Waste Residue Composites [16] 9783110766400

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Advanced Composites

Edited by J. Paulo Davim

Volume 16

Also of interest Series: Advanced Composites J. Paulo Davim (Ed.) ISSN - Published titles in this series: Vol. : Cellulose Composites () Ed. by P. K. Rakesh, J. Paulo Davim Vol. : Hybrid Composites () Ed. by K. Kumar, B. S. Babu Vol. : Plant and Animal Based Composites () Ed. by K. Kumar, J. Paulo Davim Vol. : Glass Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites () Ed. by J. Babu, J. Paulo Davim Vol. : Polymers and Composites Manufacturing () Ed. by K. Kumar, J. Paulo Davim Vol. : Biodegradable Composites () Ed. by Ed. by K. Kumar, J. P. Davim Vol. : Wear of Composite Materials () Ed. by J. P. Davim Vol. : Hierarchical Composite Materials () Ed. by K. Kumar, J. P. Davim Vol. : Green Composites () Ed. by J. P. Davim Vol. : Wood Composites () Ed. by A. Alfredo, J. P. Davim Vol. : Ceramic Matrix Composites () Ed. by J. P. Davim Vol. : Machinability of Fibre-Reinforced Plastics () Ed. by J. P. Davim Vol. : Metal Matrix Composites () Ed. by J. P. Davim Vol. : Biomedical Composites () Ed. by J. P. Davim Vol. : Nanocomposites () Ed. by J. P. Davim, C. A. Charitidis

Waste Residue Composites Edited by Murahari Kolli, J. Paulo Davim

Editors Prof. Dr. Murahari Kolli Department of Mechanical Engineering Lakireddy Bali Reddy College of Engineering L.B. Reddy Nagar, Mylavaram 521230 Andhra Pradesh India [email protected] Prof. Dr. J. Paulo Davim Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Aveiro Campus Santiago 3810-193 Aveiro Portugal [email protected]

ISBN 978-3-11-076640-0 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-076652-3 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-076659-2 ISSN 2192-8983 Library of Congress Control Number: 2022951191 Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2023 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston Cover image: gettyimages/thinkstockphotos, Abalone Shell Typesetting: Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd. Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck www.degruyter.com

Contents Preface

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Contributing authors

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Chapter 1 Next-generation waste residue composite materials 1 Murahari Kolli, Krishna Kishore Mugada, Adepu Kumar, Sunkara Gopi Rakesh 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Particle-reinforced composites 3 1.3 Industrial waste 7 1.3.1 Mining and quarry wastes 7 1.3.2 Power plant wastes (energy): fly ash and boiler slag 10 1.3.3 Manufacturing processing wastes 11 1.3.4 Food and electronics packing 13 1.3.5 Textile and chemical: heavy metals, leather chips, and chemical solvents 13 1.4 Construction: slate, metals, glass, slag bricks 14 1.4.1 Welding slag 14 1.4.2 E-glass waste 15 1.5 Animal waste residue 15 1.5.1 Animal bone 17 1.5.2 Animal teeth 17 1.5.3 Animal horn 18 1.5.4 Leather waste 18 1.5.5 Cow dung waste 18 1.5.6 Mussel shell and sea shell 19 1.5.7 Periwinkle shell 19 1.5.8 Melon shell ash 20 1.6 Green waste residue 20 1.6.1 Leafs 20 1.6.2 Husk and seed waste residues 25 1.6.3 Stem waste residue 26 1.7 Household waste 28 1.7.1 Food waste 28 1.7.2 Vegetable waste 30 1.7.3 Plastic waste 30

VI

1.7.4 1.8 1.9

Contents

Electronic waste 30 Conclusion 30 Future scope 31 References 32

Chapter 2 Emerging techniques for waste residue composites 39 Bhagyarajsinh Gohil, Virag Shah, Tarang Paneliya, Krishna Kishore Mugada 2.1 Introduction 39 2.2 Composite fabrication methods 40 2.2.1 Vacuum bagging method 42 2.2.2 Pultrusion 44 2.2.3 Spray forming 46 2.2.4 Plasma spraying 47 2.2.5 Filament winding 48 2.2.6 Resin transfer molding or vacuum infusion method 49 2.2.7 Stir casting 51 2.2.8 Squeeze casting 51 2.2.9 Compocasting 52 2.2.10 Thermal decomposition method (chemical vapor deposition – CVD) 54 2.3 Summary 55 References 55 Chapter 3 Manufacturing of green waste-reinforced aluminum composites 59 Satyanarayana Kosaraju, Suresh Kumar Tummala, PhaneendraBabu Bobba, Venkata Somi Reddy Janga 3.1 Introduction 59 3.2 Methods of manufacturing the aluminum composites 62 3.2.1 Powder metallurgy process 62 3.2.2 Stir casting process 65 3.3 Advanced method of manufacturing aluminum composites 68 3.3.1 Ultrasonic stir casting 68 3.3.2 Friction stir processing (FSP) 69 3.3.3 3D printing or additive manufacturing 70 3.4 Conclusion 71 References 71

Contents

Chapter 4 Animal waste-based composites: a case study 4.1 Influence of animal tooth powder on mechanical and microstructural characteristics of Al6061 MMCs manufactured through ultrasonic-assisted stir casting 75 Laxmanaraju Salavaravu, Gopichand Dirisenapu, Lingaraju Dumpala, Remalle Ranjith Kumar, K. Satish Prakash 4.1.1 Introduction 75 4.1.2 Experimental procedure 77 4.1.2.1 Materials 77 4.1.2.2 Reinforcement 78 4.1.2.3 Preparation of composites 78 4.1.3 Results and discussions 79 4.1.3.1 Influence of bone powder particles on microstructure and XRD 79 4.1.3.2 Effect of bone powder on tensile strength 80 4.1.3.3 Influence of bone powder on microhardness 82 4.1.3.4 Influence of bone powder on impact strength 82 4.1.4 Conclusions 84 References 84 Chapter 4.2 Effect of reinforcement particle size on LM-13-snail shell ash–SiC hybrid metal matrix composite 87 Sai Naresh Dasari, Sankararao Vinjavarapu, Murali Mohan Cheepu 4.2.1 Introduction 87 4.2.2 Experimental methods 89 4.2.2.1 Materials 89 4.2.2.2 Methods 89 4.2.2.3 Microstructural and metallographic characterization 90 4.2.2.4 Characterization of mechanical properties 90 4.2.2.5 Wear characterization 90 4.2.3 Results and discussion 91 4.2.3.1 Metallographic characteristics 91 4.2.3.2 Microstructural characterization 91 4.2.3.3 Mechanical characteristics 93 4.2.4 Conclusion 95 References 96

VII

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Contents

Chapter 5 Industrial waste-based composites 5.1 Performance of economical aluminum MMC reinforced with welding slag particles produced using solid-state liquid metallurgical stir casting technique 99 Sai Naresh Dasari, Murahari Kolli 5.1.1 Introduction 99 5.1.2 Experimental methods 101 5.1.2.1 Materials 101 5.1.2.2 Methods 101 5.1.2.3 Microstructural and metallographic characterization 103 5.1.2.4 Characterization of mechanical properties 103 5.1.3 Results and discussion 103 5.1.3.1 Metallographic characteristics 103 5.1.3.2 Microstructural characterization 104 5.1.3.3 Mechanical characteristics 106 5.1.4 Conclusion 109 References 110 Chapter 5.2 Effect of ball milling on compacting characteristics of Al-10% Al2O3-fly ash composites 113 Seelam Pichi Reddy, P. V. Chandrasekhara Rao, A. Nageswar Rao 5.2.1 Introduction 113 5.2.2 Experimental details 115 5.2.2.1 Materials used 115 5.2.3 Preparation of composites 116 5.2.3.1 Weighing and mixing of powders 116 5.2.3.2 Milling of powders 116 5.2.3.3 Compaction of powders 117 5.2.4 Results 117 5.2.5 Discussions on results 119 5.2.5.1 Powder characteristics 119 5.2.5.2 Compacting characteristics 120 5.2.6 Conclusions 123 References 123

Contents

Chapter 5.3 Effects of incorporation of rock dust particles to friction stir processed AA7075 on the microstructure and mechanical properties 125 Gopichand Dirisenapu, Laxmanaraju Salavaravu, Lingaraju Dumpala, Pagoti Lokesh, Satyanarayana Mallapu 5.3.1 Introduction 125 5.3.2 Experimental procedure 127 5.3.3 Results and discussions 129 5.3.3.1 Microstructural characterization of AMMCs 129 5.3.3.2 Effect of rock dust on hardness of AMMCs 130 5.3.3.3 Effect of rock dust on tensile strength of AMMCs 130 5.3.3.4 Influence of rock dust on the impact strength of AMMCs 131 5.3.4 Conclusion 132 References 132 Chapter 6 Agriculture waste composites 6.1 Effect on density and hardness of aluminum metal matrix composite with the addition of bamboo leaf ash 135 Praveen Kumar Bannaravuri, Gadudasu Baburao, K. Ch Appa Rao, P Srinivas Rao, Anil Kumar Birru, K Samuel Charan Kumar, T. Ravi 6.1.1 Introduction 135 6.1.2 Experimental particulars 136 6.1.2.1 Materials 136 6.1.2.2 BLA preparation 137 6.1.2.3 Composite fabrication 138 6.1.2.4 Particle density measurement 138 6.1.2.5 AMMCs density and porosity measurements 141 6.1.2.6 Hardness measurement 142 6.1.2.7 Analysis of microstructure and X-ray diffraction 142 6.1.3 Results and discussion 142 6.1.3.1 Characterization of bamboo leaf ash 142 6.1.3.2 Analysis of Al-4.5Cu-BLA by X-ray diffraction in AMMCs 144 6.1.3.3 Microstructure analysis 144 6.1.3.4 Density and porosity 147 6.1.3.5 Hardness 149 6.1.4 Conclusion 150 References 150

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Contents

Chapter 6.2 Experimental investigations on coconut shell powder reinforcement in friction stir processed surfaces 153 L. Suvarna Raju, Borigorla Venu 6.2.1 Introduction 154 6.2.2 Experimentation 155 6.2.3 Results and discussion 156 6.2.4 Conclusions 159 References 159 Chapter 7 Challenges in green waste-reinforced aluminum composites 163 Srinivasu Gangisetti, Raj Kumar Sahu, Rityuj Singh Parihar 7.1 Introduction 163 7.2 Waste residues for reinforcement in MMCs 164 7.2.1 Agriculture waste residue 164 7.2.2 Coconut and coir fiber 164 7.2.3 Industrial waste residue 166 7.2.4 Animal waste residue 168 7.3 Challenges in the development of MMCs from industry/ agriculture waste 168 7.4 Conclusion 171 References 171 Chapter 8 Applications of green waste composite 173 Murahari Kolli, Krishna Kishore Mugada, N. Jaya Prakash 8.1 Aluminum MMCs and waster residue applications 173 8.2 Industrial waste residue-based aluminum composites 176 8.3 Applications related to plant/agrowaste-based green composites References 182 Index

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Preface Composites are a promising material with great potential that are widely used in various industries like agriculture, engineering, automobiles, aerospace, sports, and entertainment due to their adaptability to settings and relative ease in combinations with other materials to fulfill exactly requires and produced properties. In the last three decades, the demand for these materials has increased. Using various waste residues or by-products from various industrial, agricultural, animal, household and transforming them into useful, sustainable goods might satisfy these demands. This book explores the creation of composite materials and reinforcing particles using a variety of waste feedstocks. The current volume focusing on developed frontier materials, cutting edge manufacturing techniques and related applications-the book is divided into eight chapters. In chapter 1 introduces an importance of lightweight materials, composite materials, types of composites, the significance of reinforcements and properties are discussed. Waste residues, types of waste residues, and a detailed discussion of animal waste residue, green waste residue, household waste residues, industrial waste residues, and also related literature studies and futures scopes of next-generation materials. Chapter 2 covers the emerging methods for waste residues composites including vacuum bagging method, pultrusion, spray forming, plasma spraying, filament winding, resin transfer molding or vacuum infusion method, stir casting squeeze casting, compocasting, thermal decomposition method (chemical vapor deposition – CVD). Composite matrix materials, reinforcements, step-by-step procedure are clearly explained. Chapter 3 provides advanced manufacturing of waste-reinforced aluminum composites such as powder metallurgy, stir casting, ultrasonic stir casting, friction stir processing (FSP), 3D printing or additive manufacturing. It also presents each process merits, demerits and applications. Chapter 4 discusses the animal waste-based composite case studies. Snail shell powder with LM 13 Al composite and animal tooth powder through Al 6063 composites are step-by-step described clearly. Initially collecting the waste residues, synthesis of reinforcement particle, characterization of powder particles, equipment selection, mechanical, wear and microstructure properties are measured. Chapter 5 presents the industrial waste-based composite case studies. It covers the three important case studies first one is Al 7075/welding slag reinforcement composite with stir casting route, second is Al/fly ash and Al/fly ash/Al2O3 composites used in powder metallurgy (P/M) technique and final is Al 7075/rock dust reinforcement composite by friction stir processing method. Collection of industrial waste resides, waste resides fine particles conversion, milling, grinding and ball milling, are adopt. Radio radiographic tests, micro-structural analysis, SEM, XRD, EDS, wear and mechanical properties conducted in and each every case study.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110766523-203

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Preface

Chapter 6 deals with agriculture waste reinforcement composites case studies. It provides two case studies i.e Al/Bamboo leaf ash composite with rotary stir casting approach and Al/coconut shell ash surface composites through friction stir processes. Preparation of agro waste resides to reinforcement particles, particles density measurements, shape and size measurements, porosity measurements, composites characterization, mechanical wear and microstructure analysis. Modelling and optimization of properties adopted with DOE techniques. Chapter 7 presents the challenges in waste residue composites. Understand the significance of reinforcements for individual and hybrid composites, issues of the process parameters, development of complex geometries, properties, modeling, optimization, and simulation of composite materials. Chapters 8 covers the cutting edge technologies related composite materials applications such as aerospace, aircraft, rail and marine, building construction, electrical and electronics developed through matrix materials and waste residues of agro, industrial, animal waste materials. Some of the features of the book – Case studies are illustrated with neat diagram and step by step procedure. – Latest advancements in the hybrid waste composite materials are included. – Understanding the measurement characteristics of waste reinforcement particles as well as composites material. – Methods to develop, characterize, and test various reinforcement particles using residue wastes of industrial, agro, animal, and household feedstocks are well defined. – Provided a detailed explanation of emerging techniques of composites, challenges of waste reinforcement’s composites, and their applications. – Highlights of waste residue reinforcement and synthetic reinforcement differences. This book is suitable for final year undergraduate and post graduates students of various disciplines like mechanical, aerospace, automobile, chemical engineering for across the globe. It is also helpful for academics, researchers, materials, mechanical and manufacturing engineers, professionals in regeneration and recycling composites and related industries. The editors give praise for helping them to believe in the importance of passion, determination, and achieving their goals; without the mercy of the almighty, this book would not be published.We would like to express our gratitude to our family members for helping us fulfill our goals throughout the pandemic conditions that needed a significant amount of support and encouragement to complete this work.I would like to thank Dr. Krishna Kishore Mugada from the bottom of my heart. We would like to thank all of the contributors for their hard work in creating such highquality chapters. Heartfelt thanks to Mrs. Melanie Götz content editor books STM, for editing this volume, high competency and professionalism in producing the edition of the book. Thanks to Ms. Suruthi Manogarane (Integra) for their dedicated work to ensure the

Preface

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confinement of this book. Finally, a special word of thanks goes to A. Christene Smith, Karin Sora, Rüdiger Gebauer, Carsten Buhr, Manuela Gerlof, of Walter de Gruyter GmbH academic publisher for their interest in publishing this work and their kind collaboration and support. Editors Dr. Murahari Kolli Lakireddy Bali Reddy College of Engineering

Prof. J. Paulo Davim University of Aveiro

Contributing authors Krishna Kishore Mugada Department of Mechanical Engineering Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology Surat Surat 395007 Gujarat, India Adepu Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering National Institute of Technology Warangal Warangal 506004 Telangana, India Sunkara Gopi Rakesh Department of Mechanical Engineering Lakireddy Bali Reddy College of Engineering Mylavaram 521230 Andhra Pradesh, India Bhagyarajsinh Gohil Department of Mechanical Engineering Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology Surat Surat 395007 Gujarat, India Virag Shah Department of Mechanical Engineering Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology Surat Surat 395007 Gujarat, India Tarang Paneliya Department of Mechanical Engineering Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology Surat Surat 395007 Gujarat, India Satyanarayana Kosaraju Mechanical Engineering Department Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology Hyderabad 500090 Telangana, India

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110766523-204

Suresh Kumar Tummala Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology Hyderabad 500090 Telangana, India PhaneendraBabu Bobba Senior Member IEEE Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology Hyderabad 500090 Telangana, India Janga Venkata Somi Reddy Universiti Teknologi PETRONS Persiaran UTP Seri Isakandar Perak 32610 Malaysia Laxmanaraju Salavaravu Department of Mechanical Engineering Sri Sivani College of Engineering Chilakapalem (Jn) Etcherla Mandal Srikakulam 532402 Andhra Pradesh, India Gopichand Dirisenapu Panchayat Raj Engineering Department Narukullapadu Krishna 521215 Andhra Pradesh, India Lingaraju Dumpala Department of Mechanical Engineering Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Kakinada 533003 Andhra Pradesh, India

XVI

Contributing authors

Ranjith Kumar Remalle Department of Mechanical Engineering, DVR & Dr. HS MIC College of Technology (A) Kanchikacharla 521180 Andhra Pradesh, India K. Satish Prakash Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amrita Sai Institute of Science and Technology, Paritala Kanchikacharla 521180 Andhra Pradesh, India

Pagoti Lokesh Department of Mechanical Engineering Sri Sivani College of Engineering Chilakapalem (Jn) Etcherla Mandal 532402 Srikakulam, Andhra Pradesh, India Satyanarayana Mallapu Department of Mechanical Engineering Vizag Institute of Technology Dakamarri, Visakhapatnam 531162 Andhra Pradesh, India

Dasari Sai Naresh R&D Mechatronics, Design and Engineering, VEM Technologies Pvt Ltd Hyderabad 500090 Telangana, India

Praveen Kumar Bannaravuri Department of Mechanical Engineering Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences Coimbatore 641114, Tamil Nadu, India

Sankara Rao Vinjavarapu Department of Mechanical Engineering Lakireddy Bali Reddy College of Engineering Mylavaram 521230 Andhra Pradesh, India

Gadudasu Baburao Department of Mechanical Engineering Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences Coimbatore 641114, Tamil Nadu India

Murali Mohan Cheepu Super TIG, Welding Co, Ltd. Busan Republic of Korea

K. Ch. Appa Rao Department of Mechanical Engineering Institute of Aeronautical Engineering Hyderabad 500043 Telangana, India

Seelam Pichi Reddy Department of Mechanical Engineering Lakireddy Bali Reddy College of Engineering Mylavaram 521230 Andhra Pradesh, India P.V. Chandrasekhara Rao Department of Mechanical Engineering Lakireddy Bali Reddy College of Engineering Mylavaram 521230 Andhra Pradesh, India A. Nageswara Rao Department of Mechanical Engineering Lakireddy Bali Reddy College of Engineering Mylavaram 521230 Andhra Pradesh, India

P. Srinivas Rao Department of Mechanical Engineering, Christian College of Engineering and Technology Bhilai 490026, Chhattisgarh, India Anil Kumar Birru Department of Mechanical Engineering National Institute of Technology Manipur Langol, Imphal 795004, Manipur, India K. Samuel Charan Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences Coimbatore 641114, Tamil Nadu, India

Contributing authors

T. Ravi Department of Mechanical Engineering Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences Coimbatore 641114, Tamil Nadu, India L. Suvarna Raju Department of Mechanical Engineering VFSTR (Deemed to be University) Vadlamudi, Guntur Andhra Pradesh, India Borigorla Venu Vignan’s Lara Institute of Technology and Science, Department of Mechanical Engineering Vadlamudi, Guntur Andhra Pradesh, India Srinivasu Gangisetti Department of Mechanical Engineering National Institute of Technology Raipur Great Eastern Rd, Amanaka Raipur Chhattisgarh 492010, India

Raj Kumar Sahu Department of Mechanical Engineering National Institute of Technology Raipur Great Eastern Rd, Amanaka Raipur 492010, Chhattisgarh India Rityuj Singh Parihar Department of Mechanical Engineering National Institute of Technology Raipur Great Eastern Rd, Amanaka Raipur 492010, Chhattisgarh, India N. Jaya Prakash National Taipei University Taipei City 106 Daan Taiwan, Republic of China

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Chapter 1 Next-generation waste residue composite materials Murahari Kolli✶, Krishna Kishore Mugada, Adepu Kumar, Sunkara Gopi Rakesh Abstract: Over the last two decades, global manufacturers have incessantly concentrated on developing advanced materials’ infused components. Automotive, aerospace, and structural industries widely use monolithic matrix materials like ferrous and nonferrous alloys. The ferrous materials have good properties but also have high density-to-weight ratio, which affects the products by increasing the components and vehicle body weight, thus reducing the fuel efficiency of the vehicle; hence, researchers have been working on replacing ferrous materials by introducing aluminum composites. Al-MMCs (aluminum metal matrix composites) are the fast replacing heavyweight ferrous materials. These materials satisfy the customer needs and technological demands such as devices and machinery that are energy-efficient, more durable, lightweight, and cost-efficient. This chapter describes a general introduction of composite materials, types of composites, AlMMCs, and waste residues of Al-MMCs. The chapter examines the waste residue particles and their types, and replacement of synthetic reinforcement particles with these waste residues. Furthermore, the chemical composition, waste particle preparation, and mechanical and tribological properties are also explored. It has been found that the use of waste residue particles in a certain amount to Al material, the Al composite weight was reduced and gave better results than the synthetic added reinforced particles. Keywords: Waste composites, Agro-waste, industrial-waste, animal-waste, householdwaste, Aluminum composites

1.1 Introduction Lightweight materials are integral parts in aircraft and automotive industries because their applications help reduce fuel consumption and emissions [1]. Earlier, cast iron alloys were extensively used for this purpose. However, the implementation of cast iron liners in engine blocks adds weight, increases production cost, and complicates recycling of blocks [2, 3]. Furthermore, according to Marsh [4], the automotive industry is facing continuous pressures to develop fuel-efficient, less-polluting vehicles. Therefore, industries started looking for alternative materials to replace the expensive alloys with improved specific strength and other desirable properties to make products that are lightweight and environmentally ✶

Corresponding author: Murahari Kolli, e-mail: [email protected]

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110766523-001

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Chapter 1 Next-generation waste residue composite materials

friendly. Among all cast alloys, aluminum alloys and steel-based alloys are cost-effective, reliable, and extensively used in engine blocks and piston and in assorted structural applications [5]. But these materials are expensive and are not lightweight. The ever-increasing requirement of new class of lightweight materials led to the usage of composites. The past two decades have witnessed a continuous upward trend on the usage of composite materials primarily due to their highly specific and superior properties compared to monolithic materials. However, this makes the selection of secondary materials such as fibers, wickers, and reinforcement particles that are to be added to the matrix material that is extremely important. Composites are combinations of two or more materials that are amalgamated to form a new material with multiphase transitions. This creates the composites that can achieve more superior and desirable properties that the monolithic individual materials cannot attain. In composites, multiphases are not formed by naturally occurring reactions or phase transitions or other processes [6]. One such example is aluminum metal matrix composites (Al-MMCs). AlMMCs are an incredibly attractive and efficient replacement for conventional alloys due to their tailored properties such as high specific strength, lightweight, stiffness, elastic modulus, and excellent resistance to wear and corrosion [7–8]. The matrix material distributes the stress applied to it to the reinforcement constituents, protecting and shaping the matrix material. The reinforcement gives the composite material the desired mechanical strength in a preferred direction. Reinforcement comes in the form of wires, whiskers, or particulates, as well as continuous and discontinuous fibers that are distributed in different volume fraction percentages based on their properties. Except for wire reinforcements, others are made of ceramics such as oxides, carbides, and nitrides that have excellent properties such as specific strength and stiffness at both high and ambient temperatures, as described by Callister [7]. Therefore, these materials are widely adopted to satisfy the needs of various prominent industrial sectors such as construction, energy, electronics, biomedical, and aerospace [9]. Aluminum, magnesium, steel, and other matrices are commonly used as potential composite materials. A good MMC must have brittleness in the form of reinforcement and ductility in the form of a matrix. Titanium can also be used as a matrix in high-temperature applications. It is possible to tailor their properties to the needs of various industrial applications by combining appropriate matrix, reinforcement, and fabrication methods. These reinforcements are distinguished by their low coefficient of thermal expansion and high strength and modulus [10]. Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are classified into four main categories primarily based on the type of reinforcement being used. The MMC categories are shown in Figure 1.1: – Dispersion hardened particle composites – Layer composites (laminates) – Fiber composites – Infiltration composites [11] The primary concentration of this chapter will be on dispersion hardened particle composites, also known as particle-reinforced MMCs.

1.2 Particle-reinforced composites

3

Figure 1.1: Categories of reinforcement-based MMC composites.

1.2 Particle-reinforced composites Particle reinforcement composites belong to the family of discontinuously reinforced composites. Particle reinforced composites are by far the most economic form of the composites. Their isotropic properties make them an ideal candidate for applications beyond aerospace and automotive industries. Usually, the reinforcement type for the development of the composites is based on the following criteria [12]: – Compatibility with the matrix material – Size and shape – Density – Melting temperature – Thermal stability – Coefficient of thermal expansion. – Tensile strength (TS) – Elastic modulus – Cost Ibrahim et al. considered various reinforcements used for the composite manufacturing examined clearly [13]. One might notice the primarily synthetic reinforcements and their properties in Figure 1.2. Aluminum-based MMCs were manufactured with many synthetic ceramic reinforcements due to their strength and desirable properties such as silicon nitride (Si3N4), alumina (Al2O3), aluminum titanate (Al2TiO5), zirconia (ZrSiO4), aluminum nitride (AlN), boron carbide (B4C), and silicon dioxide (SiO2) [14–18]. Nevertheless, high cost and inadequate availability of conventional ceramic reinforcements in developing countries prompted a compulsory paradigm shift in the choice of selection of reinforcement particles [19]. Although the reinforcement of these hard-ceramic

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Figure 1.2: Synthetic ceramic reinforcements and their properties.

0

200 100

400 300

500

700 600

200 0

400

800 600

50 0 1000

100

0 200 150

4 2

2 Al

330

320

271

465

27

O3 AIN B4C

375

379

18

180

333

785

129

BN

46.9

C

690

317 317

0

41

45

276

276

3.5

5.81

228

901

48.4

8.91

338

0

0

6.84

8.2 7.6

O2 HfC gO oS2 O2C NbC M M M

185

589

2.1 0

6.66

12.42

3.58

5.06

11.61

12.2 7.03

Ce

1.44

75.8 0

29 30

Be BeO

0

0

190

7.55

11.96

1.84 2.01 2.21 1.96

11.3

3.26 2.52

10 8.11 8 6.33 6 4.52

0 14 12

4

8

12

16

Si

112

160

1.5

120

4

207

SiC i3N S

410

3.34 3.12

73

288

760

241

291

22 1.38 18

0.55

0

200

193

0 10.2

338

6.62

414

565

96

269

55

21

7.6

4.5 4.93

10.31

10.81 8.92 9.21

9.14

0

0

0

0

67

0

172

0

Density 6.73 6.04 6.1 5.89

0

0

5.9

57.9 20.5

0

350 90

Strength

22

320

2.7

248

Zr

600

359

B2 ZrC rO2 Zr Z

489

Elastic Modulus

0

0

12.01

6.66

Expansivity

9.01

VC WC Si2 W

434

0

110

5.09

669

7.16

8.68 0

4.74

9.54

9.4

15.53

Thermal conductivity

5.77

10.96 5.39

220

12.54

2 2 C 2 2 2 2 C SiN SiO lON Ta aSi hO TiB Ti TaB TiN UO T T SiA

310

689

33 29

2.44

551 524

0.75

4.55

3.26 3.18 3.27 3.24 2.33 2.22

14.3

4 Chapter 1 Next-generation waste residue composite materials

1.2 Particle-reinforced composites

5

particles enhances the performance of composites, their higher cost increases the overall cost. The processing cost of composites can be curtailed by utilization of waste residue particles across various industries like red mud (RM), fly ash (FA), cement, eggshell ash, rice husk ash (RHA), coconut shell ash, and biogas ash [20, 21]. Nowadays, researchers focus on replacing the synthetic reinforcement particles to waste residue reinforcement particles for adding to composites or hybrid composites. Waste residue composites are combinations of matrix materials with multiple solid reinforcements in which one of the phases has a 2D and a 3D structure. These composites are composed of a main continuous phase and a discontinuous phase. The main continuous phase is also called matrix, while the discontinuous phase is called the reinforcements or filler. Discontinuous phase consists of one or more reinforcements. Waste residues are generally available in various forms like green wastes, animal wastes, industrial wastes, and household wastes. These waste residues have been widely used to extract the nano- and micro-level reinforcement particles utilized in composite and hybrid composite materials for value-added applications with desirable properties shown in Figure 1.3.

High Hardness Low Coefficient of Friction

High Thermal Conductivity

High Specific Strength

Specific Stiffness Good Damping Capacity

Wear Resistance High Energy Absorption

Low Density

Low Thermal Expansion

Figure 1.3: Green waste residue metal matrix composite properties.

Waste residues have been taken from the various fields like decomposed or discarded in landfills, cooking, drying, plantation, and fabrication process; it has taken a lower amount to use and lead to severe environmental pollution, greenhouse gas emission, and air quality deterioration. As a result, transforming wastes into value-added composite and hybrid components for various applications such as structural, entertainment,

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sports, aerospace, automobile, medicine, and food processing has drawn attention recently [21].

WASTE RESIDUES

Industrial Waste Residues Rock Dust Quarry Dust Marble Dust Granite Dust Coal Dust Red Mud Waste Fly Ash Coal Ash Boiler Slag Blast Furnace Slag Grinding Sludge Furnace Dust Paper Sludge E-Glass Waste Welding Slag Leather Chips Industrial Sludge Electronic Furnace Dust Mines Waste

Animal Waste Residues Animal Bone Animal Tooth Animal Horn Leather Waste Cow Dung Waste Mussel Shell and Sea Shell

Green Waste Residues Aloevera Bamboo Leaf Lemon Grass Tamarind Leaf Ash Banana leaf Cocoa Bean Shell Horse Eye Bean Seed Palm Kernel Shell Walnut-Shell Ash Green Waste Barley Husk Shell Wood Apple Shell Coconut Shell Rice Husk Wheat Husk Sugar Cane Bagasse Corn Cobs Banana Stem Wood Stem

House hold Waste Residues Egg shell Vegetable - Fruits waste Plastic Waste Metal-Scrape Waste House hold Electronics Waste

Figure 1.4: Broad classifications of waste residue particles.

The different sources of waste residues that have been widely studied for effective utilization in the development of MMCs are: – industrial waste – animal waste residue – green waste – household waste The waste residues vary according to the raw material, process, product, utilization, and environmental conditions. These kinds of wastes can be categorized further based on the type of waste and are categorized in detail as shown in Figure 1.4. Later sections discuss Al-MMC composites’ waste residue categories and subcategories, processing methods, properties, measurements, and literature gaps.

1.3 Industrial waste

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1.3 Industrial waste Globally today, air quality has been degraded, and groundwater has been extensively polluted because of the prevailing environmental conditions. Conversely, industrial residues are landfills, which are on the brink of running out of space. These waste residues pose an undeniable threat of intoxication to humans and animals and become problematic to the growth of plants themselves. Based on the literature survey, globally, in urban areas, 7–10 billion tons of waste residues are produced every year, out of which, industrial wastes comprise 21% of this total. These wastes come in various forms such as processing sludge, product residues, kiln dust, slag, ashes, electronic dust, printed circuit wastes, glass dust, metal chips, mineral wastes, and construction wastes [22, 23]. Another important point is that these wastes directly reuse the component fabrication process without unchanging the properties of waste particles, and no unique procedures are required for the composites. Some of the waste residues follow individual processing methods like chemical sludge and machining slag [24]. The categorization of availability of industrial wastes is shown in Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5: Subcategories of industrial waste residue particles.

1.3.1 Mining and quarry wastes Mining and quarry wastes are explained in this section and are depicted in Figure 1.6. 1.3.1.1 Rock dust Murahari Kolli et al. investigated the effect of rock dust (RD) reinforcement in Al composite by friction stir processing (FSP). They fabricated the FSP composites having an excellent appearance and calculated the mechanical wear properties. RD particles vary from 0% to 10%, and better results were found at 10% of reinforcement in Al. It is concluded that addition of RD particle to the matrix material increased the wear resistance, impact strength, and microhardness [25].

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Chapter 1 Next-generation waste residue composite materials

Figure 1.6: Mining and quarry residue particles.

Prakash et al. studied the wear and mechanical properties of Al 6061 and RD particles’ powder metallurgy (P/M) composite. They found better results at 10% of RD particles mixed into Al composites with higher microhardness and lower wear rate. The wear rate was conducted using the pin on the experimental disk tool; load, sliding velocity, and sliding distance were selected as input parameters [26]. 1.3.1.2 Quarry dust Ramesh et al. considered the A356 alloy with quarry dust (QD)-reinforced composites through the liquid stir casting method. The composite’s QD reinforcement varies from 0, 5, 7.5, and 10 wt% mixed into the Al material. Ultimate TS (UTS) and microhardness results were higher than the base material. The wear rate was calculated, considering the pin-on-disk apparatus and changed the sliding distance, speed, time, and so on. It is concluded that it improved the wear properties of the composite with 10% of QD particles in addition to Al. Also, scanning electron microscope (SEM) and optical microscopic image analysis observed a homogeneous distribution of QD particles [27]. 1.3.1.3 Marble dust Vipin Kumar Sharma et al. studied the marble dust (MD) as reinforcement and fabricated the Al 6063 composites via FSP. To avoid the clusters in the composite, MD particles were preheated from 100 to 300 °C during the FSP composite. At 200 °C, the preheated MD particles indicated the higher composite results compared to Al 6063 alloy. It is concluded that higher friction behavior, TS, and hardness values were found

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with varying FSP parameters. A noticed improvement of 25% in the specific wear rate and coefficient of friction occurred at optimum conditions. Another author characterized the mixing of LM6 aluminum composite and MD reinforcement particle (LM/MD) with the stir casting route. Elemental analysis and mechanical tests were conducted on the LM/MD composite. Results show that TS and hardness increased at 5% of MD particles when added to the LM material [28, 29]. 1.3.1.4 Granite dust Satya Shankar Sharma et al. focused on the synthesis and characterization of Al 6061/Gr/ granite waste hybrid composite. The chosen liquid stir casting method was used to fabricate the hybrid composites. When 2% of granite waste and 2% of Gr particles are added to the composites, extraordinary results were observed on higher strength, hardness, and wear resistance [30]. Deepak Kumar et al. invented a new Al 4032/granite waste composite material for developing automobile parts like pistons, disk brakes, high-speed machining, and high-speed rotating parts. Al 4032/granite waste composite was prepared by the bottom stir casting method. The construction industry took granite particles (54 µm size) and mix into the composite materials in various percentages from 0, 3, 6, to 9 wt%. The TS and microhardness increase up to 0–6%, and further increasing to 6–9 wt% deteriorated the properties. The best results of impact strength were obtained at 3% of G particles [31]. 1.3.1.5 Coal dust Researchers studied the lignite coal dust particles mixed with Al 5083 alloy fabricated through the stir casting approach. The Taguchi method was used as the experimental layout for the development of the composites. The performance results were calculated for TS, elongation, hardness, and wear rate. The best wear rate was obtained at 10% of CD, sliding speed of 700 rpm, load at 10 N [32]. 1.3.1.6 Red mud Kar and Surekha [33] developed the hybrid Al 7075/TiC/RM composite and tested the yield strength (YS), UTS, microhardness, and % elongation, and compared with the Al 7075 base metal. Al 7075/RM composite has shown mixed results, and TS and hardness values increased to 62% and 71% compared to the base material, respectively. Sambathkumar et al. investigated the mechanical and corrosion properties of Al 7075/RM composite. The RM particle varied from 0% to 15% when added to the Al 7075 alloy. The microhardness value of 185 BHN was obtained at 15% of RM particles, and the TS value of 326 MPa was obtained at 5% of RM particles when added to the Al 7075 alloy. Correspondingly, as the % of RM increases, the corrosion rate has decreased in the composite material [34]. Dewangan et al. developed a hybrid Al/RHA/RM composite through the stir casting technique and examined the mechanical properties. The hybrid composite results

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confirmed enhanced hardness, TS, and YS values varying from 55 to 74 HRB, 42 to 68 MPa, and 66 to 89MPa, respectively. Similarly, ANOVA results also indicated that the RM particles were highly significant than the RHA, and the percentage of the contribution was higher than that of RHA [35]. Prasad et al. synthesized and characterized the hybrid composite (A356/RM/FA) fabricated through the FSP. These types of composite reinforcement particles have excellent distribution in the stirred zone and eliminate the defects such as bonding grains, pores, clusters, and segregation along the stir zones. Their observation found that hardness and TS increased drastically over the Al 356 material [36]. Gangadharappa et al. reported the corrosion resistance of the hybrid Al 6061/RM/Eglass fiber composite generated by the stir casting technique. The RM reinforcement particles varied from 0% to 12%, and E-glass fiber 2% was fixed and mixed into the Al 6061 alloy. The measured result established that the corrosion resistance of the composite has increased and a sound protective layer was formed on the material surface [37].

1.3.2 Power plant wastes (energy): fly ash and boiler slag In this section, different power plant waste residues are explained, and the particle’s colors and shapes are observed, as shown in Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7: Power plants’ waste residue particles.

1.3.2.1 Fly ash FA has a widespread application as a waste residue globally. It has significant reinforcement effects to mixing polymer and MMCs. For example, MMCs have adopted FA

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as reinforcement; they give the best results than the base material, such as reducing the weight, thermal expansion coefficient, higher hardness, and strength [38]. Anil Kumar et al. examined the mechanical properties of Al 6061/FA with various reinforcement sizes. The stir casting method was used to fabricate the Al composite in a varied weight percentage of FA from 10% to 20% and particle sizes from 4 to 25 µm, 50 µm, and 100 µm. FA 15% of FA contained in Al composite displayed the highest UTS and hardness and less compressive strength than the Al 6061 alloy. Smaller (4–25 µm) reinforced FA particles provided the best UTS result compared with coarser FA particles (50 and 100 µm) [39]. Dwivedi et al. investigated the Al 356/SiC/FA hybrid MMC by the electromagnetic stir casting process. In their study, five samples were prepared with various wt% of SiC and FA, and measured the microstructure and mechanical properties. The result observed confirmed an improvement in the TS and hardness and reduces the impact strength, fatigue strength, and density by adding the reinforcement particles linearly to SiC and FA in the matrix material. The microstructure results have shown that SiC and FA particles are uniformly distributed in the hybrid composite but small clusters were found [40]. 1.3.2.2 Coal ash Coal ash is available at various industries depending on the application, and most of the cases are available at the energy generation sector and manufacturing industries. Based on the particle size and considering the stage of ash, various metal elements like Cr, Ni, Zn, As, Cd, Sb, Hg, and Pb are available [41]. 1.3.2.3 Boiler slag Boiler slag is a similar reinforcement material available at power plants. Almost the same metal elements are present on the slag. These materials are especially used in structural and roofing applications [42].

