War and the World: Military Power and the Fate of Continents, 1450-2000 9780300147698

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War and the World

War and the World Military Power and the Fate of Continents 1450-2000

Jeremy Black

Yale University Press New Haven and London

Copyright© 1 998 by Jeremy Black First published in paperback 2000 All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced in whole or in part, in any form (beyond that copying permitted by Sections 1 07 and 1 08 of the U.S. Copyright Law and except by reviewers for the public press) without written permission from the publishers. Set in Adobe Garamond Printed in Italy Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Black, Jeremy. War and the world, 1 450-2000/Jeremy Black. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-300-07202-3 1 . Military history, Modern. 2. War and society-History. 4. Europe-History. I. Tide. 3. History, Modern. 1 997 D214.B58 355'.009-dc2 1

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

97-28 1 69 CIP

For Geoffrey Parker

Contents

vm

Illustration Credits Preface

zx

Acknowledgements

I

Introduction

2

Gibbonian Strategies

3 4 5 6 7 8 9

x

I

3 Fifteenth- and Sixteenth-Century Expansion and "Warfare The Seventeenth Century 60 The Pre-Revolutionary Eighteenth Century 96 An Age ofRevolution and Imperial Reach, 1775-1815 164 The Nineteenth Century "Warfare and the State, 1450-1900 Twentieth-Century Reflections Notes

292

Index

321

203 232

18

129

Illustration Credits

Frans Hals Museum, Haarlem: 1, 9 (photo Tom Haartsen); The Board of Trustees of the Armouries: 2 (11.84), 10 (XIX.167), 13 (1.142), 26 (XXVIA6), 35 (X.590), 36 (XII. 1577 and 1638), 41 (XXVI.300), 55 (XXVIF.101); By permission of the British Library: 3 (C 122 i 14), 22 (1049 c. 2), 24 (Add. MSS. 61342 f128), 25 (Oriental and India Office CollectionsJ-26.14); 32 (K 86392 [16]), 38 (9512 f 7), 40 (Add. MSS. 64930), 42 (152 i 8 p.lOO), 43 (17740 [1]), 45 (Add. MSS. 61343F), 48 (170 e 13 [1] pl.lO), 60 (Add. MSS. 61343G), 68 (61343A), 73 (Add. MSS. 61342 f 113-114b); The Anne S. K. Brown Military Collection,John Hay Library, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island: 4, 5, 6, 19, 20, 23, 29, 39, 46, 47, 49, 64, 76; The Horniman Museum, London: 7, 8, 14, 15, 17; © Sonia Halliday Photographs: 11; Ashmolean Museum Oxford: 12; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1904. (04.4.2). All rights reserved.The Metropolitan Museum of Art: 16; © The Board of Trustees, National Gallery of Art, Washington, Rosenwald Collection: 18; Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek: 27, 28; Heeresgeschichtliches Museum, Vienna: 30; Germanisches Nationalmuseum Niirnberg: 31; Kenneth Spencer Research Library, University of Kansas: 33, 37, 53, 71, 72, 77, 78; © RMN, Paris: 34, 54, 66; National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London: 44, 52, 70; American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia: 50, 79; Courtesy of the Massachusetts Historical Society: 51; Courtesy United Distillers: 56; Philadelphia Museum of Art: 57 (Lent to the Commissioners of Fairmount Park by the Estate of General C. H. T. Collis), 86 (Purchased: John D. Mcilhenny Fund); Wallington, Northumberland. The National Trust Photograph/Derrick E. W itty: 58; Waddesdon Manor. The National Trust: 74; Shipley Art Gallery, Gateshead. Tyne & Wear Museums: 62; © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II: 63, 75; Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center, The University ofTexas at Austin: 65; Reproduction of The Battle of the Boyne after Jan Wyck courtesy the National Gallery of Ireland: 69; National Archives of Canada: 80 (NMC-111113); Portsmouth Museums and Record Service: 81, 82, 83; Imperial War Museum: 84 (MH 33771): Getty Images: 85

Preface

Appointment to a new post and my decision to offer a course on war 1400-2000 have prompted me to write this book. It reflects many years of teaching military history and is designed as a development from my previous works, especially European "Warfare 1660--1815 (London and New Haven, 1994). As the Introduction makes clear, I seek to adopt new approaches in a number of important respects. Obviously, with a subject of this scale and a work of this size, this book must be regarded as only a contribution; the subject is vast and developing and, as ever with history, it is mistaken to pretend to be definitive, particularly in writing a single-volume world military history that adopts a global perspective. The text seeks to provide essential information as well as to analyse trends. In places there is a plethora of information, especially dates, but they are neces­ sary in order to structure and integrate events of which too few Western readers are aware. The book seeks to provide as comprehensive an account as is possible in the space avail­ able. The notes have been kept to a strict minimum, in order to make more space for text and because they are not intended to advertise the scholarship on which this book is based but rather to be useful to a wider readership. They are restricted to direct quo­ tations and, as far as possible, to accessible secondary literature.

Acknowledgements

I am most grateful for the opportunities to develop some of the following arguments pro­ vided by invitations to deliver lectures at the Universities of Aberdeen, Bristol, British Columbia, Cambridge, Denver, Dundee, Edinburgh, Illinois (Urbana), Indianapolis, Maine, Manchester, Marburg, Missouri (St Louis), New Hampshire, Northumbria, Odense, Oxford, Plymouth, Southeastern Louisiana, Victoria, Virginia and Yale, and at West Point, at the Royal Military College of Canada, at Brown, Lamar, Lethbridge, McMaster, Pennsylvania State, Rice, St Andrews, Simon Fraser, Stirling, Temple, Texas Christian, Washington (St Louis), Wesleyan (Normal), Western Ontario and W ilfrid Laurier Universities, at Austin College, at Corpus Christi College and Peterhouse College, Cambridge, at the Institute of Historical Research, the German Historical Institute in London, the University of V irginia Alumni Summer School in Oxford and the Open University Summer School in York, at naval history conferences at Darrington and Hud­ dersfield, at the City of London School and at St Swithun's School. I would like to thank Tom Arnold, Chris Bartlett, Ian Beckett, Volker Berghahn, George Boyce, Ahron Bregman, Martin van Creveld, Brian Davies, Kelly DeVries, Jan Glete,Jeffrey Grey, John Hattendorf, Nicholas Henshall, Stewart Lone, Peter Lorge, Piers Mackesy, John Pocock, George Raudzens, Dennis Showalter, Gene Smith, Lawrence Sondhaus, Edward Spiers, Armstrong Starkey, David Stevenson, John Thornton, Spencer Tucker, Bruce Vandervort, Arthur Waldron, Geoffrey Wawro, Scott W heeler, Russell Weigley and Peter W ilson for their helpful comments on an earlier draft. I am most grateful to Wendy Duery for her secretarial support. It has only been possible to write this book thanks to Sarah's love and attention. I finished work on this book soon after visiting the U.S.S. Texas at San Jacinto Battleground State Historical Park. The occasion, like the trip itself which took me to the Gulf at Galveston, the Mississippi at Baton Rouge and over the causeway across Lake Pontchartrain, brought together two of my great fondnesses, first that of visiting the United States and enjoying its vitality, variety and the company and friendship of Americans, and, second, that of light and water- the spangling of sunlight on the shift­ ing sea, the search for peace in the golden light.

