actor s coul d find wor k op portunities i n dim e museums , an d performer s contracte d wit h the m fo r weeks a t a time. Many lat e nineteenth-centur y spectator s wer e introduce d to their first vaudeville shows at a dime museum; others saw their first films there. Significantiy fo r th e evolutio n o f th e dim e museums , man y Victoria n Americans believe d tha t leisur e tim e shoul d no t b e spen t i n idlenes s an d frivolity bu t i n edifyin g an d constructiv e activities. 18 Conservativ e cultura l reformers believe d tha t "unde r enlightene d municipa l auspices , recreatio n could serv e a s a powerfull y constructiv e forc e i n socia l integratio n an d moral development." 19 Th e succes s o f th e lyceu m movemen t an d th e public education crusade, whose goals were to improve schools, academies, seminaries, and libraries and to promote th e diffusion o f useful knowledge , prompted manager s t o highligh t thei r museums ' pedagogica l function . Stressing th e educationa l benefit s o f a visit t o a dim e museum , however , was largely a simple marketing device . Popular impresarios o f the age , such as P . T . Barnu m an d Mose s Kimball , "mastere d th e rhetori c o f mora l elevation, scientifi c instruction , an d cultura l refinemen t i n presenting thei r attractions." 20 Whatever learning did in fact take place was almost acciden tal, fo r th e dim e museum s wer e establishe d a s famil y recreatio n centers , not a s temple s o f learning . Artifact s wer e purchase d no t becaus e o f thei r educational meri t bu t fo r thei r drawin g power . I n addition , man y o f th e items o n displa y had bee n faked , s o that what patrons "learned " was ofte n bogus as well. The historica l wa x tableaux , fo r example , were create d no t t o edif y bu t to entertai n an d t o foster nationalism ; history was commodified, distorted , and freel y falsifie d t o pleas e th e public . Th e retellin g o f events i n thes e

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tableaux suffere d fro m a "historical amnesia " that avoide d issues of racism, sexism, an d clas s struggle. 21 I n Civi l War displays , depictions o f the inhu manity of slavery or the horrors o f bloody combat were rare. Most North ern museums , fo r example , simpl y highlighte d th e triump h o f Genera l Ulysses S . Grant ove r Genera l Rober t E . Lee. 22 The American Revolutio n was simpl y recalle d b y th e tablea u o f "Georg e Washingto n Crossin g th e Delaware River. " Th e tragi c sid e o f war wa s almos t neve r illustrated ; un thinking patriotism was at the hear t o f such exhibits , and display s of bloo d were reserve d fo r th e chambe r o f horrors . Ye t while bloo d wa s pervasiv e there, museums' display s of human primitivis m promoted egalitaria n ideals of modernization: al l members o f a civilized society , regardles s o f clas s o r race, were equal in terms of measured progress from th e state of barbarism. Nevertheless, th e tableau x functione d lik e popular newspaper s o f a sort: celebrities, well-know n actors , famou s musicians , an d loca l murderers — the headliner s o f thei r day—wer e presente d a s important stories . Seldo m was ther e anythin g controversia l (excep t a n item' s authenticity ) o r poten tially offensive abou t a dime museum display. Museums avoided such topics as women's suffrag e an d th e pligh t o f immigrants. Dim e museum s i n fac t were commercial enterprises, and the ultimate goal of every museum owne r was to attract customers an d make money. Amid th e formidabl e challenge s o f modernization , th e dim e museu m was a safe haven , presenting unthreatening , comprehensibl e image s o f th e wonders o f th e huma n an d natura l worlds . Fo r thos e anxiou s abou t thei r own status, exotic freaks an d wax displays of barbarism reaffirmed thei r selfworth an d th e civilit y o f urban life . Historica l wa x tableau x an d painting s promoted patriotism , an d temperance melodramas , presented i n the chast e theaters o f the dim e museums , offered optimisti c solution s t o th e persona l anxieties brough t abou t b y a rapidly changin g society . Thes e drama s pro moted th e genteel virtues of sobriety, diligence, and frugality an d promise d good fortune t o those who adhered to these principles. A consequence o f industrial capitalis m was the promotion o f an unequa l distribution o f wealth. The dim e museum , however , was a great economi c equalizer. Al l wh o coul d affor d th e pric e o f admissio n wer e treate d th e same, and for severa l years, some museum theater s di d not charg e extra fo r the bette r seats . The theater s i n th e large r museum s wer e quit e luxurious . Magic lantern s show s and , later , film s offere d vision s o f farawa y place s t o those who coul d neve r affor d t o travel . Unthreatening exhibit s o f technology an d curiositie s o f human behavio r an d evolutio n awe d eve n educate d patrons. Fo r littl e mone y a spectato r coul d enjo y a variet y o f pleasures .

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However, "th e root s o f sensationalism, " wrot e Gunthe r Barth , "la y no t merely i n th e huma n cravin g fo r thrills , bu t i n th e natur e o f th e moder n city itself."23 The city , with its chaotic and ever changing landscape, accustomed resident s t o th e shockin g drama s o f politica l scandals , poverty , crime, and the tireless sound o f fire alarms. ••

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American dime museums came in all sizes and many types, from gran d fivestory building s tha t containe d theater s accommodatin g thre e thousan d spectators an d curi o hall s parading upward s o f ten thousan d curiositie s t o small storefront s tha t wer e converte d int o exhibitio n room s displayin g a few ol d coins , petrifie d wood , an d som e livin g anomalies . "Dim e mu seum," however, is a term used to differentiate al l these popular amusemen t centers fro m endowe d publi c museum s suc h a s Ne w York' s America n Museum o f Natura l Histor y (1869 ) o r Boston' s Museu m o f Fin e Art s (1876). Ironically, no t al l dim e museum s cos t a dime . (Bunnell' s Ne w Yor k museum was supposedly the first to lower its price to ten cent s in 1876.) 24 Admission generall y range d fro m te n t o fifty cents : th e averag e museu m charged twenty-fiv e cent s fo r adult s an d hal f pric e fo r childre n unde r twelve. Usually the y were name d fo r thei r founder , a s in th e cas e o f Hub er's Museu m i n Ne w York ; thei r stree t location , suc h a s Philadelphia' s Ninth an d Arch Museum ; o r thei r city , such a s the Bosto n Museum . Ver y few dime museums actually used the word "dime " in their names: the one s that di d cam e primaril y fro m th e post-Civi l Wa r era , amon g the m Peck' s Great Dim e Museu m (1881) , locate d i n Philadelphia , o r th e Glob e Dim e Museum (1885 ) o f New York. In respons e t o th e averag e worker' s growin g leisur e tim e i n th e las t quarter o f th e century , dim e museum s ofte n wer e ope n fo r te n t o twelv e hours daily , Monday throug h Saturday , and mos t o n Sunda y a s well. Thei r inexpensive an d unrestricte d admissio n polic y made the m accessibl e to th e masses, and their popularity grew explosively from 186 0 to 1900 . Only a small percentag e o f a major dim e museum' s collectio n wa s eve r on permanen t display ; the majorit y o f its contents wer e rotated , an d man agers change d exhibit s weekl y t o encourag e repeate d visit s b y patrons . Managers focused muc h of their attention o n seeking out new displays, and some se t u p a networ k fo r exchangin g curiosities. 25 P . T . Barnum , th e legendary Ne w York museum proprietor , regularl y traded exhibit s with hi s friend Mose s Kimball , a lesser-know n museu m impresari o wh o wa s man -

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FIGURE 1. Eden Musee, New York, 1899. (Museum of the City of New York, Byron

Collection.)

ager o f the Bosto n Museum . I n 184 3 Barnu m wrot e t o Kimball , " I must have th e fa t bo y o r th e othe r monste r [or ] somethin g ne w in the course of this week so as t[o be ] sure to put the m in the General' s place next Monday, [>so] don't fail!" 26 But cooperatio n wa s les s commo n tha n competition , whic h prompte d proprietors t o advertis e heavil y i n loca l newspapers , toutin g thei r exhibit s with a mi x o f exaggeratio n an d outrigh t lies . Marketin g an d promotio n were essentia l tool s fo r a museum' s survival , an d humbuggin g becam e standard practic e i n th e dim e museu m industry. 27 Th e languag e o f th e advertisements was bombastic; each museum was heralded a s the grandest , largest, o r mos t marvelous. 28 Th e facade s o f museu m building s serve d a s billboards an d ofte n flaunted hug e canva s banner s o r poster s announcin g the lates t attractio n (se e fig. 1) . Frequentiy museu m building s were decor ated wit h flags an d festiv e banners , o r painte d lik e hug e billboards . Mu seum managers , wel l awar e o f th e financial reward s o f caterin g t o a mas s

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audience, sent patrons home with illustrated brochure s describin g the con tents o f thei r museums. 29 Additionally , the y markete d souvenirs , suc h a s handblown glass , personalized silhouettes , an d chea p jewelry . T o a nine teenth-century American , museu m busines s clearl y mean t sho w business , and throughou t th e las t quarte r o f th e centur y ther e wa s a profusio n o f proprietary museums , eac h tryin g t o outd o th e othe r i n promotin g an d exhibiting—and makin g a profit from—tha t on e special rarity. The stor y o f th e evolutio n o f th e publi c museu m ou t o f th e America n dime museu m canno t b e tol d withou t mentionin g th e contribution s o f Pierre Eugen e D u Simitiere , Charle s Willson Peal e an d his son Rubens , all of Philadelphia; Gardiner Baker and John Scudder of New York; and Danie l Drake an d Josep h Dorfeuill e o f Cincinnati . Thes e me n wer e a t th e fore front o f th e emergenc e o f dim e museum s i n Americ a an d contribute d greatiy to the public museum movement . ••

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In Apri l 1782 , a Geneva-bor n America n name d Pierr e Eugen e D u Simi tiere announce d hi s intentio n o f allowin g th e publi c t o vie w his Philadel phia collectio n o f scientifi c an d natura l histor y object s fo r a n admissio n charge of fifty cents.30 With thi s announcement, th e first postrevolutionary museum, th e America n Museum , wa s established. 31 D u Simitier e earne d his living as a painter: h e create d profil e portrait s o f famous Revolutionar y leaders an d designe d officia l seal s and medals . A respected membe r o f th e Philadelphia community , h e was electe d t o th e prestigiou s America n Soci ety for th e Promotion o f Useful Knowledge. 32 Du Simitier e wa s concerne d wit h documentin g America n histor y an d culture an d becam e especiall y intereste d i n th e pligh t o f th e America n Indian. I n addition , fo r man y year s h e trie d t o generat e fundin g fo r a project chroniclin g th e histor y o f the wester n states . Du Simitiere' s inten tion i n exhibitin g hi s collectio n o f flora an d fauna , India n an d Africa n artifacts, prints, drawings, and colonial newspapers an d book s to the publi c was t o broade n th e artisti c tast e an d attitud e o f th e averag e citizen. 33 Attendance a t hi s ne w museu m wa s initiall y poor , bu t i n Jun e 178 2 h e advertised the contents of his collection and requested donation s o f natural history objects. The response was generous. 34 Charles Coleman Sellers, Charles Willson Peale's biographer, believes Du Simitiere's so-calle d American Museu m was not a "museum" s o much a s a "magpie's nest of historical and scientific rarities." 35 Many scholars disput e this statemen t an d credi t D u Simitier e with bein g th e first postrevolution -

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ary America n t o transfor m a private cabine t int o a public museum . The y argue tha t no t onl y di d D u Simitier e pioneer th e creatio n o f an institutio n that catere d simultaneousl y t o popula r an d elit e audiences , a dualit y un known i n Europe , bu t h e focuse d hi s museu m o n America n artifacts . Fo r many, he was the firs t t o tr y t o preserv e American cultur e an d histor y an d American India n ethnography. 36 As for th e criticis m tha t th e collectio n lacke d organization , th e historia n and curato r Dillo n Riple y points ou t tha t i t wa s no t uncommo n fo r earl y public museums t o b e mere assemblage s o f curiosities. In fact , som e critic s of London' s Britis h Museu m complaine d tha t it s rando m display s wer e unscientific.37 Kennet h Hudson , i n A Social History of Museums, support s this argument , notin g tha t "old-fashione d chao s ha d a stron g appea l fo r children an d other unsophisticated people , for whom a museum was , more than anythin g else, a chamber of wonders, a romantic place which scientifi c arrangement coul d an d di d onl y spoil. " H e claime d tha t onl y i n rar e instances was the eighteenth- an d nineteenth-century collecto r an "orderly , systematic person . Th e mor e h e acquired , th e bette r please d h e was , an d since space was expensive, museums an d art gallerie s tended t o b e crowde d places." 38 Du Simitiere' s museu m wa s ope n onl y fo r tw o year s (1782-84) , bu t i t maintained a hig h leve l o f integrity , apparentl y neve r integratin g popula r amusements int o th e exhibitions , an d neve r caterin g t o cultura l taste s a t their lowest . Sinc e postrevolutionar y Americ a ha d n o museu m history , i t was natura l fo r D u Simitier e t o loo k t o Europ e fo r hi s model . Europea n museums, suc h a s Spain' s Prad o an d England' s Britis h Museum , wer e indeed fo r th e elite , an d entranc e t o the m wa s see n a s a privilege , no t a right. Mos t Europea n collection s were originall y the "cabinets " create d b y royalty, the nobility, or gentry , and man y continued t o operat e unde r roya l patronage o r government subsid y and were open onl y to a select few. The content s o f th e Britis h Museum , fo r example , whic h opene d i n 1759, ha d belonge d t o Si r Han s Sloane , a prominent physicia n wh o die d in 1753 . H e bequeathe d hi s collectio n t o th e cit y o f London . Whe n th e new museu m opened , onl y a limited numbe r o f people wer e give n acces s to it . Th e museu m wa s ope n Monda y throug h Thursday ; Frida y wa s re served fo r especiall y select visitors. Tickets were obtaine d b y written appli cation, an d i t too k anywher e fro m tw o week s t o severa l month s fo r mu seum authoritie s t o chec k reference s an d issu e tickets . Th e museu m operated o n th e "tou r system, " which mean t tha t onl y a limited number o f people coul d visit the collectio n a t a given time . Ticket holder s were aske d

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to arrive between eleven and noon, an d only 12 0 people were allowed in at a time . Tour s wer e rushed . Kennet h Hudso n believe s tha t financial prob lems created a shortage o f museum personnel, which "mad e it necessary t o husde visitors through th e galleries." 39 Du Simitier e supposedl y wante d t o d o awa y with th e elitis m o f privat e cabinets, but when he opened his American Museum t o the public in 1782 , he als o wa s hopin g t o supplemen t hi s income . Whil e a n ope n admissio n policy mad e hi s collectio n theoreticall y accessibl e t o all , th e museu m re mained i n fac t elitis t an d wa s not , i n practice , availabl e t o al l citizen s equally. The fifty-cent admissio n charg e was extremely steep , and althoug h entrance t o th e publi c museu m wa s theoreticall y a citizen's right , i t wa s a right h e coul d exercis e onl y i f he coul d affor d th e admissio n price . Ther e was n o governmen t sponsorshi p fo r publi c museums , s o unles s a n owne r was wealthy, ticke t sale s were th e onl y mean s b y which h e coul d maintai n and expand his collection. Since th e museu m imitate d th e Europea n tou r system , D u Simitiere' s ticket sale s wer e necessaril y limited ; n o mor e tha n eigh t spectator s wer e admitted a t a time an d th e museu m wa s open onl y o n Tuesday , Thursday , Friday, an d Saturday . Hourl y tour s wer e restricte d an d visitor s wer e no t allowed t o wande r o r vie w th e collectio n a t thei r leisure . I n fact , th e receipts fro m th e American Museu m di d no t solv e Du Simitiere' s financial problems. H e die d i n Octobe r 1784 , a t th e ag e o f forty-seven, apparentl y of starvation. 40 Hi s experimen t ha d bee n a failure, an d althoug h hi s mu seum attracte d man y visitors , i t di d no t appea l t o a broa d spectru m o f people. Th e museum' s receipt s ha d bee n insignificant , an d D u Simitier e died a pauper. Th e administrator s o f his estate faile d t o preven t th e collec tion fro m bein g scattered ; an d al l the object s i n D u Simitiere' s possessio n at the time of his death were sold at public auction . ••

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Charles Willson Peak's Philadelphi a museum , o n th e othe r hand , operate d for nearl y sixt y year s (1786-1845) . Durin g tha t tim e i t wa s force d t o incorporate element s o f popular entertainmen t a s part o f a larger trend ; it s owner ha d t o becom e a showma n t o survive . Whe n Peal e first requeste d donations, peopl e sen t al l sort s o f bizarr e objects . Realizin g tha t donor s would com e t o th e museu m jus t t o se e thei r privat e curiositie s o n publi c display, h e bega n t o exhibi t suc h item s a s " a chicke n wit h fou r leg s an d four wings, an 80-pound turnip , the trigger-finger o f a convicted murderer , and a tin y piec e o f woo d fro m th e Coronatio n chai r i n Westminste r Ab -

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bey." 41 Peale , als o a n artis t an d Philadelphian , opene d hi s American Mu seum in June 178 6 a t Third an d Lombard Street . In th e pre-endowmen t er a o f museu m history , th e immensel y patrioti c Peale devoted hi s life to the promotion o f cultural nationalism an d popula r education. Hi s museu m offere d authenti c scientifi c displays , experiments , and lectures to an audience comprisin g bot h scholar s and ordinary citizens. He wante d hi s museu m t o appea l t o al l classes , th e illiterat e an d th e scholarly, adults as well as children, an d bot h me n an d women. Th e mott o of th e museum , inscribe d abov e th e building' s entrance , wa s "Whos o would lear n Wisdom , le t hi m ente r here!" 42 A s a painte r h e encourage d the mergin g o f ar t wit h natura l history . Hi s artisti c display s o f stuffe d animals, depicte d i n thei r natura l habitats , wit h painte d skie s an d back grounds, paved th e way for th e diorama s o f later nineteenth-century natu ral histor y museums : "B y showin g th e nest , hollow , o r cave, " claime d Peale, " a particula r vie w o f th e countr y fro m whic h the y came , som e instances of the habits may be given." 43 Like Du Simitiere , Peale began his museum i n an attempt t o supplemen t his income a s a painter. H e succeeded , an d i n the process changed th e way proprietary museum s functioned . On e o f Peak' s sons , Rubens, persuade d his fathe r t o emplo y liv e entertainer s i n orde r t o ta p int o a wide r audi ence. 44 Live performers adde d a n element o f levity to the museum, and th e elder Peal e bega n t o fee l tha t ther e wa s nothin g essentiall y wron g wit h a touch o f diversion. For his part, Ruben s believe d tha t th e museum' s heav y didactic an d moralisti c ton e repelle d thos e Philadelphian s wh o wante d t o attend th e place for relaxatio n an d enjoyment . Afte r hi s father's retiremen t from managin g th e museu m i n 1810 , Ruben s bega n shiftin g it s emphasi s from scientifi c instructio n t o popula r amusement. 45 Althoug h h e trie d t o maintain th e museum' s scientifi c integrity , h e introduce d distortin g mir rors, liv e animals , an d huma n prodigies . Ruben s Peal e fel t tha t scientifi c lecturing wa s a n importan t functio n o f th e museum , bu t h e intersperse d his symposium s wit h act s b y musician s an d magicians . Th e publi c like d Rubens's alterations ; i n on e yea r h e double d th e America n Museum' s revenue. Th e struggl e fo r Ruben s wa s how t o kee p th e museum' s probit y and it s high-qualit y display s whil e attractin g a larg e enoug h audienc e t o keep profits up . This was a battle he fought throughou t hi s museum career . The popularit y o f liv e performer s an d ligh t amusement s wa s suc h tha t when Ruben s opene d Peak' s Ne w York Museum i n 1825 , it was close r i n spirit t o a late nineteenth-centur y dim e museu m tha n t o hi s father' s mu seum. According t o a n 182 7 guidebook , th e museu m ha d fou r floors : th e

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first house d natura l histor y objects ; th e second , painting s an d miscellane ous curiosities ; the third , wax figures, fossils, and cosmoramas ; and th e to p floor, a lectur e roo m an d a terrace . Bu t Ruben s kne w tha t i t wa s th e outrageous curiositie s tha t brough t visitors ; in earl y May 1828 , for exam ple, Peale' s Ne w York Museu m exhibite d " a cal f with tw o heads , si x legs, two tails , tw o distinc t heart s an d backbones." 46 Ruben s als o place d o n exhibition a boa constrictor, a n anaconda, and a so-called diamond snake — all togethe r i n a wir e cage—an d a "learne d dog " name d Romeo , wh o entertained b y barking answers to questions. 47 To increase revenues further, Ruben s Peale offered museu m discount s t o schools an d students , a policy alread y establishe d a t th e Philadelphi a mu seum. I n 1830 , however , h e los t th e Ne w Yor k museu m t o hi s creditors , and i n th e earl y 1840 s Barnu m purchase d i t an d turne d i t int o a full fledged dim e museum. 48 Althoug h Ruben s n o longe r wa s involve d wit h Peale's Ne w Yor k Museum , h e di d operat e Peale' s Baltimor e Museum , which he had inherited from hi s brother Rembrandt , who was not as skilled a showman . B y 1843 , Ruben s wa s tryin g t o generat e ne w excitemen t i n Baltimore; he wrote to his rival, Barnum, in the hopes of borrowing on e o f his most famous prodigies , General Tom Thumb. 49 It wa s clea r tha t th e averag e citize n wante d diversion , favorin g fu n ove r education. Th e effort s o f men lik e Charle s Willson Peal e were no t i n vain, however; hi s legacy has in fac t bee n a rich one . Th e elde r Peale' s vision o f attracting bot h scholar s an d ordinar y citizen s t o a place o f scientific learn ing, wit h authenti c display s imaginativel y presented , wa s late r realize d i n the Smithsonian Institutio n (1846) . ••

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Attempts t o ope n a public museum i n New York began in 1789 , when th e Tammany Societ y formall y opene d a chapte r o f it s organizatio n i n Ne w York. Tammany , whic h bega n i n Philadelphi a i n 1772 , was a n outgrowt h of a seventeenth-century fishing clu b name d afte r th e celebrate d Delawar e Indian chie f Tamenend , wh o welcome d Willia m Pen n o n hi s arriva l i n America. Joh n Pintard , a Tammany organize r an d late r a foundin g fathe r of th e Ne w Yor k Historica l Societ y (1804) , wante d on e o f th e society' s prime function s t o b e th e establishmen t o f a museum tha t woul d preserv e and display all types of American artifacts . In Ma y 1791 , under th e patronage o f the Tamman y Society , the leader ship o f Joh n Pintard , an d th e directio n o f Gardine r Baker , th e Tamman y Museum, bette r know n a s the American Museum , opene d t o th e public. 50

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In Jun e th e following statemen t o f inten t wa s publishe d i n a museu m pamphlet: "Th e intentio n o f th e Tamman y Societ y . . . i n establishin g a n American Museu m i s fo r th e sol e purpos e o f collectin g an d preservin g whatever ma y relate t o th e histor y o f our countr y an d serv e t o perpetuat e the same, as also all American curiositie s of nature an d art." 51 At firs t th e museu m wa s not especiall y egalitarian ; onl y Tammany mem bers an d thei r familie s wer e admitted . Ther e wa s n o charge . Thi s policy , however, wa s changed, an d th e museum' s door s were opene d t o th e gen eral public o n Tuesda y an d Frida y afternoon s wit h a n entranc e fe e o f tw o shillings (abou t twenty-fiv e cents) . T o reduc e th e admissio n pric e further , the managemen t offere d nonmember s th e optio n o f buyin g a yearly pas s for on e dollar. 52 The first home o f Tammany's American Museum was in New York's City Hall. Sinc e Congres s wa s in th e proces s o f relocating t o th e nation' s ne w capital i n Philadelphia , th e societ y petitione d t o us e on e o f th e building' s upper rooms . By 1793 , however, th e collectio n ha d greatl y expanded , an d the museu m move d t o a larger roo m o n th e secon d floo r o f the Exchang e Building o n Broa d Street , a bloc k fro m Batter y Park . Th e thirty-by-sixt y foot roo m ha d a twenty-foot-hig h arche d ceilin g tha t "wa s eleganti y painted a sky blue, and intermixed wit h various kinds of clouds," as well as a thunderstor m an d flashe s o f lightning. 53 Th e wall s wer e adorne d wit h murals featuring tree s from al l over the world, as well as all sorts of animals, from flamingo s t o lions . Pintar d ha d wante d t o limi t th e collectio n t o Americana, bu t Bake r sough t t o diversify , an d th e museu m no w include d wax figures , Indian , Chinese , an d Africa n relics , an d preserve d animals . There als o were freakis h curiosities : in 1793 , Baker claime d t o hav e i n hi s possession " a perfec t horn , . . . about 5 inches i n length, " allegedl y take n from th e head o f a New York woman (se e fig. 2). 5 4 Baker was a good businessman ; knowing th e value o f publicity, he ofte n placed advertisement s fo r th e collectio n i n the dail y papers. O n Marc h 31 , 1794, fo r example , h e shrewdly announce d i n th e New York Columbian Gazette that th e museu m wa s exhibiting tw o guillotines , one o f which was to b e displaye d "complet e wit h a wax figur e perfectl y representin g a ma n beheaded!" 55 Wit h new s o f the Frenc h Revolutio n occupyin g mos t o f th e paper's fron t page , th e perfectl y time d exhibitio n arouse d th e public' s morbid curiosity . Baker continued t o hunt fo r scintillatin g and novel exhibits, an d i n th e sam e yea r th e museu m occupie d a secon d roo m i n th e Exchange Building, which now housed its menagerie. This was one of New York's firs t permanen t anima l exhibitions ; i t include d a mountai n lion ,

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2. Broadside, American Museum, 1793. (New York Historical Society.) FIGURE

raccoons, groundhogs , birds , an d snakes. 56 Th e museu m wa s no w ope n every day except Sunday , and th e us e o f candlelight enable d th e collectio n to remain open until 9 P.M. three nights a week.57 In th e meantime , Pintar d ha d begu n t o separat e himsel f fro m th e proj ect. H e ha d grow n unhapp y a s h e witnesse d th e transformatio n o f hi s vision: th e museum , h e felt , wa s losin g sigh t o f it s pedagogica l functio n and becomin g simpl y a n assemblag e o f curiosities , a plac e o f lowbro w amusement. I n addition , Pintar d wa s an avi d Hamiltonian, an d h e severe d his ties with th e Tamman y Societ y in part becaus e o f the society' s strongl y Jeffersonian views . Around thi s tim e als o h e los t mos t o f hi s mone y i n a stock speculation an d was sent to debtor's prison for tw o years. 58

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After Pintard' s departur e th e leader s o f th e Tamman y Societ y realize d that th e museu m wa s a n expensiv e failure . I t wa s neither a powerful no r a profitable institution , an d th e societ y was reluctant t o continu e t o suppor t it. In 179 5 the Tammany Society relinquished th e collection to Baker, with the provis o tha t societ y member s coul d stil l atten d th e museu m free. 59 Without Tammany' s support , o f course, Bake r had t o rel y solely o n ticke t sales to fund hi s museum. He immediately extended its hours and increased the admissio n charg e t o fift y cents . T o encourag e patron s t o retur n agai n and again , he continuall y adde d ne w curiositie s t o th e collection . I n addi tion, h e bega n t o manufactur e automata , opene d a print sho p o n th e firs t floor, an d ove r th e year s establishe d on e o f th e fines t menagerie s i n th e world. I n spite o f th e proprietor' s efforts , however , th e museu m wa s no t very profitable . In 179 8 Bake r die d o f yellow fever . Afte r hi s death , hi s wife attempte d to ru n th e museum , bu t sh e die d i n 1800 , leavin g fou r childre n an d n o will. The museu m wa s bought intac t b y William I . Waldron, a grocer wh o tried unsuccessfully t o sell the collection at auction. While awaiting a buyer, he temporaril y se t u p hi s ow n museu m a t 6 9 Broadway . Eventually , i n 1802, the Bake r collection was sold t o Edwar d Savage , a historical painter , inventor, an d showman . Savag e owne d wha t wa s in essenc e a n ar t gallery , known a s th e Columbia n Gallery , locate d a t 8 0 Greenwic h Street. 60 H e acquired the Baker collection with the ai m of creating an institution simila r to Peak' s Philadelphi a museum . H e rename d hi s ne w combine d institu tion, which opene d Ma y 11 , 1802, the Columbia n Galler y of Painting an d City Museum. 61 Shortiy after Savag e obtained th e content s o f the American Museum , h e hired twenty-six-year-ol d Joh n Scudder , a naturalis t an d amateu r wildlif e mounter, t o curat e th e neglecte d collection . Severa l year s o f working fo r Savage proved tediou s fo r Scudder , however ; he was disappointed wit h hi s boss's apparen t lac k o f interest i n th e collectio n an d believe d tha t Savag e was mor e devote d t o hi s pictur e makin g an d machin e designin g tha n turning the museum into a first-rate institution . Scudder devise d a plan: he would leav e Savage's employmen t an d find a better job , sav e hi s money , an d on e da y bu y th e Columbia n Gallery . H e found a job a s a seama n aboar d ship s tha t trade d alon g th e northeaster n coast. I t i s not know n ho w long Scudde r was a sailor, bu t b y 180 9 h e ha d accumulated enoug h capita l to purchase Savage's museum. 62 In Marc h 1810 , Scudder opene d hi s American Museu m a t 2 1 Chatha m Street. Hi s true-to-lif e display s o f stuffe d animal s an d collection s o f shell s

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and fossil s satisfie d thos e devote d t o natura l history , an d h e ofte n gav e natural scienc e lecture s a t hi s museum . Bu t Scudde r expande d th e wax works department t o includ e "Sleepin g Beaut y with He r Baby " an d "Kin g Saul with the Witch o f Endor an d Samuel's Ghost." 63 The Wa r o f 181 2 an d economi c har d times too k thei r tol l o n museu m going. B y a strok e o f luck , however , i n 181 6 Scudde r wa s give n th e opportunity t o house his collection rent-free o n th e second floor of the ol d almshouse i n Cit y Hal l Park , whic h ha d bee n rename d th e Ne w Yor k Institute (se e fig. 3) . H e wa s t o pa y th e traditiona l annua l peppercor n fo r his ne w quarter s i n thi s ne w civi c center , whic h h e share d wit h th e New York Historical Society , the New York Society Library, the American Academy o f Fine Arts, the Dea f and Dum b Institution , th e Literar y an d Philo sophical Society, the Lyceu m o f Natural History , the Boar d o f Health, an d the Ban k fo r Savings. 64 Th e prestig e o f bein g a par t o f th e Ne w Yor k Institute helpe d Scudde r lur e man y municipa l leader s an d prominen t pa trons to the American Museum . With th e hel p o f his frien d Joh n Pintard , Scudde r redesigne d th e spac e to accommodat e th e displa y o f si x hundre d varietie s o f natura l histor y specimens. All the items displayed were classified accordin g to the Linnaea n system an d labele d i n Lati n a s wel l a s English . H e hire d lecturers , wh o illustrated thei r talk s wit h item s fro m th e collection . Demonstratin g a parallel flair fo r showmanship , h e hire d strollin g musician s t o entertai n visitors a s the y wandere d fro m cas e t o case . I n Jun e 1819 , Carolin e an d Edward Clarke , lilliputian singers , were engage d fo r almos t thre e weeks t o amuse the spectators. 65 Scudder's collectio n continue d t o gro w unti l th e America n Museu m occupied fou r larg e rooms. It now displayed "liv e mud turtles , a Baltimore oriole, an iguana, various minerals, and the bed curtains belonging to Mar y Queen o f Scots." 66 Scudde r die d o n Augus t 7 , 1821 . According t o hi s will, th e museu m trustees , al l o f who m wer e hi s clos e friends , wer e t o continue t o operat e th e establishmen t unti l hi s onl y son , John Jr. , was ol d enough t o manage the collection . Initially, Joh n Scudde r Jr . was no t intereste d i n followin g i n hi s father' s footsteps; h e wante d t o b e a doctor , o r s o h e thought . Afte r droppin g out o f medica l schoo l i n 1825 , however , h e mortgage d hi s inheritance , rebelliously settin g u p hi s ow n plac e o f entertainment , calle d Scudder' s New York Spectaculum, o n Jul y 1 , 1825 . He wa s thus competin g directl y with Peak' s Ne w Yor k Museu m an d th e America n Museum , whic h wa s

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FIGURE 3. American Museum, City Hall Park,

1825. (New-York Historical Society.)

then unde r th e directio n o f Corneliu s Bogert , a n attorney . Hi s Spectacu lum failed , however , probably no t becaus e o f mismanagement bu t becaus e even a metropolis like New York could no t suppor t thre e simila r museums . Although Joh n Scudde r Jr.' s Spectaculum di d no t succeed , he di d demon strate a flair for showmanship ; late r h e mad e hi s mark runnin g hi s father' s museum. By 1826 th e American Museu m claime d t o possess 150,00 0 natura l an d foreign curiosities . T o attrac t mor e payin g customer s i t bega n t o provid e variety acts and frea k shows. 67 Four year s later, th e larg e an d nois y crowd s that paraded dail y through th e corridors of the New York Institute o n thei r way to the museum forced th e institute t o evict the collection from it s rentfree accommodations . O n Decembe r 24 , 1830 , the museu m move d int o a five-story building o n th e corne r o f Broadway and Ann Street, opposite St . Paul's Church. 68 The new American Museum earne d a n average of seven thousand dollar s annually, a healthy su m fo r tha t time . Muc h o f its succes s wa s du e t o th e showmanship o f Joh n Scudde r Jr. , no w th e manager. 69 Scudde r hope d

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to lur e patron s awa y fro m Peale' s establishment ; unde r hi s directio n th e museum's dail y program include d variety acts, minstrel shows, and display s of freaks . Th e ne w America n Museu m manage d t o surviv e th e cras h o f 1837, an d th e receipt s fo r bot h th e 183 9 an d 184 0 season s totale d mor e than eleve n thousand dollars. 70 The museum was making a good profit. I n 1841, i t wa s purchase d b y a small-tim e showma n name d Phinea s Taylo r Barnum, and the great age of American dim e museums began . ••

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The Wester n Museu m o f Cincinnat i (1820-67 ) wa s the first o f its kind i n the Midwest. Lik e its sister institutions i n the East , it followed a pattern o f transformation fro m a cente r fo r scientifi c stud y t o a plac e o f entertain ment. 71 Danie l Drake, the museum's founder , was a physician and , like D u Simitiere an d Peale , a member o f all the appropriat e intellectua l organiza tions. B y 181 5 h e ha d amasse d a sizabl e collectio n o f minerals , metals , fossils, and organic remains. Between 182 0 an d 1840 , he founded man y of the cultura l an d educationa l institution s i n Cincinnat i an d wa s know n t o his contemporaries a s the "Be n Franklin of the West." 72 During the summer o f 1818 , Drake announced tha t he and an associate, a Cincinnat i merchan t name d Willia m Steele , woul d ope n a publi c mu seum. The collection was to encompass all aspects of science from archaeol ogy and geology to zoolog y and natural history. The two collaborated wit h Cincinnati College , hoping that th e tw o institutions coul d form on e o f the most comprehensiv e scienc e librarie s i n th e Unite d States. 73 O n Jun e 10 , 1820, the museum was opened to the public. Dr. Robert Bets of Cincinnat i College wa s hire d a s chie f curator ; on e o f hi s assistant s wa s Joh n Jame s Audubon, who worked a t the museum a s a taxidermist for a year. The Wester n Museu m o f Cincinnat i wa s operate d initiall y a s a privat e stock company . Shareholder s wer e allowe d t o vie w the collectio n free ; th e general publi c pai d th e standar d twenty-fiv e cents , half price fo r children . By 1823 the museu m was doing poorly. It s large collection o f birds, shells, coins, mummies , an d prehistori c bone s wa s no t enoug h t o engag e th e average citizen' s curiosity . Afte r a political battl e durin g whic h Drak e wa s fired and then rehired, he resigned in 1822 . Interest in the museum contin ued t o decline . I n fac t i t wa s s o minima l tha t th e stockholder s coul d no t even sel l the collection . Instea d the y gav e it to Josep h Dorfeuille , th e ne w curator, on the condition that stockholders still be admitted free . Dorfeuille, wh o ha d contribute d man y item s t o th e museum , realize d that th e truth s o f natural scienc e were no t a s compelling t o viewer s a s th e

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"occasional error s o f nature." 74 Althoug h h e apparentl y trie d t o maintai n the museum' s scientifi c credential s b y givin g lectures , hi s forma t wa s un usual: a t th e conclusio n o f hi s talk s h e sometime s offere d hi s audienc e a sniff of laughing gas (nitrous oxide). 75 Dorfeuille's intentio n was to engag e the emotions, not the intellect, and the Cincinnat i museum quickl y became a place of popular entertainment . Dorfeuille wa s much draw n t o th e grotesqu e an d sensational . O n enter ing th e museum , spectator s wer e assaulte d b y moving skeletons ; a n orga n grinder playe d appropriat e atmospheri c music . Dorfeuill e als o create d a wax tablea u o f a local a x murderer name d Cowan , wh o wa s convicte d o f killing hi s wif e an d tw o children . H e preserve d i n a ja r th e head , righ t hand, an d heart o f another loca l murderer, Mathia s Hoover. Rathe r feebly , Dorfeuille attempte d t o justif y thi s horrifyin g displa y a s righteou s an d instructive. I n a n advertisemen t i n th e Liberty Hall and Cincinnati Gazette, date d Jul y 4 , 1837 , Dorfeuill e claime d tha t befor e hi s execution , Hoover ha d willed his body to th e museu m "fo r th e expres s purpose o f its being exhibited publicly, as a warning to other s of the awfu l risk , attendin g a departure fro m th e paths of virtue." 76 The museu m wa s best known fo r it s Chambe r o f Horrors an d it s elaborate depiction s o f Hell, bette r know n a s "Th e Inferna l Regions " o r "Dor feuille's Hell. " (Thi s spectacle, which becam e one of the most talked-abou t exhibits o f th e pre-Civi l Wa r era , wil l b e discusse d i n mor e detai l i n th e chapter o n waxworks. ) Afte r Hira m Powers , th e sculpto r wh o create d th e original mechanica l wa x figure s i n "Th e Inferna l Regions, " lef t Cincinnat i in 1834 , th e museu m bega n t o deteriorate . Powers' s successo r wa s no t a s skillful a n artist, and the museum had t o struggle to maintain th e quality of the wa x collection. Dorfeuill e eventuall y sol d hi s shar e o f the museu m fo r $6,500, keeping "Th e Inferna l Regions " exhibit , an d lef t fo r Ne w York in the hop e o f discoverin g a fres h audienc e fo r hi s spectacle . ( A versio n o f "The Inferna l Regions " remaine d a t th e Wester n Museu m fo r years , an d there was some disput e abou t whic h wa s the original. ) I n 183 9 Dorfeuill e opened hi s new museum jus t a stone's thro w awa y from Scudder' s American Museum. Within a year, however, Dorfeuille' s Ne w York museum wa s destroyed b y fire. It s owner died a few months later, on July 23, 1840. ••

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In th e earl y year s o f th e nineteent h century , a n America n museu m wa s typically a miscellaneou s collectio n o f curiosities , a developmen t o f th e European notio n o f th e "cabine t o f wonders." Mos t museum s attempte d

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to b e instructive civi c institutions, exposin g th e publi c t o a wide variety o f historical artifacts , natura l histor y specimens , an d instructiv e paintings — "colleges fo r America' s culturall y neglecte d Everyman." 77 Sinc e thes e es tablishments als o operate d a s businesse s i n a democratic society , however , they neede d t o b e chea p enoug h t o attrac t a wid e audience , a s wel l a s sufficiently diversifie d i n term s o f wha t the y displayed . I n appealin g t o a mas s audience , museum s cam e t o incorporat e differen t categorie s o f amusements. By midcentury the y had becom e venues for al l sorts of popular entertainments , an d thei r educationa l agend a virtuall y ha d vanished . The dim e museum was the result .

2. Barnu m an d the Museum Revolution , 1841-187 0 Luck i s i n n o sens e th e foundatio n o f m y fortune ; fro m th e begin ning o f m y caree r I planne d an d worked fo r m y success . T o b e sure , my scheme s ofte n amaze d m e wit h th e affluenc e o f thei r results . ~ P . T . Barnu m

Phineas Taylo r Barnu m wa s th e quintessentia l showman ; b y organizin g individual amusement s an d placin g the m withi n th e confine s o f a singl e environment, h e afforde d hour s o f pleasur e t o thos e wit h littl e i n thei r pocketbooks. Barnu m adopte d th e earl y nineteenth-centur y concep t o f th e proprietary museu m an d transforme d i t int o th e dim e museum . Some migh t argu e tha t Barnum' s America n Museu m functione d chiefl y as a place o f popular education—hi s natura l histor y exhibit s were illuminat ing an d hi s guidebook s informative . B y virtu e o f hi s year s o f collectin g artifacts an d hi s globa l searche s fo r nove l freaks , Barnu m di d assembl e spectacular geological , ornithological , zoological , an d ethnographi c dis plays. Bu t i t wa s n o t hi s underlyin g intentio n t o b e didactic . Althoug h h e was a temperance advocat e an d a local civi c leader, Barnu m wa s fundamen tally a showma n wh o devote d hi s lif e no t t o scientifi c accurac y bu t t o entertainment. Barnum's museu m guidebook s wer e publishe d chiefl y a s map s o f hi s museum, a s popula r diversion , an d fo r th e purpose s o f publicity . Barnu m wanted hi s museu m t o b e respectable , an d h e attempte d t o rejec t anythin g that migh t b e repugnan t t o a conservativ e Victoria n audience , bu t hi s "operational aesthetic, " t o borro w a phrase coine d b y Nei l Harris , wa s n o t to instruc t bu t t o amuse. 1 Eve n thoug h th e melodrama s performe d i n hi s lecture r o o m coul d b e define d a s moral , virtuous , an d somewha t didactic , the theater' s sloga n wa s "W e Stud y t o Please, " no t "W e Stud y t o Teach." 2 Barnum himsel f claime d tha t hi s museu m wa s "educational, " bu t thi s was a buzzword designe d t o attrac t busines s fro m a variet y o f socia l classe s an d to placat e purita n consciences . Barnu m wrot e i n hi s autobiograph y tha t h e 23

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wanted hi s patrons to "think , talk and wonder," an d he used showmanshi p to achiev e this goal. 3 •• 24

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New Yor k City , wit h it s prosperou s shipping , railroad , an d rea l estat e industries, soo n becam e th e dominan t industria l cente r o f th e Northeast . This expanding commercia l cit y provided man y job opportunitie s fo r bot h the workin g clas s an d th e moder n middl e class . B y 1834 , Ne w Yor k ha d over a quarte r o f a million residents ; b y 185 0 th e figure hovere d aroun d one million. Nearly 60 percent o f these residents had bee n bor n elsewhere , either i n Americ a o r Europe. 4 Man y midcentur y Ne w Yorker s live d i n tenements o r boardinghouse s becaus e the y coul d no t affor d t o eithe r ow n or ren t homes . Withou t th e pleasure s o f th e parlo r entertainment s an d family gathering s o f th e traditiona l home , boarder s wer e force d t o see k amusement in public places. David Nasaw claimed that "recreatio n an d play were not luxurie s but necessitie s in the modern city." 5 The entertainment seeking population was growing rapidly, and entrepreneurs were spurred t o find ne w enterprises . Whil e restaurants , hotels , churches , concer t an d lec ture halls , pleasur e gardens , an d saloon s provide d a certai n amoun t o f recreation an d entertainment, none could offer th e range of amusements of the dim e museums. These establishments , where, for a onetime admission , pleasure seeker s coul d b e amuse d fo r hour s b y a variet y o f organize d popular entertainments , were slowly becoming New York institutions. P. T. Barnu m purchase d Scudder' s America n Museu m i n 1841 . At th e time, th e proprietor s o f alread y establishe d proprietar y museums , i n a desperate attemp t t o remai n solvent , ha d alread y begu n t o embrac e th e idea o f developin g entertainmen t centers , jettisonin g thei r loftie r goa l o f the dissemination o f scientific an d historical knowledge. During th e 1840s , Peak's Ne w York Museum (Ruben s Peal e lost th e museu m t o creditor s i n 1830, an d th e museu m wa s no w owne d b y a showma n name d Harr y Bennett) advertise d a "magician , a mind-reade r an d a n anacond a tha t swallowed liv e fowl twic e a week in fron t o f a crowd o f gapin g patrons." 6 Under Bennet t th e museu m eve n bega n openin g it s door s t o th e perfor mances of "Ethiopian melodist s and serenaders." 7 It di d no t mak e muc h difference , however , wh o o r wha t appeare d a t Peale's Ne w Yor k Museum , o r fo r tha t matte r a t an y simila r Ne w Yor k establishment; Barnum' s America n Museu m wa s t o eclips e the m all . B y 1843, its proprietor ha d force d Peale' s New York Museum ou t o f business and ha d purchased it s collection fo r $7,000. 8 But , believin g that an y com-

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petition wa s goo d fo r business , Barnu m kep t hi s acquisitio n quie t an d continued t o run th e Peale museum a s a separate enterprise . Through hi s exper t showmanship , hi s adroi t busines s sense , an d hi s unequivocal gall , Barnu m turne d th e America n Museu m int o a nationa l attraction fo r al l showmen t o emulate . B y the 1850 s it was already consid ered unthinkabl e t o visi t Ne w Yor k withou t seein g it , an d b y 186 0 th e museum wa s o n th e itinerar y o f th e well-publicize d visi t o f th e Princ e o f Wales to New York. 9 The five-story whit e buildin g (se e fig. 4) , locate d o n An n Stree t an d Broadway, opposit e th e prestigiou s Asto r Hous e hotel , containe d th e re mains o f Joh n Scudder' s collection , onc e value d a t $25,000 . Barnum , however, ha d purchase d th e buildin g an d th e collectio n i n 184 1 fo r les s than hal f tha t amount . Th e stor y i s trul y Barnumesqu e i n it s complexity . Then a n impoverished showma n wit h onl y extraordinar y dreams , Barnu m required considerabl e financial backing . H e sough t th e hel p o f Francis W. Olmsted, th e building' s owner , wh o agree d t o bu y th e collectio n fo r hi m and the n issu e hi m a ten-yea r lease , chargin g hi m a n annua l ren t o f $3,000. 10 Ironically, whil e Barnu m wa s makin g th e financial arrangement s tha t would enabl e hi m t o purchas e Scudder' s America n Museum , it s boar d o f trustees sol d th e collectio n t o th e Peal e Museu m Compan y fo r $15,000 . The museu m compan y pai d a $1,00 0 dow n an d agree d t o provid e th e remainder b y Decembe r 26 , 1841 . Barnu m wa s convince d tha t th e mu seum compan y wa s purchasin g th e Scudde r collectio n o n speculation , i n order t o manipulat e it s stoc k value , an d h e wrot e t o variou s newspapers , hoping "t o blo w tha t speculatio n sky-high." 11 Angere d b y all the advers e publicity, th e Peal e Museu m Company , i n a n attemp t t o subdu e him , hired Barnu m t o manage th e soon-to-be-acquire d Scudde r collectio n a t an annual salary of $3,000. Barnum wrote in his autobiography tha t he was convinced tha t the Peal e Museum Compan y wa s i n effec t buyin g hi s silenc e i n orde r t o kee p it s stock valu e high . A s straight-face d a s ever , h e agree d t o thei r term s an d consented t o begi n hi s tenure afte r th e first of the year. Barnu m the n wen t back t o th e Scudde r trustee s an d negotiate d a n agreemen t whereby , i f th e Peale Museu m Compan y faile d t o pa y th e $14,00 0 balanc e b y Decembe r 26, h e woul d b e permitte d t o bu y th e collectio n o n Decembe r 2 7 fo r hi s original $12,00 0 offer . Afte r hirin g Barnum , th e museu m company , un aware o f an y othe r bidders , decide d t o wai t unti l al l th e notoriet y ha d subsided befor e actuall y purchasing th e collection—a s Barnu m ha d imag -

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FIGURE 4. P. T. Barnum's American Museum, Broadway and Ann Street, 1851. (NewYork Historical Society.)

ined the y would . A s a result , the y faile d t o mak e thei r promise d paymen t on Decembe r 2 6 , an d o n th e nex t da y Barnu m acquire d th e museu m fo r himself. With hi s busines s ability , hi s talen t fo r collectin g a dazzlin g arra y o f attractions, an d hi s "devotio n t o . . . giganti c poster s an d colore d inks, " Barnum wa s abl e t o pa y bac k Olmsted' s loa n i n fifteen months. 1 2 H e buttressed th e neglecte d Scudde r collectio n wit h frea k show s an d novelt y performers, an d h e change d exhibit s constantly . Thre e year s afte r h e too k over th e museum , Barnu m claime d t o posses s thirt y thousan d exhibits . H e featured Siames e twins , fa t boys , bearde d ladies , rubbe r men , legles s won ders, an d a n arra y o f midgets . I n addition , h e hel d bab y show s i n whic h h e awarded cas h prize s t o th e fattest , smallest , tallest , an d pretties t babies . H e held flower, dog , bird , an d poultr y shows . Barnu m enlarge d th e museum' s lecture roo m an d eventuall y turne d i t int o a full-fledge d an d "thoroughl y reputable" theate r fo r th e productio n o f "moral " dramas. 1 3 Hi s 184 9 production o f William H . Smith' s pla y The Drunkard, i n fact , wa s th e first play t o ru n fo r a hundred uninterrupte d performance s i n Ne w York .

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The showma n proudl y describe d hi s American Museu m a s an "encyclo pedic synopsi s o f everythin g wort h seein g i n thi s curiou s world." 14 A n 1849 progra m claime d tha t th e museu m house d 600,00 0 curiosities . B y 1864 th e America n Museu m boaste d a collectio n o f ove r 850,00 0 items . Barnum's acume n fo r sho w busines s prove d extremel y profitable. A s earl y as 1842, the American Museum earne d $28,000 , which was $17,000 mor e than th e previou s year , whe n th e museu m ha d bee n operate d b y th e Scudder Museum boar d o f trustees. 15 Sensational exhibit s an d spectacula r frea k shows , a s wel l a s Barnum' s penchant for business , all aided in the succes s of his establishment. Beyon d that, the proprietor understoo d an d respected his paying patrons, believin g that h e neve r reall y cheate d them , sinc e h e offere d s o many divers e enter tainments. I f a patro n fel t disappointe d b y on e exhibit , ther e wa s alway s another i n th e museu m tha t woul d mak e th e admissio n pric e worthwhile . Through massiv e advertising campaigns , which inflame d th e potential cus tomer's expectations , toppe d of f b y a littl e controversia l "humbug, " h e discovered th e combinatio n neede d t o lur e payin g patron s bac k t o hi s museum fo r a third an d fourt h time . Barnu m di d no t discove r mos t o f his most famous curiosities . H e merel y acquire d exhibit s an d markete d the m in suc h a powerful wa y as to devis e sensationa l crowdpleasin g exhibitions . He create d a place where on e coul d exchang e mone y for wonder, an d "h e knew that it is the stor y above all else that make s the objec t interesting." 16 In th e twenty-thre e year s tha t Barnu m operate d hi s firs t America n Mu seum, from 184 2 t o 1865 , he sold more than thirt y million tickets. 17 In 1843 , for example , Barnum carefully manipulate d th e publicity for his infamous Feje e Mermaid exhibi t in orde r t o attrac t a huge viewership. Th e Fejee Mermai d wa s a manufacture d curiosity . I t ha d onc e belonge d t o a Boston se a captai n who , i n 1817 , anticipatin g tha t th e curiosit y woul d someday make hi m a fortune, stol e $6,00 0 o f his ship's mone y t o bu y th e creature. Th e mermai d faile d t o excit e muc h interest , however , an d i t passed into the possession of the captain's son. Moses Kimball, the proprietor of the Boston Museum, bought the mermaid from th e son and immediately contacte d Barnum. 18 Th e tw o me n entere d int o a n agreemen t t o share in the expense s an d profits o f the mermaid , which was to remai n th e permanent propert y o f Kimball , althoug h i t wa s Barnum' s tas k t o creat e the notoriety . Withou t Barnum' s imagination , th e Feje e Mermai d migh t just hav e bee n a mino r exhibi t stashe d awa y o n a shel f i n th e Bosto n Museum. In fact , Barnu m di d no t displa y th e mermai d a t onc e bu t engineere d a

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publicity campaig n t o insur e tha t peopl e woul d hav e t o se e hi s lates t acquisition. He printed enticin g stories about the discovery of the mermai d near th e Feje e Island s (Hawaii ) b y th e fictitious Dr . J . Griffi n fro m Lon don's "Lyceu m o f Natural History. " (Griffi n was , in fact , a longtime Bar num collaborato r named Lev i Lyman. ) The storie s claimed , however , tha t th e fictitious Englis h scientis t wa s t o be i n th e Unite d State s with th e Feje e Mermai d onl y a short whil e befor e sailing fo r Europe . Fo r week s th e pres s wa s fille d wit h Feje e Mermai d anecdotes, and New Yorkers anxiously awaited the fake scientist's visit as he supposedly venture d nort h fro m Montgomery , Alabama, t o Ne w York. As Dr. Griffin' s visi t dre w near , Barnu m circulate d pamphlet s abou t th e mer maid and duped thre e local papers into printing engravings of the curiosity . The tensio n mounte d unti l finally the Feje e Mermai d arrive d i n Ne w York and wa s exhibite d fo r a wee k i n earl y Augus t a t th e Concer t Hall , 40 4 Broadway. When the week ended, Barnum too k possession o f the mermai d and exhibited it at his American Museum. Controvers y an d word o f mout h enhanced th e public's curiosity , and h e pulled i n a thousand dollar s durin g that week, three time s his normal revenue. 19 Many viewer s wer e disappointed . Th e mermai d wa s describe d a s smal l (only eighteen inches long), black, and extremely shriveled. The upper par t of it s bod y wa s hairy , taperin g of f twelv e inche s belo w th e hea d t o scale s and the sor t of tail generally associated with a mermaid. Th e manufacture d curiosity wa s s o cleverl y constructed , however , tha t i t wa s difficul t fo r anyone no t t o believ e tha t i t wa s real . An d th e publi c cam e i n droves . Barnum late r admitte d t o Kimbal l i n a n 184 8 lette r tha t eve n h e fel t a little guilty abou t becomin g ric h of f thi s particula r "humbugging " o f th e public.20 From Barnum' s poin t o f view , however , goo d publicity , controversia l publicity, negativ e publicity—al l o f i t helpe d generat e customers . Whe n Barnum receive d wor d tha t Presiden t Abraha m Lincol n wa s t o visi t hi s establishment o n Februar y 19 , 1861 , he quickl y sen t a note t o a n edito r urging hi m t o "notic e thi s fac t & oblige." 21 Durin g hi s exhibitio n o f Joice Heth , Georg e Washington' s suppose d nurse , Barnu m himsel f sen t anonymous letter s t o variou s newspapers denouncin g Het h a s a fraud. H e even went so far as to claim that she was an automaton an d that he was the ventriloquist. Thi s brought peopl e flyin g t o his exhibit to find out whethe r the attractio n was in fact real or mechanical . When he exhibited Mme . Josephine Fortune Clofullia , hi s Swiss bearded lady, in the earl y 1850s , Barnum plante d statement s i n the papers claimin g

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that "she " was really a "he." In orde r to heighten th e dramatic conflic t an d provoke hi s audience , h e pai d a spectato r t o publicl y challeng e Josephin e Clofullia's tru e sexuality . The matte r ultimatel y lande d i n court , where th e allegation tha t Clofulli a wa s a man masqueradin g a s a woman wa s refuted , not onl y b y he r husban d bu t b y severa l doctor s a s well . Th e cas e wa s dismissed, and Barnum mad e a huge profit fro m al l the publicity. Several years later, Barnum capitalize d o n th e publicity a second tim e b y exhibiting Clofulli a wit h he r two-year-ol d child , th e "Infan t Esau, " whos e body wa s covere d wit h hair . Onc e agai n Barnu m ha d bee n successfu l i n encouraging score s o f peopl e t o visi t hi s museum . Pres s agentr y o f thi s inflammatory sor t mad e peopl e wan t t o se e fo r themselve s wha t al l th e controversy wa s about . Barnu m foun d tha t if , o n thei r first visit , pleasur e seekers were under the impression that an exhibit was real, but later becam e inclined t o believ e tha t i t was a fraud, the y woul d retur n t o appeas e thei r curiosity an d tr y t o determin e ho w th e deceptio n ha d bee n achieved. 22 Thus, he mad e decei t a game an d a n integral par t o f his museum exhibits , and he used the press as bait. In spit e of—o r becaus e of—dubiou s managemen t an d promotiona l practices, million s o f people visite d th e America n Museum . Bu t a s Arthur Saxon ha s suggested , "Barnu m wa s no t th e onl y entrepreneu r t o foo l Americans i n th e nineteent h century." 23 Humbugging , Barnu m wrot e i n 1866, was "an astonishingly wide-spread phenomenon—in fac t universal. " In particular , "th e mos t stupendou s scientifi c impositio n upo n th e publi c that th e generatio n wit h whic h w e ar e numbere d ha s known, " Barnu m wrote i n The Humbugs of the World, ha d bee n th e so-calle d Moo n Hoax , which ha d nothin g t o d o wit h him. 24 I t wa s conceived b y Richard Adam s Locke an d wa s publishe d i n th e Sun, a nineteenth-century penn y tabloi d that specialize d i n huma n interes t stories , in August an d Septembe r 1835 . Locke's tales described ho w astronomer John Herschel was able to view life on th e moo n throug h a high-powere d telescope . Th e pape r printe d de tailed description s o f moon vegetation , luna r animals , and winged inhabit ants. S o spectacula r wa s th e stor y tha t th e Sun soo n foun d itsel f wit h a fifty-thousand-reader increas e in circulation. 25 The increasin g pac e o f nineteenth-centur y technologica l developmen t had created an atmosphere in which people could reasonably believe almost anything. Modernizatio n taugh t tha t th e unimaginabl e wa s possible , an d technology made material reality of ideas that had existed only in the realm of th e imagination . I n hi s biograph y o f Barnum , Nei l Harri s note d tha t nineteenth-century hoaxin g wa s a kind o f intellectua l exercise . Fo r thos e

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who delighte d i n learning , ther e wer e man y challengin g an d delightfu l aspects t o a hoax. The discover y o f the deceptio n an d o f how i t ha d bee n accomplished wa s sometime s eve n mor e enjoyabl e tha n th e tric k itself 26 Barnum wa s th e first showma n wh o understoo d thi s innat e attractio n t o the hoax an d was able to tur n i t into a profit-making venture . "Everyon e is open t o deception, " h e wrote , "peopl e lik e t o b e le d i n th e regio n o f mystery."27 "The Grea t Mode l o f Niagar a Falls , wit h Rea l Water, " wa s a Barnu m banner headlin e sur e t o entic e anyon e wh o ha d hear d o f thi s natura l wonder bu t ha d no t see n it . Th e scal e mode l o f th e falls , complet e wit h rocks, trees, and neighboring buildings , was only eighteen inches high. Yet those enticing words on the banner, as Barnum wrote them, were threaten ing t o th e Boar d o f th e Croto n Wate r Commissioners , wh o fel t tha t Bar num's exhibi t migh t dr y u p th e city' s water supply . Rea l water was indee d used, bu t i t was recycled; a mechanical pum p enable d Barnu m t o reus e th e same pool endlessly . H e ha d no t blatantl y lied in his advertisement, bu t h e had manipulated th e language in order to make it attractively ambiguous . Similarly, Barnum' s famou s "T o Th e Egress " sig n wa s pu t u p no t t o show the custome r where to view an "egress," whatever that might be , but rather t o contro l th e crowd s tha t poure d int o hi s museum . Barnum' s autobiography i s filled with simila r anecdote s abou t ho w h e humbugge d his customers by using provocative language, theatrics, and creative marketing. Hi s "Wha t I s It? " fo r example , becam e th e quintessentia l "I s I t Rea l or Is It Not?" exhibit (se e fig. 5). Capitalizing o n the ever growing interes t in theorie s o f evolutio n an d th e origi n o f man , Barnu m exhibite d severa l versions o f thi s "missin g link, " o r half-man-half-monke y attraction . Hi s earliest missing link was Mile. Fanny, an orangutan tha t he exhibited in th e 1840s. Perhaps his most successfu l "Wha t I s It?" was William Henr y Johnson, a small, retarded blac k man (h e stoo d betwee n fou r an d five feet tall) , with a large nose, protruding eyes , and no hair except for a little tuft a t the cente r of his pointed head. This tuft soo n became a trademark.28 Johnso n was first displayed in 186 0 and most later exhibits of the "Wha t Is It?" genre looked strikingly like Johnson: they were generally endowed with only a single tuf t of hair, costume d i n a monkey o r othe r anima l coverall , an d positione d i n front o f a jungl e background . Barnu m markete d hi s contrive d curiosit y with hi s usua l creativity . Becaus e o f th e ambiguou s exhibi t titl e "Wha t I s It?" Barnum was able to se t the spectator up, placing all alleged "misrepre sentations" squarel y i n th e la p o f th e viewer , wh o wa s force d t o for m hi s

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FIGURE 5 . Barnum' s 'What I s It? " exhibit , c . 1860 . (Harvar d Theatr e Collection ,

Houghton Library. )

own opinio n a s to whethe r th e exhibi t wa s a man, a n animal , o r a combina tion. I n addition , b y connectin g thi s frea k wit h "scientific " theorie s o f evolution, Barnu m avoide d makin g a racial statemen t abou t black s i n 186 0 America. Whil e a Norther n whit e audienc e surel y wa s curiou s abou t slav ery, Barnu m masterfull y averte d th e politicall y charge d discours e o f th e status o f African American s wit h th e ambiguit y o f th e "Wha t I s It? " title . During th e earl y years o f his career , Barnu m ha d bee n prou d t o b e calle d

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the "princ e o f humbugs, " an d h e rationalize d hi s perpetua l tricker y b y insisting tha t h e gav e th e payin g patro n mor e curiositie s fo r hi s twenty five-cent admissio n charg e tha n an y othe r amusemen t institution . I t wa s customary for Barnum to offer a n opening address at the beginning of each season. I n 1861 , he supposedl y gav e th e followin g rhyme d speec h i n hi s lecture room, defending hi s penchant for humbugging. I t began , That Prince of Humbugs, BARNUM, so it appears Some folks have designated me for several years— Well, I don't murmur; indeed, when they embellish it, To tell the truth, my friends I rather relish it. 29 ••

•

In th e 1850 s Barnu m mad e renovation s costin g fift y thousan d dollars . At the entranc e t o th e hig h white building , decorate d wit h banner s announc ing prize exhibits , panels depicting animal s an d birds , and posters illustrat ing scene s fro m mora l dramas , visitor s wer e no w confronte d b y a gran d staircase tha t le d t o th e secon d floor. I f the y chos e t o continu e rearward , however, they would find the First Saloon, better known as the Cosmoram a Department. 30 Th e wall s i n thi s roo m wer e fitte d wit h peephole s wit h lenses, through whic h coul d b e seen brilliantly colored views of "St. Mark s Church, Venice, " th e "Crysta l Palace , London, " a "Genera l Vie w o f Na ples," an d th e "Tuilleries , Paris. " Befor e goin g upstairs , spectator s coul d choose to descend to the basemen t to a rifle an d pistol gallery. 31 The gran d staircas e le d spectator s u p int o a larg e hal l know n a s th e Second Saloon (se e fig. 6). Scattered throughou t th e room were glass cases housing natura l histor y specimen s suc h a s "Red-heade d Duck s o f Nort h America," an d th e "Africa n Ostric h an d An t Eater. " Th e Thir d Saloon , located nex t t o th e second , containe d specimen s o f bow s an d arrows , a variety o f stuffe d birds , wax figures, an d suc h miscellaneou s paraphernali a as "th e cour t dres s To m Thum b wor e whe n h e wa s presente d before Queen Victoria," a machine for testing strength, and a collection of famous autographs. The Aquaria Department was located in Saloon Four, to the right of the Second Saloon. The first public aquarium ha d bee n displaye d in London a t the Regent's Park zoo, and after visitin g the zoo in the late 1850s , Barnum immediately launche d hi s own imitation . I n additio n t o th e fish tanks, th e Aquaria Departmen t als o ha d case s displayin g varietie s o f shells , oysters ,

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I M F . C K I K Vll. w u f TH E RUS T GRAN D IIU.F . O F TH E MUSEUM .