1.3.3 Manufacturing processing wastes In the general manufacturing process, the raw material is a conversation into the desired value-added components; some amount of waste is generated and available in various shapes and sizes. This section considers the manufacturing waste residues used in MMC and observes the reinforcement particles in Figure 1.8. 1.3.3.1 Blast furnace slag Blast furnace slag (BFS) is one of the significant by-products in the production of iron. It has produced a considerable volume of slag material per day, making iron. BFS has

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Chapter 1 Next-generation waste residue composite materials

Figure 1.8: Manufacturing and processing of waste residue particles.

been obtained in granular shape. BFS has been used in various engineering and environmental applications. The major elements of BFS have SiO2, CaO, FeO, Al2O3, Mag, MnO, TiO2, and CaS [43]. Murthy et al. examined the Al 2024 alloy with FA and BFS composites. In their study, phase identification and structural analysis were measured, when FA and BFA with 5% of reinforcement were added to Al 2024 alloy by the stir casting technique. It has been observed that a uniform dispersion of FA and BFS particles in the matrix material generates a good bonding between matrix and powder particles. The mechanical properties indicated that both the composites have enhanced and reduced the density [44, 45]. 1.3.3.2 Grinding sludge Shashi Prakash Dwivedi et al. developed Al 5052 alloy/waste alumina catalyst/grinding sludge (GS) reinforcement composites and hybrid composites through the stir casting technique. The results conclude that Al 5052 with 4.5% of GS/4.5% of WAC/1.5% of Cr composite compared to the Al 5052 alloy increased TS, compressive strength, and hardness, that is, 18.86%, 7.24%, and 40.06%, respectively, and decreased the corrosion and thermal expansion rate. Further, the SEM image analysis shown that the growth of grain boundaries decreased by adding Crin to the composite [46]. 1.3.3.3 Furnace dust Electric arc furnace dust (EAFD) is the solid waste generated in the steel manufacturing process. Al 7075 alloy and 5% EAFD composites were prepared using the P/M method. About 5% of EAFD and 2% of stearic acid were mixed correctly and processed using ball milling in order to reduce the particle size to 20 µm, further using the P/M

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13

technique to compact the samples. The Al 7075/EAFD had shown better results with significant improvements, that is, 46% of hardness increases due to the oxide particles and Al particle’s uniform distribution [47].

1.3.4 Food and electronics packing Food and electronic packaging waste residues are mostly biodegradable materials. Some waste residues are used in various industrial applications like material fabrication processes, particularly polymer and MMCs. Figure 1.9 indicates that waste residue particles are used in composite materials.

Figure 1.9: Food and electronic packaging waste residue particles.

1.3.4.1 Paper sludge Niranjan et al. investigated the LM 14 alloy with paper sludge ash composites fabricated by the liquid stir casting process. When 3.5% of PSA was added to LM 14 composite, hardness and TS are increased by 32.3% and 42.9%, respectively, compared to the LM material. The hot and cold impact tests showed satisfactory results. Addition of PSA particles to the composite material decreased the impact energy linearly as percentage reinforcement is increased [48].

1.3.5 Textile and chemical: heavy metals, leather chips, and chemical solvents In this section, textile and chemical waste residues are explicated. It was available in various ways as shown in Figure 1.10.

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Figure 1.10: Textile and chemical waste residue particles.

1.3.5.1 Petroleum industry waste Gayatri and Elansezhian attempted and developed an Al/PIW (petroleum industry waste) composite with a stir casting technique. Particles were selected, and the average particle size was 45 µm when added to the Al material. The composites were fabricated with various PIW percentages. PIW particles of 5%, 10%, and 15% addition to composite resulted in 85 HRD, 88 HRD, and 80 HRD hardness, and comparing with the base material, minimum of 40% of the hardness increase was observed. TS and YS for pure Al were found at 11% and 23% and given mixed results [49].

1.4 Construction: slate, metals, glass, slag bricks This section is a subsection of industrial waste residues, considering the different waste particles like slate, metals, glass, and slag bricks, as shown in Figure 1.11. These waste particles are utilized and converted into small particles and are used directly to reinforce composite materials and develop new energized materials.

1.4.1 Welding slag Paranthaman et al. investigated the Al 6063 alloy and welding slag (WS) composites fabricated with FSP. WS particles as reinforcements in the FSP composite vary from 0, 5, and 10 wt% and to 15 wt%. They noticed compression strength and TS increase with the increase in WS percentage. The wear rate was decreased in increasing the weight

1.5 Animal waste residue

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Figure 1.11: Construction waste residue particles.

percentage of WS. The SEM and optical microscope results found healthier interfacial bonding formed on the MD particles in the Al 6063/MD composite [50].

1.4.2 E-glass waste Al and E-glass waste composites were prepared by metallic powder in the extrusion and metallurgical synthesis processes. Metallurgical synthesis composite results in less mechanical properties than the extrusion process. The glass weight percentage increases in the composite, decreases in the density and electrical conductivity, and enhances the composite’s hardness. Compression test and deformation results showed 5% of glass waste and gave the best results. By adding industrial Cathode ray tube (CRT) tube glass waste particles from 0 to 15 wt% to Al materials, composites are fabricated using the stir casting method and Taguchi L27 technique. Waste Cathode ray tube (CRT) tubes were taken, and the particle size was reduced using manual and ball milling methods. Hardness and wear rate properties were observed at 10 wt% glass waste mixed into the composite material [51, 52].

1.5 Animal waste residue The majority of animal waste residues were produced from meat, poultry, fishery, and leather industries; for example, seafood wastes like exoskeletons, skins, heads, tails, fins, and shells, and animal wastes like dung, hair, horns, skins, bones, teeth, and feathers. When these wastes were discarded at the sea, aerobic bacteria were

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generated rapidly and polluted the particular area of the seawater. In addition, toxic H2S spreads into the soil, which negatively impacts human health, damages the organs, drastically reduces the energy levels, and produces a bad smell, decreasing the quality of fresh air [53–56]. Numerous recent studies utilized animal waste to develop value-added components by MMC routes with environmentally friendly and costeffective strategies to overcome the problems mentioned earlier. Animal waste residues classification and types are depicted in Figures 1.12 and 1.13, respectively.

Figure 1.12: Animal waste residue classification.

Figure 1.13: Animal waste residue types.

Various types of animal wastes used for MMC composite manufacturing are illustrated further.

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1.5.1 Animal bone Oladele and Isola developed a composite for biomedical application utilizing goat bone (GB) reinforcement mixing in the matrix material. The energy-dispersive X-ray analysis found that calcium and phosphorus were the main elements in the GB reinforcements. Adding 16 wt% GB reinforcement to the composite exhibited good tensile, flexural, and hardness properties [57]. Abdul Kareem et al. fabricated a prophylactic knee brace using cow bone (CB) and periwinkle shell (PS) reinforcement added to Al 6063 alloy. The results indicated that the addition of CB and PS in Al material reduced density and increased hardness and TS [58]. Agus Pramono et al. investigated mechanical properties of hydroxyapatite (HAp) particles mixed with Al beverage can (BC) material with an exothermic process. AlBC/HAp composite fabrication was done by varying the Mg 1–5 wt% and investigated the mechanical characteristics like density, porosity, hardness, and analysis of energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), SEM, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) with different compositions. It is concluded that Al-85%/HAp-12%/Mg-3% gives a lower porosity, lower density, higher hardness values, and Mg and HA particles equally dispersed composite; further, increasing the Mg and HA wt%, it was found that the particles are accumulating and formation of CaMgH2P has accelerated [59]. OSI Fayomi et al. attempted to produce Al 6063 composite reinforced with carbonized chicken bone powder (CCBP) through the stir casting process. The approaches used are electrochemical and weight loss method to measure the corrosion test and give the best results. They calculated the performance characteristics of the composite such as tensile, hardness, weight loss, resistivity, and conductivity. SEM results revealed that the inclusion of CCBP in the composite materials reduced small slits and cracks and exhibited equal dispersion of particles along the grain boundaries [60].

1.5.2 Animal teeth Laxmanaraju et al. attempted Al 6061/animal tooth particle composite through an ultrasonic stir casting route, and measured the microstructure and mechanical characteristics. The outcomes indicated that the microhardness of the Al 6061/ATP composite increased from 75 to 127 HV with an increase of at% of ATP to Al alloy. The UTS and YTS found 195 to 269 MPa and 175 to 248 MPa at 10% of the ATP added to the matrix material. The microstructural examination has presented an unvarying dispersion of ATP in the nascent aluminum matrix composite up to 10 wt% beyond increasing wt% ATP some small clusters were formed [61].

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1.5.3 Animal horn Shibu et al. attempted to fabricate the cow horn particles of mixed Al 7075 composites with liquid stir casting process for measuring the mechanical properties. Composites were fabricated in two compositions 5 and 10 wt% of horn particles added to Al 7075 alloy, and then calculated the TS, Compressive strength (CS), and Elongation test (ET). They indicated that best results were obtained at maximum 10% of horn particles mixing to aluminum alloy [62].

1.5.4 Leather waste Shashi Prakash Dwivedi and Ashish Kumar investigated the collagen leather waste of Cr powder and Al2O3 powder added into Al 6101 alloy to fabricate the hybrid composite with stir casting route. Initially, the various sizes of waste residue leather particles were collected from the leather industry and then converted to Cr powder particles. In the synthesized Al 6101/Cr composite, Cr reinforcement particles were equally distributed in the observed SEM images. They fabricated Al hybrid MMC, Al2O3, and leather waste Cr powder that were properly mixed with the help of a ball milling machine. The results were observed to have improved the mechanical properties such as TS, hardness, and impact strength compared to base material properties [63]. Frank J. Berry et al. [64] investigated the synthesis of chromium powder and fabricated the related components from leather waste residues taken for leather industries. Their study adopted the chemical processing technique to extract the Cr powder from the leather waste residue at various stages. The chemical solution was considered in the final stage process: NH4OH, CaO, NaOH, and MgO. Another coauthor Sethuraman also extracted the Cr powder from leather waste industries. They developed the pyrolysis-coupled pulse oxygen incineration technique and used different gases like CO2, H2, CO, SO2, CxHy, O2, and NOx for the process [65].

1.5.5 Cow dung waste Cow dung is the undigested residue of consumed food material being excreted by herbivorous bovine animal species. The cow is known as one of the significant cattle in India. Each cow can produce approximately 9–15 kg dung/day. In general, if the residues are stored or discarded, it creates a problem in the environment due to the soil, water, and air contamination. So, nowadays, researchers have focused on developing novel applications of cow dung waste usage in various areas like industrial, agriculture, and medicine [66, 67]. Manikandan and Arjunan attempted to use cow dung ash and B4C particles to reinforce Al 7075 alloy. Weight % of CDA and B4C added into the matrix material are

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2.5%, 5%, and 7.5%, respectively. The B4C and CDA influence composite properties such as TS, Impact strength (IS), Flexural strength (FS), hardness, and wear. Wear analysis of composite samples was observed with the help of SEM and optical microstructure. The hardness, TS, and wear resistance results were enhanced up to 30%, 56%, and 56%. The addition of 10% of CDA to the composite reduced the TS, Impact strength (IS), Flexural strength (FS), and hardness due to its soft nature. The fracture and worn-out samples, have shown dimples, transgranular, cleavages, cracks, necking, particle cracks, microploughing, and micro-cutting found on the surface [68, 69]. Soutrik Bose et al. studied the wear properties of the composites with corn added to cow dung. The results showed that the interfacial adhesion strength between matrix and fibers increased more than the corn stalk and cow dung fibers. More cow dung particles restrict the worn-out surface of the composite [70].

1.5.6 Mussel shell and sea shell Surendra et al. attempted mussel shell (MS) particulates using Al 6061 composite fabrication by the stir casting route. They concluded that above 6 wt% of MS particulates decreased hardness, increased the melting temperature, and increased the porosity of the composites; further formation in clusters of particulates was observed in the composite [71]. Rana et al. studied the tribological properties of Al 6062/B4C/sea shell reinforcement composites. Stir casting method was utilized to fabricate the composites and to vary the reinforcement from 0 to 13 wt%; further increasing the wt% of reinforcements had less influence on the wear properties and had substantial effects on microhardness. It is concluded that the weight loss of the green composite to other materials was from 34% of Al 8S4B material and 43% of Al 4S8B material [72].

1.5.7 Periwinkle shell Umunakwe et al. investigated Al 6063 alloy/PS composites fabricated by a two-stage stir casting process. The ball milling method was used to reduce the PS particle sizes from 75 to 150 µm and an Al matrix with 1, 5, 10 and 15 wt% was added to the fabricated composite matrix material. The PS particle size was smaller and had more influence on the composites’ strength, elastic modulus, elasticity, and hardness. PS particle size of 50 µm and 10–15 wt% were used in the Al 6063 alloy; the particle dispersion of the matrix was poor and agglomerated in a specific area observed in the optical microscope images [73].

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1.5.8 Melon shell ash The melon shell ash (MSA) particles’ synthesis considers the different heating conditions, best being 620–680 °C. Al356/MAS composite wear resistance properties increase with MSA particles’ weight percentage. Al 12 wt% MSA composites fabricated by a stir casting route on wear and mechanical characteristics were studied. Al 6101/MAS results observed that hardness improved from 47.9 to 74.7 VHN, Compressive strength (CS) from 160 to 201 MPa, elongation reduced from 8.3% to 5.5%, and wear rate from 0.017 to 0.076 g/min. MAS particles have an excellent alternative to synthesis particles like Al2O3, SiC, TiC, Si3N4, B4C, and TiB2 [74].

1.6 Green waste residue Green waste residues are defined as the “residues from the growing and processing of raw agricultural products such as fruits, leaves, shells, vegetables, poultry, dairy products and crops.” Green composites or green waste residue composites (GWRCs) have a less environmental impact while still meeting performance requirements. These composites will be under the “whole green” category, which means both reinforcement particle and matrix materials are from renewable sources. The main elements of the GWRCs are matrix materials and green waste reinforcement particles with suitable weight percentages or proper proportions. GWRC functions are similar to MMCs; in this process, the matrix material bonds and transfers the load, whereas the green waste reinforcement provides strength by bearing the load. These material characteristics are more significant in high strength-to-weight ratio, good wear resistance, lightweight, and low thermal expansion. In addition to those, GWRCs are low cost, easy to fabricate, eco-friendly, recyclable, and more renewable than conventional MMCs. The green waste residues are classified into four types, as shown in Figure 1.14.

Figure 1.14: Classification of green waste residue composites.

1.6.1 Leafs This section discusses leaf waste residue utilization in composites materials, as shown in Figure 1.15.

1.6 Green waste residue

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Figure 1.15: Leaf waste residues.

1.6.1.1 Aloe vera Gireesh et al. studied the synthesis and characterization of aloe vera (AV) waste residue powder. The AV waste residue powder was added to the Al matrix to fabricate the Al composite adopted in the stir casting technique. It was found to increase the material properties such as hardness and TS and decrease the density. Further, composite properties were compared with Al/FA and Al alloy: TS of 33.8% and 19.0%, UTS of 31.44% and 55.62%, and hardness of 14.78% and 43.78%. Al/AV composite has less density and green material, and also fabrication cast was lower than the Al /FA. The 10% of waste residues of AV particle added into the Al material gives a higher energy absorption capacity due to the particle’s spherical shape and smaller in size [75]. Avasarala et al. studied the Al 6061/AV/SIC hybrid composite with the help of a casting process. AV waste residue and SiC powder particles are mixed with the Al 6061 alloy with various proportions (0–10%) to produce the composite material. The best results were at 4% AV and 6% SiC reinforcement mixing to Al 6061 alloy, with increased TS, impact strength, and hardness. They observed equal particle distribution and grain structure and microstructure analysis. The highest hardness value indicated 6% AV reinforcement and 43 HRB values [76]. 1.6.1.2 Bamboo leaf (BLA) Kolli et al. revealed that bamboo leaf ash (BLA) particles added to Al 7075 alloy enhanced the hardness, tensile, and UTS. The hardness of MMCs increased significantly with an increase in the volume percentage of reinforcements. The microstructures of

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MMCs are relatively uniform, and there is a significant grain refinement inside the matrix. The composite elongation drastically decreased when compared to the base metal. Similarly, fracture toughness has been improved significantly for Al 7075 BLA composite due to better interfacial reaction bonding [77]. Praveen Kumar and Anil Kumar investigated the effect of BLA reinforcement on Al material by fabricating the composite using the stir casting method. Hardness and TS properties were considered as measuring characteristics of the composite by adding BLA reinforcement particles from 2% to 8% to the matrix material. They concluded that 2–4% of reinforcement added to the material increases the hardness and tensile properties [78, 79]. Alanemeand and Adewuyi studied the mechanical properties of Al–Mg–Si alloy composite filled with Al2O3 and BLA reinforcements. Particulates of Al2O3 compounded by 0, 2, 3, and 4 wt% BLA were added to fabricate 10 wt% of reinforcement in the matrix material and adapted to the dual stir casting technique. TS, YS, elongation, and hardness were examined in their study [80]. 1.6.1.3 Lemon grass Jerin et al. studied the metallurgical characterization and TS of Al 6061/LGA (lemon grass ash) particles using the compo cast technique. By adding 2.5–7.5 wt% of LGA particles to Al 6061 alloy, the properties linearly increased the hardness value from 51 to 155 HV and TS value from 160 to 195 MPa. The uniform particle dispersion on the composite material was observed with the optical and field-emission SEM [81]. 1.6.1.4 Lemon leaf ash and tamarind leaf ash Natrayan et al. examined various types of leaf ashes in addition to Al 6061 alloy composites and their characteristics. The microstructure shows the addition of leaf ashes and SiC particles with matrix without voids and discontinues. The results showed the higher mechanical and wear properties at Al 6061/SiC/BLA composite. The Al 6061/SiC/BLA composite shows better results than the Al 6061/SiC/NLA and Al 6061/SiC/TLA composite [82]. 1.6.1.5 Banana green waste Ravi Butola et al. examined the various ash particles added to the Al material generated hybrid composites with a stir casting route. The ball milling approach is used in crushing the sugarcane, banana, and coconut ash particles and reduced to 200 µm size. The specimens were examined on UTS, YS, hardness, and elongation. The best results observed that the banana ash mixed composites were lightweight, with UTS of 115.4 MPa, YS of 76.4 MPa, hardness of 77 HV, and elongation of 21% [83]. Soundarai Louis and Princy Priya Louis developed a lightweight propeller blade with Al 8011 alloy and banana ash composite. The composite fabrication of BLA particulates was added to the Al alloy, while changing the stir casting parameters such as

1.6 Green waste residue

23

stirring speed, time, and percentage of particulate influenced. When comparing Al 8011/BLA mixed results with the standard reciprocating propellers, 25.8% greater efficiency, higher trust force, and less energy loss were noticed [84]. 1.6.1.6 Shell waste residues This part explains the different shell waste residue utilization in composite materials, as observed in Figure 1.16.

Figure 1.16: Shell waste residues.

1.6.1.7 Cocoa bean shell Olabisi et al. examined the microstructure, microhardness, ductility, and TS of Al and cocoa bean shell (CBS) composite manufactured with the sand casting technique. CBS has an agrowaste residue from the cocoa plant. Initially, CBSs were collected; further the cocoa shells were pulverized and particles are melted. The elemental composition of ash particles includes Cao, K, P, Mg, C, and Cu, which has been produced in three sizes: 150, 225, and 300 µm. Three categories of composites with different sizes and shapes of particles are used to fabricate the composite. The overall results indicated that considerable improvements were produced in the composite’s TS and hardness properties [85, 86].

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1.6.1.8 Palm kernel shell Palm kernel shell ash (PKSA) has been widely used in agricultural waste residues globally, and it was taken from the kernel of the nut once the palm oil has been extracted from the mesocarp of the oil palm fruit [87]. Developing agro-based AMCs has a huge value; hence, this contributes to decreasing the environmental risk and producing a cleaner environment. The produced components have eliminated the pollution hazards and are safer for society. Fonotamo et al. developed automotive and aerospace components of Al/PKSA composite with the help of FSP technique. The PKS particles mix the Al matrix to enhance the hardness values with improved wear properties. Pin-on-disk was selected to calculate the friction and wear properties. The well-imbedded and evenly dispersed PKS ash powder into the matrix material was observed by the microstructure analysis [88]. PKSA nanoparticles reinforced into the A356 alloy fabricated the double-layer stir casting methods. They have developed composites for multifunctional applications. They measured the performance characteristics like microstructure, density, toughness strength, electrical conductivity, and resistivity [89]. Similarly, coauthors reported that the microstructure and mechanical properties of composite Al–Mg–Si/PKSA vary the reinforcement of 0–8 wt% [90]. 1.6.1.9 Walnut shell Jasmina Petrovi et al. developed Al 6061/5-Al2O3/3-WSA hybrid composites produced with a stir casting route. Conventional heating techniques can synthesize wallet shell ash powders. The result showed that strength and hardness increased with weight fraction, and elongation was decreased in the addition of Al2O3/WSA composite. The properties were improved when compared to pure Al alloy because of uniform distribution of reinforcement particles in the hybrid composite [91]. 1.6.1.10 Wood apple shell Badri Bheema Rao et al. examined the mechanical characteristics of Al 2024/SiC/wood apple ash (WAA) MMCs using a stir casting process. The WAA particles added to Al composites increased the TS, YS, percentage of elongation, and hardness. About 79% Al, 15% SIC, and 6% WAA composite results indicated better TS, YS, and hardness compared to base materials [92]. 1.6.1.11 Groundnut shell Tile et al. examined the mechanical properties of Al–Mg–Si/GSP composites prepared with the liquid stir casting technique. The 2%, 4%, 6%, 8%, and 10% GSP particles were mixed with the matrix materials on the composite in order to calculate TS, hardness, impact strength, and microstructure. The results found that hardness, YS, and

1.6 Green waste residue

25

UTS increased with the increase in the weight percentage of GSP, with values of 44.5 HRB and 47 kN/mm2, and 110 kN/mm2 [93]. Jadhav et al. developed hybrid reinforcement with Al 356 composites and fabricated a composite by the stir casting route. The composites were prepared to combine the addition of Coconut Shell Ash (CSA) and Groundnut Shell Ash (GSA) particles into matrix materials with various proportions from 0% to 4% and 4% to 0%. They observed the best results of hardness values at Groundnut Shell Ash (GSA) 3 wt% and Coconut Shell Ash (CSA) 1 wt%; at the exact composition of the composite microstructure, Al–Si eutectic with random orientation of secondary phases was found [94].

1.6.2 Husk and seed waste residues The sections explore the husk and seed particles and generate the ceramic particle deployment in composite materials, as shown in Figure 1.17.

Figure 1.17: Husk and seed waste residues.

1.6.2.1 Rice husk Kenneth Kanayo Alaneme et al. evaluated the microstructure properties of Al–Mg–Si/ RHA/Gr composites and hybrid composites. A two-step stir casting process was used to fabricate the hybrid composite to calculate the hardness, TS, and elongation. The results confirmed that hardness and density values decrease with an increase in the weight percentage of RHA; particle clusters were formed on the composite material when observed in the SEM and optical images. The Gr particles of 1.0% and 1.5%, and percentage addition of RHA particle have reduced the strength, and the composite structure was dimpled [95]. Saravanan et al. invented a low-cost engineering MMC component developed using Al and RHA particles. Mechanical properties were calculated by adding RHA

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Chapter 1 Next-generation waste residue composite materials

particles of 3, 6, 9, and 12 wt% to the liquid stir casting route. It was observed that the suitable proportion of RHA Wt% percentage strengthens the grain boundaries of composite due to proper particle distribution. Which effect enhances the composite properties like UTS, Compressive strength (CS), and hardness [96]. 1.6.2.2 Wheat husk Rishi Dewangan et al. developed a low-cost hybrid Al-MMCs with wheat husk ash and RM reinforcement. The composites were prepared by stir casting routes from 5 to 15 wt% of reinforcement’s addition in the matrix material. The performance properties such as density, YS, UTS, and hardness were considered as study. Taguchi L9 approach was used to design and fabricate the composites. The ANOVA tests were conducted on the performance characteristics. It indicated that YS and UTS values were improved with an increase in reinforcements from 42 to 68 MPa and 66 to 89 MPa [97]. 1.6.2.3 Horse eye bean seed Emerwa et al. revealed that the horse eye bean seed ash (HEBSA) particles added to the Al alloy significantly enhanced the composite material’s structural and mechanical properties like UTS, hardness, and Impact strength (IS). When the HEBSA particles are decreased from 500 to 300 µm and increased from 5 to 15 wt% particles in addition to the matrix material, better results were found. It observed the structural analysis results using the optical microscope, SEM, EDS, and XRD, which revealed Al0.64 Ti0.36, Al12 Mg17, C0.12 Fe0.79 Si0.09, Mg Al2O4, TiC, FeSi, SiC, Al, and Mg evenly distributed in the matrix material [98].

1.6.3 Stem waste residue Agriculture industries produced a high amount of green waste residues in product development. In the product development of agriculture, initiatives produced a high amount of waste residues. These waste residues are dumped to open ground areas and create disposal problems. The last part of the green waste residues is stemmed, as shown in Figure 1.18. 1.6.3.1 Sugarcane bagasse Al and sugarcane bagasse (SCB) composites have given noticeable results and are readily available at low cost, have low density, and show reduced environmental pollution [99]. SCB has a material of the sugarcane industries while taking out of the juice from cane and the remaining available material. The available bagasse material was burned in the boiler at the industries, after generating waste residue has ash power in various shapes and sizes. In SCB ash particles, 90% of the elements were

1.6 Green waste residue

27

Figure 1.18: Stem waste residues.

SiO2 and Al2O3. Usman et al. studied the fabrication and mechanical characteristics of Al alloy with bagasse ash reinforcement. In the SCBA reinforcement synthesis process, the material was burnt at various temperatures ranging from 0 to 1,100 °C; the optimum 700 °C gives a rich amount of SiO2 and Al2O3. The final result mentioned an increase in the UTS range from 139.67 to 176.68 MNm2, YM range from 1,429.89 to 172.45, IM range from 139.67 to 176.68 kJ/m2, hardness range from 70.467 to 90.767 HRV, and a decrease in the density range from 2.84 to 2.29 [100, 101]. Chandla Nagender Kumar et al. investigated the experimental analysis and mechanical characterization of Al 6061/Al2O3/SCBA hybrid composite using a vacuum-assisted stir casting technique. They investigated fabricated single and hybrid composites. TS, hardness, and Compressive strength (CS) found the better results observed hybrid composites in comparison with single composites. Similarly, the mechanical characteristics are observed, and TS and hardness values are increased, which then increases the SCBA to 6%. The micrograph analysis observed an excellent distribution with good interface bonding at 6% of SCBA [4]. Other co-authors worked on the Al–Si10–Mg alloy and SCBA composite and examined the mechanical and tribological properties. The wear and coefficient of friction rate decreased due to the addition of SCBA by increasing the load [102, 103]. In India, the corn crop was one of the main crops, and some states have secondary-stage cultivation. After corn harvesting, kernels and cob were separated. The separated corn cob waste used in cooking and burning causes massive environmental effects and health issues. In recent years, the author’s research on corn cob wastes shows efficient ways to be utilized in biofuels, construction, energy, and composite materials [104].

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Chapter 1 Next-generation waste residue composite materials

1.6.3.2 Corn cobs Odoni et al. conducted a detailed study on optimization and modeling of mechanical and wear properties of Al 6063/corn cob ash (CCA) composite. The composites are fabricated using the stir casting technique by adding the CCA particles of 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, 10%, 12.5%, and 15% to the Al 6063 material. The performance characteristics were measured by density, percentage porosity, hardness, wear, TS, and impact strength. When CCA particles were used equally spreading in the composite, with results enhancing the wear resistance and hardness properties over that of the Al 6063 alloy [105]. Fatile et al. investigated the Al–Mg–Si alloy reinforced with CCA particles to fabricate the hybrid composites. Microstructure and mechanical properties were examined in their study. The results observed that the porosity and microstructure values were not within the range due to the agglomeration of grain sized particles, and dispersion rate values were also lower. Hardness, UTS, and percentage of elongation of the hybrid composite results decreased, and fracture toughness was increased compared to the Al–Mg–Si alloy [106]. The same authors developed a composite brake pad using a pulverized CBS. They fabricated the composite material considering the various reinforcement particles such as CBSs, silica sand, epoxy resin, calcium carbonate, anhydrous iron oxide, powdered graphite, talc (release agent), water, and engine oil (SAE60) [107]. 1.6.3.3 Wood stem Pravin Kumar attempted wood waste ash (WWA) and BFA particles with Al 5086 alloy added to fabricated Al 5086/BFA/WWA composites. The best results are obtained at 9 g of WWA and 18 g of BLA particles mixed with Al material, and flexural properties increased by 39% than the unreinforcement composite [108].

1.7 Household waste Household waste is one of the ordinary wastes in every house. These wastes have been divided into food wastes, vegetable wastes, plastic wastes, metal wastes, electronic wastes, and furniture wastes, as shown in Figures 1.19 and 1.20. Food waste materials are almost decomposed biodegraded materials. Recently, widely recycled food waste materials are eggshell and fish-scale residues; these are used in frontier material fabrication and in processing for biomedical, automobile, and aerospace applications.

1.7.1 Food waste Nowadays, many waste residues are produced from the food industries. A low amount of waste residue was recycled and used in various processes. The eggshell is also one

1.7 Household waste

29

Figure 1.19: Classification of household waste residues.

Figure 1.20: Household waste residue elements.

category of waste residues available in the food industry. In the egg waste residue process, the presence of 95% CaCO3 ceramic particles makes it a desirable reinforcement particle. When added to the Al composite, these particles are capable of enhancing the mechanical and wear properties [109]. Hassan and Aligbodian studied the effect of eggshell residue particles (ESRP) mixed into Al–Cu–Mg alloy. They examined the particle dispersion of the composite material using SEM and EDS: density, TS, hardness, and impact energy. Adding 12% of ESRP with the matrix material enhanced TS by 8.16%, Elongation strength (ES) by 25.40%, hardness by 10.01%, reduced the density by 7.4%, and Impact energy (IE) by 24.40% [110]. Kumar and Dwivedi attempted to minimize the Al2O3 and ESRP particle size using the ball milling method. Further, these particles were added to the pure Al material using the casting method to develop the composite. The results established that the

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Chapter 1 Next-generation waste residue composite materials

alloying significantly enhanced the TS and hardness; however, ductility and toughness were reduced [111].

1.7.2 Vegetable waste Another essential household residue is vegetable waste. These wastes are available from decayed vegetables, fruit peals, seeds, leaves, and stems. Generally, residue particles are available in small and big, short and long, resins and fiber. Hemp, flax, kenaf, switch grass, and wheat straw are the most available waste residues used in polymer composites, and no literature has been available on MMCs [112].

1.7.3 Plastic waste This section describes the plastic wastes. Generally, plastic usage and production are increasing in everyday life compared to the last century. Primarily, oil products are flexible and very inexpensive to produce, resulting in huge manufacturing that drowns the globe with plastic. Based on the UK survey report, most plastic wastes are generated in milk packets, milk cans, shampoo bottles, sprays, plastic items, and toys [113]. Hence, these waste residues are transformed into valuable products with an inexpensive cast, and considered as secondary raw materials in composite materials, thereby enhancing the recycling rate, recovery, and valorization. Several researchers are working on composite’s better performance measures when utilizing the plastic as reinforcements, but very scarce working on hybrid composites.

1.7.4 Electronic waste The last category of the chapter is electronic waste. Currently, the UK is one of the largest producers of electronic wastes globally. The wastes are freely available in broken and unwanted parts in electronics. These wastes create landfills and toxic substances in soil and water. Some manufacturers extract the minute amount of Cu, Al, and Au metal elements from broken televisions and computer screens. Some researchers are working on glass wastes and reusing these materials as secondary reinforcements in MMC materials [114, 115].

1.8 Conclusion Based on the literature results on aluminum waste residue composites, the following conclusions are drawn. The commonly available waste residues like green, industrial,

1.9 Future scope

31

animal, and household were briefly discussed in the chapter. Waste residues were largely available in cultivation, crops, garbage, minerals, dust collectors, processing stations, dump yards, seashores, and kitchens. These composites have several advantages, such as reducing weight and cost-effectiveness and generating a novel path to new reinforcement materials’ fabrication in this field of research. Waste-reinforced MMCs are the best substitutes for synthetic reinforcement composites due to their attractive properties like flexible designs, lower cost and density, lightweight, and ecofriendly behavior. Adding agro- and animal waste individually to Al composites decreases the hardness, TS, and UTS. The combined addition of agrowastes or animal waste composites enhanced the mechanical properties. Agro- and household waste reinforcements were mixed to the aluminum material to reduce the density of composites, and percentages of reinforcements increased with reduced density. Industrial waste residues added to the Al material drastically increased the wear resistance. Corrosion resistance increased with the addition of industrial waste reinforcement in single and multiple reinforcements.

1.9 Future scope Scarce work has been accounted on the waste residue composites, which requires more research for the synthesis of particles and finding out the suitable applications of composites and hybrid composites. Little work has been reported on waste residue nanoparticle reinforcement, which requires more investigation for synthesis and characterization of nanowaste residue composites. The composite’s mechanical, chemical, and wear properties depend on the matrix material and reinforcement particles; most of the literature was available on mechanical, chemical, and wear properties but limited work on the simulation and optimization methods. Simulation and modeling techniques have been implemented to estimate the properties and enhance the manufacturing components’ accuracy and precision. Some of the composites and hybrid composites’ fabrication multiple inputs were considered. These experimental results are very difficult to estimate. Most of the literature reports found that conventional routes were followed through composite fabrication, like casting and stir casting. An unconventional processing method was limited; selecting unconventional methods reduces the economic cast and enhances the properties of the composite. Al waste residue composites have found specific application in a particular component. Finally, the waste residue research focuses on exploring and exhibiting the Al composites and Al hybrid composites with economic and suitable applications.

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Sinkiewicz, I., Śliwińska, A., Staroszczyk, H. and Kołodziejska, I., 2017. Alternative methods of preparation of soluble keratin from chicken feathers. Waste and Biomass Valorization. 8(4), pp. 1043–1048. Oladele, I.O. and Isola, B.A., 2016. Development of bone particulate reinforced epoxy composite for biomedical application. Journal of Applied Biotechnology & Bioengineering, 1(1), pp. 35‒40. doi: 10.15406/jabb.2016.01.00006. Abdulkareem, S., Adekaye, T.A., Abdulrahim, A.T., Shuaib-Babata, Y.L., Ajiboye, T.K., Ahmed, I.I., Ibrahim, H.K., Adebisi, J.A. and Yahaya, T., 2019. Hardness and tensile properties of prophylactic knee brace produced from cow bone and periwinkle shell composites. International Journal of Engineering Materials and Manufacture, 4(2): pp. 41–47. Pramono, A., Sulaiman, F. and Milandia, A., 2020. Fabrication of metal matrix composites based on hydroxyapatite by self-high propagating temperatures synthesis (SHS). Fayomi, O.S., Joseph, O.O., Akande, I.G., Ohiri, C.K., Enechi, K.O. and Udoye, N.E., 2019. Effect of CCBP doping on the multifunctional Al-0.5 Mg-15CCBP superalloy using liquid metallurgy process for advanced application. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 783, pp. 246–255. Salavaravu, L., Dirisenapu, G., Dumpala, L., Lokesh, P. and Mallapu, S., 2022. Influence of animal tooth powder on mechanical and microstructural characteristics of Al6061 MMCs manufactured through ultrasonic assisted stir casting, waste residue composites, De Gruyter, pp. 1–14. shibu, G., Abeens, M., Maryam,, Soleimani,, Premnath, M., Raja Shekaran, E. and Anadhan, M., Investigation the mechanical properties of cow horn composite based on Al7075 T651. Interciencia, 44(11), pp. 232–242. Dwivedi, S.P. and Srivastava, A.K., 2020. Utilization of chrome containing leather waste in development of aluminium based green composite material. International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing-Green Technology, 7(3): pp. 781–790. Berry, F.J., Costantini, N. and Smart, L.E., 2002. Synthesis of chromium-containing pigments from chromium recovered from leather waste. Waste Management, 22(7): pp. 761–772. Sethuraman, C., Srinivas, K. and Sekaran, G., 2014. Pyrolysis coupled pulse oxygen incineration for disposal of hazardous chromium impregnated fine particulate solid waste generated from leather industry. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 2(1): pp. 516–524. Ma, Y., Wu, S., Zhuang, J., Tong, J. and Qi, H., 2019. Tribological and physio-mechanical characterization of cow dung fibers reinforced friction composites: An effective utilization of cow dung waste. Tribology International, 131, pp. 200–211. Bose, S., Pandey, A., Mondal, A. and Mondal, P., 2019. A novel approach in developing aluminum hybrid green metal matrix composite material using waste eggshells, cow dung ash, snail shell ash and boron carbide as reinforcements. In Advances in industrial and production engineering (pp. 551–562). Springer, Singapore. Manikandan, R. and Arjunan, T.V., 2020. Mechanical and tribological behaviours of aluminium hybrid composites reinforced by CDA-B4C. Materials Research Express, 7(1): pp. 016584. Manikandan, R. and Arjunan, T.V., 2021. Microstructure and mechanical characteristics of CDA–B4C hybrid metal matrix composites. Metals and Materials International, 27(5): pp. 885–899. Bose, S., Pandey, A., Mondal, A. and Mondal, P., 2019. A novel approach in developing aluminum hybrid green metal matrix composite material using waste eggshells, cow dung ash, snail shell ash and boron carbide as reinforcements. In Advances in industrial and production engineering (pp. 551–562). Springer, Singapore. Dwiwedi, S.K., Srivastava, A.K. and Chopkar, M., 2019. Fabrication and dry sliding wear study of Al6061/mussel-shell particulate composites. SN Applied Sciences. 1(7), pp. 1–3. Rana, R., 2021. Wear and residual stress analysis of waste sea shell and b4c particles reinforced green hybrid aluminium metal composite. Journal of Engineering Research, pp. 28.

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Umunakwe, R., Olaleye, D.J., Oyetunji, A., Okoye, O.C. and Umunakwe, I.J., 2017. Assessment of some mechanical properties and microstructure of particulate periwinkle shell-aluminium 6063 metal matrix composite (PPS-ALMMC) produced by two-step casting. Nigerian Journal of Technology, 36(2): pp. 421–427. Petrović, J., Mladenović, S., Marković, I. and Dimitrijević, S., 2022. Characterization of hybrid aluminum composites reinforced with Al2O3 particles and walnut-shell ash. Materials and Technology, 56(2): pp. 115–122. Gireesh, C.H., Prasad, K.D., Ramji, K. and Vinay, P.V., 2018. Mechanical characterization of aluminium metal matrix composite reinforced with aloe vera powder. Materials Today: Proceedings, 5(2): pp. 3289–3297. Avasarala, V., 2021. Mechanical characterization of Al6061 reinforced with aloe vera powder and SiC. Materials Today: Proceedings, 44, pp. 1291–1295. Kolli, M., Naresh, D.S. and Ravi Prakash Babu, K., 2021. Experimental studies on mechanical characteristics of bamboo leaf ash reinforcement with aluminum 7075 alloy using rotary stir casting technique, 24-27 July 2021, ICAMMP2021. Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur, India. Praveen Kumar, B. and Birru, A.K., 2018. Characterization of Al-4.5%Cu alloy with the addition of silicon carbide and bamboo leaf ash. Kovove Materialy, 56, pp. 325–337. 2018. Kumar, B.P. and Birru, A.K., 2017. Microstructure and mechanical properties of aluminium metal matrix composites with addition of bamboo leaf ash by stir casting method. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 27(12): pp. 2555–2572. Alaneme, K.K. and Adewuyi, E.O., 2013. Mechanical behaviour of Al-Mg-Si matrix composites reinforced with alumina and bamboo leaf ash. Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, 19(3): pp. 177–188. Jose, J., Christy, T.V., Peter, P.E., Feby, J.A., George, A.J., Joseph, J., Chandra, R.G. and Benjie, N.M., 2018. Manufacture and characterization of a novel agro-waste based low cost metal matrix composite (MMC) by compocasting. Materials Research Express, 5(6): pp. 066530. Natrayan, L., Sivaprakash, V. and Santhosh, M.S., 2018. Mechanical, microstructure and wear behavior of the material AA6061 reinforced SiC with different leaf ashes using advanced stir casting method. International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology, 8, pp. 366–371. Butola, R., Pratap, C., Shukla, A. and Walia, R.S., 2019. Effect on the mechanical properties of aluminum-based hybrid metal matrix composite using stir casting method. In Materials science forum (Vol. 69, pp. 253–259). Trans Tech Publications Ltd. Louis, S. and Louis, P.P., 2020. Experimental study on strength comparison of light weight aluminum alloy propeller blade with metal propeller blade. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering (Vol. 955, No. 1, p. 012034). IOP Publishing. Olabisi, A.I., Boye, T.E. and Eyere, E., 2017. Evaluation of pure aluminium inoculated with varying grain sizes of an agro-waste based inoculant. Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal, 2(4): pp. 14–25. Olabisi, A.I., Adam, A.N. and Okechukwu, O.M., 2016. Development and assessment of composite brake pad using pulverized cocoa beans shells filler. International Journal of Materials Science and Applications, 5(2): pp. 66–78. Fono-Tamo, R.S. and Koya, O.A., 2013. Characterisation of pulverised palm kernel shell for sustainable waste diversification. International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research, 4(4): pp. 6–10. Fono-Tamo, R.S., Akinlabi, E.T. and Tien-Chien, J., 2019. Microstructural and dry sliding friction studies of aluminum matrix composites reinforced PKS ash developed via friction stir processing. In Chesonis, C. (Ed.) Light metals 2019. the minerals, metals & materials series. Springer, Cham, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05864-7_51.