1

Introduction

It cannot happen again. That was the optimistic conclusion of Edward Gibbon, writing in the 1770s, as he considered whether contemporary Europe could once more succumb to those whom he termed barbarians. Gibbon's answer was couched in terms of military progress: 'Cannon and fortifications now form an impregnable barrier against the Tartar horse' .1 This book seeks to use Gibbon's analysis as a point of departure for looking at a series of crucial and related topics that centre on the question of the relationship between the rise of European military power on the global scale and the relative military devel­ opment and success of non-European peoples. It seeks to demonstrate the adaptability of a broad spectrum of social and political systems to the ultimate challenge of war, and to provide a balance between operational material and the broader contexts subsumed under the heading of 'new military history'. At the outset, it is necessary to make two points. First, there is no suggestion that the rise of European power should be regarded as good, no question of a triumphalist approach. This is true not only of the consequences of warfare in terms of changes in ter­ ritorial control, but also of the nature and means of conflict. To kill people more 'effec­ tively' or ruthlessly, is not regarded as a desirable aspect of civilisation or a facet of progress. This point has to be emphasised because such assumptions are latent in much, although by no means all, of the literature on war. Secondly, this subject is not a tabula rasa, although, given its importance, it is sur­ prising that more attention has not been devoted to it. In part, this reflects the relative neglect of military history, especially pre-1900 military history, in academic circles over the last forty years. In part, it is the case that most military history, whether operational or the so-called 'new military history' that adopts a wider social dimension, concentrates on Western history and is very much Euro-centred even when it considers developments elsewhere in the world. This, in turn, is due to a number of factors. Source availability and linguistic capa­ bility are clearly crucial but so also are attitudinal factors that are harder to gauge. First, and linked to issues of data and language, is the heavily positivist nature of most military history, arguably a consequence of the approaches that have been developed to tackle both operational and 'new' military history, the bureaucratic nature of modern European mili­ tary forces, the types of people that become military historians and the 'culture' of the subject. In addition, there is the reluctance to grasp the wider global context, or the tendency to approach it as a simple function of a given explanatory model, classically that of the triumph of the West through technology. lnrellectually and visually, this is a matter of the 'Rorke's Drift' approach to military history: through technology and a sense of

2

Wltr and the World

mission, small numbers of Europeans were able to defeat, indeed destroy, the military 'other', that is large numbers of alien non-Europeans. The military culture of the latter was and is largely neglected, not simply because of problems in studying the subject the objective 'scholarly' aspect; but also because non-Europeans appeared then and now anachronistic and bound to fail. Indeed, non-Europeans were and are generally seen as of military interest only in rela­ tion to the Europeans and, more specifically, if they adopted European weaponry and methods. The former leads to the 'Plassey approach': an emphasis on battles, such as Plassey (1757), that involved Europeans, especially those in which they were successful, rather than on other, often larger, struggles that did not; for example, in the case of India and Plassey, the major battle of Panipat fought four years later between the Mghan invaders and the Marathas, and decisively won by the former, or the Persian invasion of India in 1739 which led to Persian victory at Kamal, to the sack of Delhi, and to the cession to Nadir Shah of Persia of Sind and the Mughal territories west of the Indus River. The Eurocentric Plassey approach has had even greater impact because the American experience can be accommodated by treating the struggle between European and native Americans as an aspect of the wider 'rise of the West'. Thus military history becomes a misleading question of the West versus the Rest. It would be mistaken to argue that no historians have tackled global military history and military technology. Indeed, three scholars, in particular, have made major contri­ butions. William H. McNeill, a skilled practitioner of global history, in his The Pursuit ofPower. Technology, Armed Force, and Society since AD 1000 (Oxford, 1983),2 and the innovative military historian Martin van Creveld in his Technology and lVtlr. From 2000 BC to the Present (New York, 1989), both illuminated the role of the technology of war, although they were less concerned with operational military history, and may be criti­ cised for placing too great an emphasis on technology. Geoffrey Parker in his The Mili­ tary Revolution. Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500-1800 (Cambridge, 1988, 2nd edn, 1996) projected European military developments in the sixteenth century on to a global scale. The current study is an attempt to build on these contributions, not to make points at their expense. In particular, it seeks to build on two of Parker's achievements: first his putting of naval and land warfare in the same frame and, secondly, his bringing together of European and extra-European warfare. Has the subject then been already done and is this book redundant? No; first because Parker, despite the dates of his book, very much concentrated on the period prior to 1650. Secondly, the notion of a European 'military revolution' in the sixteenth century, that Parker took from Michael Roberts, is not without problems.3 As Parker noted, European success in the New World and in the Indian Ocean in the sixteenth century contrasted with less effective military capability on land else­ where until the nineteenth century. Thirdly, the subject is a wide one and capable of a number of interpretations. It is a particular pleasure to me that Geoffrey has accepted the dedication of this volume. His work has always been an inspiration. He is a scholar of great ability, wisdom and fortitude.

2

Gibbonian Strategies

It is particularly appropriate to begin by considering the views of Edward Gibbon (1737-94). Aside from his being arguably the greatest historian of the last half­ millennium, Gibbon is of particular importance for two reasons. First, he sought not to be Eurocentric, and, within the constraints of the intellectual constructs and scholarship of his period, achieved his goal. This was seen most famously and controversially in Gibbon's treatment of religion: he admired the vigour of Islam and found much to crit­ icise in Christianity. More generally, Gibbon was not a Euro-triumphalist. Secondly, Gibbon was fascinated with the issue of the rise and fall of empires. The generally held notion that he wrote only about the fall of the Roman empire is misleading. In fact, Gibbon covered over a millennium of history. He dealt with the successor states to the Western and Eastern Roman empires, but also ranged more v.?ider W'orld, 1 500-1750: the Military Balance', in J. D . Tracy (ed.), The Political Economy ofMer­ chant Empires (Cambridge, 1 99 1 ) , pp. 1 77-8; Reid, Southeast Asia, II, 224-5; Pankhurst, Ethiopia, pp. 278-9; Inalcik, 'Socio-Political Effects', p. 209. B. Stein, The New Cambridge History of India. 1.2 V!jayanagara (Cambridge, J 989), p. 22. C.R. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Emp ire. 1415-1825 (London, 1 969); B.w·. Difl:ie and G.D. 'J:Iinius, Foundations of"thf'

l'"rrugJIaul. I ') T ' ) . I .A. Kh.w. 'Origin and Develo p mcnr o f

38.

39 .

40. 41. 42.

nial Trinidad: A Study in Culture Contact

(London, 1 976); F. Moya Pons, 'The Tainos of Hispaniola'. Caribbean Review, l 3 (1 984), p. 47; N.D. Cook. Demographic Collapse: Indian Peru, 1520-1620 (Cam­ bridge, 1 9 8 1 ) .

296 43.

Notes to pages 34 - 42 A. Crosby, The Columbian Exchange: Bio­ logical and Cultural Consequences of 1 492

A Bruhn de Hoffmeyer, 'Las armas de los

Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 1500---- 1900 (London, 1 986); J.D.

view of the literature that concludes against

conquistadores. Las armas de los Aztecas',

('Xrestport, Conn., 1 969) and Ecological

Gladius, 17 ( 1 986), pp. 5-56. For a recent

a technological explanation, G. Raudzens,

Daniels, 'The Indian Population of North

America

44.

45.

46.