FIGURE 6 . Interio r Vie w o f th e Firs t Gran d Hall , know n a s th e Secon d Saloon , Barnum's American Museum, 1853 . (New-York Historical Society.)

and stuffe d fish. Barnum' s catalo g provide d th e visito r wit h historica l infor mation o n aquati c exhibits ; a pik e o n exhibition , fo r example , wa s sai d t o be th e larges t an d oldes t eve r discovered . I t ha d bee n caugh t i n Mannheim , Germany, i n 1497 , Barnu m claimed , wa s ninetee n fee t long , an d weighe d 350 pounds. 3 2 The Fift h Saloon , occupyin g th e thir d floor, containe d paintings , includ ing landscapes , portrait s o f famou s people , an d engraving s o f flags fro m around th e world . Stuffe d animals , amon g the m a bear , a kangaroo , an d a giraffe, wer e als o house d i n thi s saloon . Directl y abov e wa s th e Sixt h Saloon, a large chambe r wher e on e coul d find suc h curiositie s a s snowshoe s from Norway , a three-thousand-year-ol d Egyptia n m u m m y fro m Thebe s enclosed i n a case o f sycamor e wood , a ball o f hair foun d i n th e stomac h o f a sow , an d a collection o f shoe s an d slippers . One mor e flight u p wa s th e Sevent h Saloon , wher e visitor s coul d se e no t only mor e painting s bu t als o th e museum' s fantasti c skeleto n collectio n and liv e animals . I t wa s als o i n thi s chambe r tha t Barnu m house d hi s famous exhibi t calle d "Th e Happ y Family, " i n which sixt y or mor e differen t animal specie s live d "harmoniously " i n on e cage . A guideboo k claime d tha t

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each was "th e morta l enem y of every other," an d tha t th e miracl e was tha t in thi s cage , al l wer e foun d t o b e "contentedl y playin g an d frolickin g together without injury o r discord." 33 Entrances t o th e museum' s Lectur e Roo m wer e locate d o n th e third , fourth, an d fift h floors. I n th e eighteent h century , so-calle d lectur e room s hosted natura l histor y lecture s an d scienc e demonstrations . Late r thes e spaces had gradually become the home of more popular presentations, such as magic lantern show s and musical acts. Choosing to maintain th e Lectur e Room tid e wa s presumabl y a deliberat e attemp t o n th e par t o f Barnu m (and later museum showmen ) t o entic e puritanical visitors who would no t willingly attend a performance i n a conventional theater . "M y plan," wrot e Barnum i n 1850 , "i s to introduc e int o th e lectur e roo m highl y mora l an d instructive domesti c dramas , written expressl y for my establishment an d s o constructed a s to please and edify while they possess a powerful reformatory tendency." 34 Barnum, who was a reformed drinke r and a temperance advo cate, use d hi s Lectur e Roo m a s a pulpit . Afte r eac h performanc e o f The Drunkard (1847) , a popula r temperanc e melodrama , audienc e member s were urged t o g o to the bo x office an d sign a pledge agains t drinking . The Lectur e Roo m wa s expande d an d renovate d severa l times . "Origi nally narrow, ill-contrived an d inconvenient," b y 185 0 i t was enlarged t o a seating capacity of three thousand , and , wrote Barnum , was "t o remin d u s of the lik e erection s i n th e palace s o f European sovereign s an d nobles." 35 Spectators coul d b e seate d i n th e gallery , the firs t balcony , the parterre , o r the prosceniu m boxes . The parterr e an d th e stag e wer e o n th e sam e leve l as the secon d floor o f th e building . Admissio n t o th e Lectur e Roo m wa s included i n th e museu m entranc e fee , wit h th e exceptio n o f th e bette r seats, whic h cos t extra . A t first , performance s wer e give n i n th e evening s and o n Wednesda y an d Saturda y afternoons . Soon , however , thes e hour s were expanded t o include a daily matinee schedule, although performance s never took place on Sundays. The proscenium arc h containe d stag e door s an d boxe s situate d betwee n white an d gol d Corinthia n columns , an d th e auditoriu m wa s furnishe d with ric h crimso n wallpape r an d velvet-covere d seats . Sixtee n "medallio n compartments" o n th e ceilin g containe d portrait s o f famou s Americans , from Genera l Lafayett e t o Presiden t Andre w Jackson . Lamp s fitte d wit h glass globe s wer e positione d al l aroun d th e balcon y an d gallery front s t o provide light , an d tw o magnificen t chandelier s wer e place d o n eithe r sid e of the proscenium. Th e theater's motto, "W e Study to Please, " was emblazoned acros s th e arch . Barnu m hire d a stag e manager , Franci s Courtne y

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Wemyss, to help select plays and to commissio n origina l works and adapta tions o f popular novels . Spectacle an d fantas y abounde d i n Barnum' s Lec ture Room , bu t th e museu m wa s know n mainl y fo r it s mora l dramas , among them William H. Smith's work The Drunkard (1847) , T. P. Taylor's play The Bottle (1847) , an d Royal l Tyler' s Joseph and His Brethren (c . 1859). Ove r th e years , Barnu m presente d n o fewe r tha n hal f a doze n productions o f Uncle Tom's Cabin? 6 Suc h mora l dramas , togethe r wit h melodramas, spectacles , novelt y acts , an d farc e afterpieces , al l provide d family entertainmen t tha t conservativ e Christian s coul d watc h safel y i n th e knowledge tha t no indecencies would affron t them . Before Barnu m enlarge d hi s Lectur e Room , th e auditoriu m ha d bee n the sit e o f occasiona l frea k displays . Afte r 1849 , however , whe n i t wa s transformed int o a workable theater , th e museum bega n t o emplo y a stock company t o perfor m it s dramas , comedies , an d farces . Livin g curiositie s were generall y displaye d onl y betwee n act s o r a s a n afterpiece . Freak s became primaril y platfor m entertainers , show n i n variou s saloon s durin g the day and evening. 37 Barnum provide d hi s visitors with th e opportunit y t o purchase souvenir s at concessio n stand s locate d strategicall y throughou t th e building . The y could tak e hom e a carte d e visit e photograp h o f a freak, wit h a biograph y printed o n th e back , o r the y coul d bu y a trinke t fro m th e Bohemia n glassblowers wh o sol d thei r ware s i n th e museum . Spectator s als o coul d drop of f th e remain s o f a departe d pe t a t th e residen t taxidermist' s sho p and, after completin g a tour of the museum, take home a nicely stuffed an d mounted animal . Fis h tank s i n a variety o f shape s an d size s wer e sold , a t prices rangin g fro m te n t o thirty-fiv e dollars. 38 Fortune-tellers , clairvoy ants, an d phrenologist s offere d thei r service s t o th e public . I f pleasur e seekers worked up an appetite, there were various food concessions , including a n oyste r saloo n an d "aeria l garden " o n th e roof , where visitor s coul d eat a homemade picnic or buy such snacks as cake and ice cream. Merchandizing wa s a by-produc t o f industrialization , an d th e femal e spectator playe d a n importan t rol e i n th e evolutio n o f urba n cultur e an d the dim e museum . Transatlanti c immigratio n separate d man y families, an d young wome n wer e ofte n sen t t o Americ a t o find work . Man y o f the m found jobs as domestic servants, seamstresses, or factory workers; they lived with relatives or alongside othe r working men an d women i n tenements o r boardinghouses. With th e breakdow n o f the traditiona l hom e an d withou t their fathers ' contro l ove r their tim e an d earnings , single women wer e fre e to enjo y whateve r diversion s please d them. 39 Th e collaps e o f familia l an d

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communal influences, th e har d workin g an d ugl y livin g conditions , an d bouts o f homesicknes s intensifie d thei r nee d fo r escapis t entertainment . After wor k o r durin g a free afternoon , singl e women neede d pleasan t an d appropriate place s t o go . Although ther e wer e a host o f amusement s tha t catered t o a n all-male clientele, there were few deemed respectabl e enoug h for unchaperone d women . Barnum' s museu m represente d a new concep t in chast e entertainment , an d i t provide d wome n wit h a saf e an d easil y accessible meetin g plac e fo r lunch , conversation , an d amusement , fre e o f rowdy o r drunke n men . T o furthe r insur e th e safet y o f his female patrons , Barnum hire d undercove r detective s wh o escorte d bac k t o th e stree t al l patrons whos e behavio r wa s unacceptable . A s customers , wome n wer e "icons o f decency, " an d a s an audience , the y guarantee d respectability ; " a mixed audienc e wa s b y definitio n a respectabl e one , a male-onl y one , indecent." 40 Wome n flocked t o Barnum's , an d soo n hi s museu m theate r began presenting matinee s for it s female audience . The American Museu m was bot h affordabl e an d fashionable , an d wome n o f al l classe s wer e at tracted t o th e wholesome atmospher e stresse d b y the pedagogical rhetori c of Barnum's museum . This was also a period o f upheaval for th e middle-class American woman . New idea s abou t womanhood , sexuality , an d leisur e wer e bein g debated , and moder n technologica l advance s suc h a s runnin g wate r an d interio r plumbing provided middle-class women with more personal freedom. The y soon becam e involve d i n philanthropy, reform , an d politics. 41 I n addition , the adven t o f departmen t store s i n th e 1850 s brough t man y wome n o f moderate mean s int o downtow n area s durin g th e daytime . A s Gunthe r Barth wrote , clea n an d orderl y sidewalk s becam e a n extensio n o f th e de partment store , an d "wome n cam e downtow n purposel y t o se e an d b e seen." 42 Broadwa y soo n becam e th e mos t fashionabl e stree t i n New York. Even wealth y women , drive n i n privat e carriages , cam e no t onl y t o "see and b e seen " bu t t o sho p fo r th e lates t fashions , hom e furnishings , an d jewelry in downtown Broadway , known a s "Ladies Mile." 43 Barnum strov e t o maintai n hi s respectabilit y an d shie d awa y fro m th e tableaux vivant s tha t wer e commo n i n Ne w Yor k i n th e 1840s . Bu t h e substituted hi s slightl y titillating Galler y o f Beauty , filled wit h display s o f "female pulchritude. " Thi s exhibi t ha d sexua l undertones, bu t becaus e th e scantily clothe d wome n wer e fat , the y wer e see n a s freaks an d coul d thu s be displayed not a s erotic but a s scientific objects . There were man y transgressive element s tha t slippe d through , especiall y in th e frea k displays , bu t incongruity , element s o f surprise , an d th e eroti c

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and exotic wer e al l skillfull y manipulate d t o attrac t withou t repulsing . There was , in fact , somethin g fo r everyon e a t th e dim e museum . Barnu m had invente d a typ e o f democrati c popula r cultur e tha t wa s t o b e ver y much i n demand. H e allowe d hi s guests to becom e exhibit s themselves , in a way, and h e mad e hi s patrons fee l the y personally were a vital part o f his museum environment . During th e summe r o f 1855 , Barnum sol d th e content s o f the museu m to hi s assistan t manager , Joh n Greenwoo d Jr. , an d hi s partne r Henr y D . Butier for $24,00 0 plus an annual rental fee o f $29,000. 44 More successfu l than h e eve r imagined , Barnu m ha d sough t a n earl y retiremen t fro m th e museum busines s i n orde r t o pursu e othe r ventures , and eve n t o dabbl e a bit i n loca l politics . H e becam e passionatel y involve d i n th e developmen t of th e Eas t Bridgepor t community. 45 I n a n effor t t o enhanc e th e ne w community's commerce , h e becam e embroile d i n a schem e t o convinc e a Ne w Haven-base d cloc k manufacturin g compan y t o relocat e t o Eas t Bridgeport. Th e Jerom e Manufacturin g Compan y agree d t o move , an d Barnum promise d t o len d i t up t o $110,00 0 t o finance th e mov e an d tak e care of any outstanding debt . Because o f fault y accountin g an d blatan t incompetenc e o n Barnum' s part, he eventually signed half a million dollars' worth o f promissory notes. In th e end , th e cloc k compan y neve r move d t o Eas t Bridgepor t an d Bar num wa s ruine d financially. 46 A s a result , h e wa s force d bac k int o sho w business t o recou p hi s losses . H e bega n a serie s o f lecture s o n th e ar t o f making money , an d afte r a highl y successfu l Europea n tou r wit h To m Thumb, h e wa s bac k o n hi s fee t again . I t wa s n o coincidenc e tha t th e American Museu m di d no t prospe r durin g Barnum' s absence , an d i n March 1860 , afte r al l hi s debt s ha d bee n paid , Barnu m repurchase d hi s museum. Five years later, o n Jul y 13 , 1865, the American Museu m burne d t o th e ground. Th e fire started i n th e building' s engin e roo m an d sprea d quickly . Luckily, no on e was killed. All the visitors escaped easily , but th e freak s an d the animal s had a more difficul t tim e sinc e most were lodge d o n th e uppe r floors. Ann a Swan , th e "Nov a Scoti a Giantess, " wh o stoo d seve n fee t eleven inches tall, had the mos t dramati c escape . She could no t fit throug h the damaged door s inside the building, and firemen had to create an escape hatch b y breakin g throug h th e oute r wall s o n eithe r sid e o f a window. I n all, eightee n fireme n wer e neede d t o lowe r he r t o th e ground . Man y animals died, and those tha t were abl e to flee th e buildin g created havo c in the nearby streets. 47

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Barnum ha d onl y $40,00 0 wort h o f insurance , an d th e estimate d tota l damage t o hi s collectio n wa s som e $400,000 . Onc e agai n h e wa s ruined , but h e di d no t giv e up. Durin g th e sprin g o f 186 5 h e too k ove r a n entir e institution, th e Grea t Chines e Museum , locate d o n Broadwa y betwee n Spring an d Princ e Streets , an d b y the fal l o f that yea r h e ha d transforme d the collectio n int o Barnum' s Ne w Museum. This was never as successful a s its predecessor, however . I n 186 6 Barnu m entere d int o a partnership wit h the famou s lio n traine r Isaa c Va n Amburgh , th e "Lio n King, " an d th e museum becam e know n a s th e Barnu m an d Va n Amburg h Museu m an d Menagerie. Va n Amburg h owne d 6 0 percen t o f th e operation ; Barnu m owned 4 0 percen t an d was named presiden t o f the museu m company . H e was also general manager, though i n name only, and he gradually withdrew from a n active role in its day-to-day operations. 48 The Barnum-Va n Amburgh enterpris e was very similar to the ol d American Museum, with a wax figure room, a picture gallery , three "cosmorami c rooms" wit h tw o hundre d changin g views , an d a rifl e an d pisto l gallery . The Lectur e Room , wit h it s parquet , balcony , an d privat e boxes , wa s almost a s opulent a s that o f the first museum. Reserve d seat s cost a n extr a thirty cent s beyond admissio n t o th e museum , an d private boxe s cost sixt y cents. The stage was large, measuring fifty by forty-six feet . Th e auditoriu m could hol d som e 2,50 0 spectator s an d wa s decorate d i n a patriotic motif , with a n act-drop depictin g the capitol beneat h th e ever present sloga n "W e Study to Please. " There was also a bust of George Washington surrounde d by American flags , a s well a s th e fla g o f France , a tribute t o tha t nation' s aid during the American Revolution. 49 In th e ne w Sixt h Saloo n wa s a resident photographe r wh o wa s availabl e for portraits . An astrologe r an d a fortune-teller coul d b e retaine d fo r con sultations, an d "artisticall y carve d ornamenta l ivor y jewelry " wa s fo r sal e on th e secon d floor. 50 O n Marc h 2 , 1868 , th e ne w museu m wa s i n tur n destroyed b y fire. Barnum neve r owned an d operated a museum o f his own again. Barnum did , however , len d hi s name , reputation , an d expertis e t o hel p promote othe r dim e museums , among the m Georg e Wood's Museum an d Metropolitan Theatre , whic h opene d o n Augus t 31 , 1868 , o n th e corne r of Broadwa y an d Thirtiet h Stree t an d whic h house d th e survivin g par t o f Barnum's collectio n (se e fig. 7) . I n retur n fo r hi s ai d an d th e drawin g power o f hi s name , Wood pai d Barnu m 3 percent o f th e museum' s gros s receipts.51 In 186 9 Wood changed the museum's name to Wood's Museu m and Menagerie . Eventuall y i t becam e know n a s Wood' s Museum . Th e

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FIGURE 7 . Georg e Wood' s Museu m an d Metropolita n Theatre , Ne w York , c . 1868 . (Museum of the City of New York).

building operate d a s a dim e museu m unti l 1876 , whe n Joh n Banvar d too k possession an d rename d i t th e Broadwa y Theatre . B y 187 9 i t ha d bee n transformed int o th e famou s Daly' s Theatre. 5 2 In Novembe r 187 6 Barnu m entere d int o ye t anothe r partnership , thi s time wit h Georg e Bunnell , a n itineran t showma n wh o operate d a travelin g museum an d circus . Barnum , w h o b y no w ha d a prosperou s caree r a s a circus operator , furnishe d hal f th e capita l Bunnel l neede d t o establis h a permanent museum . Bunnel l opene d hi s Ne w America n Museu m a t 1 0 3 105 Bower y i n 187 6 an d late r purchase d th e Woo d collectio n fo r hi s establishment. Barnu m remaine d a silen t partne r i n th e busines s venture , since hi s circu s collaborator s wante d hi s nam e associate d wit h thei r opera tion alone . In th e 1880 s Barnu m attempte d t o establis h a ne w museu m i n N e w York, whic h h e planne d t o cal l simpl y Barnum' s Museum . I t wa s t o b e located o n th e forme r sit e o f Madiso n Squar e Garde n betwee n Twenty sixth an d Twenty-sevent h Street s an d t o cove r th e are a betwee n Madiso n

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Avenue an d Fourt h Avenue . Thi s five-story museum-to-end-all-museum s was t o b e tw o hundre d fee t wid e b y fou r hundre d fee t lon g an d wa s t o sprawl ove r a n entir e cit y block . It s interio r floor spac e wa s estimate d a t eleven acres. 53 Largely because of the enormous complexit y of the concept , the museum neve r came to fruition. A s the project bega n to slip away fro m Barnum, he returned hi s attention t o his career as a circus showman . As Barnu m aged , h e becam e uncomfortabl e abou t hi s reputatio n a s the "princ e o f humbugs, " an d h e bega n t o b e increasingl y civic-minded , participating i n loca l politic s and , i n th e earl y 1880s , establishin g a Mu seum o f Natura l Histor y a t Tuft s Universit y i n Medford , Massachusetts . Obviously h e did understan d th e differenc e betwee n a tru e museu m o f natural history , whos e underlyin g principle s ar e scientifi c accurac y an d education, and a popular dim e museum . It i s no t enoug h merel y t o loo k a t th e artifact s house d i n Barnum' s museums, of course. One must als o consider who produced th e show, who created th e specia l dim e museu m atmosphere , an d wh o establishe d it s purpose. The answe r is clear: Barnum conceive d his extraordinary museu m for th e purpos e o f entertainment—no t education—an d wit h profi t a s his central concern . " I mus t confess, " h e wrot e i n hi s autobiography , "tha t I liked th e Museu m mainl y fo r th e opportunitie s i t afforde d fo r rapidl y making money." 54

3. Th e Pea k Years : From th e Civi l Wa r t o 190 0 I don' t conten d tha t i t i s intellectual , bu t I sa y tha t i t i s ofte n cleve r and charmin g a t th e ten-cen t shows , jus t a s i t i s les s ofte n cleve r an d charming i n th e ten-cen t magazines . —William Dea n Howells , Literature and Life

To lur e patron s w h o otherwis e woul d no t partak e i n suc h "popular " amusements, manager s promote d th e educationa l valu e o f thei r dim e mu seums. Fo r thos e citizen s wh o yearne d fo r middle-clas s status , rationa l amusements wer e a symbo l o f respectability . Ther e i s n o doub t tha t whil e the ques t fo r greate r profi t margin s obscure d th e accurac y o f muc h o f th e education peddle d b y entertainmen t entrepreneurs , th e venee r o f sophisti cation sol d tickets ; immigrant s wante d t o lear n abou t America n culture , while th e middl e clas s wante d t o b e associate d wit h refine d amusements . Although dar k o r subversiv e exhibit s appeare d i n man y museums , mos t having t o d o wit h frea k shows , human anatomy , o r th e chambe r o f horrors , managers mad e grea t effort s t o maintai n a museum' s respectability . Mora l dramas, religious tableaux , patriotic displays , and ar t gallerie s were include d in man y o f the larger , mor e successfu l institutions . Th e imposin g edifice s o f the large r museum s gav e the m a n aur a o f refinemen t an d respectability . Titillating frea k show s juxtapose d wit h high-minde d dramas , historica l wa x displays, an d natura l histor y object s mad e a n appealin g combinatio n t o a wide variet y o f lat e nineteenth-centur y spectators , regardles s o f sex , age , o r education. The public' s fondnes s fo r dim e museum s increase d throughou t th e 1880s an d 1890s , an d durin g thi s perio d permanen t museum s appeare d i n such majo r citie s a s St . Loui s (McGinley's) , Baltimor e (Herzog's) , Bosto n (Austin an d Stone's , Keit h an d Batchelder's , B . F . Keith's , an d th e Grand) , and Providenc e (th e Pleasan t Stree t Museu m an d th e Westminster) . Ther e was als o th e extensiv e Koh l an d Middleto n Circuit , whic h establishe d museums i n Midwester n cities , including Chicago , Milwaukee , Cincinnati , 41

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Louisville, Cleveland, Minneapolis , an d St . Paul , as well a s die Sacket t an d Wiggins Circuit , with houses in Detroit, Gran d Rapids , St. Joseph, Toledo, Kansas City, Omaha, Lincoln , an d Denver. 1 Pennsylvania , probably du e t o its abilit y t o attrac t majo r act s fro m Ne w Yor k an d Philadelphia , becam e the hom e o f many dim e museums , including th e Harr y Davi s Museum i n Altoona, th e Gran d Museu m i n Allegheny , Anderson' s Muse e i n Wilkes Barre, an d a sizable museu m locate d i n Johnstown . Philadelphi a itsel f was host cit y t o th e importan t Nint h an d Arc h Museum , whic h remaine d i n operation int o the next century . The northwest corne r o f Philadelphia's Nint h an d Arch Streets originall y was th e hom e o f Colone l Josep h H . Wood' s Museum , whic h opene d i n 1869. Th e collectio n containe d man y curiou s object s a s well a s a menag erie. Bu t Wood' s museu m wa s know n primaril y fo r it s splendi d dramati c productions, performe d i n it s larg e auditorium . O n Septembe r 3 , 1883 , the museu m wa s bought b y two showmen , W. D. Haga r an d W. T. Camp bell, who transforme d i t into a more distinctively Barnumesqu e institution , called Haga r an d Campbell' s Ne w Dim e Museum . Bu t Haga r an d Camp bell's effort s wer e short-lived , an d i n 188 5 th e museu m passe d int o th e hands o f Charles A. Brandenburgh an d Company , an d becam e th e famou s Ninth an d Arch Museum . The first floor o f th e museu m wa s simila r t o th e moder n notio n o f a penny arcade , with distortin g mirror s an d variou s "tria l an d test " amuse ments, includin g a "lun g tester, " a "healt h lift, " a "registerin g strikin g machine," an d s o on . Th e secon d floor house d th e menagerie , whic h consisted o f "Barbar y Apes, Pig Tail Monkeys, Ocelots , Alligators, Kanga roos, Armadillos, Snakes , an d Bo a Constrictors. " O n th e thir d floor wer e exhibited th e "Minnesot a Wooll y Baby, " th e "Lon g Haire d Venus, " an d other huma n anomalies . Performances , whic h feature d sketc h teams , im personators, and singers, were presented hourl y in the Theatorium. 2 By 1911, however, business at the Ninth an d Arch Museum had decline d considerably, an d T . F . Hopkins , th e manager , an d Norma n Jeffries , th e press agent, devised a Barnumesque publicity stunt to stimulate attendance . One midwinte r Tuesda y a Philadelphia dail y paper ra n th e headline , "Th e Fabulous Leed s Devil Reappears afte r a n Absence of Fifty Years." 3 Supposedly a farme r an d hi s wif e ha d bee n awakene d b y a n "unearthl y sound. " They soo n sa w a monster wit h lon g hin d legs , short forelegs , a tail, horn s on it s head , an d shor t wings . Th e farme r alerte d hi s neighbors , an d th e nearby town was soon on the lookout fo r th e monster. By Saturday, Jeffrie s announced tha t th e "devil " ha d bee n capture d an d wa s t o b e place d o n

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exhibition a t th e Nint h an d Arc h Museu m o n th e followin g Monda y morning. Fo r tw o week s crowd s poure d i n t o se e Hopkin s an d Jeffries' s obviously fabricate d monster . Th e stun t wa s al l in vain , however ; th e mu seum closed a few weeks later. Over th e years , th e Nint h an d Arc h Museu m ha d severa l competitors . On Septembe r 20 , 1884 , th e Chestnu t Stree t Dim e Museu m wa s opene d in th e Ol d Masoni c Templ e a t 713-72 1 Chestnu t Stree t b y Joh n Burk e and Michae l Goodin , onl y t o clos e five week s later . Th e museum' s leas e was subsequently purchase d b y George C . Brotherton , wh o revampe d th e building an d opene d hi s Templ e Theatr e an d Egyptia n Muse e i n 1886 . The buildin g wa s destroye d b y fire i n December , onl y a fe w day s afte r the newl y "Egyptianized " structur e opened . Theate r manage r Joh n A . Forepaugh, who was a nephew of the circus czar Adam Forepaugh, opene d a dim e museu m o n Septembe r 15 , 1884 , o n Eight h Stree t belo w Vin e Street. The museum was unsuccessful, however , and closed a year later. 4 Philadelphia, lik e an y numbe r o f larg e cities , ha d it s shar e o f distinctl y seedy establishments , includin g th e Grea t Europea n Museum , a t 70 8 Chestnut Street , whic h boaste d i n it s advertisement s o f it s "magnificen t temple o f Nature an d Art." 5 A t first glance th e establishmen t appeare d t o resemble a typica l middle-of-the-roa d dim e museum , featurin g a life-siz e wax tableau o f the Spanis h Inquisitio n an d th e requisit e freak s an d curiosi ties. But it also supplied clearly provocative "medica l museum exhibits " like "The Anatomical Venus," on view for mal e customers only. 6 Post-Civil Wa r dim e museum s i n Chicag o include d th e Wes t Sid e Mu seum, Whi t John' s Museum , Arthu r Putney' s Museum , th e Wonderlan d Compound, th e Congress Museum, and the London Dim e Museum. Mos t were small-time museum s tha t eithe r close d within a year of their opening s or, in some cases, were destroyed b y the Grea t Chicag o Fire of 1871. That conflagratio n demolishe d Colone l Josep h H . Wood' s larg e an d important Chicag o museum , whic h containe d mor e tha n "sixt y case s o f birds, reptiles , insects , an d object s fro m aroun d th e world." 7 Th e collec tion, locate d a t 111-11 7 Randolp h Street , include d shi p models , a scal e model o f the Parthenon , Danie l Boone' s suppose d rifle , a pair o f Egyptia n mummies, an d th e ninety-six-foo t skeleto n o f an allege d prehistori c whal e known a s th e "Grea t Zeuglodon. " I n addition , whe n Woo d too k ove r proprietorship o f the museu m i n Januar y 1864 , he ha d create d a n impressive theate r department , expande d th e museum' s auditoriu m t o a seatin g capacity of 1,500, enlarged the stage, and hired a stock company of actors. Chicago neve r agai n had a n institutio n o n suc h a grand scal e a s Wood's

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museum, bu t i t di d becom e th e hom e t o tw o othe r reputabl e museums . New York' s Ede n Muse e wa s th e mode l fo r th e Chicag o Ede n Musee , which opene d i n 189 1 o n Wabas h Avenu e a t Jackso n Street . Pau l Olah' s Hungarian orchestra , which ha d debute d a t the Ne w York musee in 1884 , also performe d i n Chicago , an d popula r wa x tableaux , suc h a s "Lee' s Surrender t o Grant " an d "Th e Ruler s o f the World, " wer e copie d directl y from th e Ne w Yor k collection. 8 Th e large , handsom e four-stor y buildin g was ope n dail y fro m 1 0 A.M . to 1 0 P.M . Its interio r wa s divide d int o hall s similar t o thos e i n th e Ne w York museum . Ther e wa s the usua l Historica l Hall, alon g wit h th e Scientifi c an d Literar y Hall , th e Hal l o f Sovereigns , the Stereoscopi c Hall , th e Chambe r o f Horrors , an d s o on . Lik e th e New Yor k original , th e Chicag o musee' s Chambe r o f Horror s feature d a collection o f deat h mask s an d a n are a tha t depicte d th e fou r stage s o f a crime. Charles F . Gunther , th e proprieto r o f th e Libb y Priso n Museum , wa s born i n Peru , Illinois , an d mad e hi s fortun e i n th e cand y business . H e became a n amateu r collecto r i n th e 1870s . Amon g othe r curiosities , Gunther bough t a n Egyptia n mummy , which , h e claimed , wa s th e Pha raoh's daughte r wh o ha d discovere d Mose s o n th e bank s o f th e Nile . Gunther a t first displaye d th e mumm y o n th e secon d floor o f hi s Stat e Street cand y store , alon g wit h othe r relics . Bu t h e foun d tha t hi s patron s appreciated hi s sideshow , an d h e decide d t o hous e hi s entir e collectio n permanendy in a single building . In 188 9 Gunthe r purchase d Libb y Priso n i n Richmond , Virginia , an d moved i t t o Chicago . Durin g th e Civi l War the famou s priso n ha d house d Northern prisoner s an d gaine d a "nationa l reputatio n fo r th e hardship s endured b y its inmates."9 Gunthe r move d the structure to Wabash Avenue between Fourteent h an d Sixteent h Streets , ston e b y stone , filling 13 2 railroad cars . He mad e th e four-stor y buildin g int o what a journalist calle d "a sor t o f P . T. Barnu m museum, " filled "willy-nill y wit h a collectio n o f fake antique s an d Civi l Wa r memorabilia." 10 Th e Libb y Priso n Museu m became an overnight sensation , and tourists came from mile s around t o see such exhibit s a s the bea m fro m whic h Mrs . Surrat t an d th e othe r Lincol n assassination conspirator s wer e hanged , th e board s use d a s headstones o n their grave s in th e prison yard in Washington wher e the y were buried , an d the bloodstained towe l placed under Lincoln' s head a s he lay dying. Many o f th e item s displaye d i n th e Museum , includin g th e ski n o f th e serpent that , Gunthe r claimed , ha d tempte d Ev e i n th e Garde n o f Eden , were purchase d i n 192 0 b y th e Chicag o Historica l Society . Thi s eccentri c

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artifact i s maintained ther e today , alon g wit h a n earl y documen t attestin g to its authenticity. Th e Libb y Prison Museu m wa s replaced i n 190 0 b y th e Chicago Coliseum , an d th e ol d priso n wall s becam e th e oute r wall s of th e new structure. ••

•

Prior t o th e Civi l War, concer t saloons , panoramas, an d lectur e hall s wer e probably th e dominan t form s o f popula r entertainmen t i n Ne w York . I n particular, suc h lectur e venue s a s Antique Hall , Croto n Hall , Gothi c Hall , Irving Hall , an d Hop e Chapel , i n additio n t o bookin g musician s an d humorists an d housin g gran d balls , hoste d man y novelt y entertainment s similar t o thos e see n late r a t dim e museums . Thus , Artault' s mechanica l figures, Angus McKaskil, the "Scottis h Gian t Boy," Cornelius Vroman, th e "Man Who Slep t for Fiv e Years," and th e "India n Rubbe r Man " al l graced the stages of New York's lecture halls during the mid-nineteenth century. 11 General To m Thumb , wh o brough t throng s o f spectator s t o Barnum' s American Museum , becam e a n independen t agen t earl y i n hi s caree r an d performed a t severa l Ne w Yor k halls , including Croto n Hal l i n 184 5 an d Hope Chape l in I860. 1 2 In addition, in March 1863 , he and his new bride, Lavinia Warren , adorne d i n thei r weddin g attire , prompte d thousand s o f spectators to atten d thei r Irving Hall exhibition . The museum, as an urban institution offerin g bot h permanent an d itinerant displays, reached its apex during the 1880 s and 1890s , when New York became America' s dim e museu m capital . Durin g thes e decade s museum s became some of the most influential an d important form s o f entertainmen t available t o a mass audience . Th e passio n fo r dim e museum s expresse d b y both cit y resident s an d tourist s dissipate d onl y towar d th e en d o f th e nineteenth century , whe n vaudevill e an d movie s bega n t o provid e mor e attractive forms o f cheap amusement . Not al l Ne w Yor k dim e museum s wer e lik e Barnum' s prototyp e o r th e many minor-leagu e institution s charte d i n Georg e C D . Odell' s famou s Annals of the New York Stage. At the top o f New York's museum hierarchy , for example , wa s th e larg e an d elegan t Ede n Musee , locate d o n Twenty third Stree t betwee n Fift h an d Sixt h Avenues , whic h specialize d i n wax works. A t th e botto m o f th e spectru m wer e th e "medical " museums , known for their so-called pathology rooms, displaying the distinctive effect s of untreated syphili s an d gonorrhe a o n th e huma n body . Most proprietar y museums lay somewhere in between . The Ede n Muse e America n Compan y wa s incorporate d o n Octobe r 5 ,

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1882. Th e cornerston e o f it s impressiv e "moder n Frenc h Renaissance " building wa s lai d o n Februar y 24 , 1883 , an d th e establishmen t remaine d open unti l 1915. 13 Accordin g t o th e managers , i t wa s t o hav e a highe r purpose tha n mer e profitability . A guideboo k explaine d t o visitor s th e museum's objectives : th e founders , i t claimed , had attempte d t o construc t a "templ e o f ar t whic h . . . would affor d t o all , bot h youn g an d old , a n opportunity fo r instruction , amusemen t an d recreation , withou t ris k o f coming int o contac t wit h anythin g vulga r o r offensive." 14 Th e museu m was considere d conservativ e an d slightl y upscal e becaus e o f it s size , fanc y decor, and lack of a "theater. " The Ede n Muse e supplie d Ne w York and it s visitors with a n assortmen t of famil y entertainments , fro m Pau l Ola h an d hi s Hungaria n band , whic h made its American debut the year the museum opened in 1884 , to Japanese acrobats, Spanis h dancers , an d magicians. 15 Acknowledgin g tha t specia l exhibits an d ephemera l entertainment s reape d hug e profits , th e Ede n Musee sponsore d it s shar e o f "one-time-onl y shows. " Billboard s outsid e the buildin g announce d dail y o r weekl y specia l exhibits . I n 1887 , fo r example, th e museu m promote d th e exhibitio n o f a n orchid , a newl y discovered flowe r a t the time. 16 The orchi d sho w was so successful tha t th e museum routinel y hel d exhibit s o f ne w plant s fo r thei r audiences . Th e Eden Muse e wa s als o on e o f th e firs t dim e museum s t o sho w films . It s most impressiv e an d distinctiv e exhibits , however , wer e it s eve r changin g wax re-creations an d its famous Chambe r o f Horrors. The museum' s waxwork s collectio n wa s extensive . Th e figures, create d from lif e o r fro m pictures , were constructe d o n th e museum' s premises , in a vas t worksho p i n th e uppe r portio n o f th e building . Th e museu m re quired the use of a second buildin g on Forty-sixth Stree t to store its figures and t o hous e th e propertie s require d fo r displays . Th e waxwork s curato r seemingly paid meticulou s attentio n t o detai l i n a n attemp t t o mak e ever y aspect o f th e tableau x authentic . Eac h wa x figure, fo r example , ha d tw o sets o f clothing , a winte r an d a summe r outfit . Twic e a yea r th e figures were bathed , repainted , an d dresse d i n thei r seasona l garments. 17 On e observer wrot e tha t h e objecte d t o th e cleanlines s an d resultin g lac k o f realism i n th e displays . Why, he asked , was the lat e Princ e Imperial , Napo leon-Eugene-Louis, who ha d bee n brutall y assassinated , garbe d i n a newly ironed unifor m instea d o f one that was dirty and stained with blood? 18 Since th e Ede n Musee' s exhibit s were change d constantl y i n a n attemp t to remai n current , i t i s impossibl e t o describ e al l th e figures displaye d a t the museu m ove r th e years . Th e followin g section , however , provide s a

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look a t som e o f th e attraction s mounte d a t on e tim e o r anothe r a t th e Eden Musee. 19 On enterin g th e museum' s vestibule , patron s sometime s witnesse d a pickpocketing scene . Althoug h thi s tablea u varie d ove r th e years , wha t remained constan t was that th e victim was always a tourist—sometimes a n old countr y gentleman , o r i n anothe r version , a visiting Englishman . Eac h tourist seeme d t o b e readin g a n advertisemen t fo r th e museu m wit h hi s daughter o r wife a s he was being robbed. Advertisement s warne d th e out of-towner t o "Bewar e o f Pic k Pockets. " O n othe r occasion s th e vestibul e featured stree t activities , with wax figures of an orga n grinde r an d monke y displayed alongsid e a pencil vendor . I n othe r year s a lady bicyclis t i n wa x was displayed. Also locate d i n th e vestibule , nea r th e ticke t office , wa s a wa x polic e officer watchin g th e enterin g spectators , a s if to protec t the m o r t o guar d the ticke t booth . Accordin g t o a guidebook , th e "Bluecoa t Guardian , o r Doorkeeper"—as a similar figure wa s called a t th e Bosto n Ede n Musee — was " a mode l officer , h e neve r visit s th e corne r saloons , flirt s wit h th e nursery maids , o r jollie s th e cooks ; bu t attend s strictl y t o hi s dut y ever y day, remainin g o n guar d fro m earl y mornin g unti l lat e a t night." 20 Fo r several year s a gyps y fortune-telle r als o stoo d i n th e vestibule , offerin g predictions t o al l who passe d by . The gyps y woman, however , wa s no t a n effigy, bu t a performer. Sh e stood besid e a cage that containe d a bird an d a hundred o r s o envelope s stuffe d wit h fortunes . Fo r a smal l su m th e bir d would select the patron's fortune . It i s not surprisin g tha t patriotism , a s a means o f generating self-estee m and promotin g assimilation , wa s a t th e hear t o f man y o f th e tableaux . I n 1884, fo r example , the museu m proudl y mounte d a replica o f Bartholdi' s Statue o f Liberty. 21 It s quintessentia l "Americana " display , however , wa s "America Enlightenin g th e World, " whic h cos t th e the n ver y substantia l sum o f $10,00 0 t o produce . Th e displa y consiste d o f twenty-tw o wa x figures. It s intention , a guideboo k claimed , wa s no t t o affir m America n superiority, bu t t o illustrat e "th e positio n Americ a occupie s amon g coun tries o f the world, i n Libert y an d Civilization " an d th e "irresistibl e victor y of civilization ove r barbarity." 22 Columbia , a figure representing America , stood o n a giant pedesta l overlookin g th e entir e world . I n he r righ t han d was a banner proclaiming liberty and freedom , an d her left han d raise d th e torch o f civilization . Groupe d abou t he r wer e figures representin g Ameri ca's ethnic diversity . At Columbia' s lef t wa s an Indian , crouche d i n " a hal f defiant attitude, " an d belo w th e banne r wa s a blac k woma n gazin g u p i n

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gratitude. Surroundin g Columbi a wer e thre e allegorica l figures symboliz ing the continent o f Europe ("Diplomacy, " "Art, " an d "Commerce") . Asia was represente d b y "Despotism, " Afric a b y "Ol d Trace s o f Civilization, " and Australia b y a group of "Aborigines. " In hono r o f th e Dewe y celebration , hel d i n Ne w Yor k i n Septembe r 1899, the museum erecte d severa l special exhibits tha t paid homage t o th e admiral an d th e heroe s o f th e recen t wa r wit h Spain . I n th e museum' s entrance hal l stoo d model s o f warships . A tablea u depicte d lif e o n boar d the Olympia, the flagship o f Admiral Dewey' s fleet, fro m whic h ha d bee n fired the first shot in the ensuing war with Spain. 23 Standard display s such a s "The Ruler s o f the World" generall y consiste d of som e twent y emperors , czars , kings, queens , sultans , shahs , presidents , and pope s (se e figs. 8 an d 9) . Th e 189 8 arrangement , fo r example , in cluded Presiden t McKinley , wh o wa s seate d acros s fro m Quee n Victori a and Pop e Le o XIII , seate d i n fron t o f Princ e Bismarck , wh o i n tur n wa s shaking hand s wit h th e empero r o f Germany . Sinc e th e museu m manage ment worke d t o kee p th e displa y contemporary , th e 190 5 exhibi t wa s altogether different . I t include d Presiden t Theodor e Roosevelt , wh o wa s standing besid e a n empt y chair , whic h perhap s represente d th e murdere d President McKinley, and Pope Piu s X, who replaced Pop e Leo XIII. Princ e Bismarck was absent. The empero r o f Japan was now standing in the front , stage left , nex t t o th e empero r o f China , wh o i n 189 8 ha d stoo d behin d Queen Victoria. B y 1905 , of course, Queen Victoria ha d bee n replace d b y King Edward VII. The museum' s othe r famou s exhibit , "Peopl e Talke d About, " als o changed repeatedly (see fig. 10). In 190 5 the gallery of celebrities consiste d of suc h figures a s Booke r T . Washington , Genera l Willia m Boot h o f th e Salvation Army, and th e theatrica l personalities E . H. Souther n (dresse d i n a pirate costume) , Sir Henry Irving , Anna Held, an d Lil y Langtry. Histori cal tableaux , suc h a s "Th e Assassinatio n o f Juliu s Caesar " an d "Quee n Isabella Receivin g Christophe r Columbus, " remained unchange d fo r man y years. The majorit y o f these permanen t an d changin g exhibit s were locate d i n a larg e roo m directl y of f th e entranc e hall , calle d th e Cente r Hall , th e dominant featur e o f which was a domed glas s roof. "Ruler s o f the World " took u p th e entir e lef t sid e o f th e hall; th e literar y an d artisti c tableau x generally were located nea r the entranc e t o th e hall. On leavin g the Cente r Hall, visitor s wer e escorte d directi y int o th e Winte r Garde n o r Concer t

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ROLiaiRS OP TH E WORLB .

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FIGURE 8 . "Ruler s o f th e World, " Ede n Muse e catalog , 1898 . (New-Yor k Historica l Society.)

R U L B R 8 O F TH E W O R L D .

FIGURE 9 . "Ruler s o f th e World, " Ede n Muse e catalog , 1905 . (New-Yor k Historica l Society.)

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P e O P U E T A L K E D ABOUT .

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1. T"l m Mitchell . 4 2. Ann a llelil . 5

. Marsha l Oyama . 7 . Marshal l P . Wilder . 8

. Governo r Odell . 10 . Princ e Henry . 11

. Genera l Booth . 13 . Lor d Roberts . 14

. Judg e Parker . 16 . Mrs . Lesli e Carter . 17

. Booke r T . Washington . . Lor d Kitchener .

10. "People Talked About," Eden Musee catalog, 1905. (New-York Historical Society.)

FIGURE

Hall, a large room occupyin g th e full heigh t o f the buildin g an d extendin g through t o Twenty-fourth Street . The Concert Hall, decorated with French plate glass mirrors and tropica l plants, coul d hol d a thousan d peopl e comfortabl y (se e fig. 11) . O n th e south sid e wa s th e stage , where th e Ede n Muse e orchestr a performe d fo r visitors all day long. Scattered throughou t th e room wer e tables and chair s where fatigued patron s could si t and enjo y refreshment s whil e being enter tained b y the orchestra . Wax figures of Japanese jugglers were mounted o n pedestals aroun d th e walls , and fifteen wa x acrobat s wer e suspende d fro m the ceilin g trusses, among the m a young woman o n a trapeze an d anothe r balancing o n a hig h wire . Als o i n th e roo m wer e a Japanes e warrio r i n armor and a bronze statu e allegedl y carved in 10 0 B.C. Ajeeb, th e famou s ches s an d checker s automaton , wa s als o displaye d i n the Concer t Hal l (se e fig. 12) . Ajeeb wa s a richly clothed , bearde d Moor , seated cross-legge d o n a cushion, which in turn reste d o n a large bo x with open sides . I n fron t o f hi m la y a checkerboar d o n whic h h e coul d b e challenged b y spectators to play chess or checkers. He was seldom defeated , and if any player attempted t o cheat him, Ajeeb would immediately "swee p the chessmen from th e boar d in apparent anger." 24 Located i n th e galler y o f the Winter Garde n wer e stereopticons—view s

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FIGURE 11 . Ede n Muse e Winte r Garden , Ede n Muse e catalog , 1887 . (New-Yor k Historical Society.)

enclosed i n smal l walnut cases—wher e visitor s coul d glimps e farawa y place s and famou s artwork s fro m foreig n countries . A t th e fa r en d o f th e galler y was a so-calle d Turkis h smokin g room—supposedl y a reproductio n o f th e Oriental smokin g roo m a t th e Chatea u d e Blois . A brochur e claime d tha t this roo m cos t th e museu m mor e tha n $4,00 0 t o re-create . The Chambe r o f Horrors , th e Sacre d Chamber , and , i n late r years , th e Historical Chamber , wer e al l locate d i n th e basemen t o f th e museum . I n 1883 th e Chambe r o f Horror s wa s locate d i n th e cente r roo m o f th e cryp t and consiste d o f nin e displays , severa l o f whic h woul d b e recycle d decade s later. T o th e lef t o f thi s roo m wa s th e Sacre d Chamber , whic h depicte d th e life o f Chris t i n si x tableaux . Thre e o f thes e tableaux—"Th e Adoration, " "The Entranc e int o Jerusalem, " an d "Th e Betrayal"—line d th e left-han d wall. Opposit e wer e "Th e Coronation, " "Th e Crucifixion, " an d "Th e Resurrection." Apparentl y th e Sacre d Chambe r wa s n o t a permanen t ex hibit, sinc e reference s ca n b e foun d onl y i n catalog s befor e 1889. 2 5 A t first it seem s incongruou s tha t i t wa s locate d nea r th e profan e Chambe r o f Horrors. Th e Chambe r o f Horrors , however , wa s arguabl y th e mos t popu lar exhibi t a t th e Ede n Musee , an d i t probabl y wa s a deliberat e ac t o f th e managers t o locat e th e Sacre d Chambe r wher e almos t everyon e wa s sur e t o

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FIGURE 12 . Ajeeb , c . 1889 . (Museu m o f th e Cit y o f Ne w York , Byron Collection. )

go. Thi s kin d o f subtl e reinforcemen t o f th e museum' s mora l posture , o f course, helpe d validat e it s educationa l claims . In th e Historica l Chamber , whic h ha d replace d th e Sacre d Chambe r b y 1889, wer e scene s depictin g peopl e know n eithe r fo r thei r valian t deed s o r for particula r cruelty . Amon g th e exhibit s i n th e 1890 s wer e "Th e Chicag o Anarchists," "Washingto n Crossin g th e Delaware, " an d "Th e Stormin g o f Constantinople b y Mahome t I I . " 2 6 Als o include d i n th e collectio n wer e wax reproduction s o f famous deat h mask s fro m th e Pantheo n Collectio n i n

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Paris. In France , visitors were provided onl y a glimpse o f the masks ; at th e Eden Musee , o n th e othe r hand , spectator s sa w th e complet e figures o f famous people dressed as they appeared shortly after thei r deaths. 27 Among the reproduction s wer e Marti n Luther , Napoleo n I , Frederic k II , Dante , Mary Quee n o f Scots , th e Ear l o f Bothwell , Quee n Elizabeth , Olive r Cromwell, Napoleo n III , Thorwaldsen , Mendelssohn , Schiller , Goethe , and Beethoven . A narrow passagewa y panele d i n deceivin g mirror s le d visitor s fro m th e Historical Chambe r t o th e Chambe r o f Horrors . Thi s famou s portio n o f the cryp t wa s fille d wit h crime-relate d materia l tha t subliminall y force d spectators t o acknowledg e th e importanc e o f civilization: while day-to-da y living migh t b e strenuous , an d th e city' s street s dirt y an d crowded , on e should b e thankfu l no t t o hav e bee n aliv e durin g th e Spanis h Inquisition . Torture instrument s wer e displayed , suc h a s a n iro n boo t i n whic h a victim's foo t coul d b e encased whil e torturer s poure d i n boilin g oi l o r melted lead , an d th e so-calle d iro n maiden , which, when wrappe d aroun d a person, cause d stee l points to b e thrus t throug h hi s body. Illustrations o f punishments an d methods o f public execution were mounted i n the cham bers, includin g "Th e Horror s o f th e Spanis h Inquisition, " a n "Executio n of a Burmes e Criminal, " an d a "Beheadin g i n Morocco. " Thes e exhibit s tended t o highligh t th e victim' s agony . I n "Th e Hindo o Woman' s Sacri fice," fo r example , a young wido w wa s show n "o n a funeral pyr e erecte d before th e temple " i n fron t o f he r dea d husband' s body . A s th e flame s began t o engul f her, spectator s coul d se e her bod y undulating, struggling , and writhing with pain. 28 On Augus t 6 , 1890 , convicte d murdere r Willia m Kemmle r becam e th e first person in America to di e in the electri c chair. 29 Capitalizin g o n specta tors' fascinatio n wit h thi s ne w an d moder n metho d o f execution , th e museum create d tw o alcove s i n th e Chambe r o f Horror s devote d t o th e "Execution o f Criminal s b y Electricity. " I n 189 8 th e museu m exhibite d the deat h o f Marth a Place , th e firs t woma n t o b e electrocuted . I n on e room Plac e could be seen seated in the electric chair. Surrounding her were the warden , hi s assistant , an d severa l witnesses . I n a secon d alcov e th e executioner wa s standin g a t th e switch , waitin g t o receiv e th e signa l tha t would permi t th e deadl y curren t t o flow . I n 1899 , th e museu m displaye d the execution o f Dr. Robert W. Buchanan, who was convicted o f killing his wife o n Jul y 1 , 1895 . By the earl y twentieth centur y thi s displa y had bee n replaced wit h th e electrocutio n o f Le o F . Czolgosz , Presiden t McKinley' s assassin.30

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Toward the far right of the crypt were four mor e alcoves , depicting "Th e Story o f a Crime. " A young man , caugh t i n th e ac t o f robbin g a wealthy man's safe , wa s show n plungin g a dagge r int o th e owner' s heart . Th e scenes als o re-create d hi s arrest , trial , an d imprisonment , hi s subsequen t parting wit h hi s mothe r befor e th e gallows , an d a smal l tablea u o f hi s children, a homeles s bo y an d girl , seate d o n th e step s o f a mansion . Ac cording t o a n 189 9 guidebook , "al l th e patho s an d pit y o f a lifetim e ar e shown o n their faces and the group is recognized a s one of the most artisti c ever." 31 ••

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Early nineteenth-centur y reformer s believe d tha t povert y wa s a sig n o f personal weakness . Man y citizen s conclude d tha t th e poo r wer e self-mad e victims o f a "fata l preferenc e fo r eas y living" ; thu s ther e wa s a mora l dimension t o poverty. 32 Whil e "povert y wa s a majo r presenc e i n Ne w York," wrot e Edwar d Spann , "i t wa s a presenc e whic h successfu l Ne w Yorkers ignore d wheneve r possible." 33 Fo r native s an d tourist s th e cit y represented wealt h an d power a s epitomized b y Wall Street an d Broadway ; despite suc h reminder s a s unsanitary slum s an d street s fille d wit h garbage , carts, ragpickers , peddlers , an d beggars , th e poo r wer e easil y forgotten . However, durin g th e 1890 s belief s bega n t o change , an d povert y wa s n o longer viewed as a result o f personal failings bu t was linked more closel y t o environmental causes . Susan Moeller ha s suggested tha t cultura l entertain ments a t th e tur n o f th e centur y reveale d thi s moder n perspective : "Play s blaming povert y o n th e evil s of drink," wrot e Moeller , "becam e les s com mon afte r contemporar y attitude s shifte d t o reflec t th e ne w theor y tha t poverty drov e me n t o drink." 34 "Th e Stor y o f Crime " sympatheticall y supports th e argumen t tha t th e pressures o f poverty ca n turn eve n a goodhearted ma n int o a criminal . Hunge r force d a fathe r t o stea l i n orde r t o feed hi s family. Th e starvin g children , the blameles s victims, were purpose fully include d i n th e tableau x t o ad d pathos . Thi s displa y shoul d b e con trasted t o a n 188 7 Ede n Muse e tableau , "Th e Fruit s o f Idleness, " whic h clearly support s earlie r nineteenth-centur y assessment s o f poverty , crime , and idleness. 35 Although mos t dim e museu m impresario s shie d awa y fro m politicall y controversial displays , som e urba n dim e museum s attempte d t o addres s civic an d socia l problems , an d mos t museum s supporte d th e temperanc e movement and vividly illustrated the evils of drinking in melodramas, magic lantern shows , and wax displays . At th e Bosto n Ede n Musee , for example ,