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[89] Aigbodion, S. and Ezema, I.C., 2019. Multifunctional A356 alloy/PKSAnp composites : Microstructure and mechanical properties. Definition Technology, pp. 2–7. doi: 10.1016/j.dt.2019.05.017. [90] Oladele, I.O. and Okoro, A.M., 2016. The effect of palm kernel shell ash on the mechanical properties of as-cast aluminium alloy matrix composites. Leonardo Journal of Sciences, 28, pp. 15–30. [91] Petrović, J., Mladenović, S., Marković, I. and Dimitrijević, S., 2022. Characterization of hybrid aluminum composites reinforced with AL2O3 particles and walnut-shell ash. Materials and Technology, 56(2): pp. 115–122. [92] Rao, B.B., Raju, V.A. and Karuna, G.S., 2018. Fabrication and mechanical behaviour of Limonia acidissima ash–silicon carbide reinforced AL2024 alloy matrix hybrid composites. International Journal of Advance Research, Ideas and Innovations in Technology, 4(3): pp. 1795–1802. [93] Tile, J.M., Nyior, G.B. and Sidi, M.S., 2018. Mechanical properties of Al-Mg-Si/Groundnut shell particulate composite produced by stir casting method. American Journal of Engineering Research, 7(5): pp. 247–252. [94] Jadhav, S., Aradhye, A., Kulkarni, S., Shinde, Y. and Vaishampayan, V., 2019. Effect of hybrid ash reinforcement on microstructure of A356 alloy matrix composite. In AIP Conference Proceedings (Vol. 2105, 20010–20011). pp. 8. [95] Alaneme, K.K. and Olubambi, P.A., 2013. Corrosion and wear behaviour of rice husk ash – alumina reinforced Al–Mg–Si alloy matrix hybrid composites. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 2(2): pp. 188–194. [96] Saravanan, S.D. and Senthilkumar, M., 2015. Prediction of tribological behaviour of rice husk ash reinforced aluminum alloy matrix composites using artificial neural network. Russian Journal of Non-Ferrous Metals, 56(1): pp. 97–106. [97] Dewangan, R., Pandey, P.K., Rajput, N.S. and Dohare, R., 2021. Optimization of hybrid aluminium metal matrix composite using red mud and wheat husk ash. In Rakesh, P.K., Sharma, A.K., Singh, I. (eds.) Advances in engineering design. lecture notes in mechanical engineering. Springer, Singapore, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4018-3_26. [98] Emeruwa, O.E., Nnakwo, K.C. and Atuanya, C.U., 2017. Investigative study of the structure and mechanical behaviour of horse eye bean seed shell ash reinforced aluminium alloy matrix composite. [99] Ghosh, S. and Basak, R., 2018. Study of mechanical and tribological characteristics of aluminium alloy reinforced with sugarcane bagasse ash. [100] Usman, A.M., Raji, A., Waziri, N.H. and Hassan, M.A., 2014. Production and characterisation of aluminium alloy-bagasse ash composites. IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, 11(4): pp. 38–44. [101] Debnath, S., Lancaster, L. and Lung, M.H., 2013. Utilization of agro-industrial waste in metal matrix composites: Towards sustainability. In World academy of science, engineering and technology. pp. 1136–1144. [102] Chandla, N.K., Yashpal,, Kant, S., Goud, M.M. and Jawalkar, C.S., 2020. Experimental analysis and mechanical characterization of Al 6061/alumina/bagasse ash hybrid reinforced metal matrix composite using vacuum-assisted stir casting method. Journal of Composite Materials, 54(27): pp. 4283–4297. [103] Subramanian, S., Arunachalam, B., Nallasivam, K. and Pramanik, A., 2019. Investigations on tribomechanical behaviour of Al-Si10-Mg/sugarcane bagasse ash/SiC hybrid composites. China Foundry, 16(4): pp. 277–284. [104] Shankar, S., Balaji, A. and Kawin, N., 2018. Investigations on mechanical and tribological properties of Al-Si10-Mg alloy/sugarcane bagasse ash particulate composites. Particulate Science and Technology, 36(6): pp. 762–770.

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[105] Murthi, P., Poongodi, K. and Gobinath, R., 2020. Effects of corn cob ash as mineral admixture on mechanical and durability properties of concrete–a review. In IOP conference series: materials science and engineering (Vol. 1006, No. 1, pp. 012027). IOP Publishing. [106] Odoni, B.U., Edoziuno, F.O., Nwaeju, C.C. and Akaluzia, R.O., 2020. Experimental analysis, predictive modelling and optimization of some physical and mechanical properties of aluminium 6063 alloy based composites reinforced with corn cob ash. Journal of Materials and Engineering Structures «JMES», 7(3): pp. 451–465. [107] Fatile, O.B., Akinruli, J.I. and Amori, A.A., 2014. Microstructure and mechanical behaviour of stir-cast Al-Mg-Si alloy matrix hybrid composite reinforced with corn cob ash and silicon carbide. International Journal of Engineering and Technology Innovation, 4(4): pp. 251. [108] Pravinkumar, M., Characterization of Aluminium Hybrid Composite Reinforcement with Teak Wood Ash and Bamboo Ash by using Stir Casting Process. [109] Recycled plastic biocomposites. Wood Head Publishing Series in Composites Science and Engineering. 2022, 29–49, doi: 10.1016/B978-0-323-88653-6.00013-4 [110] Dwivedi, S.P., Saxena, A., Sharma, S., Srivastava, A.K. and Maurya, N.K., 2021. Influence of SAC and eggshell addition in the physical, mechanical and thermal behaviour of Cr reinforced aluminium based composite. International Journal of Cast Metals Research, 34(1): pp. 43–55. [111] Hassan, S.B. and Aigbodion, V.S., 2015. Effects of eggshell on the microstructures and properties of Al–Cu–Mg/eggshell particulate composites. Journal of King Saud University-Engineering Sciences, 27(1): pp. 49–56. [112] Kumar, S., Dwivedi, S. and Dwivedi, V.K., 2020. Synthesis and characterization of ball-milled eggshell and Al 2 O 3 reinforced hybrid green composite material. Journal of Metals, Materials and Minerals, 30(2). [113] Fernandes, F.C., Kirwan, K., Wilson, P.R., et al., 2019. Sustainable alternative composites using waste vegetable oil based resins. The Journal of Polymers and the Environment, 27, pp. 2464–2477. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-019-01534-8. [114] Roche Cerasi, I., Sánchez, F.V., Gallardo, I., et al., 2021. Household plastic waste habits and attitudes: A pilot study in the city of Valencia. Waste Management & Research, 39(5), pp. 679–689. 10.1177/0734242X21996415. [115] https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/what-is-ewaste-and-what-can-we-do-about-it.html

Chapter 2 Emerging techniques for waste residue composites Bhagyarajsinh Gohil, Virag Shah, Tarang Paneliya, Krishna Kishore Mugada✶ Abstract: Composite and hybrid composite materials are attractive materials that are replacing monolithic materials. They are produced by a combination of two or more materials that have different properties. Composites are mainly used in making automotive parts and in aircraft and space industries. Many manufacturing sectors are considering them for material properties like lightweight, more strength, and durability. In the current era of composites, we can use waste particles derived from animal waste, agriculture waste, industrial waste, and household waste are used as reinforcements and matrices. The selection of techniques used to produce composites depends upon the matrix materials like polymer, metal, and ceramic. Temperature, pressure, and all other conditions vary from process to process. A defect-free and outstanding performance composite depends on various input parameters and decides the process type selected. This chapter examines the work of vacuum bagging, pultrusion, spray forming, plasma spraying, filament winding, vacuum infusion, Duralcan technique, stir casting, squeeze casting, and compo casting techniques. Additionally, it emphasizes the potential for future applications in various sectors, including the building and automobile industries. It has finally been found that waste residue particles and related fabrication processes gave better results than the originally added reinforced composite (synthetic particles). When selected using a suitable method, the cost was reduced drastically, compared to conventional routes. Keywords: Fabrication techniques, emerging methods, waste residue composites, animal waste composites, industrial composites

2.1 Introduction Manufacturing of waste-reinforced composite materials involves many processes. Conditions like temperature, pressure, and material play a vital role in opting for the best method. Processability is a strategy by which composite materials are created, which is an essential factor in determining the technology and cost of production. Processability is also determined by a component’s ability to link with other components using the cohesive method. Temperature and pressure are typically raised to extremely high levels during composite material manufacture [1–6]. The type of composite to be

✶

Corresponding author: Krishna Kishore Mugada, e-mail: [email protected]

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110766523-002

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Chapter 2 Emerging techniques for waste residue composites

created also influences the process criteria. Ceramics, for example, cannot be physically molded like metals. Instead, we must add a liquid or binder to the substance to allow sculpting. The material is then heat treated to achieve the desired result. Also, manufacturing of this material depends widely on the type of output composite we want [7–16].

2.2 Composite fabrication methods The composites are manufactured with various methods, as shown in Figure 2.1. All these methods are used to fabricate multiple sizes, shapes, and types of composites, as discussed in the subsequent sections [17–27]. (a) Filament Winding (b) Pultrusion Polymer matrix Composites

(c) Resin Transfer Molding (d) Hand Layup and spray technique (e) Film Stacking (f) Thermoplastic tape laying etc. (a) Liquid Infiltration

Composite Fabrication Methods

(b) Centrifugal casting Metal Matrix composites

(c) Electroplating (d) Chemical vapour deposition (e) Sray Deposition, etc. (a) Cold pressing and sintering

Ceramic matrix composites

(b) Lanxide process (c) Slurry impregnation (d) Melt infiltration process (e) Sol gel. etc.

Carbon matrix composites

Multifilamentary superconducting composites

(a) Chemical vapor deposition (b) High impregnation carbonisation. etc.

(a) Oxide powder in Tube method (b) Extrusion method

Figure 2.1: Various composite fabrication methods.

The detailed evolution of the methods is shown in Figure 2.2. The data is displayed in chronological order, based on a Scopus database search.

Vapor infiltration

Microwave Sintering

Two step stir casing

Electromagnetic stir casting

Squeeze casting infiltration

Spray deposition

Spark Plasma Sintering

Stir casting process under modified inert atmosphere

Bottom Pouring stir casting set up with squeeze casting

Melt infiltration

Rapid vacuum Sintering

Accumulative roll bonding

Stir casting process under inert atmosphere

Centrifugal casting

Stir/Gravity casting

High energy ball mill mixing and sintering

Coal-fired stir casting

High pressure centrifugal infiltration

Vacuum pressure infiltration

Bottom pouring stir casting with spray deposition

Quick quench stir casting

Gas pressure infiltration

Metal injection molding

Ultrasonic processing of composites

Conventional casting

2.2 Composite fabrication methods

Figure 2.2: Evolution of methods for composite fabrication [20–32].

Pressure infiltration

41

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Chapter 2 Emerging techniques for waste residue composites

The metal matrix composites are manufactured by various methods, as shown in Figure 2.3, which can also be used to fabricate the waste residue composites; instead of particle reinforcement, the waste residues are used to produce the composites.

Production process for MMC's

Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS)

High Energy Ball Mill Mixing & Sintering (HEBMMS)

Vaccum/Gas Sintering (VGS)

Microwave Sintering (MS)

Other techniques

Liquid State Processing

Solid State Processing Infiltration method

Casting Method

Melt Infiltration (MI)

Stir/Gravity Casting

Rheocasting

Pressure Infiltration (PI)

Centrifugal Casting (CS)

In situ Casting

Gas Pressure Infiltration (GPI)

Squeeze Casting

Vaccum Pressure Infiltration (VPI)

Vaccum Die Casting

Vapor Infiltration(VI)

Compocasting

Spray Deposition

Screw Extrusion (SE)

Accumulative Roll Bonding (ARB)

High Pressure Centrifugal Infiltration (HPCI) Squeeze Casting Infliration Figure 2.3: Production of metal matrix composites by various methods [26–32].

2.2.1 Vacuum bagging method When a laminate is curing, mechanical pressure is applied using the vacuum bagging technique. Air trapped between layers can be removed by pressuring the laminate. Second, compacting the fiber layers facilitates effective force transfer between fiber bundles and aids in reducing fiber orientation shifting. Finally, it lowers humidity.

2.2 Composite fabrication methods

43

Additionally, the reinforcements-to-resin ratio in the composite part is optimized via the vacuum bagging technique. Aerospace and racing industries using composite materials such as carbon, aramid, and Kevlar have been able to maximize and enhance the physical properties of these materials due to the advantages of this technique. The materials used for the vacuum bagging process were a vacuum pump, rubber hose pipe, pressure gauge, connecting pipe, catch pot, vacuum bagging film, sealant tape, suction flange, mold, breather fabric, peel ply sheet, release film, and wax. The metal matrix composites are manufactured by various methods, as shown in Figure 2.3, which can also be used to fabricate the waste residue composites; instead of particle reinforcement, the waste residues are used to produce the composites [1–4, 26, 27].

Figure 2.4: Schematic of vacuum bagging method.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Vacuum pump Pressure gauge Rubber hose pipe Catch pot Connecting pipes

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Granite stone Vacuum bagging film Sealant tape Suction flange mold

Figure 2.5: Experimental setup for vacuum bagging method.

Pressurizing a composite lamination with the vacuum created a uniform shape and size with good properties. In this process, the entire composite was fabricated on a highly finished granite stone with a vacuum bagging setup, as shown in Figures 2.4 and 2.5. The resin and hardener were mixed in a ratio of 10:1. The total volume of mold was filled

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Chapter 2 Emerging techniques for waste residue composites

with a perforated sheet, a peel-ply sheet, and different layers of glass fiber. On the top of the peel ply sheet, the required glass fiber with various sequences was placed layer by layer, by applying the resin. The scraper was used to spread the wax throughout the layer. After completing the layers, a peel-ply sheet, perforated sheet, and breather fabric were used to cover the mold. Suitable metallic plates of dimensions equivalent to the mold were used on top of the breather fabric. The vacuum bagging film was placed carefully on the top and attached with a suction flange. A rubber hose was attached between the vacuum pump and the catch pot, and a pressure gauge was also used to catch the pot. Now, the pump was switched on and allowed to cure for 2 h. The incredible strength-to-weight benefits of composites in all applications are one of the key reasons for their use. However, the reinforcement material itself – whether made of waste materials, fiberglass, aramid, carbon, and so on – is not all that robust in its textile form. Vacuum bagging does not have to be a very complicated procedure. Any manufacturer looking to increase a part’s strength-to-weight ratio will typically benefit from making a straightforward vacuum bag. However, for a refined or extended procedure or the production of larger components, the methodology may become fairly complex and technical. This deters fabricators from employing this beneficial and efficient method to enhance practically any hand laminates [26–27].

2.2.2 Pultrusion Pultrusion is a composite fiber production technology that produces unidirectional fiber composites with consistent cross-sections [30]. Fibers are pulled off spools, impregnated in a polymer resin bath, and then brought together to give a specific shape before entering a heated die, in this process [29]. For metals and polymers, it is comparable to an extrusion process, but pultrusion pulls material through a die rather than forcing it through. As fiber composites are made of soft, flexible fibers, dragging the material through the process is the only choice, because it cannot be physically pushed. Pultrusion is a widely used industrial method created shortly after World War II and at the same time as many other contemporary technologies. Figure 2.6 depicts the process schematic. [31] Due to their high flexural strength, continuous-fiber polymer-matrix composites produced via pultrusion are employed for bone replacement. These composites (which mainly contain carbon fibers) are customized in terms of modulus, which must match the modulus of specific bones. As shown in Figure 2.6, pultrusion is a continuous series of steps that results in a final product. The required reinforcing fiber-filled yarn spools are placed in a creel and dragged through a set of guides. It is possible to add a mat or a biaxial fabric to provide some transverse strength. The yarns are then impregnated with low-viscosity thermosetting resin and submerged in a resin bath containing a catalyst. The resin viscosity must be low, and the pot life must be prolonged to encourage complete fiber wetting (time required for initially mixed resin viscosity to double, or more if the

2.2 Composite fabrication methods

45

Figure 2.6: Schematic of pultrusion process.

initial density is very low). This phase is termed impregnation. The resin-impregnated fibers pass through a series of wipers to remove any extra polymer, and then a collimator, before going into the heated die. The impregnated tows are wrapped together and passed through a heated die after leaving the resin bath. When pressure is exerted inside the dice, the resin flows through and thoroughly wets the fibers. The composite is also cured as it moves through the die. The die’s cross section determines the ultimate cross-sectional shape of the composite. A caterpillar-type puller with synchronous belts on either side of the cross section is typically used to move the composite through the process. However, other pulling mechanisms may also be used, including a dual clamp system. Two tools alternately clamp and pull the composite during this procedure. One clamps and pulls, and the other moves back to its original position and is prepared to pull again. At the end of the line, the cured composite can be cut to the required length. To guarantee a clean cut, use a cutoff saw that can be synced to travel along the line at the same pace as the composite [25]. Although it is a low-cost technology with a high output, components may have inconsistent impregnation, warp, and sag, if samples are not carefully maintained and tensioned during the process. Pultrusion can be performed using thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers, with the latter being more frequently utilized. Fibrous reinforcements come in a variety of shapes and sizes. The most prevalent type of continuous fiber is roving. It is simple to saturate a bundle of fibers with resin. Employing a continuous strand mat made up of randomly aligned continuous fiber lengths is also possible. These allow for transverse reinforcement. In addition, woven fabrics, braided tapes, and a chopped strand mat comprised of small fiber strands that can be sewn or bonded to a carrier material – most frequently a unidirectional tape – are also used. In relation to the loading direction, reinforcement is offered at arbitrary angles of h, such as 0°, 90°, or both. Pultrusion resins are frequently made from polyester, vinyl ester, and epoxy [28]. The process may normally produce at a constant pace of 10–200 cm/min. The resin type and the cross-sectional thickness of the item determine the actual speed. Pultruded profiles up to 1.25 m wide with more than 60% fiber volume are frequently produced. Rods, channels, angles, and flat stock are all easily produced shapes. An automated thermoplastic pultrusion process

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Chapter 2 Emerging techniques for waste residue composites

can produce high volumes of long straight parts of various shapes. These and other thermoforming methods are beginning to transform thermoplastic uses in key structural applications, promising to realize the benefits of low cycle times and the ability to recycle. Pultrusion has several features that make it a desirable technology for composite production. Firstly, being a continuous process, composite standards allow extremely high production rates of the order of several meters per minute. While comparing with other composite manufacturing procedures, this permits composite parts to be manufactured at a lower cost. The technique also enables the manufacturing of nearnet form components with wastage of less than 5%. This procedure can also make composites with large fiber volume fractions and reinforcing fibers. It also has consistent product quality and minimal labor costs. Using this technique, where the fibers are aligned along the pulling axis, unidirectional composites can be produced to their fullest ability. However, prepreg mats with off-axis oriented fibers can add angled fibers to the composite structure, in place of unidirectional yarns. This enhances the composite’s off-axis characteristics. The main drawback of the pultrusion method is the requirement that the cross sections of the pieces be constant, which restricts the kinds of components that can be manufactured. The method works best for creating components with a constant cross section, like rods, angles, and I-beams.

2.2.3 Spray forming The spray forming process is often used to fabricate metal matrix composite. It involves the use of a spray gun that can atomize molten aluminum, with ceramic particles being injected into the atomized molten aluminum. An optimum particle size and suitable preheat temperature is required to effectively transfer the ceramic particles into sprayed molten metal. Below is a schematic of the spray forming process (Figure 2.7). This sprayed matrix composite goes through scalping, consolidation, and a secondary finishing process. Through these processes, the porous preform is converted to wrought material. This process can be classified under the liquid metallurgy process. Due to the short flight time, harmful reaction products should be avoided. The advantage of spray forming is high flexibility, while the disadvantage is costly equipment (expensive) [28].

2.2 Composite fabrication methods

47

Figure 2.7: Schematic of spray forming process.

2.2.4 Plasma spraying In plasma spraying, a combination of molten metal and filler is sprayed onto a substrate, and this too is a liquid-phase method. The relatively high porosity of the resultant composite limits this process, due to which densification is done by hot isostatic pressing or other procedures. Plasma spraying can generate continuous composite pieces compared to other technologies; however, the subsequent consolidation phase may limit their size.

Figure 2.8: Plasma spray process.

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Chapter 2 Emerging techniques for waste residue composites

Plasma-sprayed tapes use low-temperature plasma jets for depositing metal, and various coatings on the solid surface have been there for a long time. However, this process also shows the compatibility of depositing matrix layers onto a set of fibers. In this process, fibers are coiled at a set pitch onto a cylindrical mandrel. A low-temperature plasma jet is then used to transfer the molten matrix material to the mandrel surface, coating the fibers with a matrix layer, as shown in Figure 2.8. The mandrel’s precursor sheet or tape is removed, followed by the cutting along the cylinder’s generatrix of a composite layer with a weak matrix. The tape typically has one rough surface on top and one smooth surface on the bottom. It will be necessary to densify and sinter the monotype’s stack to produce a specific structural component. The following factors influence the composite’s ultimate properties: (a) matrix properties, (b) mechanical properties of fiber or reinforcement, and (c) quality of fiber or reinforcement packing. Porosity is usually observed in the plasma-sprayed tape. Due to the considerable displacement at the interface caused by matrix densification, the oxide layer at the fiber/matrix interface is ruptured, creating an interface connection. Spraying variables influence porosity, including electric power, powder size, and other elements. There is very little correlation between porosity and particle size. Hand layup and spray operations are the most straightforward polymer processing techniques. Unsaturated polyester is one of the resins that are most frequently used, after the fibers have been placed in the mold. The deposited layers are then made denser using the rollers. Accelerators and catalysts are frequently used. Curing can be done in an oven at a moderately high or at room temperature [32].

2.2.5 Filament winding It is another composite material forming method where a continuous tow or roving is passed through a resin impregnation bath, followed by the heating process in the heater, then wound on a rotating or stationary mandrel [25]. A roving contains thousands of individual filaments. The schematic diagram for the filament winding process is shown in Figure 2.9; in the case of hoop winding, the fiber tows do not cross each other; however, in the case of helical winding, they do. The form that can be created using this technique determines the helix’s angle. It is covered by each layer, one after the other, until the appropriate thickness. Before the mandrel is removed, the thermosetting resin is cured at a high temperature. It is mainly used for large components like spherical tanks or cylindrical pipes. Glass, carbon, and aramid fibers are frequently used with epoxy, polyester, and vinyl ester resins for filament-wound shapes. There are two types of filament winding process. (a) Wet winding is a method in which the filaments are coated with a low-viscosity glue before the wound. Polyesters and epoxies with viscosities below 2 Pas are used in wet winding (2,000 cP). (b) Prepreg winding – the fibers are preimpregnated using a hot melt or solvent-dip technique. Rigid amines, novolacs, polyimides, and higher viscosity epoxies are frequently used for this technique [25].

2.2 Composite fabrication methods

49

Figure 2.9: Schematic of filament winding.

2.2.6 Resin transfer molding or vacuum infusion method Vacuum infusion offers the ability to produce complex structures in various sizes at a reasonable price. The vacuum infusion approach can produce structural components in low- to medium-volume settings employing continuous fibers. Vacuum infusion has grown in relevance in the composites industry as a result of these benefits. The steps to be followed during the vacuum infusion process are as follows: – Materials should be handled properly and gently. – Place a granite stone for a smooth surface. Place a release film of 300 × 200 mm over it to remove the part easily. Sometimes, for a good surface finish, a gel coating is applied. – Place a green mesh of 280 × 180 mm on the release film to control the flow. – Place a peel-ply cloth of 280 × 180 mm on the green mesh to separate the composite and obtain a smooth surface. – Place all 20 fibers of the required stacking sequence on the peel-ply cloth. After that, place the peel ply and green mesh, respectively. – Place the vacuum bagging film setup prepared on the green mesh. – Close the total mold with sealant tape on all sides. Seal the mold and prevent air from entering into the mold – Connect the setup to the vacuum pump and catch the pot by T-joint through connecting pipes, as shown in Figures 2.10 and 2.11. The vacuum formed inside the mold helps the resin flow and removes air bubbles. – As illustrated in Figures 2.10 and 2.11, apply a resin that has already been made on the end of the mold to the connecting pipe. Up until the mold is entirely filled,

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Chapter 2 Emerging techniques for waste residue composites

the resin is sucked. Once filled, the inlet port is sealed off, and the flow is stopped. The pressure inside the mold should remain consistent to guarantee that the resin settles between layers. After curing for a certain time (3 h), switch off the vacuum pump and hold for 24 h. After that, the composite part is removed.

Figure 2.10: Resin transfer molding or vacuum infusion method.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Vacuum pump Rubber hose pipe Pressure gauge Catch pot Granite stone

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Resin Sealant tape Connecting pipe Green mesh T joint

Figure 2.11: Experimental setup for resin transfer molding or vacuum infusion method.

2.2 Composite fabrication methods

51

2.2.7 Stir casting In stir castings, the metal is converted into liquid and processed in the stir casting procedure. Hence, this approach can be used with metals with low melting points, like aluminum. This process starts with liquid metal infiltrating the fiber. Aluminum ingots and ceramic particles are melted together. The melt is agitated at 600 to 700 degrees Celsius, and liquid metal is pushed into a fibrous preform. The aqueous slurry is stirred thoroughly, placed into the molding vessel, and the preform is then dried after applying pressure, to eliminate the water. Due to the short dwell period at comparatively high temperatures, composites formed by this process have minimal reactivity between the molten metal and reinforcement. They are free of common casting flaws such as porosity and voids. One of the disadvantages of stir casting is that it cannot produce composites with a high filler volume fraction [30].

2.2.8 Squeeze casting It is essentially pressure casting, with the displacement velocity of the ram and the filtering velocity of the fiber preform controlling the pressure in the molten matrix. It adopts another foundry technique that uses pressure to enhance casting quality. This technology has clear advantages over the pressure infiltration technique, including the capacity to operate at high speeds, the need for minimal equipment, and the ability to produce nearly net-shaped parts. When dealing with matrices with low melting points, this is very relevant [20–27]. A sufficiently hard preform must be created by mixing the fibers with an organic binder. Organic binder typically contains trace amounts of silica, which remain in the preform, after the binder is burned off during preheating. The squeeze casting process diagram is shown in Figure 2.12. The preform must have enough homogeneity. To make fiber distribution more homogeneous and to control fiber volume fraction more accurately, some researchers use hybridization, which includes adding particles to the fibrous preform. The dispersion agent is an organic metallic chemical, whereas the binding agent is a polymer. Mechanical tests show that the optimal particle content depends on the fiber volume percentage. Another important factor is the infiltration pressure. The infiltration period for the process will shorten with an increase in pressure or ram velocity, preventing unwanted fiber-matrix interactions. On the other hand, this calls for a stiffer preform, which may require the employment of more expensive pressing machinery. Typically, a pressure of up to 100 MPa is used. The mold/ram arrangement can be designed to simplify the requirements. A suggestion to encircle the preform with a porous ceramic filter: (i) gives a technique that allows the melt to seep into the preform from the top and the sides, allowing for hydrostatic preform deformation, and (ii) captures air trapped in the preform in the filter’s lower part. Hot-rolling a blank made by

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Chapter 2 Emerging techniques for waste residue composites

Punch

Die Heater Matrix melt

Fibre preform Figure 2.12: Schematic of squeeze casting [32].

squeeze-casting improves the microstructure and properties of the composites because of void healing. Hot extrusion is used to align the fibers after a randomly oriented fiber preform has been squeeze-cast. A maximum reduction can be observed during hot extrusion without the material fracturing for a certain combination of temperature and strain rate. The reduction value of about 45% for SiC-whisker/6061aluminum-alloy-matrix composite (vf = 0.2) appears necessary at 400 °C and about 55% at 600 °C [32].

2.2.9 Compocasting Compocasting is a method of producing metal matrix composites (MMCs), primarily aluminum matrix composites, first proposed by Mehrabian in the early 1970s. Although there are various modifications in the procedure presently, the main steps are as follows: a) flow-casting of a semi-liquid alloy at just above the solidus temperature b) vigorous mixing of the alloy and adding fibers into the liquid/solid mixture c) shaping a composite via rolling, die-casting, extrusion, or any other method A matrix with a high temperature difference between liquidus and solidus makes processing composites easier, especially in the last phase. A crucible contains a mixture with a bottom aperture for further pouring out the liquid mixture. The second step requires vigorous mixing to keep the solid/liquid mixture fluid and avoid the creation and growth of dendrites, a type of slurry thixotropy. The fibers are added when

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53

the matrix contains about half of the solid phase. Continuing to stir while adding threads minimizes flocculation and improves wetting by disrupting the contaminated layer on the fiber. A primary phase and uniform distribution within the eutectic zones define the microstructure of a composite made in this way, which results in fibers being encased in a matrix with a different composition than the norm. This might be the cause of the increased wettability of the fiber/matrix system. This makes it possible to maintain a solidification front at a fixed location in the processing zone, while pouring a mixture of fiber and matrix into the space between the rollers, at a temperature close to that of the liquid phase of the matrix. A composite microstructure mimics a conventional one and is created by a combination of slab pressure, roller speed, and mixture starting temperature. Compocasting combines the benefits and drawbacks of liquidand solid-phase manufacturing methods. Liquid-state technologies provide simplicity in the process and facilities and easy shaping, while powder metallurgy offers the ability to clean the fiber surface. However, the technique inherits the issues that arise from fiber breakage during processing [32]. Casting is the process of injecting liquid metal into a fiber bundle. Making MMCs with simple liquid-phase infiltration is difficult, owing to issues with molten metal soaking the ceramic reinforcement. When a fiber is easily infiltrated, interactions between the fiber and the molten metal can damage fiber characteristics dramatically. Fiber coatings that are placed before infiltration and improve response control have been created and can provide a few benefits. The downside of this scenario is that the fiber coatings should not be exposed to air before infiltration, since oxidation of the surface will reduce the coating‘s benefits. The Duralcan technique is a commercially effective liquid infiltration process with particulate reinforcement. Aluminum ingot grade and ceramic particles are mixed and then melted to produce liquid metal. The ceramic particles undergo a unique process. The temperature of the liquid metal, typically between 600 and 700 °C, is slightly elevated. The four forms in which the melt changes are extrusion blank, foundry ingot, rolling bloom, or rolling ingots. Ceramic particles of 8–12 lm are used in the Duralcan liquid metal casting technique to produce particulate composites. Small particles, such as those between two and three lm, result in a significant interface region and a viscous melt. High Si aluminum alloys (such as A356) are employed in foundry-grade MMCs. Foundry alloys commonly use alumina particles, whereas wrought aluminum alloys use silicon carbide particles. Tows of fibers are carried through a liquid metal bath to create continuous fiberreinforced MMCs. The molten metal wets the individual fibers, the surplus metal is cleaned away, and a composite wire is created. A micrograph of a particular wire made of SiC fibers is embedded in an aluminum matrix. Multifiber cross sections are present in the damaged composite wire. A composite can be created by extruding a bundle of such wires. Another pressure-free liquid metal infiltration procedure for making MMCs is Lanxide’s PrimexTM method, which may be used with particular reactive metal alloys like Al-Mg to penetrate ceramics [28].

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2.2.10 Thermal decomposition method (chemical vapor deposition – CVD) As the name suggests, in this method, we first decompose the material with heat application, and then this chemical vapor of the material is deposited on the surface. The main advantages of this method are shorter run time and low decomposition temperature. It is used to produce high-purity powder for fine coating. Thermal decomposition was first used by Tally, who made thin boron rods by reducing boron tribromide with hydrogen. Figure 2.13 shows the schematic diagram for the continuous production of fiber using CVD. A typical CVD or CVI process would require a reactor with the following parts: (a) A vapor feed system (b) A CVD reactor in which the substrate is heated and gaseous reactants are fed (c) An effluent system where exhaust gases are handled [28].

Figure 2.13: Schematic of reactor for continuous production of fibers by CVD process.

As shown in Figure 2.13, it has a glass tube with mercury sealing. Inlet gas mixture enters the chamber, deposits on the surface, and finally comes out as exhaust gas. Tension in the bar is required for uniform deposition, as shown in Figure 2.13. CVD is a very flexible process for changing the amount of deposition on the body, either regularly or irregularly. Flexibility means the height of deposition depends upon a number of variables. With the help of the CVD process, we can produce fiber coating, which generally has carbide, bromide, and nitride, as it is a conventional CVD process. The following is the reaction to the process: TiCl3 + BCl3 + H2 ! TiB2 + HCl BCl3 + NH3 ! BN + HCl In these reactions, the substrate temperature should be higher than 1100 °C. Thus, it required a well-designed and sophisticated furnace with a controlled flow of flue gasses to avoid any hazardous effect, increasing the cost of the process [32]. Also, at high temperatures for SiC deposition using CH3SiCl4, carbon fiber degrades; hence, it is difficult to obtain uniform deposition at the circumference.

References

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2.3 Summary We estimate the processability of composite materials based on factors such as temperature, pressure, and material. We conclude the material processing process based on matrix composites such as polymer, metal, or ceramic. Metal matrixes are primarily used in manufacturing waste residue composites, which utilize waste residues as reinforcement instead of particles. The vacuum bagging technique applies mechanical pressure on a laminate during its cure cycle. As a result, trapped air between the layers is removed, fibers are compacted for efficient force transmission, humidity is reduced, and the reinforcementsto-resin ratio in the composite part is optimized. It will also produce a consistent shape and size, with excellent qualities. To produce a unidirectional and uniform cross-sectional fiber composite, pultrusion can be used. In this method, unlike the extrusion process, the material is pulled through a die to get the required shape because of its soft and malleable nature. Low resin viscosity and long pot life are preferred to promote total fiber wetting. A caterpillar-type puller or double clamping system can be used to advance the composite through the process. It is a totally continuous process that allows for extremely high production rates. An optimum particle size and suitable preheat temperature is required in spray forming to transfer the ceramic particles into sprayed molten metal effectively. It is preferred for its high flexibility but is also a costly process. Plasma spraying is another liquid-phase method that has relatively high porosity. Filament winding is mainly used for making cylindrical pipes and spherical tanks. Wet winding is for low-viscosity resin, while prepreg winding is for highviscosity. Stir casting is free of flaws because of the short dwell period. In squeeze casting, increased infiltration pressure limits matrix interactions. A pressure of up to 100 MPa is usually employed. The Duralcan technique is a commercially effective liquid infiltration process with particulate reinforcement. The CVD method has a low decomposition temperature and shorter run time. CVD is a very flexible process for changing the amount of deposition. Due to the high temperature, a sophisticated furnace with a controlled flow of flue gasses is needed to avoid any hazardous effect, increasing the process’s cost.

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Chapter 3 Manufacturing of green waste-reinforced aluminum composites Satyanarayana Kosaraju✶, Suresh Kumar Tummala, PhaneendraBabu Bobba, Venkata Somi Reddy Janga

Abstract: Aluminum metal matrix composites (AMMCs) have been identified as one of the promising materials exhibiting excellent structural and functional properties that can be considerably tailored to meet the manufacturing challenges as well as to meet the design standards for many applications such as defense, automobiles, marines, and aerospace. In the existing chapter, an attempt has been made to provide an extensive summary of the various processing techniques for the development of AMMCs, such as powder metallurgy stir casting, ultrasonic probe-based stir casting, friction stir processing, and 3D printing. Powder metallurgy is an alternate way to prepare nanocomposites and composites. Many researchers have attempted to evenly disperse reinforcement particles in the matrix alloy using conventional methods, but they have found them to be ineffective. Among all of the options, they have found that ultrasonic probe-based stir casting is more effective, which has been discussed in detail. In addition, the present chapter also discusses the friction stir processing and 3D printing process.

3.1 Introduction The amount of rubbish produced by industrial, mining, and agricultural activities has increased with increase in the world’s population and rise in living standards as a result of technological advancements. Due to their difficulty in disposal, waste materials constitute a serious risk to the environment. To lessen contamination and disposal space, waste materials could be put to use. Because of this, current research is concentrated on recycling waste material by turning them into green material for use in the building and automotive industries. Some of the waste products that could be used in the building and automotive industries include fly ash, red mud, rice husk ash, coconut husk, sugarcane bagasse ash, and palm oil fuel ash (POFA), as well as palm oil clinker (POC), rice husk ash, and SCBA. Composite materials have been utilized for a variety of purposes for more than a thousand years. Composites come in a variety of forms and are employed in a variety of applications. The following sections go over each of the uses and applications of composite materials, in turn [1–3]:

✶

Corresponding author: Satyanarayana Kosaraju, e-mail: [email protected]

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110766523-003

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Composites have been described by humans throughout the ages. They used to simply glue two plywood pieces together, at various angles, to create any shape. Engineers and artisans reinforced brick and boats with straws in, approximately, 1500 BC. It appears that Portland cement is the same as the cement stated in that prouder alone. Builders and engineers produced or worked on composites to explain advanced materials in the past.

The Mongols of the earlier period discovered the bow using a composite manner. They were able to construct a bow out of wood, rock, and a number of other materials by using composite prouder. However, it may not have been that exact. But the rifle took on a certain shape when it was introduced in the 1400s [4–6]. Currently, we create composites using chemicals. The chemical mostly changes to the solid state during the process. The process of turning a liquid into a solid is known as polymerization. Bakelite is the main resin that is employed. Now, we use a reinforcement to increase their mechanical strength and make them stronger. Without adding reinforcement, the mechanical strength cannot be increased. The most significant or prominent century or period of time involving the use of composites is now. Owens Corning launched the first glass fiber or the first fiberresistant plastic in this period (FRP). In the 1940s, FRP usage surged. It was essential to give FRP production top priority, above research, during World War II. The radar system used the FRP to efficiently use frequency without introducing any disturbance [7, 8]. In the automotive manufacturing business in 1947, composite materials were significant due to the development of prototype automobiles using composite for testing. Fiberglass performs wonderfully in vintage automobiles. More resin is added to the fiberglass in historic cars to improve performance. Two of the novel methods introduced at the time by the automobile industry were then widely used. At that time, the automotive industry was being revolutionized by simple molding composites (SMC) and bulk molding composites (BMC) [8]. The essential characteristics of pure aluminum include its high electrical conductivity, softness, ductility, and resistance to corrosion. Although it is widely used in many other applications, its use is most prevalent as foil and conductor cables. Greater strengths are needed for its additional usage when other elements are alloyed. Although it is lighter than steel, aluminum is stronger and heavier than steel. Due to its characteristics, including recyclability, formability, repeatability, and corrosion resistance, aluminum is used in a range of applications, and is available in a number of forms [9–13]. Aluminum is approximately one-third as dense as steel or copper. One of the lightest commercially available metals is produced with its help. Because of its excellent strength-to-weight ratio, aluminum is used to make structural components that enable the transportation sector to carry heavier loads or use less fuel. There is not enough tensile strength in pure aluminum. Other metals like manganese, metal, and magnesium alloy are added to increase the tensile strength. Compared to other metals, aluminum has a relatively low electrical conductivity. On the other hand, copper is utilized to improve electrical conductivity. Copper

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increases the electrical conductivity of aluminum by 62%. A thin layer of copper added to aluminum increases its electrical conductivity. Today’s engineering greatly benefits from composite materials. Composites are utilized when a single material fails to match the requirements. A composite material is created by combining two or more components with various physical and chemical properties to form a new substance. On the other hand, the constituent rails, which are distinct and independent in the composite, are what give the material its properties. When compared to other materials, a composite performs substantially better. Two types of intermediary materials, referred to as matrix and reinforcement, are needed for a composite. Each component must be present in at least a part, for the creation of a composite. The matrix materials’ physical and mechanical qualities are improved by reinforcements [14]. Figure 3.1 illustrates a quick classification system for composite materials [15–21]. A composite is very robust when compared to other metals. The primary benefit of composites is that they have better mechanical qualities than other types of materials. The precise form of the matrix’s characteristics can be matched if two metal matrices are reliable. At a certain point in the matrix, aluminum reinforcement has superior properties when compared with resin and aluminum.