1 492', William and Mary Quarterly, 49 (1 992), pp. 298-320. K.S. Mathew, Portuguese Trade with India zn the Sixteenth Century (New Delhi, 1 983) . Ayalon, Gunpowder and Firearms, p. 1 13 ; J .F. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys: Changing Technolog:y and Mediterranean lXIdrfore at Sea in the Sixteenth Century (Cambridge, 1974) . Inalcik, 'Socio-Political Effects', pp. 203, 205; Ozbaran, 'The Ottoman Turks and the

47.

48. 49. 50.

51. 52. 53.

'So Why Were the .Aztecs Conquered, and

m

Portuguese

m

the

Persian

What

Europe's

54.

55.

Reid, 'Sixteenth-century Turkish influence in western Indonesia', journal ofSouth-East Asian History, 1 0 ( 1969), pp. 395--4 14; Cipolla, Guns and Sails in the Early Phase of European Expa nsio n, pp. 1 02-3; Pankhurst, Ethiopia, pp. 278-9. Reid, Southeast Asia, II, 2 1 2. T. Abeyasinghe, Portuguese Rule in Ceylon, 1594-1612 (Colombo, 1 966). C. W'essels, Histoire de !a Mission d'Am­ boine, 1546--1601 (Louvain, 1 934), pp. 85-95; M.A.P. Meilink-Roelofsz, Asian Trade and European Influence in the Indone­ sian Archipelago between 1500 and about 1630 (The Hague, 1 962). Stein, Vijayanagara, pp. 5 5 , 1 14-1 5; Pankhurst, Ethiopia, p. 279. J. Vogr, Portuguese Rule on the Gold Coast, 1469-1682 (Athens, Georgia, 1 979). I. Clendinnen, Aztecs: An Interpretation (Cambridge, 1 99 1 ) , pp. 1 1 1-28, 267-73; H. Thomas, The Conquest of Mexico (London, 1 993); Hassig, Aztec lXIdrfore, Jvlexico and the Spanish Conquest (Harlow, 1 994) and 'War, Politics, and the Conquest of Mexico', in J. Black (ed.), 'Wtzr and lXIdrfore 1450----1 815 (London, 1 998). For an A.ztec view, M. Leon-Portilla (ed. ) , The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of l'vfexico (Boston, 1 966) . N. Wachtel, The Vision ofthe Vanquished. The Spanish Conquest of Peru through Indian Eyes, 1530---- 1570 (Hassocks, 1 977) is more wide-ranging than the tide suggests and includes discussion

56.

57.

Clendinnen, 'The Cost of Courage in Aztec Society', pp. 56---6 4. On weaponry,

Wider

Implications?

Pre-industrial

Colonial

Con­

lXIdr in History, 2 ( 1 995), pp. 87-1 04, esp. pp. 1 02-3. P. Bakewell, A History of Latin America (Oxford, 1 997), p. 98 ; C. Hudson et al., 'The Tristan de Luna Expedition, 1 5591 56 1 ', in J.T. Milanich and S. Milbrath (eds), First Encounters: Spanish Explorations in the Caribbean and the United States, 1492-1570 (Gainesville, Florida, 1 989), pp. 1 19-34. J.L. Phelan, The Hispanization ofthe Philip­ pines: Spanish aims and Filipino responses, 1565--1700 (Madison, Wis., 1 9 67). J . Pelenki, Russia and Kazan: Conquest and Imperial Ideology, 1438-1560s (The Hague, 1 974), pp. 48-9; VA. Zolotarev (ed.), Voennaia istoriia otechestva s drevn ikh vremen do nashikh dnei. Tom pervyi, glavy 1-13 (Moscow, 1 995), pp. 1 49-52. H . Inalcik, 'The Origin of the Ottoman­

Russian Rivalry and the Don-Volga Canal

( 1 569)', Annales de l'Universite d'Ankara, 1 ( 1 947), pp. 47-1 1 0; C. Lemercier­ Quelquejay, 'Co-optation of the elites of Kabarda and Daghestan in the sixteenth century', in M.B. Broxup (ed.), The North

58. 59.

60. 61.

Caucasus Barrier. The Russian Advance towards the Muslim World (London, 1 992), pp. 22-3, 39-40. T. Tarnrat, Church and State in Ethiopia 1270-1527 (Oxford, 1 972), pp. 297-8. M . Alam, The Crisis of Empire in Mughal 1\'orth India. Awadh and the Punjab 1707-1748 (Delhi, 1 9 86) , pp. 5-6, 1 5, 50. Stein, Vija)'anagara, p p. 7 1 , 1 1 0. W.F.

Cook,

'The

Cannon

Conquest

of :'\lisrid Spain and the End of the Recon­ quista', Jouraal of Military History,

62.

63 .

of the Aztecs and

Mayas. ALtec warfare is also discussed in

the

quests',

Gulf,

1 5 34-1 5 8 1 ', journal of Asian History, 6 ( 1 972), pp. 45-87.

Were

Testing Military Superiority as a Cause of

64.

57 ( 1 993), pp. 69-70: A.D. McJoym (ed.), The Art ofWar in Spain: The Conquest ofGranada (Mechanicsburg, Penn., 1 995). Hess, The Forgotten Frontier. A History of the Sixteenth-Century lbero-African Frontier (Chicago, 1 978). Cook, 'Cannon Conq ues t', pp. 43-70, esp. pp. 50- 1 , 70. J .F. Powers, A Society Organized for 'Wtzr (Berkeley, 1 988); Hess, 'The Moriscos: An Ottoman

Fifth

Column

m

Sixteenth-

Not es to pages

297

43 - 56

Century S pain' , American &z>iew, 74 (1 968), pp. 1-25. 65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

Historical

J. Vogt, 'Saint Barbara's Legions: Por­ tuguese Arrjllery i n the Struggle for M or occo ' , Militm:r Affairs, 41 (Dec. 1977) , pp. 176-82. S. Soucek, 'The rise of the Barbarossas in North Africa', Archivium Ottomanicum, 3 ( 1 971), pp. 238-50; Hess, The Battle of Lepamo and irs Place in Mediterranean History', Past and Present, no. 57 ( 1 972), pp. 53-73. See more gen erally, JR. Hale, 'Men and Weapons: the Fighting Potential of Sixteenth-Century Venetian Galleys', in B. Bond and I. Roy (eds), Wtzr and Society· (London, 1 975), pp. 1-23. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, p. 1 8; Hess, 'Onoman Seaborne Discoveries', p. 1 9 1 0. W.E.D. Allen, Problems ofTurkish Power in the Sixteenth Century (London, 1 963); S. Pepper, 'Fifteenth-Century Ottoman Mili­ tary Architecture: A Reassessment' . I would like to rhank Professor Pepper for lendi ng me a copy of this unpublished paper. Cook, ' '\'(!arfare and Fi rearms in Fifteenth Century Morocco, 1400- 1 492', "�Xar and Society, 1 1 (1993) , p. 3 1 . E.W. Bovil, The Battle ofAlcazar (London, 1 952); Cook, The Hundred Years "�Xar for

77.

78.

(B oulder, 1 994) . Newitt, 'Prince Henry and the Origins of Portuguese Exp ansion' , in Newitt (ed.),

79. 80. 81.

First

Portuguese

A.

83.

L.Y.

84.

Colonial Empire

Woods, The Aqquyunlu, p. 1 75; S. Digby,

Wtzr Horse and Elephant in the Delhi Sul­ t anate (Oxford, 1971), pp. 23-82; Phul, Armies, pp. 64-6.

74.

75.

76.