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a tablea u tide d "Th e Hom e o f Drunkenness " depicte d a famil y livin g i n misery and filth. The neighborin g tablea u wa s tided "Th e Hom e o f Sobriety," whic h i n contras t depicte d a happier—an d sober—famil y enjoyin g life. "Th e mora l t o b e draw n fro m thes e tableaux, " accordin g t o a guidebook, "canno t fai l t o impres s th e mos t casua l observer." 36 Al l o f the m probably owe a debt t o the tableaux in Barnum's American Museum i n th e early 1850s , which displaye d "Th e Drunke n Family, " a wax representatio n of a family dresse d i n rag s an d livin g in squalo r capture d gazin g upo n th e face o f a dead littl e boy . "N o perso n ca n loo k upo n tha t famil y group, " a guidebook claimed , "withou t deplorin g in his heart the crime of which it is a commentary." 37 The mos t profoun d politica l issue s i n nineteenth-centur y Americ a wer e slavery an d th e Civi l War . Slaver y first becam e a majo r subjec t i n th e legitimate theate r i n 185 2 wit h th e productio n o f Uncle Tom's Cabin. Bu t some proprietor s o f museum s ha d take n a politica l stan d o n th e issu e before Mrs . Stowe . I n 1850 , fo r example , Moses Kimbal l mad e publi c hi s abolitionist poin t o f vie w b y creatin g a seven-figur e displa y representin g the "Horror s o f Slavery " a t hi s Bosto n Museum . I n doin g so , h e clearl y reflected th e abolitionist views so common i n his city. 38 The abolitio n o f slavery—and th e war , i n fact—remaine d controversia l subjects lon g afte r th e Norther n victory . Indeed , depiction s o f th e Civi l War were foun d i n man y museum s throughou t th e remainde r o f th e cen tury. In the Eden Musee's American Gallery , for example , just to th e left o f the entrance hall, there were several Civil War-related groupings , including "The Surrende r o f Genera l Rober t E . Lee' s Arm y a t Appomatto x Cour t House," " A Scene fro m Gettysburg, " "Lincol n Freein g th e Slaves, " and a tribute t o Ulysse s S. Gran t titled "Ou r Dea d Hero, " which was erected i n 1885. 39 The Ede n Muse e house d a spectacular collectio n o f paintings i n it s Ar t Gallery and als o became a pioneer i n film exhibition. I n 189 8 th e museu m exhibited a film version o f th e Oberammerga u Passio n play , which ra n fo r nine month s i n it s Winter Garden . Th e film was projected o n a mammot h screen, which measured twenty-tw o b y twenty-six feet . Th e film was 2,20 0 feet in length, remarkably long for th e time, sinc e most were no more tha n 500 feet. 40 Bu t as film historian Charles Musser has suggested, "The Passion Play was no t i n fac t a singl e film bu t a program compose d o f a s man y a s twenty-three discret e scene s (eac h o f whic h wa s it s ow n film) an d a n unknown quantit y of slides." 41 The Passion Play, written b y Salm i Morse , originall y wa s t o hav e bee n

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produced o n th e stag e in 188 5 b y Henry E . Abbey a t Booth' s Theatr e o n Twenty-third Street . However , becaus e o f it s the n controversia l subjec t matter, th e production , neve r opened . Man y conservativ e Christian s con sidered i t sacrilegiou s t o portra y Chris t i n th e theater . Thirtee n year s later, however, th e costume s an d scener y wer e purchase d wit h th e intentio n o f making th e pla y into a film. Th e filming too k si x weeks o n th e roofto p o f the Gran d Centra l Palace. 42 O n Sunday , Octobe r 3 , 1898 , five thousan d people pai d fifty cent s eac h t o se e th e curiosit y a t th e Ede n Musee' s Winter Garden . I t becam e a tremendous succes s an d gaine d i n popularit y throughout th e year. The Eden Musee operated long enough to celebrate its thirtieth birthda y in 1914 , bu t it s revenue s wane d a s departmen t store s an d entertainmen t venues move d uptow n abov e Twenty-thir d Stree t a t th e tur n o f th e cen tury. Th e museum' s las t busines s seaso n wa s 1915 . I n late r year s th e major wa x figures from th e collectio n wer e displaye d a t tw o Cone y Islan d establishments, Gumpertz's Ede n Musee and Santangelo's World of Wax.43 Many other imitations , known simpl y as musees, could b e found through out th e countr y betwee n 189 0 an d 1910 , in places like Johnstown, Penn sylvania, and Youngstown, Ohio. 44 ••

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The majority o f New York's dime museums were more colorful an d eclectic in thei r approac h t o entertainmen t tha n th e Ede n Musee . Bunnell' s Mu seum, Huber's Palac e Museum, Doris's Eighth Avenue Museum, and Dor is's Harle m Museum , fo r example , wer e mor e typica l lat e nineteenth century middle-of-the-road dim e museums caterin g to a working-class an d lower-middle-class clientele . As mentione d earlier , Georg e B . Bunnel l opene d hi s first permanen t museum i n 187 6 wit h Barnu m a s a semi-silent partner . Bunnell' s museu m was locate d initiall y a t 103-10 5 Bower y and , wit h Barnum' s permission , called th e Ne w American Museum . Bunnel l wen t t o grea t length s t o imi tate hi s mentor, eve n appropriatin g Barnum' s lectur e roo m sloga n o f "W e Study to Please " and placing it in a prominent positio n o n th e fron t o f the building. Bunnell' s museu m wa s on e o f th e first larg e post-Civi l Wa r establishments t o ope n i n New York. During th e 1870 s there were smalle r museums alon g the Bowery, but they were not respectable establishments . A specia l featur e o f Bunnell' s museu m wa s "Dante' s Inferno, " a repre sentation o f Hell where "wa x figures of sinners were menace d b y red-and -

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green-shaded gaslight." 45 Bunnel l infuse d hi s version o f Hell wit h effigie s of such unpopular living people a s Boss Tweed, Henry Ward Beecher (afte r his sensationa l fal l fro m grace) , and Ja y Gould , al l of whom suffere d ami d the Inferno . The building' s facad e wa s reminiscen t o f Barnum' s America n Museum , with its flags and gian t posters announcin g th e curren t attractions. 46 Thre e of th e building' s fou r storie s house d Bunnell' s collections , an d eac h floo r was subdivided int o tw o rooms . The groun d floor containe d th e "theator ium" an d th e mai n hall ; th e secon d stor y house d bot h curiositie s an d Bunnell's menagerie ; th e thir d floor wa s entirel y devote d t o freaks . Thre e years afte r it s founding , Bunnel l move d hi s museu m t o large r quarter s a t 298 Bowery. 47 H e maintaine d hi s operatio n ther e fo r onl y a shor t time , however; o n Jun e 2 , 1879 , a fire destroye d th e museum . Determine d no t to b e defeated , Bunnel l opene d a thir d museu m a t 71 1 Broadway , nea r Ninth Street. 48 This larg e museum , whic h opene d o n Decembe r 8 , 1880 , wa s nick named th e Hu b an d attracte d no t onl y many visitors but severa l curiositie s from othe r museums . Among the m wer e "Chang , the Chines e Giant " an d Admiral Do t an d Majo r Atom , tw o well-know n midget s o f th e time . Th e "Wild Me n o f Borneo " mad e a n appearanc e i n Septembe r 1881 , and th e "largest living couple," Captain Bates and his wife (th e former Anna Swan), were exhibited in December o f that year. 49 Bunnell als o sponsored severa l specia l exhibition s an d contests . H e hel d a cat show, a bird show, a baby show, and a pigeon show. Many of Bunnell's exhibits focuse d o n topica l issues , suc h a s hi s wa x displa y o n th e For d brothers, labeled "Slayer s o f Jesse Jame s an d th e Annihilator s o f Bandits." Along wit h suc h waxwork s Bunnel l offere d th e standar d museu m far e o f bizarre attractions : rubber men , fat men , tattooed ladies , two-headed girls , and Zul u princesses . H e kep t hi s museu m ope n durin g th e summe r months, a novel practic e fo r th e time , an d stage d performance s si x time s daily. In 188 3 Bunnell moved his museum yet again, this time to Broadway near Eighth Street. According to an advertisement, he renamed thi s "Grea t Family Resort" Bunnell' s Ol d Londo n Museum . H e remaine d i n the dim e museum busines s unti l aroun d 1887 , when h e officiall y retire d an d move d to Connecticut. 50 George H . Huber' s museu m opene d th e nex t yea r an d remaine d i n operation fa r longe r tha n Bunnell' s had ; i t close d onl y afte r th e 1909-1 0 season, whe n th e propert y wa s sol d t o Alber t Luchow , wh o use d i t t o

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expand hi s famou s restaurant. 51 I n 188 8 Hube r an d hi s partner , E . M . Worth, a long-establishe d showman , bough t thre e adjacen t building s o n East Thirteent h Stree t (runnin g throug h t o Fourteent h Street) , knocke d down all the connecting walls, and created an L-shaped comple x five stories high an d occupyin g five city lots. When th e reconstruction wa s completed , five thousan d squar e fee t o f glass-fronte d case s (i n eigh t room s know n collectively as the Curi o Hall) were provided fo r oddities. 52 When th e museum opene d o n August 13 , 1888, at 106-10 8 Eas t Four teenth Street , th e partner s calle d thei r establishmen t Worth' s Museum . They advertise d i n th e New Tork Herald tha t i t wa s "th e resor t o f ladie s and children for wholesome entertainment," an d that it contained a million rare curiosities , provide d "continuou s stag e performance s b y a carefull y selected compan y fro m 1 P.M . to 1 0 P.M," and charge d onl y a dime admis sion.53 Early in 1890 , the museum was renamed Worth an d Huber's Palac e Museum. Within months o f its opening, a popular assortment o f live prodigies was on exhibition , includin g "Jo-Jo , the Dog-Face d Boy, " "Bi g Eliza , th e Fa t Negress," "Bab y Bunting, the Smalles t Livin g Horse," an d "I-Am, " bille d as th e "Mastodon , th e Larges t Ho g i n th e World. " Ajeeb , a mechanica l chess player, also was put o n display—n o doub t a n imitation o f the on e a t the Ede n Musee . At th e to p o f the building , abov e th e floors occupie d b y the museum' s exhibits , Hube r an d Wort h provide d lodging s fo r thei r freaks, many of whom were married an d lived settled an d domestic lives. On April 12 , 1890 , the Clipper announced tha t Worth an d Hube r wer e dissolving thei r partnership. Hube r no w becam e th e sol e proprietor o f the Fourteenth Stree t establishmen t (calle d Huber' s Palac e Museu m fro m 1890 t o 190 1 an d simpl y Huber' s Museu m fro m 190 1 t o 1910) . Wort h subsequently move d to Sixt h Avenue an d Thirtieth Street , where he established E . M . Worth' s Mode l Museu m an d Famil y Theatre , wit h a theate r hall that seated seven hundred. 54 Although h e had spent $18,000 remodel ing th e ol d Haymarke t Theatr e o n Thirtiet h Stree t an d Sixt h Avenue int o a dime museum , h e ha d troubl e obtainin g a license. Finally he was able t o open his new museum in January 1891 . Worth's Museum gaine d a reputation o f having a n amazin g an d eclecti c selectio n o f freaks. Famou s attrac tions, among them Charle s Tripp, the armless man, and Jonathan Bass , the "Ossified Man, " share d billin g wit h suc h bizarr e freak s a s Nichodemu s Senoj. Seno j wa s twenty-thre e year s old , twenty-seve n inche s tal l an d weighed a hundred pounds . Hi s hea d an d righ t ar m were normal , bu t hi s left ar m wa s hal f th e appropriat e lengt h an d terminate d i n a horn. Seno j

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had no legs, and on e o f his feet was webbed, while the othe r was hairy an d resembled th e hoof of a hog.55 Huber's Museu m als o was successful an d went o n t o becom e on e o f the most popula r Ne w Yor k touris t attraction s unti l i t close d i n 1910 . Th e proprietor's sloga n wa s " a dolla r sho w for te n cents, " an d a large colorfu l sign over the entrance expanded o n the entertainment bargain : "Admissio n 10 cents . On e Millio n Natural , Historical , Oriental , National , Antiqu e Curiosities, On e Million . Admissio n 1 0 cents." 56 After Hube r remodele d his museu m an d reopene d i t o n Augus t 17 , 1891 , Georg e C D . Odel l points out, it was "greater an d grande r tha n ever . Every hall was fitted wit h iron ceilings , the floor s wer e fire-proo f an d broad , eas y stairways provide d comfort an d safety." 57 Huber catere d t o th e public' s penchan t fo r contest s an d exhibitions . During th e wee k o f Octobe r 5 , 1892 , fo r example , h e hel d hi s famou s fasting contest , whic h offere d a five-thousand-dolla r purs e t o th e winner . This "absur d spectacle, " wrot e Odell , "o f cours e dre w vas t throng s o f morbid sensatio n seekers." 58 Si x contestant s entered , includin g on e fro m England an d anothe r fro m Germany . After si x days of fasting, th e fiel d wa s narrowed t o four. B y October 2 5 onl y Henry Stratton , of Courtland, Ne w York, remained. A portly man , an d "hungr y fo r fame, " Stratto n continue d to attempt t o bea t the fasting recor d o f forty-five day s set by a Mr. Succi at Koster and Bial's Music Hall sometime earlier. He di d it, but disaster struc k on November 1 9 (46 days into the fast): Stratton died , apparently of "hear t failure superinduce d b y fasting." 59 This wa s no t th e sor t o f publicit y Hube r needed . I n th e ninetie s man y dime museu m exhibit s wer e bein g proteste d agains t a s demoralizing . Although museum s claime d t o b e family-oriente d recreatio n centers , a number o f them provide d amusement s tha t no w were considere d inappro priate fo r wome n an d children . As a result, th e Societ y for th e Preventio n of Cruelt y t o Children , fo r example , lodge d a n officia l complain t agains t museum exhibitio n room s i n Januar y 1891. 60 A yea r later , o n Februar y 1, 1892 , th e license s fo r stag e performance s a t a numbe r o f museum s and concer t hall s officiall y expired . Twenty-fiv e establishment s requeste d a renewe d permit , bu t onl y twenty-on e wer e issued . Fou r majo r estab lishments, includin g Huber's , th e tw o Dori s museums , an d th e popula r Grand Museu m locate d a t 34 5 an d 34 7 Gran d Street , wer e cite d fo r poor management. 61 Th e charge s reste d heavil y o n th e fac t tha t these museum s allowe d unaccompanie d minor s int o thei r "theatoriums. " After thes e negativ e citations , the Gran d Museum , which ha d opene d onl y

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in Decembe r 1888 , could no t remai n solven t an d close d a t th e en d o f th e 1892 season . •• 60

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John B . Doris had operate d tw o dim e museum s durin g th e lat e 1880 s an d early 1890s . Hi s uptow n Harle m Museum , locate d betwee n 124t h an d 125th Street s o n Thir d Avenue , opene d o n Septembe r 23 , 1889 . Origi nally founded a s the Mt. Morris Museum, its collection was leased to Dori s because it s manager s neede d cas h t o pa y of f thei r debts. 62 Whe n Dori s acquired hi s downtow n locatio n a t 35 1 Eight h Avenu e i s not known , bu t the establishmen t firs t appear s i n Odell' s Annals of the New Tork Stage on October 29 , 1889. 63 His museums were highly topical; like the proprietor s of th e Ede n Musee , Dori s ha d a n up-to-dat e waxwork s department , dis playing model s o f celebritie s withi n day s o f thei r deaths . Dori s becam e especially wel l know n fo r hi s sensationa l Jac k th e Rippe r displays , firs t mounted durin g th e wee k o f Ma y 4 , 1891 , onl y day s afte r th e famou s murder o f Carri e Brown. 64 Th e museu m als o engage d th e usua l freaks , among the m Maury , a human pi n cushion , Congo , a leopard man , Kam chaka, a canniba l princess , an d youn g Chaunce y Morlan , a fa t boy . I n addition, Dori s staged man y novelty acts , including Professo r Queen , wh o was known fo r performance s i n whic h h e hange d himself . Dori s als o con ducted beaut y contest s an d fa t shows , an d hi s hallway s wer e line d wit h cases of bizarre artifacts . By 189 1 Doris' s Eight h Avenu e Museu m ha d thre e theater s o n it s premises. One house d hi s resident actin g company an d presente d plays . I n another theate r th e manage r provide d variet y entertainment , an d i n th e third h e presented suc h miscellaneous entertainment s a s puppet show s and comedians. Fann y Herring , whos e caree r blossome d wel l befor e th e Civi l War, had performed wit h Edwi n Booth , as well as with other note d Shake spearean actors . After he r theatrica l prime, she continued performin g lead ing roles , mostl y i n dim e museums , an d ultimatel y becam e a residen t actress in Doris's theate r company . During th e 1891-9 2 seaso n sh e starre d in suc h forgotte n melodrama s a s Ireland's Oppressors, Little Buckshot, The Sailor's Return, The Bandit Merchant of Greece, Knights of the Road, an d Denver Dan. Man y critic s an d fan s wer e distraugh t a t th e ide a o f suc h a fine actress performing t o dime museum crowds, but Herring, who becam e known a s the Sara h Bernhard t o f th e Bowery , seeme d t o enjo y th e noto riety.65

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The Bowery , in fact, was a kind of dime museu m center . In th e first half of the century , th e stree t ha d gaine d it s reputatio n fo r housin g colorfu l an d boisterous place s o f amusement , fro m shootin g gallerie s t o saloons , gam bling dens, and boxin g arenas. At the middle o f the century, after th e Astor Place Riot of 1849, many of the more pretentious shop s in the are a move d uptown, an d increasingl y th e Bower y becam e know n fo r it s chea p trad e and inexpensiv e amusements . Man y o f it s venues , suc h a s th e Sultan' s Private Divan at 241 Bowery, which feature d dancin g barmaids , were ope n only t o men. 66 Th e countles s saloon s an d brothel s mad e th e Bower y a likely neighborhood fo r small-tim e showme n t o ope n low-en d dim e muse ums (se e fig. 13). The best-know n museum s i n th e are a i n th e las t quarte r o f th e nine teenth centur y were th e Gaiet y Museum, th e Glob e Dim e Museum , Alexander's Museum , th e Chatha m Squar e Museum , th e Berli n Academ y o f Waxworks, Morris an d Hickman' s Eas t Sid e Museum , Th e Europea n Mu seum, th e Ne w Yor k Museum , an d th e Ne w Natura l Museum . Graduall y these museum s bega n t o acquir e ba d reputations , especiall y fo r cheatin g their customer s b y chargin g a "blo w off"—a n additiona l admissio n t o certain exhibits . I n particular , spectator s were lure d int o believin g tha t fo r a supplemental dim e they could se e views of "th e unclad femal e for m i n all its loveliness." 67 Those who paid were take n into a small room an d show n nothing bu t picture s o f actresse s i n burlesqu e poses . I t the n cos t anothe r ten cent s t o b e abl e t o ente r th e "rea l sanctum " where , through a curtain , they viewe d th e promise d unclothe d bodies . Wha t th e pleasur e seeker s actually saw were stripped mannequins . In man y o f the so-calle d medicin e o r anatomica l museum s o n th e Bow ery, gullible patron s wer e lure d int o th e offic e o f the "doctor " o r "profes sor" fo r bloo d pressur e o r lun g tests , a phrenologica l examination , o r a palm reading . Bu t i t wa s wel l know n tha t th e fea r o f a painfu l deat h b y some incurabl e disease—especiall y syphilis , o r "paresis " a s i t wa s the n called—prompted mos t o f the visit s to thes e seed y museums an d request s for treatment. O f course, nothing about a n additional fee for treatmen t was ever mentione d i n mos t museum s until , i n th e middl e o f a procedure , a flap o n th e wal l woul d fall , exposin g a sig n tha t read , "Professo r so-and so's fee is $2.00." 68 Although Dr . Kahn' s Museu m o f Anatomy , a t 71 3 Broadway , an d th e

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FIGURE 13 . Barker at entrance t o a Bowery dime museum , 1881 . (New-York Historica l Society.)

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FIGURE 14 . Program , New

York Museum of Anatomy, c. 1863. (Billy Rose Theatre Collection, New York Public Library for the Performin g Arts, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations. )

New York Museum o f Anatomy, a t 61 8 Broadway , were n o t o n th e Bower y per se , they were amon g th e bette r know n medica l museum s tha t markete d the medica l advic e o f thei r managin g doctors— a numbe r o f w h o m wer e either disbarre d physician s o r completel y untraine d confidenc e men . Littl e is know n abou t Kahn' s establishment , bu t th e Ne w Yor k Museu m o f Anatomy i s bette r documente d (se e fig. 14) . I t wa s founde d i n 184 8 b y Dr. H . J . Jorda n an d a Dr . Beck , whos e practic e wa s locate d a t 4 0 Bon d Street, tw o block s away . Typica l o f medica l museums , th e venu e wa s ope n only to men ; th e fee , in thi s case , was twenty-fiv e cents . The primar y objec t of th e museum , accordin g t o a n 186 3 guidebook , wa s "t o enabl e th e thinking min d [o f nonmedical personnel ] t o full y comprehen d th e wonder s of th e huma n structure." 6 9 I n a way , tha t wa s so . On e o f th e mos t fre -

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quently describe d exhibit s wa s th e so-calle d embryolog y section , wher e fetal gestatio n wa s depicte d i n a display tha t feature d variou s stages , fro m an eight-day embryo down t o a full-term fetus. 70 The embryolog y exhibi t wa s precede d b y display s o f th e uteru s an d vagina. Thus, the boundaries betwee n graphi c sex education an d pornogra phy wer e blurred . Accordin g t o th e 186 3 guidebook , thes e exhibits "ex cited grea t interest, for thei r perfect illustratio n o f the scientifi c anatom y o f the subject. " Becaus e o f the sexua l slan t of the museum' s displays , women were no t allowe d t o ente r th e premises . Fo r thei r all-mal e audience , how ever, the proprietor s too k grea t car e to offe r a "selection o f subjects whic h bear o n th e beautie s of the human for m . . . the perfection o f the feminin e beauty i s exquisitely portraye d i n th e larg e figur e o f Venus, an d th e grea t and world-renowned Gertu , c the Ne Plus Ultra of Feminine Beauty!* " 71 The New York Museum o f Anatomy also exhibited the skulls or skeletons of famou s people , including—i t wa s claimed—th e skul l o f Wil l Somers , the jester to King Henry VIII, and the full skeleto n o f a Frenchman name d Henri Jacques , who was sentenced t o deat h fo r th e murde r o f his wife an d three children . Also included i n this eclectic display were bone s o f animals, including the skull of a seal and the remains of a chicken with four leg s and three wings . Among th e huma n anomalies wer e th e hea d o f a Hungaria n who supposedl y ha d grow n horns , an d th e skeleto n o f a chil d bor n wit h two head s an d fou r arm s an d legs . Health y an d unhealth y specimen s o f semen—the latter , accordin g t o th e museu m doctors , usuall y cause d b y that "direfu l habit , self abuse"—were magnifie d 50 0 to 1,50 0 times. 72 An entir e exhibi t was dedicated t o th e huma n heart , an d on e sectio n o f the museu m wa s devoted entirel y t o diseases . There were display s illustrat ing scarle t fever , "cance r o f the bac k an d thigh, " smallpox , an d a n ovaria n tumor—most mad e fro m papier-mach e o r wa x an d painte d t o resembl e the decayin g organ . Th e museum' s mai n attractio n wa s th e Sepulchr e o r Pathological Room , entere d beneat h a sign tha t noted , "Th e Wages of Sin is Death." Th e roo m was , the guideboo k explained , fo r th e us e o f medical men an d student s only . (Presumably , though , an y visitor coul d b e consid ered a student.) 73 Th e museum' s proprietor s claime d tha t al l model s i n this sectio n wer e bon a fid e specimens , real example s o f what toda y woul d be calle d sexuall y transmitte d diseases . Here , i n thi s diml y li t room , wer e displayed th e suppose d effect s o n th e huma n bod y o f untreate d venerea l diseases and nightiy sessions of self-abuse. Elongation o f th e testicle s wa s describe d a s a direct resul t o f masturba tion, while penises infected wit h warts and gangrene illustrated the devasta -

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ting effect s o f gonorrhea . Syphilis , i n it s mos t malignan t form , wa s show n in th e completel y distorte d fac e o f a victi m whos e eye s an d facia l feature s had becom e disfigured . B y contrast , health y organ s wer e displayed , al l o f which wer e a testament t o th e cure s provide d b y Jorda n an d Beck . This , i n fact, wa s th e whol e poin t o f th e museum . Th e allege d physicians , wh o als o gave lecture s a t th e museum , wer e availabl e fo r dail y consultations . O n th e last pag e o f th e museum' s guideboo k th e doctor s mad e a final pitc h fo r their service s ( a consultatio n cos t five dollars) :

Contracted In

Diseases An Unguarded Moment

And Othe r Ill s Inflicte d U p o n Mankin d B y Th e Social E v i l — H o w Suc h Unpleasan t Disease s Ma y B e Effectually Cured , Withou t Th e Us e O f Mercury , Injur y To Constitution , O r Fea r O f Secondar y Symptoms . No. 4 0 B O N D STREE T D R S . JORDA N AN D B E C K

If patron s s o desired , the y als o coul d writ e fo r th e doctors ' publishe d lectures o n suc h topic s a s "Th e Philosoph y o f Marriage, " "Specia l Dis eases," "Spermatorrhoea, " an d "Fals e Delicacy. " Mos t simila r medica l mu seums sol d suc h books , a s wel l a s worthles s potions , t o thei r gullibl e clients o n th e premises . A "floorman " migh t convinc e a n alread y terrifie d spectator tha t h e wa s i n nee d o f medica l attention . Th e victi m wa s the n ushered upstair s t o th e "medica l institute " ru n b y a so-calle d specialis t an d encouraged t o purchas e a bottl e o f som e mysteriou s cure-all. 74

••

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The marriag e o f popula r entertainment s wit h quasi-educationa l artifact s had prove d successful . B y th e 1880 s proprietar y dim e museum s wer e pro viding entertainmen t t o million s o f patron s daily , an d ha d becom e a n important featur e o f America n culture . Althoug h th e post-Civi l Wa r year s brought abou t th e incorporatio n o f publi c museum s dedicate d t o "hig h culture," suc h a s th e America n Museu m o f Natura l Histor y (1869) , th e Metropolitan Museu m o f Ar t (1870) , an d th e Bosto n Museu m o f Fin e Arts (1876) , thes e establishment s di d no t compet e directl y wit h traditiona l dime museums .

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4. Freak s an d Platform Performer s Freaks ar e what yo u mak e them . Tak e an y peculiar lookin g perso n whose familiarit y t o thos e aroun d hi m make s fo r acceptance , pla y u p that peculiarit y an d ad d a g o od spiel , an d yo u hav e a g o od attraction . —Attributed t o showma n Clyd e Ingall s

O n e featur e tha t distinguishe d mos t dim e museum s fro m genuin e historica l or ar t museum s wa s liv e performance . I n additio n t o providin g melodra mas, strollin g musicians , an d lecturers , mos t museum s exhibite d a n arra y o f freaks, wh o wer e displaye d o n platforms , eithe r togethe r o r throughou t th e various curi o halls . T o b e considere d fit fo r exhibitio n a s a museum oddity , a perso n di d no t hav e t o b e talle r o r shorte r tha n averag e o r fatte r o r thinner o r eve n deformed . Man y othe r criteri a cam e int o play . In general , five classe s o f human anomalie s wer e displaye d i n dim e muse ums: natura l freaks , wh o wer e bor n wit h physica l o r menta l deformities , such a s midget s an d "pinheads" ; self-mad e freaks , wh o cultivate d freak dom, suc h a s tattooe d people ; novelt y artists , wh o wer e freak s becaus e o f their "freakish " performances , amon g the m snak e charmers , mesmerists , hypnotists, an d fire-eaters; non-Wester n freaks , wh o coul d b e promote d a s exotic curiositie s suc h a s "savages " an d "cannibals, " usuall y bille d a s bein g from Africa ; th e fak e freaks , o r "gaffe d freaks, " wh o fake d freakishness , such a s "Siames e twins " wh o wer e no t attache d o r th e "Armles s Wonder " whose arm s wer e hidde n unde r hi s costume. 1 The first recorde d frea k show s fo r profi t wer e hel d i n Englan d durin g the thirteent h centur y an d establishe d a durabl e tradition. 2 Accordin g t o historian Richar d Altick , th e displa y o f freaks becam e s o popular durin g th e sixteenth centur y tha t th e "deman d wa s wel l abreas t o f th e supply." 3 Shakespeare, wh o wa s awar e o f th e prevalenc e o f frea k shows , mad e a reference t o th e profitabilit y o f displayin g freak s i n The Tempest. Whe n Trinculo first meet s th e bestia l Caliban , h e wishe s h e ha d a boot h a t 66

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Bartholomew Fair in which to exhibit this wondrous "monster. " H e woul d be ric h i f h e ha d suc h a n opportunity , fo r i n England , Trincul o claims , "there woul d thi s monste r mak e a man ; an y strang e beas t ther e make s a man: when the y will not giv e a doit t o reliev e a lame beggar , the y wil l lay out te n to se e a dead Indian." 4 The greates t human frea k sho w in London, however, was the ope n doo r policy a t Bedla m asylum , which wa s establishe d i n 1609 . At Bedlam , "th e cells were arranged in galleries, in the manner of cages in a menagerie . . . i n each cag e was a chained lunatic , whose behavior , i f it were no t suffkienti y entertaining t o begi n with was made s o by the spectator s proddin g hi m o r her wit h thei r stick s o r encouragin g furthe r wildnes s b y ridicule , gestur e and imitations." 5 Eventually , suc h spectacle s wer e discontinue d du e t o humanitarian legislation . Th e public' s attractio n t o frea k shows , however , continued t o gro w and, according to the London Spy, freak s wer e exhibite d throughout Englan d i n th e eighteent h century . "Wil d beasts , learned pigs , dwarfs, giants , prodigiou s monster s havin g on e hea d an d tw o distinc t bodies, an d a n admirabl e wor k o f natur e i n th e for m o f a woman havin g three breast s coul d [all ] b e viewe d b y a pleasur e seeker." 6 I n th e bac k rooms o f taverns an d inns , a t marketplace s an d fairs , whereve r ther e wer e itinerant performers, inevitabl y there were freaks . Before th e emergenc e o f dime museum s i n th e mid-nineteent h century , the majorit y o f huma n odditie s i n th e Unite d State s wer e als o itineran t performers, their careers handled (o r mishandled) b y managers who usually booked the m int o taverns , rented storefronts , o r concer t an d lectur e halls . With th e adven t o f dim e museums , th e luckie r freak s becam e a t leas t somewhat mor e activ e participants i n th e American popula r entertainmen t industry. Performin g i n a n organize d frea k sho w wa s a relativel y respect able, if not stable , way to ear n a living, and man y performers—the tatto o artists, th e swor d swallowers , an d th e snak e charmers—bille d themselve s as freaks i n order t o becom e part of the industry . ••

•

The dim e museu m frea k show , o r "platfor m entertainment " a s i t wa s known, was a huge crowd-please r an d a solid moneymaker, an d proprietor s had a powerfu l incentiv e t o trea t thei r freak s well . Successfu l museu m managers like Georg e Hube r an d P . T. Barnum understoo d thi s point, an d cherished thei r freak s a s they would an y other profitable investment . Hub er's Museum, as mentioned i n chapter 3 , and Barnum's American Museu m provided lodging s fo r man y o f thei r freak s o n th e to p floor s o f thei r

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museums. Althoug h th e accommodation s wer e fa r fro m glamorous , the y were cheap, and there was always plenty of food, heat , and companionship . Out-of-town actor s often share d lodgings with thes e platform entertainers . As youn g performers , fo r example , Webe r an d Field s worke d a t man y museums o n th e Eas t Coast . Whil e a t Keit h an d Batchelder' s museu m i n Boston durin g th e earl y 1880s , the y slep t i n th e atti c alon g wit h othe r museum employees , payin g si x dollar s a week t o "Mo m Keith " fo r roo m and board. According to their biographer, Felix Isman, the large attic room was divided into individual cubicles: "Eight-by-ten partition s [sic] in which the actor s bot h dresse d an d slep t line d th e wall s an d opene d upo n th e dining-room, occupyin g the center of the attic floor." 7 Although th e dim e museu m busines s provided a certain opportunit y fo r otherwise impoverishe d an d lonely freaks, th e condition s endure d b y most were far from glamorous . Many were abused b y small-time museu m opera tors, kept t o gruelin g schedules , and give n only a small percentage o f their total earnings . Individua l exhibits wer e hire d fo r on e t o si x weeks b y th e proprietors o f dime museums; the averag e freak performe d i n ten to fifteen shows a da y an d wa s shuttle d wee k afte r wee k fro m on e museu m t o another. Some , however , lik e "George , th e Turtl e Boy, " wer e privilege d enough t o hav e long-ter m contracts ; Georg e wa s displaye d a t Huber' s Museum fo r thre e consecutive years. 8 Many freak s i n fac t wer e luck y (an d gifted ) enoug h t o ear n a goo d livelihood throug h exhibitions , and som e becam e celebrities , commandin g high salarie s an d earnin g fa r mor e tha n acrobats , novelt y performers , an d actors. The salarie s o f dime museu m freak s varie d fro m twenty-fiv e t o five hundred dollar s a week, on the whole substantiall y more than lecture roo m variety performer s wer e paid . Lectur e roo m performer s receive d twenty five t o thirty-fiv e dollar s a wee k fo r a so-calle d singl e ac t an d fifty t o seventy-five dollar s fo r a double. 9 Lat e nineteenth-centur y stag e actor s were paid only thirty-five t o eighty dollars a week.10 George Middleton , wh o operate d severa l Midwester n dim e museum s with C . E. Kohl, wrote in his memoirs that he hired fa t women fo r twenty five an d fifty dollars a week; yet when a very special curiosity came along he could b e persuaded t o pay much more. Such was the case with "Winny , the Fat Negress, " t o who m h e pai d th e considerabl e salar y o f thre e hundre d dollars a week. "Everyon e wante d t o se e Bi g Winny," Middelto n recalled . "They lined up in front o f the bo x office an d acros s the sidewalk , and were going i n jus t a s fast a s they could . The y looke d lik e soldier s goin g t o th e war. That busines s kept up for weeks, and it surely opened up our eyes." n

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Charles Stratton , "Genera l To m Thumb, " probabl y th e mos t famou s freak o f al l time , eventuall y spli t hi s weekly profit s wit h Barnum . Stratto n owned a house in Bridgeport, Connecticut , severa l pedigreed horses , and a yacht. And h e was not unique . A number o f freaks wer e abl e to affor d rea l estate an d t o retir e comfortably : Chan g an d Eng , th e origina l Siames e twins, owne d a farm , a business , an d severa l slave s i n Nort h Carolina ; Millie-Christine, Siames e twi n singers , earne d five hundred dollar s a week and owne d a plantation i n Nort h Carolina ; Zi p th e "Wha t I s It? " owne d property i n New Jersey and lived in an elegant house i n Connecticut , a gift from Barnum ; Chaunce y Morlan , th e famou s fa t man , owne d a n estat e i n Indiana; diminutiv e Admira l Do t owne d an d operate d a hote l i n Whit e Plains, New York . Commodor e Nutt , a midcentury midget , wa s heralde d as th e thirty-thousand-dolla r Nut t becaus e h e ha d a three-yea r contrac t worth tha t sum , an extraordinary amoun t o f money at the time. 12 Although man y freak s wer e pai d handsomely , museu m manager s wer e often insensitiv e abou t performanc e schedules ; profi t margin s wer e thei r main concern . Thi s wa s especiall y tru e o f thei r to p attractions , sinc e th e more show s thes e freak s performed , th e mor e ticket s wer e sold . Whe n Theodor Jeftichew , "Jo-Jo , th e Dog-Face d Boy, " appeare d a t th e Glob e Dime Museu m i n Ne w York , it s manager s arrange d t o hav e hi m perfor m twenty-three show s during a twelve-to-fourteen-hour day. 13 In fact , a t worst, a freak wa s simpl y a commodity package d b y museu m operators an d showme n i n suc h a wa y a s t o brin g i n business . Novelty , variety, an d humbugging , th e trademark s o f the successfu l dim e museum , all figured in the exhibiting o f human oddities . The displa y of phony freak s occurred regularly , especiall y amon g th e smalle r dim e museums , whic h needed th e drawin g powe r o f fabulous attraction s t o lur e customer s awa y from th e larger establishments. Not onl y did managers manufactur e freaks , but they also lied to the public about th e exhibition o f celebrity attractions. Once in the 1880s , for example , when Jo-Jo was performing i n Europe, his name appeare d o n th e bil l o f a Jerse y Cit y museum . Usuall y Jo-J o onl y growled onstage ; a fello w performer , however , believin g th e Ne w Jerse y Jo-Jo to b e an impostor, attempte d t o discredi t hi m b y trying to make hi m laugh o r fight durin g hi s performance . Afte r a wee k o f suc h antics , th e Jersey City Jo-Jo pulled his wig off to reveal that he was indeed a fake. 14 ••

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Showmen als o fabricate d th e biographie s o f freak s t o mak e thei r odditie s more fascinating . Fo r example , when Barnu m first exhibited Charle s Strat -

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ton a s Genera l To m Thum b i n 1843 , he tol d th e publi c tha t th e prodig y was eleven years old instead o f five, fearing som e would thin k Tom Thum b an unusuall y shor t chil d instea d o f a n anomaly . I n additio n t o givin g Stratton a new name, Barnum provided him with British ancestry, believing that it added class. The origina l "Wil d Me n o f Borneo " wer e tw o brothers , Hira m an d Barney Davis (Waino and Plutano were their stage names). Their publishe d biography, a supposedly "tru e life " pamphlet , claime d the y were capture d off th e coas t o f Borneo i n 1848 ; in reality, however, Hira m ha d bee n bor n in 182 5 i n Englan d an d Barne y tw o year s late r i n Ne w Yor k City . The y grew u p o n thei r famil y far m i n Ohi o wit h thei r parent s an d thre e othe r siblings. Bu t thei r biograph y describe d the m a s literally "wil d animal s ful l of monkey antics, ugly in temper an d hard t o manage." 15 Inches wer e adde d t o th e heigh t o f giant s an d subtracte d fro m tha t o f midgets; fat ladie s gaine d pound s an d skeleta l me n los t them . Superlative s abounded; ever y displa y wa s bille d a s th e tallest , smallest , fattest , ugliest , or hairiest—an d o f cours e th e mos t extraordinar y o r original . Vivi d an d provocative epithet s often followe d th e names of performers. Lizzi e Harris, who weighe d 676 pounds , wa s heralde d a s th e "Larges t Mountai n o f Flesh Eve r Seen. " Captai n an d Mrs . Bate s wer e bille d a s "Extraordinar y Specimens of Magnified Humanity. " The captain was 7 feet 11. 5 inches tall and weighed 47 8 pounds . Hi s wife wa s the sam e height an d weighed onl y 65 pounds less. 16 Midgets were give n exoti c ne w names, usually with tides : Genera l Mite , Admiral Dot , Baro n Littlefingers , Princ e Ludwig , Duches s Leona , an d Baroness Simone . The y appeare d wit h normal-size d peopl e o r sometime s with giant s t o emphasiz e thei r tin y stature . Severa l freak s ha d routin e partners o r alte r egos : the diminutiv e Admiral Do t ofte n share d a platfor m with th e seven-foo t gian t Anna Swan , an d Mrs . Tom Thum b stoo d i n th e spotlight wit h Noa h Orr , wh o wa s a trifl e ove r seve n fee t tal l an d tipped the scales at 516 pounds. 17 Lucia Zarate, probably the smallest midget ever displayed, measure d onl y twenty-eigh t inche s a s an adul t an d weighe d n o more tha n five pounds . Manager s routinel y di d whateve r the y coul d t o capitalize o n th e freakishnes s o f thei r freaks . I n 1890 , fo r example , th e managers o f one museum, while exhibiting Zarate , offered a diamond rin g to an y baby who could match her ring size. A common promotiona l devic e was the juxtaposing of odd combination s of freak s suc h a s "M e an d Him, " a n exhibi t o f a fa t bo y an d a skeleto n dude o n th e sam e platform . Th e Clar e Sisters ' (o r "Twins, " a s they wer e

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also billed ) ac t was built aroun d th e fac t tha t on e siste r was of "mammot h proportions and the other a Lilliputian" (one weighed five hundred pound s and th e othe r fifty). 18 I n th e dim e museu m frea k show , name s mean t les s than labels . Siames e twins , fo r example , don' t hav e t o com e fro m th e country w e no w cal l Thailan d t o b e genuine , the y just hav e t o b e joined . The ter m wa s codifie d afte r th e successfu l exhibitio n o f actua l Siames e joined twins , Chan g an d Eng . A hirsut e bo y wa s commonl y calle d th e "Dog-Faced Boy " or the "Lion-Face d Boy, " and the ter m "Livin g PictureGallery" was the standard label for human tattooe d exhibits. 19 The origina l routine o f tw o boy s (th e Davi s brothers ) chaine d togethe r an d gruntin g and groanin g wa s calle d th e "Wil d Me n o f Borneo. " I t wa s s o successfu l that al l it s imitation s wer e als o bille d a s "Wil d Me n o f Borneo, " an d th e imitators copied th e sound an d movements o f the origina l "Wil d Men." 2 0 The performance s o f frea k sho w character s generall y becam e codified , and eve n set s an d costume s rarel y deviate d fro m th e formula : th e tuf t o f hair on Zip' s head became a feature o f all other "Wha t Is It?" freaks. Bush y hair (late r calle d a n Afro ) wa s th e trademar k o f al l "Circassia n Beauties. " Bearded ladie s appeare d wit h thei r spouse s t o establis h thei r feminin e authenticity; midget s wer e give n status-enhancin g title s an d parade d around i n grandios e costume s t o exaggerat e thei r shortness ; armles s me n and women dran k tea, played instruments, and wrote letters with their feet . Sometimes, however, to ad d intrigue, the more-or-les s routin e frea k migh t perform a novelty act. Warrimeh Boseth , th e armles s Indian boy , would li e on his back, shoot a bow and arrow with his feet and impale a flying pigeo n in front o f a crowd o f spectators. ••

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Although physical anomaly was the only real drawing power of most freaks , some were truly talented. Genera l Tom Thumb san g and danced fo r appre ciative audience s i n th e Unite d State s an d Europe . Th e followin g i s a n example o f a son g h e san g fo r Quee n Victori a i n 1844 . Th e lyric s wer e written b y James Morgan o f Liverpool, supposedly at the general's request , and were set to the tune of "Yankee Doodle" : I'm Genera l Thumb, just come to town, Yankee Doodle Dandy, I've paid a visit to the Crown , Dressed like any grandee: The Queen has made me presents rare;

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Court ladies did salut e me ; First rate I am , they al l declare , And al l my dresses sui t me . Yankee Doodl e love s you all , Yankee Doodl e Dandy , Both Youn g an d old , an d shor t an d tall , Declare tha t I' m th e Dandy . The Prince of Wales —dear littl e bo y Yankee Doodl e Dandy , When Firs t we met , was rather sh y And coul d no t understan d me . But since , we've bee n th e bes t o f friends , And play' d a t romp s together : I wonde r whe n h e nex t intend s To moun t anothe r feather . Yankee Doodl e love s you all , Yankee Doodl e Dandy , Both Youn g an d old , an d shor t an d tall , Yankee Doodl e Dandy . Prince Albert speak s s o kind an d fre e Yankee Doodl e Dandy ; He's talle r very much, tha n me , Although I' m nea t an d handy ; He love s the Queen , an d s o do I — They bot h sa y I'm a beauty ; I'm muc h oblige d t o all—goodbye — Today I'v e don e m y duty . Yankee Doodl e love s you al l Yankee Doodl e Dandy , Some othe r day , I guess , you'll call , To se e your littl e Dandy. 21 The general' s repertoir e als o include d severa l "Negr o songs, " a s wel l a s dances suc h a s th e polk a an d a "highlan d jig " (se e fig. 15) . H e als o di d impersonations o f Napoleo n Bonapart e an d Frederic k th e Great . Some times Stratto n woul d appea r adorne d wit h jewel s an d surrounde d b y th e gifts h e ha d receive d fro m Quee n Victori a an d othe r Europea n dignitaries .

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FIGURE 15 . General Tom Thumb in a Scottish costume, c. 1855. (New-York Historical Society.)

Millie-Christine—or Christine-Millie—know n a s th e "Two-Heade d Nightingale," wer e als o talente d performers . Unlik e th e origina l Siames e twins, Chan g an d Eng, who were attache d a t the chest, thes e sister s wer e joined a t th e spine . Althoug h the y ha d separat e bladders , the y share d a single vagina , uterus , an d anus. Above th e point o f their union , eac h had her ow n nervou s system ; belo w tha t point , the y share d a singl e system . One siste r wa s said t o resembl e thei r fathe r an d the other , thei r mother .

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Christine was a soprano an d Millie a contralto; they entertaine d th e publi c by singing popular duet s while accompanying themselves on guitars. 22 A prodigy's performanc e wa s no t necessaril y limite d t o th e singin g an d dancing h e o r she—o r they—coul d manag e o n a mer e platform . Som e freaks als o performed i n museum lectur e rooms o r in legitimate theater s in scripted play s an d afterpieces . Charle s Stratto n mad e hi s America n stag e acting debu t o n Decembe r 4 , 1848 , when h e wa s te n year s old , i n a play especially writte n fo r hi m calle d Hop o' My Thumb. Adapte d b y Alber t Smith fro m th e Frenc h extravaganz a Le Petit Pounce, the pla y was about a miniature—and precocious—chil d wh o outwitte d a gian t wh o ha d bee n terrorizing th e kingdo m o f Ol d Kin g Cole . Durin g th e cours e o f the play , Stratton coul d b e see n running unde r th e leg s o f adults, bein g dragge d i n a shoe, an d gettin g serve d u p i n a pie. Th e pla y was the perfec t vehicl e t o illustrate th e comi c skill s o f a talente d midget . Afte r Stratto n retired , th e play was revived with Commodor e Nut t playin g the starrin g role. Another play, adapte d b y H . J . Conwa y an d commissione d fo r Stratton , wa s a version of Harriet Beeche r Stowe's novel Dred. 23 Giants also were cast in specifically written or adapted plays. Monsieur E . Bihin, a famou s Frenc h giant , playe d th e ogr e i n Hop o' My Thumb, opposite Commodore Nutt , in 1862 . Another popular giant, Colonel Rot h Goshen, performed i n The Giant of Palestine at Wood's Museu m i n 1868 , as well as in Laura Keene's production o f Jack and the Beanstalk, which fo r obvious reason s wa s a perfec t vehicl e fo r bot h gian t an d midge t actors . Admiral Do t an d Noa h Or r costarre d i n anothe r versio n o f th e fair y tale , called Jack the Giant Killer? 41 Typically, there were no seat s in the curi o halls of dime museums, and as spectators poure d int o th e room , the y wer e ushere d fro m platfor m t o platform b y a lecturer, whose role was that of master of ceremonies. Durin g his performance, th e lecturer, usually given the pretentious title o f "profes sor," hel d th e audience' s attentio n b y describin g th e freak s displaye d o n the various platforms. I n additio n t o a strong voice, the lecturer neede d t o have some sort of magnetism an d eloquence. His elocutionary styl e usually was filled wit h th e traditiona l hyperbol e o f carnival barkers , and hi s recita tions wer e fille d wit h classica l an d biblica l allusions . Professo r Bumpu s described Cherri e Burnham , a 610-poun d woman , a s " A mighty girl , fat , magnificent. Fiv e chins ! Cheek s lik e th e sun-kisse d melon ! Arm s lik e vat s of luscious Falernian wine. . . . Few women o f modern times hav e equale d you. Si x hundre d an d te n pounds ! Twic e th e weigh t o f Quee n Victoria , three times the weight o f Boadicea, four times th e weight of Delilah!" 25

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N o t onl y di d museu m proprietor s hir e lecturer s fo r th e hall s o f th e museum ("insid e talkers") , the y employe d "outsid e talkers " a s well . On e spectator describe d th e outsid e talke r a t Huber' s Museu m a s lookin g lik e a "bankrupt coun t o f th e gran d ol d schoo l o f p o m p an d wax, " wh o sporte d "evening dres s o f th e sam e e p o c h . " 2 6 Th e outsid e talkers ' job , i n popula r entertainment lingo , wa s t o "tur n th e tip, " o r t o persuad e a grou p o f people t o bu y tickets . Hi s spie l advertise d al l th e wonder s o f th e museum . The vers e recite d b y on e o f thei r numbe r wa s a synopsi s o f th e astonishin g things spectator s coul d se e onc e the y pai d thei r money : Ladies an d gents , for onl y ten cent s you ca n se e al l the sights . And ther e o n you r righ t is the grea t fa t lady ; she's a healthy bab y weighing thre e hundre d pounds ; she's si x foot around . Her husban d i s the livin g skeleton—see hi m shivering . The dog-face d bo y will give you al l joy, and th e tattooe d ma n does th e bes t h e can . The huma n hors e is wonderful, o f course , and I'l l sho w t o yo u the boxin g kangaroo . The lad y lion tame r will please ever y stranger. 27 Invariably ther e als o wa s a "shill " t o hel p th e outsid e talker . A n employe e of th e museu m wh o pretende d t o b e a payin g custome r woul d giv e th e ticket-taker hi s mone y ove r an d ove r again , enticin g other s t o follow .

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One premis e o f th e dim e museu m frea k sho w wa s tha t eac h o f u s ha s a n innate desir e t o behol d th e misfortune s o f other s i n orde r t o buil d ou r ow n confidence an d self-respect . Th e historia n Georg e C D . Odell , afte r year s

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of chroniclin g dim e museu m entertainments , cam e t o believ e tha t "th e freaks o f the dim e museum serve d the purpose o f raising dull persons fro m the throe s o f thei r inferiorit y complexes. " H e though t pleasur e seeker s could not look at such "monstrosities" without convincing themselves that , after all , thei r norma l selve s wer e "prett y good , i f no t beautiful." 28 A s Odell saw it, not everyon e could b e a famous artis t or a talented singer , bu t at leas t th e spectato r coul d b e relieve d tha t h e o r sh e was not a dog-face d boy o r a Siames e twin . Watchin g frea k performers , Odel l believed , buil t self-esteem; peopl e lef t frea k show s feelin g mor e a t eas e wit h thei r lo t i n life. In part , th e frea k sho w als o wa s rewardin g fo r a Victoria n audienc e because i t encourage d a person t o compar e hi s life , hi s achievements , an d his productivit y wit h thos e o f othe r huma n being s instea d o f wit h th e capabilities o f a machine . Th e typica l mid-nineteenth-centur y individua l was a t odd s wit h th e increasingl y fast-pace d development s o f industria l technology. A s Stuar t Ewe n an d Elizabet h Ewe n writ e i n Channels of Desire, the ne w machin e ag e promise d a world o f plenty, "fre e fro m toil, " but i t als o evoke d " a worl d gon e mad , ou t o f control , th e visio n o f Frankenstein." 29 Th e subtex t o f th e frea k sho w wa s fea r o f a mad world . Anxiety wa s relieved , however , b y th e audiences ' collectiv e viewin g o f nature ou t o f control—o f otherness . Savages , missin g links , giants , an d diminutive peopl e wer e positione d o n platform s t o b e admired , ridiculed , or laughe d a t b y a unified crow d bonde d b y th e collectiv e ac t o f lookin g and b y thei r so-calle d normalcy . Moder n medicin e wa s stil l i n it s infancy , and th e averag e perso n wa s afrai d o f bein g incurabl y different , unalterabl y abnormal. Bu t th e definitio n o f "normal " wa s ver y narrow , an d thi s ver y narrowness, a product o f ignorance, was in it s way comforting. I n a sense, then, th e deforme d perso n wa s not necessaril y bor n a freak bu t wa s transformed int o a freak th e first tim e h e o r sh e stoo d o n th e exhibitio n plat form. Freak s wer e create d b y other s ou t o f fear . Thus , th e frea k sho w format gav e everyone in the audienc e permission to gaz e openly and t o ask personal questions ; i n suc h a context th e averag e perso n alway s cam e ou t ahead. The onstag e freak , o f course, was someone els e offstage . A s performers , they were cas t as the major , th e general , the fa t lady , or th e skeleto n dude . Once their freakishness wa s discovered an d labeled, it was inescapable: they would alway s be branded th e legless wonder, the bearded lady, or the What Is It ? I n th e hall s o f th e dim e museum , deforme d o r disease d peopl e were reinvente d a s freaks ; th e mise-en-scen e o f th e frea k show , th e ver y

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atmosphere o f the dim e museum, incarcerated th e individual in an inescapable, lifelon g role . Som e freak s le d th e semblanc e o f a normal life , wit h a family an d children , bu t i t wa s stil l a freakish one , manipulate d b y show men, whos e normalit y wa s tainte d b y associatio n wit h th e frea k sho w world. Eve n Chan g an d Eng' s norma l childre n wer e exhibite d a s freak s because their fathers were joined twins . The "tru e life " pamphlet s distribute d t o th e spectato r b y th e freak s a s souvenirs wer e usuall y fabricated , highl y engagin g storie s abou t ho w thei r subjects ha d bee n destine d t o b e born a s anomalies. Apart from hi s height , for example , Charles Stratton was a normal bo y and physically well propor tioned. Hi s shortnes s wa s explaine d t o th e publi c throug h th e ver y com mon "materna l impression " theory , which propose d tha t whe n somethin g out o f th e ordinar y happene d t o a pregnan t woman , th e circumstance s affected th e fetus. Thus, an expectant mother who saw dogs copulating was supposed t o have reason t o fear th e birt h o f conjoined twins , and on e wh o witnessed her husband maule d b y a lion, the birt h o f a lion-faced boy . Anna Leak Thompson, the "Armles s Wonder," was said to be an example of this kind of causation. One day , as her father wa s returning home drunk , his pregnan t wif e sa w hi m walkin g u p th e roa d wit h hi s overcoa t throw n over his shoulders i n suc h a way as to concea l bot h o f his arms. This vision had its "logical" effect an d their daughter was born armless. Similarly—in a less clearcut example—shord y befor e Charle s Stratton's birth , th e family' s black-and-tan pupp y was drowned i n a river that flowe d behin d th e house . Stratton's pregnan t mothe r wa s so distraught tha t sh e placed a "mark" o n her unborn chil d and doomed he r son to be a midget. 30 The popula r fiftee n t o fifty-pag e lif e sketches , whic h wer e sol d t o th e public fro m eac h platform , i n effec t forme d par t o f th e performer' s "pitch." 31 I n additio n t o providin g biographica l material , th e pamphlet s generally included printe d statement s b y physicians who ha d examine d th e performer, declarin g hi s o r he r malformation s t o b e genuine . Usuall y th e deformities wer e describe d i n elaboratel y clinica l terminology , addin g t o the publication' s ai r of authenticit y an d erudition . I n addition , th e leaflet s contained enthusiasti c review s o f th e performanc e b y (mostl y bogus ) critics. The financia l succes s o f freak s an d o f th e dim e museum s tha t house d them wa s als o promoted b y photography. Tw o prominen t photographers , Matthew Brad y (famous fo r his Civil War pictures) an d Charle s Eisenman n (who becam e th e world' s leadin g photographe r o f unusua l peopl e an d performers), ha d studio s in the heart o f New York's entertainment district .