Composite

Particle Reinforced

Dispersion Strengthened

Large

Fibre Reinforced

Structure

Sandwich Panels

Discontinuous

Continuous

Laminated

Figure 3.1: Classification of composite materials.

Fibers made of glass, graphite, armed, or boron are embedded in an epoxy matrix to form fiber-reinforced composites (FRCs). Plastic serves as the matrix while glass, either in the form of fine threads or woven fabric, serves as the reinforcement. FRC has a very high stiffness-to-weight ratio and a very high toughness ratio [22, 23]. Ceramic-matrix composites that include a ceramic matrix and are more resistant to high temperatures and corrosive environments, include silicon carbide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide,

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and others [24]. High-strength composites, known as laminated composites, are made by joining alternating layers of materials that have varying orientations. FRCs are used to make several types of automotive bodywork, sporting equipment, building panels, and boat hulls. Golf clubs, airplane construction, and expensive sporting equipment all use carbon-reinforced composites. The largest Airbus 360 in the world is built using composite materials; it comprises 20% composite components. The design heavily utilizes glass fiber-reinforced aluminum, a newly developed material that is 20% lighter and 25% stronger than regular airframe aluminum [25]. This chapter covers a variety of manufacturing processes for green waste reinforcement aluminum composites.

3.2 Methods of manufacturing the aluminum composites Metal matrix composites, which are often light metal-based and have applications in a range of industries, including electrical engineering and electronics, automotive, aerospace, and armament, have seen increased attention in recent years [26, 27]. The leaders in this industry are composite materials consisting of aluminum; these materials can be produced in a number of ways, including powder metallurgy, and then formed, for instance, through hot extrusion. Powder metallurgy makes it possible to manipulate material properties in a relatively simple manner by combining materials with different qualities, in different quantities. The metal matrix composite can be strengthened by adding particles, dispersoids, or fibers. The ability to change the tribological, thermal, and mechanical properties of composite materials, reinforced with hard ceramic particles, by modifying the volume fractions, sizes, and distribution of the reinforcing particles in the matrix has attracted the most interest [28]. Due to their wide range of attributes and the capacity to replace expensive and heavy components made of conventional materials, they are used more commonly than composite materials composed of other metals [29, 30]. The technology for producing metal matrix composite materials is observed to be moving in two key ways: methods of powder metallurgy and casting.

3.2.1 Powder metallurgy process In powder metallurgy, materials are combined into tiny powders, compacted into a desired shape or form inside a mold, and sintering is then done in a controlled atmosphere to help the powder particles join together to form the finished item. As shown in Figure 3.2, the steps from powder to the final component are: 1. Powder preparation: A variety of methods are used to create very fine powders. 2. Mixing of powders: A lubricant is combined with the tiny powders. The lubricant aids in giving the granules a good fluidity. 3. Compacting: A mold or a die is used to compact the combined powder.

3.2 Methods of manufacturing the aluminum composites

4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

63

Sintering: In a furnace with a controlled environment, the compressed material is sintered at a high temperature. Sizing: To size the sintered component and ensure high dimensional precision, the component is passed through a mold or dies. Final machining, including extremely small-hole drilling, is done at some specific spots, as needed. Treatment: Parts go through deburring, tumbling, and other processes like oil impregnation technology to remove any minor projections. Inspection: Lastly, the components are examined to determine their quality.

Metal Powder

Lubricant

Additives

Blending

Cold Compaction

Loose powder

Hot Consolidation

Sintering

Hot Forging

Secondary Treatment

Finished Powder MetallurgyPart Figure 3.2: Steps involved in powder metallurgy.

3.2.1.1 Preparation of powders When processing powder materials, size, shape, composition, and the structure of the powder are taken into account. In order to more readily control the desired powder qualities, it is important to have a better grasp of the technique and production conditions. Powder features and characteristics are linked to these factors. The following categories can be used to group the various powder production techniques. 1. Atomization, which can be utilized with any meltable metal or alloy system. 2. Chemical reduction, when sponge iron is made from iron oxides or scale. 3. Mechanical crushing, which is applied to brittle materials like antimony and beryllium. 4. Deposit of high-purity powders using electrolysis.

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While mechanical crushing and electrolysis are frequently utilized in small-scale production of specialized materials, atomization and reduction techniques are more frequently used in large-scale manufacturing. Since it can produce alloy powders and offers you the most control over the qualities of the powder, atomization is the most flexible process. 3.2.1.2 Blending of powders To create a high-strength alloy, two or more materials must be combined using the powder metallurgical process; well, that depends on the details of the product. This process makes sure that the additives, binders, and other components are dispersed evenly throughout the powder. When blending, lubricants are occasionally added to enhance the powder’s flow properties. 3.2.1.3 Sintering Because the green compact made by compressing is weak and unusable as a finished product, sintering is required. In order to create a strong, long-lasting bond, a green compact is heated to a high temperature through the process of sintering. The green compact is strengthened by the powder metallurgy process, which also creates a final product. Metal powder typically sinters at a temperature that is between 70% and 90% of its melting point. 3.2.1.4 Secondary treatment (sizing, machining, and other process) The porousness of sintered materials is greater than that of completely dense material. The press capacity, sintering temperature, and compressing pressure, among other variables, affect the product density. Sintered objects can be used directly as finished goods when a product’s density is not necessary. But occasionally, a dense product is required (e.g., bearing). To produce a product with high density and precise dimensions, a secondary operation is necessary. Some of the most popular secondary procedures are sizing, coining, infiltration, hot forging, impregnation, machining, deburring, and tumbling. 3.2.1.5 Inspection Dimensional analysis, density measurements, hardness testing, mechanical testing, and non-destructive testing are some of the numerous test kinds that are covered. Advantages of powder metallurgy – Products created with powder metallurgy typically don’t need additional finishing. – There is no waste of raw resources, reasonable complex shapes may be manufactured, and P/M goods that would be impossible to otherwise make can use various material combinations; for instance, combining metals and ceramics. – Compared to other manufacturing processes, the P/M method is simple to automate and gives the finished products features like porosity and self-lubrication.

3.2 Methods of manufacturing the aluminum composites

65

Limitations of powder metallurgy – Mechanical qualities of the parts are of low quality in comparison to cast or machined parts, and in some situations, the density in different parts of the finished product can vary considerably due to unequal compression. Tooling cost is higher and can only be justified in mass production. – The maximum size of a manufactured good is typically 2–20 kg. Applications of powder metallurgy (P/M) – Due to its porous structure, powder-metallurgy parts are typically employed as filters. They are also utilized to make cutting tools and dies, as well as machinery parts, including bearings and bushes because of their self-lubricating properties. – Magnets are also produced using the P/M technique.

3.2.2 Stir casting process As far as production capacity and cost-effectiveness go, stir casting technology is thought to be the most promising method of producing MMCs for engineering applications. Stir casting techniques are more practical for large manufacturing, more affordable, and simpler to use. Some of the issues that require special consideration while creating metal matrix composites using the stir casting method are: – To achieve wettability between the two primary components – To accomplish uniform distribution of the reinforcement material – To reduce porosity in the cast metal matrix composite A mechanical stirrer is used to agitate the matrix material in a casting process called stir casting to mix the reinforcement. Due to its affordability, suitability for mass production, simplicity, virtually net shaping, and the ease of manipulating the composite structure, it is an effective method for creating metal matrix composites [31]. A stir casting system with a furnace, reinforcement feeding, and mechanical stirrer is shown in Figure 3.3. The components are heated and melted in the furnace. The bottom-pouring furnace is better suited for stir casting because instant pouring is necessary after stirring the mixed slurry to prevent solid particles from settling at the bottom of the crucible. The reinforcing elements injected into the melt are better mixed, thanks to the mechanical stirrer’s creation of a vortex. The stirrer comprises a stirring rod and an impeller blade. Numerous shapes and blade counts are possible for the impeller blade. Because they generate an axial flow pattern in the crucible while using less energy, three flat blades are used. This stirrer is connected to motors with different speeds, and the motor regulator regulates the stirrer’s rotational speed. The feeder is used to feed reinforcing powder into the melt, and is also connected to the furnace. The blended slurry can be poured into a permanent mold, sand mold, or lost-wax mold.

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Figure 3.3: Stir casting (with permission from [32]).

Figure 3.3 depicts the several processes in the stir casting process. The matrix material is retained in the bottom-pouring furnace during this operation to melt. To get rid of moisture, impurities, and other contaminants, reinforcements are simultaneously preheated to a particular temperature in a separate furnace. Once the matrix material has melted at a particular temperature, it is mechanically stirred for a set amount of time to form a vortex. Then, when the reinforcement particles have been entirely fed, the setup’s feeder is used to pour reinforcements particles at a steady feed rate into the vortex’s center. Next, the stirring operation is continued for a predefined time. The molten substance is then poured into a ready-made mold and allowed to spontaneously cool and harden. Additionally, post-casting procedures like heat treatment, machining, testing, and inspection are carried out: 1. Melting of matrix material 2. Stirring of molten metal by mechanical stirrer 3. Feeding of reinforced materials 4. Continuous stirring of mixture (matrix + reinforcement) 5. Pouring of molten metal in mold 6. Solidification 3.2.2.1 Melting of matrix material Because they have an automatic bottom pouring system that enables instantaneous pouring of the melt mix, bottom-pouring furnaces are well suited for creating metal matrix composites using the stir casting method (matrix and reinforcement). Automatic bottom pouring is frequently used in the investment casting industry. To enable bottom pouring, which is protected by a cylinder-shaped metal shell, a hole is made to

3.2 Methods of manufacturing the aluminum composites

67

the bottom of the melting crucible [33]. The matrix material is melted and maintained at a consistent temperature in this furnace for two to three hours as part of the stir casting procedure. In a different furnace, reinforcements are warmed concurrently. Once the matrix material has melted, the stirring process to create the vortex is started. 3.2.2.2 Mechanical stirring In the process of stir casting, the mechanical stirrer’s speed is controlled by a motor with variable speed. Impeller stirrers come in several stages, including single-stage, double-stage, and multistage impellers. Due to flexibility and to prevent excessive vortex flow, single-stage impeller stirrers are frequently employed for the manufacture of AMCs and HAMCs [34, 35]. Double-stage and multistage stirrers are typically used in the chemical industry. Figure 3.4 depicts the impeller stirrer at various phases.

Crucible

Single stage impeller

Double stage impeller

Multi-stage impeller

Impellers

Figure 3.4: Various types of impellers.

Since stirring regulates the distribution of reinforcements throughout the matrix, it has a significant impact on the final microstructure and mechanical characteristics of the casted composites. A uniform distribution of the reinforcement can result in the best mechanical qualities, and this issue affects the majority of processing methods, including stir casting [36]. This issue can be resolved by carefully choosing the stirring parameters. 3.2.2.3 Applications Due to their appealing qualities, AMCs and HAMCs are employed in a variety of applications, including the automotive, aerospace, electronics, and sporting industries. These are mostly employed in engines, suspension systems, drivelines, housing, and brakes in automotive applications. However, their primary uses in aerospace are for missile fins, solar reflectors on satellites, and jet engine blades [37, 38].

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3.3 Advanced method of manufacturing aluminum composites 3.3.1 Ultrasonic stir casting The disadvantage of stir casting is the difficulty in dispersing nanoscale reinforcement in metal matrix composites because of the significant surface-to-volume ratio of the nanoscale particles, which leads to collection and clustering. This has an impact on the final properties of the composite materials, producing composites with poorer mechanical properties due to the nanoparticles’ poor wettability [39]. In this instance, the uniform distribution of the particles in the metal matrix is aided by the use of an ultrasonic probe. Ultrasonic energy is frequently utilized in industry for nondestructive testing, welding, and casting. In casting, the ultrasonic cavitation effect is used to produce nuclei. Researchers have successfully created bulk metal matrix composites using metal matrix nanocomposites (MMNCs) that are processed using ultrasonic cavitation [40, 41]. In the metal matrix, the method is particularly effective at dispersing nanosized particles. In the next part, the specifications of the process are covered. 3.3.1.1 Ultrasonic-probe-assisted stir casting method The ultrasonic-probe-assisted stir casting method [42] is chosen because the proposed method combines the stir casting technique with ultrasonic probe processing. The procedure incorporates the benefits of both stir casting and ultrasonic probing. The combined procedure, as depicted in Figure 3.5, prevents nanoparticle settlement in the metal matrix and improves the uniformity of nanoparticle dispersion due to the ultrasonic cavitation effect. The method typically calls for an ultrasonic system, a nanoparticle feeding mechanism, an inert gas environment for safety, and a resistance heating furnace for melting the metal. An ultrasonic probe, a transducer, and a power source make up the ultrasonic processing system. When ultrasonic vibrations with a frequency of 18–20 kHz travel through a liquid, they cause alternating cycles of compression and dilation. Mechanical vibrations with frequency greater than 18 kHz produce these waves. After alternating compression and dilation cycles, the high-intensity ultrasonic waves cause the liquid’s microbubbles to expand. They violently implode when they reach a volume where they can no longer absorb enough energy. Cavitation is the name given to this occurrence. Inside these bubbles, extremely high temperatures and pressures are reached during implosion. Cavitation’s implosive impact is powerful enough to break up nanoparticle clusters and evenly distribute them throughout the metal matrix. This helps to produce MMNCs with enhanced mechanical properties.

3.3 Advanced method of manufacturing aluminum composites

69

Ultrasonic Trnsducer

Reinforcement

Matrix Air Cooler

+ Heating unit – Ultrasonic Power unit

Figure 3.5: Schematic diagram of ultrasonic-probe-assisted stir casting.

3.3.2 Friction stir processing (FSP) One method for changing a material’s characteristics by a localized plastic deformation is friction stir processing. This deformation is produced by forcing a non-consumable tool into the work piece and swirling the tool as it passes through the work piece laterally. FSP has recently been recognized as a practical method for altering the microstructure of sheet metal to enhance its qualities. A single FSP pass can significantly enhance grain homogenization and refinement, which improves formability, especially at high temperatures. FSP is a solid-state technique that causes the material being processed to go through significant plastic deformation, which causes the grain structure to dynamically recrystallize. 3.3.2.1 Fabrication of composite using FSP In the manufacture of surface MMCs, secondary phase particles can be integrated and dispersed in a material during FSP. Figure 3.6 represents the FSP [43]. Prior to FSP, a surface groove or a small hole is created, and the secondary phase particles are deposited there, as depicted in Figure 3.7. Over the past ten years, a few techniques have been developed to include secondary phase particles into the FSP matrix product. This procedure can be scaled to cover a larger region by overlapping

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Chapter 3 Manufacturing of green waste-reinforced aluminum composites

Figure 3.6: Friction stir processing technology.

passes [44, 45]. The idea of overlapping passes for microstructural alteration for super-plasticity is discussed. For surface composites, the overlapping passes call for a different powder positioning strategy, and the overlapping area is likely to have distinct particle distribution and volume fractions: – Process for filling grooves that involves creating a groove on the surface of the work item, filling it with the secondary phase, and then processing the groove with FSP [46]. – Groove process of filling and closure includes closing the groove with a pin-less FSP tool after filling the groove with a secondary phase to prevent escape during FSP. – Another procedure involves drilling tiny blind holes on the workpiece, filling them with secondary phase, and performing FSP [44]. – The sandwich technique – the secondary phase is applied in the form of a sheet around the work pieces and a sandwich-style structure is created – is another way to spread the secondary phase into the matrix result. While FSP is being performed, the secondary phase surface is dispersed throughout the stir region.

3.3.3 3D printing or additive manufacturing One of the main elements propelling the development of composite 3D printing is the capacity to simplify and reduce the expense of conventional composite manufacturing. In addition to 3D printing, there are various other techniques for creating composite components. However, the majority of them have a number of disadvantages, such as the requirement for human composite layer assembly and the use of pricey curing tools and tooling, such as molds and dies. Due to this, typical composite production requires a lot of labor, resources, and capital, making scaling to high volumes

References

71

Figure 3.7: Schematic representation of surface MMCs fabricated by FSP.

a challenge. On the other hand, 3D printing makes it possible to automate the production process because the entire procedure is controlled by software and only needs human input during the post-processing stage.

3.4 Conclusion In this chapter, the importance of MMCs and their role in industries are discussed. In addition to those various ways to manufacture the aluminum-based metal matrix composite through different routes like powder metallurgy, friction stir casting, ultrasonic-probe-assisted friction-stir welding, friction stir processing, and 3D printing technology.

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Prasad, D.S., Shoba, C. and Ramanaiah, N., 2014. Investigations on mechanical properties of aluminum hybrid composites. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 3(1), pp. 79–85. Dhanashekar, M. and Kumar, V.S., 2014. Squeeze casting of aluminium metal matrix composites-an overview. Procedia Engineering, 97, p. 412–420. Padmavathi, K.R. and Ramakrishnan, R., 2014. Tribological behaviour of aluminium hybrid metal matrix composite. Procedia Engineering, 97, p. 660–667.

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[40] Li, X., Yang, Y. and Cheng, X., 2004. Ultrasonic-assisted fabrication of metal matrix nanocomposites. Journal of Materials Science, 39(9), pp. 3211–3212. [41] Donthamsetty, S., Damera, N.R. and Jain, P.K., 2009. Ultrasonic cavitation assisted fabrication and charecterisation of A356 metal matrix nanocomposite reinforced with SiC, B4C,CNTs. AIJTPME, 2(2), pp. 27–34. [42] Singh, A.K., Soni, S. and Rana, R.S., 2020. A critical review on synthesis of aluminum metallic composites through stir casting: Challenges and opportunities. Advanced Engineering Materials, 22(10), pp. 2000322. [43] Ma, Z.Y., 2008. Friction stir processing technology: A review. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 39(3), pp. 642–658. [44] Vijayavel, P., Balasubramanian, V. and Sundaram, S., 2014. Effect of shoulder diameter to pin diameter (D/d) ratio on tensile strength and ductility of friction stir processed LM25AA-5% SiCp metal matrix composites. Materials & Design, 57, p. 1–9. [45] Sunil, B.R., Reddy, G.P.K., Patle, H. and Dumpala, R., 2016. Magnesium based surface metal matrix composites by friction stir processing. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 4(1), pp. 52–61. [46] Sunil, B.R., Reddy, G.P.K., Patle, H. and Dumpala, R., 2016. Magnesium based surface metal matrix composites by friction stir processing. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 4(1), pp. 52–61.

Chapter 4 Animal waste-based composites: a case study 4.1 Influence of animal tooth powder on mechanical and microstructural characteristics of Al6061 MMCs manufactured through ultrasonic-assisted stir casting Laxmanaraju Salavaravu✶, Gopichand Dirisenapu, Lingaraju Dumpala, Remalle Ranjith Kumar, K. Satish Prakash Abstract: This chapter examines the mechanical and microstructural behavior of novel Al6061 composites enhanced with biowaste, that is, animal tooth waste. Al6061 alloy MMCs with different weight percentages of animal tooth powder (ATP) were manufactured through ultrasonic-assisted stir casting (UASC) method. The ATP contains important components that make it a suitable reinforcement material for composites and its use also helps reduce the problem of disposal, to some extent. Microstructural studies of Al6061 composites using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) exposed the even dispersion of reinforcements. X-ray diffraction patterns and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) of the manufactured composites confirmed the presence of ATP in the Al matrix. The outcomes exposed that the ultimate tensile strength, yield tensile strength, and microhardness were increased up to a maximum of 37%, 38%, and 63%, respectively, and reduced while rising ATP. Enhancing ATP in the composites reduces the impact strength and percent elongation to a maximum of 64% and 62%. SEM micrographs exposed the existence and even distribution of ATP, and EDS analysis confirmed the occurrence of ATP in the composites. Keywords: Composites, SEM, mechanical properties, ultimate tensile strength, yield tensile strength

4.1.1 Introduction Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are an important engineering material in applications such as aerospace, defense, sports, transportation, aviation, and automobile [1]. Aluminum (Al)-based metal matrix composites (AMMC) are being used in different applications due to their excellent strength, stiffness, decreased weight, improved thermal and electrical characteristics, enhanced wear, and abrasion resistance and are

✶

Corresponding author: Laxmanaraju Salavaravu, e-mail: [email protected]

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110766523-004

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Chapter 4 Animal waste-based composites: a case study

the most commonly utilized composites among all types of MMCs [2]. Improved characteristics are attained through the addition of ceramic reinforcements like TiC [3], Al2O3 [4], B4C [5], SiC [6], MOS2 [7], TiB2 [8], and BN [9] that are evenly distributed in the aluminum nascent matrix [10]. Kalaiselvan et al. reported mechanical and microstructural characteristics of B4C particles, varying from 4 to 12 wt%, in steps of 2, reinforced in Al6061-T6 composites by stir casting route. The optical images and scanning electron microscope (SEM) photos expose consistent spreading of B4C particles in the base alloy. The outcomes showed that mechanical behaviors like TS and hardness were enhanced by increasing the addition of B4C particles in aluminum [11]. Kumar et al. examined the mechanical and material characteristics of Al7075/BN composites prepared by the stir casting technique. The BN particles are mixed with 3, 6, and 9 wt% of the base material. The material characterizations were identified by using FSEM and EDAX. The outcomes exposed that the tensile strength is improved with a rise in BN particles in the composites. The surface roughness and thrust force were enhanced with a rise in BN particles in the composites. The BN particles are evenly dispersed in the composites [12]. Michael Rajan et al. studied the mechanical characteristics of Al7075/TiB2 MMCs formed through stir casting technique and informed that the mechanical behavior of the AMMCs improved with increase in TiB2 particles [13]. For the abovementioned applications, the particulate-reinforced AMMCs are an outstanding choice. But the production cost of AMMCs has increased because of the increasing cost of synthetic reinforcements, which must be reduced in order for them to be accepted in a larger range of engineering applications. To supplement this, waste-material as reinforcement, such as agro-industrial waste, industrial waste, and natural minerals, is now used as reinforcement to create a customized composite material with improved mechanical characteristics. The non- or under-utilization of waste produced by the meat industry is a major issue, as it enhances disposal costs and has a direct impact on environmental damage and the economics of the country [14–18]. Kala et al. reviewed the mechanical properties of aluminum matrix composites containing particulate reinforcement particles like fly ash, and this ash enhanced the tensile and yield strength of the aluminum composites [19]. Researchers executed various manufacturing procedures for ceramic micro- and nano-reinforced MMCs like stir casting, squeeze casting, spark plasma sintering, powder metallurgy route, high energy ball milling, friction stir processing, electroplating, and laser deposition. Homogeneous spreading of ceramic micro and nanoparticles in the molten matrix is a costly and long procedure [20]. It is hard to make components with critical shapes through solid-state routes. It is challenging to achieve even and homogeneous particle distribution in the matrix using liquid state processes like stir casting and compo casting [21]. To overcome these difficulties, investigators have introduced the UASC route for good wettability and even spreading of reinforcements in the nascent matrix. The small micro reinforcement clusters in this process collapse into individual particles because of a pressure gradient with high local temperatures. Molten metal cleanses and grains are refined during this process [22, 23]. Reddy et al. determined the mechanical, microstructural, damping, and physical characteristics of the Al/BN nanocomposites, with various volume percentages of BN nanoparticles prepared by powder metallurgy method with hot extrusion and

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4.1.2 Experimental procedure

microwave sintering. The FESEM analysis displayed that the BN particles were equally dispersed in the Al alloy matrix. The observations exposed that hardness, tensile strength, and compression increased with rise in BN particles in nanocomposites. The thermal analysis exposed that CTE reduced with increase in BN particles in nanocomposites. The damping characteristics were improved with enhancement in BN particles in nanocomposites [24]. Kalaiselvan et al. reported mechanical and microstructural characteristics of B4C particles varying from 4 to 12 wt%, in steps of 2, reinforced in Al6061-T6 composites by the stir casting route. The optical images and SEM photos expose consistent spreading of B4C particles in the base alloy. The outcomes showed that mechanical behavior like TS and hardness were enhanced by increasing the addition of B4C particles in aluminum [25]. Poovazhagan et al. reported the mechanical and tribological behavior of nano-B4C particles incorporated in Al/B4C MMNCs, with a varied wt% of B4C nanoparticles ranging from 0 to 2.5, in steps of 0.5%, manufactured by UASC method. The SEM images witnessed that B4C nanoparticles were homogeneously dispersed in aluminum alloy, and enhanced dislocation density of the nanocomposites is observed in TEM images. The results determined that with inclusion of nanoparticles, the hardness and TS were enhanced significantly, and there was also decrease in the WR, compared to the base matrix. The wear rate of nanocomposites is improved with rise in sliding speed and sliding distance [26]. Therefore, in this chapter, Al6061 MMCs are prepared by incorporating the bone powder as reinforcement particles. Further, the microstructural and mechanical behavior of the composites manufactured through the ultrasonic stir casting route are evaluated. The SEM micrographs expose the formation of composite for the Al6061/bone powder MMCs. The fact is that very limited study has been done on the influence of bone powder as reinforcement particles in the matrix for the manufacture of new MMCs. The benefits of using bone powder as reinforcement are convenience, less cost, light weight, and lessening in environmental waste. The dispersal of reinforcements and occurrence of compounds and elements in matrix are observed with SEM with EDX and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses.

4.1.2 Experimental procedure 4.1.2.1 Materials The Al6061 alloy is used as a base alloy that contains Si, Mg, and Fe as major alloying elements. This is mostly used in aerospace and automobile industries. The chemical composition is indicated in Table 4.1. Table 4.1: Composition of Al6061 alloy. Element

Mg

Si

Fe

Mn

Cu

Cr

Zn

Ni

Ti

Al

wt%

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Balance

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Chapter 4 Animal waste-based composites: a case study

4.1.2.2 Reinforcement ATP: Animal tooth waste was gathered from a nearby slaughterhouse and utilized to make ATP. The tooth was first sanitized to remove any connected blood, flesh, or tendons. After that, it was cooked for 1 h and 30 min in a pressure cooker to eliminate any remaining impurities. After that, the bones were removed from the pressure cooker and cleaned multiple times with water. Then, acetone was used to clean the bones completely. To remove any moisture and other impurities, the bones were washed with acetone and sun-dried for seven days. After the tooth dried, it was converted to powder by using a grinder. In order to reduce the particle size of the ATP, the ball milling process with a ball-to-powder ratio of 10:1 is used, as shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Animal tooth reinforcement procedure: (a) animal tooth, (b) and (c) animal tooth immersed in acetone liquid, (d) dried animal tooth, and (e) and (f) ball-milled animal tooth powder.

4.1.2.3 Preparation of composites The schematic diagram of the UASC setup used to make AMMCs, as shown in Figure 4.2. The experimental setup includes an electrical resistance heating furnace, thermocouples, ultrasonic unit, air compressor for cooling the ultrasonic generator, furnace control unit, and argon supply equipment. An ultrasonic device with a diameter of 20 mm and made up titanium alloy coating with zirconia (ZrO2) were used to transmit ultrasonic waves at a frequency of 20 kHz, with a maximum power of 2 kW. In a graphite crucible with an inner diameter of 65 mm, an outer diameter of 75 mm, and a length of 110 mm, a commercially pure Al6061 alloy ingot weighing 1,000 g was melted at 700 °C. When the temperature reaches 750 °C, bone powder particles are wrapped in aluminum foil and warmed to

4.1.3 Results and discussions

79

600 °C before being introduced into the Al6061 alloy liquid melt. For roughly 20 min, a mechanical stirrer was used to mix the bone powder particles into the Al6061 alloy molten metal. The ultrasonic probe was warmed to 750 °C before being put into the Al6061 alloy melt for 5 min, at a depth of roughly 25 mm. The ultrasonic-processed molten material was placed into a 600 °C preheated mild steel mold. The Al6061 alloy and Al6061/ATP MMCs were made using an ultrasonic-assisted casting technique in an argon-free environment.

Figure 4.2: Schematic diagram of ultrasonic-assisted stir casting.

4.1.3 Results and discussions 4.1.3.1 Influence of bone powder particles on microstructure and XRD The SEM photographs of the Al6061/ATP MMCs are displayed in Figure 4.3. The ATP was evenly dispersed in the nascent matrix alloy during process of casting, and shrinkage porosity was not found in the AMMCs. Figure 4.3(a) signifies the SEM micrographs of casted Al6061 MMCs. The major alloying elements like magnesium, silicon, and Fi were positioned at grain boundary mark and boundaries junction. Figure 4.3(b) displays the equal dispersal of bone powder particles in the nascent matrix alloy. The increase of 10 wt% of bone particles was equally distributed in the AMMCs. From Figure 4.4., the XRD pattern indicated high peaks of aluminum and small peaks of ATP MMC.

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Chapter 4 Animal waste-based composites: a case study

Figure 4.3: Micrographs of (a) base metal and (b) AA6061/ATP MMC.

Figure 4.4: XRD patterns of Al6061/ATP MMC.

4.1.3.2 Effect of bone powder on tensile strength Figures 4.5 and 4.6 displayed the effect of ATP on ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and yield tensile strength (YTS) of the Al6061 AMMCs. The UTS and YTS of the AMMCs were enhanced with increase in ATP up to 10 wt%, and after mixing of ATP, the UTS was reduced. The AMMC with 10 wt% ATP had extreme UTS and YTS, up to 269 and

4.1.3 Results and discussions

81

248 MPa, respectively, which was 37% and 38% higher, respectively, than the nascent Al 6061 alloy. The rise in UTS and YTS specifies the good bonding of ATP with the nascent matrix alloy. Similar outcomes can be initiated by other investigators, taking various reinforcements with aluminum matrix [27]. When the rise in reinforcement particles in the base matrix was beyond 10 wt%, the particles were agglomerated, and due to that, the strength was reduced. The load transfer from the nascent matrix to the reinforcement particles gives extreme UTS and YTS of the AMMCs [28]. The gain in ductility of the AMMCs by percentage of elongation is shown in Figure 4.7. It was viewed that the percentage of elongation of AMMCs was reduced with enhancement in wt% of ATP in the AMMCs up to 10; beyond that, it rose slightly. Nevertheless, outcomes exposed that ductility of AMMCs reduced while incorporating the ATP in the

Ultimate tensile strength (N/mm2)

300

250

200

150

100 0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

10

12

14

Wt% of reinforcement Figure 4.5: Variation of UTS with wt% of ATP.

Yield tensile strength (N/mm2)

300

250

200

150

100 0

2

4

6

8

Wt% of reinforcement Figure 4.6: Variation of YTS with wt% of ATP.

82

Chapter 4 Animal waste-based composites: a case study

7

% of Elongation

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Wt% of reinforcement Figure 4.7: Variation of % elongation with wt% of ATP.

aluminum matrix. The reason for enhancement of ductility is increased UTS and YTS of the Al6061 AMMCs [28].

4.1.3.3 Influence of bone powder on microhardness The influence of ATP on the microhardness of the AMMCs is shown in Figure 4.8. The microhardness of the AMMCs rises, with enhancement in wt% of ATP particles up to 10; thereafter, it decreased because of the agglomeration of the ATP particles in the AMMCs. The microhardness of AMMCs improved from 75 to 127 HV, because of the equal spreading of ATP content delivering Orowan strengthening mechanism by which a dislocation circumvents impermeable barriers, where a displacement is prohibited around a particle. The microhardness value enhances to a maximum of 61% compared to the nascent material. The reduction in microhardness is because of pores and agglomeration of the ATP particles in the AMMCs. The reason for rise in microhardness is the superior coefficient of thermal expansion between the ATP particles and base matrix that offers indirect strengthening to the AMMCs. A similar development of rising in microhardness, while adding ATP particles in the nascent material, was also conveyed by Seshappa et al. [28].

4.1.3.4 Influence of bone powder on impact strength Figure 4.9 indicated the plots of average impact strength of the manufactured AMMCs. It was perceived that the impact strength reduced for all ATP-reinforced AMMCs, when compared to nascent alloy material. The impact strength decreased

4.1.3 Results and discussions

83

140

Micro Hardness (HV)

130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Wt% of reinforcement Figure 4.8: Variation of microhardness with wt% of ATP.

with an increase in wt% of ATP in the AMMCs up to 10, and thereafter, it increased. The even dispersion of ATP in the nascent matrix results in the formation of clusters, which also reduces the reinforcement and matrix bonding and lessens the impact strength of the AMMCs [30]. The reduction in the impact strength of the AMMCs is also because of the variation in the CTE of the nascent matrix and reinforcement, which explains the creation of high dislocation densities at the interface [10]. 40

Impact energy (J/)

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0

2

4

6

8

Wt% of reinforcement Figure 4.9: Variation of impact strength with wt% of ATP.

10

12

14

84

Chapter 4 Animal waste-based composites: a case study

4.1.4 Conclusions –

–

–

–

–

Al6061 MMCs were prepared effectively using ATP particles through UASC route. Microstructure and mechanical characteristics of the composites were evaluated and following are the outcomes. Microstructural examination by means of SEM presented an unvarying dispersion of ATP in the aluminum nascent matrix up to 10 wt%; beyond that, with increasing wt% of ATP, some small clusters was formed. The microhardness of the AMMCs enhanced from 75 to 127 HV, with a rise in wt% of ATP in the base matrix, which reduced thereafter, with rise in wt% of ATP beyond 10. The microhardness value increases to a maximum of 61%, compared to the nascent material. The UTS and YTS of the Al6061/ATP MMCs rose from 195 to 269 MPa and 175 to 248 MPa, with an increase of 37% and 38%, respectively, when compared to the nascent alloy matrix. There was a reduction in UTS and YTS of AMMCs with a rise in wt% of ATP beyond 10. The impact strength and percentage of elongation of Al6061/ATP MMCs were reduced with increase in wt% of ATP up to 10 wt% in the base matrix alloy. The impact strength and percentage of elongation values increase to a maximum of 68% and 46%, respectively, compared to the nascent material alloy.

References [1]

[2]

[3]

[4] [5]

[6]

[7]

Sharma, A., Belokar, R.M. and Kumar, S., 2018. Dry sliding wear characterization of red mud reinforced aluminium composite. Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering, 40(6), pp. 1–12. Udoye, N.E., Nnamba, O.J., Fayomi, O.S.I., Inegbenebor, A.O. and Jolayemi, K.J., 2021. Analysis on mechanical properties of AA6061/Rice husk ash composites produced through stir casting technique. Materials Today: Proceedings, 43, pp. 1415–1420. Veeresh Kumar, G.B., Pramod, R., HariKiran Reddy, R., Ramu, P., Kunaal Kumar, B., Madhukar, P. . . . Khiste, S.K., 2021. Investigation of the tribological characteristics of aluminum 6061-reinforced titanium carbide metal matrix composites. Nanomaterials, 11(11), pp. 3039. Kandpal, B.C. and Singh, H., 2017. Fabrication and characterisation of Al2O3/aluminium alloy 6061 composites fabricated by Stir casting. Materials Today: Proceedings, 4(2), pp. 2783–2792. Gudipudi, S., Nagamuthu, S., Subbian, K.S. and Chilakalapalli, S.P.R., 2020. Enhanced mechanical properties of AA6061-B4C composites developed by a novel ultra-sonic assisted stir casting. Engineering Science and Technology an International Journal, 23(5), pp. 1233–1243. Maurya, N.K., Maurya, M., Srivastava, A.K., Dwivedi, S.P. and Chauhan, S., 2020. Investigation of mechanical properties of Al 6061/SiC composite prepared through stir casting technique. Materials Today Proceedings, 25, pp. 755–758. Kavitha, M., 2021. Dry sliding wear performance of AA7075/MoS2 composite materials. Journal of Engineering Research.

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Gobalakrishnan, B., Lakshminarayanan, P.R. and Varahamoorthi, R., 2018. Mechanical properties of Al 6061/TiB2 in-situ formed metal matrix composites. Journal of Advanced Microscopy Research, 13(1), pp. 125–130. Mukesh, Y.B., Bharathesh, T.P., Saravanan, R. and Keshavamurthy, R., 2019. Effect of hot extrusion on mechanical behaviour of boron nitride reinforced aluminium 6061-based metal matrix composites. International Journal of Materials Engineering Innovation, 10(2), pp. 135–151. Kar, C. and Surekha, B., 2021. Characterisation of aluminium metal matrix composites reinforced with titanium carbide and red mud. Materials Research Innovations, 25(2), pp. 67–75. Kalaiselvan, K., Murugan, N. and Parameswaran, S., 2011. Production and characterization of AA6061–B4C stir cast composite. Materials & Design, 32(7), pp. 4004–4009. Kumar, V.V., Raja, K., Chandrasekaran, K. and Ramkumar, T., 2019. Microstructural characterization and mechanical properties of Al7075/BN metal matrix composites prepared by conventional casting method. Materials Research Express, 6(6), pp. 066506. Rajan, H.M., Ramabalan, S., Dinaharan, I. and Vijay, S.J., 2013. Synthesis and characterization of in situ formed titanium diboride particulate reinforced AA7075 aluminum alloy cast composites. Materials & Design, 44, pp. 438–445. Kulkarni, P.P., Siddeswarappa, B. and Kumar, K.S.H., 2019. A survey on effect of agro waste ash as reinforcement on aluminium base metal matrix composites. Open Journal of Composite Materials, 9(03), pp. 312. Rao, R.G., Ghosh, M., Ganguly, R.I. and Sahoo, K.L., 2020. Mechanical properties and age hardening response of Al6061 alloy based composites reinforced with fly ash. Materials Science & Engineering, A, 772, pp. 138823. Babaremu, K.O., Udoh, M., Fayomi, O.S.I., John, M.E. and Jolayemi, K.J., Kolli, M., Dasari, S. N., Potluri, N. S., & Ramprasad, A. V. S. (2020). Influence of rock dust reinforcement on mechanical properties of Al composite using friction stir processing. Australian Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 1-10 2020. Influence of eggshell particulate on the mechanical properties of aluminum matrix composite: A. Solid State Technology, 63(6). Asuke, F., Aigbodion, V.S., Abdulwahab, M., Fayomi, O.S.I., Popoola, A.P.I., Nwoyi, C.I. and Garba, B., 2012. Effects of bone particle on the properties and microstructure of polypropylene/bone ash particulate composites. Results in Physics, 2, pp. 135–141. Kala, H., Mer, K.K.S. and Kumar, S., 2014. A review on mechanical and tribological behaviors of stir cast aluminum matrix composites. Procedia Materials Science, 6, pp. 1951–1960. Idrisi, A.H. and Mourad, A.H.I., 2019. Conventional stir casting versus ultrasonic assisted stir casting process: Mechanical and physical characteristics of AMCs. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 805, pp. 502–508. Meti, V.K.V., Shirur, S., Nampoothiri, J., Ravi, K.R. and Siddhalingeshwar, I.G., 2018. Synthesis, characterization and mechanical properties of AA7075 based MMCs reinforced with TiB 2 particles processed through ultrasound assisted in-situ casting technique. Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals, 71(4), pp. 841–848. Soundararajan, R., Akilesh, M., Surya, K., Srinivasan, S. and Sudharson, S.L., 2018. Evaluation of A356-B4C composites fabricated thru ultrasonic assisted stir casting technique. International Journal of Mechanical Engineering Technology, 9(8), pp. 727–737. Dirisenapu, G., Dumpala, L. and Reddy, S.P., 2020. The influence of B4C and BN nanoparticles on Al 7010 hybrid metal matrix nanocomposites. Emerging Materials Research, 9(3), pp. 558–563. Reddy, M.P., Manakari, V., Parande, G., Ubaid, F., Shakoor, R.A., Mohamed, A.M.A. and Gupta, M., 2018. Enhancing compressive, tensile, thermal and damping response of pure Al using BN nanoparticles. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 762, pp. 398–408. Kalaiselvan, K., Murugan, N. and Parameswaran, S., 2011. Production and characterization of AA6061–B4C stir cast composite. Materials & Design, 32(7), pp. 4004–4009.