H.J. Fisher, 'The central Sahara and Sudan', in R. Gray (ed.), The Cambridge History of Africa N(Cambridge, 1 975), p. 71 . See also G. White, ' Firearms in Africa: An Intro­ duction', and H.J. Fisher and V: Rowland, 'Firearms in the Central Sudan', journal of Afi·ican History, 1 2 ( 1 97 1 ) , pp. 173-84, 2 1 5-39; Pankhurst, Ethiopia, p. 1 6. Thornton, 'The Art of War in Angola, 1 575- 1 68 0 ', Comparative St udies in Societ;· and HistOIJ'• 30 (1 988), pp. 360-78. A. Waldron , 'Chinese Strategy from the Founcemh ro rhe Sevemeemh Centuries', in \\1, Murrav. ,\1 . Knox and A. Bernstein (cds), 7J,e

i\Iaking of Strategy.

Rukn. Stalts. rmd

Andaya,

'Interactions

with

the

Outside World and Adaptation in South­ east Asian Society, 1 500-1800', in :--! . Tarling (ed.), The Cambridge History of South-East Asia (2 vols, C ambr idge, 1 992) , 380-95; Reid, Southeast Asia, II, 223-9. Reid, Europe and Southeast Asia: The Mili­ tary Balance (Townsvil le , Queensland, 1 982), and Southeast Asia, II, 87-90; M .C. Ricklefs, A History of Modern Indonesia since c. 1300 (2nd edn, Basingsroke, 1 993),

A.W. Lawrence, Trade Castles and Forts of

West Afiica (London, 1 963).

73.

1989), pp. 249-50. Chan, The Glory and Fall of the Ming Dynasty (Norman, 1 982), pp. 5 1-63.

82.

(Exeter, 1 986), p. 29. 72.

of Gunpowder and Firearms, Developing from Alchemy' in his Science in Ji'tlditional China (Camb ridge, Mass., 1981), pp. 27-56, and Gunpowder as the Fourth Power, East and West (Hong Kong, 1985); L.C. Goodrich and F. Chia-Sheng, 'The Early Development of Firearms in China', !sis, 36 ( 1 946), pp. 1 14-23. Reid, Southeast Asia in the Age of Com­ merce, II, 219-23. :--!eedham, Military Technology, pp. 444, 465. F.W. More and D. Twitchett (eds), The Cambridge Hist ory ofChina. Vll The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644, Part 1 (Cambridge, 1 988), p. 478; Barfield, The Perilous Fron­ tier: Nomadic Empires and China (Oxford,

M.

The

of the Korean Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 23, no. 2 ( 1 934), p. 25. J. Needham, Military Technology: The Gun­ pouder Epic (Cambridge, 1 987), Needham, The Epic

Morocco. Gunpowder and the Military Rev­ olution in the Early Modern illfuslim World

71.

Wtzr (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 1 09, 1 13. D.M. Brown, 'The Impact of Firearms on Japanese Warfare, 1 543-98', Far Eastern Quarter6,, 7 ( 1948), pp. 236-53; J .L. Boots, 'Korean weapons and armour', Transactions

85. 86. 87. 88. 89.

90. 91.

92. 93. 94.

p. 24. J.F. Richards, The Mugha! Empire (Cambridge, 1 993), p. 288. Srreusand, Mughal Empire, pp . 57-63. Ibid, pp. 63-5. Reid, Southeast Asia, II, 229-30. ]. Lo, The Dedine ofthe Early .Ming Navy', Oriens Extremus, 5 (1958), pp. 1 5 1 -2. K. So, japanese Piracy in Ming China during the Sixteenth Century' (East Lansing, 1 975). A.L. Sadler, 'The Naval Campaign in the Korean War of H ideyoshi (1 592-8) ', Transactions of the Asiatic Society ofjapan, 2nd ser., 1 4 (1 937), pp. 1 77-208. More and Twitchett (eds) , Cambridge History of China. VI!, p. 573. Hess, 'Ottoman Seaborne Empire', p. 1 9 1 8. Parker, ' David or Go l ia th? Philip II and his world in the 1 580s', in R.L. Kagan and

298

Notes to pages 56 - 61 Parker (eds), Spain, Europe and rhe Atlantic

World. Essays in Honour ofjohn

H.

Elliott

(Cambridge, 1 995), pp. 247-8, 254-6; Boxer, 'Portuguese and Spanish Projects for the Conquest of Southeast Asia, 1 5801 600', in Boxer, Portuguese Conquest and

99.

Commerce in Southern Asia, 1500-1750 95.

96.

97.

(London, 1 985), pp. 1 1 8-36. P.Y. Manguin, 'The Vanishing]ong: Insular Southeast Asian Fleets in Trade and War', in Reid (ed.), Southeast Asia in the Early Modern Era (Ithaca, 1 993), pp. 1 97-2 13; Reid, Southeast Asia, p. 233. C. Till)', Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990-1990 (Oxford, 1 990), p. 65. M.A. Vale, War and Chivalry: Warfare and

The French Descent into Renaissance Italy 1434-95. Antecedents and Effects (Alder­ shot, 1 995), pp. 264, 290; Mallett and Hale, The Military• Organization of a

Renaissance State: Venice, 1 00.

Aristocratic Culture in England, France and Burgundy at the End of the Middle Ages (London, 1981), pp. 129-46; P. Coma­ mine, War in the Middle Ages (Oxford, 1984), pp. 249-50; K. DeVries, Medieval 1'vfilitary Technology (Peterborough, Ontario, 1 992) , pp. 143-68, 'The Impact of Gunpowder Weaponry on Siege Warfare in the Hundred Years 'Xfar', in LA. Corfis and M. Wolfe (eds), The Medieval City under Siege (Woodbridge, 1 995), pp. 227-44, and 'The Use of Gunpowder Weaponry by and against Joan of Arc during the Hundred Years War', War and Society, 14 (1 996), pp. 1-1 5; M. Mallett, 'Siegecrafi: in Late Fifteenth-Century Italy', and B.S. Hall, The Changing Face of Siege Warfare: Technology and Tactics in Transition', m Corfis and Wolfe (eds), Medieval City, pp. 245-55, 256-76; D. Braid, 'Ordnance and Freedom of Thought: the Development of Gunmaking in Bohemia, 1 350-1450', journal of the Ordnance Society, 5 (1 993), pp. 75-93; B. S. Hall, Weapons and Warfare m Renaissance Europe (Baltimore, 1 997); M. Mallett, The Art of War', in T.A. Brady, H.A. Oberman and J.D. Tracy (eds) , Handbook of European History

98.

1400-1617

101.

For the argument that China had already been passed, L 'X'hite, 1'vfedieval Religion and Technology. Collected Essays (Berkeley, 1 978), pp. 2 1 8-19, and for a recent discus­ sion of European developments and their causes, K. David's 'Teclmological Change in Early Modern Europe, 1 500- 1 780', journal ofthe japan-Netherlands Institute, 3 ( 1 99 1), pp. 32-44. The issue is of more general interest as it prints the papers of the first conference on the transfer of science and technology benveen Europe and Asia since Vasco da Gama. This conference, held in Amsterdam and Leiden in 1 99 1 , heard some important papers. Ekmeleddin Ihsanoglu's contribution on Orroman soence and its relation with European science and technology up ro 1 800 filled a major gap. For the argument that South Asia contained regions with proto-industri­ alisation comparable to that in Europe, F. Perlin, 'Proto-industrialization and Pre­ colonial South Asia', Pmt and Present, 98 ( 1 983), pp. 30-95, and for persisting strength, Dharampal, Indian Science and Technology in the Eighteenth Century (Delhi,

1 02.