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At th e heigh t o f the "photomania " frenzy , fro m abou t 185 7 t o 1900 , thes e photographers wer e prominen t amon g thos e wh o mad e carte s d e visite s for dim e museu m performers. 3 2 Carte s wer e ver y smal l pictur e postcard s measuring 2. 5 b y 4 inches , approximatel y th e siz e o f a visitin g card . Mos t cartes ha d a log o o n th e botto m o r bac k o f th e car d givin g th e photogra pher's o r publisher' s nam e an d location , a s wel l a s th e nam e o f th e perso n in th e photo . Million s wer e sol d annually ; th e profit s wer e generall y spli t between th e museu m an d th e performers . Th e averag e spectato r purchase d cartes a s souvenir s an d ofte n use d the m a s postcards. Man y peopl e becam e collectors, storin g thei r card s i n albums . N o t onl y di d th e carte s d e visite s generate additiona l incom e fo r th e performe r an d th e museum , the y als o facilitated booking s i n othe r cities , a s the y wer e sen t t o museu m owner s t o give the m a n ide a o f a performer's abilities . The backdrop s use d i n thes e photograph s o f huma n odditie s range d from Victoria n parlor s t o jungles . I n thei r photo s freak s ofte n wer e pre sented i n on e o f tw o codifie d styles , which Rober t Bogda n describe s a s th e "exotic" an d th e "aggrandized." 3 3 I n th e exoti c photos , th e frea k appeare d in a primitive, bestial , o r a t leas t non-Wester n environment , ofte n i n jungl e backdrops o r wit h papier-mach e boulders ; th e frea k wor e skin s o r loin cloths an d carrie d appropriat e props , suc h a s a spea r o r a hatchet , a s i n th e photograph o f Zip . In so-calle d aggrandize d photos , o n th e othe r hand , individual s appeare d in parlo r settings , wearin g expensive-lookin g clothe s an d accessories . Th e aggrandized mod e gav e statu s t o freaks , offsettin g thei r disabilities . W e have alread y see n on e exampl e o f aggrandizemen t wit h th e high-flow n tides adopte d b y midgets, suc h a s general, commodore , an d s o on . Anothe r example ma y b e see n i n th e stage d performance s o f th e freaks : armles s me n drew wit h thei r feet , midget s san g an d danced , an d a fe w playe d musica l instruments. Talented o r educate d freak s wer e a rare commodit y an d thu s constitute d an elite . Krao , th e hirsut e anomal y fro m Kore a (se e fig. 16) , spok e five languages; Genera l To m T h u m b an d Millie-Christin e sang ; an d El i Bowen , the "Legles s Acrobat, " alon g wit h Charle s Tripp , th e "Armles s Wonder, " entertained wit h thei r wi t an d dexterity . Bowe n an d Trip p ofte n performe d together, eac h makin g th e limb s h e ha d perfor m thos e task s ordinaril y achieved b y hi s missin g extremities—i n essence , overcomin g thei r disabili ties. Whe n the y performe d together , th e tw o dresse d i n busines s suit s an d rode a bicycl e buil t fo r two , wit h Trip p peddlin g i n th e bac k an d Bowe n steering i n front , amusin g thei r audience s wit h comica l exchanges : Trip p

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FIGURE 16 . Kra o photographe d i n a dress , c . 1895 . (Harvard Theatr e Collection , Houghton Library. )

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would sa y t o th e legles s Bowen , "Watc h you r step! " an d Bowe n woul d retort, "Kee p your hands off me!" 3 4 Krao, or the "Missin g Link, " was intensely promoted durin g th e heyda y of the Darwi n conflict . Basicall y she was no differen t fro m th e othe r hair y freaks, suc h a s "Jo-Jo , th e Dog-Face d Boy " an d "Lionel , th e Lion-Face d Boy," bu t whe n sh e wa s labele d a missin g link , sh e becom e par t o f a scientific, religious , social , an d politica l debate , whic h elevate d he r statu s and transforme d he r int o a more lucrativ e celebrity . Krao was displaye d i n both th e exoti c an d th e aggrandize d modes : sh e coul d b e see n wearin g jewelry and a dress, or in a loincloth surrounde d b y jungle growth . ••

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Dime museum managers were notorious for thei r manipulation o f both th e images an d th e persona l live s o f frea k performers . Motivate d b y profit , managers fabricate d lov e affair s betwee n entertainer s t o lur e patron s t o their establishments. 35 While he was on displa y at Worth's Museum in May 1888, for example , J. W. Coffey, th e elegan t skeleto n man , who dresse d i n a high hat , mornin g coat , win g collar , an d bo w ti e an d carrie d a walkin g stick, advertise d i n th e New Tork Herald fo r a wife. Coffey , wh o wa s five feet si x inches tal l an d weighe d a mere sevent y pounds , was lookin g fo r a "plump an d pleasin g person " t o b e hi s life' s companion . H e receive d numerous response s an d selecte d a wif e fro m amon g th e applicants . Whether Wort h kne w abou t th e advertisemen t i s not known ; however , h e managed t o mak e a profit fro m th e publicit y b y exhibiting Coffe y an d hi s new wife throug h th e en d o f th e 188 8 season. 36 Fo r he r part , whe n Mrs . Coffey marrie d he r husband , sh e wa s a n ordinary , thoug h overweight , woman. A s th e wif e o f a famou s freak , however , becaus e o f he r bizarr e union an d postnuptial exhibitions , she became a freak a s well in the eye s of the public. Marriages ofte n wer e arranged—o r claimed—betwee n incongruou s freaks, an d most o f these unions were exploite d fo r profit . I t is not known , for example , whethe r "Mr . an d Mrs . Atherton, " a bizarr e couple , wer e really married. Th e "Origina l Aztec Children, " Maxim o an d Bartola , wh o were publicize d a s brothe r an d sister , i n fac t wer e marrie d o n Januar y 1 , 1867, while on tour in London. 37 Probabl y no one will ever know whether they were actuall y sibling s an d thei r marriag e a publicity stun t o r whethe r they wer e merel y markete d a s brothe r an d siste r an d thei r marriag e a true lega l lov e match . Som e marriage s betwee n freaks , o f course , wer e undoubtedly genuine . Although Charle s Stratton's lov e for Lavini a Warren

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was bon a fide, Barnu m milke d th e situatio n fo r al l it was worth b y exhibiting the engaged coupl e before thei r marriage. The exhibitio n was incredibly profitable; i t was such a windfall, i n fact, tha t Barnu m begge d Stratto n and Warre n t o dela y thei r wedding , offerin g the m $15,00 0 i f they woul d postpone th e ceremon y fo r a month. 38 Th e youn g lover s refuse d t o re schedule for publicity purposes. Stratton's marriag e ceremony , however , di d no t wan t fo r publicity . H e and Warre n wer e unite d i n Grac e Churc h i n Ne w Yor k o n Februar y 10 , 1863, in front o f two thousand distinguished spectators. This was the even t of th e season ; i t fille d th e fron t page s o f th e majo r Ne w Yor k newspaper s and fo r a time eclipse d the Civi l War. The wedding was "th e gran d marita l event o f th e week , an d on e o f a lifetime, " recounte d a journalist. 39 Afte r they wer e married , th e Stratton s wer e exhibite d fo r a tim e wit h a chil d alleged t o b e theirs . Thei r "daughter " supposedl y wa s bor n o n Decembe r 5, 1864 , and died two and a half years later. In fact, the Strattons never had a child of their own; the promotion schem e was devised b y Barnum. 40 But marriage s betwee n freak s abounded , bringin g fam e an d fortun e t o some couples . Ann a Swan , th e "Nov a Scoti a Giantess " (wh o almos t los t her life when Barnum's American Museum burned) , married another giant , Martin Va n Bure n Bates , bille d a s th e "Kentuck y Giant, " i n Londo n o n June 17 , 1871 . The da y after thei r wedding , a reception wa s hel d i n thei r honor wit h suc h guest s a s the Princ e o f Wales an d othe r Britis h dignitar ies.41 Chaunce y Morla n an d Anni e Bell , th e "Heavies t Coupl e Alive, " whose combine d weigh t wa s mor e tha n 1,40 0 pounds , wer e marrie d o n November 30 , 1892 , at Huber's Museum , an d exhibite d fo r si x weeks to a capacity crowd. 42 Fo r a tim e the y travele d th e countr y a s ma n an d wife , saved a small fortune, an d soon were able to retire to an estate in Indiana . Freaks marrie d t o nonfreak s wer e als o routinel y exhibite d wit h thei r spouses. The Siames e twin s Chan g an d En g (se e fig. 17) provide d a n eve n more titillatin g loo k a t frea k marriages . B y the ag e o f twenty-eight , thes e twins ha d accumulate d a smal l fortun e o f abou t $60,00 0 an d decide d t o retire t o Wilkesboro , Nort h Carolina . The y filed t o becom e America n citizens an d too k th e surnam e Bunker . They courte d an d marrie d sister s in a doubl e weddin g ceremon y i n 1843 ; En g marrie d Sar a An n Yate s an d Chang marrie d Adelaid e Yates . Betwee n the m the y fathere d twenty-tw o children, al l norma l excep t fo r tw o wh o wer e dea f mutes . I n 185 0 the y came ou t o f retiremen t becaus e the y neede d mor e mone y t o provid e fo r their families ; the y place d themselve s i n Barnum' s hand s onc e agai n an d appeared i n public with thei r wives and children. 43

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FIGURE 17 . Chang and Eng, the original Siamese twins, 1829. (Chang is on the right , Eng on the left.) (Harvar d Theatre Collection , Houghton Library. )

Siamese twin s posin g wit h thei r norma l spouse s an d offsprin g no t onl y prompted question s abou t everyda y privac y bu t als o raise d issue s o f sexua l privacy. Sex , i n fact , wa s a powerful componen t o f th e performanc e tex t o f the frea k show ; spectator s imagine d sexua l intercours e betwee n incongru ous partners—th e fa t woma n an d th e thi n man , th e bearde d woma n (wh o may no t afte r al l b e a woman) an d he r h u s b a n d — a n d amon g couple s lik e Chang an d En g an d thei r wives . Suc h a performanc e readil y inspire d im ages o f transgressiv e sex , ambiguou s sex , homosexuality , bisexuality , an d group sex , challengin g th e conventiona l boundarie s betwee n male , female , sex, self, and other . Tattooe d women , fa t women , an d skeleta l wome n wer e costumed i n short , sleeveles s dresses , th e bette r t o verif y thei r freakishness .

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Circassian Beautie s wit h thei r wil d an d frizz y hai r wer e outfitte d i n gar ments that accentuate d thei r bust s and hips. Snake charmers wore minima l clothing, exaggeratin g thei r wildnes s an d exoticism . Sometime s patron s were allowe d t o touc h th e limb s o f fa t ladie s o r pul l o n th e whisker s o f bearded ladies . I t wa s deepl y arousin g t o Victorian s t o b e abl e t o touc h a strange woman i n a legitimate, respectable setting , an d i t was a tantalizin g and disturbin g sigh t fo r th e othe r spectators , especiall y adolescents . A wondrously titillating dialectic emerged, in which performers wer e allurin g as well as repulsive. The subtext s o f a freak sho w concerned sex , fear, power , an d self-defini tion. Childre n sa w themselve s reflecte d i n th e midgets . The y sa w smal l people actin g like adults—smoking, drinking , an d marrying . When stand ing next to a midget, a child felt bigger , more like an adult, more powerfu l than th e midget. 44 Wome n wer e abl e t o challeng e th e dominanc e o f me n through images of bearded ladies, fat ladies, and female giants . Freak shows also provided relativel y ordinary women with th e opportunit y t o work, fo r such women coul d b e found i n ever y imaginable categor y of the self-mad e and novelty performer: Mile . Agnes Charot (hypnotist) , Flossie La Blanche (female Samson) , Nettie Lytel l (rifle queen) , Miss Doddretta (comi c mathematician), Dor a S . Gerr y (fir e eater) , Alice Lewi s (snak e charmer) , Lilli e Tobin (glas s eater) , Matti e Le e Pric e (magneti c girl) , Laland e Fulle r (hu man stepladder). 45 Museums exploite d th e bo x offic e appeal o f female sexualit y b y hostin g all-women exhibitions , suc h a s boxin g matche s an d tug-of-wa r games . Some o f th e sleazie r establishment s produce d tableau x vivant s featurin g women i n flesh-tone d tights . I t wa s th e femal e performe r whos e costum e overtiy suggeste d worldlines s an d eve n sexua l promiscuity wh o fuele d th e strongest publi c criticism . Althoug h man y o f th e well-proportione d snak e charmers an d Circassian s di d no t loo k s o differen t fro m burlesqu e girls , museum manager s wishing to project a clean, family-friendly imag e down played th e sexua l aspect s o f suc h performers . Th e to p museum s trie d t o emphasize their wholesome and refined atmosphere , but it is easy to under stand why some critic s called the m immora l an d deeme d the m inappropri ate for family entertainment . Spectators not only enjoyed watching the performances o f human anom alies at the museums, but also received a thrill from th e occasional opportu nity t o b e "freaks " fo r a day . Ther e wer e a hos t o f museum-sponsore d public contests , from standar d beaut y pageants an d bab y show s t o uniqu e forms o f competitio n suc h a s gum-chewing , quail-eating , smalles t feet ,

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walking, an d typewritin g contests . Thes e events provide d pleasur e seeker s with a n opportunit y fo r freedo m o f expressio n an d a chance t o sho w off ; they could b e exhibitionists for a few moments. Meade's Midge t Hall , a t th e corne r o f Fift h Avenu e an d Fourteent h Street, was a well-known establishmen t whos e gimmic k was to displa y only midgets an d children . Amon g it s exhibit s wer e a fa t bab y wh o a t five months weighe d fifty pound s an d a n infan t bor n weighin g onl y three quarters o f a pound. Meade' s wa s strictl y a n exhibi t hall , an d neithe r th e infants nor the midgets performed i n variety entertainments. But spectator s did flock t o Meade's famous "Grea t National Baby Show," an extravaganz a held fo r tw o week s i n 1877 . Parent s an d nannie s sa t wit h thei r adorable , fat, small, good-humored, supercilious , and pugnacious babies (temporaril y turning their cherubs into freaks), hoping to win a gold chain or a diamond ring. The babies , al l under th e ag e o f five, were exhibite d continuousl y fro m 10 A.M. to 1 0 P.M. in rooms decorated with flags and banners inscribed with such loft y message s a s "Th e Bo y Is Fathe r o f the Man " an d "Suffe r Littl e Children t o Com e unt o Me , an d Forbi d The m Not , Fo r o f Suc h I s th e Kingdom o f Heaven!" The establishmen t provide d crib s for th e weary tot s on th e uppe r floor o f the building , as well as a restaurant fo r th e adults . I n its thirst fo r novelty , Meade's eve n approache d th e Societ y for th e Preven tion o f Cruelty to Childre n an d asked whether th e museum coul d displa y a baby i n th e SPCC' s care , wit h tw o unsighd y blac k eye s an d a crimso n bruise o n on e o f its temples, a s an exampl e o f a battered child. 46 Meade' s Midget Hal l di d no t chang e it s nove l exhibit s often , however , an d i t di d not presen t variet y entertainments , s o ther e wa s rarel y an y reason , excep t for th e bab y contests , fo r pleasur e seeker s t o visi t i t mor e tha n once . As a result, the museum failed an d was forced t o close a year after i t opened . ••

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Most dim e museum s routinel y close d fo r th e summer . Man y freak s foun d work durin g thos e month s wit h circuse s o r wit h independen t travelin g museums suc h a s Barnum' s Grea t Asiati c Museu m an d Menagerie , orga nized i n 185 1 b y Barnum , Set h B . Howes , an d To m Thumb' s father , Sherwood Stratton . Barnum' s travelin g entertainment , wit h it s 110-foo t tent, toure d th e countr y fo r fou r years . Barnu m als o establishe d anothe r traveling museu m late r i n hi s career , P . T . Barnum' s Grea t Travelin g World's Fair , Museum, Menagerie , Polytechni c Institut e an d Internationa l Zoological Garden . Ther e wer e man y othe r well-know n travelin g muse -

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urns, suc h a s Colone l Wood' s Museum , whic h toure d u p an d dow n th e Mississippi i n th e lat e 1850s . Som e woul d b e se t u p i n vacan t storefront s or o n th e boardwalk s o f resor t areas . Othe r travelin g museums , whic h usually consiste d o f a fe w wa x effigies , som e animals , an d a carloa d o f freaks, attache d themselve s t o circuse s o r equestria n shows . In 1869 , Bun nell's travelin g museu m combine d wit h Ston e an d Murray' s Circu s an d i n 1875 with Barnum's . Most travelin g museum s di d no t operat e o n a ver y gran d scale . Th e majority wer e smal l an d somewha t shabby , croppin g u p o n carniva l mid ways and a t othe r type s o f outdoor fairs . B y the 1880 s mos t wer e limitin g their display s t o huma n oddities , an d gradually , aroun d th e tur n o f th e century, th e wor d "sideshow " replace d "museum." 47 Wit h th e adven t o f the sidesho w th e displa y o f human odditie s fo r profi t bega n t o becom e a n especially seed y part o f the outdoo r amusemen t industry . Durin g th e earl y twentieth century , sideshows , ofte n calle d "ten-in-ones " b y fairgroun d people, coul d routinel y b e foun d a t carnivals , world' s fairs , amusemen t parks, and seaside resorts. Many old-time dime museum attractions , including Krao, Zip, Eli Bowen, and Charle s Tripp, performed i n these establish ments. ••

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The era of P. T. Barnum and the first formally organized freak performance s is lon g past , an d moder n scienc e ha s demystifie d an d cure d man y o f th e ailments that create d th e nineteenth-century freak . Today , freaks show s ar e thought t o b e dehumanizin g an d hav e bee n oudawe d i n man y states . Ironically, however , frea k show s provide d independenc e t o man y disable d people. Freak s ha d marketabl e attributes , an d thos e wh o wer e exhibite d had a n opportunit y t o becom e celebrities , sometime s t o obtai n fam e an d fortune. I n suppor t o f this idea, in 197 2 th e Florida Supreme Cour t struc k down a 1921 law banning freak shows , ruling that the state had no busines s preventing anyon e fro m earnin g a n hones t living. 48 Thu s th e concep t of th e frea k sho w i s no t quit e dead ; version s o f th e nineteenth-centur y entertainment stil l exist , reconfigure d fo r contemporar y society . I n thes e shows, however , th e once-prominen t positio n o f th e physicall y deforme d person has , for th e mos t part, bee n filled by the novelty performer an d th e self-made freak . Today' s version o f the traditional platform frea k sho w may include a fa t lad y an d a "pickle d punk " display , bu t th e ne w king s an d queens are the tattoo artists, snake charmers, fire artists, and human tortur e machines.

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5. Lectur e Roo m Entertainment s We confess tha t it is very difficult t o mak e a distinction betwee n th e two, [theate r and dime museums], when the same plays are performed, th e same actors employed, an d the same effort given . —Anonymous

The lectur e room s i n dim e museum s varie d no t onl y i n siz e bu t als o i n quality an d i n th e natur e o f th e theatrica l experience s the y offered . Som e rooms seate d a thousand, wer e lavishl y decorated , an d mounte d full-scal e dramatic productions ; other s consiste d o f a smal l platfor m an d perhap s a few row s o f seats, were hardl y embellishe d a t all , and presente d program s no bette r tha n th e tawdr y variet y bill s o f th e concer t saloons . Bu t cann y selection an d constan t chang e wer e th e majo r operatin g principle s o f th e dime museu m busines s an d th e strategie s wit h whic h mos t proprietor s enticed patron s bac k t o thei r museum s agai n an d again . I n th e curi o hall s the attractions changed weekly or biweekly, but it was difficult fo r manager s to kee p outdoin g themselves . A three-heade d anima l displaye d on e wee k could not b e followed b y a two-headed version the next week. 1 The appea l of a lectur e roo m entertainment , o n th e othe r hand , wa s base d no t o n uniqueness or strangeness but variety alone, and here it was easy for managers to chang e programs daily , even twice a day, if necessary. The succes s o f these lecture room entertainment s enable d many dime museums to surviv e through th e 1890 s i n direc t competitio n wit h vaudeville , an d t o mak e a profit. It i s no t know n whe n th e first dim e museu m bega n t o offe r theatrica l productions; however , Albany' s Trowbridg e Museu m (sometime s calle d the New York State Museum), which opened in 1798 , was certainly one o f the first . Th e Trowbridg e Museum , o n th e corne r o f Beave r an d Gree n Streets, wa s ope n fro m 9 A.M . to 9 P.M . ever y da y excep t Sunday . Asid e from it s assemblag e o f stuffe d birds , liv e animals , an d antiqu e curiosities , 86

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the museu m ha d a lecture room , a small auditoriu m o n th e thir d stor y o f the building seating four hundre d spectators . Its stage measured onl y seven by nine feet , ye t it was large enoug h t o accommodat e th e performance s o f magicians, ventriloquists , hypnotists , an d actor s i n som e melodramas . I n fact, man y aspirin g actor s mad e thei r professiona l debut s there . Willia m Warren, wh o late r becam e famou s fo r hi s comi c role s a t th e Bosto n Mu seum, was a member o f th e museum' s stoc k compan y betwee n 183 4 an d 1836, an d Mr . an d Mrs . Joh n Dre w als o appeare d o n th e museum' s dra matic roster. 2 Henry Trowbridg e move d hi s museum t o State Street in 1830 . Roughl y ten year s late r h e remodele d extensively , a t a cos t o f betwee n $9,00 0 and $10,000. 3 I n th e proces s h e enlarge d hi s dramati c departmen t an d refurbished hi s theater , enablin g i t t o sea t a n audienc e o f 1,500 . The ne w Museum Saloon, as it was called, consisted o f a parquet, a family circle, and private boxes. On Februar y 1 , 1841, Charles Taylor, the museum's musica l director, mad e a lengthy openin g nigh t speec h oudinin g th e objective s o f the management . Amon g othe r points , h e promise d tha t ther e woul d b e no offens e "t o th e ey e o r th e ear , t o th e mos t particula r audienc e o r th e most sedate." 4 Th e proprieto r o f th e museu m woul d offe r onl y amuse ments that were untarnished, pleasant, and chaste . But Albany' s Trowbridg e Museu m wa s fa r fro m th e nationa l spotiight , and Trowbridge' s contributio n t o th e popula r entertainmen t industr y wa s overshadowed b y th e showmanshi p o f P . T . Barnu m an d hi s longtim e friend, anothe r museu m impresario , Mose s Kimball . I t i s Kimball, i n fact , who ha s bee n acknowledge d a s th e transforme r o f th e dim e museu m lecture roo m int o a respectabl e theater , th e prototyp e o f thos e o f othe r dime museums. ••

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Moses Kimball's Boston Museu m an d Galler y of Fine Arts (se e fig. 18), on the corne r o f Tremon t an d Bromfiel d Streets , opene d o n Jun e 14 , 1841 , six months befor e Barnu m acquire d th e Scudder museu m an d four month s after Trowbridg e opene d hi s Museu m Saloon . A s was typical , th e Bosto n Museum maintaine d a collection o f living curiosities, mechanical wonders , paintings, an d stuffe d animals , and kep t a house taxidermis t o n staff . (Wa x figures wer e no t introduce d int o th e museu m unti l 1850.) 5 Th e Bosto n Museum's collectio n wa s a n amalgamatio n o f thre e others : th e Ne w England Museum , th e Ne w Yor k Museu m (Boston-based) , an d Nix' s New Have n Museum. 6 I n 1839 , wit h th e hel p o f hi s brothe r David ,

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FIGURE 18 . Boston Museum and Galler y of Fine Arts, 1844. (Harvard Theatre Collection, Houghton Library. )

Kimball purchase d th e collectio n an d tw o year s late r move d i t t o Tremon t Street. 7 Most o f th e curiositie s o f th e Bosto n Museu m coul d b e foun d through out it s lowe r levels . O n th e to p floo r wa s a spaciou s pictur e galler y tha t doubled a s a "musi c saloon, " wher e concerts , olio s ( a medle y o f songs , dances, an d comi c sketches) , an d othe r miscellaneou s performance s wer e given. 8 Thi s larg e gallery , whe n use d a s a performance space , coul d accom modate abou t 1,20 0 spectators , wh o wer e force d t o si t o n crud e woode n benches. 9 In th e middl e o f th e 1 8 4 2 - 4 3 seaso n Kimbal l bega n th e proces s o f altering th e functio n o f hi s so-calle d musi c saloon . Hi s goa l wa s t o seduc e the audienc e gradually , transformin g th e spac e int o a tru e theate r withou t diminishing th e aur a o f respectabilit y establishe d b y th e sombe r deco r

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and pseudo-scientifi c atmospher e o f di e museu m itself . Slowl y h e bega n mounting mor e an d mor e comi c sketche s an d voca l interludes , an d h e briefly introduce d operett a t o hi s museu m audience . I n hi s thir d season , 1843-44, Kimball initiated his first dramati c presentation; on September 4 , 1843, th e museu m presente d Georg e Colma n Jr.' s play The Blue Devils} 0 It wa s a n auspiciou s occasion , an d fo r th e nex t sixt y year s th e Bosto n Museum continue d t o moun t theatrica l productions . The y wer e almos t certainly mor e lavis h tha n thos e produce d a t man y museums , bu t giv e a good sens e of fare in the better lecture rooms. The public's reception o f Kimball's theater "museu m style " was emphatically positive. B y eliminating al l offensive language , innuendo , an d behav ior—and b y sustaining a family entertainment environment—Kimbal l suc ceeded i n maltin g even thos e with antitheate r sentiment s fee l comfortable . Kimball wante d t o expan d th e museu m audienc e t o includ e th e larges t possible cross-sectio n o f th e populace . H e convince d coac h service s t o schedule a regular 1 0 P.M. pickup in front o f his museum i n order t o attrac t patrons wh o di d no t liv e within walkin g distance. 11 H e di d no t charg e a n extra admissio n t o th e theater , an d althoug h drinkin g wa s commo n i n many theater s o f this era , h e refuse d t o allo w patrons t o consum e alcoho l on th e premises . I n th e 1848-4 9 seaso n Kimbal l wa s force d t o institut e reserved seating , his open seatin g policy havin g finall y prove d to o chaotic . To encourag e famil y attendanc e thereafter , h e devise d "famil y slips " i n which a bloc k o f u p t o seve n seat s coul d b e reserved , a t fift y cent s each , and saved for a n hour into the performance. 12 In th e fal l o f 184 6 h e move d th e Bosto n Museu m t o ye t anothe r ne w building, on Tremont betwee n Schoo l and Cour t Streets . According to th e Daily Evening Transcript, the building' s exterio r wa s tastefu l an d elegant , and th e interio r wel l contrive d an d convenient. 13 Th e museum' s mai n exhibition hall , know n a s th e Grea t Hall , wa s highl y decorative , wit h a n arched ceiling sixty feet high and Corinthia n columns . The room measure d 103 fee t i n lengt h an d wa s 5 0 fee t wide . Th e Grea t Hal l wa s flanked b y rooms displaying the museum's vast collection. At the en d of the hall was a staircase twenty-fiv e fee t wid e tha t branche d int o tw o staircases , leadin g visitors t o tw o lon g gallerie s an d ultimatel y t o th e theater , whic h seate d 1,500 spectators. 14 The new , elaborate theate r was designed especiall y for th e production o f plays and spectacles. The walls were painted gray , the ceiling white, and th e decorations along the proscenium an d the stage boxes were white and gol d painted o n a background o f light green . Ther e wer e thre e chandelier s an d

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seven candelabra . Th e stag e was fifty feet dee p b y ninety fee t wide , with a proscenium openin g o f thirt y feet. 15 O n eithe r sid e o f th e stag e wer e th e manager's offic e an d th e greenroom . Th e dressin g rooms were just belo w and, becaus e the y were not locate d i n the basement , containe d windows , a valued asset , since most nineteenth-centur y theatrica l dressin g rooms wer e dark an d dingy . O n th e dressin g room floor ther e were als o a music room , a wardrobe , an d a property room. 16 Th e theate r wa s renovate d i n 1868 , 1872,1876, and again in 1880 , when the Boston Museum was functionin g solely a s a theater. A t tha t tim e th e stag e an d orchestr a wer e move d t o a lower leve l t o mak e roo m fo r a secon d gallery , which adde d abou t thre e hundred seats. 17 The ne w auditoriu m feature d thre e tier s o f seating abov e the orchestra , a parquet circle , and first and second balconies . In th e 1840s , i n preparatio n fo r pla y production , th e museu m ha d assembled a stock compan y o f fifteen to twent y professiona l actors . (Extr a actors wer e hire d o n a n as-neede d basi s fo r th e larg e spectacl e perfor mances.) 18 The museum's stoc k company played in repertory, presenting a variety of plays during a single season. According t o Edwar d Mammen , in 185 0 ther e were probably thirty-fiv e museum stoc k companies . B y 1860 th e number ha d jumped t o fifty. 19 But the quality o f the production s mounte d a t th e Bosto n Museu m wa s superior t o tha t o f mos t museu m stoc k companies , an d man y nineteenth century sta r actor s wer e attracte d b y th e hig h caliber . Amon g the m wer e E. L . Davenpor t (1845) , Charlott e Cushma n (1849) , an d Juniu s Brutu s Booth. 20 Boot h mad e hi s museu m debu t i n Augus t 184 9 a s Richar d III . He returne d th e followin g yea r an d playe d Kin g Lear , Shylock , Richar d III, and Hamlet. 21 Booth's soon-to-be-famou s so n Edwi n mad e hi s professional actin g de but a t the museum. O n Septembe r 10 , 1849 , Edwin appeare d a s Tressel in his father's productio n o f Richard III. 22 Edwi n Booth , in fact, though t s o highly o f the Bosto n Museum' s stoc k compan y tha t h e brough t i t t o Ne w York for a four-week engagemen t man y years later, in January 1884 . There, the compan y performe d variou s classics , amon g the m Othello, Hamlet, Richard III, an d Macbeth. Booth playe d th e tid e rol e i n al l the plays , with the exceptio n o f Othello, in whic h h e alternate d th e role s o f Iag o an d Othello with Charle s Barron, another acto r in the company. 23 A typical Boston Museu m seaso n during th e 1850 s als o included severa l Elizabethan an d eighteenth-century plays , among them Richar d Sheridan' s The School for Scandal an d Olive r Goldsmith' s She Stoops to Conquer, along with perhap s hal f a doze n play s b y Shakespeare. 24 Thes e classic s wer e

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usually performed wit h a guest artist, a famous actor , in the lead role, since a typica l museu m crow d woul d no t otherwis e b e draw n b y suc h dramas . Although th e elemen t o f refinement associate d wit h th e classic s was enticing fo r th e mor e literat e spectator , i t wa s th e star s tha t brough t i n th e crowds. The stoc k compan y assemble d b y th e manager s o f the Bosto n Museu m was unusually talented , an d a few o f it s member s wer e unde r contrac t fo r many years . Th e comedia n Willia m Warren , whos e first seaso n wit h th e museum wa s in 1847 , acte d i n th e compan y fo r ove r thirt y years; his final performance wa s give n o n Ma y 12 , 1883. 25 Th e usua l contract , however , was shorter. George C . Howar d an d Carolin e Fox , who ultimatel y achieve d nationa l fame fo r thei r portrayal s o f St. Clai r an d Tops y i n th e tourin g compan y o f Uncle Tom's Cabin, wer e member s o f th e museu m compan y fo r tw o sea sons, beginnin g i n 1843. 26 Fox' s olde r brother , th e pantomimis t Georg e Lafayette Fox , als o performe d a t th e museum , a s di d othe r Fo x siblings , their mother, an d Georg e H. Wyatt, their uncle. Howard an d Carolin e Fox performed i n severa l plays together durin g th e 1843-4 4 season , includin g a Christmas pantomime, The Golden Age, in which she played Sylva, Quee n of the Fairies. 27 On Octobe r 31 , 1844, Howard an d Fox were married; she was fifteen years old an d h e was twenty-nine. 28 After th e 1844-4 5 season , the Howard-Fo x grou p lef t th e museu m an d forme d it s ow n tourin g company, settling in Rhod e Islan d fro m 184 6 t o 1850 . (I n 1851 , Howard took ove r th e managemen t o f Peale' s Tro y Museu m i n Troy , Ne w York , where the Howard-Fox actin g troupe becam e the resident stock company. ) ••

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The life of a member o f the Bosto n Museu m stoc k company was extremely hectic. From 184 8 t o 1875 , the museum' s rehearsa l policy allowed on e t o three day s fo r a revival , on e wee k fo r a ne w play , an d onl y thre e t o five rehearsals for a n afterpiece. 29 Actor s rehearsed dail y from 1 0 A.M. to 1 or 2 P.M.; they ha d th e res t o f th e afternoo n off , unless , o f course , ther e wa s a matinee. Durin g th e earl y years, matinees wer e usuall y give n o n Saturday s and occasionall y durin g th e week , whil e evenin g performances , whic h be gan a t 7:30 , were presented ever y night excep t Saturda y an d Sunday . (Fo r supposed religiou s reasons , th e museu m wa s close d o n Saturda y night ; however, thi s practic e stoppe d i n 1871. ) Actor s arrive d a t th e theate r around 7 P.M . and did not leav e until midnight. 30 The repertor y seaso n itsel f was quit e long : almos t eleve n months , fro m

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September t o mid-July. 31 Eac h nigh t a differen t pla y was performed , an d often ther e wa s doublin g o f role s i n large-cas t play s o r whe n a n acto r fel l ill. Althoug h i t wa s exhausting , th e experienc e t o b e gaine d b y a youn g actor a s a member o f th e repertor y compan y wa s unmatched . Durin g hi s first four year s a t th e Bosto n Museum , fo r example , William Warre n per formed 20 4 differen t roles. 32 Durin g th e company' s six-wee k summe r recess, th e museum' s theate r offere d variet y act s b y magicians , ventrilo quists, and pantomimists. 33 The wages an acto r earne d i n th e Bosto n Museum' s repertor y compan y were slighti y lowe r tha n thos e o f the legitimat e theater , bu t ther e wa s th e attraction o f a certain job security . In th e 1850s , lead players at the Bosto n Museum earne d fro m thirt y t o sixt y dollar s a week , whil e member s o f the supportin g cas t earne d fro m tw o t o twent y dollars. 34 A t Wallack's , a prominent Ne w York theater erecte d in 1861 , lead actor s were paid thirty five to eight y dollar s a week, while other s earne d si x to thirt y dollars. 35 I n any case, wages for actor s cannot b e compared t o the hundreds of dollars a week many museum freak s earned . During th e earl y years o f the Bosto n Museum , Kimbal l di d no t neglec t the museum proper—its displays and exhibits—as a place of popular enter tainment. Hi s theater becam e increasingly important t o him, however, an d soon it s surviva l too k precedenc e ove r tha t o f all the othe r attractions . B y the 1850-5 1 season , the museu m wa s mounting 12 6 plays . This dramati c explosion wa s tempere d a bi t i n th e ensuin g decades , whe n th e averag e number o f plays produced a season fell to betwee n forty an d seventy. 36 Bu t eventually th e Bosto n Museu m evolve d int o a full-fledge d theate r wit h a repertory compan y tha t mounte d production s i n block s o f weeks, usuall y with te n t o twent y consecutiv e performance s pe r play , a s oppose d t o th e earlier "nighti y bill changes." 37 In orde r t o mee t th e need s o f its expanded dram a department , i n 1843 , the museu m engage d a ful l productio n staff , includin g a stag e manage r (who functione d muc h a s a modern-day director) , a prompter (wh o func tioned muc h a s a modern-day stag e manager) , a musical director , a stag e designer, a mechanic, a costumer, and a ballet mistress. William H. (Sedley ) Smith wa s th e museum' s first stag e manager , a s well a s a membe r o f th e acting company . H e retire d i n 186 0 an d wa s succeede d briefl y b y E . F . Keach, a leading acto r i n th e company . After Keac h die d i n 1864 , Kimbal l appointed a n outsider , a nonactor name d Richar d Montgomer y Field , t o be bot h th e manage r an d th e produce r o f th e company . Fiel d ra n th e theater until the stock company disbanded in 1893. 38

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Discipline wa s a wa y o f lif e fo r member s o f th e museum' s company ; Kimball maintained a n impressive list of rules and regulations for his actors. The heav y demand s o f repertor y theate r coul d resul t i n slopp y perfor mances, and, as a warning to the actors, Kimball set up a "forfeit system. " 39 Exhibited o n a wall in the greenroo m wa s a code o f conduct, a list accom panied b y a corresponding inventor y o f fines for infractions , rangin g any where fro m twenty-fiv e cent s t o a week's wage s o r t o discharg e fro m th e theater, dependin g o n th e severit y o f th e offense. 40 Failur e t o kno w one' s lines, fo r example , missin g a n exit , appearin g onstag e i n inappropriat e costume, o r talkin g to o loudl y backstag e wer e al l offense s punishabl e b y fines. Often th e mone y accumulate d fro m thes e fines was pooled i n a fun d to ai d sick or destitute actors. 41 Although Kimbal l was sympathetic to thei r financial needs, h e kep t hi s compan y o n a tigh t rein . I n Melodrama Unveiled: American Theatre and Culture, 1800-1850, Davi d Grimste d sug gests that the forfeit syste m was used more a s a "psychological threat " tha n anything else. 42 Kimball als o supported th e commo n practic e o f benefit evenings , which enabled member s o f the compan y t o mak e extr a money . Mos t actor s wer e allowed one benefit evenin g per season, although som e company members, such a s William H . Smith , were allocate d two. 43 For benefi t performances , an acto r selecte d th e pla y o r par t (o r both ) tha t h e o r sh e wante d t o perform. Sinc e benefi t nigh t was not part o f the regula r season, the perfor mer was required t o hel p solici t an audience fo r th e event. 44 Fo r his or he r effort th e acto r wa s rewarded wit h a percentage o f the bo x offic e receipts . (The benefi t syste m ha d distinc t advantage s fo r managers : b y offerin g benefit evening s the y coul d kee p actors ' salarie s t o a minimum. ) Whil e earning sixt y dollars a week a s the company' s foremos t comedian , Willia m Warren recorde d tha t i n 186 4 h e earne d a n additiona l thousan d dollar s from hi s benefits. 45 I t wa s economicall y critical , therefore , fo r a stoc k company acto r t o maintai n a good reputatio n an d buil d u p a local follow ing. Naturally , th e selectio n o f th e pla y wa s a n importan t elemen t i n th e success o f a benefi t performance . Actor s prudenti y chos e play s tha t ha d proved popular with audience s and were certain t o brin g in the crowds . By the lat e 1860s , however, th e benefi t polic y had becom e unpopular , proba bly because of the difficulties involve d in soliciting an audience an d becaus e the financial reward s wer e s o uncertai n tha t a n acto r coul d eve n los e money. B y 188 5 onl y thre e actor s i n th e Bosto n Museu m compan y wer e given benefit nights. 46 Comedies, o f course , coul d b e see n a t th e Bosto n Museum . Bu t th e

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plays most ofte n performe d there , as at the majority o f the dim e museums , were melodramas , mos t o f whic h coul d als o b e see n i n th e legitimat e theaters o f th e period—play s suc h a s Dio n Boucicault' s The Octoroon (1859) an d Clifto n W . Tayleure' s East Lynne (1861) . Museum s ha d a special propensit y fo r mountin g play s tha t deal t wit h gambling , drinking , and avarice . Som e o f thos e familia r t o th e museu m theatergoe r bor e suc h tides a s S . F . Hill' s Six Degrees of a Crime, or Wine, Women, Gambling, Theft, and the Scaffold (c. 1851 ; the on e degre e no t mentione d i n the tid e was murder ) an d The Crock of Gold, or Toiler's Trails (1845) , b y S . S . Steele, Esq. Th e play s examined problem s tha t affecte d al l classes, offerin g solutions fro m whic h bot h ric h an d poo r coul d profit. 47 Thes e ethica l dramas, whose subjec t matte r involve d improvin g th e world , wer e i n lin e with contemporar y Protestan t dogma , which emphasized th e value of deed and viewed prohibition a s the means of ensuring an exemplary society . The temperance melodrama' s particula r messag e wa s tha t anyon e wh o worke d hard an d staye d sobe r coul d expec t t o liv e comfortabl y an d eve n becom e wealthy.48 Thes e drama s provided thei r audience s with a feeling o f contro l by endorsing th e traditiona l value s an d moral s tha t were bein g threatene d by a ne w an d evolvin g industria l order . Temperanc e an d othe r so-calle d uplifting theme s especiall y attracte d th e puritanica l spectato r wh o woul d not normall y atten d th e theate r bu t wh o believe d tha t watchin g mora l plays, i n a n atmospher e a s "educational " a s tha t o f a dim e museum , wa s not sacrilegious. Th e mora l lectur e room s o f dim e museum s differe d sub stantially from immora l playhouses where liquor an d prostitution were part of the theatergoing experience. 49 Intemperance wa s viewed a s a major impedimen t t o progres s an d mod ernization. Accordin g t o Joh n Fric k reformers , "produce d o r endorse d a n astonishing variet y o f activities—conventions , dances , meeting , picnics , balls, boatin g excursions , festivals , lecture s an d ten t shows." 50 However , the mos t potent weapo n i n th e temperanc e arsenal , Frick pointed out , was the drama . Th e dim e museu m lectur e room , with it s mixed-class audienc e and it s ai r o f respectability, wa s th e perfec t venu e t o disseminat e th e tem perance messag e o f abstinenc e an d hop e t o th e masses . More tha n a hundred temperanc e drama s were written i n the nineteenth century , and man y of the m foun d a home i n dim e museums . Temperanc e play s ofte n bega n with a scen e o f domesti c tranquility ; character s wer e ofte n depicte d i n comfortable, i f not affluent , surroundings . Onc e alcoho l was introduced, a chain o f events wa s se t i n motio n tha t destroye d th e famil y unit , an d women an d childre n wer e depicte d a s th e innocen t victims. 51 Th e final

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scenes o f these drama s frequentl y illustrate d redemptio n throug h a retur n to sobriety . A perennia l favorit e o f man y museum s wa s th e temperanc e pla y Ten Nights in a Bar-Room (1858) , adapted from a n 1858 novel by T. S. Arthur. The protagonist o f the play, Joe Morgan, begin s as a prosperous miller. Hi s excessive drinking , however , cause s hi m t o los e hi s business , hi s integrity , and hi s daughter. Hi s partner, Simo n Slade , gains control o f the mill , the n sells it t o bu y a tavern calle d th e Sickl e an d Sheaf . On e evening , Morgan' s young daughter , Mary , follow s hi m t o th e Sickl e an d Shea f an d trie s t o persuade hi m t o giv e u p drinkin g an d com e home . Whil e pleadin g wit h him, she is mortally wounded b y a flying bottl e intended fo r her father . On he r deathbed , Mar y make s he r fathe r promis e t o sto p drinking . Overcome with grief , Morgan seek s solace from a bottle o f whiskey he ha s stashed at home an d enters a state of drunken delirium . But in the midst o f his madnes s h e remember s hi s pledg e t o Mary . Th e final ac t o f th e pla y takes plac e te n year s afte r Mary' s deat h an d depict s a reformed an d sobe r Morgan. Othe r mora l dramas, such as T. P. Taylor's play The Bottle (1847), told storie s wit h mor e tragi c endings . A s a resul t o f Richar d Thornbey' s drinking, hi s famil y become s destitut e an d on e o f hi s childre n die s o f starvation. I n th e final acts of The Bottle, Thornbey kill s his wife an d is sent to a madhouse, where he eventually dies. The play s performe d o n museu m stage s reflecte d th e proprietors ' idea s about audiences ' standard s o f purit y an d piety . Often owner s subjecte d plays t o censorship , deletin g an y languag e the y believe d t o b e potentiall y offensive. Expression s suc h a s "son-of-a-gun," "devil, " "sucker, " an d eve n "liar" wer e considere d highl y objectionable . Dialogu e change s wer e mad e routinely: "lusty " wa s change d t o "fat, " "nigger " t o "Negro, " "cuckold " to "fool, " an d "damn " t o "curse " o r "smother " (o r i t wa s cu t ou t en tirely).52 It wa s no t uncommo n fo r a n acto r i n a museu m compan y t o b e give n the opportunit y t o hav e hi s o r he r pla y produce d there . A fe w dim e museum performers , includin g Charle s H . Saunder s (The Gambler, 1844 ) and Willia m H . Smit h (The Drunkard, or the Fallen Saved, 1844), wrot e plays that becam e sentimenta l favorite s wit h mid-nineteenth-centur y audi ences. The Drunkard opene d a t th e Bosto n Museu m o n Februar y 25 , 1844, an d b y Ma y ha d playe d a recor d on e hundre d performances. 53 During th e 1830 s an d 1840s , b y comparison, fe w plays ha d run s o f mor e than fifty nights; in the first half of the centur y onl y a dozen play s reache d the fifty-plus mark. 54

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The most popular play of the time, of course, produced al l over the countr y and i n al l kinds o f performance spaces , was Harriet Beeche r Stowe' s Uncle Tom's Cabin; or Life among the Lowly (1852), adapte d fro m he r famou s novel o f 1852 . Its production histor y is legendary, an d t o thi s day it is still one o f th e mos t successfu l play s eve r produce d o n th e America n stage . Because ther e were n o copyrigh t protectio n law s in 1852 , however, novelists could not control rights to their work, nor could they reap any financial gain fro m th e succes s o f stag e adaptations. 55 Playwright s an d in-hous e dramatists o f th e dim e museum s wer e fre e t o rewor k novel s an d popula r plays, omitting characters , killing some off , o r inventing new ones in orde r to mee t th e need s o f th e museum' s stoc k company . Th e consequence s could be appalling for an author. Thus, even though Harrie t Beecher Stowe had stron g antitheate r sentiments , sh e coul d no t preven t he r nove l fro m being turned int o a play by other authors . There wer e man y stag e adaptation s o f Uncle Tom's Cabin, bu t th e tw o most popula r wer e thos e o f Georg e L . Aiken an d H . J . Conway . (Coinci dentally, bot h Conwa y an d Aike n wer e in-hous e dramatist s a t Barnum' s American Museum , Conwa y i n th e 1850 s an d Aike n i n th e 1860s. ) Th e Aiken version was commissioned i n 185 2 b y George C . Howard , manage r of the Tro y Museu m Theatr e Company . After readin g th e novel , he aske d George L . Aiken, his wife's twenty-two-year-ol d cousin , to write the script ; he believe d tha t th e rol e o f Eva could b e portrayed beautifull y b y his four year-old daughter , Cordelia . (H e gav e Aiken forty dollar s and a gold watch for hi s work.) 56 Th e rol e o f Topsy , however , wa s difficul t t o cast . Aike n believed tha t n o actres s would pu t o n blackfac e makeup , s o he too k som e dramatic licens e an d change d th e characte r t o a boy. Howard objected ; h e wanted t o b e a s faithfu l t o th e nove l a s possible . Indeed , n o actres s ha d ever blackene d u p o n stag e before , an d th e museu m company' s soubrett e refused t o pla y th e part . Eventually—goin g agains t tradition—Howar d cast his wife, Caroline , as Topsy. 57 Th e final Aiken version o f the novel, in six acts, eight tableaux , an d thirt y scenes , opened a t th e Tro y Museu m o n November 15 , 1852 , an d ra n fo r on e hundre d performances. 58 I n Jul y 1853, Aiken' s Uncle Tom's Cabin wa s produced i n Ne w Yor k Cit y a t th e National Theatre o n Chatha m Stree t an d played for a n unprecedented 32 5 performances.59 Perhap s becaus e o f th e lengt h o f th e play , Howar d imi tated th e forma t o f the Bosto n Museum' s 184 4 production o f The Drunkard, which omitte d a curtain-raiser, a n afterpiece , an d othe r act s commo n

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in the theater of the period. 60 There may also have been "moral " considerations, resulting in an attempt to make the evening as litde like conventiona l theater a s possible. On Decembe r 8 , 1852 , onl y severa l week s afte r th e Aike n versio n pre miered in New York, the Boston Museum presented Conway' s Uncle Tom^s Cabin. The Conway version was different fro m th e provocative bu t gloom y Aiken adaptation ; i t wa s a "watered-dow n pro-Souther n version, " whic h Robert Tol l believe s was popular becaus e i t was in touc h wit h th e tast e o f the genera l publi c i n a tim e whe n th e slaver y issu e wa s threatenin g t o destroy th e Union. 61 I n th e Conwa y version , th e novel' s antislaver y mes sage was toned down , Little Eva recovered, and Tom was saved from deat h by Georg e Shelby. 62 Conwa y eve n adde d a bi t o f humo r b y creatin g th e comic characte r o f Penetrat e Partysides , t o capitaliz e o n th e talent s an d popularity o f Willia m Warren. 63 Eve n thoug h man y Norther n dim e mu seum proprietors were abolitionists , it was the Conwa y play that the y mos t often presented . Proprietor s hope d tha t th e les s controversia l Conwa y script would attrac t a wider audience than th e Aiken version. While th e Aike n adaptatio n stil l played t o hug e crowd s a t th e National , Barnum, in a competitive move, mounted th e Conway play at the American Museum i n November 1853 . In advertisin g his production, Barnu m state d that th e Conwa y version, as opposed t o Aiken's, gave the spectato r a "tru e picture o f negro lif e i n th e South, " an d claime d tha t th e Conwa y pla y was "the onl y just an d sensibl e dramati c versio n o f Mrs . Stowe' s book." 64 H e defended th e Conwa y version, claimin g tha t hi s adaptatio n di d no t "fool ishly an d unjustl y elevat e th e negr o abov e th e whit e ma n i n intellec t an d morals." 65 In effect , i t wa s a challenge , a sport , a wa y fo r Barnu m t o outsel l th e other production s o f Uncle Tom^s Cabin. A first-clas s showman , h e wa s motivated chiefl y b y the desir e fo r notoriet y an d money . Suppose d quote s praising th e pla y i n th e newspaper s wer e intende d a s advertisement s an d not antiabolitionis t sentiment s belongin g t o Barnu m himself . (Barnum , i n fact, wa s a strong supporte r o f the Union. ) H e wa s not a critic; in spite o f all his boosting of the Conwa y play, he mounted th e Aiken version in 1866 , with Mrs . Howar d re-creatin g th e rol e o f Topsy . Barnu m presente d th e same version agai n in 1868 , this time employin g th e entir e Howar d famil y because the fame o f the Howard s was certain t o brin g crowds of spectators to his museum. 66 If a n issu e o r ide a wa s topical , someho w th e dim e museu m busines s capitalized o n it . I n particular , spectator s love d t o se e the novel s they rea d

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mounted a s stag e plays . Familiarit y di d no t bree d contempt ; o n th e con trary, it created excitement. I t was exhilarating to see one's favorite fictional characters com e t o life . An d fo r thos e wh o wer e illiterate , play s allowe d them t o enjo y meetin g suc h well-know n character s a s Lady Isabe l o f East Lynne an d Little Eva of Uncle Tom^s Cabin. Nathaniel Hawthorne's famou s novel The Scarlet Letter wa s adapte d fo r th e stag e b y Aike n (1852) , an d Conway wrot e hi s ow n versio n o f To m Taylor' s Our American Cousin, tided Our Irish Cousins (1857). Victor Hugo's popular novel Les Miserables was performed i n 187 1 on the stag e at Wood's Museum. 67 Dramatization s of Charle s Dickens' s novels , includin g Oliver Twist (c . 1846) , The Old Curiosity Shop (c. 1846) , an d Nicholas Nickelby (c . 1846) , als o becam e fashionable afte r th e author's 184 2 visit to the United States . ••

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During the first half of the century, dime museum theatrica l evenings ofte n included a drama followe d b y a farce, with musica l interlude s betwee n th e acts.68 A theatrica l evenin g a t th e Bosto n Museu m o r th e America n Mu seum coul d las t five hours. Th e longe r plays , usually five-act dramas, were preceded o r followe d b y ligh t comedie s an d musica l interludes , panto mimes, and farces. 69 Ther e were also variety turns. O n Septembe r 3 , 1866, for example , Fanny Turner, a female drummer , performed betwee n the acts at Barnum' s museu m wit h he r so n "Alli e Turner , th e infan t drummer." 70 Sometimes huma n odditie s wer e know n t o appea r betwee n act s a s well ; sharing th e stag e wit h th e Turner s wa s Genera l Gran t Jr. , a midge t wh o danced. Some evenings, especially during the Christmas season or when the stoc k company was on summe r break , the Bosto n Museu m presente d a program of variet y artist s o r mounte d on e o f it s familia r spectacles , suc h a s th e pantomimes o f th e Martinett i compan y o r thos e o f th e illustriou s Georg e L. Fo x an d hi s company . Man y o f them wer e base d o n popula r fair y tale s such a s The Forty Thieves, and the Fairy of the Lake (1848) , Little Red Ridinghood, or the Wolf at the Door (1868), o r Cinderella (1846). 71 Pantomime wa s a very popula r summe r fill-in, bu t th e productio n demand s o f these displays were great. They usually required enormou s casts , had score s that calle d fo r larg e orchestras , an d include d numerou s scenes . For exam ple, the Boston Museum's 185 0 production o f The Enchanted Beauty, or A Dream of 100 Tears, (autho r an d dat e unknown ) containe d scene s set , variously, i n a castle , a Frenc h vineyard , a forest , an d a farm. 72 Bu t th e

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popularity an d financia l succes s o f pantomime s mad e u p fo r th e troubl e and expense. Most museum s maintaine d a collectio n o f generi c backdrops , rangin g from exterio r rusti c scene s to interior domesti c one s that coul d b e adapte d to th e requirement s o f almos t an y script . Fo r th e mos t part , a s i n man y theaters, the set s were of the traditiona l "dro p an d wing" type. The rear o f the stag e was marked b y a painted canva s drop o r b y two painted flats that met a t th e center . Alon g th e sid e o f the stag e wa s a series o f canva s wing s that face d th e audience . Actor s mad e thei r entrance s an d exit s betwee n these flats. (Th e bo x set , wit h it s thre e wall s an d ceiling , wa s a late r innovation tha t appeare d a t th e Bosto n Museu m o n Novembe r 24 , 1862.) 73 With th e exceptio n o f some period clothing , most o f the costume s wer e supplied b y th e actor s themselves . Thi s include d everythin g fro m hosier y and shoe s t o wig s an d othe r accessories . A n extensiv e professiona l ward robe was therefore crucia l for a stock company actor . Edward Mammen , i n his articl e o n th e Bosto n Museu m stoc k company , note d tha t stag e man ager Smit h onc e wrot e a lette r o f recommendatio n fo r on e o f hi s youn g actors i n whic h h e praise d no t onl y he r look s an d talen t bu t als o he r excellent wardrobe. 74 ••

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Barnum's American Museum i n New York established its stock company in 1849 under th e managemen t o f the English-born Franci s Courtne y (F . C. ) Wemyss, a longtim e manage r o f Philadelphia' s Chestnu t Stree t Theatr e Company. As a temperance advocat e Barnu m use d hi s museum t o dissemi nate th e antiliquo r messag e t o a mas s audience ; hi s Lectur e Roo m pre sented it s fai r shar e o f domesti c melodrama s wit h theme s abou t th e peril s of excessive drinking (se e fig. 19). He als o mounted man y biblica l dramas , however, suc h a s Royal l Tyler' s Joseph and His Brethren (c . 1859 ) an d Aiken's Moses; or> Israel in Egypt (1866), an d stage d severa l Shakespearea n plays, such as Romeo and Juliet (1850 ) an d Macbeth (1855). In additio n t o plays, th e America n Museu m presente d minstre l show s an d variet y enter tainments. At first, the museum's Lecture Room schedul e provided onl y for evenin g performances an d on e matine e o n Saturday . Thi s schedul e graduall y ex panded t o includ e a Wednesda y matine e and , i n th e hop e o f attractin g more wome n an d children , dail y matinees . Durin g th e holidays , th e mu -

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FIGURE 19 . Lectur e Room , Barnum' s America n Museum , 1853 . (Harvar d Theatr e Collection, Houghton Library. )

seum presente d a s many a s twelve show s a day. 75 Georg e C D . Odel l note s that b y 1850 , "Barnum' s wa s n o longe r Barnum's ; i t was a theatre." 7 6 Lecture roo m entertainment s wer e a n importan t aspec t o f th e museum going experience , an d Barnum' s increasingl y expande d theate r reflecte d this assumption . I n Novembe r 1 8 5 3 , a criti c fo r th e Illustrated News com plained tha t h e ha d t o mak e fou r attempt s t o ge t a sea t fo r th e America n Museum's productio n o f Uncle Tom's Cabin. Thre e times h e arrive d a t th e theater fifteen minute s befor e showtime , onl y t o b e confronte d b y a sig n that read , "Al l seat s i n th e lectur e roo m ar e engage d o r occupied. " O n hi s fourth attemp t th e criti c ha d t o wai t outsid e th e theate r fo r a n hou r t o ge t his seat. 77 Barnum offere d n o intermission s o r refreshment s t o hi s Lectur e Roo m audience, whic h force d spectator s t o remai n quietl y i n thei r seat s through out th e program , creatin g a more subdue d an d refine d atmosphere . Gener ally, his dramati c bill s ran fo r a week, an d o n Wednesday s an d Saturday s th e matinee wa s th e sam e a s th e evenin g bill . O n al l othe r day s a farc e wa s played i n th e afternoo n time slot . Durin g th e summe r seaso n Fox' s troup e was frequentl y i n residence , presentin g suc h pantomime s a s Jack and Gill, The Golden Age, The Frisky Cobbler, an d The Red Gnome and Four Lovers. 78

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Variety acts , whic h afte r midcentur y wer e n o longe r associate d wit h th e legitimate theater in New York, continued t o share the Lecture Room stag e with moral dramas at Barnum's museum . I n fact, i n the post-Civil War era, the theater s i n th e large r dim e museum s rejuvenate d variet y b y presentin g it i n clean , safe , famil y environments . I t wa s essentia l fo r th e surviva l o f dime museum s t o hav e som e elemen t o f liv e performance , an d manager s recognized tha t a n establishe d performanc e spac e coul d expan d a muse um's reputation , clientele , an d revenues . Eve n Ne w York' s elit e Ede n Musee, whic h di d no t hav e a tru e theate r an d shie d awa y fro m dramati c productions, presente d suc h variet y entertainer s a s vocalists , serpentin e dancers, and illusionists in its famous Winter Garden . Museums differe d i n thei r emphasi s o n th e questio n o f drama s versu s variety shows. George Wood's museum i n New York, for example , concentrated o n plays and initiated a two-play-a-day policy. A program fro m Apri l 13, 1874 , show s Mr . an d Mrs . E . L . Davenpor t performin g i n Macbeth, Oliver Twist, St. Marc, and a benefit performanc e o f A New Way to Pay Old Debts.79 B y 187 6 th e museu m wa s repossesse d b y Joh n Banvard , wh o removed al l its curiosities; in 187 9 i t was transformed int o Daly' s Theatre , one o f th e mos t reputabl e nineteenth-centur y legitimat e house s i n th e city.80 A t Ne w York' s Gaiet y Museum , wher e th e tin y theate r seate d onl y three hundre d spectators , th e managemen t tende d t o moun t variet y act s rather than plays. 81 Many of the more prominent dim e museums, however , fell somewher e betwee n thes e tw o approaches . Huber' s Museum , fo r ex ample, often provide d a balanced menu o f drama and variety. As mentioned earlier, Doris' s Eight h Avenu e Museu m ha d thre e theater s an d thu s man aged t o cate r t o almos t everyone' s tastes . I n it s theate r 1 it offere d tradi tional melodrama s an d mora l plays, in its theater 2 , variety, and in its thir d theater, Punch an d Judy shows. The Gran d Museu m i n Ne w Yor k operate d tw o theaters , presentin g variety in one space and stoc k company melodramas in the other. Bunnell' s maintained onl y on e theate r bu t presente d tw o differen t show s ever y da y in alternating tim e slots . A bill for April 2 1, 1882, announced tha t th e firs t show woul d offe r "Ventriloquis t Cleve r Carroll" ; "Her r Singerhoff , th e Successor t o Ol e Bull" ; "th e L a Port e Sisters , Queen s o f Song" ; "Joh n Irish, Champion o f the Bell Harmonica"; an d "Charle s Chestra , the India n Rubber Man. " Th e secon d sho w feature d a piano overtur e b y Her r Wig gins; song s b y th e Quake r Cit y Quartet ; a demonstratio n o f th e grea t