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[25] Poovazhagan, L., Kalaichelvan, K. and Sornakumar, T., 2016. Processing and performance characteristics of aluminum-nano boron carbide metal matrix nanocomposites. Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 31(10), pp. 1275–1285. [26] Subramaniam, B., Natarajan, B., Kaliyaperumal, B. and Chelladurai, S.J.S., 2018. Investigation on mechanical properties of aluminium 7075-boron carbide-coconut shell fly ash reinforced hybrid metal matrix composites. China Foundry, 15(6), pp. 449–456. [27] Patidar, D. and Rana, R.S., 2017. Effect of B4C particle reinforcement on the various properties of aluminium matrix composites: A survey paper. Materials Today: Proceedings, 4(2), pp. 2981–2988. [28] Seshappa, A. and Prasad, B.A., 2020. Characterization and investigation of mechanical properties of aluminium hybrid nano-composites: novel approach of utilizing silicon carbide and waste particles to reduce cost of material. Silicon, pp. 1–15. [29] Manikandan, R.A. and Arjunan, T.V., 2020. Studies on micro structural characteristics, mechanical and tribological behaviours of boron carbide and cow dung ash reinforced aluminium (Al 7075) hybrid metal matrix composite. Composites Part B: Engineering, 183, pp. 107668.

Chapter 4.2 Effect of reinforcement particle size on LM-13-snail shell ash–SiC hybrid metal matrix composite Sai Naresh Dasari✶, Sankararao Vinjavarapu, Murali Mohan Cheepu

Abstract: The ongoing battle of humanity against climate change has inspired many studies in the field of material science to produce economical and eco-friendly composites. This meant moving away from conventional synthetic reinforcement particles to fully or partially substituted biodegradable, abundantly available natural reinforcement particles. Numerous natural biodegradable wastes such as bagasse ash, eggshell ash, lemongrass ash have been widely experimented with to produce composites, at a great success rate by researchers. In this study, the influence of particle sizes of snail shell ash (SSA) and SiC on the mechanical and wear properties of LM-13 alloy is investigated. The LM-13 alloy was reinforced with two different sizes of SSA particles of similar composition, and their properties are compared and contrasted in this study. The composites are produced by vacuum induction casting technique. Microstructural, mechanical, and tribological studies are carried out on the samples. Results are conclusive that a higher reinforcement size is favorable for achieving improved mechanical and tribological properties. Keywords: Aluminum metal matrix composites, SSA, animal waste, stir casting

4.2.1 Introduction Climate change on the Earth dates back to the birth of the planet. However, earlier, these climatic changes have been radical in nature and brought the evolution and life as we know it. But, today, human intervention in the natural process has accelerated the need for addressing pollution and the harm caused to the environment [1]. Growing distress on the safety of the environment and the ever diminishing conventional materials led to many studies in the field of material science to develop and improve environment-friendly material [2]. A huge amount of biodegradable animal wastes is produced every day, such as bones, shells of animals, eggs, and bones from slaughterhouses, both by natural causes and modern-day human lifestyle choices. These wastes are incidentally biodegradable and are thrown out in the open dump yards or on the streets by common people. However, during decomposition, these wastes attract and become a potent breeding ground for a variety of deadly viruses [3]. These effects are particularly amplified in socioeconomic settings like India where millions of people

✶

Corresponding author: Sai Naresh Dasari, e-mail: [email protected]

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110766523-005

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Chapter 4.2 Effect of SSA particle in HMMC

are directly or indirectly employed in animal husbandry [4]. Therefore, if there is a potential technique to process and use these biological pollutants, before they are allowed to decompose and cause deadly diseases, it would result in the eradication of a significant portion of the problems caused by these pollutants. Numerous studies were taken up by researchers across the world to utilize these materials for making composites. In an appreciable response to these polluting wastes, the material researchers publicized the nuance of using biologically harmful waste such as mammalian hair, eggshells, dead animal bones, and mollusk shells as a viable replacement for producing the metal matrix composites (MMCs). Remarkably, this approach not only addressed pollution but was also successful in presenting an economically viable, and a much appreciable method for producing green composites and highly sustainable engineering materials, with adaptable presentations across engineering fields [5]. These were highly successful in obtaining composites of the desired properties. Dwivedi et al. [6] extracted collagen powder from chrome containing leather waste and produced an aluminum-based composite by the hybrid casting technique. They successfully achieved significant improvements in hardness and tensile strengths. Carbonized eggshell was used to produce MMC by Dwivedi et al. [7] and reported an overall density decrease of 3.7% and cost of production decrease by 5%, while showing appreciable improvements in mechanical properties. Asuke et al. [8] studied the effect of uncarbonized (fresh) and carbonized bone particulates on the microstructure and properties of polypropylene composites and found that the usage of carbonized bone particles improved the tensile strength, hardness, flexural strength, and compressive strength by 35%, 45%, 53%, and 35%, respectively. Oladele et al. investigated the mechanical properties of goat bone-reinforced epoxy composite aimed at assessing the suitability of the composite for biomedical applications. The study concluded that tensile properties were significantly improved and structural rigidity was ideal for bio medical applications [9]. Satish Kumar et al. investigated the effect of alloying bagasse ash particles in A356 alloy matrix and confirmed that the density of the composites decreases with increase in reinforcement particle alloying percentage, leading to significant improvements in hardness and compressive strength [10]. Abiodun Ademola Odusanya et al. examined the mechanical properties as well as water absorption characteristics of unsaturated polyester composite reinforced with varying weight fractions of seashell with an aim of finding the composite with optimum mechanical properties, and concluded that seashell could be used as a great filler material that improved the base polyester’s tensile strength and impact strength [11]. Therefore, in this study, an attempt is made to determine the performance of snail shell ash (SSA) and silicon carbide as reinforcements in aluminum–silicon-based LM-13 alloy, which is widely used as a material for making engine pistons, liners, and clutches. Two different composites with varying powder particulate sizes are compared. The mechanical properties and wear resistance of the composite have been studied and analyzed in this chapter.

4.2.2 Experimental methods

89

4.2.2 Experimental methods 4.2.2.1 Materials Aluminum–silicon-based LM-13 material is used as a base metal for this study. The LM13 alloys are widely used in automobile industries owing to their high strength–to-weight ratios and considerably low wear rates [12]. The typical composition of LM-13 alloy is given in Table 4.2. Table 4.2: Chemical composition of Al 7075 alloy. Elements

Zn

Mg

Cu

Si

Mn

Fe

Cr

Ti

Al

wt%

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Remaining

The reinforcement materials selected are SSA and silicon carbide. The snail shells are sourced from the fertile river banks of River Krishna and are cleaned and bleached to remove any impurities. These shells are then ground finely using a mortar and then sieved to the required sizes. The sieved powdered particles are then placed in a crucible furnace for 8 h at 950 °C to remove any moisture content. The silicon carbide powders are commercially procured and are of 99.7% pure. Both the SSA and the silicon carbide powders are sieved to two distinctive sized samples: one of 100 µm size and the other of 200 µm size.

4.2.2.2 Methods The composites are produced through the vacuum induction casting technique. The casting setup consists of an induction heater, alumina protective coating-based graphite crucible, integrated stirrer, and a tilt cylindrical mold. The as-received LM-13 ingots along with the reinforcements in the compositions as per Table 4.3 are placed in an alumina protective coated graphite crucible. This crucible is kept inside the induction heating chamber and sealed off. This chamber has provision for a stirrer, which is integrated and sealed to maintain vacuum inside the chamber. Before switching on the heater, the entire heating chamber is evacuated and maintained at a vacuum pressure of 6.5 Pa. The chamber is then flushed with 99.99% pure argon three times. The furnace is then heated to 1,200 °C to melt the metals. The furnace is then held at this temperature for 170 s. During this time, the stirrer is continuously stirred at 300 RPM for a proper mixing of the metal and the reinforcements. The samples are then cast into a cold mold at the same vacuum pressure. This process is repeated for each sample, over and over. A total of three samples were made in this study, as per Table 4.3.

90

Chapter 4.2 Effect of SSA particle in HMMC

Table 4.3: Samples and compositions. Sample no.

  

Percentage of LM-

Percentage of SSA

Percentage of silicon carbide

  

 . .

 . .

Particle size

NA  µm  µm

4.2.2.3 Microstructural and metallographic characterization The chemical analysis of the reinforcement, the texture of the reinforcement particles, and the distribution of particles in the MMC are the best ways to understand the reinforcement’s strengthening effects in the MMC. In this study, the chemical composition of the SSA powder is determined by utilizing a JEOL JCM-6000 versatile SEM with EDS consisting of Cu-Kα radiation and Ni filter. The grain refinement of the composites was studied using optical microscopy. Optical microscopy was used to investigate the grain refinement of the composites. The samples are first ground with consecutive meshed grits of 1,200, 1,600, and 2,000 lines per inch, and then polished with a diamond slurry and alumina paste on a polisher to achieve a mirror-like sheen. The microstructures were studied using Olympus GX53 Inverted Metallurgical Microscope 1500× magnification, Matrix Vision 8 MP Camera.

4.2.2.4 Characterization of mechanical properties The effects of LM-13 alloy’s reinforced particles and their various sizes are evaluated by determining the mechanical properties of the sample, such as yield strength (UYS), tensile strength, ductility, and hardness. Standard samples are cut and tested according to the international standard sample size.

4.2.2.5 Wear characterization The dry sliding wear behavior of the samples was determined using the pin-on-disk wear test. The dry sliding wear performance of the sample was determined by the weight loss measurement technique.

4.2.3 Results and discussion

91

4.2.3 Results and discussion 4.2.3.1 Metallographic characteristics The SEM images of SSA are shown in Figure 4.10. The SEM analysis confirmed that the powdered particles show a distinct ceramic particle with sharp corners. The results of EDX confirmed the presence of silicon (Si), oxygen (O), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), and calcium (Ca) in their oxide forms. The elemental energy dispersion hits of EDS are shown in Figure 4.11. A detailed percentage composition of the SSA is given in Table 4.4. From the results, it can be deduced that the percentage of iron and silicon are dominant in the matrix. The presence of iron inside the aluminum matrix improves the hardness and strength of the aluminum composite. The presence of Mg and Si help to increase the wettability of the iron inside the molten aluminum, and further help in the formation of a strong composite [13, 14].

Figure 4.10: SEM image of weld snail shell particles.

4.2.3.2 Microstructural characterization The interface attributes and the microstructures of the composites direct the properties displayed by the MMCs at large. The microstructures captured for the composites are shown in Figure 4.12. All the microstructures of MMCs had uncovered a critical grain refinement, with the reinforcement particles acting as nucleation points. This is due to the effect of the distribution of the reinforcement particles inside the matrix alloy to inhibit the improvement of the α-grains during solidification [15]. Dislocation densities were found to be higher in the microstructures of composites, compared to the LM-13 alloy. The pinning down of the sharp SSA particles is evident from the

92

Chapter 4.2 Effect of SSA particle in HMMC

Figure 4.11: EDX spectroscopy results of snail shell particles. Table 4.4: Chemical composition by wt% of SSA. Element

C

O

Mg

Al

Si

Ca

Fe

% comp.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Figure 4.12: Microstructural images of LM-13 and LM-13-SSA composite.

4.2.3 Results and discussion

93

micrographs. The sharp SSA–SiC particles (in red circles) in the LM-13 matrix are shown in Figure 4.12. The micrographs show a clear interface reaction boundary in the matrix, confirming good wettability of the reinforcement inside the matrix.

4.2.3.3 Mechanical characteristics 4.2.3.3.1 Hardness The hardness of the alloy and composites is shown in Figure 4.13. It is clear that the hardness of the composites is higher than that of the base metal due to grain refinement, indicated by the Hall–Petch mechanism and mismatch of particle coefficient of thermal expansion mechanisms [16]. Among the composites, the sample 02 has shown a moderate but monotonic reduction in hardness than that of the sample 03. This may be due to the fact that the intrinsic hardness of the composite declines as the particle size decreases, due to the segregation of the Mg to the interface and the formation of Mg2Si interface compounds at the grain boundaries [17].

Figure 4.13: Hardness versus reinforcement percentages of MMCs.

4.2.3.3.2 Tensile strength The tensile property of composites is better than that of the pure LM-13 alloy, and is represented in Figure 4.14. This strengthening of MMCs is produced by two mechanisms: one is by the greater limitation of the plastic deformation of the matrix material under load by a direct load transfer to the reinforcement particles in the matrix at the interfaces [18] and the other mechanism is based on the efficient binding of the reinforcement

94

Chapter 4.2 Effect of SSA particle in HMMC

particles to the matrix due to the high wettability of the SSA–SiC particles [19]. The tensile strength of the composite increased as the SSA particle increased. This is evident from other studies as well [17, 20], wherein the tensile strength of composites increases as their particle reinforcement sizes increase but decreases beyond the optimum level. This may be due to the creation of excessive porosities and voids inside the matrix due to the increase in particle size and a reduction in the interficial bonding between the particles and matrix.

Figure 4.14: Strength versus reinforcement percentage for MMCs.

4.2.3.3.3 Wear results The wear rates of the samples are shown in Figure 4.15 as a function of weight loss for each sample. From the results, it can be deduced that the wear rate of the composites was less than that of the pure LM-13 alloy. Furthermore, as the particle size increased, the wear rate of the composite decreased. This is due to the fact that the larger reinforcement particles cover more surface area, offering higher wear resistance and reducing the wear rate of the composites greatly [21].

4.2.4 Conclusion

95

Figure 4.15: Wear rate of samples.

4.2.4 Conclusion SSA has been successfully used for producing LM-13 alloy-based MMCs. Vacuum induction casting has been successfully used to prepare MMCs. The major outcomes of the study are: – The size of the reinforcements played a critical role in dictating the properties of the composites. – All properties including wear resistance are lower for the alloy than that of the composites. – The Mg segregation and formation of undesirable MgSi2 result in lower hardness for composites with smaller particle reinforcement sizes. – The increase in particle size of the composite improved the tensile properties of MMCs. However, increasing the particle size beyond the optimum sizes may adversely impact the tensile strength of composites. – Higher particle size positively affects the wear resistance of the composite. Higher particle size resulted in less wear due to high surface area exposure of the hard reinforcement particle to abrasion inside the matrix. – This study successfully ratifies the usage of the LM-13-based SSA–SiC composite for usage in automobile pistons with improved wear resistance.

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Chapter 5 Industrial waste-based composites 5.1 Performance of economical aluminum MMC reinforced with welding slag particles produced using solid-state liquid metallurgical stir casting technique Sai Naresh Dasari✶, Murahari Kolli Abstract: Swiftly advancing technology is compelling the scientific community around the world to invent new class of advanced materials and reinvent existing materials to produce high performance materials like metal matrix composites. Metal matrix composites have proven their significance from time to time with their superior mechanical properties, low weight, and high wear resistance. But the cost of production of such composites limits their applications on a broad spectrum. In the current study, welding slag, an industrial by-product, is repurposed as reinforcement to produce economical and eco-friendly aluminum-based metal matrix composite because welding slag is produced in large quantities across industrial and construction sector and produces a hefty amount of pollution that harms the environment. Highly corrosion-resistant and structural Aluminum AA-7075 alloy is reinforced with varying percentages of welding slag particles (0–12%) by weight, and the effects of reinforcement percentage on hardness, strength, ductility, and impact energy of the material are investigated. The results showed an improved mechanical strength and high hardness in composites. Impact energy has also improved to a significant extent at higher concentrations of reinforcement particles. Keywords: Aluminum metal matrix composites, weld slag, industrial waste, stir casting

5.1.1 Introduction Modern engineering system’s in-service performance demands require materials that exhibit broad spectrum of properties which are seldom cannot be met by monolithic material systems. Metal matrix composites (MMCs) can offer such demanding combinations of tailored properties [1]. Although many materials are used to produce MMCs, aluminum remains the dominant choice of material. Aluminum is widely utilized in aerospace, automobile, and electronic industries because of their corrosion

✶

Corresponding author: Sai Naresh Dasari, e-mail: [email protected]

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110766523-006

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resistance, wear resistance, low density, and castability [2] and can be reinforced with fibers and ceramics to produce excellent properties. A significant attention is given to MMCs across the world owing to their superior specific mechanical strengths and low weight [3]. The demand for low cost reinforcements for the production of MMCs fueled the interest of academia toward utilization and fabrication of MMCs with byproducts of industries and agriculture as viable substitute reinforcements due to their widespread availability and renewability at an affordable cost [4]. Furthermore, sustainable and low-cost manufacturing methods were also widely explored for producing such composites not only due to environmental concerns but also to bring down costs of overall process. Specifically, for producing aluminum composites, stir casting was highly preferred for their simplicity and cost-effectiveness [5]. The selection of reinforcement was also critical for the sustainability of the composites. The high cost of conventional reinforcements of aluminum MMCs and their exclusive availability to certain parts of the world prompted research community to investigate for low cost and widely available alternatives [1, 5]. On that front, huge amounts of industrial solid wastes are produced annually owing to rapid industrialization and scavenging these wastes for recycling is particularly tedious and anything but cost-effective. These materials pose significant risks to environment if left unused and unrecycled. Hence, a globalized scientific community effort to substitute these wastes as a viable replacement is justified and significant [6]. Academia found that these industrial wastes can be successfully used to replace the conventional reinforcements without sacrificing the desirable properties of MMCs and are widely available and cost-effective. Numerous studies were carried out to study the effects of such reinforcements on aluminum MMC [5, 6]. Khlystov et al. [7] established through their study that replacing expensive refractory products such as alumina and chamotte with high alumina industrial waste led to a positively improving durability of refractory composites. Kumar et al. [8] attempted to fabricate a high strength and low density composite for automotive application with heat treatable Al–Mg–Si–T6 alloy and industrial waste fly ash particles and boron carbide particles as reinforcement. Their results concluded that the optimal composition of the reinforcements improved the tensile strength, hardness, and compression strength of the material [8]. Dwivedi et al. [9] used waste eggshells as reinforcements to strengthen the Aluminum 2014 and concluded that the cost of production of the composites can be reduced by over 5% and density by 3.57% while simultaneously improving the mechanical properties. Welding slag is a similar industrial by-product of arc welding process produced during metal joining process across fabrication and construction industries. But an effective recycling method of the slag is not widely discussed. Paranthaman et al. [10] studied the effect of weld slag particles on the Al 6063 aluminum matrix and found that tensile properties of the material increased and wear rate decrease with increase in percentage of reinforcements. However, their study was brief and a pioneering attempt to use the weld slag as an economical route to produce aluminum MMC. A detailed study is required to understand the behavior and strengthening mechanism of the reinforcements in the metal

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5.1.2 Experimental methods

matrix. Therefore, in the present study, weld slag particles are used as reinforcements to produce Al 7075-based particle-reinforced MMC using liquid metallurgical stir casting route and mechanically and microstructurally characterized. An attempt is made to decipher the strengthening mechanism of the reinforcement in the MMC.

5.1.2 Experimental methods 5.1.2.1 Materials The 7075 aluminum alloy is selected as the base material for this study due to its high ductility, strength, toughness, and fatigue resistance. The Al 7075 boasts a superior corrosion resistance than their 2000 series counterparts. These properties make the material trustworthy material for highly stressed structural environments [11]. The typical composition of Al 7075 alloy is given in Table 5.1. Table 5.1: Chemical composition of Al 7075 alloy. Elements

Zn

Mg

Cu

Si

Mn

Fe

Cr

Ti

Al

Wt%

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Remaining

The reinforcement material used is welding slag that was obtained from a local welding workshop observed the Figure 5.1 as a by-product while joining steels by arc welding. Welding slag materials, as shown in Figure 5.1(a), are finely ground using mills (Figure 5.1(b)) and the powder thus obtained is sieved to an average of 50–70 µm. The finely ground slag is shown in Figure 5.1(c).

5.1.2.2 Methods The production of MMC is realized through stir casting process. A typical outline of the setup is shown in Figure 5.2. Initially, Al 7075 ingots are charged and furnace is heated up to 780 °C for 30 min. The mixture of metal matrix is constantly stirred at 800 rpm for duration of 20 min by simultaneously adding reinforcements which are preheated up to 300 °C in order to improve wettability according to the weight percentages 3, 6, 9, and 12 wt% of aluminum. Enhancement of the stirring time improved the homogeneous distribution of the particles, and decreased grain structure size and higher hardness values are achieved. However, excessive stirring caused serious increase in oxidation and impurities in the metal matrix. Hence, the selection of parameters from the literature for current study was carefully carried out for achieving optimum results. Further, the molten metal is poured

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Figure 5.1: Welding slag reinforcement preparation: (a) weld beads obtained; (b) weld beads grounded; and(c) weld slag finely powdered and sieved.

Figure 5.2: Stir casting setup.

5.1.3 Results and discussion

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into mold cavities preheated up to 450 °C for 3 h and are charged into the metal matrix. The molten metal is then pressurized using mechanized die into the mold cavity.

5.1.2.3 Microstructural and metallographic characterization The strengthening effects of reinforcement in the MMC can be best understood by the chemical analysis of the reinforcement, texture of the reinforcement particles, and the distribution of the particles in the MMC. In the current study, the EDX analysis of the powdered reinforcement particles is carried out to find the chemical composition of the weld slag powder using a Bruker D8 advanced ECO X-ray diffractometer with Cu Kα-radiation and Ni filter. The powdered particles were observed under a scanning electron microscope. The grain refinement of the composites was studied using optical microscopy. The samples are first ground with successive meshed grits of 1,200, 1,600, and 2,000, respectively, and the samples are then polished into a mirrorlike finish using diamond slurry and alumina paste on a polisher. The microstructures were studied using Olympus GX53 Inverted Metallurgical Microscope 1,500× Magnification, matrix Vision 8 MP Camera.

5.1.2.4 Characterization of mechanical properties The influence of reinforced particulate in Al 7075 and their varying compositions is evaluated by determining mechanical properties of the specimen, such as ultimate yield strength, tensile strength, ductility, hardness, and impact energy. The specimens for tensile testing were cut and machined and tested as per ASTM E28 Standard [12]. The standard specimens are cut using CNC Lathe. The tensile testing is done on Universal Tensile Testing Machine of FIE make (model: UTE 40 with a maximum displacement of 200 mm). The hardness specimens are cut and tested as per ASTM E28.06 Standard [13] on FIE Hardness Tester model B-3000 H. The specimens are tested for impact energy as per ASTM E23-13 Standard of Testing [14]. The V-Notch specimens are cut and tested on the impact energy tester model: IT 30 of FIE make.

5.1.3 Results and discussion 5.1.3.1 Metallographic characteristics The SEM images of the weld slag are shown in Figure 5.3. The SEM analysis confirmed that the powdered particles are in the range of 60–70 µm. The results of EDX confirmed the presence of silicon (Si), oxygen (O), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), chlorine

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Figure 5.3: SEM image of weld slag particles.

Figure 5.4: EDX spectroscopy results of weld slag particles.

(Cl), and magnesium (Mg) in their oxide forms (Figure 5.4) in weld slag particles and are consistent with reports of several other investigations.

5.1.3.2 Microstructural characterization The interface characteristics and the microstructure of the composites dictate the properties exhibited by the alloys at large. The results of the microstructural studies are shown in Figure 5.5. All the microstructures of MMCs had revealed a significant grain refinement with the addition of reinforcement particles. This is due to the fact that the distribution of the particles inside the matrix alloy inhibited the devolvement of the αgrains during solidification [15]. The solidification resulted in a grain refinement and

5.1.3 Results and discussion

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Figure 5.5: Microstructural images of Al 7075 – weld slag MMC.

nonhomogeneous nucleation slag particles at center [16]. A clear and discernable dendritic microstructural propagation unique to rapid solidification induced grain refinement [17] and increased dislocation densities could be identified from the microstructures. The porosities were visible as the reinforcements wt% increased.

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5.1.3.3 Mechanical characteristics 5.1.3.3.1 Hardness The hardness characteristics of the composites compared to as-cast samples are shown in Figure 5.6. The hardness of the MMC was higher than that of the base metal. The hardness values are presented as an average of three values taken at different locations on the specimens. The hardness of a MMC increases continuously as percentage reinforcement by weight increases in the matrix [18] generally due to grain refinement, Hall–Petch mechanism, and mismatch of particle coefficient of thermal expansion mechanisms. In the current study, as the percentage reinforcements increased, the hardness of the MMC has also increased. The hardness values of all the MMCs were higher than that of the base metal. This is due to the good wettability of the weld slag reinforcement particles and good interface bonding between the matrix and the reinforcement particle.

Figure 5.6: Hardness versus reinforcement percentages of the MMCs.

5.1.3.3.2 Tensile strength The tensile strengths of the composites increased continuously as the percentage of weld slag reinforcements increased by weight as shown in Figure 5.7. These results were consistent with literature across genres and numerous studies that concluded that alloying hard ceramic particles in soft metal matrix increases the strength of the

5.1.3 Results and discussion

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Figure 5.7: Strength versus reinforcement percentage for MMCs.

MMC [19–21]. The strengthening of composites occurs by two mechanisms: one by the improved restriction to plastic deformation of matrix material when load is applied due to the direct transfer of load to reinforcement particles in the matrix at the interface boundaries of the reinforcements [22]. The other mechanism is by the efficient bonding of the reinforcement particles with matrix due to high wettability of the weld slag particles [23]. The weld slag metal matrix composites strength improved by these two mechanisms. 5.1.3.3.3 Ductility The ductility of the MMCs result was indicated in the reduced ductility. Additionally, SiC and Al2O3 increase the brittility of the composites [24]. In this study, the ductility of the composites is investigated and analyzed as a function of % elongation of the composites. The ductility of the composites increased gradually with increase in the reinforcement percentage by weight as shown in Figure 5.8. This might be due to the fact that the weld slag particles are thermodynamically stable in the matrix and mitigate the embrittlement effects [23] of particles thus improving the ductility of the composite [15].

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Figure 5.8: Percentage elongation versus reinforcement percentage by weight.

5.1.3.3.4 Impact strength The fracture toughness of a composite is determined by the amount of energy absorbed by the specimen of fracture [25]. The impact energy responses of the composites are shown in graph in Figure 5.9. It can be confirmed that as the particulate percentage by weight increased in the matrix, the impact energy was retained first up to 6 wt% and then increased. The primary reason for the improvement of the impact energy may be endorsed by the rich interface and good interfacial bonding amid the matrix and the reinforcement. This effectively improves the load transfer capacity of matrix to the reinforcements [26]. However, impact energy can be negatively affected due to the barricading effect of reinforcements to the movement of dislocations inside the matrix that result in the growing rate of work hardening causing decrease in fracture toughness [27]. The strengthening was more pronounced at higher reinforcement’s percentages because of the presence of larger interface regions effectively mitigating the work hardening effect. In the composites with low alloying particulate percentages, both effects nullified each other and impact strength remained unaltered.

5.1.4 Conclusion

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Figure 5.9: Impact energy with varying slag reinforcements.

5.1.4 Conclusion The key conclusions that can be drawn from the study are: 1. Industrially produced weld slag particles can be used as a viable reinforcements for producing Al-MMCs successfully. 2. From the microstructural results, it can be deduced that significant grain refinement has been obtained with stir casting process with good interface characteristics in the matrix and uniform dispersion of reinforcements. 3. The produced Al-weld slag MMCs exhibits superior hardness of the matrix and the magnitude of hardness increases as the percentage of reinforcements increased. The highest hardness achieved was 98 BHN for 12% weld slag MMC. 4. The tensile strength of the composites increased as the reinforcement percentage progressed. The maximum tensile strength obtained was 173 MPa for 12% weld slag MMC. 5. The impact energy of the composites increased to 3 J for 9% and 12% weld slag composite.

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Bodunrin, M.O., Alaneme, K.K. and Chown, L.H., 2015. Aluminium matrix hybrid composites: A review of reinforcement philosophies; Mechanical, corrosion and tribological characteristics. Journal of Materials Research and Technology [Internet], 4(4), pp. 434–445. Available from: doi: http://dx. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2015.05.003. [2] Dwivedi, S.P., Sharma, S. and Mishra, R.K., 2015. Microstructure and mechanical behavior of A356/ SiC/Fly-ash hybrid composites produced by electromagnetic stir casting. Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering, 37(1), pp. 57–67. [3] Alaneme, K.K., Bodunrin, M.O. and Awe, A.A., 2018. Microstructure, mechanical and fracture properties of groundnut shell ash and silicon carbide dispersion strengthened aluminium matrix composites. Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences, 30(1), pp. 96–103. [4] Dwivedi, S.P. and Srivastava, A.K., 2019. Utilization of chrome containing leather waste in development of aluminium based green composite material. International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing – Green Technology, 7(3), pp. 781–790. Available from: https://link. springer.com/article/10.1007/s40684-019-00179-1. [5] Ononiwu, N.H., Akinlabi, E.T. and Ozoegwu, C.G., 2019. Sustainability in production and selection of reinforcement particles in aluminium alloy metal matrix composites: A review. Journal of Physics: Conference Series [Internet], 1378(4), pp. 042015. Available from: https://iopscience.iop.org/article/ 10.1088/1742-6596/1378/4/042015. [6] Tiruchirapp, T., 2016. Review on the performance of fibre and industrial slag in concrete. 1(January 2015), pp. 16–30. [7] Khlystov, A.I., Vlasov, A.V., Shirokov, V.A. and Vlasova, E.M., 2019. High-alumina slurry waste metallurgy aluminium alloys – Complex modifier of heat-resistant and refractory composites. IOP Conference series: Materials science and engineering [Internet], 666(1), pp. 012020. Available from: https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/666/1/012020. [8] Kumar, M.S., Vasumathi, M., Begum, S.R., Luminita, S.M., Vlase, S. and Pruncu, C.I., 2021. Influence of B4C and industrial waste fly ash reinforcement particles on the micro structural characteristics and mechanical behavior of aluminium (Al-Mg-Si-T6) hybrid metal matrix composite. Journal of Materials Research and Technology [Internet], 15, pp. 1201–1216. Available from: https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.08.149. [9] Dwivedi, S.P., Sharma, S. and Mishra, R.K., 2016. Synthesis and mechanical behaviour of green metal matrix composites using waste eggshells as reinforcement material. Green Processing and Synthesis, 5(3), pp. 275–282. [10] Paranthaman, P., Gopal, P.M. and Sathiesh Kumar, N., 2019. Characterization of economical aluminium MMC reinforced with weld slag particles [Internet]. In Lecture notes in mechanical engineering (pp. 9–16). Springer, Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6374-0_2. [11] ASM, 1993. ASM handbook volume 2 – properties and selection: Nonferrous alloys and specialpurpose materials. ASM Metals Handbook, 2, pp. 1300. [12] ASTM E28.04. ASTM E8 / E8M – 21 Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials [Internet]. ASTM International, West Conshochcken, PA. 2018 [cited 2021 Aug 10]. Available from: https://www.astm.org/Standards/E8.htm. [13] ASTM E28.06. ASTM E10 – 18 Standard Test Method for Brinell Hardness of Metallic Materials [Internet]. ASTM International, West Conshochcken, PA. 2018 [cited 2021 Aug 10]. Available from: https://www.astm.org/Standards/E10. [14] ASTM E28.07. ASTM E23 – 18 Standard Test Methods for Notched Bar Impact Testing of Metallic Materials [Internet]. ASTM International, West Conshochcken, PA. 2018 [cited 2021 Aug 10]. Available from: https://www.astm.org/Standards/E23.htm.

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Bannaravuri, P.K. and Birru, A.K., 2018. Strengthening of mechanical and tribological properties of Al-4.5%Cu matrix alloy with the addition of bamboo leaf ash. Results in Physics [Internet], 10(May), pp. 360–373. Available from: doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinp.2018.06.004. Poovazhagan, L., Kalaichelvan, K. and Sornakumar, T., 2016. Processing and performance characteristics of aluminum-nano boron carbide metal matrix nanocomposites. Material and Manufacturing Processes, 31(10), pp. 1275–1285. Zhang, J., Guan, R.G., Tie, D., Wang, X., Guan, X.H., Chen, B.C. et al., 2015. Effects of technical parameters of semi-solid stirring and Rheo-rolling on microstructure of A356-5wt.%B4C composite strip. Materials and Manufacturing Processes [Internet], 30(3), pp. 340–345. Available from: http:// dx.doi.org/10.1080/10426914.2014.941477. Udoye, N.E., Fayomi, O.S.I. and Inegbenebor, A.O., 2019. Realization of agro waste fiber-particulate for low cost aluminium based metal matrix composite: A review. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering [Internet], 640(1), pp. 012066. Available from: https://iopscience.iop.org/ar ticle/10.1088/1757-899X/640/1/012066. Yao, Y.T. and Chen, L.Q., 2016. B4C/Al composites processed by metal-assisted pressureless infiltration technique and its characterization. Material and Manufacturing Processes, 31(10), pp. 1286–1291. Aravindan, S., Rao, P.V. and Ponappa, K., 2015. Evaluation of physical and mechanical properties of AZ91D/SiC composites by two step stir casting process. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys [Internet], 3(1), pp. 52–62. Available from: doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2014.12.008. Balaji, V., Sateesh, N. and Hussain, M.M., 2015. Manufacture of aluminium metal matrix composite (Al7075-SiC) by stir casting technique. Materials Today: Proceedings [Internet], 2(4–5), pp. 3403–3408. Available from: doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2015.07.315. Praveen Kumar, B. and Kumar Birru, A., 2018. Characterization of Al-4.5%Cu alloy with the addition of silicon carbide and bamboo leaf ash. Kovove Materialy, 56(5), pp. 325–337. Ravi, B., Balu Naik, B.B. and Udaya Prakash, J., 2015. Characterization of aluminium matrix composites (AA6061/B4C) fabricated by stir casting technique. Materials Today: Proceedings [Internet], 2(4–5), pp. 2984–2990. Available from: doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2015.07.282. Kolli, M., Dasari, S.N., Potluri, N.S. and Ramprasad, A.V.S., 2020. Influence of rock dust reinforcement on mechanical properties of Al composite using friction stir processing. Australian Journal of Mechanical Engineering [Internet], 00(00), pp. 1–10. Available from: doi: https://doi.org/ 10.1080/14484846.2020.1842299. Ghandvar, H., Farahany, S. and Idris, M.H., 2017. Effect of wettability enhancement of sic particles on impact toughness and dry sliding wear behavior of compocasted A356/20SiCp composites. 61(1), pp. 88–99. https://doi.org/101080/1040200420161275902. [Internet] Jan 2 [cited 2021 Sep 5]. Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10402004.2016.1275902. Mohanavel, V., Rajan, K., Kumar, S.S., Udishkumar, S. and Jayasekar, C., 2018. Effect of silicon carbide reinforcement on mechanical and physical properties of aluminum matrix composites. Materials Today: Proceedings [Internet], 5(1), pp. 2938–2944. Available from: doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j. matpr.2018.01.089. Atuanya, C.U., Esione, A.T. and Anene, F.A., 2018. Effects of Bamboo leaf stem ash on the microstructure and properties of cast Al–Si–Mg/Bamboo leaf stem ash particulates composites. Journal of the Chinese Advanced Materials Society [Internet], 6(4), pp. 543–552. Available from: doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/22243682.2018.1522276.

Chapter 5.2 Effect of ball milling on compacting characteristics of Al-10% Al2O3-fly ash composites Seelam Pichi Reddy✶, P. V. Chandrasekhara Rao, A. Nageswar Rao Abstract: Aluminum metal matrix composites (AMMCs) are widely used because of their superior properties compared to aluminum (Al) and its alloys. The AMMCs find wide application in aerospace, automobile, and other industries. Fly ash, a particulate waste material produced in thermal power plants, need to be potentially used to reduce its effect on environment. In the present experimental study, Al-10 wt% alumina(0–15 wt%) fly ash hybrid metal matrix composites are prepared by ball milling and powder metallurgy technique. The compacting characteristics like ejection pressure, green density, percentage porosity, and compressive strength are reported. The ejection pressure of the composites increases with increase in milling time and wt% of fly ash. The green density decreases with the increase in milling time and wt% of fly ash. The 5 wt% fly ash composite has maximum compressive strength compared to other composites and also the strength increases with increase in milling time up to 3 h and thereafter decreases. Keywords: Aluminum, Alumina, fly ash, ball milling, powder metallurgy

5.2.1 Introduction Aluminum metal matrix composites (AMMCs) are favored because of their superior properties compared to monolithic metals and potentially offer ways to provide materials of high strength-to-weight ratio, low thermal expansion coefficient, high thermal fatigue, and creep resistance. These find wide application as brake rotors, connecting rods, pistons, engine components, and many other aerospace, automobile, and industrial components. AMMCs are produced by reinforcing various metallic oxides like alumina (Al2O3), silicon dioxide (SiO2), carbides like boron carbide (B4C), silicon carbide (SiC), and nitrides like titanium nitride (TiN) and cubic boron nitride (BN), and these reinforcements enhance the characteristics of monolithic aluminum alloy. Among these reinforcement particles, Al2O3 is stable, inert, and does not create any undesirable phase with the aluminum matrix [1]. Al-10 wt% Al2O3 composite reported maximum tensile and compressive strength compared to lower and higher values of Al2O3[2, 3]. Few nonmetallic components like rock-dust particles [4], few layer graphene [5], ricehusk ash [6], and fly ash [7] are also used as reinforcement materials in aluminum ✶

Corresponding author: Seelam Pichi Reddy, e-mail: [email protected]

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110766523-007

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matrix. All these reinforcement particles improved the mechanical properties of the AMMCs. There is a global need for the development of sustainable composites with industrial waste as a reinforcement material to mitigate associated environmental issues. Among the industrial waste materials, fly ash is abundantly produced in thermal power plants, and it is harmful to humans if inhaled and deteriorates the fertility of soil if land filled. In view of the harmful effect of fly ash and to reduce its content from atmosphere, it is decided to use fly ash as one of the reinforcing materials in aluminum matrix. In recent years importance is given to aluminum hybrid metal matrix nanocomposites (AHMMNCs) due to their wide range of applications and impressive physical and mechanical properties compared to AMMCs. The AHMMNCs consist of two or more nano reinforcement materials in aluminum matrix and as a result the advantage of using two reinforcement materials can be obtained in a single material. Gopichand et al. [8–10] fabricated Al7010/B4C/BN hybrid metal matrix nanocomposites and reported their mechanical and wear characteristics. An improvement in properties is observed compared to the base alloy. Al7075/SiC/TiC hybrid composites prepared by stircasting processes showed an increase in hardness with increase in reinforcements from 0% to 15%. The tensile strength of 10% reinforcement is better than the base alloy [11]. The Al 2024/SiC/fly ash composites showed a decrease in density and increase in hardness compared to the base alloy. Also an increase in tensile strength and decrease in elongation is observed [12]. Al2024/SiC/graphite hybrid nanocomposites were prepared by powder metallurgy (P/M) technique. The hardness and wear resistance of the composites increased by increasing the reinforcement content. The nanocomposite with 5 wt% SiC and 10 wt% graphite showed highest wear resistance [13]. AA 7075/Al2O3 nanocomposites and AA 7075/SiC/Al2O3 hybrid nanacomposites showed an increase of 63.7% and 81.1% brinell hardness compared to the base alloy [14]. The fabrication of composite material poses problems because of density variation between the matrix material and reinforcement material. The common methods employed for the production of composites include casting, powder metallurgy, friction stir casting, ball milling, hot rolling, and vacuum hot pressing. Among these methods casting and powder metallurgy are commonly used. Though casting process is of low cost and has high production rate, it has a problem of formation of clusters and agglomeration of reinforcement of particles in the base metal. On the other hand the powder metallurgy technique of manufacturing the components eliminates the reinforcement segregation. But there is a chance of clustering which may occur due to static charges acting on particle surfaces or because of large differences between the matrix and reinforcement particle sizes. This can be overcome by ball milling the powder particles which increase the homogeneity by deformation, fracturing and cold welding of particles, and embedding the reinforcing particles in the aluminum matrix. Many researchers have fabricated nanacomposites using ball milling and studied the effect of milling time on properties of composites. Corrochano et al. [15]

5.2.2 Experimental details

115

studied the effect of ball milling on Al-MOS2 composites. Yield stress and tensile strength of the composites increased with the addition of reinforcement particles. With increase in milling time the homogeneity of the composites increased and tensile property of the composite increased without loss of ductility [15]. Liu et al. [16] produced carbon nanotube reinforced aluminum composites by ball milling and powder metallurgy. With the increase in ball milling time, the dispersion of carbon nanotubes increased and achieved uniform dispersion after 6 h of ball milling. With the increase in ball milling time, the tensile and yield strength increased whereas the elongation increased first and then decreased [16]. Al 6061 and 1.0 wt% graphene composites were fabricated by ball milling followed by precompaction and hot-compaction in semisolid region. The flexural strength of the composites decreased with the ball milling times in the range of 10–30 min. The strength increased by 47% and 34%, respectively, for 60 and 90 min of ball milling times [5]. Shin and Bae [17] produced Al2024 graphene composites using ball milling and hot rolling process and reported that 7% volume of graphene composite has improved tensile properties. In the present experimental investigation, Al-10 wt% Al2O3-0, 5, 10, and 15 wt% fly ash composites were prepared with ball milling the powder and by powder metallurgy technique. The ball milling time is varied from 0 to 9 h in steps of 3. The powder metallurgical characteristics like ejection pressure, green density, percentage porosity, and compressive strength is reported.