N.

1 97 1 ) .

Housley,

1274-1580:

Debate. Readings on the l'vfilitary Transfor­ mation of Early }vfodern Europe (Boulder, 1 99 5) should be read, bur it does not include contributions from the most severe critics of the thesis. For these, see J . Plowright, 'Revolution or Evolution?', British Army Review, 90 ( 1 988), pp. 41-3 and B.S. Hall and K DeVries, 'The Mili­ tary Revolution Revisited', Technology and Culture, 3 1 ( 1 990), pp. 500-7. Parker has

c.

(Cambridge, 1 984), pp. 8 1-7. J. Bennerr and S . Johnston, The Geometry ofWar 1500-1750, catalogue of exhibition at Museum of the History of Science, Oxford, 1 996; A.W. Crosby, The Measure

of Reality. Quantification and western Societ;1 1250-1600 (Cambridge, 1 997).

1400-1600. Late Middle Ages, Renaissance and Reformation. I. Structures and Assertions (Leiden, 1 994), pp. 535--6. C.]. Rogers (ed.) , The Military Revolution

robustly replied to the larrer, Military Rev­ olution, P?· 1 57, 236-7. More generally, his defence ofhis thesis (ibid., pp. 1 5 5-75, 235-45) is of great importance and reflects his wide-ranging scholarship. Mallett, �'\rt of War', p. 544; S. Pepper, 'Castles and cannon in the l\"aples cam­ paign of 1 494-95', in D. Abulafia (ed.),

The Later Crusades, From Lyons to Alcazar

(Oxford, 1 992).

The Seventeenth Century

4 1.

D . Sinor, The Concept of Inner Asia', in Sinor (ed.), The Cambridge History ofEarly Inner Asia (Cambridge, 1 990) , p. 3; T.J. Barfield, The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China (Oxford, 1 989) ; S.

1\'otes to pages 61 - 73

299

Jagchild and V.J. Symons, Peace, \%r, and

12.

li-ade along the Great V«:t!L· 1Vomadic­ Chinese Interaction through Two Millennia

2.

3.

(Bloomington, Indiana, 1989) . B . I . 'W'atson, 'Fortification and the "Idea" of force m Early English East India Company Relations with India', Past and Present, no. 88 (Aug. 1 980), pp. 70-87. A. Deshpande, 'Limitations of Military Technology: Naval Warfare on the West Coast, 1 650-1 800', Economic and Political Weekly, 27 (1 992), pp. 900-4; C.R. Boxer, Portuguese Conquest and Commerce in Southern Asia,

13.

The Kingdom ofKongo: Civil "War and Tran­

14.

1500-1750

Palakka.

Le Sultanat d'Atjeh au temps d'Jskandar

G.

8.

1 0.

1 1.

of South

Sulawesi

Hague, 1 98 1 ), pp. 76-8, 1 30-3; A. Reid,

Indonesia, pp. 43, 45.

Europe and Southea.rt Asia: The lY!i!itary

J . R. Jones, The Anglo-Dutch Wtlrs of the Seventeenth Century (Harlow, 1 996), pp. 38-42; P. Earle, Corsairs of Malta and Barbmy (London, 1 970), pp. 30, 49-52; ]. Glete, Navies and Nations. "Warships, Navies

Balance. Occasional Paper, no. 1 6 (Townsville, Queensland, 1 982), p . 8. Ricklefs, Indonesia, pp. 62-3; Stein, Vijayanagara, p. 1 25 . S. ll.rasaratnam, Dutch Power in Ceylon 1658-87 (Amsterdam, 1 958); Ricklefs, Indonesia, pp. 76-7. E. 'X'inius, 'Portugal's "Shadowy Empire in the Bay of Bengal" ', Camoes Center Quar­ terly, 3, nos I and 2 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , pp. 40- 1 ; S. Arasaratnam, Afaritime India in the Seven­ teenth Century (New York, 1 994); Ricklefs, Indonesia, p. 24. G.A. Lantzeff and R.A. Pierce, Eastward to

15. 1 6.

1500-1860 (Stockholm, 1 993), p. 1 22; Parker, 'The Dreadnought Revolution of Tudor England' and N .A.M. Rodger, 'The Development of Broadside Gunnery, 1 450- 1 650', Mariner's Mirror, 82 ( 1 9 96) , pp. 269-300, 30 1-24. J.A. Harrison, japan's Northern Frontier (Gainesville, 1 953), pp. 7, 1 0. L. Blusse, 'The Dutch occupation of the Pescadores ( 1 622-1 624)', Transactions of

1 7.

1 8.

Empire. Exploration and Conquest on the

in japan, 1 8 ( 1 973), pp. 28-43.

E. van Veen, 'How the Dutch Ran a Seventeenth-Century Colony. The Occupation and Loss of Formosa 1 624-1 662', ltinerario, 20 ( 1 996) , pp. 59-77. G.D. Wi ni us, The Fatal Histor;• of Por­ (Cambridge, Mass., 1 97 1 ) . J.I. Israel, Dutch Primacy in World Trade, 1585-1740 (Oxford, 1 989); G.V. Scam­ mell, The World Encompassed (London, 1 98 1 ); K. Gl aman n , Dutch-Asiatic Trade, 1 620-- 1740 ( 2nd edn, The Hague. 1 9 8 1 ) . R.D. Barhursr, 'Maritime Trade and Imamate Government: tvvo principal rhemes in the hisrory of O man to 1 728', in D. Hop\vood (ed .') , The Arabian Penin­ suld. Society and P!llitics ( Lo n d o n , 1 972), pp. 99-100, 1 02-3. C.R. Boxer and C. de Azevedo, Fort

jesus

and the Portugue.60 (Toronto, 1 968); W:J. Eccles, The Canadian Frontier, 1534-1 760

(Norman , Oklahoma, 1 990). H .W. C rosby, Antiqua California. Mission

4. 5.

Cornwallis to Medows, 28 Dec. 1790, PRO. 301 1 1 1 1 73 £ 38. President and Council at Fort St George w Court of Directors, 31 July 1 760, BL. IO. H/Misc/96 p. 6 1 ; Josias Du Pre to Robert Orme, 1 0 June 1 769, BL. IO . .\1ss Eur.

Notes to pages

6.

7.

8. 9. 10.

1 1.

132 - 146

305

Orme OV 30, pp. 1 25-8; John Shore to Cornwallis, 4 Oct. 1 787, P RO. 3011 1 11 22 f 33-4. F. Wickwire and M. Wickwire, Cornwallis. The Imperial Years (Chapel Hill, N.C. 1 980), pp. 1 1 7-73. Recent accounts of the struggle are offered by J .M. Black, Warfor America. 1 he Fightfor American Independence 1775-1783 (Stroud, 1 9 9 1 ) and S. Conway, The War ofAmerican Independence 1 775-1783 (London, 1 995). WM . Fowler, Rebels under Sail (New York, 1 976). Skinner ro General Lord Amherst, 4 May 1 779, PRO. WO. 341 1 1 4 f 1 04. Burgoyne ro Earl of Shelburne, 1 Nov. 1 782, Bowood, Shelburne Papers vol. 37. I would like ro thank the Earl of Shelburne for permission ro consult these papers. N. York, 'Pennsylvania Rifle: a Revolu­ tionary Weapon in a Conventional War?',

The Consortium on Revolutionary Europe: Selected Papers, 1994 (Tallahassee, 1 994), pp. 5 1 0- 1 6; S. Clissold, Bernardo O'Hig­ gins and the Independence of Chile ( 1 968) ; J. Lynch, The Spanish American Revolutions

22.