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London Ethoscope ; Japanese Tommy impersonating Adelina Patti; and Io n Ferrya, "th e Ma n Flute. " Th e performanc e conclude d wit h a farce, Grim Goblins.82 I t wa s commo n durin g th e 1880 s an d 1890 s t o find Iris h o r German performer s (o r performer s pretendin g t o b e Iris h o r German ) acting both in dime museum lecture rooms and on the vaudeville stage. Austin an d Stone' s Museum , locate d a t 4 Tremon t Stree t i n Boston , followed a schedule similar to Bunnell's, operating two theaters and providing tw o separat e variet y programs . Theate r A presente d five show s dail y and Theater B four. According to a November 25, 1891, bill, each program contained si x spots . Th e variet y program s offere d b y dim e museum s di d not diffe r muc h fro m on e t o another . Th e name s o f the performer s migh t change, bu t th e six-tur n t o eight-tur n variet y structure , whic h sometime s included a one-act playlet , remained constant . A bill from a dime museu m theater in the 1880 s resembled a typical small-time vaudeville bill, although it was somewha t shorter . I t include d severa l individua l acts , such a s vocalists, jugglers, and comedians, followed b y a one-act play. Standing Roo m Onl y sign s gre w commonplac e a s th e theater s a t dim e museums, became not onl y an accepted part of the museum experienc e bu t a highl y desirabl e one . Odel l notice d tha t b y th e 1880s , th e natur e o f museum advertisin g ha d begu n t o change ; managers pu t les s emphasi s o n their curi o hal l exhibit s an d mor e o n th e variet y artist s wh o wer e per forming i n thei r "theatoriums. " I t wa s th e lectur e roo m entertainment s that ha d th e rea l drawin g power . I n fact , whe n lectur e room s wer e dark , dime museum crowd s were smaller. 83 In th e lat e 1880s , theate r peopl e bega n t o for m comed y team s tha t played t o famil y audience s i n dim e museums. 84 Thes e team s woul d floa t from museu m t o museum , spendin g fro m on e t o si x week s a t a give n location. The y would perfor m individua l sketche s that coul d b e integrate d into a bill filled with work s o f the museum' s stoc k company . Th e progra m often culminate d i n th e join t productio n o f a one-ac t pla y performe d b y the guest artists and the stock company . Some of the more popular variety comedy team s were Mack and Bryant , the Ree d Family, and Harr y Thompson's Comed y Company , names foun d over an d ove r i n dim e museu m theate r programs. 85 Richar d Hyd e an d Louis Behman , who briefl y manage d th e Ne w Par k Theatre, Museum an d Menagerie i n 1884 , create d a two-act comed y calle d Muldoon's Picnic (c. 1882), whic h wa s performe d b y man y vaudevill e companie s an d comed y teams an d ca n als o be foun d o n numerou s dim e museu m program s o f th e

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1880s and 1890s . It was a "dung-boot comedy, " says Douglas Gilbert , an d it achieved nationwide notoriety. 86 The smalle r museums , thos e locate d i n storefronts , mosti y wer e no t equipped fo r actua l pla y production ; thei r stage s wer e smal l an d thei r seating capacit y limited . Instead , the y tende d t o produc e entertainment s with a lower overhea d tha n straigh t plays. For th e mos t par t the y confine d themselves to song and dance acts, comedians, and the like. When an actual play was mounted, i t was usually cut to shred s so that it could b e played i n less tha n a n hour , an d ther e wa s rarely , if ever , an y rehearsa l time. 87 On e observer wrot e tha t whe n h e visite d a smal l museu m i n Ne w Yor k wher e Uncle Tom's Cabin wa s playing , h e foun d th e stag e ver y meager , wit h a post in the center (n o doubt a structural column) . Little Eva was played b y a "thre e hundre d poun d blon d woma n an d Eliz a crosse d th e ic e i n th e kitchen," th e onl y availabl e backdrop. 88 Th e bloodhound s wh o followe d her were described a s a couple of sickly-looking pug dogs . The seedie r museum s tende d t o hir e down-and-ou t actors , an d audi ences wer e fa r fro m reticen t whe n i t cam e t o showin g thei r disapproval . The behavio r o f a spectato r i n thes e smalle r dim e museum s tende d t o b e on a par with tha t o f a boisterous concer t saloo n patron. These unsophisti cated museum theaters, however, provided training grounds for some notable young performers, including Al Jolson, Harry Houdini, and Weber an d Fields.89 The lectur e room s o f dim e museum s wer e amon g th e firs t place s i n which variet y (a n ancesto r o f vaudeville) appeared , perhap s a s early a s th e 1840s. Indeed , performanc e space s i n chea p museum s ha d mor e i n com mon with the concert saloons and variety halls of the day, which showcase d a seedy kind o f sketch and novelt y entertainment. Th e lecture roo m enter tainments o f place s lik e Huber' s an d Doris' s Museum s an d th e Bosto n Museum, o n th e othe r hand , wer e highl y respectable . Th e variet y perfor mances o f th e large r dim e museu m theater s wer e family-oriented , devoi d of "bad " language , an d fa r fro m vulgar ; the y di d no t nee d cleanin g up . Much o f th e entertainmen t presente d i n th e lectur e room s o f th e bette r dime museum s wa s "clea n variety " a s distinguishe d fro m th e honky-ton k kind. B. F . Keith, late r a "clean " vaudevill e mogul , ha d begu n hi s caree r a s a museum man . H e worke d a t Bunnell' s museu m fo r a year , toure d wit h Barnum's circus , an d i n Januar y 188 3 opene d hi s ow n dim e museu m a t 565-567 Washingto n Stree t i n Boston . Th e museu m ha d on e exhibition ,

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FIGURE 20 . Austin an d Stone' s Museum, c . 1891 . (Bill y Rose Theatre Collection , Ne w York Publi c Librar y fo r th e Performin g Arts , Astor , Leno x an d Tilde n Foundations. )

"Baby Alice , th e Midge t Wonder." 9 0 Fo r te n cents , a spectato r coul d se e this littl e gir l ( a prematur e infant ) displaye d o n a stag e si x fee t squar e i n a fifteen-by-thirty-foot room . Afte r a fe w weeks , h e too k o n a partner , Wil liam Austin , an d the y rename d thei r establishmen t th e Ne w Yor k Dim e Museum. B y Februar y the y ha d adde d severa l exoti c displays , includin g "Dora, th e Beautifu l Tattooe d Lady, " "Warbler , th e Mysteriou s Lad y War bler," an d "Dahema , th e Giant." 9 1 Shortl y thereafter , however , Austi n broke of f hi s partnership wit h Keit h an d opene d a competing museu m wit h Frank Stone . Austi n an d Stone' s museu m wa s locate d a t 4 Tremon t Street ; in Septembe r 188 3 th e du o claime d t o b e th e owner s o f th e larges t mu seum i n Americ a (se e fig. 20) . Eigh t year s later , i n 1 8 9 1 , accordin g t o a boast o n th e museum' s letterhead , nin e millio n patron s ha d visite d th e establishment. 92 Keith wa s no t discourage d b y Austin's defection , however , an d b y Marc h 1883 h e ha d foun d a ne w partne r name d Gardiner . Durin g thei r brie f union, th e tw o manager s expande d thei r museu m t o includ e a "theate r r o o m " o n th e secon d floo r tha t coul d accommodat e 12 3 seate d spectator s and 3 0 t o 4 0 standees. 9 3 I n 188 4 Keit h nex t paire d u p wit h Georg e H . Batchelder, a circus ma n fro m Providence , Rhod e Island . I n th e summe r o f 1885, wit h Batchelder' s resources , the y enlarge d th e theate r again , raisin g

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the seatin g capacit y t o five hundred. 94 Th e museu m wa s rename d Keit h and Batchelder' s Mammot h Museum , an d wa s ope n fro m 1 0 A.M . to 1 0 P.M. Slowly, Keith bega n to switch the emphasis of the museum, and b y the spring o f 188 5 th e establishmen t wa s give n a new name , th e Gaiet y Hal l and Museum , whic h reflecte d th e change. 95 Th e museu m employe d a conventional stoc k compan y o f performer s wh o rotate d show s ever y tw o hours, but it was difficult t o compet e with Austin an d Stone' s tw o theater s and their in-house variety companies. In addition , i n a n articl e publishe d i n 1898 , Keit h wrot e tha t th e ol d adage "Necessity is the mother of invention" never had a clearer applicatio n than i n th e "continuou s performanc e ide a o f entertainment." 96 Keit h de veloped th e continuou s variet y o r "vaudeville " bil l t o comba t on e o f th e dime museums ' majo r difficultie s wit h it s lectur e roo m productions — crowd control. 97 Th e hourl y sho w structur e create d traffi c contro l prob lems, since many patrons organize d thei r museum visit s around th e lectur e room schedule . Th e criti c wh o attempte d thre e times t o se e Uncle Tom's Cabin at Barnum's museum befor e gettin g a ticket, for example , finally saw the pla y onl y becaus e h e arrive d a n hou r earl y an d waite d i n th e hall . Responding t o suc h "problem s withi n th e economi c an d presentationa l structure o f dime museum " lectur e rooms , Keith eliminate d th e "waiting in-the-hall" syndrome. 98 O n Jul y 6 , 1885 , with a twenty-seven-tur n pro gram, h e introduce d hi s continuou s variet y progra m t o a Bosto n dim e museum. Whether o r no t Keit h was the first to implemen t thi s format a t a dime museum, he di d popularize it . After th e Civi l War, however, museu m lecture room s alread y ha d begu n t o operat e o n a n all-da y performanc e schedule. Bunnell' s theater , fo r example , stage d fro m si x t o eigh t show s daily an d bega n a tren d towar d increasin g th e numbe r o f dail y perfor mances. In 1889 , according to Odell' s records, Worth was already regularly mounting continuou s variety. But it would not b e enough i n the twentiet h century.

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6. Waxwork s an d Fil m My childish fancy confused th e living men and women swarmin g along the street with the lifelike wax-figure s i n the showcases . —William Henry Venable

Between 184 0 and 190 0 a mass market in imagery developed in the Unite d States. Ownin g painting s an d etching s durin g th e eighteent h centur y ha d been a sign o f statu s an d affluence . B y the mid-nineteent h century , how ever, becaus e o f advance s i n printin g techniques , colo r lithograph s decor ated th e wall s o f eve n th e mos t humbl e parlors . Th e Wester n worl d wa s becoming a densel y visua l environment , an d th e ubiquit y o f image s con tributed greatl y t o th e disseminatio n o f knowledg e an d th e averag e per son's perception o f the world. Newspaper s not onl y documented bu t illustrated curren t events, billboards provided allurin g images of goods for sale, and th e ar t o f photography wa s flourishing. 1 Th e ques t fo r greate r realis m permeated al l aspects o f late nineteenth-centur y culture . Th e aesthetic s o f stage desig n change d rapidly , fro m flat, painte d scener y t o three-dimen sional, soli d realism . Imaginativ e technician s suc h a s Steel e MacKay e an d David Belasc o brough t th e lates t mechanica l device s int o th e theater , in cluding elevato r stages , natural-looking overhea d lighting , electrica l light ing boards , an d authenti c props. 2 Dim e museum s provide d provocativ e images of the wonders of the universe, the human body, and faraway places, as well a s fragments o f history an d curren t events . The dim e museu m wa s also on e o f th e first institution s t o sho w films , th e quintessentia l optica l spectacle of the late nineteenth century . "Images are more precise and richer" than the written word, John Berger has written i n Ways of Seeing.3 Images, however, ar e not a s exact a s words and ofte n ar e deceiving . The y perpetuall y challeng e th e viewer' s sens e o f authenticity: I t look s real , bu t i s i t real ? Ca n a work b e genuin e i f it i s a reproduction? Th e wonderful profusio n o f images may have visually stimu106

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lated Victoria n Americans , bu t i t als o propelle d the m int o a worl d o f deceptions, hoaxes , an d humbugging . Phinea s T . Barnu m thrive d i n thi s environment, a s did the dime museum . One o f the most popular exhibit s at any dime museum was the display of life-sized waxworks . Th e operationa l aestheti c o f waxwork s exhibit s wa s "admiring th e perfectio n o f the fake." 4 Wa x tableaux re-create d an d rein terpreted figures an d moment s i n tim e fo r a specifi c audienc e tha t wa s amazed b y the remarkabl e realis m o f the lifelik e mannequins . Th e deligh t for th e viewer was in being deceived. Standing befor e th e "Assassinatio n o f Julius Caesar " tablea u a t New York City' s Ede n Musee , for example , spectators di d no t critiqu e th e fictionalized Roma n Foru m settin g o r questio n the theatrica l logi c o f placin g Caesa r o n a stretche r hal f covere d wit h a sheet convenienti y drape d t o expos e hi s sta b wound s (se e fig. 21) . An d who was the unidentifie d ma n kneelin g an d weeping b y Caesar's side , and who wer e th e tw o wome n stretchin g ou t thei r arm s towar d hi m i n grie f > They were no t mentione d i n th e descriptio n o f the scen e provide d b y th e guidebook.5 Ede n Musee patrons were satisfied simpl y to know that al l the essential figures—Cassius, Brutus , Mar c Antony , an d Caesar—wer e pres ent an d accounte d for . Th e authenticit y o f a historica l reproductio n wa s not questione d a s lon g a s certai n familia r element s an d character s wer e included. Thi s was an important par t o f the delight : th e pleasure o f seein g a three-dimensional re-creatio n o f a famous momen t wa s so rewarding an d reassuring that it allowed the spectator not t o b e critical about th e exhibit . The Foru m backgroun d i n th e Ede n Musee' s "Assassinatio n o f Juliu s Caesar" was created from th e designer's own imagination. Wax artists ofte n imitated well-know n paintings , however , thu s complicatin g th e leve l o f deception; interpretation bega t interpretation , whic h was seen b y the pub lic a s reality . O f th e countles s portrait s painte d o f Georg e Washington , which on e wa s selecte d b y artist s a s their model ? Wa s "Washington " cre ated t o sho w ho w th e ma n reall y looked , wit h th e smallpo x scar s o n hi s face and the mole under his ear, or was the goal to create a flawless paragon to represent the general who had liberated th e United States? 6 Most exhibits simpl y re-created th e famou s paintin g b y Emanuel Leutz e o f Washington crossin g th e Delaware . Artists i n wa x were n o differen t fro m Barnu m in attemptin g t o giv e th e publi c wha t i t wanted , whic h wa s a pasteurize d interpretation o f th e past . B y standardizing o r stereotypin g historica l mo ments an d individuals , museu m artist s presented a diverse audienc e wit h a common visio n o f the past. Such share d image s were bot h comfortin g an d inspirational.

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FIGURE 21 . "The Assassinatio n o f Julius Caesar, " Ede n Muse e catalog , 1905 . (NewYork Historical Society.)

The dim e museu m wa s a natura l venu e fo r itineran t waxworks . B y th e late eighteent h centur y waxwork s ha d becom e a fashionable entertainment . Wax re-creation s furthere d th e Enlightenment' s caus e o f th e disseminatio n of knowledge ; historica l tableau x wer e viewe d a s educational . Waxwork s had firs t becom e popula r i n Europe , an d foreig n collection s toure d th e East Coas t o f the Unite d State s a s early a s 1749 . I n Augus t o f tha t yea r th e New Tork Gazette announce d th e arriva l o f a wa x exhibitio n fro m Britai n featuring image s o f th e roya l famil y o f England , th e Empres s Quee n o f Hungary an d Bohemia , an d fourtee n othe r famou s figures. Danie l Bowen , one o f th e first American s t o manag e a waxwork s display , exhibite d hi s figures fro m 179 0 t o 181 0 a t th e Columbia n Museu m an d America n Coffee Hous e i n Boston , th e America n Museu m o f Wax Works i n Philadel phia, an d i n Ne w Yor k a t 7 4 Wate r Street , 7 5 Broa d Street , an d Edwar d Savage's Greenwic h Stree t museum . Hi s display s include d Georg e Wash ington "sittin g unde r a canop y i n hi s militar y dress, " a s wel l a s th e kin g and quee n o f Englan d wit h th e Princ e o f Wales. 7 I n 179 3 Gardine r Bake r avidly advertise d hi s waxwork s collection. 8 A s itineran t amusements , wax works were booke d int o tow n hall s an d lectur e rooms . Generally , showme n rented a spac e fo r onl y a da y o r s o befor e movin g on . "Th e Travellin g Museum," a n earl y nineteenth-centur y attraction , consiste d o f tw o horse -

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drawn caravan s tha t coul d b e joine d t o for m on e larg e exhibitio n roo m displaying twenty-seve n wa x figures. Th e mannequin s include d Georg e Washington, Genera l Lafayette , th e revolutionar y Jea n Pau l Marat , th e Marquis d e Sade , and Napoleon . Als o i n th e exhibi t wa s Hortensi a How ard, a woman who had killed sixteen of her seventeen husband s b y pouring melted lead in their ears as they slept. 9 Creating quality wax displays was very expensive. The effigie s themselve s could cos t as much a s $250 each , a large sum a t the time, and for elaborat e costumes a museum migh t pa y thousands. 10 Jus t a s som e dim e museum s devoted mor e tim e t o theatrica l production s tha n di d others , museum s varied i n th e qualit y an d complexit y o f thei r waxwork s departments . Th e larger dim e museum s ha d thei r ow n artisti c staffs , whose member s create d a wid e rang e o f wa x tableaux. 11 Smalle r institution s eithe r bough t agin g displays from large r one s o r hire d itineran t showme n t o exhibi t thei r waxworks. For centurie s craftsme n ha d bee n creatin g lifelik e effigie s i n wax ; how ever, thes e image s wer e no t ofte n use d fo r entertainment . Th e ancien t Romans paraded wa x figures at the funeral s o f influential me n t o represen t the ancestor s o f the deceased , an d afterwar d thes e effigie s remaine d i n th e deceased's house. 12 Earl y Christian s use d wa x fo r creatin g image s o f th e saints and Jesus Christ. Unti l th e middl e o f the eighteent h centur y i t was a common custo m i n Englan d t o exhibi t wa x figures o f departed nobleme n and royalt y a t thei r funerals. 13 Seventeenth - an d eighteenth-centur y deat h masks and wax bust-medallions immortalized heroes, martyrs, wealthy politicians, an d aristocrats . Wa x sculpture s wer e use d i n medica l school s t o teach student s anatomy . Abraha m Chovet , a note d physician , frequentl y lectured fro m wa x models ; in 177 4 h e establishe d a n anatomica l museu m in Pennsylvania that displayed naked male and female effigie s whos e "exter nal parts were removable" for bette r scrutiny. 14 ••

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One o f th e greates t creator s o f life-size d figures i n thi s er a wa s a Frenc h citizen, Madame Tussaud . Bor n Anne Marie Grosholtz , she began trainin g in th e ar t o f wa x modelin g a t th e ag e o f si x with a Germa n sculptor , Dr . Philippe Curtius . Marie' s mothe r worke d a s a housekeepe r fo r Curtius , whom youn g Mari e calle d "Uncle." 15 Whe n Curtiu s move d t o Pari s i n 1767, h e too k Mari e an d he r mothe r wit h him . Ther e h e establishe d a reputable waxwork s museu m know n a s th e Salo n d e Cir e locate d a t 2 0 Boulevard d u Temple . For man y years Marie live d a t Versailles, working as

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art tuto r t o Madam e Elizabeth , th e siste r o f Loui s XVI . I n 1789 , severa l month befor e th e stormin g o f the Bastill e o n Jul y 14 , Marie lef t Versaille s and returne d t o Paris . During.th e Frenc h Revolution , Mari e wa s com manded b y th e revolutionar y authoritie s t o mak e deat h mask s fro m th e decapitated head s o f the victim s o f the guillotine. 16 When Curtiu s die d i n 1794, h e wille d al l his property , includin g th e Salo n d e Cire , t o Marie . A year later, in 1795 , Marie married a civil engineer named Francois Tussaud . Postrevolutionary Franc e di d no t hav e a stabl e economy , and , fearin g fo r the future o f her wax business, Madame Tussaud left Pari s in October 180 2 with he r eldest son, Joseph, and settled i n England. (Sh e never returned t o France or reunited with her husband. ) Before leavin g fo r England , Madam e Tussau d ha d entere d int o a part nership agreemen t wit h a phantasmagoria, a type o f magic lanter n perfor mance, operate d b y Paul d e Philipsthal . Philipsthal , who performe d a t th e Lyceum i n London , believe d tha t hi s partner' s wa x display s woul d hel p attract patron s t o th e Lyceum . Th e partnershi p soo n soured , however , chiefly becaus e Madam e Tussaud' s wa x museum wa s more successfu l tha n the magic lantern shows. After leavin g the Lyceum, Madame Tussaud spen t many year s a s a n itineran t entrepreneur . I n 1835 , a t th e ag e o f seventy four, sh e settle d permanentl y i n Londo n an d opene d a wax museu m o n Baker Street . Whe n Barnu m toure d Englan d wit h Charle s Stratto n i n 1844, h e was so impressed b y her collectio n tha t h e trie d t o bu y i t fo r hi s museum. 17 Madame Tussau d die d i n 1850 , leavin g he r collectio n t o he r tw o sons , Joseph an d Francis . In 1884 , her thre e grandsons , Joseph Randall , Francis Curtius, an d Victor , move d fou r hundre d wa x statue s an d accessorie s t o a new hom e i n London' s Marylebon e Road . T o thi s da y it i s Britain's mos t visited tourist attraction. 18 ••

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Perhaps th e mos t sophisticate d an d dramati c nineteenth-centur y wa x pre sentation i n Americ a wa s create d an d produce d b y Josep h Dorfeuill e an d his twenty-four-year-ol d artisti c protege , Hira m Powers . I n 182 9 Dorfeu ille hired Powers to repair wax figures damage d i n shipment to the Western Museum o f Cincinnat i fro m Ne w Orleans , where the y ha d bee n manufac tured. Powers , however, ha d a gift fo r workin g i n wa x an d soo n bega n t o create original figures for Dorfeuille' s museum . The tw o men' s greates t achievemen t wa s thei r theatrica l depictio n o f Hell, know n a s "Th e Inferna l Regions. " Modele d afte r Dante' s Divine

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Comedy an d Milton' s Paradise Lost, "Th e Inferna l Regions " presente d a fascinating an d frightenin g multimedi a spectacle . (Actually , ther e wer e tw o hellish environments , on e col d an d on e hot . I n th e col d Hell , me n wer e shown freezin g t o d e a t h . ) 1 9 A t th e entranc e t o th e exhibit , patron s rea d the Dantesqu e sign , "Whoeve r Enter s Her e Leave s H o p e Behind" ; Minos , Lucifer, an d Beelzebu b greete d the m a t th e door. 2 0 Th e figure s wer e mechanical wa x effigie s tha t literall y jumped ou t a t passersby while emittin g horrific cries . Visitor s t o "Th e Inferna l Regions " wer e s o intrigue d b y the realis m o f th e figures tha t the y wer e constantl y touchin g the m fo r confirmation tha t the y were indee d wax . T o minimiz e damag e t o hi s sculp tures, Dorfeuill e ha d t o pu t u p a n iro n gratin g charge d wit h a mild electri cal current . In th e cente r o f "Th e Inferna l Regions " sa t th e "Kin g o f Terrors " (se e fig. 22) . Costume d i n re d tights , wit h re d horn s an d a forked tail , th e kin g welcomed visitor s wit h a wav e o f hi s pitchfor k whil e ominou s smok e swirled abou t him . Power s himsel f played th e rol e o f th e devil , bu t h e soo n tired o f th e tas k an d constructe d a n automate d devi l t o tak e hi s place . Adept a t theatrica l engineering , h e als o devise d soun d effect s o f shrieks , groans, thunder , an d th e hissin g o f serpents . Bu t n o soone r ha d Power s abandoned on e rol e tha n h e create d another , a mor e activ e characte r known a s th e "Evi l O n e . " Power s woul d roa m abou t th e chambe r i n costume, casuall y frightenin g unsuspectin g patrons . N o w th e scream s o f real peopl e intermingle d wit h th e exhibit' s prepare d soun d effects , an d th e crowd becam e a vita l par t o f th e experience . A t th e en d o f th e exhibitio n hall, usherin g th e shocke d an d shake n patron s out , stoo d a skeleto n hold ing a sign tha t read , To thi s gri m form , ou r cherishe d limb s have come , And thu s li e mouldering i n thei r earthl y home ; In tur f boun d hillock , o r i n sculpture d shrine , The worm s alike , their col d caresse s twine ; So far we al l are equal , bu t onc e left , Our morta l weeds , of vital spark bereft , Asunder, farthe r tha n th e pole s were driven ; Some sun k i n deepes t Hell , some raise d t o highes t Heaven. 21 Powers lef t th e Wester n Museu m o f Cincinnat i i n 183 4 afte r five years. 22 H e wen t o n t o becom e a sculptor , first i n Washington , D.C. , an d the n i n Florence. Rumor s late r circulate d tha t ther e ha d bee n a rift betwee n Power s

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FIGURE 22 . A wood engravin g illustrating "Th e Kin g o f Terrors, " c . 1830 . (Cincinnat i Historical Society. )

and Dorfeuille . I n a n interview , i n fact , Power s admitte d tha t h e ha d lef t out o f frustration, becaus e Dorfeuill e ha d broke n hi s promise o f a partner ship. In addition , Powers claimed that Dorfeuille ha d shortchanged hi m o n his salary. 23 Afte r Power s lef t "Th e Inferna l Regions " deteriorated ; hi s successor, Linden Ryder , did not possess the skills needed t o maintain suc h an elaborat e presentation . Dorfeuill e too k th e remain s o f th e exhibitio n

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with hi m t o Ne w York , bu t hi s ventur e di d no t mee t wit h muc h success . Ironically, all the infernal figures were destroyed i n a fire. "The Inferna l Regions " had bee n a n unprecedented nineteenth-centur y display o f showmanship , it s succes s completel y dependen t o n Powers' s mechanical skill s an d theatrica l vision . Th e exhibitio n combine d element s of stag e design , lighting , sound , costuming , acting , an d technolog y t o create a n utterl y convincin g an d frightenin g atmosphere : Disney-lik e audio-animatronics i n th e technologicall y unsophisticate d earl y nineteent h century. Automat a themselve s wer e no t unprecedented ; the y ha d bee n quite popula r i n th e eighteent h century , whe n mechanica l toys an d clock s with moving figures had amused millions. There were, for example , automaton ches s players befor e th e famou s Ajee b o f the 1880s ; among th e mos t celebrated wa s MaelzeP s Turk. 24 Automat a wer e ofte n use d i n magic shows, an d Jea n Eugen e Robert-Houdin , th e famou s nineteenth-centur y magician, was well known fo r hi s animated figures. I n 1844 , in fact , h e s o impressed Barnu m wit h hi s "smalle r tha n life-siz e automate d man " tha t could write with pencil an d paper tha t Barnu m bough t th e automato n an d put it on display in London. 25 The mechanic s o f automation, however , was rarely applie d t o suc h larg e figures a s wa x effigies . Moo d a t thes e exhibit s wa s generall y create d b y background paintings , costumes , an d sometime s sound ; rarel y was a n en tire environment created . Eve n standard chamber s o f horrors, for example , were gruesom e i n term s o f thei r subjec t matter , th e natur e o f th e item s exhibited, an d th e depictio n o f huma n torture , bu t spectator s neve r be came real participants in the drama . ••

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The popularit y o f chambers o f horrors depende d heavil y o n th e attractio n felt b y nineteenth-centur y pleasur e seeker s t o th e genr e o f horror , whic h also produced suc h novel s a s Mary Shelley' s Frankenstein (1818) , Rober t Louis Stevenson' s Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1887) , an d Bram Stoker' s Dracula (1897) . Th e typica l dim e museu m chambe r o f horrors feature d tool s o f tortur e an d execution , a s well a s wax figures o f such murderers , evildoers , an d outlaw s a s Jess e James . Th e acto r Oti s Skinner remembere d visitin g th e Bosto n Museum' s chambe r o f horrors a s a youth . Th e "dominan t featur e o f thes e silen t an d awfu l drama s wa s blood—and lot s o f it, " h e wrote. 26 I n hi s autobiography , Skinne r als o described tw o othe r powerful dim e museu m memories , "Thre e Scene s in a Drunkard's Life " an d "Th e Pirates ' Cabin. " Th e first se t o f tableau x de -

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picted th e destructio n o f a famil y b y alcohol . I n th e initia l scen e Skinne r saw a comfortabl e family—mother , father , sister , an d brother—merril y drinking champagne. The room was decorated with pretty wallpaper, and a cheerful clot h covere d th e dinne r table . Th e secon d scen e showe d th e family dresse d i n rags , drinkin g ru m i n thei r now-dilapidate d home . Th e third, tragi c tablea u showe d th e final stag e o f th e family' s dissolution . The daughte r wor e cheap , tawdr y clothes , suggestin g tha t sh e wa s no w a prostitute. Th e father , i n a drunken rage , had kille d hi s wife, who no w lay dead o n th e floor, bloo d oozin g fro m he r forehead. 27 I n "Th e Pirates ' Cabin," Skinne r recalled a "scene o f carnage," with pirates "gloating " ove r bloody corpses. 28 Why were these exhibits so popular? Thi s is what Noel Carrol l has called the parado x o f th e horro r genre : th e attractio n o f th e repulsive? 29 Ou r exhilaration come s from ou r knowledge tha t the threat o f the horror is not real. We can b e thrilled b y a fearsome spectacl e o r experience , knowing we will in n o wa y be harmed. Thi s is the principl e o f roller coaster s an d othe r rides designe d t o see m dangerous . Simpl y buyin g a ticke t t o suc h a rid e attests to its safety an d qualifie s th e experience , allowing fear o r the illusio n of fea r t o b e pleasurable . Unexpecte d horror , rando m horror , horro r no t purchased, i s never a pleasurable experience ; almost b y definition i t cause s actual terror . Purchase d horror , commodifie d horror , fictional horror , i s a compelling experience ; i t promote s bot h excitemen t an d wonder . Thi s i s what the waxworks in a chamber o f horrors offered . Blood wa s hardl y eve r foun d i n historica l display s o f war , bu t i t wa s everywhere i n a chambe r o f horrors , becaus e th e chambe r wa s a place o f dark fantas y an d controlle d unworldliness . As a result, th e spectato r coul d securely com e fac e t o fac e wit h image s suc h a s torture , execution , an d blood tha t i n th e rea l world woul d caus e grea t distress . Foreign barbaris m was illustrated b y tableaux depicting such spectacles as "The Hindoo Woman's Sacrifice " o r method s o f tortur e use d b y th e Spanis h durin g th e Inquisition.30 Effigie s o f local criminals often wer e displayed; in many ways dime museu m waxwork s serve d th e sam e functio n a s today' s televisio n docudramas: they immortalized th e latest crime stories. 31 A subgenr e o f fantas y i s th e happily-ever-afte r story . Fair y tales , whic h fall int o th e latte r category , ofte n wer e illustrate d a t dim e museums ; th e Western Museu m o f Cincinnati , fo r example , ha d a tablea u o f Sleepin g Beauty bein g awakene d fro m he r spel l b y tru e love' s first kiss , a s di d Philadelphia's Nint h an d Arc h Museum. 32 Wit h thes e three-dimensiona l

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fantasy visions, the dime museum truly entered the realm of hyperreality, in that fantas y wa s translate d int o reality . Thus , an y authenticit y offere d b y wax displays was by definition a n illusion, a humbug. At th e dim e museu m waxworks , a n inte r textual interpla y too k plac e between th e viewe r an d th e wa x tableaux . A spectato r usuall y kne w th e rudiments o f th e even t depicte d befor e him , b e i t a n electrocutio n o r a scene fro m history . Knowin g th e stor y line , th e spectato r focuse d no t o n the narrativ e bu t o n th e detail s o f the exhibit . Fo r example , a t the numer ous display s o f the surrende r o f Genera l Lee' s arm y a t Appomattox Cour t House, viewer s seemingl y wer e no t primaril y concerne d wit h wh o wa s i n the roo m an d what documen t the y were signing ; they focuse d perhap s o n the wal l o f th e roo m an d it s pictures , wha t eac h figur e wa s wearing , whether th e mannequin s wer e wearing gloves , whether thei r hands looke d real, whether ther e wer e fingernail s o n thei r fingers . Wha t colo r wa s Gen eral Grant' s hair ? Th e spectator s kne w the y wer e witnessin g a re-creation , something fake ; therefore , the y concentrate d o n th e mimicr y o f truth , on th e seemingl y realisti c aspect s o f th e scene—th e costuming , makeup , lighting, an d props . Th e operationa l aestheti c wa s th e admiratio n o f th e perfection o f the fake . New York' s Ede n Muse e maintaine d a n impressiv e wa x collection , on e of the most thrilling in the United States during the nineteenth century . It s frightening Chambe r o f Horror s an d it s historica l an d contemporar y tab leaux wer e imitate d b y man y museums . The y wer e s o popula r tha t th e museum "becam e on e o f the goal s o f the rusti c visito r t o th e city." 33 Th e museum earne d th e reputatio n o f havin g lifelike , artisti c wa x figures , it s tableaux usuall y too k a s lon g a s tw o week s t o complete . Whe n th e nee d arose, however , th e staf f coul d wor k miracle s i n twenty-fou r hours , a s i n the case of the death o f a queen or a president. 34 The museum' s chie f wax artist was Constant Thys . Thys did not cas t th e head o f a figure, bu t h e was responsible fo r al l the detailin g an d essentiall y brought lif e t o th e effigy . Th e head s o f these wa x figures wer e create d firs t by a sculptor . The n sketche s an d cla y model s wer e made , followe d b y a plaster cast , which wa s divide d int o seve n sections . Th e section s wer e pu t together an d fille d wit h melte d beeswax . I t too k onl y twent y minute s fo r most o f the wax to harden, and the mold was turned upsid e down t o allo w the remainin g wax to ru n out . Th e sculpto r the n wa s left wit h a mold no t more tha n hal f a n inc h thick . A ho t iro n wa s use d t o mak e hole s fo r th e eyes. Onc e fak e eye s were i n place , hot wa x was poured aroun d th e edge s

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to hol d the m i n place. Holes als o were drilled a t the mout h fo r fals e teeth . Initially th e mol d wa s rough , an d th e artis t use d a spatula t o smoot h th e surface. Then cam e th e detailing . Rea l hair , costin g sixt y cent s a n ounce , wa s sewn ont o th e hea d wit h a needle; i t coul d tak e thre e day s t o complet e a figure wit h lon g hair . Lashes , brows , an d facia l hai r als o were hand-sewn . For a male figure without a beard, facia l hai r stil l was meticulously applie d to th e cheek s and chi n an d the n shave d to creat e a more natural look . Th e body wa s mad e ou t o f wa x an d papier-mach e an d the n attache d t o th e head. Coloring , painting wrinkles, and adding moles were done next. The n the figures wer e meticulousl y costumed . A n iro n ro d ra n throug h th e sculptures fro m hea d t o to e t o kee p the m i n place. 35 Eac h figure wa s inspected dail y an d repainte d twic e a yea r whe n th e museum' s staf f als o changed their seasonal garments. Two thousand individuals were immortalized i n wa x durin g th e museum' s first twenty-fiv e years . "Quee n Isabell a Receiving Christophe r Columbus, " consistin g o f thirty figures, was said t o have bee n th e larges t tablea u i n th e world . Th e waxwor k staf f a t Ne w York's Ede n Muse e wa s als o responsibl e fo r manufacturin g th e figures mounted a t th e Ede n Muse e i n Chicago . I n addition , th e museu m pro vided opportunitie s fo r th e publi c t o mak e it s ow n wa x moldings . Be trothed couples , fo r example , coul d g o t o th e museu m an d hav e a mol d made o f thei r claspe d hands. 36 Afte r twenty-eigh t year s a t Ne w York' s Eden Musee , Thys die d o f a heart attac k whil e working o n th e museum' s Christmas display. 37 H e wa s succeede d b y tw o skille d craftsmen , Edwar d Hause an d Frank Donnelly . Not al l dime museum s ha d suc h elaborat e wax displays, but a s a general rule, an y museu m tha t calle d itsel f a "musee " regularl y exhibite d detaile d waxworks. History , horror , famou s artist s an d musicians , an d fair y tale s were no t th e onl y subject s o f thes e wa x displays . Museum s mounte d reli gious tableau x suc h a s th e Sacre d Chambe r o f th e Ede n Muse e an d th e Egyptian Muse e o f Philadelphia . Th e Ede n Musee' s display , a s note d i n chapter 3 , ha d si x tableaux , wherea s th e on e i n th e Egyptia n Muse e ha d eight: "Th e Stable"; "The Savio r Talking to the Learned Doctors" ; "At the House o f Marth a an d Mary" ; "Th e Las t Supper" ; "Th e Savio r Brough t from Prison" ; "Th e Crucifixion" ; "Nicodemu s an d Josep h Bearin g th e Body of the Savior to the Sepulchre"; and "I n th e Tomb o f the Savior afte r the Resurrection." 38 Thes e exhibits helped many museums aspire to a high moral an d didacti c tone , althoug h th e storie s the y re-create d wer e alread y so familiar t o th e averag e spectato r tha t the y were no t exceptionall y infor -

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mative. To th e non-English-speakin g immigran t an d th e smal l child , how ever, wa x re-creation s wer e o f som e educationa l value . Th e wa x museu m business, i n fact , stil l thrive s i n som e touris t communities , althoug h th e film an d televisio n industrie s ar e no w th e leadin g producer s o f horror , fantasy, an d religious drama . ••

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The developmen t o f th e cinema , wrot e Stuar t Ewe n an d Elizabet h Ewe n "was on e o f the mos t powerfu l component s o f the ne w urba n culture." 39 The movie s provide d cheap , accessible , an d eve r changin g entertainmen t that entir e familie s coul d enjoy . Th e emergenc e o f th e cinem a a s a ne w form o f popular entertainmen t wa s greete d wit h amazement , an d a s early as 1897 , shor t film s coul d b e see n o n th e dail y program s o f man y larg e dime museum s suc h a s the Ede n Muse e i n Ne w York , Huber' s Museum , Brandenburgh's Nint h an d Arc h Museum , an d Austi n an d Stone' s Mu seum. Th e flexibility an d alterabilit y o f earl y projecte d motio n picture s made the m a perfect entertainmen t fo r th e variet y program s ofte n offere d in museum lecture rooms. From 189 7 to 1899 , in fact, th e principal venue for mos t dail y screenings was the dim e museum . Th e popularit y o f cinema grew with suc h intensity tha t b y 189 9 vaudevill e house s were als o offerin g a daily menu o f short films . B y 1906 , however, projecte d motio n picture s no longe r neede d t o b e appende d o n othe r form s o f popula r entertain ment; the y ha d prove d popula r enoug h t o meri t thei r ow n performanc e space, the nickelodeon . Waxworks displaye d illusion s o f a stati c reality ; th e cinem a presente d filmic rendering s o f reality itself. There wa s a "clos e affinit y betwee n wax works an d motio n pictures , bot h o f which strov e toward s a realistic repre sentation o f nature an d life, " bu t a wax tablea u o f Admiral Dewe y an d hi s fleet could no t compar e i n it s realis m t o th e film footage o f the 189 8 wa r with Spain. 40 Indeed , Charle s Musser , th e majo r schola r o n cinem a befor e the nickelodeo n era , see s earl y motio n picture s a s emergin g fro m othe r forms o f optical wonders base d o n th e phenomeno n o f "th e persistenc e o f vision," amon g the m th e zoetrop e (Willia m Georg e Horner , 1833) , th e kinematascope (Clema n Seller, 1861), the kinetoscope (Edison , 1893) , and especially th e projecte d imag e spectacl e o f the magic lanter n sho w (Chris tiaen Huygens, 1655). 41 Beyond that , earl y films transported th e spectato r i n ways that cosmora mas, panoramas , an d th e liv e stag e coul d not : "th e stag e migh t represen t reality bu t th e motio n pictur e coul d photograp h it." 42 Th e first image s

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produced b y cinematograph y wer e easil y comprehensible ; familia r places , activities, and scenes from everyda y life, such as a train pulling into a station or a hous e o n fire , wer e amon g th e firs t impression s capture d o n film . Shooting the Chutes at Atlantic City, The Philadelphia City Hall, an d The Delaware River, fo r example , ar e th e titles o f a few o f th e film s show n a t the Ninth an d Arch Museum i n Philadelphia durin g the early 1890s. 43 ••

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Visual spectacles had lon g bee n a staple of dime museums . Their cosmora mas offere d glimpse s o f faraway place s an d histori c monuments , an d thei r shaddowgraphs particularl y delighte d children . Thu s th e magic lanter n show was quickly absorbed b y the dim e museum business . According to X. Theodore Barber , who ha s chronicle d th e histor y o f magic lanter n exhibi tions, Gardine r Baker' s America n Museu m i n Ne w Yor k presente d magi c lantern show s a s earl y a s 1776. 44 Bu t th e heyda y o f th e magi c lanter n i n the United State s was the nineteenth century . Boston's Columbi a Museu m hired a lanternist i n Decembe r 1806. 45 Edwar d Savag e provide d hi s Ne w York audienc e wit h magi c lanter n show s durin g th e 180 7 season , an d Charles Willson Peak's Philadelphi a museu m als o engaged lanternists , heralding thei r slid e show s a s bot h scientifi c an d educational. 46 B y 1820 , Rubens Peale , the n manage r o f Peale' s Philadelphi a museum , presente d lantern show s a s ofte n a s fou r times a week . A s proprieto r o f Peale' s New Yor k Museum, h e devote d on e evenin g a week t o astronomica l slid e presentations.47 According to Barber , Rubens Peale was a "lantern enthusi ast" who eventually painted som e of his own slides. A typical magic lantern program feature d a lecturer, often calle d "Profes sor" or "Doctor, " who would project image s from painte d glas s slides onto a wal l o r scree n an d provid e description s o f th e pictures . (Earl y lanter n slides wer e hand-painted , bu t b y th e lat e nineteent h centur y the y wer e increasingly photographic.) Th e magi c lantern itsel f was a box, with a vent on top , tha t house d a n artificia l illuminant . Insid e th e bo x wa s a concav e mirror, place d behin d th e illuminant , an d a lens , calle d a condenser , i n front o f the illuminant. The painted glas s slide was inserted upside down in a carrie r behin d th e len s tube . Magi c lanter n performance s range d i n subject matte r fro m scienc e an d trave l t o th e demonic . Essentially , mos t lantern show s were collection s o f projected image s that coul d b e thematic , narrative, or merely a hodge-podge o f unrelated scenes . Because a lanter n sho w coul d tel l a stor y throug h a serie s o f relate d pictures, contemporary literature often wa s illustrated o n glas s slides; Uncle

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Tom's Cabin, fo r example , was illustrated i n this way as early as 1856. 48 As literacy grew in the United States , people became eager to see their favorit e narratives i n visua l interpretations . Poems , biblica l stories , plays, an d fair y tales were al l hugely popular a s subjects fo r lanter n shows , the latte r espe cially wit h children . Th e storie s ofte n showe d th e influenc e o f th e fast growing temperanc e movement , whic h permeate d al l facet s o f popula r entertainment, fro m melodrama s t o waxworks . Glas s slid e set s bor e suc h titles a s "Th e Drunkard' s Progress : Fro m th e First Glas s t o th e Grave, " "The Drunkard' s Reform, " "Th e Evil s o f Drink, " an d "Th e Drunkard' s Daughter." Popula r stories and plays such as The Bottle and Ten Nijjhts in a Bar-Room wer e made into lantern show s in 184 7 and 1880 , respectively. 49 From 180 3 t o 1839 , on e o f th e mos t prevalen t type s o f lanter n sho w was the so-calle d phantasmagoria , o r ghos t show . S o successfu l wer e thes e macabre presentation s tha t thei r forma t eventuall y wa s codified : th e sho w began with a tempest, complet e with thunde r an d lightning ; various phan toms woul d the n appea r fro m differen t directions . Slide s wer e projecte d from behin d a translucent screen , and several lanterns were used simultane ously t o produc e a composit e image , a presentatio n requirin g th e us e o f several technicall y proficien t lanternists . Ofte n ther e woul d b e a n appear ance b y a celebrit y ghost—Georg e Washington , Thoma s Jefferson , Joh n Adams, or Mary Stuart. Character s from Shakespear e were popular, amon g them Macbet h an d the Witches, Hamlet an d the Ghost. 50 A Belgia n showman , Etienne-Gaspar d Robertson , wh o i s credite d wit h making th e phantasmagori a sho w into a multimedia event , devise d a "fan tascope" to creat e mor e vivid illusions. The fantascop e use d oi l rather tha n a candle, which increased the brightness of the images, and it was mounte d on a tabl e wit h casters , which allowe d lanternist s greate r flexibility in th e manipulation o f th e pictures . Th e projecte d imag e o f a phantom, fo r in stance, woul d appea r smal l fro m a distanc e but , a s i t approache d th e audience, would graduall y increas e t o monstrou s siz e befor e disappearing . Barber ha s observe d tha t phantasmagori a wer e ver y wel l receive d a t th e American Museu m i n Ne w York in th e earl y 1800 s whil e i t was under th e direction o f Edwar d Savage. 51 Savag e provide d musica l accompanimen t and supposedl y heightene d th e effec t o f th e traditiona l thunderstor m b y adding a streak of lightning. The variety-format magi c lantern sho w probably was the mos t prevalen t type o f lanter n entertainmen t i n th e dim e museum s o f th e post-Barnu m era. I n th e variet y show , th e lanternis t generall y projecte d indiscriminat e images, with n o clea r through-lin e o r theme . I t wa s prudent fo r museum s

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to begin their shows with scientifi c materia l becaus e it reinforced th e quasiscientific ton e o f the enterprise . Bu t scientifi c slides , for example , might b e followed b y illustrations from literature , painting, or architecture . 120

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The mutascope , a precurso r o f th e motio n pictur e projection , wa s als o frequentiy foun d i n dim e museums . Th e mutascope , invente d i n 189 4 b y Herman Casde , wa s a peephole devic e based o n th e sam e premis e o f th e flick boo k or thumb book . A series of photographs were mounted o n a reel and manually cranked b y the viewer to giv e the illusion o f motion.52 Whil e cosmorama stereoscope s an d othe r so-calle d viewing devices were free , th e mutascope cos t a penny o r a nickel t o operate . I t was the inventio n o f th e "vitascope," however, tha t "effectivel y launche d projecte d motio n picture s as a scree n novelt y i n th e Unite d States." 53 A brand-ne w industr y wa s established, an d fil m manufacturin g companie s develope d overnight : th e American Mutascop e Company , whic h late r merge d wit h th e Biograp h Company; th e Vitagrap h Company ; th e Ediso n Manufacturin g Company ; and th e Internationa l Fil m Company , t o nam e onl y a few . A s wit h mos t new businesses , patent an d licensing dispute s were rife , a s were fights ove r manufacturing, production , an d distributio n contracts . Th e histor y o f th e early cinema is filled with anecdote s of these battles and lawsuits. 54 Americans firs t witnesse d th e commercia l debu t o f a vitascope sho w o n April 23, 1896, at Koster an d BiaP s Music Hall, a famous vaudevill e hous e on Heral d Squar e in New York. 55 B y May of the followin g yea r there wer e several hundred vitascop e machines throughout th e country. The vitascope was invented b y Francis Jenkin s an d Thoma s Armat . The y hire d th e tea m of Norma n Rof f an d Fran k C . Gammo n a s thei r America n marketin g agents, an d th e Ediso n Manufacturin g Compan y wa s contracte d t o mak e the vitascope s an d shoo t th e films fo r thei r projection . I t wa s mutuall y decided, however , tha t Jenkin s an d Armat' s vitascop e shoul d b e markete d as th e "Ediso n Vitascope " fo r greate r acceptanc e an d profitability . "Th e only thin g Ediso n ha d contribute d t o th e developmen t o f th e Vitascop e was th e imprimatu r o f hi s nam e . . . a rus e which , n o doubt , wa s largel y responsible fo r th e generou s publicity." 56 Th e Ediso n Vitascope ha d heav y competition fro m Europea n manufacturers ; i n fact , th e Lumier e Com pany's cinematograph e dominate d th e American marke t unti l the sprin g o f 1897, when th e brother s Auguste an d Loui s Lumiere were forced t o leav e the America n market , mos t probabl y becaus e o f paten t litigatio n wit h Edison.57

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The Ede n Muse e i n Ne w Yor k becam e on e o f th e first entertainmen t institutions t o mak e a majo r commitmen t t o th e exhibitio n o f film . An d commitment i t was, for films were no t rente d bu t purchased ; t o maintai n an exhibition schedule , houses had to acquire new footage a t a fast pace. In addition, equipment had to be bought an d technicians hired. The presiden t of th e Ede n Musee , Richar d Hollaman , selecte d th e Lumier e cinemato graphe as the museum's motion picture projector. O n December 18,1897 , the Eden Musee began to show films in its Winter Garden. 58 Hollaman hire d William Pale y to mak e films exclusively for th e museu m because h e recognize d th e necessit y o f perpetually updatin g an d changin g the dail y film selection . Thi s wa s a ver y shrew d decision , fo r th e Ede n Musee, as a film producer, could now control changes in its film exhibitions (important fo r a n institutio n whos e majo r drawin g powe r wa s th e variet y of it s programs ) a s well a s change s i n subjec t matter . Th e museu m soo n amassed a good librar y o f film footage, copie s o f which i t was abl e t o sel l to other exhibitor s a t a handsome profit . Musse r has pointed ou t tha t fro m 1897 t o 1899 , "th e Ede n Muse e wa s th e onl y amusemen t cente r i n Ne w York to commi t itsel f to motio n picture s o n a full-time basis . . . . This gav e the Ede n Muse e a unique rol e i n Ne w Yor k Cit y and , becaus e Ne w York was th e cente r o f motio n pictur e activity , i n th e Unite d State s a s a whole." 59 Films wer e no t a t first show n a s the y ar e today ; footag e wa s bough t scene b y scen e an d strun g togethe r o n th e sam e basi s b y th e projection ist. Exhibitor s wh o coul d no t affor d a complet e serie s o f scene s coul d purchase a portio n o f th e serie s a t a time , an d thei r projectionist s func tioned lik e modern-da y film editors , rearrangin g th e sequence s o f image s and controlling the length, order, and narrative flow of each presentation. 60 As a result, exhibitor s an d thei r projectionist s ha d a high degre e o f artisti c control. In 1898 , Hollaman hired Edwin Porter to work as his projectionis t and t o buil d projectio n machine s an d camera s exclusivel y fo r th e mu seum.61 As a direct resul t o f the Ede n Musee' s exhibitio n o f the popula r Passion Play of Oberammergau i n 1897 , Ediso n brough t paten t sui t agains t th e museum. Th e sui t wa s quietl y settle d i n tw o days , and , a s o f Februar y 1899, th e muse e becam e a n Ediso n licensee . Pale y wen t t o wor k fo r th e Edison Manufacturing Compan y an d was immediately sent to Cub a to film the war that ha d begu n i n February 189 8 when th e U.S.S . Maine ble w u p in Havan a harbor . B y Augus t th e muse e wa s screenin g a ne w wa r scen e every day , an d b y th e en d o f th e mont h th e museum' s film librar y con -

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tained nearl y tw o hundre d suc h wa r scenes. 62 Daringly , th e museum' s cinema departmen t attempte d t o creat e a film showin g th e entir e Spanish American War . Tide d Panorama of the War, th e film opene d wit h a shot o f the arriva l o f soldier s i n Tampa , Florida , an d include d th e Battl e o f Sa n Juan Hil l an d th e surrende r o f Genera l Toral . Musse r write s tha t "th e us e of editoria l procedure s wa s arguabl y mos t advance d a t th e Ede n Musee, " and tha t th e museum' s film o f th e war , employin g twent y scenes , wa s a n overwhelming success. 63 Pale y wa s pai d fifteen cent s fo r ever y fifty fee t o f negative th e museu m bought , an d mad e a thirty-cent royalt y o n ever y fifty feet th e Ediso n Compan y sold . Eventuall y bot h Porte r an d Pale y lef t th e Eden Muse e an d wen t o n t o independen t career s i n th e burgeonin g film industry. 64 The histor y o f the earl y cinem a i s filled wit h storie s o f fierce competition . One o f thos e battle s concerne d Ediso n an d Siegmun d Lubin . B y 1896 , Lubin, a Germa n immigran t wh o ha d com e t o thi s countr y i n 1876 , buil t his first movi e projecto r an d produce d hi s first film, Horse Eating Hay, i n the backyar d o f hi s hom e a t 160 8 N o r t h Fifteent h Stree t i n Philadelphia. 65 When hi s wif e gre w tire d o f th e commotio n associate d wit h Lubin' s filmmaking, h e create d a roofto p studi o fo r himsel f a t 91 2 Arc h Street . H e established a permanen t workin g relationshi p wit h C . A . Brandenburgh' s Ninth an d Arc h Museum ; Musse r believe s tha t Lubin' s roofto p studi o wa s actually o n to p o f th e museum , althoug h ther e i s littl e absolut e proo f tha t the studi o wa s no t acros s th e street. 6 6 In th e latte r par t o f 189 9 motio n picture s becam e a permanen t par t o f vaudeville programming. 6 7 B y 1905 , however, film ha d outgrow n it s hom e in vaudeville , an d nickelodeon s rapidl y appeare d i n urba n entertainmen t districts. Thi s ma y no t hav e immediatel y affecte d th e crowd s i n th e vaude ville houses , bu t i t di d hav e a direc t impac t o n th e crowd s a t th e Ede n Musee. I n fact , th e blossomin g film industr y wa s on e o f the reason s fo r th e demise o f th e dim e museum . Eve n thoug h som e o f th e mor e prosperou s museums ha d manage d t o includ e film i n thei r repertoir e o f entertain ments, i t was a short-lived venture . Th e ne w century , wit h it s ne w technol ogy an d increase d sophistication , witnesse d th e creatio n o f ne w type s o f entertainment fo r a more liberate d an d heterogeneou s society . The adven t o f electricit y ha d importan t consequence s fo r th e entertain ment industry . Th e onc e darkene d cit y street s wer e n o longe r ominous , and goin g ou t a t nigh t wa s swiftl y incorporate d int o th e averag e person' s lifestyle. Electri c streetcars , trolle y lines , an d th e automobil e als o mad e nighttime excursion s easier , an d citie s becam e twenty-four-hou r play -

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grounds. Now, along with th e legitimat e theate r an d dim e museums, ther e were vaudevill e an d burlesque s house s an d nickelodeons . I n th e summer , most citie s no w offere d pleasur e seeker s amusemen t parks , presentin g a variety of diversions for a n admission o f only twenty-five cents . As a result, the old dime museum was doomed t o extinction .