5.2.2 Experimental details 5.2.2.1 Materials used The materials used in the present study are powders of aluminum, alumina, and fly ash. The aluminum and alumina powders are purchased from the commercial suppliers and are of 99.99% and 99.97% purity. The aluminum powder is of 100 µm and alumina powder is of 60–325 µm. The fly ash is collected from Dr. Narla Tata Rao Thermal Power Station (Krishna, Andhra Pradesh, India). The particle size of the asreceived fly ash is in the range of 60–100 µm. The chemical composition of the fly ash consists of oxides of silicon, iron, aluminum, calcium, titanium, and so on [7]. The compositions selected for this study are Al-10 wt% Al2O3 and 0–15 wt% fly ash in steps of 5. The designation of the composites is presented in Table 5.2.

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Chapter 5.2 Effect of ball milling on compacting characteristics

Table 5.2: Designation of composites. S. no.

Composite designation

Composition

   

C C C C

Al- wt% AlO and  wt% fly ash Al- wt% AlO and  wt% fly ash Al- wt% AlO and  wt% fly ash Al- wt% AlO and  wt% fly ash

5.2.3 Preparation of composites The composite preparation consists of weighing and mixing of powders, milling the powders, and compaction of powders.

5.2.3.1 Weighing and mixing of powders A batch of 200 g powder is prepared by weighing the individual powders as per the required composition with an electronic balance of least count 0.001 g. The weighed powders are blended using mixing chamber fitted eccentrically to the lathe machine and rotated for duration of 1 h at 32 rpm with change in rotation for every 5 min from clockwise to anticlockwise [7]. The weighed powders are sealed in a container and stored for further usage.

5.2.3.2 Milling of powders To study the effect of ball milling on the properties of the composites, the prepared powders are milled in a planetary mill (PBM07) for a duration of 0, 3, 6, and 9 h. To maintain free space for the balls to move and in turn transfer energy to material, 20 g of the composite powder is loaded into the ball mill vials of 250 g capacity. At a time, four different compositions are loaded in four different containers of the mill. The ball milling was performed in automatic mode with 30 min of milling followed by pause mode for another 30 min. To minimize sticking of the powder to the walls of the vial and ball surface, about 1–1.5 wt% stearic acid is used as the processes control agent. The ball mill used is shown in Figure 5.10, and the parameters adopted during ball milling are provided in Table 5.3.

5.2.4 Results

117

Figure 5.10: Reinforcement preparation: (a) planetary mill, (b) container with balls; and (c) ball mill display.

Table 5.3: Ball mill parameters. S. no.

Parameter

Value

        

Balls/powder ratio Weight of balls Atmosphere PCA Weight of powder Grinding medium Milling time Type of mill Milling speed

:  g Air . wt% stearic acid  g Hardened steel , , and  h (pause every  min) Planetary mill  rpm

5.2.3.3 Compaction of powders The composite specimens are prepared by conventional powder metallurgy technique using single die compaction processes of the blended and ball-milled powders on compression testing machine of 100 Ton capacity. The compaction pressure used is 500 MPa.

5.2.4 Results The results obtained from the present experimental work are presented below. The ejection pressure, green density, and the percentage porosity are presented in Table 5.4. The compressive strength of the composites is presented in Tables 5.5 and 5.6.

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Chapter 5.2 Effect of ball milling on compacting characteristics

Table 5.4: Ejection pressure, green density, and percentage porosity of composites. Composite

Compaction pressure (MPa)

Ejection pressure (MPa)

Green density (kN/m)

Theoretical density (kN/m)

percentage porosity

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

 h ball milling    

C C C C

. . . .  h ball milling

   

C C C C

. . . .  h ball milling

   

C C C C

. . . .  h ball milling

   

C C C C

. . . .

Table 5.5: Compressive strength at 500 MPa for 0 h ball mill composites. S. no.    

Composite

Compressive strength (MPa)

C C C C

. . . .

Table 5.6: Compressive strength of C2 composite compacted at 500 MPa at different ball milling times. S. no.    

Milling time (h)

Compressive strength (MPa)

   

. . . .

5.2.5 Discussions on results

119

5.2.5 Discussions on results To study the effect of fly ash content on Al–Al2O3 composites, four different composites were prepared with the variation of fly ash from 0% to 15% in steps of 5. For the composite having maximum compressive strength, ball milling is carried at 0–9 h in steps of 3. All the composite specimens were prepared by compacting the blended powders at 500 MPa compaction pressure, and the discussion on results are presented below.

5.2.5.1 Powder characteristics The size and shape of the as-received fly-ash particles is determined using sieve analysis and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). About 90% of the fly ash particles size is in the range of 90–300 µm and fly ash particles is of spherical shape. The aluminum particles are of elongated spherical shape with the particle size ranging from 3 to 50 µm. The SEM photographs of blended and ball milled powders of Al-10 wt% Al2O3-5 wt% fly ash powders at different milling times are shown in Figure 5.11(a–d). For 0 h of ball milled sample, the particle size is large compared to the ball milled composite powder.

Figure 5.11: SEM micrographs of Al-10% Al2O3-5% fly ash milled for (a) 0, (b) 3, (c) 6, and (d) 9 h.

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Chapter 5.2 Effect of ball milling on compacting characteristics

Figure 5.11(a) shows the microstructure of the blended Al-10% Al2O3-5% flay ash powder. It is observed that the powder particles are homogeneously distributed and also the elemental powders are clearly observed. Figure 5.11(b)–(d) shows the microstructure of the blended ball milled powder for ball milling duration of 3, 6, and 9 h, respectively. During ball milling, the blended powder is repeatedly impacted by the balls in motion, and these balls roll down freely on the entire surface of the container and cause impact forces on the powder particles and transmits kinetic energy. Because of the transmitted energy, the constituent powders are plastically deformed, fractured, and cold-welded and forms homogeneous nanostructured material. In the initial stage of ball milling processes, the powder mixture tends to flatten because of ductile nature of aluminum and also the numbers of broken particles of brittle reinforcement materials (Al2O3 and fly ash) are less. This can be clearly observed in Figure 5.11(b) for 3 h ball milled powder. As the milling time increases, the particles become round and homogenized by means of particle size. After 9 h of ball milling, the flattening tendency ends and spherical particles are formed.

5.2.5.2 Compacting characteristics The effects of ball milling time on the compacting characterises like ejection pressure, green density, percentage porosity, and compressive strength are discussed below. 5.2.5.2.1 Ejection pressure The effect of ball milling time on the ejection pressure of the composites is shown in Figure 5.12. It is observed that the ejection pressure of the composites increases with the increase in ball milling time up to 6 h and thereafter decreases. The increase in ejection pressure with the increase in milling time can be attributed to the flattened shape of the aluminum particles due to ball milling, and this can be clearly observed in Figure 5.11(b). As shown in Figure 5.11(d), at 9 h of ball milling the spherical shape particles are formed, and this may be the reason for the decrease in ejection pressure. Also with the increase in fly ash content, the ejection pressure increased for all the composites under study. 5.2.5.2.2 Green density The effect of ball milling time on green density of the composites is shown in Figure 5.13. It is observed that, with the increase in ball milling time, the green density decreases, and this may be attributed to the decrease in particle size with increase in milling time. Also the green density decreases with the increase in wt% of fly ash, and this is due to lower density of fly ash compared to aluminum and alumina.

5.2.5 Discussions on results

121

Ejection Pressure (MPa)

100 80 0 % FA

60

5 % FA 10 % FA

40

15 % FA 20 0 0

3 6 Ball Milling Time (Hours)

9

Figure 5.12: Effect of ball milling time on ejection pressure of composites.

Green Density (KN/m 3)

25

23 0 % FA 21

5 % FA 10 % FA

19

15 % FA

17 0

3

6

9

Ball Milling Time (Hours) Figure 5.13: Effect of ball milling time on green density of composites.

5.2.5.2.3 Percentage porosity The percentage porosity of the composites with respect to ball milling time is shown in Figure 5.14. 5.2.5.2.4 Compressive strength The effect of wt% fly ash on compressive strength of Al-10% Al2O3-fly ash composites compacted at 500 MPa is shown in Figure 5.15. The compressive strength of the composites increases with the increase in fly ash content up to 5 wt% and thereafter decreases.

122

Chapter 5.2 Effect of ball milling on compacting characteristics

30 25

% Porosity

20 0 % FA 15

5 % FA 10 % FA

10

15 % FA

5 0 0

3

6

9

Ball Milling Time (Hours) Figure 5.14: Effect of ball-milling time on percentage porosity of composites.

140 Compressive Strength (MPa)

Al – 10 % Al 2 O3 – Fly Ash 120

100 500 MPa 80

60 0

5

10

15

Weight percent of fly ash Figure 5.15: Effect of wt% fly ash on compressive strength.

The effect of ball milling time on the compressive strength of Al-10% Al2O3-5% fly ash composite compacted at 500 MPa is shown in Figure 5.16. It is observed that the compressive strength increases with the ball milling time up to 3 h and thereafter decreases.

References

Compressive Strength (MPa)

200

123

Al – 10 % Al 2 O3 – 5 % Fly Ash

160 120 80

500 MPa

40 0 0

3

6

9

Ball Milling Time (Hours) Figure 5.16: Effect of ball milling time on compressive strength.

5.2.6 Conclusions The conclusions drawn from the present experimentation work are: (i) The morphology of the powder particles change with ball milling; initially the ductile particles are flattened and subsequently change to spherical shape. (ii) The ejection pressure of the composites increases with the increase in milling time and with increase in wt% of fly ash. (iii) The green density of the composites decreases with the increase in milling time and wt% of fly ash. (iv) The Al-10% Al2O3-5% fly ash composite has maximum compressive strength compared to other composites under study. (v) The compressive strength of Al-10% Al2O3-5% fly ash composite increases with the increase in milling time upto 3 h and thereafter decreases.

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[2]

[3]

Dobrzaski, L.A., Wodarczyk-Fligier, A. and Adamiak, M., 2006. Structure and properties of PM composite materials based on EN AW-2124 aluminum alloy reinforced with the BN or Al2O3 ceramics particles. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 175, pp. 186–191. Rahimian, M., Parvin, N. and Ehsani, N., 2010. Investigation of particle size and amount of alumina on microstructure and mechanical properties of Al matrix composite made by powder metallurgy. Material Science and Engineering: A, 527, pp. 1031–1038. Rahimian, M., Ehsani, N., Parvin, N. and Baharvandi, H.R., 2009. The effect of particle size, sintering temperature and sintering time on the properties of Al-Al2O3 composites made by powder metallurgy. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 209, pp. 5387–5393.

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[17]

Chapter 5.2 Effect of ball milling on compacting characteristics

kolli, M., Dasari, S.N., Potluri, N.S. and Ramprasad, A.V.S., 2020. Influence of rock dust reinforcement on mechanical properties of Al composite using friction stir processing. Australian Journal of Mechanical Engineering, -10-22. Bastwros, M., Kim, G.-Y., Zhu, C., Zhang, K., Wang, S., Tang, X. and Wang, X., 2014. Effect of ball milling on graphene reinforced Al6061 composite fabricated by semi-solid sintering. Composites Part B, 60, pp. 111–118. Tiwari, S. and Pradhan, M.K., 2017. Effect of rice husk ash on properties of aluminium alloys: A review. Material Today: Proceedings, 4(2), A, pp. 486–495. Reddy, S.P., Chandrasekhara Rao, P.V. and Kolli, M., Sep 2018. Effect of reinforcement on compacting characteristics of Aluminium/10-Al2O3/Fly ash metal matrix composite. ASTM Journal of Testing and Evaluation. Dirisenapu, G., Dumpala, L. and Reddy, S.P., 2021. Parametric optimisation of tribological characteristics of novel Al7010/B4C/BN hybrid metal matrix nanocomposites using taguchi technique. Australian Journal of Mechanical Engineering, doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/ 14484846.2021.1938940. Dirisenapu, G., Dumpala, L. and Reddy, S.P., The influence of B4C and BN nanoparticles on Al 7010 hybrid metal matrix nanocomposites. Emerging Materials Research, 9(3), pp. 558–563. https://doi. org/10.1680/jemmr.19.00080. Published online 10/06/2020-ESCI. Dirisenapu, G., Dumpala, L. and Reddy, S.P., Dry sliding tribological behaviour of Al7010/B4C/BN hybride metal matrix nanocomposites prepared by ultrasonic assisted stir casting, Transaction of the Indian Institute of Metals, 27 November 2020 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12666020-02128-y Sambathkumar, M., Navaneethakrishnan, P., Ponappa, K. and Sasikumar, K.S.K., 2017. Mechanical and corrosion behavior of Al7075 (Hybrid) metal matrix composite by two step stir casting processes. Latin American Journal of Solids and Structures, 14, pp. 243–255. Boopathi, M., Arulshri, K.P. and Iyanduri, N. 2013. evaluation of mechanical properties of aluminum alloy 2024 reinforced with silicon carbide and fly ash hybrid metal matrix composites. American Journal of Applied Sciences, 10(3), pp. 219–229. Ravindran, P., Manisekar, K., Vinoth Kumar, S. and Rathika, P., 2013. Investigation of microstructure and mechanical properties of aluminium hybrid nano-composites with the additions of solid lubricant. Materials & Design, 51, pp. 448–456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2013.04.015. Kannan, C. and Ramanujam, R., 2017. Comparative study on the mechanical and microstructure characterisation of AA7075 nano and hybrid nanacomposites produced by stir and squeeze casting. Journal of Advanced Research, 8(4), pp. 309–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jare.2017.02.005. Corrochano, J., Lieblich, M. and Ibanez, J., 2011. The effect of ball milling on the microstructure of powder metallurgy aluminium matrix composites reinforced with MoSi2 intermetallic particles. Composites Part A, 42, pp. 1093–1099. Liu, Z.Y., Xu, S.J., Xiao, B.L., Xue, P., Wang, W.G. and Ma, Z.Y., 2012. Effect of ball-milling time on mechanical properties of carbon nanotubes reinforced aluminium matrix composites. Composites Part A, 43, pp. 2161–2168. Shin, S.E. and Bae, D.H., 2018. Deformation behaviour of aluminium alloy matrix composites reinforced with few-layer graphene. Composites, 78(5), pp. 42–47.

Chapter 5.3 Effects of incorporation of rock dust particles to friction stir processed AA7075 on the microstructure and mechanical properties Gopichand Dirisenapu✶, Laxmanaraju Salavaravu, Lingaraju Dumpala, Pagoti Lokesh, Satyanarayana Mallapu Abstract: This study used different percentages of rock dust as reinforcement particles in AA7075 (0, 3, 6, 9, 12, and 15 wt%). Rock dust is a by-product of the crushing of rocks used to produce gravel aggregates. This research aims to assess the impact of rock dust reinforcements on mechanical characteristics and aluminum-based surface composites manufactured through friction stir processing (FSP). The rock dust particles are evenly distributed in the aluminum composites from scanning electron microscopic (SEM) observations. The fixed input variables in the FSP are 1,250 rpm tool rotational speed, 45 mm/min tool traverse speed, and 1° tool tilt angle. The output response revealed that adding rock dust particles increases with enhanced wear resistance. The ultimate tensile strength and microhardness enhanced with rock dust particles in the aluminum material, and the impact strength was reduced. The surface morphology of the wear samples was observed using SEM. Keywords: Friction stir processing, rock dust, mechanical properties

5.3.1 Introduction Aluminum is one of the most often used metals due to its low weight and strong corrosion resistance. Due to its superior strength-to-weight ratio, AA7075 is widely employed in aviation, aerospace, and national defense. Manufacturing defects including porosity and cracks cause localized corrosion in AA7075. Age hardening, particle reinforcing, and surface coatings are used to control corrosion. The reinforcement in the metal matrix impacts its strength and durability. Particle reinforcing is an useful way to increase mechanical properties. Particle reinforcing techniques include stir casting, ultrasonic stir casting, and friction stir processing (FSP) [1–3]. Most researchers have recently focused on FSP as an innovative alternative to the friction stir welding technique in manufacturing aluminum-based surface composites. A rotatable tool is pressed downward and dissolves the reinforcing phase uniformly across the matrix [4]. Pasha et al. [5] investigated the use of FSP to manufacture AA7075 matrix surface composites (AMSC). Variation of process parameters such as ✶

Corresponding author: Gopichand Dirisenapu, e-mail: [email protected]

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110766523-008

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Chapter 5.3 Effects of incorporation of rock dust particles

tool rotational speed (TRS), tool traverse speed (TTS), and number of passes (NP) results in improved mechanical and microstructural properties for AMSC billets. It has been shown that the average grain size of AMSCs is significantly refined, and the number of FSP significantly affects the AMCs’ wear resistance. Butola et al. [6] investigated the parametric effects of tool rotational speed, tool pin profile and reinforcement on the microhardness and microstructural properties of AA7075 FSP. The average microhardness of the AA7075/B4C composite was 1.50–1.60 times that of the base material, suggesting that the B4C surpasses SiC and rice husk ash in terms of microhardness enhancement. Hussain et al. [7] used a variety of FSP tool profiles to produce the AA7075–T651 composite reinforced with TiN particles. The findings indicated that the composite’s wear properties improved. Only the threaded tool was used to achieve the hardness increase. Bansal and Saini [8] studied the surface composite’s mechanical and wear characteristics reinforced with SiC and SiC/Gr particles on the Al359 alloy’s surface. The Al/SiC/Gr composite was claimed to have higher hardness, ultimate tensile strength (UTS), and wear resistance than the Al359 alloy. Many researchers have conducted experiments on the tensile strength characteristics of AA7075, utilizing a wide range of reinforcing particles, to determine the manufactured samples’ effectiveness under tensile loading [9–12]. According to Ahamed et al. [13], AA6061 exhibits excellent toughness, wear, and strength properties when reinforced with rock dust. The stir casting process is used to create particulate metal matrix composites (MMCs) that are supported with rock dust at 4, 8, 12, and 16 wt%. The experiment demonstrates that a 16% rock dust sample has a high hardness level and a lower rate of wear due to the higher limitations on localized matrix deformation. Prakash et al. [14] investigated the wear properties of AA6061 with the addition of rock dust. The addition of rock dust as a reinforcement improved AA6061’s wear resistance. Rock dust is utilized as the material for reinforcement. Twenty-five to thirty percent of total quarry dust production is emitted into the atmosphere as pollution. Long-term exposure to the air contaminated by rock dust causes difficulties with the respiratory tract and visual impairments. Using rock dust to reinforce AMCs has the benefit of decreasing issues. Introducing rock dust particles resulted in composites with improved mechanical and wear properties and reduced production costs. This study produced AA7075–rock dust surface composites using FSP and various percentages of rock dust as reinforcement (3, 6, 9, 12, and 15 wt%) under constant processing conditions. According to ASME standards, a water jet cutter was used to cut the specimens from the agitation zone of the surface composite. These specimens are evaluated for tensile, impact, and microhardness mechanical properties. Using the SEM microstructure of the specimens, the distribution of the reinforced particles is also examined.

127

5.3.2 Experimental procedure

5.3.2 Experimental procedure The surface composite is made from commercially available AA7075 plates with a thickness of 6 mm. Table 5.7 shows the chemical formula for AA7075. As reinforcement, less than 30 µm of rock dust particles were employed at various weight percentages. Mechanical sieving improves sieve grit size from 100 to 30 µm by 15 µm [15]. Table 5.8 shows the rock dust’s chemical composition. Table 5.7: Chemical composition of AA7075. Element

Si

Mn

Fe

Mg

Cr

Cu

Ti

Zn

Al

wt%

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Balance

Table 5.8: Chemical composition of rock dust. Element

SiC

AlO

Ca

Fe

MgO

K

S

wt%

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Figure 5.17 shows 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, and 2.5 mm diameter and 4 mm depth and 34 circular holes throughout the plate surface with equal intervals. The reinforced rock dust is stuffed into the circular holes based on 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, and 15 wt%. FSPed without pin profile tool is passed throughout the workpiece, and the holes are sealed using this process. After the sealed operation, the square TPP with 1,250 rpm TRS and 45 mm/min TTS, 1° TTA is used to conduct FSP, performed using an FSW-3 T machine shown in Figure 5.18. Rock dust reinforced filled work plates and FSPed plates are shown in Figure 5.19(a) and (b).

Figure 5.17: Work piece after drilling holes.

In the FSP, various process parameters are affected, mainly TPP, TRS, and TTS. The previous literature selected the process parameters: square TPP, 1,250 rpm TRS, 45 mm/min TTS, and 1° TPP. The experimentation is conducted by using those process parameters. Before going to experiment, the experimentation design is prepared using the Taguchi method in MINITAB-17 statistical software. The defined process variables are mentioned in Table 5.9.

128

Chapter 5.3 Effects of incorporation of rock dust particles

Figure 5.18: Experimental setup.

Figure 5.19: (a) Drilled holes stuffed with rock dust and (b) FSP plates. Table 5.9: Experimental process variables. FSP process parameters

Description

Work piece material with thickness Friction stir welding machine FSP tool type FST tool material Rock dust particle size Percentage of rock dust particle Spindle rotational speed Traverse rotational speed Tilt angle

Al  and  mm  T capacity Square pin tool H tool steel  µm %, %, %, %, and % , rpm  mm/min °

5.3.3 Results and discussions

129

The square pin tool was made of H13 tool steel and had a 20 mm shoulder diameter using a 6 × 6 mm sides and 5.8 mm tool pin length. Rock dust with weight percentages of 3%, 6%, 9%, 12%, and 15% is put into the grooves of each of the five Al plates. The drilled holes are initially covered by a tool with a single shoulder devoid of a pin to avoid reinforcement from escaping during processing. Using a CNC milling machine, tensile and impact testing specimens were cut from the stir zone and the resulting surface composites. An UTM device (TUE-C-200) with a 200 kN maximum load was used to test the samples. On an impact testing device (FIT 300(EN)) with a 2 mm depth “V” notch, the impact test was conducted. Using a Vickers digital microhardness tester and a force of 300 g, microhardness was measured for 15 s (make: ECONOMET, Model: VH1MD, SR No: CH27497).

5.3.3 Results and discussions 5.3.3.1 Microstructural characterization of AMMCs The FESEM graph (Figure 5.20) shows the presence of rock dust particles in the composite AA7075 and uniform distribution throughout the matrix.

Figure 5.20: High UTS specimen of AA7075 with 9 wt% of rock dust SEM analysis.

The presence of reinforcing particles is shown in the SEM micrograph as bright phases. To strengthen identification reinforcement, a sample of 9 wt% rock dust was AA7075 composite illustration morphology of rock dust particles of 0.73 µm size and was displayed in Figure 5.20.

130

Chapter 5.3 Effects of incorporation of rock dust particles

5.3.3.2 Effect of rock dust on hardness of AMMCs The fabricated composite materials were subjected to microhardness testing. Figure 5.21 illustrates the average values of microhardness test findings. Increased wt% of rock dust particles up to nine in Al matrix increased microhardness, while agglomeration lowered it. Reinforcement particles distributed evenly in the matrix material by the FSP and grain refinement increase AMC microhardness. As a result of the Hall–Petch mechanism, the composite is strengthened [3]. Additionally, differences in the coefficient of thermal expansion between the reinforcement particles and the matrix material improve dislocation movement difficulties, resulting in higher dislocation densities and, eventually, quench hardening, strengthening the composite even more [4]. 140 Microhardness(HV)

120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0

3

6

9

12

15

Wt% of Rock Dust Figure 5.21: Microhardness with wt% of rock dust reinforcement.

5.3.3.3 Effect of rock dust on tensile strength of AMMCs Figure 5.22 displays the yield tensile strength (YTS) results. It indicated the enhancement in YTS, that is, 264–332 N/mm2; when incorporating wt% of rock dust particles 0–9, it then decreased. The rock dust particles have been spread uniformly throughout the AMMCs. The increased adhesion strength between the Al and reinforcement is shown in the improvement in YTS. Nevertheless, the UTS was increased with enhanced wt% of rock dust particles up to 9 wt% in the AMMCs, that is, 294–358 N/mm2, and then reduced due to agglomeration of particles in the AAMCs. Increased UTS is due to stress concentration from the matrix to the higher 9 wt% rock dust particles. Increased rock dust has lowered UTS (Figure 5.22). Rock dust increased the composite’s brittleness, decreasing UTS.

5.3.3 Results and discussions

131

YTS, UTS Vs Wt% of Rock Dust Yield strength (N/mm2)

0

3

358 332

346 307

319 286

294 264

Ultimate tensile strength (N/mm2)

6

9

343 318

12

331 304

15

Figure 5.22: YTS and UTS with wt% of rock dust reinforcement.

5.3.3.4 Influence of rock dust on the impact strength of AMMCs The influence of the incorporation of rock dust particles on the impact strength of the manufactured composites is displayed in Figure 5.23. The impact strength was reduced by increasing the wt% of rock dust up to nine in the AMMCs. With reinforcement, rock dust’s impact strength is reduced. Some researchers noticed that adding more rock dust to the matrix reduces impact strength. With rock dust particles in the composites, the composite material changed its nature to brittle and acted as stress concentration areas; the impact strength was reduced [16]. 35

Impact energy (J)

30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0

3

6 9 Wt% of Rock Dust

Figure 5.23: Impact strength with wt% of rock dust reinforcement.

12

15

132

Chapter 5.3 Effects of incorporation of rock dust particles

Some researchers have shown similar outcomes in impact strength when using agro wastes as reinforcement such as coconut shell ash, rice husk, and bagasse ash as reinforcement. Mixing rock dust particles diminishes the elasticity of the composites and raises the stress concentration regions that result in the establishment of cracks, and failure initiates in these areas. The impact strength of composites is reduced by the formation of extra minor cracks at the interface, which are signs of failure in the matrix. Proper particle dispersion in the matrix may have increased impact strength.

5.3.4 Conclusion In this work, an experimental study has been carried out to enhance the machinability of AA7075 through reinforcement by rock dust. The rock dust has been reinforced with AA7075 through FSP, and an MMC was formed. Various drill holes are created on the base metal of AA7075, an FSPed specimen reinforced by rock dust. Based on the experimental results, the following conclusions were drawn for the proposed set of process parameters: – FSP in situ synthesized Al and 3–15 wt% rock dust composites. – The microhardness of 9 wt% Al/rock dust composites increased with reinforcing particles. – Rock dust reinforcements lowered yield strength and UTS by over 9 wt%. – Adding rock dust to the composites improved the composite’s impact strength.

References [1]

[2]

[3]

[4] [5]

[6]

Dwivedi, S.P., Sahu, R., Srivastava, A.K., Maurya, N.K., Tyagi, A. and Maurya, R.K., 2019. Machining and thermal behavior of thermal power plant waste reinforced composite material. Materials Today: Proceedings. Kumar, A., Pal, K. and Mula, S., 2017. Simultaneous improvement of mechanical strength, ductility and corrosion resistance of stir cast Al7075-2% SiC micro-and nanocomposites by friction stir processing. Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 30, pp. 1–13. Kumar, A., Sharma, S.K., Pal, K. and Mula, S., 2017. Effect of process parameters on microstructural evolution, mechanical properties and corrosion behavior of friction stir processed Al 7075 alloy. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 26(3), pp. 1122–1134. Mishra, R.S., Ma, Z.Y. and Charit, I., 2003. Friction stir process- ing: A novel technique for fabrication of surface com- posite. Materials Science and Engineering, 341, pp. 307–310. Pasha, S.A., Reddy, R. and Laxmi Narayana, P., 2017. Wear behavior and microstructural characterization of AA7075/MWCNT surface composites fabricated through friction stir processing. IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, 14(03), pp. 140–146. doi: https://doi.org/10.9790/1684-140305140146. Butola, R., Ranganath, M.S. and Murtaza, Q., 2019. Fabrication and optimization of AA7075 matrix surface composites using Taguchi technique via friction stir processing (FSP). Engineering Research Express, 1(2). doi: https://doi.org/10.1088/2631-8695/ab4b00.

References

[7]

[8] [9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13] [14]

[15]

[16]

133

Hussain, G., Hashemi, R., Hashemi, H. and Khalid, A., 2016. An experimental study on multi-pass friction stir processing of Al/TiN composite: Some microstructural, mechanical, and wear characteristics. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 84, pp. 533–546. Bansal, S. and Saini, J.S., 2015. Mechanical and wear properties of SiC/Graphite Reinforced Al359 alloy-based metal matrix composite. Defence Science Journal, 65, pp. 330. Kubit, A., Kluz, R., Trzepieciński, T., Wydrzyński, D. and Bochnowski, W., 2018. Analysis of the mechanical properties and of micrographs of refill friction stir spot welded 7075-T6 aluminium sheets. Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, 18, pp. 235–244. doi: 10.1016/j. acme.2017.07.005. Johannes, L.B. and Mishra, R.S., 2007. Multiple passes of friction stir processing for the creation ofsuperplastic 7075 aluminum. Materials Science and Engineering, 464, pp. 255–260. doi: 10.1016/j. msea.2007.01.141. Rana, H.G., Badheka, V.J. and Kumar, A., 2016. Fabrication of Al7075 / B4C surface composite by novel friction stir processing (FSP) and investigation on wear properties. Procedia Technology, 23, pp. 519–528. doi: 10.1016/j.protcy.2016.03.058. Padhy, G.K., Wu, C.S. and Gao, S., 2017. Friction stir based welding and processing technologies processes, parameters, microstructures and applications: A review. Journal of Materials Science & Technology, 34, pp. 1–38. doi: 10.1016/j.jmst.2017.11.029. Ahamed, S., Shilpa, P.C. and Roshan, J.D., 2019. Experimental Investigation of Hardness and Wear Behaviour of Al6061 / Rock Dust Metal Matrix Composite. 7–9. Soorya Prakash, K., Nagaraj, A. and Gopal, P.M., 2015. Dry sliding wear charac- terization of Al 6061/ rockdust composite. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 25(12), pp. 3893–3903. doi: 10.1016/S1003-6326(15)64036-5. Reddy, S.P., Rao, P.C. and Kolli, M., 2018Sep18. Effect of reinforcement on compacting characteristics of aluminum/10-Al2O3/fly ash metal matrix composite. Journal of Testing and Evaluation, 48(2), pp. 955–969. Dinaharan, I., Nelson, R., Vijay, S.J. and Akinlabi, E.T., 2016. Microstructure and wear characterization of aluminum matrix composites reinforced with industrial waste fly ash particulates synthesized by friction stir processing. Materials Characterization, 118, pp. 149–158. doi: 10.1016/j. matchar.2016.05.017.

Chapter 6 Agriculture waste composites 6.1 Effect on density and hardness of aluminum metal matrix composite with the addition of bamboo leaf ash Praveen Kumar Bannaravuri✶, Gadudasu Baburao, K. Ch Appa Rao, P Srinivas Rao, Anil Kumar Birru, K Samuel Charan Kumar, T. Ravi Abstract: Development of aluminum composites is an important design class with lightweight structural materials to promote international engineering applications. There has been a growing interest in aluminum alloys combined with low density and cost-effectiveness reinforcements. Bamboo leaf ash (BLA) particles were used as cost-effective reinforcement in the present work, and they were collected from the farm lands of India. The current research work is being done to use the ashes of bamboo leaves in a practical way embedding it in an Al-4.5Cu matrix to produce composites with a stir casting route. BLA characterization and the composites were done by optical and scanning electron microscope and X-ray diffraction. Density of bamboo ash particles and composites that are formed by the addition of ashes of bamboo leaves at 0, 2, 4, and 6 wt% was measured. The dispersion of BLA particles is a combination homogeneously and has a clear interface well-bonded between the particles of the BLA and the matrix mixture. Results reviled that the density of the aluminum matrix was reduced with the incorporation of lower dens ash particle, and it was observed that the porosity was increased. The hardness was potentially improved by adding ash particles which acted as an element of load bearing. Keywords: Aluminum composite, stir casting, bamboo leaf ash, density, characterization, X-ray diffraction

6.1.1 Introduction Advanced engineering materials called metal matrix composites (MMCs) contain more than two different materials, out of which one is metal, to obtain the required properties [1, 2]. Aluminum alloys attracted a lot of devotion as a matrix material in compounds due to their unique arrangement of lightweight, very good resistance to corrosion, high wear resistance, and an admirable mechanical property [3]. Aluminum metal matrix composites (AMMCs) are widely employed in the automotive, aviation, and among several other ✶

Corresponding author: Praveen Kumar Bannaravuri, e-mail: [email protected]

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110766523-009

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Chapter 6 Agriculture waste composites

industries [4]. Current research endeavors focused on AMMC development, automotive fuel economy development, and research attempts aimed at high strength-to-weight ratio [5]. Most standard AMMCs continue to be expensive, and they have limited their use in many structural and nonstructural materials. The research is being highlighted on producing the cost-effective or better AMMC applications in engineering. With an inexpensive composite, researchers employed with the waste of silica rich from two different products as a reinforcement material. Among the various agricultural waste products and industries, the low-density bamboo leaf ash (BLA) is available abundantly in the northeast region of India. It is recognized as a reinforced material and is being researched as a replacement for the comparably more costly reinforcements [6]. Previous researchers have done experimental work to study the density, mechanical, and tribological properties with a variety of ash particles such as rice husk ash (RHA), fruit seed ash, and fly ash combined with aluminum-based compounds, which concludes large number increase in hardness, tensile strength stiffness, and wear resistance with lightweight (low density) [7–12]. Using the stir casting technique, Prasad et al. [7] researched for dry sliding wear of Al-RHA AMMCs. It was reported that the produced AMMCs with added RHA particles had wear resistance. Atuanya et al. [8] developed an Al–Si–Fe alloy reinforced with breadfruit seed hull ash and suggested that with the addition of Breadfruit seed shell ash particles in composites, the density is greatly reduced and the tensile strength and hardness increased. Mahendra and Radhakrishna [10] form a combination of metal matrix using Al-4.5Cu alloy as a matrix material and fly ash with a different weight percentage (5–15 wt%) as a reinforcement material. Compounds produced by stir casting method increased the impact, compressive, and tensile strength and also hardness but density and corrosion resistance were reduced by the addition of fly ash content. Al–SiC–BLA were produced by Alaneme et al. [11] using the stir casting method, and it was observed that the BLA component caused a significant reduction in density. This study focuses on BLA particles influenced on density and microstructures of Al-4.5Cu alloy. BLA is processed and characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) as well as density of particle measured by the standard procedure. BLA was used as a reinforcement with Al-4.5Cu alloy in 2, 4, and 6 wt% and were added to the matrix by stir casting and density measured at room temperature. BLA particles in fabricated composite were certified with optical microscope (OM), SEM through energy-dispersive analysis of X-rays (EDAX), and XRD analysis.

6.1.2 Experimental particulars 6.1.2.1 Materials The matrix used for the current research work was made out of aluminum with 4.5 wt% copper as the major alloying component. Table 6.1 presents the chemical composition of the aforementioned alloy. The BLA was treated according to the industry standards.

137

6.1.2 Experimental particulars

Table 6.1: Chemical composition of Al-4.5 wt% Cu alloy [2]. Element Cu Wt%

Fe

Si

Mn

Zn

Ni

Mg

Pb

Sn

Ti

Al

. . . . . . . . . . Balance

During the manufacture of composite materials, magnesium ingots are utilized to enhance wetting between the BLA particles and the matrix alloy.

6.1.2.2 BLA preparation According to the steps outlined by Alaneme et al. [13], BLA has been made. The ash particles were prepared with dried leaves of bamboo and collected on the farmlands as shown in Figure 6.1.

Figure 6.1: Dry bamboo leaves.

The ash was the milled with high energy ball mill and conditioned using resistant electricity furnace at about 650 °C upto 3 h for removing carbonaceous material. High amount of silica covering the ash was obtained and used as particles to strengthen the economy production of AMMCs. BLA is a greyish-white color after exposure to 650 °C as shown in Figure 6.2 and a BLA sieve by a sieve shaker to get mesh size of ashes with less than 75 µm. The chemical elements are identified from XRD analysis and presented in Table 6.2.

138

Chapter 6 Agriculture waste composites

Figure 6.2: Prepared BLA particles.

Table 6.2: Chemical elements of bamboo leaf ash. Element

SiO

CaO

KO

C

AlO

MgO

FeO

Wt%

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

6.1.2.3 Composite fabrication The stir casting system was chosen for the fabrication of composite as a lucrative method and be able to fabricate ample of materials and easy operation as shown in Figure 6.3 since good bond between matrix and particles was obtained in this method [14]. The fabrication of composites project inflow chart is shown in Figure 6.4. A steel mold is used to shape the finished composite material at room temperature. Table 6.3 shows how the composite is made up of BLA particles at 0–6 wt% range in step of 2 wt% difference. Figure 6.5 shows how the fabricated composites are divided into samples for microstructure analysis and density measurements.

6.1.2.4 Particle density measurement The density of BLA particles is described by ISO 8962 standard, using 100 ml glass pycnometer [15]. The pycnometer was first cleaned and then dried, and weight (M1) was measured with a digital electric balance having a value of least count 0.0001 g and filled with water is calculated up to the stopper and is reweighted (M2). The volume of the pycnometer is found using eq. (6.2) (M2):

6.1.2 Experimental particulars

Figure 6.3: Stir casting experimental setup.

Pre-heated Al-4.5Cu

Al-4.5Cu alloy Melted

Temperature was

alloy and BLA at

in induction electric

brought down up to

350°C

resistance furnace at

620-650°C (Semi-

800°C

solid condition)

The temperature

After complete

raised up to 750°C to

incorporation BLA

improve the fluidity

stirring was

of molt metal

continued for 5 mins.

The secondary

Molten composite

The sample size

BLA added in to semisolid melt and stirred

stirring was carried

poured in to

fabricated as 20 mm

out for the duration 5

preheated permanent

dia and 200 mm

mins.

steel mould

length

Figure 6.4: The composite fabrication procedure flowchart.

139

140

Chapter 6 Agriculture waste composites

Figure 6.5: Fabricated Al–Cu MMC reinforced with BLA by permanent steel mold of diameter 20 mm and length 200 mm. Table 6.3: Fabricated composite samples. Sample code

Composite

A B C D

Al-.Cu alloy Al-.Cu/ wt%BLA Al-.Cu/ wt%BLA Al-.Cu/ wt%BLA

Volume ðVÞ = Vp =

mass ðmÞ density ðρÞ

(6:1)

M2 − M1 ρw

(6:2)

where Vp states the volume of the pycnometer, ρw is the water density in room temperature at 29 °C, and water density is 0.9960 g/cm3. About 5 g of BLA particles was placed in a purified pycnometer and the weight was measured (M3). The mass of BLA

6.1.2 Experimental particulars

141

particles can be measured by separating M3 and M1. The BLA density can be determined by eq. (6.1), as if it knew the volume of BLA particles. Therefore, the volume of BLA particles can be measured by the rate of water displacement method as followed. The pycnometer was filled with water-containing BLA particles and shaken with taking care to disperse the particles and weight (M4) is measured. The mass of water in pycnometer can be calculated by differentiating the M4 and M3. As known the mass and water density and volume (Vw) is calculated as follows: Vw =

M4 − M3 ρw

(6:3)

The volume of BLA particles (Vb) can be calculated as follows: V b = Vp − Vw

(6:4)

Hence, the BLA density (ρb) particles are measured as follows: mass ðmÞ volumeðVÞ

(6:5)

ρb =

M3 − M1 Vb

(6:6)

ρb =

ρw × ðM3 − M1 Þ ðM3 − M1 + M2 − M4 Þ

(6:7)

Density =

6.1.2.5 AMMCs density and porosity measurements Composite density in experiments was calculated using eq. (6.8), and theoretical density can be evaluated with eq. (6.9) to determine the level of porosity and BLA effect on the density. The porosity of the fabricated composite is calculated using eq. (6.10). As per Archimedes’ principle the experimental density of composites can be calculated as [16] ρex =

m V

(6:8)

ρex is the experimental density,m is the specimen weight, and V is the displaced volume of water. As per rule of mixture [15], the theoretical density (ρth) can determine the composite as: ρth = ρm Vm + ρr Vr

(6:9)

where ρm is the density of matrix, Vm is the volume fraction of matrix, ρr is the density reinforcement particles, and Vr is the volume fraction of reinforcement particle.