Imperial State at War. Britain from 23. 24. 25.

Pennsylvania Magazine ofHistory and Biog­ raphy, 1 03 ( 1 979), pp. 302-24. 1 2.

1 3. 14. 15. 1 6.

J.M. Hill, 'The Distinctiveness of Gaelic Warfare, 1 400-1 750', European History Quarterly, 22 ( 1 992), pp. 323-45, is valu­ able, but underrates the continued threat posed by the tactical offensive. See, most recently, D. Showalter, The Wars ofFrederick the Great (Harlow, 1 996). Black, Culloden and the �5 (Srroud, 1 990). F. McLynn, France and the jacobite Rising of 1745 (Edinburgh, 1 9 8 1 ) . ].S. Gibson, Playing the Scottish Card. The

Franco-jacobite 17.

Invasion

of

1708

26.

27.

28.

(Edinburgh, 1 988). D. Baugh, 'Why did Britain lose command of the sea during the war for America?', in J.M. Black and P. Woodfine (eds), The

19. 20.

pp. 1 61 -3. P. Mackesy, Could the British have won the War of Independence? (Worcester, Mass., 1976), pp. 23-4. Ibid., p. 28. C.L.R. James, The Black jacobins: Toussaint

L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolu­ tion (London, 1 980); D.P. Geggus, The Haitian Revolution', in F.W Knight and C.A. Palmer (eds), The Modern Caribbean (Chapel Hili, N.C. 1 989), pp. 2 1 -50; L.D. Langley, The Americas in the Age ofRevolu­ tion (New Haven, 1 996) , pp. 1 02-35. R.N. Buckley, Slaves in Red Coats: The

British West India Regiment.i, 1 795- 1815 (:\Jew Haven. Conn. 1 979). p. 1 04.

21.

G . A . Smith. 'Storm over the G ulf: America's Destiny Becoming \1a nifes t', in

1 689

to

1815 (London, 1 994), pp. 324-49. R. Bonney, Kedah 1 771-1821 (Oxford,

1 97 1 ) , p. 1 00. N. Tarling (ed.) , Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, p. 580. Fife to William Rose, 7 May 1 790, Aberdeen, University Library 22261 1 3 1 I 8 1 7; Loughborough ro Pitt, 9 Dec. 1 792, PRO. 30/811 53 f 7 1 . B.E. Kennedy, 'Anglo-French Rivalry in India and in the Eastern Seas, 1 763-93: A study of Anglo­ French tensions and of their impact on the consolidation of British power in the region. (PhD, Australian National Univer­ sity) p. 1 83.

Archives Parlementaires de 1787 a 1860: Recueil complet des debats legislatifi et poli­ tiques des chambres fran�aises ( 1 27 vols, Paris, 1 879- 1 9 1 3 ) , XV, 528. R.C. Stuart, United States Expansionism

and British North America,

1 775-1871

(Chapel Hili, N.C. 1 988) , p. 5. WE. Washburn, The Moral and Legal Justifications for Dispossessing the Indians', in J . M . Smith (ed.) , Seventeenth

Century America: Essays in Colonial History

British Navy and the Use ofNaval Power in the Eighteenth Century (Leicester, 1 988), 1 8.

1 808-1826 (2nd edn, London, 1 973); T Anna, The Fall ofthe Royal Government in Mexico City (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1 978). A.C. Bayly, 'The British Military-Fiscal State and Indigenous Resistance. India 1750-1 820', in L. Stone (ed.), An

29.

(Chapel Hill, N.C. 1 959), pp. 24-32; A. Frost, 'New South Wales as terra nullius: the British denial of Aboriginal land rights', Historical Studies, 1 9 ( 1 98 1 ) , pp. 5 1 3-23. C. de La Jonquiere, L'Expedition d'Egypte, 1798-1801 I (Paris, 1 900); F.-P. Renaut,

La Question de La Louisiane,

1 796-1806

(Paris, 1 9 1 8) ; G. Blainey, The Tyranny of Distance (Melbourne, 1 966), pp. 70-98; I . Murat, Napoleon et le rive americain (Paris, 1 976) ; M.E. Yapp, Strategies of British

India:

Britain,

Iran and Afihanistan

1798-1 850 (Oxford, 1980) ; E. Ingram,

Commitment to Empire: Prophecies of the Great Game in Asia, 1797-1800 (Oxford, 1 9 8 1 ) ; P. Mackesy, War without VictOiJ'· The Downfoll ofPitt, 1799-1802 (Oxford. 1 984), esp. pp. 1 44-7; S. Forster, Die miichtigen Diener der East India Compa ny. Ursachen und Hintogrunde der britischen

}\lotes to pages

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Expansions-politik in Siidasien, 30.

1793-1819

(Stuttgart, 1 992). P.J. Marshall, ' "Cornwallis Triumphat": \1Var in India and the British Public in the Late Eighteenth Cen tury' , m L. Freedman, P. Hayes and R. O'N"eill (eds),

40.

41.

War, Strategy and International Politics 31.

(Oxford, 1 990) , pp. 60-74. G . Williams, The Expansion of Europe in

the Eighteenth Century: Overseas Rivalry, Discovery and Exploitation (London,

42.

43.

XI

44.

(Paris, 1 9 7 1 ) , pp. 45-9, and 'The Men from across La Manche: French Voyages, 1 660- 1 790', m D. Howse (ed.),

45.

Background to Discovery. Pacific Exploration from Dampier to Cook (Berkeley, 1 9 90) , p. 1 13; C. Gaziello, LExpedition de La Perouse 1 785-1788 (Paris, 1 984) . 32. ].C. Beaglehole, The Exploration of the Pacific ( 3 rd edn, London, 1 960), pp. 3 1 8-22, and The Discovery ofNew Zealand 33.

34.

(2nd edn, Oxford, 1 9 6 1 ) , pp. 72-3. M.E. Thurman, The J\laval Department of

San Bias: New Spain's Bastion for Alta California and1\Tootka 1 767 to 1 798 (Glen­ dale, California, 1 967) ; WL. Cook, Flood Tide ofEmpire: Spain and the Pacific North­ west, 1543-1819 (New Haven, Conn., 1 973); S. Saavedra et al., To the Totem Shore: The Spanish Presence on the North­ west Coast (Madrid, 1986). RA. Pierce, Russia's Hawaiian Adventure, 1815-1817 (Berkeley,

1696-1 840

Pos tnikov,

35. 36. 37.

39.

p. 276. ]. Habron, Trafolgar and the Spanish Navy (Annapolis, 1 988). ].S. Bromley (ed.), The Manning of the

Royal Jl./avy. Selected Public Pamphlets 1 693-1873

(London, 1 974), p. 7 1 .

Hill,

N.C. 1 9 9 1 ) . R.J.B. Knight, The Introduction of Copper Sheathing into the Royal 1\avy, 1 779-1 786', Mariner's Mirror, 59 (1 973), pp. 299-309. P. Webb, 'The Frigate Situation of rhe Royal Navy 1 793- 1 8 1 5 ', Mariner's lvfirror, 80 ( 1 9 96) ' p. 38. M . Duffy, Soldiers, Sugar and Seapower.