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7. Th e Dim e Museum Reconfigure d fo r a Ne w Century The amusement business situatio n o f today is vastly different tha n i t was in Barnum's museum days—but the human mind of today is stil l susceptible to the contagion o f the germ of curiosity . —Joe Tracy Emmerling

In th e middl e o f th e nineteent h century , entertainmen t promoter s i n sev eral America n citie s ha d organize d permanen t display s o f paintings , arti facts, waxworks , frea k shows , an d variet y artists , thereb y creatin g a ne w form o f amusement center—th e dim e museum. With their combination o f exhibits an d liv e performance s presente d sid e b y sid e i n huge , ornat e buildings, thes e urba n place s ha d becom e th e embodimen t o f modernity . For those first learning about th e wonders o f the world, they were emporiums of weird and wonderful curiosities , comprehensible an d unthreatenin g testimonials t o society' s progres s i n civilization , technology , an d science . The dim e museum s wer e extremel y democratic , an d whil e th e smaller , storefront version s may have attracted onl y a male working-class audience , the large r museum s dre w a heterogeneous , multiethnic , an d interclas s crowd. They also had cross-generationa l appeal . The dim e museum canno t be labeled eithe r a working-class o r a middle-class amusement ; it was ope n to anyone , mal e o r female , ric h o r poor , wh o coul d affor d th e pric e o f admission. With th e averag e numbe r o f hour s i n a wor k wee k declinin g an d th e number o f legal holidays increasing, th e adven t o f several other ne w types of respectable , family-oriente d entertainmen t wa s inevitable . Man y urba n reformers ha d altered their views on recreation an d now saw it as a form o f social contro l ove r a fast-growing population . Larg e parks were create d i n the hop e tha t th e restorativ e power s o f nature—meadows , streams , an d trees—would brin g tranquilit y and , ultimately , generat e moderatio n an d 124

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temperance. The park system was to b e a powerful antidot e t o the forces o f "degeneration an d demoralizatio n i n th e city." 1 B y th e en d o f th e nine teenth century , recreation was accepted a s the right o f all people, whatever their socia l status. The ultimat e demis e o f the dim e museum busines s cam e about durin g th e earl y years o f th e ne w centur y wit h th e succes s o f thre e relatively ne w urba n amusements , vaudeville , film , an d amusemen t parks . Ultimately, it was these forms, offering thei r own brand s of exciting, cheap, and ever-changin g entertainment , tha t lure d awa y mos t o f th e ol d dim e museum's audience . If th e larg e dim e museum s fostere d patriotism , affirme d th e commo n person's worth, restore d hi s dignity, an d perpetuate d th e drea m o f a prosperous life , the movie s did i t bette r an d mor e cheaply . The cinem a was th e culmination o f thos e democratizin g tendencie s i n th e fiel d o f entertain ment tha t ha d bee n a t wor k throughou t th e century. 2 Th e cinem a wa s compelling, controlled , an d accessible , an d i t catere d t o women , children , and immigrants. The nickelodeo n ma y have revolutionized America n mas s entertainment, bu t i t wa s no t unti l th e en d o f th e firs t decad e o f th e twentieth century , whe n larg e urba n theater s an d vaudevill e house s con verted int o movi e houses , that fil m becam e thoroughl y respectable . Movi e houses appeare d i n residentia l neighborhood s an d i n commercia l areas : they moved into traditional amusement centers , absorbing the audiences of the dime museums. One coul d fin d anythin g o n th e screen : movie s abou t loca l murders , such a s The Unwritten Law (1907) , base d o n th e sensationa l murde r o f Stanford Whit e b y Harr y K . Thaw ; abou t crime , suc h a s The Gentleman Burglar (1908) ; and abou t history , such a s Nero and the Burning of Rome (1908) an d The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere (1907) . Ther e wer e ro mances lik e The Lover's Guide (1908 ) an d Buying a Title (1908 ) an d comedies lik e A Sculptor's Welsh Rarebit Dream (1908 ) an d The Painter's Revenge (1908) , a s wel l a s "actualities." 3 Earl y film s wer e pleasurable , informative, an d often , a s i n Life of an American Fireman (1903) , How They Do Things on the Bowery (1902) , an d Rube and Mandy at Coney Island (1908) , th e centra l figur e wa s a n averag e man . Whil e critic s feare d that film s wer e a n evi l influence, callin g the m sill y and a waste o f time, "i f not actually pernicious," audiences loved them. 4 The motion picture industry a s a chronicle r o f contemporar y events an d urba n lif e becam e th e technological successo r t o waxworks , "distan t vision " exhibits , an d melo drama.5 T o this day film is the most endurin g and powerful o f commercialized leisure activities, perpetually informing, arousing , terrorizing, thrilling,

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moving, an d inspirin g it s audiences . While th e adven t o f th e movie s a s an independent industr y hastene d th e demis e o f th e dim e museu m a s a n institution, i t wa s no t th e sol e culprit . Progres s wa s pard y t o blame ; th e machine itsel f was becomin g bot h th e sourc e an d th e mean s o f entertain ment. Nowher e wa s thi s mor e apparen t tha n a t a n outdoo r amusemen t park. ••

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The extensio n o f transportatio n lines , includin g subways , trolleys , an d ferries, mad e da y trips easie r fo r cit y families, an d th e outdoo r amusemen t parks represente d a new form o f commercial entertainmen t fo r a n increasingly industrial society. Coney Island, on th e stretch o f beach from Sheeps head Ba y to Gravesen d Ba y in Brooklyn , Ne w York, was on e o f America's first permanent amusemen t parks . Onc e know n a s a scandalous an d unsa vory place, Cone y Islan d wa s transformed betwee n 189 7 an d 190 4 int o a technologically sophisticate d cente r o f mas s entertainmen t tha t attracte d patrons from al l socioeconomic levels. 6 Amusement par k audience s represented socia l and cultura l melting pots . As the second generatio n o f rural migrants and European immigrants cam e of age, they bega n t o brea k awa y from th e principles an d practices o f thei r own cultures . Thes e younge r peopl e wante d fun , adventure , an d th e chance fo r socia l interaction . A n excursio n t o Cone y Islan d provide d th e ideal opportunit y t o fraterniz e an d flirt . Tunne l ride s lik e th e "Canal s o f Venice" offered th e perfec t pretex t fo r innocen t kissing , and Cone y Islan d also boaste d on e o f th e larges t danc e floor s i n th e world , accommodatin g three thousand couples. 7 Captain Pau l Boyton , th e famou s nineteenth-centur y America n wh o swam th e Englis h Channel , opene d Cone y Island' s first family-oriented , enclosed, outdoo r amusemen t par k i n Jul y 1895 . Boyto n wa s a showma n who presente d wate r spectacle s complet e wit h seal s an d se a lions . Befor e 1895, he had bee n a n itinerant performer travelin g with hi s aquatic circus, and hi s name ca n b e found o n man y programs fro m dim e museum s o f th e 1880s. H e establishe d Se a Lio n Par k a s a permanent hom e fo r hi s aquati c performances. Th e dim e museu m environment , wit h it s multiplicit y o f attractions al l unde r on e roof , ma y hav e influence d Boyton' s imaginativ e decision t o enclos e Se a Lion Par k with a fence, separating it from everyda y reality. It was a friendly plac e where familie s coul d spen d hour s o f pleasure without spendin g muc h mone y abov e th e twenty-five-cen t admissio n fee . Soon, othe r showme n followe d Boyton , an d eventuall y Cone y Islan d ha d

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three parks : Steeplechas e (1897-1965) , Lun a (1903-46 , o n th e Se a Lio n Park property), and Dreamland (1904-11) . These park s trade d o n man y o f th e method s o f dim e museu m manage ment, suc h a s using a single-price admission , barrin g alcohol , buyin g lot s of publicity , an d forbiddin g vulga r language . A s th e dim e museum s ha d done, th e amusemen t park s compete d wit h on e anothe r fo r patron s an d were force d t o kee p creatin g ne w attractions . Manager s ofte n simpl y changed th e name s o f ride s fro m seaso n t o season . Jus t t o piqu e visitors ' curiosity, Lun a Park' s grea t nava l spectacle, "Wa r o f the Worlds," change d its nam e twic e i n tw o years . Lun a Par k als o create d "Fir e an d Flames, " a spectacle i n whic h a four-stor y buildin g wa s se t o n fire ; th e audienc e watched a s firemen conquere d th e flames an d save d "victims " fro m th e conflagration. Dreamlan d sough t t o outd o thi s reenactmen t b y burnin g down a six-stor y building . I n a spiri t o f competition , Lun a Par k electro cuted a n elephant name d Topsy , and Dreamland create d a midget commu nity. Coney Island , with it s beachfron t resorts , three amusemen t parks , independent entertainments , an d sidesho w attractions , was th e culminatio n o f one nineteenth-century for m o f recreation cultivate d fo r th e masses. It was a clean, safe environmen t wher e patrons coul d no t onl y marvel a t wonder s but experienc e the m firsthand . Machines , whic h ha d before bee n use d solely as a means t o a n end , were here utilized a s engines o f entertainmen t themselves. Here , technolog y wa s tame d bu t no t miniaturized , a s i n th e museums, o r merel y displaye d t o exemplif y scientifi c progress , a s a t th e world's fairs . Instead , i t wa s transforme d int o "object s o f amusements." 8 Technology was not feared o r revered; it was simply experienced. Machine s were not threatening o r productive; they promised nothing more than "th e pleasure o f th e even t itself." 9 Mechanica l ride s lik e "Shoot-the-Chutes, " the "Barre l o f Fun, " "Helte r Skelter, " o r th e "Huma n Roulett e Wheel " tossed an d tumble d laughing , gaspin g pleasure seekers . It was entertainin g to experienc e th e ride , bu t i t wa s equall y amusin g t o watc h stranger s bounce an d twirl . Electricit y wa s use d a s decoration , an d scenograph y created mood an d atmosphere. By 1907, 1. 3 millio n lights decorated Lun a Park's tower s an d buildings ; i n fact , Lun a Par k wa s known a s the Electri c Eden. Cone y Islan d becam e th e embodimen t o f the fantas y o f a smoothl y running mechanica l world . Technologica l advance s ha d mad e th e Unite d States a superpower , an d i n th e nava l spectacl e "Wa r o f th e Worlds, " audiences watched a s the American fleet defeated Germany , Britain , Spain , and France. While such amusements showed how well technology could b e

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controlled, natur e demonstrabl y coul d no t be . Freak s o f natur e a s well a s freaks o f cultur e stil l hel d a fascinatio n fo r th e earl y twentieth-centur y pleasure seekers , and man y dime museu m anomalie s foun d wor k a t Cone y Island. Lilliputia, a midget cit y i n th e hear t o f Dreamland , wa s no t a sidesho w but a permanen t municipalit y o f thre e hundre d midgets , organize d b y Samuel W. Gumpertz. A longtime showman , Gumpert z was an acrobat, an actor, a member o f Buffalo Bill' s Wild West Show, and a theater producer . He wa s hire d b y Willia m Reynolds , Dreamland' s developer , i n 190 3 t o manage th e littl e people' s town. 10 I t ha d bee n constructe d a t hal f scale , and everything , fro m th e bathroom s an d bedroo m furnitur e t o th e fire department, was in precise proportion. Th e tow n als o had it s own govern ment an d operate d lik e any municipality. Spectator s entere d Lilliputi a and , like Gulliver , coul d wal k amon g th e midgets , wh o migh t b e shopping , cleaning, o r doin g an y othe r ordinar y task . I t wa s her e tha t Mrs . To m Thumb an d her second husband, Coun t Prim o Magri, eventually lived. On Ma y 27, 1911 , a fire destroyed Dreamland . Reynold s an d th e boar d of director s di d no t rebuil d th e park ; i t wa s financially to o risky , an d Reynolds was already developin g th e Chrysle r Buildin g i n Manhattan. Bu t after th e disaster , Gumpertz , a tru e showman , pu t u p a ten t outsid e th e ruins an d reopene d a "congres s o f freaks, " a n attraction , lik e circu s side shows, loosely based o n th e dim e museum idea. 11 While the ember s o f the fire wer e stil l smoldering , Gumpert z turne d Dreamlan d int o a popula r sideshow attraction , displayin g a collectio n o f "livin g wonders " fro m al l over th e world . Gumpert z wa s a big promote r o f non-Western freak s an d imported mor e tha n three thousand attraction s for Dreamland. 12 I t was his efforts tha t turne d Cone y Islan d int o th e "world' s capita l o f the eccentri c and the bizarre, " and he became known a s the godfathe r o f the freak. 13 Coney Islan d b y 190 5 wa s the amusemen t capita l o f the Unite d States . Many exhibits tha t ha d prove d successfu l a t bot h th e Chicag o World' s Columbian Expositio n o f 189 3 an d th e Pan-America n Expositio n o f 190 1 were brough t t o th e Brooklyn shore , many of them with roots i n the dim e museum. I n 190 1 Dr . Marti n Arthu r Coune y exhibite d prematur e babie s in incubator s i n a pavilio n a t th e Buffal o Pan-America n Exposition . Th e tiny infants had been born a t least three weeks before th e end of the normal forty week s o f gestation. Tw o year s later , Coune y wa s persuaded t o com e to Cone y Island . Th e docto r wa s awar e tha t h e wa s runnin g a sideshow , but h e di d hi s bes t t o emphasiz e th e scientifi c aspect s o f hi s venture . H e never accepte d mone y fo r hi s services from th e familie s o f his patients, and

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his exhibitions alway s began with a lecture describin g in detail many of the machines foun d i n hi s miniatur e hospital . Bu t th e Incubato r Pavilio n wa s not muc h different , afte r all , fro m Meade' s Midge t Hal l i n th e previou s century. Th e display s a t Meade' s ma y hav e bee n crude r an d les s scientifi c than thos e o f the Incubato r Pavilion , bu t th e wonder o f seeing tiny being s living against the odds was in both case s very compelling . Coney Islan d becam e th e unofficia l capita l o f the ne w mass culture. Th e amusement par k represente d a cheap alternativ e recreatio n tha t compete d with th e dim e museum s fo r patron s a s wel l a s performers . Th e festiv e outdoor atmosphere , flamboyant architecture , exotic landscaping, mechan ical amusements , an d publi c socializin g provide d pleasur e seeker s wit h constant stimulatio n an d activit y in a n environmen t tha t was the antithesi s of the grim city. As Kathy Peiss aptly stated, Cone y Island was the "apothe osis of summer entertainment." 14 ••

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By th e beginnin g o f th e ne w centur y th e dim e museu m wa s i n a stat e o f decline. Museum s compete d fo r customer s wit h th e circus , th e legitimat e theater, ar t galleries , an d amusemen t parks . Certai n form s o f entertain ment, suc h a s variety an d film, tha t ha d bee n feature d i n dim e museum s now "compete d o n their ow n agains t the establishment s tha t had nurture d them." 15 Th e idea of a museum a s an entertainment cente r with just a hint of th e educationa l graduall y disappeared , an d museum s reclaime d thei r former objectiv e o f edifyin g thei r patrons . A t th e beginnin g o f th e nine teenth centur y ther e wa s a comin g togethe r o f natura l histor y an d ar t museums wit h frea k shows , waxworks , theater , an d variet y performance . The beginnin g o f th e twentiet h centur y witnesse d thei r fragmentation . Significant piece s o f ar t an d authenti c object s o f natura l histor y wer e dis played i n prestigiou s publi c museums ; huma n odditie s foun d wor k a t cir cuses an d amusemen t parks ; waxworks coul d b e foun d a t th e park s o r i n wax museums; and talente d variet y performers mad e name s for themselve s in vaudeville , theater , an d film. Thoug h i t ma y no t b e obviou s today , al l the individual amusement s tha t were once assemble d in the dim e museum s still form par t o f the American cultura l fabric . Although th e dim e museu m as an institution wa s obsolete b y World War I, th e nee d fo r cheap , accessible, escapis t entertainmen t endured . Whil e twentieth-centur y popula r cul ture ultimatel y cam e t o b e define d b y th e electroni c mas s media , voyeur ism, patriotism, an d sensationalism remaine d dominan t themes. 16 One o f th e mos t famou s an d popula r twentieth-centur y descendant s o f

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the ol d dim e museu m i s the "Ripley' s Believ e I t o r Not! " odditorium . I n 1918, Rober t Riple y wa s workin g a t th e New Tork Globe as a sport s illustrator. On e day when sports news was sparse, Ripley, using his imagination an d knowledg e o f sport s trivia , create d nin e cartoon s an d calle d th e section "Believ e I t o r Not! " Th e respons e wa s extremel y positive , an d "Believe It o r Not!" becam e a daily feature . By 1929 Ripley's cartoons had been published i n book form, an d he was one o f the to p sport s cartoonist s i n th e country , a s well as one o f the mos t sought-after an d highest-pai d lecturers . B y 193 0 h e ha d hi s ow n radi o show an d a contrac t wit h Warne r Brother s t o mak e twenty-si x movi e shorts. I n 193 3 h e create d a "Believ e I t o r No t Odditorium " fo r th e Chicago World' s Fair , featurin g exhibit s o f shrunke n huma n heads , medi eval torture machines , and Orienta l curiosities . After th e fair, Ripley toure d with a compan y o f twenty-fiv e livin g odditie s an d som e thre e hundre d inanimate objects. 17 A t on e point hi s collection containe d ove r four thou sand items . Som e o f hi s mor e famou s freak s wer e Grac e McDaniels , th e "Mule Face d Woman, " Ro y Bard , th e "Ossifie d Man, " Le o Congee , th e "Human Pi n Cushion," an d Paul Whitaker, a black man from Georgi a wh o could po p hi s righ t ey e ou t a full inc h beyon d th e socket . Pau l Desmule , the "Armles s Man, " use d hi s toe s t o hur l knive s with ten-inc h blade s a t a human target. 18 H e als o demonstrate d ho w h e prepare d breakfas t fo r himself, shaved , washe d hi s face , an d combe d hi s hair . I n 1934 , Desmul e married hi s huma n target , Mis s Ma e Dixon , i n a Barnumesqu e publi c wedding ceremony at Horticultural Hal l in Boston where Ripley's museu m was on display. In 193 9 Riple y purchased tw o Fiji Mermaids who were strikingly similar to th e on e Barnu m ha d exhibite d i n 1843 . Ripley , awar e o f Barnum' s legacy, captione d thi s exhibi t th e "World' s Greates t Fake!" 19 Norber t Pearlroth, a researcher for Riple y for fifty years, attributes his success to th e "primary huma n urg e t o flee fro m th e dail y grin d int o th e real m o f th e incredible." "Curiosity," said Pearlroth, "i s a fundamental trait." 20 I n 194 0 there wer e thre e Odditorium s runnin g simultaneousl y i n America : a t th e Golden Gat e Internationa l Expositio n i n Sa n Francisco ; a t th e Ne w Yor k World's Fair; and on Broadwa y in New York City. In addition , Ripley had a number o f travelin g companie s tourin g th e world . Rober t Riple y die d i n 1949, an d th e trustee s o f his estate, believin g tha t withou t hi m th e enter prise would collapse , sold it when th e marke t value was high. The busines s has change d hand s severa l time s ove r th e decade s an d i s no w owne d b y Ripley Entertainment , whic h a s o f 199 6 operate s fifteen permanen t "Be -

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lieve It o r Not! " museum s throughou t th e Unite d States. 21 There ar e als o museums in Australia, England, Denmark , Thailand, Indonesia, Korea , th e Philippines, and Mexico . Each Riple y museum i s unique i n its architectur e and collection of oddities and also in their presentation . Perhaps a s a direct resul t o f Ripley's succes s an d th e onse t o f the Grea t Depression, a ne w generatio n o f proprietar y museum s develope d i n th e 1930s. Dim e museum s opene d acros s th e country , i n Detroi t (W . G . Wade's Hollywoo d Frea k Museum) , Housto n (Marin e Fireston e Mu seum), St . Loui s (Erber' s Sho w o f Living Wonders), an d Baltimor e (Joh n T. McCaslin' s Baltimor e Museum) , t o nam e a few. Billboard Magazine, a show business trade paper, devoted a column to chronicling museum activ ity from 193 0 to 1940 . The majority o f these museums had penny arcades, displayed miscellaneou s object s an d freak s an d showcase d variet y artists . They were usually small; John T. McCaslin's Baltimore Museum, for exam ple, was just on e room. Along th e lef t sid e of the long, narrow room wer e the freaks, alon g the righ t sid e the inanimate object s an d wax displays, and at th e fa r en d wa s a smal l stage. 22 Mos t o f thes e proprietar y museum s closed b y Worl d Wa r II ; ther e wer e a fe w exceptions , however , suc h a s Huber's Museum , o n Wes t Forty-secon d Street , whic h di d no t clos e unti l around 1965 . Huber' s wa s famou s fo r Professo r Heckler' s Travelin g Fle a Circus, a show where traine d fleas could b e seen pulling wagons, swingin g weights, and dancing. 23 ••

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The wa x museu m i s perhaps th e mos t prevalen t moder n proprietar y mu seum. I t ca n b e foun d whereve r tourist s congregate—i n Lo s Angeles , Niagara Falls , an d La s Vegas , amon g othe r touris t meccas . I n th e 1970 s there was an International Association o f Wax Museums base d in Chicago . The organizatio n claime d fifty member s fro m twenty-thre e state s an d si x foreign countries. 24 (I t has since disbanded.) "Muc h o f the character of the old, frankl y proletaria n museu m ha s bee n lost, " wrot e Brook s McNamar a in 1974 , "bu t a t leas t a touc h o f th e ol d bras s an d fraudulen t gentilit y remains, transformed int o a middle-class idiom." 25 When New York's Eden Musee closed in 1916 , Gumpertz purchased th e collection an d opene d a new Ede n Muse e nex t doo r t o hi s Cone y Islan d freak show . Whe n visitor s entere d th e gate s o f Gumpertz' s ne w pavilion , they sa w the sam e wax policeman wh o fo r decade s ha d guarde d th e doo r of th e Ede n Muse e i n th e city . Gumpert z displaye d al l th e Ede n Musee' s historical scenes and throughout th e years added many of his own tableaux .

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He struggled , a s had dime museum impresarios before him , to earn respect for hi s establishment. "Everythin g i n th e Ede n Musee, " sai d Gumpert z i n defense o f his wax displays, "is taken from th e pages of history . . . w e show actual punishment s whic h ar e mete d ou t b y variou s countrie s t o thei r criminals, and in showing these scenes we are doing good . All these scenes, I insist, are moral lessons." 26 Forever fascinated b y crime scenes, he create d a series of tableaux called "Th e Squealer, " illustrating what happened t o a n informer i n the underworld. Loca l murders als o captivated Gumpertz ; on e of his more popular exhibit s was a depiction o f the Snyder-Gray murder . Ruth Snyde r and her lover, Judd Gray , had bee n convicted o f murderin g Snyder's husband , Albert , i n 1927 . Gumpertz' s three-tableau x displa y showed th e lovers conferring a t a restaurant, th e crim e scene, and Snyder' s electrocution a t Sing Sing. Gra y also died there , but hi s execution wa s no t depicted i n th e tableau , probabl y becaus e th e newspaper s ha d portraye d him as the victim of a wicked temptress. The Snyder case, according to Ann Jones, was a media event , bu t i t was a morality pla y "mean t almos t exclu sively for th e edificatio n o f women." Rut h Snyde r was cast as the sourc e o f evil, "a s Ev e i n leagu e wit h Satan, " an d Jud d Gra y wa s depicte d a s " a decent, red-blooded , upstandin g American citizen " caugh t lik e a fly in he r web. 27 Up-to-dat e depiction s o f homicide s wer e i n vogue , an d th e wa x museums tha t stil l existe d operate d lik e tabloi d newspapers , mountin g many electrocution scene s minutes afte r a criminal's death . For goo d mea sure, throughout th e years Gumpertz als o added wax replicas of contemporary celebrities , includin g Charli e Chaplin , Dougla s Fairbanks , an d Mar y Pickford.28 The atmospher e o f th e moder n wa x museum s ma y diffe r fro m tha t o f their nineteenth-centur y prototypes , bu t th e content s remai n ver y similar , with re-creations o f celebrities an d historical figures and events . For exam ple, Wax U.S.A. i n Lak e George , New York, includes a wax figure o f Joh n F. Kennedy sitting in a real Lincoln Continental , which the museum claim s he ha d actuall y owned. 29 Th e Muse e Cont i i n Ne w Orlean s i s a wa x museum devoted to local history; patrons are treated to thirty-one tableau x depicting th e histor y o f th e cit y fro m 169 9 t o th e present . Include d i s a reproduction o f Napoleon, seate d in a bathtub, telling his brothers h e will sell Louisian a t o th e Americans. 30 Th e Star s Hal l o f Fam e i n Orlando , Florida, is dedicated t o reenacting "grea t moments" in television, film, and music; it features a re-creation of a snow scene from Doctor Zhivago starring a waxy Julie Christie, Omar Sharif, and Rod Steiger. 31

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Two wa x museum s devote d t o th e Africa n America n experienc e hav e opened i n the past decade : the Grea t Black s in Wax Museum i n Baltimore , owned b y Elme r Marti n an d Joann e Martin , an d th e Harle m Museu m i n New York, operated b y Raven Chanticleer. 32 Bot h contai n replica s o f Martin Luthe r Kin g Jr . an d Malcol m X , an d thei r goa l i s t o encourag e a collective cultura l connectio n an d t o foste r prid e i n bein g Africa n Ameri can. Th e Baltimor e collectio n exhibit s on e hundre d "rol e models, " span ning mor e tha n thre e thousan d year s o f blac k history , fro m th e Egyptia n Pharaoh Akhenaton t o Supreme Cour t justice Thurgood Marshall. 33 ••

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The "Guinnes s Worl d o f Records " museum s ar e lat e twentieth-centur y versions o f th e "Ripley' s Believ e I t o r Not! " odditoriu m an d relative s o f the dim e museum. Th e Guinnes s organization maintain s museum s i n Ne w York City , La s Vegas , Gatlinburg , Tennessee , Sa n Francisco , Hollywood , and Niagar a Falls , Ontario . A s spectator s wal k throug h th e hall s o f th e museum the y becom e absorbe d i n wha t th e souveni r guideboo k call s a world "o f th e strongest , th e longest , th e shortest , th e loudest , th e bright est, and the greatest." 34 The Ne w Yor k Cit y museu m i s locate d o n th e concours e leve l o f th e Empire Stat e Building . Th e spac e i s divide d int o a numbe r o f section s displaying records from th e fields of entertainment, sports , agriculture, and nature, among others. In th e so-called Human World, for example , there is a life-size d replic a o f Rober t Pershin g Wadlow , "th e talles t officiall y re corded ma n i n history, " who wa s 8 feet 11. 1 inche s tal l a t his death a t th e age o f twenty-two i n 1940 . Also include d i n th e exhibitio n ar e depiction s of Pauline Muster, a Dutch midge t who measured 2 4 inches when sh e died at th e ag e o f ninetee n i n 1895 , an d Rober t Ear l Hughes , wh o i s sai d t o have bee n th e heavies t perso n i n th e world , weighin g 1,06 9 pound s a t his death a t th e ag e o f twenty-tw o i n 1958. 35 Accordin g t o th e museum' s archive, Ann a Swa n (1846-1888 ) an d Marti n Va n Bure n Bate s (1845 1919), freak s fro m th e ol d dim e museu m era , stil l hol d th e recor d fo r being th e talles t marrie d couple . A t th e Guinnes s museum , antiqu e tria l and tes t machine s coexis t wit h moder n technolog y i n th e for m o f vide o displays tha t "chronicl e man' s adventur e i n space " o r brin g t o lif e "livin g legends fro m th e worl d o f sports." 36 I n th e America n Fac t Fil e section , there i s a large glas s cabine t calle d th e Guinnes s Boutique . Displaye d ar e some o f the world' s mos t expensiv e items , suc h a s the mos t costl y pair o f

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sports shoes , mink-line d ruby-tippe d gol f shoe s costin g $23,000 , an d th e most expensiv e bottl e o f win e eve r sold , a 178 7 Chatea u Lafit e clare t signed b y Thomas Jefferson an d sold at auction in 198 5 for $157,500 . 134

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More tha n anythin g else , th e institutio n o f th e dim e museu m helpe d introduce an d standardiz e th e concep t o f th e frea k show . "Onc e huma n exhibits becam e attache d t o organizations, " wrot e Rober t Bogdan , "dis tinct pattern s o f constructing an d presentin g freak s coul d b e institutional ized, convention s tha t endur e t o thi s day." 37 Th e frea k sho w was—an d is—about spectacle : i t i s a plac e wher e huma n devianc e i s enhanced , dressed, coiffed , an d proppe d u p fo r th e entertainmen t o f a paying audi ence. Th e frea k sho w i s abou t relationships , us versus them, th e norma l versus the freaks. I t is about culture , which determine s what is freakish an d what is not. I n on e sense , the definition change s over time. Charles Stratto n ("To m Thumb" ) die d o n Jul y 15 , 1883 , at th e ag e o f forty-five. Durin g hi s lifetim e h e ha d earne d a n enormou s fortune , bu t because of poor investments and a lavish lifestyle, he left onl y a small estate, valued a t abou t $16,000 , i n additio n t o som e mino r rea l estat e holdings . The most valuable asse t he left t o his wife, Lavinia Warren, was his name. 38 Lavinia ha d grow n accustome d t o a lif e o f luxury , complet e wit h yachts , fine jewelry, and handmade dresses . After Stratton' s deat h Lavini a returne d to show business; "Mrs. Tom Thumb" was still a bankable star . On Apri l 6 , 1885 , a t th e Churc h o f th e Hol y Trinit y o n Madiso n Avenue, sh e marrie d Coun t Prim o Magri , anothe r midget , eigh t year s he r junior. Magr i wa s skille d a t fencing , boxing , an d musi c an d playe d th e piano an d th e piccolo. 39 Th e coupl e depende d mainl y o n th e fam e o f Lavinia's dea d husband, however , an d ofte n exhibite d themselve s a s "Mrs. General Tom Thumb an d Her Husband " (se e fig. 23). In December 1888 , they appeare d i n a pla y calle d Two Strings to Tour Bow a t th e Gran d Museum's lectur e roo m i n Ne w York. According t o Georg e C D . Odell , the title highlighted Lavinia' s two marriages. 40 In fact , however , Lavini a an d th e coun t di d tr y t o escap e fro m th e "General's" imag e b y formin g thei r ow n troupe , calle d th e Lilliputia n Opera Company . The two also toured in vaudeville shows and made several films. But b y th e tur n o f the century , th e day s o f the glorifie d frea k sho w were over , an d th e coupl e foun d i t difficul t t o ear n a livin g lik e th e on e Lavinia an d he r first husban d ha d mad e fifty year s earlier . Ther e wa s n o longer a n abundanc e o f dime museum s wit h organize d frea k sho w exhibi -

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FIGURE 2 3 . Mrs. Genera l To m T h u m b an d Coun t Magri , broadside, Gran d Museum , c . 1889. (New-Yor k Historica l So ciety.)

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tions, a s there ha d bee n i n th e 1880 s an d 1890s . Eve n whe n freak s coul d find wor k i n a dim e museum , th e salarie s the y earne d wer e n o longe r inflated. In a desperate move to gai n financial security, the coupl e lived for severa l years a t Gumpertz' s Lilliputia. Th e nam e o f Genera l To m Thum b prove d rewarding onc e agai n fo r Lavini a an d Gumpertz , an d million s o f peopl e came to Lilliputi a t o se e the famous couple . Unfortunately, however , Lavinia wa s neve r abl e t o reclai m th e socia l o r financial statu s sh e ha d whil e married t o Charle s Stratton . Sh e die d o n Novembe r 25 , 1919 , a t th e ag e of seventy-eight . With th e demis e o f th e dim e museum s durin g th e earl y par t o f th e century, freak performer s becam e largely itinerants. Anomalies who wante d to exhibi t themselve s fo r mone y coul d stil l find wor k a t world' s fairs , amusement parks , carnivals, and th e circus . Ove r a forty-year period , fro m 1893 t o 1933 , the Unite d State s hoste d si x world's fairs : Chicago , 1893 ; Buffalo, 1901 ; St. Louis , 1904 ; Sa n Francisco , 1915 ; Philadelphia, 1926 ; and Chicago , 1933. 41 A t thes e fairs , wher e technologica l progres s wa s being showcased, human anomalies remained as testaments to man's inability t o conque r natur e completely . Freak s wer e usuall y relegate d t o th e fair's midway , an annexed are a that housed suc h lowbrow—and immensel y popular—attractions a s human anomalies , foreign villages, and menageries. World's fairs never lasted more than about two years and generally ran only from Ma y t o October ; thu s a freak wa s guarantee d perhap s si x months o f work a t a time. As the decade s passed, however, it becam e mor e an d mor e difficult fo r freaks t o find legitimate jobs. 42 The circus sideshow guarantee d a performer mor e stable work, but the sideshow traveled, and it was difficul t for freak s t o becom e par t o f a rooted community . The luxur y of living in a city and exhibiting at dime museums from Septembe r to July was a thing of the past; the permanent, standing freak sho w was part of a bygone era. Lilliputia an d Gumpertz' s Dreamlan d Circu s Sidesho w were tw o o f th e few twentieth-century freak shows not associated with a traveling carnival or circus. Gumpert z operate d hi s Dreamlan d Circu s Sidesho w fo r wel l ove r thirty years; he followed in the footsteps of Phineas T. Barnum, E. M. Worth, and George H. Huber to become a czar of the twentieth-century freak show world. His sideshow attracted man y freaks who were tempted b y the life in the seasid e resort. I t provide d the m th e opportunity , the n rare , to liv e an d work in a stable and thriving community. Everybod y at Coney Island knew "Jolly Irene , th e Fa t Lady, " wh o weighe d 68 9 pounds , "Lad y Olga , th e Bearded Lady," and "Captain Fred Walters, the Blue Man."

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Nate Eagl e wa s anothe r twentieth-centur y cza r o f freakdo m wh o followed th e pat h o f Gumpertz . H e entere d th e worl d o f show busines s a s a carnival barke r bu t i n hi s late r years , durin g th e 1950s , manage d th e circus sideshow for Ringlin g Brothers. Eagle first achieve d notoriety for hi s creation o f a Midget Cit y for Chicago' s Centur y o f Progress Expositio n o f 1933-34. Eagle' s Midge t City , whic h ha d forty-fiv e buildings , wa s s o successful tha t he grossed nearly $2 million for the fair. The city maintained a residen t compan y o f eight t o te n midgets , al l o f whom spen t th e winte r months i n Sarasota , Florida , nea r Eagl e himself . Afte r th e succes s o f hi s Chicago venture, Eagle was asked to creat e a miniature world for th e 193 5 San Dieg o Exposition . No t onl y di d h e creat e a midge t cit y bu t h e als o organized a scandalous nudis t colon y exhibi t calle d Zor o Gardens . Nake d men an d wome n fro m twelv e differen t countrie s coul d b e see n a t Zor o Gardens "gossiping , dozin g o n artificia l rocks , an d fishing i n homemad e ponds." 43 Ironically , Eagl e woul d no t allo w th e me n t o wal k unclothed , believing this immoral: they had to wear loincloths. The displa y was a phenomenal attraction , an d mal e visitors were know n to brin g thei r lunche s t o th e exhibi t an d casuall y watc h nake d wome n talking an d playin g whil e the y at e thei r meals . Althoug h th e expo—an d Eagle—made mone y fro m thi s exhibit , th e Californi a authoritie s wer e annoyed. But , alway s th e cleve r showman , h e wor e the m dow n wit h hi s arguments fo r th e viabilit y o f Zor o Gardens . I n th e end , th e tw o side s reached a compromise . A majo r complain t wa s tha t ther e wa s to o muc h loitering a t the exhibit . S o Eagle encircle d th e garde n with a long woode n walkway and hustled th e customers aroun d i t at a fast pace. The frea k show s o f the nineteenth-centur y dim e museum s ha d elevate d the statu s o f human anomalie s t o tha t o f celebrities; many becam e famous and dined with presidents and foreign dignitaries . In the twentieth century , the exploitatio n o f freak s fo r profi t bega n t o b e frowne d upon . I n par t because o f th e ensuin g worl d war s an d thei r devastatin g effect s o n th e bodies of survivors, there arose a gradual awareness of society's responsibility towar d peopl e wit h disabilities . Prosthese s wer e devise d fo r thos e wh o lacked limbs , moder n medicin e demystifie d man y o f nature' s mutations , and hormone therap y was administered t o people with growt h problems . ••

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Traditional outdoo r amusement s bega n t o los e thei r appea l a s movies , radio, and television bega n to occupy a greater portion o f America's leisur e time. Fo r th e mos t part , world' s fair s hav e bee n replace d b y permanen t

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theme parks , an d wit h thes e shift s man y American performanc e tradition s have bee n lost . Bu t Dic k Zigun , a young ma n fro m Barnum' s hometow n of Bridgeport, Connecticut , for the past fifteen years has devoted his energy to preserving popular entertainment forms . Zigun, a playwright an d gradu ate of the Yale Drama School , founded Cone y Island, USA, a museum an d theater compan y dedicate d t o revivin g th e parades , sideshows , an d othe r performance element s typica l of Coney Island a t the tur n o f the century. 44 Together wit h Valeri e Haller , who m h e hire d a s desig n directo r i n 1988 , Zigun present s a continuou s sideshow , o r "Ten-in-One, " fo r th e 1990s . Zigun eithe r produces his own entertainments , Sideshows by the Seashore , or provide s a venu e fo r othe r sideshows , suc h a s Bradshaw' s Circu s o f World Curiosities , which was at Coney Island in 1989 . At thes e performance s ther e ar e n o bor n freaks ; "nobod y woul d b e exhibited becaus e o f a deformity," Zigu n ha s said . Hi s freak s ar e "perfor mance-oriented, rathe r tha n gawker-oriented." 45 Th e cas t include s "Mis s Electra, th e Electri c Girl, " the "Huma n Bloc k Head," an d th e "Illustrate d Man." I t is this sensibility, as it were, that prevents the Cone y Island, USA, freak sho w fro m affectin g it s audience s o n a trul y viscera l level . Withou t the rea l huma n anomalies , wit h onl y a cas t o f self-mad e freaks , i t i s litti e more tha n a magic show . I t doe s no t shoc k o r revol t us . O n th e othe r hand, Fre d Siegel , who worke d a t Cone y Island , USA , ha s argue d i n th e Drama Review tha t i t i s a "viscerall y titillatin g plac e wher e performer s violate thei r bodie s with spikes , swords, and fire and walk off th e platfor m unharmed." 46 Th e pleasure , Siege l concluded , come s fro m matchin g wits with a sideshow performer, whic h many spectators see as a game.47 Perhap s the pleasure is derived from figuring ou t whether the performers ar e deceitful i n th e acts . Does Tod d Robbin s reall y ea t a light bulb , or i s his perfor mance the fake we imagine it to be? One reaso n thi s kin d o f freak sho w canno t inspir e a true sens e o f wonderment, however, is that self-made freak s fai l to amaze the modern specta tor. I n ou r lat e twentieth-centur y cultur e th e self-mad e freak s o n th e platform ar e no t ver y differen t fro m th e peopl e w e se e a t th e downtow n mall o r o n th e subway . W e hav e develope d a ver y voca l subcultur e tha t believes the bod y is a personal canva s to b e reconfigured a s the owne r see s fit. Body jewelry an d the piercing of cheeks, nose, navel, and nipple, which have neve r bee n associate d wit h Wester n notion s o f beauty , hav e becom e very popular in the 1990s . Tom Singman , a California lawyer , recentiy visited th e Gauntiet , a piercing parlor that has stores in Los Angeles and New York, to get his thirteen -

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FIGURE 24. A contemporary example of mainstream body modification: the earlobe of a second-grade teacher.

year-old daughte r a "belly-butto n pierce. " "Ther e I was, " h e recalled , "gobbling dow n pierce-car e hints , as if this were th e mos t norma l thin g i n the world. Then i t hit me: this was normal. Not 1950' s normal, but mayb e 1990's normal." 48 Bod y piercing a s an organized phenomeno n i s entering its seventeenth year , according t o Stac e Maples, a guest editoria l writer fo r Piercing Fans International Quarterly. 4"9 While the piercing of genitalia still seems outrageousl y freakis h t o mos t o f us , ear , nose , navel , an d nippl e piercing i s now mainstream , an d th e Gauntle t advertise s in th e Manhatta n yellow pages (see fig. 24). Tattooing, no w frowne d upo n becaus e o f the healt h risks , is a boomin g industry. Tattoo s ar e see n no t a s th e mar k o f th e crimina l o r th e mach o insignia o f soldier s an d sailors , bu t a s livin g art . Celebritie s lik e Cher , Whoopi Goldberg , an d Princ e al l spor t tattoos . Body Art, a. magazine published i n England , i s devote d solel y t o tattooing , bod y jewelry , bod y painting, an d bod y modification. 50 Glamour magazine , in it s fashion-con scious "Do s & Don'ts " section , recentl y allotte d spac e t o tattoos. 51 Ac cording t o th e magazine , the y ar e mor e tha n acceptable ; they ar e hip (se e figs. 25 an d 26). During th e 1960 s an d 1970s , American s witnesse d a cultura l an d aes -

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FIGURE 25. (left) Tattoo belonging to the executive director of a law firm, FIGUR E 26.

(right) Tattoo belonging to a partner of a law firm.

thetic revolution i n which many artists created projects tha t challenge d th e perception o f the huma n bod y an d it s function . Man y performanc e artist s transformed thei r bodies , turning themselve s into freaks i n order t o shatte r cultural taboo s abou t bodil y functions an d huma n sexuality . Vito Acconci, originally a poet, "abandone d th e spac e o f th e writte n pag e fo r a place i n which th e bod y wa s assigne d th e tas k o f goin g beyon d th e poeti c func tion." 52 I n Conversation (1970 an d 1971) , h e experience d th e possibilit y of transformin g hi s mal e bod y int o a female on e b y burnin g th e hair s o n his chest , pullin g hi s nipples , hidin g hi s peni s betwee n hi s legs , an d at tempting t o walk, dance, and si t with hi s penis betwee n hi s thighs. Perfor mance artists break down barrier s between life an d art and use their bodie s as a canva s fo r expression , a visualization o f thei r artisti c message . Kare n Finley claim s contro l ove r he r bod y b y pourin g foo d ove r it ; sh e pour s a can o f yams down he r bac k and buttocks . Her ar t is shocking, revolting t o some, an d ye t powerfu l i n it s message ; "th e resul t i s both fascinatin g an d horrifying t o behold, because audiences can't help but recognize their mos t mortifying obsession s in the fast-flowing bile." 53 Certain nineteenth-centur y freak s suggeste d ambiguou s type s o f sexuality an d arouse d th e eroti c fantasie s o f a repressed audience . Moder n bod y artists, usin g thei r ow n tissu e a s th e mediu m o f expression , challeng e twentieth-century socia l concept s o f sex an d individuality . While th e nine -

T H E D I M E M U S E UM R E C O N F I G U R E D FO R A

N EW C E N T U R Y

teenth-century spectato r feared th e consequences o f the Industria l Revolu tion, the twentieth-century audienc e is anxious about th e loss of autonom y and contro l brough t o n b y a n overindustrialized , computer-oriente d so ciety. In 198 3 an d 1984 , performanc e artist s Lind a Montan o an d Tehchin g Hsieh attache d themselve s to eac h other with a n eight-foot rop e tied at the waist. Thei r project , tide d Rope, calle d fo r the m t o remai n joine d fo r a n entire year . I n essence , thei r contrive d lifestyl e o f enforce d intimac y mir rored th e interdependenc y o f natural Siames e twins . Montano an d Hsieh , as individua l artists , explore d ho w a stat e o f perpetua l attachmen t woul d affect the m a s people an d a s artists . (On e stipulatio n o f thei r projec t wa s that the y coul d no t touc h eac h othe r fo r th e year , bu t audience s wer e unaware o f thi s condition. ) Seein g a ma n an d a woma n joine d togethe r evokes tabo o topic s an d eroti c images . While witnessin g an y part o f Rope, spectators migh t as k such question s as , How d o the y g o t o th e bathroom , shower, or even sleep? Is each celibate for a year? With the Montano-Hsie h piece, the questions might probe deep into their relationship. Just as Chang and Eng, the original Siamese twins, had conflicting personalities , Montano and Hsie h disagree d abou t th e inten t o f thei r projec t an d "eventuall y discovered themselves in a contextual tug of war, literally pulling each othe r in opposite directions." 54 His approach was more formal, while she wanted to explore the personal an d spiritual implications o f their bondage . Through bod y piercin g t o bod y art , man y American s ar e symbolicall y illustrating tha t the y ar e i n contro l o f thei r live s a s wel l a s negatin g th e importance o f th e bod y i n mas s culture . Thus , i n a worl d wher e bod y modification i s accepte d an d bod y piercin g an d tattooin g commonplace , the performe r wh o hammer s nail s int o hi s tongu e o r drive s spike s u p hi s nose is no longer outrageousl y freakish. Man y self-help organizations , suc h as Robbins Researc h International , en d thei r seminars with physically challenging activities like walking barefoot o n hot coals. Completing a fire-walk supposedly helps demonstrat e th e powe r o f th e mind . Withou t th e so called gawkin g tha t wa s a n intrinsi c par t o f th e nineteenth-centur y frea k show, Zigun' s show s becom e interpretiv e spectacles , wit h twentieth-cen tury sensibilities imposed on a once-popular tradition . Coney Island, USA's "Ten-in-One" i s a sidesho w bu t no t a frea k show . Th e proble m fo r a modern promoter , therefore , i s how to reconfigure th e nineteenth-centur y freak sho w for a late twentieth-century audience . What kinds of exhibitions would b e grotesque, fascinating, politically correct, and a sure draw? The mos t obviou s moder n for m o f th e frea k sho w i s th e televisio n

141

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talk show , a n environmen t i n whic h dysfunctiona l huma n being s parad e themselves i n front o f an audience. If , a s Odell claimed , the old-tim e frea k show mad e spectator s fee l a t eas e wit h thei r lo t i n life , s o to o doe s th e daytime tal k show , which prompt s viewer s t o tel l themselves , "I' m s o gla d that's no t me. " A s th e dim e museu m frea k sho w transform s itsel f int o the televisio n tal k show , attentio n shift s fro m physica l t o psychologica l freakishness. Althoug h today' s tal k show s promot e themselve s a s "discus sion programs " an d d o indee d occasionall y addres s a politically importan t issue, thei r basi c appea l i s pur e voyeurism . Peopl e i n bizarr e situation s more o r les s out o f their control , eithe r psychologicall y o r physically , hol d themselves up to public scrutiny . These show s ar e bot h allurin g an d revolting , bu t als o indisputabl y suc cessful. Tabo o subjects , rangin g fro m homosexualit y amon g teenager s t o sexual relations betwee n unmarrie d relatives , are aire d dail y from 9 A.M. to 5 P.M . I n 199 5 a glance a t a TV Guide revealed seventee n tal k shows , no t including th e prime-tim e magazin e an d tabloi d shows , which incorporat e similar devices . With a press o f a button audience s coul d tun e int o Opra h Winfrey, Phi l Donahue , Sall y Jess y Raphael , Gerald o Rivera , Monte l Wil liams, Jerry Springer, Gordo n Elliott , Maury Povich , Jenny Jones, Richar d Bey, or Ricki Lake. Talk show s recycl e man y o f th e convention s o f th e earlie r frea k shows . For example , televisio n host s closel y resembl e th e lecturer s o f th e dim e museum frea k shows , as they guid e thei r audienc e fro m exhibi t t o exhibit , explaining th e patheti c pligh t o f eac h perso n i n turn . A s wit h th e freak s shows of the dim e museum, th e sensationa l aspect s of television tal k shows are played down an d the educational ones heightened s o that the spectacle s are legitimized . Sometime s actua l midget s o r othe r deforme d o r disable d persons appea r o n tal k shows , but mosti y thes e appearance s ar e promote d as enlightening an d informative. Lik e the "doctors " who provided medica l testimonials a t a dime museu m frea k show , psychologists an d othe r behav ioral "experts " often appear , supposedly to hel p the audienc e understand a particular proble m an d t o validat e th e show' s subject . Jus t a s traditiona l freak show s ha d codifie d elements , th e sam e freakis h storie s ar e use d ove r and ove r again . Th e "performance " ma y chang e wit h eac h show , bu t th e stories remain the same. The crudenes s of talk show entertainment, o r "confrontainment, " whic h can b e viewe d ever y hou r durin g daytim e programming , promise s t o change th e fac e o f television . Jame s B . Twitchell believe s tha t tal k shows , or television' s sideshows , a s he label s them , hav e begu n t o dominat e pro -

T H E D I ME M U S E UM R E C O N F I G U R E D FOR A N EW C E N T U R Y

gramming, a s the y ar e th e favorite s o f a younger, les s sophisticate d audi ence. H e believe s tha t th e "en d o f th e twentiet h centur y promise s t o reverse what th e nineteenth centur y had separate d a s high cultur e an d lo w culture. Wher e th e elit e threatene d t o exil e th e vulgar , no w th e vulga r threatens t o suffocat e th e elite." 55 A would-be Barnu m canno t profitabl y exploit our continuing fascination wit h human freaks; the only show people who mak e bi g mone y exhibitin g huma n anomalies thes e day s ar e thos e who produce televisio n shows.

143

Epilogue Although i t migh t b e easie r t o remembe r Phinea s Taylo r Barnu m a s a circus man , w e shoul d no t neglec t th e tremendou s contributio n h e mad e to th e entertainmen t industr y wit h hi s dim e museu m concept . I n a cit y where ther e was no zo o o r aquariu m o r eve n a museum o f natural history , Barnum's America n Museu m presente d Ne w Yor k families , regardles s o f income o r nationality , a safe plac e t o enjo y a multitude o f entertainments . His geniu s was his "knac k o f knowing what the public wanted." 1 Muc h o f the museum' s succes s resulte d fro m it s abilit y t o attrac t wome n an d chil dren. Barnum' s matinee s wer e devise d specificall y fo r th e femal e patron , and man y afterpieces, suc h a s Cinderella and Punc h an d Judy shows, were tailored fo r children . Liquo r wa s banne d fro m th e museum' s theate r an d the theater' s illici t thir d tie r wa s redesigne d b y Barnu m int o a "famil y circle."2 Strolling musicians, live animals, and mechanical figures fascinate d even th e younges t o f spectators . Barnu m love d t o se e childre n laugh . H e once sai d tha t "ther e wa s n o pictur e s o beautifu l a s ten thousan d smiling , bright-eyed, happ y children , an d n o musi c s o swee t a s thei r clear-ringin g laughter." 3 The reaso n fo r th e succes s o f Barnum' s America n Museu m wa s three fold: first , h e create d a clea n an d saf e environmen t fo r whol e families ; second, h e go t patron s t o retur n agai n an d agai n b y changing hi s exhibit s constandy; and last, he promoted his museum as an educational experience . Barnum's thre e strategie s ar e stil l winnin g one s today , an d th e successfu l entertainment establishment s ar e those tha t follo w th e formul a lai d ou t b y him ove r 15 0 years ago. Although th e dim e museu m doe s not exis t today , Barnum ha s indeed lef t a legacy. I n tracin g th e performanc e genealog y o f many entertainmen t forms , includin g th e circus , movies , wa x museums , and theme parks, one can find a connection t o the dime museum industry . Walt Disne y i s t o th e amusemen t worl d o f th e twentiet h centur y wha t Barnum wa s t o tha t o f th e nineteenth . Whil e Barnu m popularize d an d reinterpreted th e museu m concept , Disne y too k th e standar d outdoo r amusement par k an d transforme d i t int o somethin g altogethe r ne w calle d a them e park . H e believe d i n th e importanc e o f th e family , an d famil y entertainment wa s th e backbon e o f hi s whol e business. 4 Lik e Barnum , Disney provide d hi s audience s wit h "popula r an d inoffensiv e entertain ment"; h e knew his audience an d provide d the m wit h th e type s o f amusements they desired. 5 Disneyland , in Anaheim, California , wa s dedicated o n 144

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July 17 , 1955 , an d it s enormou s succes s change d America n attitude s to ward amusement parks in general and revived a seemingly moribund indus try.6 Disneyland was the prototype; all other theme parks are imitations. Disneyland, a distan t relativ e o f th e America n Museum , wa s th e first family-oriented outdoo r amusemen t cente r designe d fo r th e post-Worl d War I I bab y boo m generation . I t wa s extraordinaril y clea n an d safe , i n contrast t o th e decayin g amusemen t park s tha t stil l existe d i n th e mid fifties. It ha d a singl e entrance , t o facilitat e crow d control , an d ther e wa s also a singl e admissio n price . Ther e wer e a variet y o f liv e performances , from organize d show s t o parades , marching bands , an d wanderin g player s dressed a s Disney cartoo n character s tha t childre n coul d embrace . Disne y constantly change d an d expande d hi s offerings; th e park was something h e could kee p building , "kee p plussin g an d addin g to. " Whe n Disneylan d opened i n 1955 , Fantasyland ha d just si x attractions. I n 1983 , after exten sive renovations, it had sixteen attractions. 7 Disneyland attracte d patron s fro m al l incomes , an d whil e hardl y cheap , the single-pric e admissio n ticke t serve s th e sam e purpos e a s th e ten - o r twenty-five-cent admissio n polic y a t th e dim e museum : makin g th e enter tainment economicall y democrati c i n it s ow n way . When al l spectators pa y the sam e admission price for th e sam e entertainments, points ou t Bruc e A. McConachie, it erases one of "the traditional markers of class distinction." 8 This illusio n o f economi c equality , however , quickl y vanishe s outsid e th e amusement environment . Although them e park s i n genera l pla y up thei r educationa l aspects , the y are primarily intereste d i n providin g entertainment . Thus , just a s with th e dime museums , th e histor y o r th e idea s taugh t ar e skewe d t o mak e th e exhibits tha t muc h mor e entertaining . I f the historica l trut h i s too contro versial, a mor e nostalgic , homogenize d versio n wil l b e substituted . Th e Disney Imagineer s defen d thi s process : "W e carefull y progra m ou t al l th e negative unwante d element s an d progra m i n th e positiv e elements." 9 A t the "America n Adventure," a twenty-eight-minute presentatio n o f America narrated b y Mar k Twai n an d Be n Franklin , nothin g i s mentione d abou t Vietnam. Ther e ar e n o Holocaust , threa t o f nuclear war , ghettoes , home less, or poor. There ar e no McCarthy hearings, civil rights demonstrations , Kent State , o r Watergate . A viewe r see s onl y positiv e image s an d peopl e who ar e icons , a s oppose d t o representative s o f history . Disne y realism , concludes Michae l Wallace , i s "utopia n i n nature" ; i t doe s no t reproduc e the pas t bu t improve s it. 10 Th e reaso n fo r thi s i s tha t them e park s ar e basically about fantas y an d escape , and th e tw o goal s of escape an d educa -

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tion are fundamentally a t odds. Education is not simply a matter of disseminating information; tru e instruction is stimulating, thought-provoking, an d a powerful agen t for understanding th e present . There i s no denyin g tha t histor y i s manipulated whe n i t i s transforme d into entertainment . "Issue s o f illusion an d deceit , . . . o f beaut y a s process or disguise, " wrote Nei l Harris, "are dilemma s of antiquity an d should no t be localize d a s agonizingl y modern." 11 Slaver y an d th e statu s o f Africa n Americans, fo r example , wer e suc h controversia l topic s i n th e nineteent h century tha t dim e museum s rarel y acknowledge d black s in thei r waxwork s displays. Pre-Civi l Wa r minstre l show s an d Africa n freak s markete d a s missing links and savage s appeased white audiences ' curiosit y about blacks , but thes e exhibit s merel y reaffirmed th e the n commo n belief , eve n amon g Northerners, tha t black s wer e inferior . Post-Civi l Wa r tableau x wer e cer tainly pro-Union , bu t th e inhumanit y o f slaver y wa s neve r depicted . His torical display s wer e create d t o promot e nationalism ; mos t wa r tableau x were designed t o hono r th e heroi c efforts o f General Gran t an d th e Unio n soldiers an d t o celebrat e th e victor y o f th e North . Slaver y wa s illustrate d only i n a n occasiona l emancipatio n scene . Dim e museu m manager s con sciously avoide d th e politicall y charge d discours e o f race , an d althoug h Booker T . Washingto n wa s represente d i n th e 190 5 "Peopl e Talke d About" exhibi t a t th e Ede n Musee , fo r th e mos t part , America n blac k culture was ignored. At Colonia l Williamsburg i n Virginia, a living history museu m tha t trie s to re-creat e th e histori c village , th e origina l creator s totall y neglecte d th e fact that , i n th e eighteent h century , thi s Souther n tow n wa s ove r 5 0 per cent black. 12 Th e curator s wanted t o avoi d the volatile issue of race. These historical silences , like the silenc e abou t Vietnam i n th e "America n Adven ture," simpl y reflect th e traditiona l cowardice o f mass-market entertainers . "For man y people, " state s Car y Carson , Williamsbur g vic e presiden t fo r research, "histor y i s the cor e o f patriotism, a kind o f sacred text , a refug e where the y ca n tur n t o reaffir m thei r faith." 13 Peopl e wil l no t readil y pa y to see an unpatriotic version of history, however truthful i t may be. Historical accurac y i s no t a concep t on e associate s readil y wit h dim e museums. Manager s pai d meticulou s attentio n t o authenti c detailin g o f costumes and hairstyles—thus allowin g these institutions to claim a certain genuineness fo r thei r exhibits—bu t th e nineteenth-century showme n usu ally lied t o th e publi c abou t th e large r issues . Audiences ha d fe w choices , however, whe n i t cam e t o popula r entertainment , s o th e humbugging , deceit, an d stereotypin g wer e no t muc h criticized . I f a freak, fo r example ,

EPILOGUE

was heralde d a s th e "heavies t ma n alive, " mos t peopl e believe d a t tha t moment h e was . Phon y exhibit s ar e no t a s easily tolerate d b y late twenti eth-century audiences , s o manager s mus t expen d tremendou s effor t o n packaging: th e grande r th e spectacle , the mor e likel y the publi c wil l b e t o flock t o se e it . Wonde r i s n o longe r fel t fo r th e perso n o r th e even t displayed o r fo r histor y retold , bu t fo r th e displa y an d th e retellin g them selves. The irony is that in this misdirection o f interest an d manipulation o f history fo r th e sak e o f "productio n values, " th e truth , th e ver y sourc e o f the historical text, is lost, ignored, or betrayed. 14 The relationshi p betwee n mas s culture an d popular historica l conscious ness thu s involve s no t onl y th e translatio n o f histor y int o fiction bu t th e textual interplay , comple x an d contradictory , amon g sponsor , producer , and assume d audience . Whe n historica l events ar e reenacte d o r recon structed a s entertainmen t spectacles , th e chas m betwee n fac t an d fiction becomes pronounced . Rober t Rydel l believe s tha t eve n wha t i s labele d "progress" become s translate d int o Utopia n statement s abou t th e future. 15 For-profit entertainmen t institutions , fro m a s fa r bac k a s Charle s Willso n Peak's Philadelphi a museum , hav e a greate r obligatio n t o fill the pocket s of thei r investor s tha n t o enlighte n th e publi c abou t history . Althoug h Peak hope d t o mak e his museum a national institution an d obtain govern ment sponsorship , thi s drea m wa s neve r realized . Instead , hi s museu m depended o n ticke t sale s an d i n th e en d succumbe d t o th e public' s desir e for othe r forms o f entertainment . In spite o f al l th e humbugging , th e primar y reaso n fo r th e succes s o f theme park s lik e Disneylan d i s that the y ar e markete d a s family entertain ment. They mimic the dim e museum philosoph y o f offering somethin g fo r everyone. Wit h th e hug e bab y boo m generatio n no w becomin g parents , family recreation ha s grown increasingly important. Eve n the gambling city of La s Vega s ha s turne d "family " wit h it s ne w MG M Gran d Hote l an d theme park . Th e trave l an d entertainmen t industr y mus t find amusement s all famil y member s ca n enjoy . I n man y dual-incom e familie s an d single parent households , parent s an d childre n hav e les s "quality " time , an d th e family outing or vacation has taken o n new meaning an d importance . Today family entertainment enterprise s are not onl y marketed a s vacation resorts bu t ar e use d a s urba n renewa l projects . Th e Disne y Compan y i s planning t o reviv e Ne w Yor k City' s Forty-secon d Stree t are a wit h a hote l and amusemen t complex , an d th e Tussau d organizatio n ha s promise d t o create a "335,00 0 square-foo t comple x housin g roboti c an d interactiv e wax exhibits " a t a nearby location— a sor t o f dim e museu m fo r th e nex t

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century.16 Thes e attractions , wrot e Pau l Goldberger , ar e aime d a t lurin g "members o f the middl e clas s who onc e gav e American citie s their destiny , but for th e last generation have stayed away in droves." 17 Ironically, almost 170 years ago, in 1830 , the New York Institute evicte d Scudder's American Museum becaus e it was attracting too many people to the neighborhood. 18

Appendix A . Chronolog y 1727 America n Philosophical Society established (cabine t prototype). 1759 Britis h Museum opens . 1774 Charlesto n Museum opens . Dr. Abraham Chove t open s Anatomical Museum in Philadelphia . Continental Congres s ban s plays and other public entertainments . 1778 Federa l law prohibits theater in any form . 1782 D u Simitier e opens his collection to the public. 1786 Charle s Willson Peale opens American Museum in Philadelphia . 1791 Tamman y Museum in New York opens. 1798 Ol d Trowbridge Museum in Albany opens. 1800 Washington , D.C., becomes new capital of United States . 1810 Scudder' s American Museum in New York opens. 1820 Wester n Museum o f Cincinnati opens. 1825 Peale' s New York Museum opens . Showboat bring s entertainment t o towns along Erie Canal. 1835 Madam e Tussaud's opens at the Bazaar in London . 1841 Bosto n Museum opens . 1842 Barnum' s American Museum in New York opens on New Year's day. Barnum makes a deal to promote Charles Stratton. 1843 Virgini a Minstrels form firs t Caucasia n grou p to work in blackface . 1846 Smithsonia n Institutio n opens . 1848 Ne w York Museum o f Anatomy opens . 1849 Asto r Place Riot, New York. 1852 Harrie t Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin is published. George Aiken's adaptation o f Uncle Tom's Cabin debuts in Troy, New York. 1853 Conway' s version of Uncle Tom's Cabin has premiere in New York City. New York Crystal Palace opens. 1859 Charle s Darwin's Origin of Species is published. 1864 Colone l Joseph H. Wood opens Chicago Museum . 1866 The Black Crook opens at Niblo Garden . 1868 Georg e Wood opens museum in New York. 1869 Colone l Joseph H. Wood open s museum a t Ninth an d Arch Stree t in Philadelphia . American Museum o f Natural History opens . 149

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1870 Metropolita n Museu m o f Art opens. Barnum sign s circus contract with William C . Coup . 1871 Grea t Chicag o Fire. 1876 Philadelphi a Centennial . George Bunnell reduces admission charg e to his museum fro m twenty-five cent s to ten cents. Boston Museum o f Fine Arts opens. 1877 Ediso n demonstrate s th e phonograph . 1879 Wood' s New York museum become s Daly's Theater . 1883 B . F. Keith opens dime museum in Boston . 1884 Ede n Musee opens in New York. 1885 Charle s A. Brandenburgh open s Ninth an d Arch Museum i n Philadelphia. 1888 Worth' s Museum open s in New York. 1889 Gunthe r move s Libby Prison from Virgini a to Chicago . John B. Doris opens Harlem Museum . 1890 Willia m Kemmler is first man to b e electrocuted, in Auburn, Ne w York. Huber take s over management o f Worth an d Huber's Palac e Museum. 1891 Chicago' s Ede n Musee opens . 1892 Concer t hall and dim e museum license s expire. 1893 Chicag o World's Columbia n Exposition . Continuous vaudeville bil l at Worth's Museum, September 2 . 1894 Hollan d brother s ope n first kinetoscope parlor on Broadway with ten machines . 1895 Se a Lion Park opens at Coney Island . 1896 Vitascop e makes its debut a t Koster and Bial's Music Hall. 1897 Ne w York Eden Musee shows first film. Steeplechase opens at Coney Island . 1901 Buffal o Pan-America n Exposition . 1903 Lun a Park opens at Coney Island . Edwin S. Porter makes The Great Train Robbery. 1904 Dreamlan d open s at Coney Island . St. Louis Exposition . 1933 Chicago' s Centur y of Progress Exposition . 1939 Ne w York World's Fair. 1955 Disneylan d open s in California .