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Chapter 6 Agriculture waste composites

To calculate the porosity of the composite: Porosityð%Þ =

ρth − ρex × 100 ρth

(6:10)

where ρth is the theoretical density and ρex is the experimental density.

6.1.2.6 Hardness measurement Hardness is measured with a Brinell hardness testing machine according to IS15002005, indenter ball of 5 mm, and a load of 250 kg. The hardness test was performed in three trails to get the average value of hardness.

6.1.2.7 Analysis of microstructure and X-ray diffraction The fabricated BLA particles were metallographically tested by SEM and OM. Additionally, XRD analysis and EDAX were carried out.

6.1.3 Results and discussion 6.1.3.1 Characterization of bamboo leaf ash BLA particles were analyzed to identify elements by SEM image including an EDAX profile and XRD analysis as presented in Figures 6.6 and 6.7. SEM image for BLA analyzed that particles form different hexagonal shapes and sizes. From EDAX profiles it was noted that silicon (Si), oxygen (O), carbon (C), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), aluminum (Al), magnesium (Mg), and iron (Fe) other-related peaks. Oxide compounds can ensure such silicon carbon dioxide (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3), potassium oxide (K2O), ferric oxide (Fe2O3), carbon (C), calcium oxide (CaO), and magnesium oxide (MgO) from EDAX analysis elements of BLA particles were identified by analyze the SEM image including an EDAX profile and XRD analysis as presented in Figures 6.6 and 6.7. From the pattern of XRD, given in Figure 6.8, it was noted that the highest value was 26.959 by 2θ angles, spacing distance d = 3.30458 Å, and full width at half maximum (FWHM) = 0.211 and 23.9 while high intensity is presented in Table 6.4. The average BLA crystallite size and AMMCs are measured by applying Debye–Scherrer’s equation: D=

0.94λ β Cos θ

(6:11)

where D is the average size of crystallite, λ = 1.54056 Å is Cu Kα wavelength, β signifies the FWHM for diffraction peaks, and also θ refers to the Bragg angle. Using the

6.1.3 Results and discussion

143

Debye–Scherrer’s formula the average crystallite BLA size is estimated at 39.62 nm. From the XRD pattern shown in Figure 6.6, the BLA particles’ crystal structure is FCC. Table 6.4: Peaks details of the XRD pattern of the BLA. Peak no.

 theta (θ)

d (Å)

FWHM

Intensity

 

. .

. .

. .

. .

Figure 6.6: SEM micrograph of synthesized BLA particles with EDAX profile.

50

Intensity (counts)

40

30 SiO2

20

SiO2

10

0 10

20

30

40

50

60

Two Theta (2 ) Figure 6.7: XRD pattern of synthesized BLA particles.

70

80

90

144

Chapter 6 Agriculture waste composites

6.1.3.2 Analysis of Al-4.5Cu-BLA by X-ray diffraction in AMMCs Figures 6.8 and 6.9 depict the XRD patterns of matrix and composites added to BLA at 2, 4, and 6 wt%. It is clear to see an SiO2 diffraction peak, which is the main component in BLA, and it validates the composition of composite particles with EDAX profiles (Figures 6.11 and 6.12). The peaks of aluminum (Al), copper (Cu), and BLA in a large way that builds SiO2 recognized a mixture of Al-4.5Cu and Al-BLA composites. Aluminum peaks in (111), (200), (210), (220), and (311) plane; Cu peaks in the top (321) and (420) plane; and SiO2 peaks in (111) and (200) plane were observed. The maximum aluminum expansion was shown to increase by the addition of BLA, as demonstrated by the XRD profiles in Figures 6.8–6.11. 250

Al (111)

Intensity (counts)

200

150

Al (210) Cu (420)

100

Cu (321) 50

Fe (220) 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Two Theta (2 ) Figure 6.8: XRD pattern of Al-4.5Cu matrix alloy.

6.1.3.3 Microstructure analysis Figure 6.10 depicts the optical images of matrix and composites, while Figures 6.11 and 6.12 show SEM images with EDAX profiles. The microstructure of matrix alloy shows the dendritic structure, and the primary α-Al noticed that elongation as shown in Figure 6.1.10(a). The formation of dendritic structure occurs due to high cooling rate. The SEM micrograph with EDAX analysis shows that the peaks are identified as Al and Cu elements. The structure of the grain is presented in the produced composites as depicted

6.1.3 Results and discussion

145

500

Al (200)

Intensity(counts)

400

300

200

(111) SiO2 100

(220) Fe2O3

Cu (311)

0 10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Two Theta (2 ) Figure 6.9: XRD pattern of Al-4.5Cu-4BLA of aluminum composite.

in the visual images shown in Figure 6.10(b)–(d). This might be because of the inclusion of BLA particles that reform the structure of dendritic in the alloy matrix. The addition of BLA content affects the solidification method of the fabricated composite made with the addition. It can be confirmed by Figure 6.10(b)–(d) that BLA particles may act as an efficient grain refiner. Reinforcing particles embedded in aluminum composite without carried out a stirring process, the effects of clustering particles are formed and may appear to be absent reinforcing particles in fabric in different locations. The truth is when reinforcing ceramic particles were deposited in the melting of the matrix, possibly floating melting point, this may be due to the high density of the surface and the poor moisturizing of the ceramic particles and mixture of matrix. Mechanical power needs to be used to avoid environmental conflicts in order to improve to be wet. It was noted that the surface of the ceramic particles is usually covered with a layer of gas [20]. Zhou and Xu [21] the main reason for porosity that there may be layers of gas surrounded by particles. The gas layer avoids the surface of individual particles coming into contact with the matrix’s molten material; additionally, the concentration of reinforcement particles in the molten metal reaches a critical level, and the gas layer may form a bridge to reject the reinforcing particles embedded in the melt [22]. As a result, mechanically breaking the gas layers is required to increase wetting during composite mixing. Admittedly, it is important to break down the gas layers in order to improve efficiency to be wet. Reinforcement particles can flow freely through molten metal and be very difficult to

146

Chapter 6 Agriculture waste composites

break layers of gas by normal stirring process. Reinforcement particles that combine in slowly melted solvents were tried that way and were found to be effective [23]. The present experimental work was carried out to fabricate the composite the stirring performed in the semisolid state of molten melt. The primary α-Al phase exists at semisolid state and due to agitation may develop the large force on the surface of BLA particles by collision and abrasion among the matrix (α-Al) and BLA particles. The method can help to separate the layers of gas around the BLA particles and stretch the metal liquid over the surface of the particle reinforcement to improve good wetting. After the gas layers are broken the reinforcing particles tend to be wet, and the particles may sink to the bottom of the molten melt instead of floating at the top. This process may not ensure an even allocation of BLA particles in the composites. The dispersion of homogeneous particles can be increased by heating the semisolid slurry at 750 ± 10 °C above liquid state and stir the slurry at 600 rpm for 6–10 min. Particles can successfully combine in a liquid condition due to violation of gas layers. Mechanical and tribological qualities may benefit from more uniform scattering of reinforcing particles in the alloy matrix [24].

Figure 6.10: Microstructure of (a) Al alloy, (b) Al alloy with 2 wt% BLA, (c) Al alloy with 4 wt% BLA, and (d) Al alloy with 6 wt% BLA.

6.1.3 Results and discussion

147

EDAX profile for composite material in Figures 6.11 and 6.12 shows the aluminum peaks (Al), oxygen (O), silicon (Si), iron (Fe), carbon (C), and traces of sliver (Ag). The existence of these elements proves the existence of silicon dioxide (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3), and ferric oxide (Fe2O3) in composites. It was noted that SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 were detected in EDAX (Figures 6.11 and 6.12) and XRD profiles (Figures 6.8 and 6.9), and these are the main components found in the BLA.

Figure 6.11: SEM micrograph with EDAX profile of Al-4.5Cu alloy.

Figure 6.12: SEM micrograph with EDAX profile of Al–4.5Cu alloy with 4 wt% of BLA composite.

6.1.3.4 Density and porosity The BLA particles density was 1.712 g/cc. It was obtained using eq. (6.7), the three times average of the density values. Figure 6.13 shows the effects of porosity and density on the produced composites made with different percentages of weight in BLA particles. The density is reduced by increasing the weight of the BLA reinforcement as

148

Chapter 6 Agriculture waste composites

depicted in Figure 6.13. Composite compound of 2, 4, and 6 wt% of BLA particles found a decrease in density at 1.677%, 3.25%, and 4.895% compared to Al-4.5 wt% Cu alloy. The combination of low BLA density particles in the matrix may be responsible for the drop in density in composites. The inclusion of BLA particles enhanced the porosity of the matrix alloy and composites marginally as illustrated in Figure 6.13. The porosity was observed due to the possibility of trapping molten metal gases as shown in Figure 6.13. It is confirmed in Figures 6.10–6.12 that an astonishing number of gas holes were detected because of sticking of environmental process and the absorption of air bubbles in the molten solvent while stirring. The prolonged stirring may improve the number of air bubbles trapped in melting and BLA particles which tends to coincide with air bubbles [25].

2.76 2.74

2.4

2.72

2.2

2.70

2.0

2.68

1.8

2.66

1.6

% Porosity

Density(g/cm3)

2.6

Experimental Density % Porosity

2.64 1.4 2.62 1.2 2.60 A

B

C

D

Composites Figure 6.13: The density of composites with the presence of BLA in different weight percentages.

AMMCs of lesser weight can be made at a significantly lower cost, and Alaneme et al. [11] confirmed that there is a considerable loss in density with a percentage rise in BLA weight. Similarly, another agro waste RHA, which is a main component of SiO2 in design, shown in Alaneme et al. [9], used reinforcement and evaluated the presence of RHA particles in composites and discovered that density was lowered and porosity was somewhat increased.

6.1.3 Results and discussion

149

6.1.3.5 Hardness Figure 6.14 depicts the hardness of the fabricated materials, and it was found that an increase in hardness was attained with the addition of BLA content. When compared with the matrix alloy, the Brinell hardness values were 19.88%, 37.15%, and 27.48% higher in composites containing 2, 4, and 6 wt% BLA content. Saravanan and Kumar [26] reported similar observations that were manufactured. AlSi10Mg-RHA is a stir cast composite with improved hardness due to an increase in RHA weight gain percentage.

Brinell hardness value

100

80

60

40

20

A

B

C

D

Composites Figure 6.14: Brinell hardness of fabricated composites.

Adding BLA to matrix alloy may boost strength while remaining lightweight, resulting in a cost-effective composite that can be used to overcome cost barriers in a variety of engineering initiatives. The existence of complex phases such as SiO2, Al2O3, C, and Fe2O3 in BLA may contribute to the strength of matrix alloy. And the strengthening impact may be predominantly manifested by an increase in dislocation density caused by temperature mismatch between matrix particles and reinforcement particles. It has been shown that as the disarticulation density increases, the strength of the matrix mixture increases too [26].

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Chapter 6 Agriculture waste composites

6.1.4 Conclusion 1.

2. 3.

4.

BLA particles were successfully synthesized by standard methods, and silicon dioxide (SiO2), detected according to EDAX and XRD analysis, is the main component of UAV. BLA particles were effectively incorporated into Al4.5Cu alloy by stir casting technique and were detected by XRD and SEM through EDAX analysis. As BLA content is added, the density of the composite material decreases. Al6BLA had the lowest density at wt% of the composite, indicating a distinct effect of BLA particles on the overall composite density. The composite material hardness increased significantly with the inclusion of BLA. Therefore, BLA-reinforced aluminum composites can be used as filter media in applications where reduction of weight is required. BLA particles have great potential for and promise to aid as an economical complementary reinforcement for the development of economical and high-enactment aluminum composites.

References [1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7] [8]

[9]

Jebeen Moses, J. and Joseph Sekhar, S., 2017. Investigation on the tensile strength and microhardness of AA6061/TiC composites by stir casting. Transactions of Indian Institute of Metals, 70(4), pp. 1035–1046. doi: 10.1007/s12666-016-0891-y. Bannaravuri, P.K. and Birru, A.K., 2018. Strengthening of mechanical and tribological properties of Al-4.5%Cu matrix alloy with the addition of bamboo leaf ash. Results in Physics, 10, pp. 360–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinp.2018.06.004. Karthikeyan, A. and Nallusamy, S., 2017. Experimental analysis on sliding wear behaviour of aluminium-6063 with sic particulate composites. International Journal of Engineering Research in Africa, 31, pp. 36–43. doi: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/JERA.31.36. Ralph, B., Yuen, H.C. and Lee, W.B., 1997. The processing of metal matrix composites – An overview. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 63(1), pp. 339–353. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-0136 (96)02645-3. KUMAR, B.P. and BIRRU, A.K., 2017. Microstructure and mechanical properties of aluminium metal matrix composites with addition of bamboo leaf ash by stir casting method. The Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 27(12), pp. 2555–2572. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1003-6326(17) 60284-X. Bodunrin, M.O., Alaneme, K.K. and Chown, L.H., 2015. Aluminium matrix hybrid composites: A review of reinforcement philosophies; Mechanical, corrosion and tribological characteristics. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 4(4), pp. 434–445. doi: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2015.05.003. Prasad, D.S. and Krishna, A.R., 2012. Tribological properties of A356.2/RHA composites. Journal of Materials Science & Technology, 28(4), pp. 367–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1005-0302(12)60069-3. Atuanya, C.U., Ibhadode, A.O.A. and Dagwa, I.M., 2012. Effects of breadfruit seed hull ash on the microstructures and properties of Al–Si–Fe alloy/breadfruit seed hull ash particulate composites. Results in Physics, 2, pp. 142–149. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinp.2012.09.003. Alaneme, K.K., 2013. Influence of rice husk ash – silicon carbide weight ratios on the mechanical behaviour of Al ‐ Mg ‐ Si alloy matrix hybrid composites tribology in industry. 35(2), pp. 163–172.

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[10] Mahendra, K.V. and Radhakrishna, K., 2007. Fabrication of Al-4.5% Cu alloy with fly ash metal matrix composites and its characterization. Materials Science Poland, 25, N, pp. 57–68. [11] Alaneme, K.K., Ademilua, B.O. and Bodunrin, M.O., 2013. Mechanical properties and corrosion behaviour of aluminium hybrid composites reinforced with silicon carbide and bamboo leaf ash. Tribology in Industry, 35(1), 25–35. [12] Alaneme, K.K. and Adewuyi, E.O., 2013. Mechanical behaviour of Al-Mg-Si matrix composites reinforced with alumina and bamboo leaf ash. Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, 19(3), no. July, pp. 177–187. [13] Alaneme, K.K., Olubambi, P.A., Afolabi, A.S. and Bodurin, M.O., 2014. Corrosion and tribological studies of bamboo leaf ash and alumina reinforced Al-Mg-Si alloy matrix hybrid composites in chloride medium. International Journal of Electrochemical Science, 9(10), 5663–5674. [14] Bannaravuri, P.K. and Birru, A.K., 2019. Strengthening of Al-4.5%Cu alloy with the addition of silicon carbide and bamboo leaf ash. International Journal of Structural Integrity, 10(2), pp. 149–161. Jan. doi: 10.1108/IJSI-03-2018-0018. [15] Ahmad Fuad, M.Y., Yaakob, I., Mohd Ishak, Z.A. and Mohd Omar, A.K., 1993. Density measurement of rice husk ash filler particles in polypropylene composites. Polymer Testing, 12(2), pp. 107–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/0142-9418(93)90033-L. [16] Chawla, K.K., 1974. The applicability of the ‘rule-of-mixtures’ to the strength properties of metalmatrix composites. Revista Brasileira de Ensino de Fisica, 4(3), 411–418. [17] Kumar, B.P. and Birru, A.K., 2018. Tribological behavior of aluminium metal matrix composite with addition of bamboo leaf ash by gra-taguchi method. Tribology in Industry, 40(2), pp. 311–325. doi: 10.24874/ti.2018.40.02.14. [18] Birru, A.K., Karunakar, D.B. and Mahapatra, M.M., 2012. A study on hot tearing susceptibility of Al–Cu, Al–Mg, and Al–Zn alloys. Transactions of Indian Institute of Metals, 65(1), pp. 97–105. doi: 10.1007/s12666-011-0112-7. [19] Suryanarayana, C., Mukhopadhyay, D., Patankar, S.N. and Froes, F.H., 1992. Grain size effects in nanocrystalline materials. Journal of Materials Research, 7(8), pp. 2114–2118. doi: 10.1557/ JMR.1992.2114. [20] Ray, S., 1996. Casting of composite components. In Proceedings of the 1995 conference on inorganic matrix composite (pp. 68–89). Bangalore. [21] Zhou, W. and Xu, Z.M., 1997. Casting of SiC reinforced metal matrix composites. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 63(1), pp. 358–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-0136(96)02647-7. [22] Andersson, C.-H. and Warren, R., 1984. Silicon carbide fibres and their potential for use in composite materials. Part 1. Composites, 15(1), pp. 16–24. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-4361(84)90956-X. [23] Si, Y., You, Z., Zhu, J., Cai, L. and Zhang, J., 2016. Microstructure and properties of mechanical alloying particles reinforced aluminum matrix composites prepared by semisolid stirring pouring method. China Foundry, 13(3), pp. 176–181. doi: 10.1007/s41230-016-5097-8. [24] Dhanasekaran, S., Sunilraj, S., Ramya, G. and Ravishankar, S., 2016. SiC and Al2O3 reinforced aluminum metal matrix composites for heavy vehicle clutch applications. Transactions of Indian Institute of Metals, 69(3), pp. 699–703. doi: 10.1007/s12666-015-0542-8. [25] Amirkhanlou, S. and Niroumand, B., 2010. Synthesis and characterization of 356-SiCp composites by stir casting and compocasting methods. The Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 20, pp. s788–s793. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1003-6326(10)60582-1. [26] Saravanan, S.D. and Senthilkumar, M., 2013. Mechanical behavior of aluminum (AlSi10Mg)-RHA composite. International Journal of Engineering Science Technologies, 5(6), 4834–4840.

Chapter 6.2 Experimental investigations on coconut shell powder reinforcement in friction stir processed surfaces L. Suvarna Raju✶, Borigorla Venu Abstract: Friction stir processing (FSP) is a low-energy solid-state technology for producing surface composites by strengthening coconut shell ash powder (CSP) elements in the AA2014-T651 matrix. With their high demand in transport and aerospace applications, it improves their local surface modification with the homogeneity of scattered elements and improved material qualities such as high hardness and increased tensile properties over typical alloys. Coconut shell is a stable agricultural waste fabric that has harmed the environment of those who live near the manufacturing site. Poor agricultural waste management, utilization, and disposal have resulted in an environmental concern that has a negative impact on people’s health. Nonetheless, a number of researchers have used elements as structural or creation enhancements, powder reinforcement in polymer and metal matrix composites, water purification, and strength development. The goal of this study is to see how CSP-reinforced elements affect the AA2014-T651 material when it is made with varied process parameters (PP). Utilizing FSP techniques, the experimentation was carried out using the groove approach. The groove FSP method’s mechanical qualities were assessed. According to the findings, the FSP technique with the groove method was effective in fabricating AA2014-T651 surface composites with CSP particle reinforcement. Variable process factors such as tool rotation speeds of 900, 1,100, and 1,400 rpm, tool-processing speeds of 40, 50, and 60 mm/min and volume percentages of 2, 4, and 6 vol% of reinforcement all play a part in improving base material qualities. The optimal PP condition, reinforcement vol%, and heat generation are met, and elements are distributed consistently throughout the nugget zone, resulting in improved mechanical properties. With FSP, mechanical properties such as tensile strength (UTS) (up to 10%), impact strength (IS) (up to 9%), percentage of elongation (%EL) (up to 10%), yield strength (YS) (up to 8%), and hardness (H) (up to 12%) are enhanced. Keywords: coconut shell ash powder, Mechanical Properties, Reinforcements, Process parameters, Al-MMCs. FSP composites

✶

Corresponding author: L. Suvarna Raju, e-mail: [email protected]

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110766523-010

154

Chapter 6.2 Experimental investigations on coconut shell powder reinforcement

6.2.1 Introduction An alloy is a mixture of metals or metals coupled with one or more additional elements. Purple gold is created by combining the metal components gold and copper, white gold is created by combining gold and silver, and sterling silver is created by combining silver and copper [1–3]. The AA2014 alloy was chosen as the foundation metal in this investigation due to its wide range of applications. AA 2014-T651 alloy is ready to present excessive quality as created through heat treatment. This is a totally high-strength aircraft alloy with excellent low-temperature qualities. Aluminum alloy 2014-T651 plates, which are commonly used in the manufacture of airplanes and various aerospace applications, are no longer required to be corrosion-resistant. Now, good machinability and hardness are no longer used for welding and stress-corrosion cracking. Because of its advanced strength, aluminum alloy 2014-T651 plates are closely used by the aircraft and ordinance industries. Aluminum alloy 2014-T651 plates give the best strength of the common screw machine alloys [4–6]. FSP is performed in the solid state that uses a thermomechanical model for changing the mechanical properties of the parent metal-localized surface area of the workpiece without altering its structural properties. In FSP, a nonconsumable tool HCHCr consists of a shoulder at the top and a probe at the bottom part of it [7]. When the vertical milling machine starts working, the tool is made to plunge into the workpiece where FSP is to be done, and then the tool stirs in the forward direction. Here the tool depth of penetration is restricted and correlated to the length of the tool pin [1]. Frictional deformation in the parent metal is generated with the tool shoulder, and plastic deformation (PD) due to stirring and material mixing is produced by the tool pin [8]. When the tool rotates, heat is generated and plunging action generates a force which forms severe PD and softens the workpiece [9–10]. The tool turns the material into a plastic state and flows from its retreating side (RS) to the advancing side (AS). Hence density dislocation takes place on the surface of the BM and appears like an onion-ring-layered structure [11–14]. When the tool traverses, overlapped tool passes occur on the BM till the completion of the FSP method [15]. Later after cooling, with optimum process parameters (PP), the nugget zone (NZ) is seen with no defects, recrystallized, and uniform grain structure [4]. FSP on the weld blob of TIG weld joints increases the microstructure and characteristics of the weld area. FSP is the most important approach for perfecting the characteristics of Al blends [16]. On TIG-welded Al composites, only a numerous postweld processing procedures have been used. Mehdi et al. [17] studied 6083T6/2024 Al admixture FSP TIG crossbred welding. They discovered that the new system barred grain coarsening, porosity, and microcracks, performing in better mechanical characteristics when compared with traditional TIG-welded connections [17]. Mishra and coworkers [18] employed an FSP TIG cold-thoroughbred welding approach with ER4043 and ER5356 padding rods to produce 6061 and 7075 Al admixture joints. As the tool’s rotation speed increased, the FSP produced further meliorated grains [18]. Jesus

6.2.2 Experimentation

155

et al. [19, 20] used the FSP to meliorate the characteristics of 5,083 admixture MIG weld joints. “After using the post-processing procedure, they noticed an increase in fatigue strength, a drop in crack induction, and a modest gain in mechanical strength due to grain refinement. FSP can also be used to change the microstructure of the pristine brand to increase its mechanical parcels and corrosion resistance, according to Ma et al. Heat input is commensurate to tool shoulder fringe, tool rotating speed, and weld speed during FSW. The frictional heat created during the stirring process between the face of the tool shoulder and the substance is nearly 87 percent due to tool shoulder size” [21, 22]. In this work, AA 2014-T651 alloy was reinforced with CSP elements using the friction stir processing (FSP) procedure with volume percentages ranging from 2, 4, to 6 wt%. The material’s mechanical and metallographic characteristics were evaluated. The findings revealed that increasing the amount of CSP elements in the solid aluminum steel matrix composite reduces density while enhancing hardness in the strengthened and cast aluminum steel matrix composites.

6.2.2 Experimentation The experimental investigations were carried out by conducting experiments on a vertical milling machine. In this present research, AA 2014-T651 workpiece sizes 300 × 120 × 5 mm are fabricated by FSP with CSP reinforcement.

Coconut

Shell Burning

Ash Powder

Figure 6.15: Schematic representation of CSP reinforcement process.

Figure 6.15 depicts the CSP production process. The initial stage involved gathering raw coconut and separating the shell from the coconut. The coconut shell was then burned into powder form, and once the ash powder was formed, the ash powder was sifted using the sift method, and the elements were ready to use as reinforcement. FSP tool is the most important element of the process. Based on the high temperature, hardness, excellent tensile properties, good wear resistance, adequate toughness, and heat cracking resistance, the hot work tool steel HCHCr has been selected as the FSP tool. In the present study, an oil-hardened “HCHCr tool with a taper-threaded cylindrical profile (TCT) is used. Tool shoulder diameter (SD), pin diameter (PD), and pin taper length (PL) as 24 mm, 8 mm, and 3.5 mm respectively.” The samples are processed

156

Chapter 6.2 Experimental investigations on coconut shell powder reinforcement

using a 1.5° tool tilt angle. When the tool transfers the load to the workpiece, the tool shoulder produces frictional heat and intense PD on the localized area preceding the AA2014-T651 alloy, causing stirring and mixing of the material with reinforcement coconut shell ash [23–28]. The rotational speed of the tool (TRS) of 900, 1,100, and 1,400 rpm, tool processing speed (TS) of 40, 50, and 60 mm/min, and percentage volume of reinforcement (vol%) of CSP elements 2%, 4%, and 6%, respectively, are taken as the PP with a groove width of 0.8, 1.6, and 2.4 mm, and groove depth of 3 mm. Experimental runs are planned as per the “design of the Taguchi L9 Orthogonal Array.” The experimental process was represented in Figure 6.16. On the plate’s center, a groove of various widths, 3 mm constant depth, and 300 mm length was cut and filled with CSP powder.

Figure 6.16: Schematic representation for groove method.

6.2.3 Results and discussion This work aims to consider the effect of PP on the microstructure along with mechanical behavior of the FSPedAA2014-T651 surface composites reinforced by coconut shell ash elements. FSP is performed at the solid-state temperature to facilitate the processing that takes place to lower the melting point of the parent metal. For instance, the melting point of AA 2014-T651 is 510 °C, but the friction stir process underwent below 200 °C. The process parameters for the friction stir processed surface composites create a major effect on the temperature distribution and flow of material during the processing, hence affecting the surface composite microstructural evolution.

6.2.3 Results and discussion

157

The microstructural amendment of the AA2014-T651 surface composite results in property enhancement. Mechanical characterization consists of IS, UTS, YS, microhardness, and percentage of EL. TRS, tool traversing speed or processing speed (TS), and percentage volume of reinforcement (vol%) are the process parameters considered in this investigation as they influence the microstructure and mechanical behavior during FSP.

Figure 6.17: Surface morphology of surface composites by groove FSP method.

The mechanical features of groove technique friction stir processed AA2014 surface composites are highlighted in this study. Table 6.5 shows the results of the experiments. Figure 6.17 depicts the surface morphology of surface composite specimens created using the groove friction stir processing method. All the surface composites were tested radiographically with advanced X-ray inspection equipment and found to be defect-free. Table 6.5: Mechanical properties of the grooved samples. S. no.

TRS (mm/min)

TS (mm/min)

V (%)

UTS (MPa)

YS (MPa)

EL (%)

H (HV)

IS (J)

   , , , , , ,

        

        

. . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . 

FSPG FSPG FSPG FSPG FSPG FSPG FSPG FSPG FSPG Base metal

The addition of CSP elements to AA2014 increases its tensile properties. The UTS improvement is due to the arrangement of fine grains, the stopping of dislocation movement, and the minimal influence of the shear stress. In friction stir-processed AA2014, the Orowan mechanism, dynamic recrystallization (DRX), and pinning effect at grain boundaries result in higher UTS values, whereas improper material flow results in

158

Chapter 6.2 Experimental investigations on coconut shell powder reinforcement

agglomerations, porosity, and intermetallic compounds, resulting in lower UTS values. Due to density dislocation, when the volume % of CSP elements increases, the elongation percentage drops in contrast to the BM. The dislocation slip distance is suitable for deforming CSP elements, resulting in grain boundary constriction, matrix interfacial bonding, and reinforcement becoming weak, resulting in a drop in tensile properties when the volume percent is increased. The IS of the AA2014 FSPed region features is improved with the reinforcement of CSP elements in the base metal (BM), forming the PD surface and softening the nugget zone (NZ) [29, 30]. As a result of the friction stir treatment, AA2014 loses its ductility. At lower TRS and fast TS with smaller vol% of reinforcement, there will be no vertical flow of material and poor nugget metal consolidation because of insufficient heat generation. Grain coarsens and precipitates agglomeration as well as excess flash production and defects, as a result of high axial force (AF) and high heat generation, resulting in a loss of microhardness at higher TRS and a larger reinforcing vol% of CSP elements. As a result, heat generation is optimized at the optimum PP condition and vol% of reinforcement, and CSP particle distribution is uniform across the NZ. Grain strengthening mechanisms and Orowan strengthening mechanisms are initiated to refine the grains and create fine dispersion of CSP elements in the NZ [31, 32]. At a 2 mm interval, measurements in the surface composite profile and indentations along the different zones of NZ-treated samples are taken. YS and cohesiveness improve in friction stir-treated AA2014 alloy due to the strengthening of CSP elements and the creation of additional nucleation sites. The flexibility of AA2014 is influenced by yield strength.

Figure 6.18: Microstructures of grooved FSP-fabricated surface composites.

The microstructures were examined at the stir zone (NZ) of the processed surface with OM, during stirring, DRX, and frictional heat generation makes the elongated grains into fine-recrystallized grains. The observed fracture surface pictures of the tensile specimens processed by the grooved FSP method at 1,100 rpm, 40 mm/min, and 4 vol% exhibit features that are

References

159

almost identical to those of the BM; however, the dimple sizes are lower than those of the BM, as shown in Figure 6.18.

6.2.4 Conclusions Fabrication of AA2014/CSP surface composites with groove techniques is successfully done with and without UVFSP. The variable process parameters, that is, TRS, TS, and volume percentage of CSP elements influence the mechanical and microstructural characterization of the fabricated surface composite. Taguchi L9 orthogonal array elucidated with nine experiments was conducted for the FSP method. The resulting conclusions were noted: – Defect-free processed zones are obtained using FSP. – The best condition for the current technique is TRS 1,100 mm/min, TS 40 mm/min, and 4 vol%, with CSP elements reinforcing the mechanical qualities. – Due to higher DRX, finer grains were developed. – The mechanical properties were obtained at 1,100 rpm of TRS, 40 mm/min of TS, and 4 vol% as a UTS of 531.3 MPa, YS of 451.26 MPa, %EL of 15.87 IS of 97.2 J, and hardness of 170.5 HV, respectively. – Microstructural analysis elucidates that the CSP elements in AA2014-T651 alloy are uniformly distributed when the tool rotation speed is optimum and tool processing. – At low tool rotation speeds, the agglomeration of CSP elements takes place, and distribution is not adequate; at the same time for higher tool rotation speeds surface cracks occur due to overheating of the tool. Low processing speed provides the appropriate temperature for the tool to traverse in forward motion and attain fine onion rings on the surface composite.

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[4]

Mishra, R.S. and Ma, Z.Y., 2005. Friction stir welding and processing. Materials Science and Engineering: R: Reports, 50(1/2), 1–78. Rajamanickam, N., Balusamy, V., Madhusudhana Reddy, G. and Natarajan, K., 2009. Effect of process parameters on thermal history and mechanical properties of friction stir welds. Master of Design, 30, 2726–2731. Krishna, G.R., Mohan Kumar, K., Madhu Venkatesh, N. and Mohammed, G.B., 2017. development of polymer matrix composites reinforcing with al2cumg. International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology (IJMET), 8(6), 190–199. Raju, L.S., Kumar, A. and Prasad, S.R., 2014. Microstructure and mechanical properties of friction stir welded pure copper. Applied Mechanics & Materials, 592(499–503).

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Venu, B., Suvarna Raju, L. and Venkata Rao, K., 2020. Multi objective optimization of friction stir weldments of AA2014-T651 by teaching–learning-based optimization. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science, 234(6), 1146–1155. Venu, B., BhavyaSwathi, I., Raju, L.S. and Santhanam, G., 2019. A review on Friction Stir Welding of various metals and its variables. Materials Today: Proceedings, 18, 298–302. Schneider, B., Yost, A.B., Kropp, A., Kind, C. and Lam, H., 2017. Workforce engagement: What it is, what drives it, and why it matters for organizational performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 1–19. Murthy, V., Dileep Kumar, S., Saju, K.K., Rajaprakash, B.M. and Rajashekar, R., 2019. Optimization of Friction Stir Processing parameters for manufacturing silicon carbide reinforced aluminum 7075T651 surface composite. Materials Today: Proceedings, 18(7), 2019, pp. 4549–4555. Ma, Z., 2008. Friction stir processing technology: A review. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 39, 642–658. John, J., Shanmuganatan, S.P. and Kiran, M.B., 2018. Influence and optimization of input parameters on mechanical properties of friction stir processed AA 2014-T6. 5(11/3), pp. 25458–25467. Kumar, A. and Suvarna Raju, L., 2012. Influence of tool pin profiles on friction stir welding of copper. Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 27(12), 1414–1418. Qin, Z., Xie, Y., Meng, X., et al. 2021. Oriented attachment strategy toward enhancing ionic conductivity in garnet-type electrolytes for solid-state lithium batteries. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 13, pp. 34385–34396. Meng, X., Huang, Y., Cao, J., et al. 2020. Recent progress on control strategies for inherent issues in friction stir welding. Progress in Materials Science, pp. 100706. doi: 10.1016/j.pmatsci.2020.100706. Xie, Y., Meng, X., Li, Y., et al. 2021b. Insight into ultra-refined grains of aluminum matrix composites via deformation-driven metallurgy. Composites Communications, 26, pp. 100776. Yang, T., Wang, K., Wang, W., et al. 2019. Effect of friction stir processing on microstructure and mechanical properties of AlSi10Mg aluminum alloy produced by selective laser melting. The Journal of the Minerals, Metals & Materials Society 71, 1737–1747. Mabuwa, S. and Msomi, V., 2020. Review on friction stir processed tig and friction stir welded dissimilar alloy joints. Metals, 10(1–18), 142. Mehdi, H. and Mishra, R.S., 2019. Study of the influence of friction stir processing on tungsten inert gas welding of different aluminum alloy. SN Applied Sciences, 1, 712. Mehdi, H. and Mishra, R.S., 2020. Effect of friction stir processing on mechanical properties and heat transfer of TIG welded joint of AA6061 and AA7075. Defence Technology, 17, 715–727. Mehdi, H. and Mishra, R.S., 2020. Influence of friction stir processing on weld temperature distribution and mechanical properties of TIG-welded joint of AA6061 and AA7075. Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals, 73, 1773–1788. Jesus, J.S., Costa, J.M., Loureiro, A. and Ferreira, J.M., 2017. Fatigue strength improvement of GMAW T-welds in AA 5083 by friction-stir processing. International Journal of Fatigue, 97, 124–134. Kanojia, A. and Jain, S.K., 2017. Performance of coconut shell as coarse aggregate in concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 140, 1506. Ma, C.Y., Zhou, L., Zhang, R.X., Li, D.G., Shu, F.Y., Song, X.G., et al. 2020. Enhancement in mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of 2507 duplex stainless steel via friction stir processing. Journal of Materials Research and Technology 9, 8296–8305. Singh, V.P., Patel, S.K., Ranjan, A. and Kuriachen, B., 2020. Recent research progress in solid state friction-stir welding of aluminum-magnesium alloys: A critical review. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 9, 6217–6256. Nadir, Y. and Sujatha, A., 2018. Durability properties of coconut shell aggregate concrete. KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering, 22, 19206.

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[25] Bello, S.A., Hassan, S.B., Agunsoye, J.O., Kana, M.G.Z. and Raheem, I.A., 2015. Tribology in industry synthesis of uncarbonised coconut shell nanoelements: Characterisation and particle size determination. Tribology in Industry, 37, 25763. [26] Salleh, Z., Islam, M.M., Yusop, M.Y.M. and Idrus, M.A.M.M., 2014. Mechanical properties of acti [1] vated carbon (AC) coconut shell reinforced polypropylene composites encapsulated with epoxy resin. APCBEE Procedia, 9, 926. [27] Oluwole, O.I. and Oluwaseun, K.L., 2016. Mechanical, abrasion and water absorption characteris [1] tics of coconut shell ash and charcoal based polyester composites. The West Indian Journal of Engineering, 16, 5167. [28] Caccin, M., Giacobbo, F., Da Ros, M., Besozzi, L. and Mariani, M., 2013. Adsorption of uranium, cesium and strontium onto coconut shell activated carbon. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 297, 918. [29] Son, S.-J., Choi, J.-S., Choo, K.-Y., Song, S.-D., Vijayalakshmi, S. and Kim, T.-H., 2005. Development of carbon dioxide adsorbents using carbon materials prepared from coconut shell. Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering, 22, 2917. [30] Ikumapayi, O.M. and Akinlabi, E.T., 2019. Data showing the effects of vibratory disc milling time on the microstructural characteristics of coconut shell nanoelements. 22, pp. 53745. [31] Leman, A.S., Shahidan, S., Senin, M.S. and Hannan, N.I.R.R., 2016. A preliminary study on chemical and physical properties of coconut shell powder as a filler in concrete. In IOP conference series applications of coconut shell ash/elements in modern manufacturing materials science and Engineering (Vol. 160, pp. 012059). [32] Oyedepo, O.J., Olanitori, L.M. and Akande, S., 2015. Performance of coconut shell ash and palm kernel shell ash as partial replacement for cement in concrete. Journal of Building Engineering, 1824(2).

Chapter 7 Challenges in green waste-reinforced aluminum composites Srinivasu Gangisetti✶, Raj Kumar Sahu, Rityuj Singh Parihar Abstract: This chapter presents the state of the art in utilizing industrial wastes, animal wastes, household wastes, and agriculture wastes as reinforcement in metal matrix composites (MMCs). In this way, a sustainable solution can be provided to reduce pollution and hazardous wastes from the environment. This work provides insight into the enormous challenges in the development of defect-free MMCs. The reinforcement materials from three categories such as industrial, agriculture, and animals are considered in this chapter. Among all waste residues having potential as reinforcement in MMCs, fly ash has been utilized at industrial scale. Although a wide range of applications of fly ash are available, they seem to be insignificant. Still there is huge potential for further research and development of MMCs with fly ash. Apart from this, none of the waste residues mentioned in this chapter have been utilized significantly at industrial scale. In order to properly utilize the waste residues from industry, agriculture, animals, and household, necessary knowledge creation is the precondition to reach the industrialization stage. However, on the basis of considerable progress in technological and scientific research, a better future in this area can be anticipated. Keywords: metal matrix composites, waste residues, fly ash, processing methods

7.1 Introduction Industrial and agricultural waste materials increase the environmental pollution, posing a threat to humans as well as animals and plants. Thus, a magnificent decision with the systematic analysis of possible use of wastes or by-products is required. Recycling means exclusion of things from the waste category for application as raw materials to develop into new products. This can be performed by two methods: by using recyclable product directly or by adopting the raw material for preparing new products. Recycling decreases the need of raw materials such as forests, oils, and metals, thereby diminishing the human effort over the environment. In addition to the promising functions investigated in various areas, such as energy generation, the remarkable mechanical and physical properties of industrial and agricultural wastes such as rice hull ash and fly ash (FA) are placed in the forefront for the prospective development of modern materials such as metal matrix composites (MMCs) [1]. ✶

Corresponding author: Srinivasu Gangisetti, e-mail: [email protected]

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110766523-011

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Chapter 7 Challenges in green waste-reinforced aluminum composites

MMCs can be defined as advanced materials, which after optimum processing resulted in the mixture or combination of two or more nanoconstituents, microconstituents, or macroconstituents, having different chemical composition, morphology, and geometry. Therefore, one of the constituent materials works as metallic matrix, and other materials will play as a strengthening agent, and the assembly is prepared as a multilayer panel, monolith, or functionally graded structure. Although incorporation of industrial and agricultural wastes in MMCs offers numerous benefits at the industrial level apart from the utilization of FA, virtually none of the waste materials was utilized for industrial application. Therefore, this chapter aimed at reviewing the various industrial and agricultural waste materials for utilization as reinforcement in metallic matrix and potential processing method with the advantage, disadvantage, and challenges. The waste reinforcement material is divided into mainly three categories based on sources such as agriculture, industrial, and animal waste residues [2].