(Oxford, 1 987). J. H emming, Amazon Frontier. The Deftat ofthe Brazilian Indians (2nd edn, London, 1 995). J. Herold, Napoleon in Egypt (London, 1 96 1); M. Barrhorp, Napoleon's Egyptian Campaigns, 1798-1799 (London, 1 978); R.L. Tignor (ed.), lv'apoleon zn Egypt.

Al-]abarti's Chronicle of the French Occupation, 1798 (Princeton, 1 993). R.B. Barnett, 1\'orth India Between Empires. Awadh, the Mughals, and the British

President Washington's Indian 'War: the Struggle for the Old Northwest, 1 790-1795 48.

(Vancouver, 1 988-90); A.V

(Milwaukee, 1 995). C. Totman, Early Modern japan ( B erkeley, 1 993), pp. 482-93. Forsyth, A History of the Peoples of Siberia, pp. 1 5 1-2. ]. Glete, Navies and Jllations. 'Warships,

History of the tfar of 1812 (Chapel

1720-1801 (Berkeley, 1 980), p . 229. 47. On value of speedy attack, J. Weller, Welling­ ton in India (London, 1 972), p. 1 92. On Fallen Timbers, P.D. Nelson, Anthony \Vayne's Indian War in the Old Norrhwest, 1 792-179 5', Northwest Ohio Quarterly, 56 (1 984), p. 1 3 1 , and 'General Charles Scott, the Kentucky Mounted Volunteers, and the Northwest Indian 'XTars, 1 784-1794', journal of the Early Republic, 6 ( 1 986), p. 248. More generally on the war, 'X� Sword,

The }.1apping ofRussian America

lllavies and State Building in Europe and America, 1500-1860 (Stockholm, 1 993), 38.

46.

1965) ; J .R. Gibson,

Feeding the Russian Fur Trade: Provision­ ment ofthe Okhotsk Seaboard and the Kam­ chatka Peninsula, 1639-1856 (Madison, \Vise. 1 969); G. Barratt, Russia in Pacific Waters, 1 715-1825 (Vancouver, 1 98 1) , and RusJia and the South Pacific,

J .R. Elting, Amateurs, to Arms! A l'vfilitary

The British Expeditions to the West Indies and the 'War against Revolutionary France

1 966); S. Chapin, 'Scientific Profit from the Profit Motive: the Case of the La Per­ ouse Expedition', Actes du Xlf Congres

International d'Histoire des Sciences

146 - 153

49.

50. 51.

52.

(Norman, Oklahoma, 1 985). J. Pemble, ' Resources and Techniques in the Second Maratha 'X'ar', Historical journal, 1 9 ( 1 976), pp. 375-404; R. G . S . Cooper, 'Wellington and the Marathas in 1 803', International History Review, 1 1 ( 1 989), pp. 36-8. Weller, \¥/ellington, pp. 2 75-6 ; G.J. Bryant, 'The Cavalry Problem in the Early British Indian Army, 1 750-1785', 'War in Histor)' 2 ( 1 995), pp. 20-l. Cornwallis to Dundas, 4 Apr. 1 790, PRO. 30/ l l / J 5 1 f. 40. P. Carey (ed. ) , The British in Java, 1 8 1 1-181 6· a Javanese Account (Oxford, 1 992) . G.F. Jewsbury, The Russian Annexation of

Bessarabia: 1774-1828. A Study of Imperial Expansion (Boulder, 1 976), and 'Chaos and Corruption: the Comte de Langeron's Cri tique of the 1787-1792

307

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53. 54. 55.

56.

57. 58.

Russo-Turkish 'Jifar', Studies in History and Po litics, 3 ( 1 9 83-4) , pp. 73-83; A. Balisch, 'Infantry Battlefield Tactics in the Seven­ teenth �nd Eighteenth Centuries on the European and Turkish Theatres ofWar: the Austrian Response to Different Condi­ tions', Studie.< in History and Politics, 3 ( 1 983-4), pp. 53-60. Lang, Georgian Monarchy, pp. 1 82-5, 2036; Atkin, Russia and Iran, pp. 29-30, 37. N.E. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, 1 797-1807 (Chicago, 1 970) . A.'�i/. Fisher, The Russian Annexation ofthe Crimea I772-1783 (Cambridge, 1 970), pp. 86--8 , 1 1 7, 1 26. S. Shaw, 'The Origins of Orroman Mili­ tary Reform: The Nizam-i Cedid Army of Sultan Selim III', jou mal ofModern History 37 ( 1 965), pp. 291-5. M . Jansen (ed.), Warrior Rule in japan (Cambridge, 1 995). B.P. Lenman, 'The \Xi'eapons of \X'ar in E ighteenth -Century India', journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 46 ( 1 968), pp. 33-43; S. Bidwell, Swords for

Hire: European Mercenaries in Eighteenth Century India (London, 1 9 7 1 ) ; Gordon,

59.

60.

Marathas, p. 1 68; M. Turlotre, 'La Mission Militaire Fran«aise aupres des Nababs du Mysore a La fin de !'ancien regime', Revue Historiques des Armies, No. 1 90 (March 1 993), pp. 4-5; G. Bodinier, 'Les officiers franst (.'-Jew York, 1 972;. S rebe lsky, 'Frontier in Central Asia", pp. 1 5 5-63.

36. 37.

European Ann)", p. 1 49. Hackert, Yamagata Aritomo in the Rise ofModern japan, 1838-1922 (Camb ridge, \-!ass., 1 971 ) , pp. 8 1 -2; l\-1 . and S . Harries, Soldiers of the Sun. The Rise and Fall ofthe ImperialJaptlnese Ami}' (New Yo rk. 1 99 1 ), pp. 43, 47. Ralston,

R.

310

38.

JVotes to pages 181 - 188 G.A. Le nsen, The Russian Push towards japan: Russo-Japanese Re!dtions, 16971875

(Prin ceton,

1 9 5 9) ,

pp.

journal of Aftican History, 7 ( 1 966), pp. 95-1 1 5.

426-7,

53.

Graham, China Station, pp. 373-7. R.J. Smith, lvfandarins and Mercenaries: 'The Ever- Victorious Army' in Nineteenth Century China (M illwo od, New York,

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442-5. 39. 40.

55.

1 978). 41.

W.J. Hail, Tseng Kuo-Fan and the Taiping

42. 43.

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46.

47.