Appendix B . Dim e Museum s The followin g i s a lis t o f nineteenth-centur y dim e museum s tha t I hav e come acros s durin g m y research . No t al l th e dim e museum s liste d be low wer e include d i n th e text . I hop e tha t thi s lis t wil l continu e t o gro w as scholar s becom e mor e familia r wit h th e subject . A wor d o f cau tion fo r researchers : No t al l institution s calle d museum s wer e actuall y dime museums . Fo r example , Ne w York' s Frankli n Museu m wa s solel y a theater. BOSTON

Austin and Stone's Museu m B. F. Keith's Museu m Boston Ede n Muse e Boston Museum an d Gallery of Fine Arts (referred t o as the Bosto n Museum) Gaiety Museum Grand Museu m Keith and Batchelder's Mammoth Museu m (change d t o the Gaiet y Hall and Museum ) New York Dime Museu m CHICAGO

Arthur Putney' s Museu m Chicago Eden Muse e Clark Street Museu m Colonel Wood's Museu m Congress Museu m Epstein's Museu m Globe Museu m Libby Prison Museu m London Dim e Museu m Olympic Museu m West Side Museum Whit John's Museu m Wonderland Compoun d

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NEW YOR K

152

Alexander's Museu m Apollo Museu m Barnum's American Museu m Barnum's New American Museum (Barnu m an d Van Amburgh Museum ) Banvard's Museu m Berlin Academy of Waxworks Broadway Museum an d Menageri e Bunnell's New American Museum (Bunnell' s Museum ) Bunnell's Ol d London Museu m Chatham Squar e Museu m Doris's Eighth Avenue Museu m Doris's Harlem Museu m Dr. Kahn's Museum o f Anatomy Eden Muse e Egyptian Museu m European Museu m Gaiety Museum George Wood's Museum an d Metropolitan Theatr e (change d t o Wood's Museum an d Menagerie bu t referred t o as Wood's Museum ) Globe Dime Museu m Gothic Museu m Grand Dim e Museu m Huber's Mammot h Eight h Avenue Museu m Huber's Palac e Museum (late r known a s Huber's Museum ) Hyde an d Behman's New Park Theatre Museu m an d Menageri e International Museu m Kimball's Star Museu m Mammoth Museu m Meade's Midget Hal l Morris and Hickman's Eas t Side Museu m Mt. Morris Museu m New Natural Museu m New York Museum New York Museum o f Anatomy Standard Museu m Worth an d Huber's Palac e Museu m Worth's Model Museum an d Family Theatre Worth's Museu m

DIME MUSEUM S

PHILADELPHIA

Brandenburgh's Nint h an d Arch Museu m Chestnut Stree t Dime Museu m City Museum Colonel Joseph H. Wood's Museu m Eighth Stree t Museu m Egyptian Muse e Great European Museu m Hagar an d Campbell' s New Dime Museu m Peck's Great Dime Museu m South Stree t Museu m Temple Theatre an d Egyptian Muse e

OTHER CITIE S

Anderson's Musee, Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvani a Beach Street Museum (cit y unknown ) Bristol's Museum, Worcester, Massachusett s Charles Hunt's Museum , Baltimor e Drew's Museum, Clevelan d Drew's Museum, Providenc e Geary's Wonderland, Ft. Wayne, Indiana Grand Museum, Allegheny, Pennsylvani a Harry Davis Eden Musee , Pittsburg h Harry Davi s Museum, Altoona, Pennsylvani a Herzog's Museum, Baltimor e Litt Museum, Milwauke e McGinley's, St. Louis Miracle Museum, Pittsburg h Musee, Youngstown, Ohi o Newark Dime Museum, Newar k Pacific Museum o f Anatomy an d Natural Science, San Francisco Peck and Fursman's Museum (cit y unknown ) Pleasant Street Museum, Providenc e Punnell's Museum (cit y unknown ) Trowbridge Museum , Albany, New York Troy Museum, Troy, New York Vine Street, Cincinnat i Westminster, Providenc e

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APPENDIXB

154

Wonderland, Buffal o Wonderland, Detroi t Wonderland, Erie, Pennsylvania Wonderland, Rochester , New York

Notes NOTES T O TH E PREFAC E

1. Se e Patrici a Click , The Spirit of the Times: Amusements in Nineteenth Century Baltimore, Norfolk, and Richmond (Charlottesville : Universit y Pres s o f Vir ginia, 1989) . NOTES T O CHAPTE R 1

1. Se e J . Orosz , "Curator s an d Culture : A n Interpretiv e Histor y o f th e Mu seum Movemen t i n America , 1773-1870 " (Ph.D . diss. , Cas e Wester n Reserve , 1986); an d Charle s Colema n Sellers , Mr. Peak's Museum: Charles Willson Peak and the First Popular Museum of Natural Science and Art (Ne w York : Norton , 1979). 2. Se e Richard D . Altick, The Shows of London: A Panoramic History of Exhibitions, 1600-1862 (Cambridge : Harvar d Universit y Press , 1978) , fo r a discussio n on cabinet s of wonders. 3. Th e Linnaean system was named afte r Carolu s Linnaeus (1707-78) , a Swedish biologist . 4. Se e Georg e C . D . Odell , Annals of the New York Stage, vols . 2- 4 (Ne w York: Columbia Universit y Press, 1 9 2 7 ^ 9 ) . 5. Se e Orosz , "Curator s an d Culture" ; Sellers , Mr. Peak's Museum; an d Nei l Harris, "Cultura l Institution s an d America n Modernization, " Journal of Library History 16 , no. 1 (winter 1981) . 6. Gunthe r Barth , City People (Ne w York: Oxford Universit y Press, 1980), 2 1; Lawrence W. Levine, Highbrow/Lowbrow: The Emergence of Cultural Hierarchy in America (Cambridge : Harvard Universit y Press, 1988) , 176 . 7. Rober t C . Toll, Blacking Up (New York: Oxford Universit y Press, 1974), 4. 8. Madelo n Powers , "Decay from Within : The Inevitabl e Doo m o f the American Saloon, " i n Drinking, ed . Susann a Barne s an d Robi n Roo m (Berkeley : Uni versity of California Press , 1991) , 113 . 9. Ro y Rosenwieg , Eight Hours for What We Will (Ne w York : Cambridg e University Press, 1983) , 103. 10. Rut h Bordin , Women and Temperance (Philadelphia : Templ e Universit y Press, 1981) , 5. 11. Joh n Frick , " 'H e Dran k fro m th e Poisone d Cup' : Theatre , Cultur e an d Temperance i n Antebellu m America, " Journal of American Drama and Theatre 4, no. 2 (sprin g 1992) : 32 . 12. Joh n Kasson, Amusing the Million: Coney Island at the Turn of the Century (New York: Hill and Wang, 1978) , 4; Stuart Ewe n an d Elizabet h Ewen , Channels 155

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156

of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness (Ne w York : McGraw-Hill, 1982) , 15 , 30. 13. Toll , Blacking Up, 10. 14. Claudi a D . Johnson , "Tha t Guilt y Thir d Tier : Prostitutio n i n Nineteent h Century America n Theatres, " i n Victorian America, ed . Danie l Walke r How e (Philadelphia: Universit y o f Pennsylvania Press , 1976), 113 . 15. Levine , Highbrow/Lowbrow, 31 ; Paul DiMaggio , "Cultura l Entrepreneur ship in Nineteenth Centur y Boston, " in Rethinking Popular Culture, ed . Chandr a Mukerji an d Michae l Schudso n (Berkeley : Universit y o f Californi a Press , 1991) , 374-75. 16. Brook s McNamara , " C A Congress o f Wonders': Th e Ris e an d Fal l o f th e Dime Museum," Emerson Society Quarterly 2 0 (3r d Quarte r 1974) : 219. 17. Do n Wilmeth , Variety Entertainment and Outdoor Amusements (West port, Conn. : Greenwood , 1982) , 95. 18. Kasson , Amusing the Million, 4 . 19. Ibid. , 101. 20. Ibid. , 6 . 21. Susa n Porter Benson , Stephen Brier , and Roy Rosenzweig, eds., Presenting the Past: Essays on History and the Public (Philadelphia : Templ e Universit y Press , 1986), xvii, xix. 22. Mose s Kimball's Boston Museum was an exception. Kimball was very civicminded an d mounted a display tided "Th e Horro r o f Slavery." 23. Barth , City People, 65 . 24. T . Allsto n Brown , A History of the New York Stage (Ne w York : Benjami n Bloom, 1964) , 592 . 25. Se e A . H . Saxon , Selected Letters of P. T. Barnum (Ne w York : Columbi a University Press, 1983), for th e correspondenc e betwee n Kimbal l and Barnum . 26. Ibid. , 12 ; the "General " is General Tom Thumb . 27. P . T. Barnu m wa s know n a s the "princ e o f humbugs" fo r hi s out-and-ou t lies and exaggeration s abou t hi s museum exhibits . 28. Sta r Museu m advertisement , 1889 ; Austi n an d Stone' s letterhead , n.d. ; New York Museum o f Anatomy advertisement , n.d. , New York Public Library fo r the Performin g Arts . 29. Toll , Blacking Up, 21. 30. Pau l G . Sifton , "Pierr e Eugen e D u Simitier e (1737-1784) : Collecto r i n Revolutionary America " (Ph.D . diss. , Universit y o f Pennsylvania , 1960) , 35 ; Orosz, "Curator s an d Culture, " 64 . 31. Th e Charlesto n Museu m (1774-78) , institute d unde r th e auspice s o f th e town library , was destroyed b y a fire. Although i t is considered th e first attemp t a t establishing a n American museu m o f natural history, for m y purposes I conside r i t a prerevolutionary museum . 32. Sifton , "Pierr e Eugen e D u Simitiere, " 10 .

NOTES T O CHAPTE R 1

33. Ibid. , 23, 454, 464. 34. Ibid. , 37 . 35. Sellers , Mr. Pealed Museum, 12 . 36. Orosz , "Curator s an d Culture, " 51 , 52; Sifton, "Pierr e Eugen e D u Simi tiere,"445. 37. Dillo n Ripley , The Sacred Grove (Washington, D.C. : Smithsonia n Institu tion Press , 1969) , 35. 38. Kennet h Hudson , A Social History of Museums (Adanti c Highlands , N.J. : Humanities Press , 1975) , 38-39 . 39. Ibid. , 10 . 40. Orosz , "Curator s an d Culture, " 66 ; Sifton, "Pierr e Eugene D u Simitiere, " 450. 41. Hudson , Social History of Museums, 35 ; these items were collected betwee n 1790 an d 1792 . 42. Orosz , "Curator s an d Cultures, " 150 . 43. Sellers , Mr. Peak's Museum, 28 . 44. Du e t o poor eyesight , Rubens Pea k di d no t becom e a painter, as did man y of his siblings; he became a museum ma n instead . 45. Sellers , Mr. Peak's Museum, 215 . 46. Cath a Grac e Rambusch , "Museum s an d Othe r Collection s i n Ne w Yor k City, 1790-1870 " (M.A . thesis , New Yor k University , 1965) , 37 ; Odell , Annals of the New York Stage, 3:294 . 47. Odell , Annals of the New Tork Stage, 3:475, 367 . 48. I n 1839 , th e boar d o f trustee s o f Peak' s Ne w Yor k Museu m applie d fo r incorporation unde r a new name, the Ne w York Museum o f Natural Histor y an d Science. 49. Saxon , Selected Letters of P. T. Barnum, 14-15 . 50. Rober t M . McClun g an d Gal e S . McClung , "Tammany' s Remarkabl e Gardiner Baker, " New-Tork Historical Society Quarterly 4 2 (Apri l 1958) : 146 . 51. Program , American Museum , 1 June 1791 , New-York Historica l Society . 52. McClun g an d McClung, "Tammany' s Remarkabl e Gardine r Baker, " 148 . 53. Broadside , 25 Novembe r 1793 , New-York Historica l Society . 54. McClun g an d McClung , "Tammany' s Remarkabl e Gardine r Baker, " 152 . 55. Ibid. , 143 . 56. New Tork Herald, 2 9 Septembe r 1794 ; McClung an d McClung, "Tamma ny's Remarkabl e Gardine r Baker, " 155 . 57. McClun g an d McClung, "Tammany' s Remarkabl e Gardine r Baker, " 152 . 58. Ibid. , 156 . 59. Ibid. , 156 . Pea k wrot e tha t h e believe d th e collectio n wa s give n t o Bake r as payment o f back wages. 60. Loy d Haberly , "Th e America n Museu m fro m Bake r t o Barnum, " NewTor kHistorical Society Quarterly 43 , no . 3 (July 1959) : 275, 276.

157

NOTES T O CHAPTE R2

158

61. McClun g an d McClung, "Tammany' s Remarkabl e Gardine r Baker, " 168. 62. Haberly , "America n Museu m fro m Bake r to Barnum," 278. 63. Ibid . 64. Ibid. , 279. 65. Odell , Annals of the New York Stage, 2:566. 66. Joh n Scudder , A Companion to the American Museum (Ne w York: G . F. Hopkins, 1823) , New-York Historical Society . 67. Haberly , "America n Museu m fro m Bake r to Barnum," 283-84 . 68. Rambusch , "Museum s an d Other Collections, " 42. 69. Eve n thoug h Joh n Scudder , Jr . di d no t finis h medica l school , h e wa s known a s Dr. Scudder. 70. Haberly , "America n Museu m fro m Bake r to Barnum," 286. 71. Loui s Leonar d Tucker , " 'Ohi o Show-Shop' : Th e Wester n Museu m o f Cincinnati 1820-1867, " in A Cabinet of Curiosities: Five Episodes in the Evolution of AmericanMuseums, ed. Whitfield J . Bell Jr. (Charlottesville : University Pres s of Virginia, 1967) , 73. 72. Ibid. , 72, 75. 73. Elizabet h R . Kellogg, "Joseph Dorfeuill e an d the Western Museum," Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History 22 (Apri l 1945) : 22 . It was not uncommon fo r universities to support museums . In the East, Harvard ha d already established th e Universit y Museu m (1784 ) an d Yal e th e Peabod y Museu m (1802). 74. Tucker , " 'Ohi o Show-Shop, ' " 84. 75. Ibid. , 89 . According t o Odell , laughin g ga s was offered a t a lecture give n at the Chatham Museu m i n New York in 1830. 76. Tucker , " 'Ohi o Show-Shop, ' " 85. 77. Haberly , "America n Museu m fro m Bake r to Barnum," 287. NOTES T O CHAPTE R 2

1. Nei l Harris , Humbug: The Art of P. T. Barnum (Chicago : Universit y o f Chicago Press , 1973) , 57 . Harri s use s th e wor d "aesthetic" ; h e believe s tha t Barnum's technique s involve d a "philosophy o f taste." 2. Catalog , American Museum , n.d. , Special Collection s Department , Adelph i University. 3. Phinea s T . Barnum , Struggles and Triumphs; or, The Life of P. T Barnum, Written by Himself '(1869), 107. 4. Edwar d K . Spann , The New Metropolis (Ne w York: Columbi a Universit y Press, 1891) , 23. 5. Davi d Nasaw, Going Out (New York: Basic Books, 1993) , 4. 6. Brook s McNamara , " 'A Congres s o f Wonders': Th e Ris e an d Fal l o f the Dime Museum, " Emerson Society Quarterly 2 0 (3rd Quarter 1974) : 218.

NOTES T O CHAPTE R 2

7. Georg e C . D . Odell , Annals of the New Tork Stage (Ne w York : Columbi a University Press , 1927-49) , 5:58 . 8. Irvin g Wallace, The Fabulous Showman (Ne w York: Knopf, 1959) , 77. 9. A . H. Saxon , P. T. Barnum: The Legend and the Man (Ne w York: Columbi a University Press , 1989) , 108 . 10. Barnum , Struggles and Triumphs, 96 . 11. Ibid. , 97 . 12. Barnum' s obituary , New Tork Herald, 7 Apri l 1891 ; Nei l Harris , i n hi s biography, claime d tha t i t was fifteen month s befor e Barnu m pai d bac k hi s loan . Yet Barnum , i n Struggles and Triumphs, claime d tha t i t too k hi m onl y twelv e months (12) . A s w e know , Barnu m tende d t o exaggerate , an d I trus t Harris' s meticulous researc h skills. 13. Odell , Annals of the New Tork Stage, 6:74. 14. Willia m W . Appleton, "Th e Marvelou s Museu m o f P . T. Barnum, " Revue d'Histoire du Theatre 15 (January-Marc h 1963) : 6 1. 15. Rober t C . Toll , On with the Show (New York : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1976), 34 . 16. Saxon , P. T Barnum, 74 ; Jame s B . Twitchell , Carnival Culture (Ne w York: Columbia Universit y Press, 1992) , 6 1, 63. 17. A n accountin g o f ticket s sol d fo r variou s Barnu m enterprise s a s compile d by Barnum , 1879 . Unidentifie d clipping , n.d. , Ne w Yor k Publi c Librar y fo r th e Performing Arts . 18. Eve n Mose s Kimbal l ha d trepidation s abou t displayin g suc h a fraudulen t exhibit. 19. Saxon , P. T. Barnum, 121 ; Josep h Bryan , P. T Barnum: The World's Greatest Showman (Ne w York : Rando m House , 1956) , 64 . Brya n give s th e fol lowing statistics : $3,341 wa s earned durin g th e first fou r week s th e mermai d was exhibited, compare d wit h $1,27 2 i n revenue th e fou r week s before th e mermaid' s arrival. 20. A . H . Saxon , Selective Letters of P. T Barnum (Ne w York : Columbi a University Press, 1983), 39. 21. Ibid. , 111 . 22. Harris , Humbug: The Art of P. T. Barnum, 77. 23. Saxon , P. T. Barnum, 120-21 . 24. Phinea s T . Barnum , The Humbugs of the World (Ne w York : Carleton , 1866), 259 . 25. Ibid. , 270 . 26. Harris , Humbug: The Art of P. T Barnum, 77. 27. Barnum , Humbugs of the World, 12 . 28. Rober t Bogdan , Freak Show: Presenting Human Oddities for Amusement and Profit (Chicago: Universit y o f Chicag o Press , 1988) . Johnson, als o known a s "Zip," ha d on e o f the longes t successfu l career s o f an y sidesho w attraction , fro m

159

NOTES T O CHAPTE R2

160

1860 t o hi s death i n 1926 . The nam e "Zip, " according Bogdan , cam e fro m "Zi p Coon," a figure i n earl y minstrel musi c shows . See James W. Coo k Jr. , "O f Men , Missing Links , and Nondescripts : Th e Strang e Caree r o f P. T. Barnum' s 'Wha t i s It?' Exhibition, " i n Freakery: Cultural Spectacles of the Extraordinary Body, ed . Rosemarie Garlan d Thomso n (Ne w York : Ne w Yor k Universit y Press , 1996) , 139-57. 29. Unidentifie d clipping , n.d. , Ne w Yor k Publi c Librar y fo r th e Performin g Arts. 30. Al l description s wer e obtaine d fro m illustrate d guidebook s t o Barnum' s American Museu m store d i n th e Ne w Yor k Publi c Librar y fo r th e Perform ing Arts , th e Specia l Collection s Departmen t a t Adelph i Universit y Library , and th e New-Yor k Historical Society . The dat e of the Adelphi boo k is not known , but i t wa s probabl y printe d i n th e 1860s . Th e boo k a t th e Ne w Yor k Publi c Library als o had n o date , bu t I a m fairl y certai n i t is a duplicate o f the on e a t th e New-York Historica l Society , which was published i n 1850 . There i s a small boo k at th e New-Yor k Historica l Society , title d Sights and Wonders in New York, tha t contains a descriptio n o f th e America n Museu m i n 1849 . Befor e Barnum' s $50,000 wort h o f renovations, spectator s were force d t o g o immediatel y upstair s on entering . 31. Becaus e o f th e rapidl y changin g natur e o f man y o f th e exhibits , i t i s difficult t o giv e a comprehensiv e loo k a t th e America n Museum . Th e date s o f most o f th e guidebook s ca n onl y b e guessed . Afte r Barnum' s majo r renova tions wer e completed , th e museu m containe d si x room s fo r viewin g hi s collec tion: on e o n th e groun d floor, thre e o n th e secon d floor, an d on e eac h o n th e third, fourth , an d fifth floors. I n th e 1860s , Barnu m move d hi s wa x display s into th e Cosmoram a roo m an d place d th e Cosmoram a Departmen t o n th e fifth floor. 32. Catalog , America n Museum , n.d. , Specia l Collection s Department , Adel phi University . 33. Barnum' s "America n Museu m Illustrated, " n.d. , Ne w York Public Librar y for th e Performin g Arts . 34. Saxon , Selected Letters of P. T. Barnum, 43 . 35. Barnum' s obituary , New York Herald, 7 April 1891 ; Barnum's "America n Museum Illustrated, " 1850 , New-York Historica l Society . 36. Th e America n Museum' s first productio n o f Uncle Tom's Cabin wa s pre sented o n Novembe r 7 , 1853 . Subsequen t production s wer e mounte d i n 1855 , 1858, 1865 , 1866, and 1868 . 37. Freak s wer e ofte n cas t a s midget s an d giant s i n play s performe d i n th e lecture room . A more detaile d discussio n o f these performance s occur s in chapte r 4. 38. "Th e Gran d Aquari a a t Barnum's! " n.d. , Ne w York Public Librar y fo r th e Performing Arts .

NOTES T O CHAPTE R3

39. Christin e Stansell , City of Women (Ne w York : Alfre d A . Knopf , 1986) , 83-86. 40. Nasaw , Going Out, 26 . 41. Kath y Peiss , Cheap Amusements (Philadelphia : Templ e Universit y Press , 1986), 163 . 42. Gunthe r Barth , City People (New York : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1980) , 129. 43. Spann , New Metropolis, 94-103. 44. Wallace , The Fabulous Showman, 154 . 45. Barnum , Struggles ana1 Triumphs, 241. 46. Saxon , P T Barnum, 196 ; se e 199-20 5 fo r a discussio n o f Barnum' s finances. Apparently , Barnu m overleverage d himsel f befor e th e cloc k scandal ; Saxon postulates tha t h e sol d his museum i n anticipation o f his financial troubles. 47. New Tork Herald, 1 9 September 1883 . 48. Barnum , Struggles and Triumphs, 350 . 49. Barnum' s "America n Museu m Illustrated, " 1850 , New-Yor k Historica l Society. 50. Broadside , Barnum's New Museum, 2 September 1865 , New-York Histor ical Society. 51. Saxon , P. T. Barnum, 109 . 52. T . Allsto n Brown , A History of the New Tork Stage (Ne w York : Benjami n Bloom, 1964) , 2:523, 526, 541. 53. "Prospectu s o f Barnum' s Museu m Company, " n.d. , clippin g file, Ne w York Public Library of the Performin g Arts . 54. Barnum , Struggles and Triumphs, 115 . NOTES T O CHAPTE R 3

1. Cineinnati Billboard, 2 8 Decembe r 1928 , 98-99; Georg e Middleton , Circus Memoirs (Los Angeles: George Rice , 1913) , 68. 2. Program , Nint h an d Arch Museum , 3 April 1889 , Free Librar y o f Philadelphia. 3. Cincinnati Billboard, 28 Decembe r 1928 , 98-99. 4. Josep h Jackson, ed., The Encyclopedia of Philadelphia (Philadelphia : Nationa l Historical Association, 1931) . 5. Program , Europea n Museum , n.d., Fre e Library of Philadelphia . 6. Ibid . 7. Perr y R . Dui s an d Gle n E . Holt , "Chicag o A s I t Was: Chea p Thrill s an d Dime Museums, " Chicago 26 , no . 1 0 (Octobe r 1977) : 106 . Colone l Josep h H. Woo d i s th e sam e ma n wh o operate d th e Philadelphi a Wood' s Museu m twenty year s later . Th e Ne w Yor k Wood' s Museu m wa s operate d b y Georg e Wood.

161

NOTES T O CHAPTE R3

162

8. "Journa l an d Progra m o f th e Lette r Carriers ' Associatio n o f Chicago, " 1889, clipping file, Chicago Historical Society . 9. Joh n Barron , "It' s Lik e This," n.p., n.d., Chicag o Historica l Society . 10. Ibid . 11. Se e Georg e C . D . Odell , Annuls of the New York Stage, vol. 5 (Ne w York: Columbia Universit y Press, 1927-49) . 12. Program , Hop e Chapel , 1860 , Ne w Yor k Publi c Librar y fo r th e Per forming Arts . 13. " A Visi t t o th e Ede n Musee, " publishe d i n connectio n wit h th e Dewe y celebration, 28-3 0 Septembe r 1899 , Museu m o f th e Cit y o f Ne w York ; "Th e Eden Musee' s Twenty-fift h Anniversary, " Saturday Evening Mail, 2 2 Februar y 1908. 14. " A Visit to the Ede n Musee. " 15. Se e Odell, Annals of the New York Stage, vols. 12-14 . 16. Ibid. , 13:338 ; "Th e Ede n Muse e I s Thirty Years Old," New York Times, 5 April 1914 . 17. " A Visit to th e Ede n Musee. " 18. Henr y Collin s Brown , Valentine^ Manual of Old New York (Ne w York : Valentine's Manual , 1926) , 12:194 . 19. A numbe r o f guidebook s o r monthl y catalog s t o th e Ede n Muse e ar e available a t th e New-Yor k Historica l Societ y a s well a s th e Theatr e Collectio n a t the Ne w York Public Library . Specifically , I was able to view guidebooks fro m th e years 1884 , 1885 , 1886 , 1887 , 1890 , 1897 , 1898 , 1899 , 1905 , 1906 , 1907 , an d 1909. 20. Guidebook , Ede n Muse e an d Chambe r o f Horrors , Boston , n.d. , privat e collection o f Brooks McNamara, 3 . 21. Odell , Annals of the New York Stage, 12:539 ; guidebook , Ede n Musee , 1885, New-Yor k Historica l Society , New York Public Librar y fo r th e Performin g Arts. 22. " A Visit to th e Eden Musee. " 23. Ibid . 24. Lu c Sante writes in Low Life (Ne w York: Farrar, Straus an d Giroux , 1991 ) that Ajee b wa s a pseudo-automaton an d tha t a dwarf inhabite d hi s body . Thi s i s the firs t accoun t I hav e rea d tha t postulate s thi s theor y pertainin g t o Ajeeb . However, the obituary of Peter J. Hill from th e Sun o n January 24,1929, claime d that Hil l was conceale d insid e Ajeeb . Ajee b first appeare d a t th e Ede n Muse e i n the 1884-8 5 season . 25. Odell , Annals of the New York Stage, 13:123 . By 188 9 al l the guidebook s illustrate tha t the Sacre d Chambe r wa s replaced b y the Historica l Chamber . 26. Guidebook , Ede n Musee , 1898 , New-Yor k Historica l Society ; Odell , Annals of the New York Stage, 13:337 . 27. " A Visit to th e Eden Musee. "

NOTES T O CHAPTE R3

28. Ibid . 29. "Kemmler' s Deat h b y Torture," New York Herald, 7 August 1890 . 30. Guidebooks , Eden Musee , 1898 , 1899 , 1905 , 1909 , New-York Historica l Society, Ne w Yor k Publi c Librar y fo r th e Performin g Arts ; " A Visit t o th e Ede n Musee." 31. " A Visit to th e Ede n Musee. " 32. Edwar d K . Spann , The New Metropolis (New York : Columbi a Universit y Press, 1981) , 91. 33. Ibid. , 92 . 34. Susa n D . Moeller , "Th e Cultura l Constructio n o f Urba n Poverty : Image s of Poverty i n Ne w York City , 1890-1917, " Journal of American Culture 18 , no. 4 (winte r 1995) : 3 , 7. 35. Guidebook , Ede n Musee , November 1887 , New-York Historical Society . 36. Guidebook , Bosto n Ede n Musee , n.d., private collection o f Brooks McNa mara. 37. Barnum' s "America n Museu m Illustrated, " n.d. , Ne w York Public Librar y for th e Performin g Arts . 38. Clair e McGlinchee, The First Decade of the Boston Museum (Boston : Bruc e Humphries, 1940) , 2 1. 39. " A Visit t o th e Ede n Musee" ; guidebook , Ede n Musee , 1885 , New-Yor k Historical Society , New York Public Library for th e Performin g Arts . 40. "Ede n Muse e I s Thirty Years Old. " 41. Charle s Musser , "Th e Ede n Muse e i n 1898 : Th e Exhibito r a s Creator, " Film and History 11 , no. 4 (Decembe r 1981) : 77. 42. "Ede n Muse e I s Thirty Years Old. " 43. Unidentifie d clipping , n.d., Museum o f the Cit y of New York. 44. Cincinnati Billboard, 8 December 1928 , 98-99. 45. Alvi n F . Harlow , Old Bowery Days (Ne w York : D . Appleton , 1931) , 378-79. 46. loh n Frick , New York's First Theatrical Center: The Rialto at Union Square (Ann Arbor, Mich. : UMI Researc h Press , 1985) , 93. 47. Ibid . 48. Odell , Annals of the New Tork Stage, 10:704 ; se e Frick , New York's First Theatrical Center, 109, for differen t locatio n a t 10 9 Bowery . 49. Odell , Annals of the New York Stage, 11:364 . 50. Guidebook , Eden Musee, November 1887 . He must have been semiretired , because I ran across a program date d January 15 , 1900, for G . B. Bunnell's Gran d Opera House located at 206-10 Meado w Street in New Haven, Connecticut . 51. New York Recorder, 17 July 1910 . 52. Frick , New York's First Theatrical Center, 98. 53. Odell , Annals of the New York Stage, 14:127. See my discussion o n variety, vaudeville, and th e dim e museums in chapter 5 .

163

NOTES T O CHAPTE R4

164

54. Frick , New Tork's First Theatrical Center, 102 ; Odell, Annals of the New Tork Stage, 14:673. 55. Odell , Annals of the New Tork Stage, 15:155, 158. 56. "Huber' s Museu m i n the Discard," New Tork Telegraph, 17 July 1910. 57. Odell , Annals of the New Tork Stage, 15:149. 58. Ibid. , 15:150 . 59. Ibid. ; thi s stor y remind s on e o f Kafka' s Hunger Artist, whos e centra l character is on "exhibition" as he attempts to go without food fo r a record lengt h of time . O f cours e th e iron y i s tha t i n orde r t o achiev e th e goal , "th e ultimat e fast," on e has to die, as did both th e fictitious hunger artis t and Mr. Stratton . 60. Odell , Annals of the New Tork Stage, 15:16 7 61. Ibid. , 15:169 ; T . Allston Brown , A History of the New Tork Stage (New York: Benjamin Blomm , 1964) , 2: 591 . 62. Odell , Annals of the New Tork Stage, 14:409. 63. Ibid. , 14:130 . O n Jul y 28 , 1895 , the Clipper announce d tha t Georg e Huber ha d purchase d Doris' s Eight h Avenu e Museu m an d woul d ope n i t o n August 1 9 as Huber's Mammot h Eight h Avenue Museum . 64. Ibid. , 14:671 . 65. Brown , Valentine's Manual of Old New Tork, 264. 66. Odell , Annals of the New Tork Stage, 13:532. 67. Harlow , Old Bowery Days, 479. 68. Ibid . 69. Jorda n an d Beck claime d t o be members o f the Roya l Colleg e o f Surgeons in London. Guidebook , Ne w York Museum o f Anatomy, 1863 , New-York Histor ical Society. 70. A similar embryolog y exhibit , tide d "Prenata l Development, " ca n be seen today a t Chicago' s Museu m o f Scienc e an d Industry . Thi s exhibi t originate d a t the 1933-3 4 Chicag o World's Fair . 71. Guidebook , Ne w York Museu m o f Anatomy, 1863 , New-Yor k Historica l Society. 72. Ibid . 73. Ibid . 74. Brook s McNamara , " C A Congress o f Wonders': Th e Rise an d Fall o f the Dime Museum, " Emerson Society Quarterly 2 0 (3r d Quarter 1974) : 223 . Curealls were ver y popula r durin g th e mid-nineteent h century . Museu m guidebook s were fille d wit h advertisement s fo r such products a s "Brandreth's Vegetable Pills " for stomac h disorder s and "M'Alister's All-Healing Ointment, " whic h supposedl y cured tumors , ulcers, sores, piles, burns, and corns. NOTES T O CHAPTE R 4

1. Rober t Bogdan , Freak Show: Presenting Human Oddities and Profit (Chicago: University of Chicago Press , 1988) , 9.

for Amusement

NOTES T O CHAPTE R 4

2. Gaha n Wilson, "Freaks, " 2 5 Apri l 1966 , 26, clippin g file , Ne w York Publi c Library for th e Performin g Arts . 3. Richar d Altick , The Shows of London: A Panoramic History of Exhibitions, 1600-1862 (Cambridge , Mass.: Harvard Universit y Press , 1978) , 37 . 4. Shakespeare , The Tempest, ed. Fran k Kermod e (London : Methuen , 1954) , 2. 2.27-34 . 5. Altick , Shows of London, 44 . 6. Wilson , "Freaks, " 26. 7. Feli x Isman, Weber and Fields (New York: Boni and Liveright , 1924) , 50 . 8. "Huber' s Museu m i n the Discard, " New Tork Telegraph, 17 July 1910 . 9. Barr y Gray , Cincinnati Billboard, 8 December 1928 . 10. Weldo n B . Durham, ed. , American Theatre Companies (Westport , Conn. : Greenwood, 1986) , 69. 11. Georg e Middleton, Circus Memoirs (Los Angeles: George Rice, 1913), 73. 12. Rober t C . Toll , On with the Show (New York : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1976), 279 ; Walte r Bodi n an d Burne t Hershey , It's a Small World (Ne w York : Coward-McCann, 1934) , 240 ; Willia m G . Fitzgerald , "Side-Sho w III, " Strand Magazine, Jun e 1897 , 3 : 521; Wilson, "Freaks, " 28. 13. Isman , Weber and Fields, 42. 14. Ibid. , 44. 15. Bogdan , Freak Show, 121 , 124. 16. "Barnu m an d Brady , Picture s fro m th e collectio n o f Frederic k Hil l Mes erve," clippin g file , New York Public Librar y fo r th e Performin g Arts ; George C . D. Odell , Annals of the New Tork Stage (Ne w York : Columbi a Universit y Press , 1927-49), 7:503 . 17. Se e Odell, Annals of the New Tork Stage, vols. 12-16 . 18. Accordin g t o a listin g fro m Odell , whe n th e sister s performe d a t Doris' s museum i n 1892 , the y wer e bille d a s twins. I a m no t certai n whethe r the y wer e twins or whether thi s was just a bit of old-fashioned humbuggery . 19. Bogdan , Freak Show, 247. 20. Althoug h a s Wild Me n th e Davi s brother s di d no t speak , the y di d spea k English offstage . 21. Sketch of the Life, Personal Appearance, Character and Manners of Charles S. Stratton, the Man in Miniature Known as General Tom Thumb (Ne w York: Van Norden an d Amerman, 1847) , 16 , New-York Historical Society , New York Publi c Library for th e Performin g Arts . 22. Sketch of the Life of Miss Millie-Christine; or, Christine-Millie, Ne w Yor k Public Library for th e Performin g Arts . 23. Alvi n Goldfarb , "Giganti c an d Minuscul e Actor s o n th e Nineteenth-Cen tury American Stage, " Journal of Popular Culture 10 , no. 2 (fal l 1976) : 270-71 . 24. Ibid. , 271-73. 25. Rolli n Lynd e Hartt , The People at Play (New York: Arno Press , 1975) , 94.

165

NOTES T O CHAPTE R 4

166

26. B . A. Botkin , New Tork City Folklore (Ne w York: Rando m House , 1956) , 409. 27. Ibid . 28. Odell , Annals of the New Tork Stage, 15:455. 29. Stuar t Ewe n an d Elizabet h Ewen , Channels of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness (NewYork: McGraw-Hill , 1982) , 13. 30. Bogdan , Freak Show, 110 , 219; Middleton, Circus Memoirs, 70. 31. Life of the Living Aztec Children (1860 ) was forty-eight page s long. 32. Mos t o f the photograph s availabl e t o scholar s ar e from survivin g copie s o f cartes de visites. 3 3. Bogdan , Freak Show, 13 , 104. 34. Frederic k Drimmer , Very Special People: The Struggles, Loves and Triumphs of Human Oddities (Ne w York : Amjon , 1973) , 103 ; "Th e Fa t Ma n an d Hi s Friends," American Heritage 17 , no. 4 (Jun e 1966) : 36. 35. Similarly , th e Hollywoo d studio s use d t o fabricat e lov e affair s betwee n their stars in order to promote movies . 36. Odel l claims that Worth was upset b y Coffey's wif e soliciting , but hi s ange r might hav e bee n a n ac t t o cove r som e actio n devise d b y Coffe y an d Wort h together; controversy , a s we know fro m Barnum , breed s profit. Joh n Frick , in hi s account o f th e story , claim s tha t Wort h was abou t t o su e Coffe y fo r breac h o f contract. 37. Bogdan , Freak Show, 131 . 38. P . T. Barnum, Struggles and Triumphs (1869) , 308 . 39. Hecto r Rosenfeld , "Barnum' s First Freaks," New Tork Times Magazine, 2 2 May 1904 . 40. Bogdan , Freak Show, 157 . 41. Ibid. , 297 . 42. Willia m G . Fitzgerald , "Side-Sho w III, " give s th e followin g statistics : h e weighed 85 3 pounds an d sh e weighed 553 , for a total o f 1,40 6 pounds . 43. Lesli e Fiedler, Freaks: Myths and Images of the Secret Self (New York: Simon and Schuster , 1978) , 214-18. 44. Ibid. , 207 . 45. Se e Odell, Annals of the New Tork Stage, vols. 12-15 . 46. "Th e Grea t Bab y Show, " New Tork Times, 2 6 Novembe r 1877 ; "Th e National Bab y Show," New Tork Times, 27 November 1877 ; "The Babies ' Secon d Day," New Tork Times, 28 Novembe r 1877 . 47. Do n Wilmeth , American and English Popular Entertainments (Detroit : Book Tower, 1980) , 241. 48. Drimmer , Very Special People, 15 .

NOTES T O CHAPTE R5

NOTES T O CHAPTE R 5 1. Rober t C . Allen , "B . F . Keit h an d th e Origin s o f America n Vaudeville, " Theatre Survey 21, no . 2 (Novembe r 1980) : 112 . 2. Henr y Dickinso n Stone , Theatrical Reminiscences (Ne w York : Benjami n Bloom, 1873) , 237. 3. Ibid. , 233. 4. Ibid . 5. Clair e McGlinchee , The First Decade of the Boston Museum (Boston : Bruc e Humphries, 1940) , 56 . 6. Howar d Malco m Ticknor , "Th e Passin g o f th e Bosto n Museum, " New England Magazine 27 , no. 4 (Jun e 1903) : 381-82 ; McGlinchee, First Decade of the Boston Museum, 28 . 7. Ticknor , "Passin g o f the Bosto n Museum, " 383 ; McGlinchee, First Decade of the Boston Museum, 48 . 8. McGlinchee , First Decade of the Boston Museum, 48 . 9. Th e numbe r o f spectator s tha t th e museum' s theate r coul d accommodat e varies from sourc e t o source . Most scholar s cit e 1,200 . McGlinchee, First Decade of the Boston Museum, 30 , 4 8 (90 0 o r 1,20 0 spectators) ; Laurenc e Senelick , The Age and Stage of George L. Fox, 1825-1877 (Hanover , NH. : Universit y Pres s o f New England, 1988) , 22 (1,20 0 spectators) ; Harry Birdhoff, The World's Greatest Hit: "Uncle Tom's Cabin" (Ne w York: S. F. Vanni, 1947) , 29 (1,20 0 spectators) . 10. McGlinchee , First Decade of the Boston Museum, 61 . 11. Ibid. , 5 2 12. Ibid. , 5 5 13. Ibid. , 49 . 14. Ticknor , "Passin g of the Bosto n Museum," 385 ; McGlinchee, First Decade of the Boston Museum, 49-50 . 15. McGlinchee , First Decade of the Boston Museum, 50 . 16. Ibid. , 50-51 ; Weldo n B . Durham , ed. , American Theater Companies (Westport, Conn. : Greenwood , 1986) , 68-73 . 17. Durham , American Theater Companies, 68-69 ; Daily Evening Transcript, 4 Novembe r 1846 , suggests 1,50 0 seats , whereas McGlinchee i n The First Decade of the Boston Museum conclude s tha t ther e were 60 0 seats . 18. McGlinchee , First Decade of the Boston Museum, 59 . 19. Edwar d W . Mammen , "Th e Ol d Stoc k Company : Th e Bosto n Museu m and Othe r Nineteent h Centur y Theaters, " Bulletin of the Boston Public Library 19, nos. 1- 4 (January-Apri l 1944) : 1-5 . 20. Se e McGlinchee , First Decade of the Boston Museum; Ticknor , "Passin g o f the Bosto n Museum" ; Durham , American Theater Companies. 21. Mammen , "Ol d Stoc k Company, " 6-7. 22. McGlinchee , First Decade of the Boston Museum, 97-98 ; Mammen , "Ol d Stock Company, " 59 ; Ticknor, "Passin g of the Bosto n Museum," 394 .

167

NOTES T O CHAPTE R 5

168

23. Georg e C . D . Odell , Annals of the New Tork Stage (New York: Columbi a University Press , 1927-49) , 12:338 . 24. Mammen , "Ol d Stoc k Company, " 10 ; McGlinchee , First Decade of the Boston Museum, 108 . 25. McGlinchee , First Decade of the Boston Museum, 77-87. 26. Ibid. , 23. 27. Senelick , Age and Stage of George L. Fox, 26. 28. McGlinchee , First Decade of the Boston Museum, 73 ; Jean Linzee, a descendant o f the Howar d family , wrote in an unpublished manuscrip t that th e Howard s were marrie d o n Octobe r 31 , 1844 , an d tha t Georg e Howar d ha d joine d th e Boston Museu m compan y in Octobe r 1843 . 29. Durham , American Theater Companies, 70. 30. Mammen , "Ol d Stoc k Company, " 29 ; Durham , American Theater Companies, 69 . 31. Ticknor , "Passin g of the Bosto n Museum, " 390 . 32. McGlinchee , First Decade of the Boston Museum, 60 . 33. Ticknor , "Passin g of the Bosto n Museum, " 390 . 34. Mammen , "Ol d Stoc k Company, " 50-51 . 35. Durham , American Theater Companies, 69 ; Mammen, "Ol d Stoc k Com pany," 50 . 36. Durham , American Theater Companies, 70. 37. Mammen , "Ol d Stoc k Company, " 9-10 . 38. Ticknor , "Passin g of the Bosto n Museum," 394 . 39. Davi d Grimsted , Melodrama Unveiled: American Theatre and Culture, 1800-1850 (Chicago : University of Chicago Press , 1968), 97. 40. Mammen , "Ol d Stoc k Company, " 15 . 41. Durham , American Theater Companies, 70. 42. Grimsted , Melodrama Unveiled, 97. 43. McGlinchee , First Decade of the Boston Museum, 49-50 . 44. Accordin g t o a n 1849-5 0 guid e boo k i n th e Ne w York Publi c Librar y fo r the Performin g Arts , benefi t performance s wer e exclude d fro m th e museum' s season pass. 45. Durham , American Theater Companies, 70 ; Grimsted , Melodrama Unveiled, 62 . 46. Mammen , "Ol d Stoc k Company, " 51 , 62. 47. Judit h N . McArthur , "Demo n Ru m o n th e Boards : Temperanc e Melo drama an d th e Traditio n o f Antebellum Reform, " Journal of the Early Republic 9 (winter 1989) : 527 . 48. Senelick , Age and Stage of George L. Fox, 33; McArthur, "Demo n Rum, " 528. 49. Bruc e A. McConachie, "Museu m Theatr e an d the Problem o f Respectabil-

NOTES T O CHAPTE R5

ity fo r Mid-Centur y Urba n Americans, " i n The American Stage, ed . Ro n Engl e and Tice L. Miller (Ne w York: Cambridge Universit y Press , 1993) , 74 . 50. Joh n Frick , " 4 He Dran k Fro m th e Poisone d Cup' : Theatre , Culture , an d Temperance i n Antebellu m America, " Journal of American Drama and Theatre 5, no. 2 (sprin g 1992) : 23-24 . 51. McArthur , "Demo n Rum, " 522 , 529-38 . 52. Mammen , "Ol d Stoc k Company, " 5 . 53. McGlinchee , First Decade of the Boston Museum, 24 . 54. Grimsted , Melodrama Unveiled, 87. 55. BirdhofF , World's Greatest Hit, 260-61 . 56. Danie l C . Gerould , ed. , American Melodrama (Ne w York : Performin g Arts Journal, 1983) , 15 . 57. Thoma s F . Gossett , "Uncle Tom's Cabin" and American Culture (Dallas : Southern Methodis t Universit y Press , 1985) , 43 ; Senelick , Age and Stage of George L. Fox, 59. 58. Senelick , Age and Stage of George L. Fox, 18. Senelic k equate s thes e hun dred performances wit h a seven-year run i n a New York City theater . 59. Rober t C . Toll , On with the Show (New York : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1976), 153 . 60. Senelick , Age and Stage of George L. Fox, 27-28. Accordin g t o Senelick , Uncle Tom's Cabin ha s mistakenl y bee n assume d t o hav e pioneere d thi s innova tion. 61. Rober t C . Toll , Blacking Up (New York: Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1974) , 92. 62. Progra m fo r Uncle Tom's Cabin, Bosto n Museum , c . 1880 , Ne w Yor k Public Library for th e Performin g Arts . 63. Odell , Annals of the New Tork Stage, 6:316-17 . 64. BirdhofF , World's Greatest Hit, 88 . 65. Gossett , a Uncle Tom's Cabin" and American Culture, 274 ; Toll, On with the Show, 153 . 66. Program , Ne w American Museum , 1866 , New-York Historica l Society ; T . Allston Brown , A History of the New Tork Stage (Ne w York : Benjami n Bloom , 1964), 2:5, 8. 67. Brown , History of the New Tork Stage, 3:532. 68. Mammen , "Ol d Stoc k Company, " 9 . 69. Ibid. , 10 . 70. Brown , History of the New Tork Stage, 2:6. 71. McGlinchee , First Decade of the Boston Museum, 134 , 140 , 145 . 72. Grimsted , Melodrama Unveiled, 104 ; McGlinchee , First Decade of the Boston Museum, 140 . 73. Mammen , "Ol d Stoc k Company, " 52-55 .

169

NOTES T O CHAPTE R 5

170

74. Ibid. , 56 , 100 . 75. Brown , History of the New York Stage, 2:5. 76. Odell , Annals of the New York Stage, 6:73. 77. Illustrated News, 26 Novembe r 1853 . 78. Odell , Annals of the New Tork Stage, 6:249. 79. Program , Wood' s Museum , 1 3 Apri l 1874 , Ne w Yor k Publi c Librar y fo r the Performin g Arts . 80. Odell , Annals of the New Tork Stage, 10:216 . Ada Reha n was a member o f the stoc k company of Wood's Museu m befor e i t becam e Daly' s Theatre. Sh e later became th e "darling " of Daly's company . 81. Odell , Annals of the New Tork Stage, 5:172 . 82. Joh n Frick, New Tork's First Theatrical Center: The Rialto at Union Square (Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI Researc h Press , 1985) , 94-96. 83. Odell , Annals of the New Tork Stage, 15:172. 84. Se e Shirle y Staples , Male-Female Comedy Teams in American Vaudeville (Ann Arbor, Mich. : UMI Researc h Press , 1984) . 85. Se e Odell, Annals of the New Tork Stage, vol. 15 . 86. Dougla s Gilbert , American Vaudeville: Its Life and Times (1940), 13-14 . Hyde an d Behma n als o operate d a variet y theate r i n Brookly n fo r ove r fiftee n years, beginning in 1877 . 87. Brook s McNamara , " ' A Congres s o f Wonders': Th e Ris e an d Fal l o f th e Dime Museum, " Emerson Society Quarterly 2 0 (3r d Quarte r 1974) : 228. 88. Unidentifie d clipping , n.d. , Ne w Yor k Publi c Librar y fo r th e Performin g Arts. 89. Odell , Annals of the New Tork Stage, 15:734; Felix Isman, Weber and Fields (New York: Boni and Liveright, 1924) , 2 7 , 4 5; Armond Field s and L. Marc Fields, From the Bowery to Broadway: Lew Fields and the Roots of Popular Entertainment (New York: Oxford Universit y Press, 1993); Allen, "B. F. Keith," 155 . 90. Alber t F . McLea n Jr. , "Genesi s o f Vaudeville : Tw o Letter s fro m B . F . Keith," Theatre Survey 1 (1960): 90. 91. Allen , "B . F. Keith," 106 . 92. Program , Austi n an d Stone' s Dim e Museum , 2 8 Novembe r 1891 , Ne w York Public Librar y for th e Performin g Arts . 93. Allen , "B. F. Keith," 106 ; McLean, "Genesi s o f Vaudeville," 90-91 . 94. McLean , "Genesi s o f Vaudeville," 91. 95. Alle n spell s i t "Gayety, " bu t accordin g t o a 1 7 Ma y 188 5 program , i t i s spelled "Gaiety" ; Albert F . McLean i n hi s article o n B . F. Keith spell s it "Gaiety " as well. 96. B . F . Keith , "Th e Vogu e o f Vaudeville, " i n American Vaudeville, ed . Charles W. Stein (Ne w York: DaCapo Press , 1984) , 15 . 97. Allen , "B . F. Keith," 112-14 . 98. Ibid. , 113 .

NOTES T O CHAPTE R6

NOTES T O CHAPTE R 6 1. Stuar t Ewe n an d Elizabet h Ewen , Channels of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness (Ne w York : McGraw-Hill , 1982) , 171 , 176 , 258. 2. A . Nichola s Vardac , From Stage to Screen (Cambridge: Harvar d Universit y Press, 1949) , 108-55 ; Howar d Taubman , The Making of the American Theatre (New York: Coward-McCann, 1965) , 112 . 3. Joh n Berger , Ways of Seeing (London: Britis h Broadcastin g Corporatio n an d Penguin Books , 1972) , 10 . 4. Umbert o Eco , "Travel s i n Hyperreality, " i n Travels in Hyperreality (Ne w York: Harcourt Brac e Jovanovich, 1986) , 44. 5. Guidebook , Ede n Muse e 1899 , New-York Historica l Society . 6. Alic e Elizabet h Chase , Famous Paintings (Ne w York : Piat t an d Munk , 1962), 76 ; Georg e C . D . Odell , Annals of the New Tork Stage (Ne w York : Columbia Universit y Press , 1927-49) , 13:337 . 7. A . J . Wall, "Wa x Portraiture, " New-Tork Historical Society Quarterly 9 , no . 1 (Apri l 1925) : 16-17 . 8. "Museu m an d Wax-Works," broadside, 25 Novembe r 1793 , New-York His torical Society . 9. "Travellin g Museum, " bill , n.d. , New-Yor k Historica l Society . Th e dat e o f the flye r fall s betwee n 182 5 an d 182 9 sinc e th e museu m wa s sai d t o contai n a "Portrait Paintin g of John Quinc y Adams, President o f the Unite d States. " 10. "Th e Ede n Musee' s Twenty-fift h Anniversary, " Saturday Evening Mail, 2 February 1908 . 11. " A Visi t t o th e Ede n Musee, " publishe d i n connectio n wit h th e Dewe y Celebration, 28-3 0 Septembe r 1899 , Museum o f the Cit y of New York. 12. "Concernin g Waxworks," Showman, 1 3 December 1901 , 218. 13. Paulin e Chapman , Madame Tussaud in England (London : Quille r Press , 1992), 10 . 14. Charle s Colema n Sellers , Patience Wright: American Artist and Spy in George IIVs London (Middleton , Conn. : Wesleyan Universit y Press , 1976) , 35. 15. Source s vary as to whether o r not Curtiu s reall y was Marie's uncle . 16. Chapman , Madame Tussaud in England, 4 . 17. Madame Tussaud ys Illustrated Guide, 1986 , 39 , author's collection . 18. Madame Tussaud^s Illustrated Guide, 1897 , 30-31 , Ne w Yor k Publi c Li brary for th e Performin g Arts . 19. Loui s Leonar d Tucker , " 'Ohi o Show-Shop' : Th e Wester n Museu m o f Cincinnati, 1820-1867, " i n A Cabinet of Curiosities: Five Episodes in the Evolution of American Museums, ed . Whitfiel d J . Bel l Jr . (Charlottesville : Universit y Press of Virginia, 1967) , 9 1. 20. Ibid. , 92 .