7.2 Waste residues for reinforcement in MMCs There are several kinds of waste residues available in our environment (artificial or natural), which are hazardous in nature but having the potential to work as reinforcement in MMCs to replace conventional materials. These waste residues are broadly classified into three categories: 1. Agriculture waste residue 2. Industry waste residue 3. Animal waste residue 7.2.1 Agriculture waste residue Some of the agriculture waste and residual biomass after combustion process having carbon and silicon find applications as ceramics reinforcement polymer or MMCs. Among several advantages of biomaterials or their derivatives as ceramic reinforcement, most important of them are: it is a cheap source of silica and carbon; it is environmental friendly; it also offers the development of ceramics having a unique structure that is difficult to achieve with conventional processing methods. Therefore, some of the important natural waste materials are enlisted and discussed here.

7.2.2 Coconut and coir fiber Coconut shell belongs to the category of agricultural wastes and is available in large magnitude throughout the world. Coconut is a key agricultural product in tropical countries in the world and it also works as a source of energy – biofuel. In general, to

7.2 Waste residues for reinforcement in MMCs

165

dispose the coconut shell, it is burned in atmosphere and releases CO2 and methane to the atmosphere. But nowadays, coconut shell ash is used as reinforcement in MMC. Coconut shell ash contains cordierite (Mg2Al–Si5O18), silicon dioxide (SiO2), moissanite (SiC), and quartz (SiO2) as primary compounds, and SiO2 as the highest content. The coconut shell ash mainly contains phases like Al2O3, MgO, Fe2O3, and SiO2 as major constituents. It is having a density of 2.05 g/cm3 and sustains a high temperature of 1,500 °C. It is a lightweight and hard component for fabrication of MMCs [3]. Coir fiber can be utilized as a durable fiber in all matrices such as bitumen, polymer, cement, FA-lime, mud, and gypsum. It is lightweight and has low thermal conductivity. Coconut coir was utilized as a natural fiber for reinforcement in Al for automotive brake pads. The MMCs showed lower porosity, higher density, and higher compressive strength [4]. 7.2.2.1 Breadfruit seed hull ash The breadfruit tree (Treculia africana) is indigenous to tropical countries like west India, Sierra, Ghana, Jamaica, and Nigeria. Breadfruit seed hull (seed shell or seed coat) is a waste material that is available in plenty around the world and is hazardous to the environment and health. The density of the breadfruit seed hull ash is 1.98 g/ cm3 and is a very light material. Eco-friendly, effective, and conducive utilization of breadfruit seed hull has been a challenge for scientific community, but it can be used as reinforcement in MMCs for effective utilization. The developed composite showed an increase in tensile strength, impact strength, and thermal resistance along with lightweight [5]. 7.2.2.2 Sugarcane bagasse After processing of sugarcane in a sugar mill from the remaining material is known as bagasse. Before invention of modern utilization of bagasse, it was burnt for the purpose of disposal, but over the years, it has found application in generation of alternate fuel, power generation, and preparation of tableware. It was found that 280 kg of bagasse can be generated from 1 ton of sugarcane; therefore, enormous attempts have been carried out for environment-friendly utilization of this waste residue product. Moreover, it can be utilized as reinforcement in MMCs by conversion of bagasse into ash. Bagasse ash is composed of cliftonite (C), quartz (SiO2), titanium oxide (Ti6O), and moissanite (SiC). It is a blend of various morphologies, such as fibrous, spherical, and prismatic, and each of them is associated with various phases. In general, the density of bagasse ash has found to be approximately 1.95 g/cm3, having the capability to withstand high temperatures of 1,600 °C [6].

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Chapter 7 Challenges in green waste-reinforced aluminum composites

7.2.2.3 Rice husk Among several available biomass with renewable energy source and abundance, rice husk is a highly potential candidate. It is utilized as a source for the development of large-scale products, such as silicon dioxide, xylose, and activated carbon. In addition, due to attractive characteristics, rise husk ashes are utilized by numerous industries for several applications, such as coatings, cement industry, pigments, rubber filler, insulators, and reinforcement to MMCs [7]. 7.2.2.4 Wood ceramic Wood is part of the plant having hygroscopic, heterogeneous, anisotropic, and cellular structure, made up of cellulose, hemicellulose fibers, and lignin. Wood ceramic obtained from wood is very useful in the development of MMCs and is prepared by pyrolyzing, infiltration, and calcination of wood. Wood ceramic is in the form of porous material and if it is impregnated by metal (e.g., magnesium and aluminum) will result in fabrication of MMCs [8]. 7.2.2.5 Bamboo Bamboo is a plentiful natural resource available in South America and Asia, which offers numerous benefits as reinforcement in polymer and MMC. It is easily regenerated after cutting and reduces the environment load. It offers high strength compared to cotton and jute [9]. 7.2.2.6 Rattan Rattan plant is available in tropical areas having characteristics such as durable, lightweight, and flexible. The structure of rattan is porous in nature, whose size is more than bamboo and wood. It is a suitable candidate for preparation of metal–ceramic composites by the pressureless infiltration technique [10]. 7.2.2.7 Kenaf Kenaf is a crop of warm season with characteristics similar to jute and cotton. It has a good potential for the development of composite material, building materials, and paper products. It has characteristics such as large longitude, rapid growth, good tensile strength, and high yield [11].

7.2.3 Industrial waste residue 7.2.3.1 Fly ash After burning the carbon and volatile materials in coal during the combustion process to produce electricity, the residue contains feldspar, quartz, shale, and clays that are

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167

fused together to form fly ash. Fly ash is a byproduct of the power generation process, but it has a lot of potential for use as reinforcement in MMCs and in concrete products. [12] 7.2.3.2 Electric arc furnace dust While preparing steel in electric arc furnace by using scrap metals, dust and slag are created. Electric arc furnace dust contains Cr, Zn, and Pb, which are hazardous in nature, and this requires a suitable treatment technique for disposal. Moreover, it is a potential candidate for utilization as reinforcement in MMCs. In addition, this slag of electric arc furnace is a major waste product from the steel industry. It also has the potential for developing value-added end products [13]. 7.2.3.3 Red mud Red mud is a waste residue created in the process of alumina production from bauxite in the Bayer’s process. In general, titanium, zinc, and vanadium extracted from the red mud are used in ceramics, glazed sewer, cement, pigments, bricks, and so on. Red mud attracted the interest of researchers as reinforcement in MMCs because it contains Fe2O3, Al2O3, Na2O, and TiO2 [14]. 7.2.3.4 Industrial sludge Painting operation in automotive industry generates sludge and volatile organic compound from the spray booth exhaust and scrubber water. In order to transport the paint sludge, its volume is reduced by the pyrolysis process and produces char as a waste residue. This char is used as an absorbent for removal of volatile organic compound or reinforcement in MMCs or polymer matrix composites [15]. 7.2.3.5 Coal dust Coal dust is generated at coal mines and contains aluminum, magnesium, zinc, iron, manganese, chromium, titanium, copper, and nickel. Therefore, it can be utilized as reinforcement in MMCs [16]. 7.2.3.6 Leather waste Leather waste is responsible for pollution of soil and air. It contains chromium, and researchers have worked toward its extraction so that it can be utilized as reinforcement in MMCs. Chromium containing leather waste is collected from the tannery solid waste followed by extraction of collagen in the powder form, which contains chromium [17].

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Chapter 7 Challenges in green waste-reinforced aluminum composites

7.2.4 Animal waste residue 7.2.4.1 Cow horn particles Cow horn particles are solid wastes having the potential to combine with metals to form MMCs. The bone core separated from horn was charred in the absence of oxygen at 1,150 °C temperature using heat treatment furnace and followed by milling for reduction in particle size. This waste residue mainly contains CaO, SiO2, K2O, MgO, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MnO, and Na2O [18]. 7.2.4.2 Cow bones The cow bones are low in economic values but their utilization is possible as reinforcement in MMCs. Cow bones mainly contain about 65% hydroxyapatite (HAp) as a mineral component. HAp can be processed from cow bones by the calcination process [19]. 7.2.4.3 Eggshell Eggshell is a waste generated in huge amount worldwide and is a worst environmental issue. It contains 95 and 5 wt% calcium carbonate and organic materials, respectively. In general, it is used as a protein supplement in animal foods having high potential for applications in composites and also used in low load-bearing applications such as automobile industries, offices, and homes [20]. Therefore, several waste residues are available from different sources which are hazardous for nature but having the potential to utilize as reinforcement in MMCs. It was observed that although numerous reinforcement options are available, preparation of defect-free MMCs is still a challenging task. The research on fabrication of MMCs using industry and agriculture waste has gained momentum in recent years to provide a sustainable solution for disposal/utilization of hazardous waste. The researchers focused mainly on the selection of suitable fabrication techniques to successfully overcome the challenges in the preparation of defect-free MMCs.

7.3 Challenges in the development of MMCs from industry/ agriculture waste The choice of production process depends on several factors such as envisaged application, desired properties, and economy of processing. These preparation techniques are mainly categorized into two categories: primary (consolidation and combining) and secondary (joining or shaping) processes. This categorization is based on chemical, thermal, and mechanical properties of matrix and reinforcement. In addition, the selected process should be capable to lower the damage of dispersed phase, preserve material strength, and enhance bonding between phases. Tables 7.1–7.3 enlist several material combinations along with their processing techniques and challenges.

7.3 Challenges in the development of MMCs from industry/agriculture waste

169

Table 7.1: Methods to utilize industrial waste residues in MMCs and corresponding challenges [1]. S. no. Reinforcement material

Processing techniques

Challenges



Powder metallurgy

–

Fly ash

–

– 

Fly ash

Stir casting

–

– – – 

Fly ash

Squeeze casting

– –

During compaction process, cenosphere particles of FA are broken down, resulting in lower density. Green and sintered density of compacted material decreases with FA content. It also degrades corrosion resistance. Cost of processing is high/medium, and more justifiable for high volume production. While processing, FA particles tend to segregate at the Al grain boundary due to particle pushing. FA particle is always present at the region of Al dendrites. Sometimes due to low density, it floats over solidifying metals and cause poor wettability. Corrosion resistance decreases with increasing FA content. Up to 30% particles by volume can be reinforced in MMCs. Increase in the pitting corrosion behavior of FA-Al composite. Deformation of FA particle due to pressurized casting.



Fly ash

Pressure infiltration

–

Tool cost is high and there is difficulty in preparation of die for complex-shaped components.



Fly ash

Pressureless infiltration

–

Lack of wetting performance by molten metal leads to poor bonding, and also undesired chemical reactions cause another problem.



Fly ash

Friction stir processing

–

FA particles are defragmented or fractured due to stirring. Tool cost is also high and there is difficulty in controlling the property of prepared MMCs.

– 

Electric arc furnace dust (EAFD)

Powder metallurgy

–

The hardness and compressive strength improved but after optimum EAFD content, it starts to decrease.



Coal dust

Stir casting

–

Incorporation of coal dust in MMCs leads to void generation and reduction in density due to high porosity.



Leather waste

Stir casting

–

The collagen powder extracted from leather waste is difficult to mix with the metal matrix due to the difference in density and distributed nonuniformly in MMCs.

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Chapter 7 Challenges in green waste-reinforced aluminum composites

Table 7.2: Methods to utilize agriculture waste residues in MMCs and corresponding challenges. S. no. Reinforcement Processing material techniques

Challenges



–

Breadfruit seed hull ash

Stir casting

–

With an increase in breadfruit seed hull ash weight percent, composite density decreased, hardness increased, and MMCs become brittle. The difference in the coefficient of thermal expansion of reinforcing and matrix phase results in elastic and plastic incompatibility and high dislocation density.



Coconut shell ash (CSA)

Stir casting

–

Tensile strength and hardness increases but wear strength reduces due to the presence of CSA particles at the dislocation site.



Rise husk

Stir casting

–

Tensile strength and hardness increases but the density decreases due to the presence of porosity.



Bamboo ash

Stir casting

–

Decrease in hardness and tensile strength is observed.



Kenaf fiber

Hand lay up

High moisture absorption capacity of kenaf fiber degrades the material properties of MMCs.

Table 7.3: Methods to utilize animal waste residues in MMCs and corresponding challenges. S. no. Reinforcement Processing material techniques

Challenges



Cow horn

Spark plasma sintering –

Difficult to prepare with other methods but with this method the desired bonding between matrix and reinforcement has been reported, and superior wear resistance has been found.



Cow bone

Self-propagating hightemperature synthesis

–

There is an issue of compatibility and bonding between extracted HAp and matrix material and required secondary reinforcement material which enhances the bonding and strength of prepared MMCs.



Eggshell

Stir casting

–

Hardness and tensile strength improves but impact toughness reduces.

In these tables, some of the important research works on the utilization of agriculture, industry, and animal waste residue as reinforcement are enlisted. It is analyzed that although this waste utilization for preparation of MMCs is a beneficial concept, the main challenge with enlisted reinforcement materials is the processing at low cost with controlled mechanical as well as microstructure properties. In addition,

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homogeneous and uniform distribution of reinforcement and good wettability is very difficult to obtain. A few other challenges are: understanding the effect of individual reinforcement for hybrid composite, encounter the issue of process limitation for certain volume fraction of reinforcement, development of complex geometry, production at high volume and rate, and modeling of material properties and process. Quantitative process optimization, control, and simulation are vital for optimization of MMC properties and control of internal defects.

7.4 Conclusion In this chapter, information and insight that might be useful for future investigation on the preparation of MMCs by using agriculture and industry waste materials are provided. These waste materials are having attractive characteristics such as unique chemical composition morphology/structure, and unlimited availability, which make it a viable substitute as reinforcement phases in MMCs. The performance of developed MMCs mainly depends not only on the origin, chemical composition, and morphology but also on the selection of processing method. It was observed that although abundant research works are available on this area but apart from FA, none of the agriculture or industry waste materials is utilized at the industrial scale. Consequently, ample opportunities can be envisaged.

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[4]

[5] [6] [7]

Bahrami, A., Soltani, N., Pech-Canul, M.I. and Gutierrez, C.A., 2016. Development of metal-matrix composites from industrial/agricultural waste materials and their derivatives. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science And Technology, 1–66. Mussatto, A., UI Ahad, I., Mousavian, R.T., Delaure, Y. and Brabazon, D., 2020. Advanced production routes for metal matrix composites. Engineering Reports, 3(5), 12330. Madakson, P., Yawas, D. and Apasi, A., 2012. Characterization of coconut shell ash for potential utilization in metal matrix composites for automotive applications. International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, 4, 1190–1198. Maleque, M., Atiqah, A., Talib, R. and Zahurin, H., 2012. New natural fibre reinforced aluminium composite for automotive brake pad. International Journal of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, 7, 166–170. Atuanya, C., Onukwuli, O. and Aigbodion, V., 2014. Experimental correlation of wear parameters in Al-Si-Fe alloy/breadfruit seed hull ash particulate composites. J Compos Mater, 48, 1487–1496. Aigbodion, V.S., 2012. Development of Al-Si-Fe/Rice husk ash particulate composites synthesis by double stir casting method. Usak University Journal of Material Sciences, 2, 187–197. Olusesi, O.S. and Udoye, N.E., 2021. Development and characterization of AA6061 aluminium alloy/ clay and rice husk ash composite. Manufacturing Letters, 34–41.

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Chapter 7 Challenges in green waste-reinforced aluminum composites

Xie, X.Q., Fan, T.X., Zhang, D., Sakata, T. and Mori, H., 2002b. Mechanical properties and damping behavior of wood ceramics/ZK60A Mg alloy composite. Materials Research Bulletin, 37, 1133–1140. Alaneme, K. and Adewuyi, E., 2013. Mechanical behaviour of Al-Mg-Si matrix composites reinforced with alumina and bamboo leaf ash. Association of Metallurgical Engineers of Serbia, 177–187. Frage, N., Levin, L., Frumin, N., Gelbstein, M. and Dariel, M., 2003. Manufacturing B4C_(Al, Si) composite materials by metal alloy infiltration. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 143, 486–490. Atefi, R., Razmavar, A., Teimoori, F. and Teimoori, F., 2012. Investigation on new eco-core metal matrix composite sandwich structure. Life Science Journal, 9, 1077–1079. Ramesh, R., Langovan, N.E., Anton Savio Lewise, K., Anandan, R., Sathish, S., Dheeraj Shathragna, M., Marichamy, S. and Subbiah, R., 2022. Effect of fly ash on metal matrix composites – An overview. Materials Today: Proceedings, 50(5), 1315–1318. Flores-Velez, L.M., Chavez, J., Hernandez, L. and Dominguez, O., 2001. Characterization and properties of aluminum composite materials prepared by powder metallurgy techniques using ceramic solid wastes. Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 16, 1–16. Dewangan, R., Pandey, P.K., Rajput, N.S. and Dohare, R., 2021. Optimization of hybrid aluminium metal matrix composite using red mud and wheat husk ash. advances in engineering design. In Lecture notes in mechanical engineering. Springer. Khezri, S.M., Shariat, S.M. and Tabibian, S., 2012. Evaluation of extracting titanium dioxide from water-based paint sludge in auto-manufacturing industries and its application in paint production. Toxicology and Industrial Health, 29, 697–703. Shekhawat, D., Sharma, A., Choudhary, M. and Kiragi, V.R., 2018. Design and development of coal dust filled aluminium alloy composite. Journal of Manufacturing Technology and Research, 11(1–2), 15–26. Dwivedi, S.P. and Srivastava, A.K., 2020. Utilization of chrome containing leather waste in development of aluminium based green composite material. International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing-Green Technology, 7, 781–790. Ochieze, B.Q., Nwobi-Okoye, C.C. and Atamuo, P.N., 2018. Experimental study of the effect of wear parameters on the wear behavior of A356 alloy/cow horn particulate composites. Defence Technology, 14, 77–82. Pramono, A., Sulaiman, F. and Milandia, A. (2020). Fabrication of metal matrix composites based on hydroxyapatite by self-high propagating temperatures synthesis (SHS). Preprints, 2020080596. Bose, S., Pandey, A., Mondal, A. and Mondal, P., 2019. a novel approach in developing aluminum hybrid green metal matrix composite material using waste eggshells, cow dung ash, snail shell ash and boron carbide as reinforcements. In Advances in industrial and production engineering. lecture notes in mechanical engineering. Springer.

Chapter 8 Applications of green waste composite Murahari Kolli✶, Krishna Kishore Mugada, N. Jaya Prakash Abstract: Lightweight materials play an important role in the aircraft and automobile industries because they help to minimize fuel consumption and pollutants. Aluminum alloys are the least expensive of all cast alloys and replace cast iron to manufacture pistons and engine blocks. Si particle concentration, shape, and size can all be used to improve the performance of Al–Si alloys. Furthermore, ceramic reinforcements like Al2 O3 , SiO2 , ZrB2 , TiC, SiC, and B4 C which are hard can be used to increase the performance of Al–Si cast alloys. The composites made of such hard ceramic particles increase performance characteristics but with increased cost. The exploitation of wastes such as red mud, fly ash, cement, eggshell ash, rice husk ash, coconut shell ash, and bagasse ash produced from industry and agriculture can reduce the processing cost of composites. Fly ash has a high salinity and poisonous content. If such wastes are disposed landfill may contaminate soil and water. The output of biowaste materials is increasing, and technology has enabled them to be used as additives to other materials in order to improve the mechanical qualities of such materials. Snail and sea shells, which are considered as bioremnants, obtained from eateries and beaches generally cause environmental pollution when the shells are abandoned after the flesh is consumed. Keywords: Al-applications, Al-Green composites, Al-MMC applications, Al-Industrial waste, Al-Animal waste, Al-Composites

8.1 Aluminum MMCs and waster residue applications As illustrated in Figure 8.1, Al-based metal matrix composites (MMCs) and waste residue composites are widely used in a variety of industries. Figure 8.2 depicts the classification of various waste residue composites that can be manufactured with aluminum. As indicated in Figure 8.3, biowastes or animal wastes such as egg shell, bones, skull, skin, horn and tooth, and cow dung are employed as reinforcement elements in aluminum MMCs. For example, eggshells have shown promising improvement of mechanical properties when used in the production of composite materials, that is, strong in resistance to corrosion and temperature, and improved wear qualities [1]. So, the applications of eggshellreinforced AA2014 are of high temperature and high strength. High-temperature applications include brake rotor, drive shafts, and pistons of IC engine whereas high strength

✶

Corresponding author: Murahari Kolli, e-mail: [email protected]

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applications include structural components that demand low weight and high strength materials [1]. Heavy metals in soils can contaminate groundwater and accumulate in plant tissues through absorption, harming human health directly. Heavy metals ingested through plant intake often accumulate in the body and are not excreted. Eggshells can be used as immobilizing agent in order to remove heavy metals from the wastewater [2].

Figure 8.1: Applications of AMCs in various industries.

The different ways in which the eggshell waste is useful are: (a) it acts a solid-base catalyst in order to minimize the pollutants, reduce the cost of production, and make the entire production process fully ecological and environmentally friendly production of biodiesel; (b) it purifies wastewater by absorbing heavy metals from it and saving the environment; and (c) it helps in the nutrition as a supplement of calcium for humans and animals and also as fertilizer for plants and so on [3]. The bone and skull composite created is utilized as a low-cost material for building structural applications such as doors and window panels, ceilings, partition boards, car and railway interiors, and storage devices [4] and is also widely employed in electrical sectors [5]. Animal skin-based composites have long been regarded as raw materials for clothes (leather and wool), gloves, shoes, furniture (leather), blankets (wool), and other applications [6]. Wool composites are widely utilized in the textile sector, water filters, insulations, and other applications due to their good features such as elongation, low heat conductivity, durability, and shape stability [7].

8.1 Aluminum MMCs and waster residue applications

Figure 8.2: Metal matrix composites fabricated from waste materials.

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Composites made from horn and tooth debris are employed in automotive, aerospace, and structural applications [8]. Horn is really tough. It has high resilience to impact, high-tenacity excellent energy absorption and good fracture resistance materials. It is used to make handles, buttons, belt buckles, and drinking cups [9]. Furthermore, it is employed in the biomedical and textile industries for bone grafting, orthopedic, and dental support as bone graft material in the development of biofilms and bioceramics biofilms [10]. Keratin and collagen from poultry and goat waste are used to generate biocomposite teeth, while bone from cow and sheep waste can be used to produce hydroxyapatite [11].

Biocomposites and biopolymers Collagen Keratin and fibres

Hyaluronic acid Feet

Bones

Feathers Offals

Skin

Hydroxyapatite

Horns

Animal derived waste

Blood

Tooth Dung & Urine

Polysaccharides Fat

Hydrogels

Chitosan

Hoof

Lipids

Pigments Bioactive peptides

Figure 8.3: Classification of animal-derived waste.

8.2 Industrial waste residue-based aluminum composites Many of the crops like rice, fruit, and trees are planted in the red mud in order to withstand pressure and increase yield. When calcium silicon fertilizer is applied to red mud, significant quantity of effective silicon will replenish and improves the acidity of the soil. The other applications in which red mud is utilized include calcium silicon fertilizer, desulfurization agent, and polymer material apart from being material used in the building construction and extraction of Fe [12]. Road construction is another example of a large-scale application of red mud. Ceramic materials as well as

8.2 Industrial waste residue-based aluminum composites

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pigments, paints, aggregates, bricks, and tiles are manufactured and used as cement additives in the construction of pavements [13, 14].

Figure 8.4: Applications of coal fly ash in various processes, with permission from [15].

As indicated in Figure 8.4, coal ash is employed in soil improvement, building, ceramics, zeolite synthesis, catalysis, depth separation, and other applications. In the housing of power transmission, intake manifolds, brake drums, covers of valves, belts, and chains and many other applications conventional materials are replaced with fly ash-filled aluminum composites as these improve performance, lower emissions, and decrease energy waste. Fly ash is another industrial waste that is employed in a variety of applications such as wastewater treatment, soil improvement, zeolite synthesis, the concrete business, and the ceramic industry [16]. Fly ash can be used in a variety of civil engineering applications such as roads, trains, and dam embankments. Fly ash has been utilized as structural fill in low-lying locations to build residential plots for mine infill. Fly ash has several applications in the cement, construction, polymer, and pollution control sectors. Fly ash is also utilized in floor or wall tiles, the paint industry, refractory bricks or tiles, the manufacture of asbestos goods, and other applications [17]. Limestone can be replaced by marble waste and marble slurry [18]. Waste marble slurry might be used in the manufacture of wall tiles by ceramic. Some waste marble

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slurry applications include power coating, paints, and ceramic industries, leather textile and flooring applications, and glass production sectors [19]. Granite dust is used as an ingredient in the concrete preparation for buildings. Waste marble dust composites are used in die attachments, aeroengine rotor blades, thermal boundary material, encapsulating, electronic packaging, electrical cable insulation, and other applications [20]. In the manufacture of acoustic barriers, slag comes out of boilers is considered as the best substitute than typical aggregates like bottom ash [21]. Boiler slag is also utilized in pavement construction and maintenance [22].

8.3 Applications related to plant/agrowaste-based green composites Aloe vera particles are utilized in MMCs to replace whisker reinforcement with particulate reinforcements, which decreases weight and production costs while providing superior strength qualities. The use of Al–aloe vera composites has been limited to military, aerospace, and marine applications [23]. Bamboo leaf debris is one of the green waste sources that are readily available and widely used. Globally, around 29 million ton of bamboo waste was used for various purposes such as automotive and aerospace. Next-generation Al-BLA materials feature high strength, surfacecoating deposition, and corrosion resistance in aerospace, marine, and automotive applications. Functionally graded materials and composite materials were produced using BA particles, and modern applications were discovered [24, 25]. Melon shell ash, as a waste of agriculture, can be able to substitute costlier reinforcers such as Al2O3, TiC, SiC, and B4C since it was readily available, inexpensive, and environmentally benign. These materials have demonstrated a high potential for use in railway braking discs, pistons for diesel engines, connecting rods, and other applications [26]. Sugarcane (bagasse), groundnut shell ash, rice husk ash, and coconut shell (jute) ash are used as reinforcements in aluminum and have applications such as handrails, drive shafts, bicycle frames, tubular lawn furniture, scaffolding, and braces used on trucks, boats, and many other structural fabrications [27]. Polyurethane wood ash composites provide very good varying strength of fracture that can challenge loads in the applications wherever needed [28]. Al-composite and Al-hybrid composite materials used in various manufacturing sectors like aerospace, automobile, and sports and satellite were observed in Figures 8.5–8.8, respectively [29]. Al-MMCs’ important elements are illustrated in Figure 8.9, and the figure indicates process parameters, methods, properties, and related applications.

8.3 Applications related to plant/agrowaste-based green composites

Figure 8.5: Composite materials used in various aircraft structures (courtesy of Google images in Composites Horizons, Inc.).

Figure 8.6: Composite materials used in aircraft engine components (courtesy of Google images in Composites Horizons, Inc.).

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Figure 8.7: Composite materials used in satellite parts (courtesy of Google images in Composites Horizons, Inc.).

Figure 8.8: Automobile applications used in composites materials (courtesy of goggle images in composites horizons, Inc.).

Corrosion resistance Durability Light weight

Other Applications

Wear resistance Light weight Good fatigue Good rigidity Ultra light weight

Structural

Good strength to weight ratio Thermal stability Corrosion resistance Ductality Light weight, low density High strength, resistance Ductality, wear, corrosion Aerospace

Sports

Automobile

Defense

Bio-Medical

Corrosion resistance Weldability Low density Fabricability

Electronics Marine

Process parameters

Matrix material

Additives mixing Reinforcement Fabrication methods

Good strength L/D ratio, weight Thermal stability Corrosion resistance Ductality Good strength L/D ratio, weight Thermal stability Corrosion resistance Ductality

8.3 Applications related to plant/agrowaste-based green composites

Figure 8.9: Applications of AMMCs in various fields.

Specific stiffness Specific strength Fatigue resistance Wear resistance Thermal expansion

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Chapter 8 Applications of green waste composite

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Attarde, S., Marathe, S. and Sil, A., 2014. Utilization of fly ash in construction industries for environment management. International Journal of Environmental, 3(2), pp. 117–121. Singh, M.A., Srivastava, A.N. and Bhunia, D.I., 2016. Potential applications of marble dust in industrial use by characterization techniques – A review. International Journal of Advanced Structures and Geotechnical Engineering, 5(3), pp. 99–106. Patel, B.B., Thakar, H.B., Varia, H.R. and Mishra, C.B., 2017. Use of waste marble powder to improve the characteristics of black cotton soil. International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology, 6(04), pp. 817–821. Nayak, S.K., Satapathy, A. and Mantry, S., 2022. Use of waste marble and granite dust in structural applications: A review. Journal of Building Engineering, 46, pp. 103742. Apr 1. Li, J., Zhuang, X., Leiva, C., Arenas, C., Cornejo, A., Querol, X., Moreno, N., Font, O. and Fernández Pereira, C., 2020. Utilization of boiler slag from pulverized-coal-combustion power plants in china for manufacturing acoustic materials. Energies, 13(21), pp. 5705. Emery, J.J., 1982. Slag utilization in pavement. Extending Aggregate Resources, 774(4), pp. 95. Gireesh, C.H., Prasad, K.D., Ramji, K. and Vinay, P.V., 2018. Mechanical characterization of aluminium metal matrix composite reinforced with aloe vera powder. Materials Today: Proceedings, 5(2), pp. 3289–3297. Kumar, B.P. and Birru, A.K., 2018. Tribological behavior of aluminium metal matrix composite with addition of bamboo leaf ash by gra-taguchi method. Tribology in Industry, 40(2), pp. 311. Ebenezer, N.S., Vinod, B. and Jagadesh, H.S., 2021. Corrosion behaviour of bamboo leaf ashreinforced nickel surface-deposited aluminium metal matrix composites. Journal of Bio-and TriboCorrosion. 7(2), pp. 1–7. Suleiman, I.Y., Salihu, S.A. and Mohammed, T.A., 2018. Investigation of mechanical, microstructure, and wear behaviors of Al-12% Si/reinforced with melon shell ash particulates. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology. 97(9), pp. 4137–4144. Butola, R., Malhotra, A., Yadav, M., Singari, R., Murtaza, Q. and Chandra, P., Experimental studies on mechanical properties of metal matrix composites reinforced with natural fibres ashes. SAE Technical Paper, 2019 Apr 2. Okafor, C.E., Okafor, E.J., Obodoeze, J.J. and Ihueze, C.C., 2018. Characteristics and reliability of polyurethane wood ash composites for packaging and containerisation applications. atmosphere. 30(1), pp. 2. Muhammad, A.G., Experimental and numerical approach to study the mechanical behavior of the filament wound composite leaf spring, Doctoral dissertation, Meliksah University, 2014.

Index 2D and 3D structure 5 3D printing 70 abrasion 146 advancing side 154 aerospace 67, 75, 154, 178 agriculture waste 164, 168 agro-industrial waste 76 aircraft alloy 154 aloe vera 21, 178 alternatives 100 alumina 115 AMMCs 76, 113 animal bones 88 animal skin 174 animal tooth 17 animal waste 15, 31 animal wastes 5, 173 animals 7 applications 2, 166, 178 aramid fibers 48 ASME 126 ASTM 103 atomization 63 automobile 75, 178 automotive 67, 135 aviation 75 axial force 158 bagasse ash 27, 59 ball mill 137 ball milling 76, 78, 116 bamboo leaf ash 136 biaxial fabric 44 billets 126 binders 64 binding 93 biodegradable 87 biodegraded materials 28 biomedical 2, 88 biowastes 173 BLA 21 blast furnace slag 11 blended 116 blending 64 boiler slag 11, 178

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110766523-013

bone 174 bone powder 77 bones 87 bottom pouring 66 boundaries 107 breadfruit seed hull 165 brick and boats 60 bricks 14 Brinell hardness 149 brittility 107 bubbles trapped 148 carbon fibers 44 carbonized 17, 88 casting 62, 79, 101, 109, 114, 126 casting flaws 51 catalyst 44 caterpillar 45 cavitation 68 ceramic 55, 76 ceramic materials 176 ceramic particles 145 characteristics 171 chemical vapor 54 clustering 145 clusters 76 coal ash 11, 177 coal dust 9 coating 53 cocoa bean shell 23 coconut husk 59 coconut shell 132, 155, 164 collimator 45 collision 146 compacting 42 compo casting 76 compocasting 52–53 composite brake 28 compressive strength 88 connecting pipe 49 continuous phase 5 conventional 117 conventional alloys 2 cooling rate 144 corn cob ash 28 corrosion resistance 136

186

Index

cost-effective 149 cow bone 17 cow bones 168 cow dung 18 cow dung ash 18 cow horn 18 Cr powder 18 crushing 63 curing 48 CVD method 55 CVD reactor 54 defense 75 deformation 69, 154 dendritic 105 dendritic structure, 144 densification 47 density 141, 147 die-casting 52 diffractometer 103 dislocation 149 dispersion 2 drilling 63, 70 ductility 81, 107 Duralcan liquid 53 Duralcan technique 53 eco-friendly 20, 165 economical 150 EDS 90 eggshell 28, 168, 174 eggshells 88, 173 E-glass waste 15 ejection 120 electric power 48 electrical conductivity 60 electrochemical 17 electrolysis 63 electronics 67 electronics waste 30 electroplating 76 energy generation 163 engine pistons 88 epoxy 48, 61 fabrication 100 fatigue 101 fiber 45, 61

fiber composite 55 fiber composites 2 fiberglass 60 fiber-resistant plastic 60 filament winding 48, 55 flexural strength 88 flow-casting 52 fly ash 10, 59, 76, 113, 167, 177 food and electronics 13 food processing 6 food waste 28 fracture 108 friction stir processing 69, 155 FSP 7, 125, 155 FSP tool 155 furnace 65, 89, 137 furnace dust 12 gas holes 148 gas layers 145 generatrix 48 genres 106 glass 14 glass wastes 30 greenhouse 5 goat bone 17 goat waste 176 granite dust 178 granite stone 43 granite waste 9 graphene 115 green composites 20, 88 green density 120 green waste 26 green wastes 5, 20 grinding sludge 12 groove process 70 groundnut shell ash 178 groundwater 7 H13 129 Hall–Petch 93 hand laminates 44 hard component 165 hardness 93, 106, 114 hardness testing 142 heat treatment 66

Index

heating process 48 high temperatures 165 holes 129 horn 176 horse eye bean 26 household 28, 31 household wastes 5 humans 7 husk and seed 25 hybrid 114 hybrid casting 88 hybrid composite 10, 21 hybrid MMC 11 impact 109, 129 impact strength 82 impeller blade 65 Impeller stirrers 67 in situ 132 induction casting 89 induction heating 89 industrial waste 31, 76, 163 industrial wastes 5, 7 industries 1 infiltration 64 infiltration composites 2 infiltration pressure 51 inspection 63 kenaf 166 laminated 62 layer composites 2 leaf ashes 22 leaf waste 20 leather waste 18, 167 LGA 22 light metal 62 lightweight 1, 135, 165 limitations 126 liquid-phase 47 low cost 20 low density 136 lucrative method 138 machining 63 macroconstituents 164 mandrel 48

marble dust 8 marble waste 177 matrix properties 48 mechanical properties 168 mechanical stirrer’s 67 mechanical vibrations 68 melon shell ash 178 metal 55 metal gases 148 microhardness 82, 129 microstructural 76, 156 microstructure 104, 126 microstructures 91 MIG 155 milling 115 mining and quarry 7 MINITAB-17 127 missile 67 MMC 90 modeling 31 molded 40 mollusk shells 88 monolithic 2, 99, 113 monotonic 93 morphology 123 moulding 60 multiphases 2 mussel shell 19 nano 5, 114 nanocomposites 68, 76, 114 nanoconstituents 164 nanoparticle 68 nanoparticles 76 nano-reinforced 76 nanoscale 68 nanostructured 120 nanotubes 115 nanowaste 31 nugget zone 154 optimization 31, 171 overlapping passes 70 P/M 114 palm kernel shell 24 palm oil fuel ash 59 panels 62

187

188

Index

paper sludge 13 parameters 67 passes 126 periwinkle shell 19 phase particles 69 physical properties 43 pin diameter 155 pin taper length 155 pistons 113 PIW 14 plasma spraying 47 plastic deformation 158 plastic waste 30 polyester 48 polyimides 48 polymer 55 polymerization 60 polymers 44 polypropylene 88 porosity 79, 117, 141, 147 porousness 64 powder metallurgy 8, 62 power generation 165 power plant waste 10 preheated 103 pressure gauge 44 pressure infiltration 51 processability 39 processing method 164 processing methods 6 processing speed 157 processing techniques 168 propeller blade 22 properties 6 pulling mechanisms 45 pultrusion 44 pultrusion method 46 pycnometer 138 pyrolysis process 167 quality of fiber 48 quantitative process 171 quarry dust 8 rails 61 rattan plant 166 recrystallization 157 recyclability 60

recycling 1, 163 red mud 9, 59, 176 refractory 100 reinforcement materials 170 resin 44 retreating side 154 rice husk 59 rice husk ash 178 rice-husk 113 robust 61 rock dust 7, 126, 132 rock-dust 113 sandwich technique 70 satellite 178 satellites 67 SCBA 27 sculpting 40 sealed 127 seashell 88 SEM 77, 90, 119, 126 shell waste 23 shoulder diameter 155 shrinkage 79 sieve shaker 137 sintering 63 sizing 63 slag 101, 109 slate 14 slurry 65 solar reflectors 67 solid state 146, 154 solidification 53, 91 solidification process 145 spark plasma 76 sports 75 spray forming 46, 55 squeeze casting 51, 76 steel industry 167 stir casting 9, 27, 65, 76, 136 stir castings 51 stir-casting 150 stirrer 65 stirring process 145 stirring rod 65 sugarcane 178 sugarcane bagasse 26 surface composite 157

Index

surface roughness 76 suspension systems 67 sustainable 100 synthesized 150 tensile 114 tensile strength 90 textile and chemical waste 13 textile sector 174 thermodynamically 107 thermoforming 46 thermosetting 48 thixotropy 52 TIG 154 tool profiles 126 tool stirs 154 tooth powder 78 transportation 75 tribological 77 tribromide 54 ultrasonic 68, 78 ultrasonic generator 78 ultrasonic stir casting 77 ultrasonic vibrations 68 uncarbonized 88

uniform distribution 171 UTM 129 UTS 130 vacuum bagging 42, 55 vacuum infusion 49 vacuum pressure 89 vacuum pump 43 value-added 5, 11 vegetable waste 30 waste residue 170 wear 20, 75, 94, 100, 114, 126 wear properties 7 wear resistance 136 welding slag 14 wettability 101, 106 wheat husk 26 wood ceramic 166 wood waste 28 WSA 24 yarns 46 yield strength 90 YTS 130

189

Also of interest Series: Advanced Composites J. Paulo Davim (Ed.) ISSN - Published titles in this series: Vol. : Cellulose Composites () Ed. by P. K. Rakesh, J. Paulo Davim Vol. : Hybrid Composites () Ed. by K. Kumar, B. S. Babu Vol. : Plant and Animal Based Composites () Ed. by K. Kumar, J. Paulo Davim Vol. : Glass Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites () Ed. by J. Babu, J. Paulo Davim Vol. : Polymers and Composites Manufacturing () Ed. by K. Kumar, J. Paulo Davim Vol. : Biodegradable Composites () Ed. by Ed. by K. Kumar, J. P. Davim Vol. : Wear of Composite Materials () Ed. by J. P. Davim Vol. : Hierarchical Composite Materials () Ed. by K. Kumar, J. P. Davim Vol. : Green Composites () Ed. by J. P. Davim Vol. : Wood Composites () Ed. by A. Alfredo, J. P. Davim Vol. : Ceramic Matrix Composites () Ed. by J. P. Davim Vol. : Machinability of Fibre-Reinforced Plastics () Ed. by J. P. Davim Vol. : Metal Matrix Composites () Ed. by J. P. Davim Vol. : Biomedical Composites () Ed. by J. P. Davim Vol. : Nanocomposites () Ed. by J. P. Davim, C. A. Charitidis

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