171

NOTES T O CHAPTE R 6

172

21. Ibid. , 91. 22. Power s was hired in 182 9 an d left i n 1834 . 23. Tucker , " 'Ohi o Show-Shop, ' " 96 . 24. Ernes t Wittenberg , "Echec! " American Heritage 11 , no . 2 (Februar y 1960): 84 ; on Apri l 22 , 1827 , Maelzel ha d displaye d anothe r o f his automatons , the "America n Ches s Player," a t John Scudder' s American Museu m i n New York. 25. Milbourn e Christopher , The Illustrated History of Magic (Ne w York : Thomas Y. Crowell, 1973) , 138 . 26. Oti s Skinner, Footlights and Spotlights (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1924) , 14. 27. Ibid. , 14,15 . 28. Ibid. , 15 . 29. Noe l Carroll , The Philosophy of Horror (Ne w York: Roudedge, 1990) , 160 . I d o no t agre e wit h ever y poin t Carrol l makes , bu t h e i s on e o f th e fe w scholar s to attemp t t o analyz e th e genr e o f horror . Th e boo k discusse s onl y fil m an d fiction, no t waxworks . 30. " A Visit to th e Ede n Musee. " 31. Durin g th e past decade , television programming ha s been filled with reen actments o f murder s an d othe r crimes . Th e tw o movie s abou t th e Menende z murders, fo r example , retell th e stor y o f how tw o youn g me n fro m Beverl y Hill s killed their parents, allegedly for money . Three televisio n movie s were made abou t Amy Fisher, a young Lon g Islan d woman wh o sho t he r allege d lover' s wife i n th e face. Fo r month s th e medi a devote d hour s o f news coverag e t o thes e stories , an d yet the public willingly watched reconstructe d event s everyone kne w about . 32. Tucker , " 'Ohi o Show-Shop, ' " 86 ; Program , Nint h an d Arc h Museum , n.d., Philadelphi a Fre e Library . 33. Henr y Collin s Brown , ed. , Valentine's Manual of Old New York (Ne w York: Valentine's Manual, 1927) , 194 . 34. " A Visit to th e Ede n Musee. " 35. "Life-Lik e bu t Onl y Wax, " New York Saturday News, 7 Januar y 1891 ; "Tweaked Caesar' s Nose, Pinched Columbus' s Ear, " n.d., Museu m o f the Cit y of New York. 36. "Life-lik e bu t Onl y Wax." 37. "Die s a t the Fee t o f Santa H e Ha d Modelle d i n Wax," unidentified obitu ary for Constan t Thys , n.d., New York Public Library for th e Performin g Arts . 38. Guidebook , Egyptia n Musee , n.d. , Ne w Yor k Publi c Librar y fo r th e Per forming Arts . 39. Ewe n an d Ewen , Channels of Desire, 82. 40. Charle s Musser , Before the Nickelodeon (Berkeley : Universit y o f California Press, 1991) , 117 . 41. Se e Charles Musser , The Emergence of the Cinema: The American Screen to 1907 (New York: Scribner's, 1990) ; A. R. Fulton, "Th e Machine, " i n The Ameri-

NOTES T O CHAPTE R6

can Film Industry, ed . Tin o Bali o (Madison : Universit y o f Wisconsi n Press , 1966), 21-24 ; Richar d Balzer , Optical Amusements: Magic Lanterns and Other Transforming Images, exhibitio n catalog , Museu m o f Ou r Nationa l Heritage , Lexington, Mass. , February 15-Octobe r 15 , 1987 , 67 . "Scope " come s fro m th e Greek word fo r viewer . 42. Vardac , From Stage to Screen, 250. 43. Musser , Emergence of Cinema, 234 . 44. X . Theodor e Barber , "Evening s o f Wonders : A Histor y o f th e Magi c Lantern Sho w in America" (Ph.D . diss., New York University, 1993) , 13. 45. Musser , Emergence of Cinema, 27 . 46. Barber , Evenings of Wonders, 30-31. 47. Ibid. , 39-40 . 48. Ibid. , 491. 49. Ibid. , 438-41 . 50. Ibid. , 26-28; Odell, Annals of the New Tork Stage, 2:302. 51. Balzer , Optical Amusements, 3 ; Barber, Evenings of Wonders, 29. 52. Balzer , Optical Amusements, 64 , 76. 53. Musser , Emergence of Cinema, 109 . 54. Se e Musser , Emergence of Cinema; Charle s Musser , "Th e America n Vita graph, 1897-1901 : Surviva l an d Succes s i n a Competitiv e Industry, " i n Film before Griffith, ed . John L . Fell (Berkeley: University o f California Press , 1983) . 55. Rober t C . Allen , "Contr a th e Chase r Theory, " i n Film before Griffith, ed . Fell, 105. 56. Rober t C . Allen , "Vitascope/Cinematographe : Initia l Pattern s o f Ameri can Film Industrial Practice, " in Film before Griffith, ed . Fell, 148. 57. Ibid. , 152 . Whe n Ediso n applie d fo r hi s America n paten t o n Augus t 24 , 1891, h e decide d no t t o spen d th e extr a $15 0 fo r a foreign application . I n Jul y 1901, however , a judge gav e Edison a virtual monopol y o n fil m production . 58. Musser , Before the Nickelodeon, 117. 59. Ibid. , 118 , 142 . 60. Ibid. , 124 . 61. Charle s Musser , "Th e Early Cinem a o f Edwi n Porter, " Cinema Journal 19, no. 1 (winter 1979) : 4, 5 . 62. Musser , Before the Nickelodeon, 135. 63. Ibid. , 135 , 137 ; Musser, Emergence of Cinema, 258-59 . 64. Musser , Before the Nickelodeon, 142-43. 65. Lind a Kowall , "Siegmun d Lubin : Th e Forgotte n Filmmaker, " Pennsylvania Heritage 12 , no. 1 (winter 1986) : 18 . 66. Lette r fro m Geraldin e Duclow , hea d Libraria n a t th e Theatr e Collection , Philadelphia Fre e Library ; Musser , Emergence of the Cinema, 236 , 285 ; Anthony Slide, Early American Cinema (Metuchen , N.J. : Scarecrow Press, 1994) , 19 . 67. Musser , Before the Nickelodeon, 142 .

173

NOTES T O CHAPTE R7

NOTES T O CHAPTE R 7

174

1. Pau l Boyer , Urban Masses and Moral Order 1820-1920 (Cambridge : Har vard Universit y Press , 1978) , 238-39 ; Nei l Harris , Humbug: The Art of P T Barnum (Chicago : Universit y o f Chicag o Press , 1973) , 185 ; Ro y Rosenzweig , Eight Hours for What We Will (Ne w York : Cambridg e Universit y Press , 1983) , 179. 2. Foste r Rhe a Dulles , A History of Recreation: America Learns to Play (Ne w York: D. Appleton-Century Company , 1940) , 293. 3. Charle s Musser , Before the Nickelodeon (Berkeley : Universit y o f California Press, 1991) , 428-3 2 4. Dulles , History of Recreation, 290 . 5. Stuar t Ewe n an d Elizabet h Ewen , Channels of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982) , 212. 6. Joh n Kasson , Amusing the Million: Coney Island at the Turn of the Century (New York : Hil l an d Wang , 1978) , 3 , 8 ; Andre a Stulma n Dennet t an d Nin a Warnke, "Disaste r Spectacle s a t the Tur n o f the Century, " Film History 4 (1990) : 101; Kath y Peiss , Cheap Amusements (Philadelphia : Templ e Universit y Press , 1986), 129 . 7. Richar d Snow , Coney Island: A Postcard Journey to the City of Fire (Ne w York: Brightwaters Press , 1984) , 63; Peiss, Cheap Amusements, 132-36 . 8. Kasson , Amusing the Million, 73 . 9. Ibid . 10. Snow , Coney Island, 100 . From 189 3 t o 189 8 Gumpert z wa s promoting a variety o f amusements i n St . Louis . H e helpe d Harr y Houdini , who wa s a struggling dim e museu m entertainer . Alv a Johnston , "Profiles : Bos s o f th e Bi g Top, " New Torker, 1 3 May 1933 . 11. Alv a Johnston, "Profiles : Bos s of the Circus, " New Torker, 6 April 1933 . 12 Rober t Bogdan , Freak Show: Presenting Human Oddities for Amusement and Profit (Chicago: University o f Chicago Press , 1988) , 56 . 13. Ed o McCullough , Good Old Coney Island (Ne w York : Scribner's , 1957) , 258,265. 14. Peiss , Cheap Amusements, 125 . 15. Bogdan , Freak Show, 38 . 16. Rober t Snyder , The Voice of the City (Ne w York : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1989), xv. 17. "Riple y Glean s Curiou s Fact s o n Ever y Hand, " New Tork Times, 27 De cember 1934 . 18. "Ripley' s Show Boasts 25 Wonders," New Tork Times, 26 Decembe r 1934 ; "5,000 Enjo y Ripley' s Odditoriu m a t Openin g o f Sho w Here, " Washington Times, 5 January 1934 . 19. Guidebook , Ripley' s Believe It o r Not! 44 .

NOTES T O CHAPTE R 7

20. Willia m Allen , "Believ e I t o r Not ! Eve n Thoug h Rober t Riple y Die d i n 1949, Hi s Featur e Stil l Appears i n 32 8 Newspaper s i n 3 8 Countries!!! " Saturday Review, February 1973 , 49. 21. Ibid. , 51. 22. Billboard, 1 2 March 1932 , 44. 23. "Ma x Schaffer , 83 , Who Operate d Hubert' s Museu m Arcade , Dies, " New Tork Times, 1 5 Februar y 1974 ; O . O . Mclntyre , "Ne w Yor k Da y b y Day, " n.d. , New York Public Library for th e Performin g Arts . 24. Stanle y Carr , "Notes : Wa x Museum s Ar e No t o n th e Wane, " New Tork Times, 17 August 1975 . 25. Brook s McNamara , " C A Congress o f Wonders': Th e Ris e an d Fal l o f th e Dime Museum," Emerson Society Quarterly 2 0 (3r d quarte r 1974) : 230. 26. Olive r Pila t an d J o Ranson , Sodom by the Sea (Garden City , N.Y.: Double day, Doran an d Company , 1941) , 206. 27. An n Jones , Women Who Kill (Ne w York : Holt , Rinehar t an d Winston , 1980), 260-61 . 28. McCullough , Good Old Coney Island, 266. 29. Carr , "Notes. " 30. Guidebook , Muse e Conti , n.d. , Ne w Yor k Publi c Librar y fo r th e Per forming Arts . 31. Rand y Mink , "Movi e Star s Cas t i n Wa x Entertai n Florid a Tourists, " New Tork Post, 5 August 1980 . 32. "Wa x Figure s i n Blac k Cu t Chain s o f Stereotypes, " New Tork Times, 2 8 December 1988 ; Me l Tapley , "Visi t Rave n Chanticleer' s Wa x Museum, " New Tork Amsterdam News, 4 Decembe r 1993 . 33. "Wa x Figures in Black. " 34. Souveni r guidebook , Guinnes s World o f Records, author's collection . 35. Luci a Zarate was only twenty inches tall, even smaller than Paulin e Muster . 36. Souveni r guidebook , Guinnes s World of Records, author's collection . 37. Bogdan , Freak Show, 11 . 38. Frederic k Drimmer , Very Special People: The Struggles, Loves and Triumphs of Human Oddities (New York: Amjon, 1973) , 233; Bogdan, Freak Show, 158 . 39. A . H. Saxon , ed., The Autobiography of Mrs. Tom Thumb (Hamden , Conn. : Archon Books , 1979) , 170-72 . 40. Georg e C D . Odell , Annals of the New Tork Stage (New York : Columbi a University Press, 1927-49), 14:133 . 41. R . Rei d Badger , The Great American Fair (Chicago : Nelso n Hall , 1979) , 131. 42. Pila t and Ranson , Sodom by the Sea, 179. 43. Rober t Lewi s Taylor, "Profiles : Talker-II, " New Torker, 26 Apri l 1958 . 44. Janic e Paran , "Hom e I s Where Thei r Art Is, " American Theater, Octobe r 1992, 34 .

175

NOTES T O EPILOGU E

176

45. Dougla s Martin , "Th e Rebirth o f a Sideshow at Coney Island, " New Tork Times, 4 September 1992. 46. Fre d Siegel , "Theater o f Guts: An Exploration o f the Sideshow Aesthetic," Drama Review 35 , no. 4 (winter 1991) : 108. 47. Ibid . 48. To m Singman, "Nave l Maneuvers," New Tork Times Magazine, 2 2 January 1995,20. 49. Stac e Maples , "Viewpoint, " Piercing Tans International Quarterly, no . 42 (1995): 3. 50. Advertisement , Piercing Tans International Quarterly, no . 42, 34 . 51. "Do s & Don'ts," Glamour, January 1995 , 112. 52. Francoi s Pluchart, "Ris k as the Practice o f Thought," i n The Art of Performance, ed. Gregory Battic k and Robert Nicka s (Ne w York: Dutton, 1984) , 127. 53. C . Carr, "Unspeakabl e Practice s Unnatura l Acts : The Taboo Art of Karen Finley," Village Voice, 24 June 1986. 54. Lind a Fry e Burnham , "High Performance, Performanc e Art , an d Me," Drama Review 30 , no. 1 (Spring 1986) : 15. 55. Jame s B . Twitchell , Carnival Culture (Ne w York: Columbi a Universit y Press, 1992) , 224, 225, 243. NOTES T O T H E EPILOGU E

1. Rober t Bogdan , Treak Show: Presenting Human Oddities for Amusement and Profit (Chicago: University of Chicago Press , 1988), 9. 2. Se e Bruce A. McConachie, "Museu m Theatr e an d the Problem o f Respectability fo r Mid-Centur y Urba n Americans, " i n The American Stage, ed . Ro n Engle and Tice L. Miller (Ne w York: Cambridge Universit y Press , 1993) . 3. Nei l Harris , Humbug: The Art of P. T Barnum (Chicago : Universit y o f Chicago Press , 1973), 286. 4. Disneyland: The Tirst Thirty Tears (Los Angeles: Walt Disne y Productions , 1985), 115. 5. Jame s H . Bierman , "Disney' s America Sings," Drama Review 20 , no . 2 (June 1976) : 67. 6. Rand y Bright , Disneyland: The Inside Story (Ne w York : Harr y Abrams , 1987), xiv. 7. Disneyland: The Tirst Thirty Tears, 84, 104 . 8. McConachie , "Museu m Theatr e an d the Problem o f Respectability," 76. 9. Michae l Wallace, "The Politics of Public History, " i n Past Meets Present, ed . Jo Blatti (Washington , D.C. : Smithsonian Institutio n Press , 1987) , 44. 10. Michae l Wallace , "Micke y Mous e History : Portrayin g th e Pas t a t Disne y World," Radical History Review 3 2 (1985): 37. 11. Harris , Humbug: The Art of P. T Barnum, 292 .

NOTES T O EPILOGU E

12. Kat e F . Stover , "I s I t Real Histor y Yet ? A n Updat e o n Livin g Histor y Museums," Journal of American Culture 12 , no . 2 (summe r 1989) : 15 . Th e situation a t Williamsbur g ha s bee n partiall y rectified : a n assistan t directo r fo r African America n program s ha s bee n hire d t o hel p interpre t th e colonia l blac k experience. 13. Fergu s M. Bordewich , "Williamsburg : Revisin g Colonia l America," Atlantic Monthly 262, no . 6 (Decembe r 1988) : 31. 14. Richar d Schechner , "Restoratio n o f Behavior, " i n Between Theatre and Anthropology (Philadelphia : Universit y o f Pennsylvani a Press , 1985) , 35 . Th e debate betwee n museu m professional s an d academi c historians o n th e bes t way t o present histor y is lengthy an d continuing . 15. Rober t Rydell , All the World's A Fair (Chicago : Universit y o f Chicag o Press, 1984) , 4. 16. Bret t Pulley , "Tussaud' s an d Movi e Chai n Joi n Disne y i n 42 d Stree t Proj ect," New Tork Times, 16 July 1995 . 17. Pau l Goldberger , "Th e Ne w Time s Square : Magi c Tha t Surprise d th e Magicians," New Tork Times, 15 Octobe r 1996 . 18. Loy d Haberly , "Th e America n Museu m fro m Bake r t o Barnum, " NewYork Historical Society Quarterly 43 , no. 3 (July 1959) : 284.

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Lambert, William. "Sho w Life in America." Eas t Point, Ga. : Will Delavoye, 1925 . Lefkon, Wendy , ed . Birnbaum's Walt Disney World. New York : Hyperio n an d Hearst, 1985 . Levine, Lawrenc e W . Highbrow/Lowbrow: The Emergence of Cultural Hierarchy in America. Cambridge : Harvar d Universit y Press , 1988 . . "Willia m Shakespear e an d th e American People. " I n Rethinking Popular Culture, edite d b y Chandra Mukerj i an d Michae l Schudson , 157-97 . Berkeley : University o f California Press , 1991. "Life-Like bu t Onl y in Wax." New Tork Saturday News, 7 January 1891. MacKay, Patricia. "Them e Parks , USA." Theatre Crafts, Septembe r 1971 . Mammen, Edwar d W . "Th e Ol d Stoc k Company : Th e Bosto n Museu m an d Other Nineteent h Centur y Theaters. " Bulletin of the Boston Public Library 19 , nos. 1- 4 (January-Apri l 1944) . Maples, Stace . "Viewpoint. " Piercing Fans International Quarterly, no . 4 2 (1995): 3 . Martin, Douglas . "Th e Rebirt h o f a Sideshow a t Cone y Island. " New Tork Times, 4 Septembe r 1992 . Matiaw, Myron , ed . American Popular Entertainment. Westport , Conn. : Green wood, 1979 . McArthur, Judit h N . "Demo n Ru m o n th e Boards : Temperance Melodram a an d the Traditio n o f Antebellum Reform. " Journal of the Early Republic 9 (winte r 1989): 518-39 . McCabe, Jame s D. , Jr . Lights and Shadows of New Tork Life. Ne w York : Farrar , Straus and Giroux , 1970 . McClung, Rober t M. , an d Gal e S . McClung. "Tammany' s Remarkabl e Gardine r Baker." New-Tork Historical Society Quarterly 4 2 (Apri l 1958) : 142-69 . McConachie, Bruc e A . "Museu m Theatr e an d th e Proble m o f Respectabilit y for Mid-Centur y Urba n Americans. " I n The American Stage, edite d b y Ron Engl e an d Tic e L . Miller , 65-80 . Ne w York: Cambridg e Universit y Press , 1993. McCullough, Edo . Good Old Coney Island. New York: Scribner's, 1957 . McGlinchee, Claire . The First Decade of the Boston Museum. Boston : Bruc e Humphries, 1940 . McLean, Alber t F. , Jr . "Genesi s o f Vaudeville : Tw o Letter s fro m B . F . Keith. " Theatre Survey 1 (1960): 82-95 . . American Vaudeville as Ritual. Lexington : Universit y o f Kentucky Press , 1965. McNamara, Brooks . " ' A Congres s o f Wonders': Th e Ris e an d Fal l o f th e Dim e Museum." Emerson Society Quarterly 2 0 (3r d Quarte r 1974) : 216-32 . "Medusa, Chil d o f th e Sea , Oddes t Huma n Wonder. " New Tork Herald, 9 January 1934 . Middleton, George . Circus Memoirs. Los Angeles: George Rice , 1913.

185

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPH Y

186

Mink, Randy . "Movi e Star s Cas t i n Wa x Entertai n Florid a Tourists. " New York Post, 5 August 1980 . Mitchell, Michael. Monsters of the Gilded Age. Toronto : Gag e Press , 1979 . Moeller, Susa n D . "Th e Cultura l Constructio n o f Urba n Poverty : Image s o f Poverty i n Ne w York City , 1890-1917. " Journal of American Culture 18 , no. 4 (winte r 1995) : 1-16 . Musser, Charles . "Th e Earl y Cinem a o f Edwi n Porter. " Cinema Journal 19 , no . 1 (winte r 1979) : 1-39 . . "Th e Ede n Muse e i n 1898 : The Exhibito r a s Creator." Film and History 11, no . 4 (Decembe r 1981) : 73-82 . . "Th e America n Vitagraph , 1897-1901 : Survival an d Succes s i n a Com petitive Industry. " I n Film before Griffith, edite d b y Joh n L . Fell , 22-66 . Berkeley: University o f California Press , 1983. . The Emergence of the Cinema: The American Screen to 1907. Ne w York : Scribner's, 1990 . . Before the Nickelodeon. Berkeley: University o f California Press , 1991. Nasaw, David. Going Out. Ne w York: Basic Books, 1993 . "The Nationa l Bab y Show." New Tork Times, 27 Novembe r 1877 . Norris, John , an d Joa n Norris . Amusement Parks. Jefferson , N.C. : McFarland , 1986. Northall, William Knoght. Before and Beyond the Curtain, or Fifty Years* Observation among the Theatres of New York. New York: W. F. Burgess, 1851. Odell, Georg e C D . Annals of the New York Stage. 1 5 vols. New York: Columbi a University Press , 1927-49 . Orosz, J . "Curator s an d Culture : An Interpretiv e Histor y o f the Museu m Move ment i n America, 1773-1870. " Ann Arbor, Mich. : UM I Dissertatio n Informa tion Services , 1986 . Paran, Janice . "Hom e I s Where Thei r Art Is. " American Theatre, October 1992 , 34-46. Peiss, Kathy. Cheap Amusements. Philadelphia : Temple Universit y Press, 1986 . Pilat, Oliver , an d J o Ranson . Sodom by the Sea. Garde n City , N.Y. : Doubleday , Doran, 1941 . Pluchart, Francois. "Ris k as the Practic e o f Thought." I n The Art of Performance, edited b y Gregor y Battic k an d Rober t Nickas , 125-34 . Ne w York : Dutton , 1984. Pollock, Thomas Clark . The Philadelphia Theatre in the Eighteenth Century. Phila delphia: Universit y o f Pennsylvania Press , 1933. Powers, Madelon . "Deca y fro m Within : th e Inevitabl e Doo m o f th e America n Saloon." I n Drinking, edite d b y Susann a Barne s an d Robi n Room , 112-31 . Berkeley: University o f California Press , 1991. Pulley, Brett . "Tussaud' s an d Movi e Chai n Joi n i n Disne y 42 d Stree t Project. " New York Times, 16 July 1995 .

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPH Y

Quigley, Martin , Jr . Magic Shadows: The Story of the Origin of Motion Pictures. New York: Quigley, 1960 . Rahill, Frank. The World of Melodrama. Universit y Park : Pennsylvani a Stat e Uni versity Press, 1967 . Rambusch, Cath a Grace . "Museum s an d Othe r Collection s i n Ne w Yor k City , 1790-1870." M.A . thesis, New York University, 1965 . Ramsaye, Terry . A Million and One Nights. Ne w York : Simo n an d Schuster , 1926. Ripley, Dillon , The Sacred Grove. Washington , D.C. : Smithsonia n Institutio n Press, 1969 . Ripley, Robert L . Believe It or Not! Ne w York: Simon an d Schuster, 1929 . "Ripley Glean s Curiou s Fact s o n Ever y Hand. " New Tork Times, 2 7 Decembe r 1934. "Ripley's Shows Boasts 25 Wonders." New Tork Times, 26 Decembe r 1934 . Rosenfeld, Hector . "Barnum' s Firs t Freaks. " New Tork Times Magazine, 2 2 Ma y 1904. Rosenzweig, Roy . Eight Hours for What We Will. New York: Cambridg e Univer sity Press, 1983. Ryan, Kate. Old Boston Museum Days. Boston: Little , Brown, 1915 . Rydell, Robert . All the World's a Fair. Chicago : Universit y o f Chicag o Press , 1984. Sante, Luc. Low Life. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux , 1991. Saxon, A . H . P. T Barnum: The Legend and the Man. Ne w York : Columbi a University Press, 1989 . , ed . The Autobiography of Mrs. Tom Thumb. Hamden , Conn. : Archo n Books, 1979 . . Selective Letters of P. T Barnum. Ne w York : Columbi a Universit y Press , 1983. Schechner, Richard . "Restoratio n o f Behavior. " I n Between Theatre and Anthropology. Philadelphia : Universit y of Pennsylvania Press , 1985 . Schwartz, Alvin . Museums: The Story of America's Treasure Houses. New York : Dutton, 1967 . Sellers, Charle s Coleman . Patience Wright: American Artist and Spy in George IIFs London. Middleton , Conn. : Wesleyan Universit y Press, 1976 . . Mr. Peak's Museum: Charles Willson Peak and the First Popular Museum of Natural Science and Art. Ne w York: Norton, 1979 . Senelick, Laurence. "Variet y and Vaudeville: The Process Observed in Two Manu script Gagbooks. " Theatre Survey 19 , no. 1 (May 1978) : 1-5 . . The Age and Stage of George L. Fox, 1825-1877. Hanover , N.H. : Univer sity of New Englan d Press , 1988 . Siegal, Fred . "Theatr e o f Guts : A n Exploratio n o f th e Sidesho w Aesthetic. " Drama Review 35 , no. 4 (winte r 1991) : 107-24 .

187

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPH Y

188

Sifton, Pau l G . "Pierr e Eugen e D u Simitier e (1737-1784) : Collecto r i n Revolu tionary America. " Ph.D . diss., University o f Pennsylvania, 1960 . Sights and Wonder in New Tork. New York: J. S. Redfield, 1849 . Singman, Tom . "Nave l Maneuvers. " New Tork Times Magazine, 2 2 Januar y 1995. Skinner, Otis . Footlights and Spotlights. Indianapolis : Bobbs-Merrill , 1924 . Slide, Anthony. Early American Cinema. Metuchen , N.J. : Scarecrow Press, 1994 . Snow, Richard . Coney Island: A Postcard Journey to the City of Tire. Ne w York : Brightwaters Press , 1984 . Snyder, Robert. The Voice of the City. New York: Oxford Universit y Press , 1989 . Southerland, Danie l E . The Expansion of Everyday Life, 1860-1876. Ne w York : Harper an d Row , 1989 . Spann, Edwar d K . The New Metropolis. New York : Columbi a Universit y Press , 1981. Stansell, Christine . City of Women: Sex and Class in New Tork, 1789-1860. Ne w York: Knopf, 1986 . Staples, Shirley. Male-Female Comedy Teams in American Vaudeville. Ann Arbor , Mich.: UMI Researc h Press , 1984 . Stein, Charles W., ed. American Vaudeville. New York: DaCapo Press , 1984 . Stocking, George, ed. Objects and Others. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press , 1985. Stone, Henr y Dickinson . Theatrical Reminiscences. New York : Benjami n Bloom , 1873. Stover, Kate F. "Is I t Real Histor y Yet? An Update o n Livin g History Museums. " Journal of AmericanCulture 12 , no. 2 (summe r 1989) : 13-17 . Sussman, Warre n I . Culture as History: The Transformation of American Society in the Twentieth Century. Ne w York: Pantheon, 1984 . Taubman, Howard . The Making of the American Theatre. Ne w York : Coward McCann, 1965 . Taylor, Rober t Lewis . "Profiles: Talker-II. " The New Torker, 26 April 1958 . Thomas, David. The Origins of the Motion Picture. London : He r Majesty' s Statio nery Office , 1964 . Thompson, C . J . S . The Mystery and Lore of Monsters, with Accounts of Some Giants, Dwarfs, and Prodigies. New York: Citadel Press , 1970 . Thomson, Rosemari e Garland , ed . Freakery: Cultural Spectacles of the Extraordinary Body. Ne w York: New York University Press , 1996 . Ticknor, Howar d Malcolm . "Th e Passin g o f th e Bosto n Museum. " The New England Magazine 27' , no. 4 (Jun e 1903) : 379-96 . Toll, Robert C . Blacking Up. New York: Oxford Universit y Press , 1974 . . On with the Show. New York: Oxford Universit y Press , 1976 . Trollope, Francis . Domestic Manners of America. London , 1832 . Reprint , Ne w York: Knopf, 1949 .

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPH Y

Tucker, Loui s Leonard . " 'Ohi o Sho w Shop' : Th e Wester n Museu m o f Cincin nati, 1820-1867. " I n A Cabinet of Curiosities: Five Episodes in the Evolution of American Museums, edite d b y Whitfiel d J . Bel l Jr. , 73-105 . Charlottesville : University Pres s of Virginia, 1967 . Twitchell, Jame s B . Carnival Culture. Ne w York : Columbi a Universit y Press , 1992. Vardac, A. Nicholas . From Stage to Screen. Cambridge: Harvar d Universit y Press , 1949. "A Visi t t o th e Ede n Musee. " 28-3 0 Septembe r 1899 . Museu m o f th e Cit y o f New York. "Visit Raven Chanticleer' s Wax Museum." New Tork Amsterdam News, 4 Decem ber 1993 . Wall, A . J . "Wa x Portraiture. " New Tork Historical Society Quarterly 9 , no . 1 (April 1925) : 3-26 . Wallace, Irving. The Fabulous Showman. Ne w York: Knopf, 1959 . Wallace, Michael. "Micke y Mouse History : Portrayin g th e Pas t at Disney World. " Radical History Review 3 2 (1985) : 33-58 . . "Th e Politic s o f Publi c History. " I n Past Meets Present, edite d b y J o Blatti, 37-53. Washington, D.C. : Smithsonian Institutio n Press , 1987 . Wells, Helen. Barnum, Showman of America. Ne w York: David McKay, 1957 . Werner, M. R . Barnum. Ne w York: Harcourt, Brace , 1923. Wilmeth, Don . American and English Popular Entertainments. Detroit : Boo k Tower, 1980 . . Variety Entertainment and Outdoor Amusements. Westport , Conn. : Greenwood, 1982 . Wilson, Gahan . "Freaks. " 2 5 Apri l 1966 . Clippin g file, Ne w Yor k Public Librar y for th e Performin g Arts . Wittenberg, Ernest . "Echec! " American Heritage 11 , no . 2 (Februar y 1960) : 33-84. Wittlin, Alm a S . The Museum: Its History and Its Task in Education. London : Routiedge an d Kega n Paul , 1949 . Wood, J . G . "Dim e Museums. " Atlantic Monthly 5 5 (January-Jun e 1855) : 759-65. Wright, Richardson . Hawkers and Walkers in Early America. Philadelphia : Lip pincott, 1927 .

Selected Programs, Broadsides, and Guidebooks Sources: Bill y Ros e Theatr e Collection , Ne w Yor k Publi c Librar y fo r th e Per forming Art s (NYPL) ; New-Yor k Historica l Societ y (NYHS) ; Museu m o f th e City o f Ne w Yor k (MCNY) ; Player s Collectio n (PC) ; Adelph i Universit y (AU) ;

189

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPH Y

Philadelphia Fre e Librar y (PFL) ; Chicag o Historica l Societ y (CHS) ; Sa n Dieg o Historical Societ y (SDHA) . 190

Barnum's "America n Museu m Illustrated, " guidebook , 1850 . NYHS ; n.d. , NYPL, AU. Bill, Meade's Midget Hall , n.d. NYPL . Bill, Travelling Museum, n.d. NYHS . Broadside, American Museum , 1 June 1791 , 25 Novembe r 1773 . NYHS. Broadside, Barnum's Ne w Museum, 2 September 1865 . NYHS. Broadside, Boston Museum . I n Hawkers and Walkers in Early America. Philadel phia: J. B. Lippincott, 1927 . Broadside, Egyptian Museum , 1855 . NYHS. Broadside, Mrs. Jarley's Wax-Works Show, 1 0 May 1870 . NYHS. Broadside, "Museu m an d Wax-works," 25 Novembe r 1793 , NYHS. Broadside, Peak's Ne w York Museum, c . 1840 . NYHS. Broadside, Scudder's American Museum , 1 July 1819 . NYHS. Broadside, Star Museum, 1 1 March 1889 . NYPL. Broadside, Tammany Museum , 29 Septembe r 1794 . NYHS. Guidebook, [Boston ] Ede n Muse e an d chambe r o f horrors , n.d . Collectio n o f Brooks McNamara . Guidebook, Ede n Musee , 1884 , 1885 , 1886 , 1887 , 1890 , 1897 , 1898 , 1899 , 1905, 1906 , 1907 , 1909 . NYHS, NYPL. Guidebook, Egyptia n Musee, n.d. PC . Guidebook, Guinnes s World of Records. Author's collection . Guidebook, Madame Tussaud's , 1897 , 1986 . NYPL, author's collection . Guidebook, Ne w York Museum o f Anatomy, 1863 , 1870. NYPL, NYHS. Guidebook, Ripley' s Believe It o r Not! Author's collection . Life of the Living Aztec Children, 1860 . NYPL. "Museum an d Wax-Works," broadside, 25 Novembe r 1793 . NYHS. Program, American Museum , 1 June 1791 . NYHS. Program, Austin an d Stone' s Dim e Museum , 28 Novembe r 1891 . NYPL. Program, Bosto n Museum , 1852 , 1872 . NYPL. Program, Bunnell' s Museum, 28 Novembe r 1891 . NYPL. Program, Colone l Wood's Museum , Chicago , n.d. CH S Program, Colone l Wood's Museum , Philadelphia , n.d. PFL . Program, Egyptia n Museum , 1886 . PFL . Program, Europea n Museum , n.d. PFL . Program, Haga r an d Campbell' s Ne w Dime Museum, 1883 . PFL. Program, Hop e Chapel , 1860 . NYPL. Program, Nint h an d Arch Museum, 1889 , 1892 . PFL . Program, Zor o Garden s Hom e o f the Nudists, 1935 . SDHA . Prospectus, Barnum's Museu m Company , n.d. NYHS .

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPH Y

Scudder, John. A Companion to the American Museum. Ne w York: G. F. Hopkins, 1823. NYH S Sketch of the Life of Miss Millie-Christine; or, Christine-Millie, n.d . NYPL . Sketch of the Life, Personal Appearance, Character and Manners of Charles S. Stratton, the Man in Miniature Known as General Tom Thumb. Ne w York: Van Norden an d Amerman, 1847 . NYPL, NYHS.

191

Index Abbey, Henry E. , 5 6 Acconci, Vito, 14 0 Admiral Dot, 57 , 70; and performing, 74 ; and salary , 69 African Americans , 31 ; wax museums, 133; and Williamsburg, 146 , 177n . 1 2 Aiken, George, 98, 99; and Uncle Tom's Cabin, 9 6 - 9 7 , 1 4 9 Ajeeb, 50 , 52, 58,113,162n. 2 4 Alexander's Museum , New York, 6 1, 152 Altick, Richard, 6 6 American Museum, 145 , 148; early history, 12-14,17, 18,19 , 2 1, 2 4 - 2 5 , 1 1 9, 149 . See also Barnum, Phineas Taylor; Scudder, Joh n American Museum o f Natural History , 8 , 65,149 American Philosophica l Society , 14 9 Amusement parks , 125-126 , 129 , 136 , 144,145 Anderson's Musee , Wilkes Barre, Pa., 42, 153 Antique Hall , 45 Apollo Museum, New York, 15 2 Armat, Thomas, 12 0 Arthur Putney' s Museum , Chicago , 43, 151 Astor Place Riot, 4, 6 1, 149 Atherton, Mr. an d Mrs., 8 0 Atianta, xii Audubon, Joh n James, 20 Austin, William: and Austin an d Stone' s Museum, Boston , 4 1, 102, 104-105 , 150; and cinema, 11 7 Automata, 17 , 11 3 Aztec Children , 8 0 Baker, Gardiner, 10 , 17 , 108, 118, 157n . 59 Banvard, John: an d Banvard' s Museum, 39 , 101,151 Barber, X. Theodore, 11 8 Barnum, Phineas Taylor, 6, 8, 14 , 20, 44, 56, 67, 69 , 87, 113 , 124, 136 , 143 ; and the American Museum, xi, 23-37, 40, 45, 47, 8 1, 85, 96, 144 , 149,152,160n . 31; an d Barnum's Museum, 39 ; and th e

circus, xi, 103, 150; and contests, 26; and the dim e museum, xi; hoaxes, 2 9 30, 107 ; and the New American Museu m (Chinese Museum), 38 , 152; publicity and marketing, 23, 27-32, 166n . 36 ; and temperance, 23, 34; and the theater, 9 8 100; and Tom Thumb, 69-70 , 8 1 , 110; and traveling museums, 84-85 ; and Uncle Tom's Cabin, 97 , 105 . See also Fejee Mermaid Baroness, Simone, 7 0 Baron Littiefingers, 7 0 Barron, Charles , 90 Barth, Gunther , 8 , 3 6 Bass, Jonathan, 5 8 Batchelder, Georg e H. , 4 1, 68, 104-10 5 Bates, Martin Van Buren, 57 , 70, 8 1, 133. See also Swan, Anna Beach Street Museum, 15 3 Bearded ladies, 26, 7 1, 76, 82, 8 3 Beck, Dr. 63 , 65 Bedlam asylum , 67 Behman, Louis , 10 2 Belasco, David, 10 6 Bell, Annie, 8 1 Bennett, Harry , 2 4 Berger, John, 10 6 Berlin Academy of Waxworks, New York, 61, 15 2 Bets, Robert, Dr. , 2 0 Bey, Richard, 14 2 Bihin, E., 7 4 Body piercing, 138-13 9 Bogdan, Robert, 78 , 13 4 Bogert, Cornelius , 1 9 Booth, Edwin, 60 , 9 0 Booth, Junius Brutus, 9 0 Bordin, Ruth, 3 Boseth, Warrimch, 7 1 Boston Museum, xiii , 8, 27, 55 , 87-99, 103, 113 , 149, 151 , 156n. 22 , 168n . 28 . See also Kimball, Moses Boston Museum o f Fine Arts, 8, 65, 15 0 Bottle, The, 3 5 , 9 5, 11 9 Boucicault, Dion , 9 4 Bowen, Daniel, 10 8 Bowen, Elli, 78, 80, 8 5

193

INDEX

194

Boyton, Paul , 12 6 Bradshaw's Circu s of Curiosities, 13 8 Brady, Matthew, 77 Brandenburgh, Charle s A.: and the cinema , 117; and th e Ninth an d Arch Museum , Philadelphia, 42, 122 , 150 , 152 . See also Ninth an d Arch Museu m Bristol's Museum, Worcester, Massachu setts, 15 3 British Museum, 11 , 149 Broadway Museum an d Menagerie, Ne w York, 15 2 Brotherton, Georg e C , 4 3 Bunker, Chan g an d Eng . See Chang an d Eng Bunnell, George : and museums , 8, 39 , 5 6 57, 101-102,103 , 150 , 152 , 163n . 5 0 Burke, John, 4 3 Butler, Henry D. , 3 7 Cabinet o f curiosities, xi, 1, 21 Caliban, 6 6 Campbell, W. T.: and New Dim e Museum , 42 Carroll, Noel, 11 4 Carson, Cary , 14 6 Cartes de visites, 35, 78, 166n . 3 2 Castle, Herman, 12 0 Chamber o f Horrors, 7 , 2 1, 4 1, 44, 46, 51, 53,113-115 Chang an d Eng , 7 1, 73, 77; and marriage , 81-82; salary, 69. See also Siamese twin s Chanticleer, Raven , 13 3 Charleston Museum , 149 , 156n . 3 1 Chatham Squar e Museum, New York, 152 , 158n.75 Cher, 13 9 Chestnut Stree t Dim e Museum , Philadel p h i a ' s , 15 3 Chicago: Coliseum , 45; the Grea t Fire, 43, 150; Historical Society , 4 4 Chicago's Centur y o f Progress Exposition , 130, 137 , 150 , 164n . 7 0 Chicago World's Columbia n Exposition , 128,149 Chovet, Dr. Abraham, 109 , 14 9 Cinema, 45, 117-123, 125-126, 129 , 14 4 Circassian Beauties , 7 1, 83 Circus, xii, 136, 14 4 City Museum, Philadelphia , 15 3

Civil War: displays, 7, 44, 55 , 77, 8 1 , 146 Clare Sisters, 70 Clarke, Caroline an d Edward, 1 8 Clofullia, Josephin e Fortune , 28-2 9 Coffey, J . W, 80 , 166n . 3 6 Colonel Rot h Goshen , 7 4 Colonel Wood's Museum . See Wood, Joseph H . Commodore Nutt , 74 ; salary, 6 4 Concert Hall , 2 8 Coney Island, 56 , 126-129 , 138 , 15 0 Congress Museum, Chicago , 43, 15 1 Conjoined twins . See Chang an d Eng ; Millie-Christine; Siamese twin s Conway, H. J. : an d Dred, 74; and Uncle Tom's Cabin, 96-97 , 14 9 Couney, Dr. Martin Arthur, 128-12 9 Count Magri . See Magri, Prim o Croton Hall , 45 Curtius, Dr. Philippe , 109-110 , 171n . 1 5 Cushman, Charlotte , 9 0 Daly's Theatre, 3 9 Darwin, Charles , 80, 14 9 Davenport, E . L. , 90, 10 1 Davis, Hiram an d Barney , "Wil d Me n o f Borneo," 70 , 7 1, 165n. 2 0 de Phillipsthal, Paul, 11 0 Dickens, Charles, 98 Dime museum: anatomica l an d medica l mu seums, 43, 45, 61-65; audience, 5 ; circuit, 41-42; competition, xi, 9, 24, 64, 69; contests, 57, 59, 83-84; curio halls, 74, 76; definition, xi , xiii, 2, 5 , 8-10, 22 , 124; demise, 45, 122-123 , 125-126 , 129-130, 136 ; and education , 6 , 4 1, 94, 106, 144 , 146-147 ; genealogy, 144 ; index, 151-154 ; lecturers, 74-75; live performance, 66, 101 , 124; marketing an d promotion, 9-10 , 80-83 ; marriages o f performers, 80-81 ; an d patriotism, 47 ; and plays, 98-99, 102 ; and public history, 7, 146 ; salaries of performers, 68 , 92; and temperance , 5 , 54, 94-95; traveling museums, 84-85; and th e twenty first century, 147 ; urbanization an d mod ernization, xii, 2-8, 45; and variety, 102 . See also Barnum, Phinea s Taylor; Cinema ; Freaks; Lecture Room ; Theater; Waxworks; Vaudeville

INDEX

Disney, Walt, 144-145 , 147 ; audio-anima tronics, 113; Disneyland, 15 0 Donahue, Phil, 14 2 Donnelly, Frank, 11 6 Dorfeuille, Joseph , 10 , 2 0 - 2 1, 110-11 2 Doris, John B. : and museums, 10 , 56, 5 9 60,101,103,150,152 Drake, Daniel, 2 0 Drew, Mr. and Mrs. John, 87 Drew's Museum, Cleveland , 15 3 Drew's Museum, Providence , 15 3 Drunkard, The, 34, 35, 36, 95, 96 Du Simitiere , Pierre Eugene, 10-12 , 20 , 149 Eagle, Nate, 13 7 Eden Musee: and Boston , xi, 47, 54 , 151; and Chicago , xi, 44, 116 , 150 , 151 ; and the cinema, 117 , 121-122, 150 ; and New York, xi, 9, 44-56, 58 , 60, 101, 131, 146 , 150 , 151 ; and waxworks, 107 108, 115-116 . See also Gumpertz, Samuel Edison, Thomas: and the Edison Manufac turing Company , 120-12 2 Egyptian Musee, Philadelphia, 15 3 Egyptian Museum, Ne w York, 15 2 Eighth Stree t Museum, Philadelphia , 15 3 Eisenmann, Charles , 77 Elliott, Gordon , 14 2 Emerling, Joe Tracy, 12 4 Epstein's Museum, Chicago , 15 1 Erber's Sho w of Living Wonders, 13 1 European Museum , Ne w York, 6 1, 152 Ewen, Elizabeth an d Stuart, 76, 11 7 Fat boys , 26, 70; and men, 5 7 Fejee Mermaid, 27-28, 159n . 1 9 Field, Bichard Montgomery, 9 2 Film. See Cinema Finley, Karen, 14 0 Forepaugh, Adam, 4 3 Forepaugh, John A., 4 3 Fox, Caroline (Mrs . George Howard) , 9 1, 96-97 Fox, George Lafayette , 9 1 , 98, 10 0 Freaks, xi, 19, 20, 23, 27, 31, 35, 43, 57, 58, 60, 124 , 129 , 130, 131, 147; and th e circus, 85; codification, 78; definition of , 134; the displa y of, 66-85 , 137 ,

160n.37; London frea k shows , 67; an d marriage, 8 0 - 8 1; an d medical testimoni als, 142 ; and sexuality, 82-83, 140-141 ; subtext o f freak show ; 83; transgressive and subversiv e elements of freak show , 36-37, 4 1, 82; and the twentieth cen tury, 85,136-14 3 Frick, John, 3 , 94 Gaiety Hall an d Museum, Boston , 105 , 151 Gaiety Museum, New York, 6 1, 152 Gammon, Frank C , 12 0 Gauntlet, 138-13 9 Geary's Wonderland, For t Wayne, Ind. , 153 General Gran t Jr., 9 8 General Mite, 7 0 "George th e Turtie Boy, " 6 8 George Wood's Museum an d Metropolita n Theatre. See Wood's Museum (Ne w York) Giants, 67, 70 , 74, 83, 160n.37. See also Freaks Gilbert, Douglas , 10 4 Globe Dime Museum, New York, xii, 8, 6 1, 152 Globe Museum, Chicago , 15 1 Goldberg, Whoopi, 13 9 Goodin, Michael, 4 3 Gothic Hall, 4 5 Gothic Museum, New York, 15 2 Grand Dim e Museum, New York, 59, 101, 152 Grand Museum, Allegheny, Pa., 42, 15 3 Grand Museum, Boston , 4 1, 151 Grant, Ulysse s S., 7, 55 , 115, 14 6 Gray, Judd, 13 2 Great Black s in Wax Museum, 13 3 Great Chines e Museum. See Barnum, Phi neas Taylor Great Europea n Museum , Philadelphia , 43, 153 Greenwood, John , Jr., 3 7 Grimsted, David , 9 3 Guinness World o f Records, 1 3 3-134 Gumpertz, Samue l W, 128 , 136-137 ; an d Eden Musee, 56, 131-132 , 174n . 1 0 Gunther, Charle s F., 44. See also Libby Prison Museum, Chicag o

195

INDEX

196

Hagar, W. D.: and th e Ne w Dime Museum , 42,153 Haller, Valerie, 13 8 Harlem Museum , 13 3 Harris, Lizzie, 7 0 Harris, Neil, 23, 29, 14 6 Harry Davi s Eden Musee , Pittsburgh, 15 3 Harry Davi s Museum, Altoona, Pa. , 42, 153 Hause, Edward, 11 6 Hawthorn, Nathaniel , 9 8 Herring, Fanny, 6 0 Herschel, John, 29-3 0 Herzog's Museum , Baltimore , 4 1, 153 Heth, Joice , 28 Hollaman, Richard , 121 ; Hollaman broth ers, 15 0 Hope Chapel , 4 5 Hopkins, T. R, 42-4 3 Houdini, Harry , 103 , 174n. 1 0 Howard Cordelia , 9 6 Howard, Georg e C , 9 1 , 96-97, 168n . 2 8 Howells, William Dean, 4 1 Howes, Seth B. , 84 Hsieh, Tehching, 14 1 Huber, George , 67; and the cinema , 117 ; and museums, 8, 56 , 57-59, 68, 75, 8 1, 101,103,136,150,152 Huber's Museum , 67 , 117 , 13 1 Hudson, Kenneth , 11 , 12 Hugo, Victor, 9 8 Hunt's Museum , Baltimore , 15 3 Hyde, Richard: an d museum, 102 , 152 , 170n. 8 6 Ingalls, Clyde, 6 6 International Museum , Ne w York, 15 2 Irving Hall, 4 5 Isman, Felix, 68 Jeffries, Norman , 42-4 3 Jeftichew, Theodor . See "Jo-Jo, the Dog Faced Boy " Jenkins, Francis, 12 0 Jerome Manufacturing Company , 3 7 Johnson, William Henry, 30 . See also "What Is It?" "Jo-Jo, the Dog-Face d Boy, " 58 , 69, 8 0 Jolson, Al, 10 3 Jones, Ann, 13 2

Jones, Jenny, 14 2 Jordan, Dr. H. J. , 63 , 65 Joseph and His Brethren, 35 , 99 Kahn's Museum o f Anatomy, 6 1, 152 Keach, E. F., 92 Keene, Laura, 7 4 Keith, B. F.: and museums , 4 1, 103-105, 150,151 Kemmler, William, 53 , 15 0 Kimball, David, 8 7 Kimball, Moses, 6, 8 , 27-28, 55, 87-89, 92-93, 156n . 22 , 159n . 18 . See also Boston Museu m Kimball's Star Museum, New York, 15 2 Kohl, C. E . , 4 1 , 6 Krao, 78-79, 80, 8 5 Lake, Ricki, 14 2 Lecture Room, 34-38 , 68, 86-10 5 Lee, Robert E. , 7 , 55 , 11 5 Levine, Lawrence, 5 Libby Prison Museum, Chicago , 4 4 - 4 5 , 150,151 Lilliputia, 12 8 Lincoln, Abraham, 28, 44, 5 5 "Lionel, the Lion-Face d Boy, " 8 0 Litt Museum, Milwaukee, 15 3 Locke, Richard Adams, 2 9 London Dim e Museum , Chicago , 43, 15 1 Lubin, Siegmund, 12 2 Luchow, Albert, 5 7 Lumiere, Auguste an d Louise , 120 ; and cinematographe, 12 1 Lyman, Levi, 28 MacKaye, Steele, 10 6 Maezel's Turk, 11 3 Magic Lantern , 7 , 34, 54, 118-12 0 Magri, Primo, 128 , 134-13 5 Major Atom , 5 6 Mammen, Edward , 90, 9 7 Mammoth Museum , New York, 15 2 Maples, Stace, 13 9 Marine Fireston e Museum , 13 1 Martin, Elmer an d Joanne, 13 3 Maternal impression theory , 77 McCaslin's Baltimor e Museum, 13 1 McConachie, Bruce A., xiii, 14 5 McGinley's Museum, St. Louis, 4 1

INDEX

McNamara, Brooks , xiii, 13 1 Meade's Midge t Hall , New York, 84, 129 , 152 Metropolitan Museu m o f Art, 65 , 15 0 Middleton, George , xii, 4 1, 68, 73; performer's salaries , 69. See also Globe Mu seum, Chicag o Midgets, 26, 70, 74, 78, 83-84, 142 , 160n. 37 . See also Freaks; Stratton, Charles (Genera l Tom Thumb) ; Warren, Lavinia (Mrs . Tom Thumb ) Millie-Christine, 73 , 78; salary, 6 9 Miracle Museum, Pittsburgh , 15 3 Moeller, Susan, 5 4 Montano, Linda, 14 1 Montgomery, Richard , 9 2 Morgan, James, 7 1 Morlan, Chauncey , 60; marriage, 81; salary, 69 Morris and Hickman' s Eas t Side Museum , New York, 61,15 2 Morse, Salmi, 5 5 Motion pictures . See Cinema Mt. Morris Museum, New York, 60, 15 2 Musee, Youngstown, Ohio , 15 3 Musee Conti , 13 2 Museums: proprietary, 1-2 , 10 , 22, 23, 24, 13; a new generation, 131 . See also Dime museum Musser, Charles , 55, 117, 121 , 122 Mutascope, 12 0 Nasaw, David, 2 4 Newark Dim e Museum , N.J., 15 3 New England Museum , Boston , 8 7 New Natural Museum , Ne w York, 6 1, 152 New Park Theatre Museu m an d Menagerie , 102 New York, xi-xii, 24, 26, 28, 90, 144 ; Bowery, 56, 60-63; Broadway , 36 , 54, 130 ; early cinema, 121 ; entertainment district , 77; Forty-second Street , 147 ; popular en tertainment, 45 ; and poverty, 8 , 54 ; Wall Street, 5 4 New York Dime Museum , Boston , 104 , 151 New-York Historical Society , 14 , 1 8 New York Institute, 18-1 9 New York Museum, Boston , 8 7 New York Museum, Ne w York, 6 1, 152

New York Museum o f Anatomy, 63-65 , 149,152 New York World's Fair, 15 0 Ninth an d Arch Museum, 8 , 42-43, 114 , 118,149 Nix's New Haven Museum , 8 7 Norfolk, Va. , xi Oberammergau Passio n play, 55, 12 1 Odell, George C . D. , 45, 60, 75-76, 100 , 102,105,134, 14 2 Olah, Paul, 44, 4 6 Old Masoni c Temple, 4 3 Olmsted, Francis W, 25 , 26 Olympic Museum, Chicago , 15 1 Orr, Noah, 7 0 Pacific Museu m o f Anatomy an d Natura l Science, San Francisco, xi, 15 3 Paley, William, 121,12 2 Pan-American Exposition , 128 , 15 0 Pantomime, 98-99. See also Fox, Georg e Lafayette Peale, Charles Wilson, 10 , 12-14 , 20, 118 , 147,149 Peale, Rembrandt, 1 4 Peale, Rubens, 10 , 13-14 , 24, 118 , 157n . 48, 157n . 5 9 Peak's Ne w York Museum, 13-14 , 18 , 2 4 25, 118 , 149 , 157n . 48; Baltimore Mu seum, 14 ; Troy Museum, 9 1 Pearlroth, Norbert , 13 0 Peck and Fursman' s Museum , 15 3 Peck's Grea t Dim e Museum , Philadelphia , 8,153 Peiss, Kathy, 12 9 Philadelphia Centennial , 15 0 Pintard, John, 15-1 8 Pleasant Street Museum , Providence , 4 1, 153 Porter, Edwi n S. , 121-122 , 15 0 Povich, Maury, 14 2 Powers, Hiram, 2 1, 110-11 2 Powers, Madelon, 3 Prince, 13 9 Prince Ludwig , 7 0 Punnell's Museum , 15 3 Raphael, Sally Jessy, 14 2 Rehan,Ada, 170n . 8 0

197

INDEX

198

Reynolds, William, 12 8 Richmond, Va., xiii, 44 Ripley, Dillon, 1 1 Ripley, Robert, 130-13 1 Rivera, Geraldo, 14 2 Robbins Researc h International, 14 1 Robert-Houdin, Jea n Eugene, 11 3 Robertson, Etienne-Gaspard , 11 9 Roff, Norman, 12 0 Rydell, Robert, 14 7 Ryder, Linden , 11 2 Sackett and Wiggins circuit , 4 2 San Diego Exposition , 13 7 Santangelo's World o f Wax, 5 6 Saunders, Charles H., 9 5 Savage, Edward, 17 , 108 , 118-11 9 Saxon, Arthur, 2 9 Scudder, John, 10 , 17-18 , 24, 25, 27, 149 , 172n. 24 . See also American Museu m Scudder, John, Jr., 18-20 , 158n . 6 9 Senoj, Nochodemos, 5 8 Shelly, Mary, 11 3 Siamese twins, 26, 66, 7 1, 76, 82 . See also Chang an d Eng ; Millie-Christin e Side shows, 85, 128, 136, 14 1 Siegel, Fred, 13 8 Singman, Tom, 13 8 Skinner, Otis , 113-11 4 Slavery, xii, 31, 55, 97, 146 , 156n . 2 2 Sloane, Sir Hans, 1 1 Smith, William H. , 26, 35 , 92, 93, 95, 99 Smithsonian Institution , 14 , 14 9 Snyder, Ruth, 13 2 South Stree t Museum , Philadelphia , 15 3 Spann, Edward, 5 4 Springer, Jerry, 14 2 Standard Museum , Ne w York, 15 2 Star Museum, 156n . 2 8 Stars Hall o f Fame, 13 2 Steele, William, 2 0 Stevenson, Rober t Louis , 11 3 St. Louis Exposition, 15 0 Stoker, Bram, 11 3 Stone, Frank: an d museum, 102 , 104-10 5 Stone an d Murray's Circus , 8 5 Stowe, Harriet Beecher , 55 , 96, 97, 149 ; Dred, 74. See also Uncle Tom's Cabin Stratton, Charle s (Genera l Tom Thumb) , 14, 32 , 37, 45, 77, 110 , 136 , 149 ; age,

69-70; death , 134 ; marriage, 80-81; sal ary, 69; talent, 72 , 74, 78. See also Barnum, Phinea s Taylor; Warren, Lavini a (Mrs. Tom Thumb ) Stratton, Sherwood Henry , 8 4 Sultan's Divan , 6 1 Surratt, Mrs., 44 Swan, Anna, 37 , 57, 70, 8 1, 133. See also Bates, Martin Van Bure n Tammany Museum, 14-20 , 14 9 Tattoos, 139 , 140 , 141 , 142; artists, 57, 66,67,71,75,82,85 Tayleure, Clifton, 9 5 Taylor, Charles , 8 7 Taylor, Tom, 9 8 Television talk shows, 141-14 3 Temperance: an d melodrama , 94-95 ; the temperance movement , 3 , 23, 34, 54 , 119 Temple Theatre an d Egyptia n Musee , Philadelphia, 43, 15 3 Ten Nights in a Bar-room, 95,119 . See also Temperance Thaw, Harry K. , 12 5 Theater, xiii, 4 - 5, 6, 23, 26, 34-35 , 36, 38, 43, 46 , 55, 56, 58, 60, 86-105, 106 , 129. See also Lecture Room ; Temperanc e Thompson, Annie Leak , 77 Thumb, Tom. See Stratton, Charle s (Gen eral Tom Thumb ) Thys, Constant, 115-11 6 Toll, Robert, 4, 9 7 Tripp, Charles, 58 , 78, 8 5 Trowbridge, Henry: an d museum , 86-8 7 Troy Museum, Troy, N.Y., 96, 15 3 Tufts University , 4 0 Tussaud, Madame, 109-110 , 149 , 171n . 15; the Organization , 14 7 Twitchell, James B., 142-14 3 Tyler, Royall, 3 5 Uncle Tom's Cabin, 35 , 55, 9 1, 96-97, 100, 103 , 105,118-119, 149 , 169n . 6 0 Van Amburgh, Isaac , 3 8 Variety, 60, 84, 86, 98, 99, 103 , 105, 124, 129, 131 ; comedy teams, 10 2 Vaudeville, xiii, 6, 45, 86, 102 , 103 , 105, 122,125,129,134

INDEX

Venable, William Henry, 10 6 Vine Street Museum, Cincinnati , 15 3 Waldron, William L , 1 7 Wallace, Michael, 14 5 Warren, Lavinia (Mrs . Tom Thumb) , 45, 70; marriage t o Coun t Magri , 128 , 1 3 4 136; marriage t o Stratton, 80-8 1 Warren, William, 87, 91-93, 9 7 WaxU.SA., 13 2 Waxworks, xii, 15, 18, 2 1, 42, 43, 44-46, 55, 57 , 60, 77,119,124, 129 , 144 , 146 ; and history, 6-7, 107-117 , 125 ; and mu seums, 131-133. See also Chamber o f Horrors; Eden Musee ; Western Museu m of Cincinnat i Weber an d Fields, 68, 10 3 Wemyss, Francis Courtney, 34-35 , 9 9 Western Museum o f Cincinnati, 2 0 - 2 1 , 114, 149 ; "Infernal Regions, " 22, 110 113 Westminster Museum , Providence , 4 1, 153 West Side Museum, Chicago , 43, 15 1 W G . Wade's Hollywood Frea k Museum , 131 "What Is It?" 3 0 - 3 1, 36 . See also Johnson, William Henry ; Zi p White, Stanford, 12 5

Whit John's Museum, Chicago , 4 3, 15 1 Williams, Montel, 14 2 Winfrey, Oprah , 14 2 Women: a s performers, 36 , 57, 82-83; as spectators, xi, 5, 13 , 35-36, 58 , 59, 64, 99,125,144 Wonderland, Buffalo , 15 3 Wonderland, Erie , Pa., 15 3 Wonderland, Rochester , N.Y., 15 3 Wonderland Compound , Chicago , 43, 15 1 Wood, Colone l Josep h H. , museums of : i n Chicago, 43, 151, 161n. 7 ; in Philadel phia, 42, 149 , 153 ; traveling, 8 5 Wood's Museum (Ne w York), xiii, 38-39, 74, 98, 101 , 149, 150 , 152 , 161n . 7 World's fairs, 127 , 136 , 13 7 Worth, E . M.: and museum , 58 , 136 , 80, 105, 150,152 , 166n . 3 Wyatt, Georg e H. , 9 1 Yates, Adelaide an d Sara Ann, 8 1 Zarate, Lucia, 70, 175n . 3 5 Zigun,Dick, 138 , 14 1 Zip, 7 1 , 78, 85, 159n. 28 ; salary, 69. See also "What I s It?" Zoro Gardens , 13 7

199

About th e Autho r

200

A teacher, actor, and director, Andrea Stulman Dennet t receive d her Ph.D . in Performanc e Studie s fro m Ne w Yor k University . Sh e ha s writte n o n many aspects of popular entertainmen t fro m televisio n tal k shows to disas ter spectacles at the turn o f the century .