B. Langensiepen and A. Guleryuz, The Ottoman Steam Navy, 1 828-1923 (Alder­ shot, 1 995). R.M . Utley, The Last Days of the Sioux Nation (New Haven, 1 963), and Frontier

Regulars: The United States Army and the Indian, 1 866-18!)1 (New York, 1 973); R.K. Andri st, The Long Death: The Last of the Plains Indians (New York, 1 964). M. Crowder (ed.) , WestAftican Opposition: the 1lo Longer an Island: Britain And the Wright Brothers, 1902-1909 (London, 1 984) and The Impact ofAir Power on the British People and their Government 1909-14 (London, 1 989). P.E. Coletta, Admiral Bradley A. Fiske and the American Nav}' (Lawrence. Kansas, 1 980). R.R. Muller, - 'Zeppelins', in S.C. Tucker (ed.), The European Powers in the First World \Vtu; an Encyclopedia (New York, 1 9 96), p. 766. L. Kennert, The First Air War, 1914-1918 (New York, 1 9 9 1 ) , p. 1 70. See, more gen­ erally; J. M orrow, The GJ-edt mtr in the Ai1; Military A1Jiation ftom 1909 to 1921 (Washin gton, DC, 1 99 3) . J.S. Murray, 'The Face of Armageddon', Mercator's World, 1 , no. 2 (1996), pp. 30-7. R. Higham, Britain's Imperial Air Routes, 1918-1939 (Hamden, Conn., 1 960); R.L McCormack, 'Imperialism, A..ir Transport and Colonial Development: Kenya 1 920-1 946', journal ofImperial and Com­ monwealth History, 17 ( 1 9 89), pp. 374-95 . D.E. Omissi, Air Power and Colonial Control. The Royal Air Fo rce 1919-1939 (Manchester, 1 9 90) . H.G. Marcus, A History ofEthiopia (Berke­ ley, 1 994), pp. 1 28-9. J. Zdanowski, 'Milirary Organisation of the Wahabi Emirates ( 1 7 5 0- 1 932)', m R.L. B idwell, G.R. Smith and ].R. Smart (eds), New Arabian Studies II (Exeter, 1 994), p. 1 37. A Waldron, From Wtzr to Nationalism. Chinn's Turning Point, 1924-1925 (Cam­ bridge, 1 996). Omissi, Ai r Power, pp. 129-3 1 . F.K. M ason , Battle 01'!"1" Britain: a HistOJ} of German Air A.r,frllllt.< on Great Britain, 191 7-1918 andju�)�December 1 940. and

Notes to pages 253 - 266

318

ofthe Development ofBritain's Air Defenses between the World Wtzrs (New York, 1 969); U. B!aler, The Shadow of the Bomber: the Fear of Air Attack and British Politics, 54.

55.

1932-1939 (London, 1 9 80). G . Douhet, The Command ofthe Air (New York, 1 942); A.F. Hurley, Billy Mitchell (New York, 1 964); M . Smith, British Air Strategy Between the Wtm (Oxford, 1 984).

G.W� Baer, One Hundred Years of Sea Power. The US. Navy, 1890-1990 (Stan­

ford,

1 993),

pp.

1 39-44;

G.

Till,

'Adopting the Aircraft: Carrier. The British, American, and Japanese Case Studies', in

62. 63.

M.

64.

L.

ations on

Tukhachevsky

the pre-war Soviet Military

The Way ofthe Hear,·enly Sword: the japan­ Arm)' in the 1920s (Stanford, 1 995) . 6 5 . J .W Morley (ed.), The China Quagmire. Japan's Expansion on the Asian Continent ese

1933-1941 (New York, 1 983), pp. 6-7: M.A. Barnhart,

japan Prepares for Total Wtlr: the !:>earch for Economic Security,

1919-1941 (Ithaca, New York, 1987) .

(New York, 1 959); B . Bond,

66.

The Chaco Wtlr: Bolivia and Paraguay, 1932-1935 (Westport, Conn.,

( l st pub. 1 975, London, 1993), pp. 3-5,

67.

A. Horne,

Smithers, A

New Excalibur. The Develop­ ment of the Tank, 1309-1939 (London, 1 988); H.R. W'inton, To Change an Army, General Sir John Burnett-Stuart and British Armoured Doctrine, 1927-1938

The Breaking Point: Sedan and the Fall of France, 1940 (Hamden, Conn., 1 990). 68.

Inter­ national History Review, 2 (1 980), p. 434. 69. J. Erickson, The Road to Berlin (London, 1 983) .

70.

71.

F o r a more positive view of British gener­

72.

Bricish Army: British Divisional Comman­ the

war

against

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73.

1 939- 1 945', English Historical Review, I l l (1 996), pp. 1 996-7. 59.

].M.

House,

60.

For a case study that emphasises change and

Towards Combined Arms Warfore: a Survey of Twentieth Century Tactics, Doctrine, and Organization (Fort

Leavenworth, Kansas, 1 984). adaptability in a sphere not generally noted for either, J. T. Sumida ' "The Best Laid Tactics,

1 9 1 9- 1 942', International History· Review, 1 4 ( 1 992), pp. 682-700.

(Norman, Oklahoma, 1 969). M . Ruperr,

77.

207. R.J. Overy, W'kr the West Won (London, 1 995). I would like to thank Jeremy

Producing Hegemony. The Poli­ tics o{}vfass Production andAmerican Global Pow�r (Cambridge, 1995). 75. J.K. Ohl, Supplying the Troops. General Somervell and American Logistics in World W'ar Two (DeKalb, Illinois, 1 994). 76. Harries and Harries, Soldiers ofthe Sun, p.

A . Mockler,

Haile Se/a;-sie's W!ir: the ltalian­ Ethiopian Campaign, 1935-1941 (New

York, 1 985).

D.E. Fisher, A Race on the Edge of Time: Radar - the Decisive Weapon of TXlorld W!ir 11 (New York, 1 988) . R.H. Jones, The Road to Russia: United States Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union

74.

Plans": the Development of British Battle­ Fleet

WM. Leary, ' The CIA and the "Secret

1 9 7 1 - 1 972', journal of Military History, 59 ( 1 995), p. 507.

als, D. French, 'Colonel Blimp and the m

The Air War 1939-1945 1 987); H. Boog (ed.), The

War" in Laos: the Battle for Skyline Ridge, pp. 306-7.

Murray, 'Armoured W1arfare', pp. 29, 45.

ders

Overy,

Conduct ofthe Air War in the Second World W!ir: an International Comparison (New York, 1 992); Sir Arthur Harris, Despatch on W!ir Operations, (ed.) S. Cox (London, 1 995).

lv!ilitary Harris,

R.J.

(London,

1 995); WZ Murray, 'Armoured

Innovation, pp. 6--49 . Men, Ideas and Tanks,

M.A. Stoler, 'The "Pacific-First" Alternative in American World War II Strateg};,

Warfare. The British, French, and German Experiences', in Murray and Millett (eds),

To Lose a Battle: France 1940

(Harmondsworth, 1969); R.A. Doughty,

Ideas and Tanks: British Iv!ilitary· Thought and Armoured Forces, 1903-1939 (Man­

chester,

B . Farcau,

1 996)

(Lawrence, Kansas, 1 988); J.P. Harris, 1\1en,

61.

'Mikhail

9 (1 996), pp. 804-47; L.A. Humphreys,

B.H. Liddell Hart,

26-7; A.J. Tryrhall, 'Boney' Fuller: The Intellectual General, 1 878-1966 (London, 1 977); ].J. Mearsheimer, Liddell Hart and the Weight of History (Ithaca, 1 988); A.J.

5 7. 58.

Samuelson,

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Knox, Mussolini Unleashed, 19391941, Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last Wtzr (Cambridge, 1982), p. 1 6.

and War-Economic Planning: Reconsider­

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56.

A History ofFascism 1914-45

(London, 1 995), p. 235.

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S.G. Payne,

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Notes to pages 267 - 277 Ambitions, 1919-1941 79.

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90.

274-5 , 278. E.J. Drea, MacArthur:ky, Konstanrin 2).'1 Tuare)( 233

Index

334

Tugur, river

72

Tukhachevsky, Mikhail 2 5 5

Venice 1 8, 23, 3 1 ,

11, 90, 92-4,

\X'hampoa Military Academy 248 \X'hitehead torpedo 196

1 02, 106, !48, 1 66

Tukolor empire 1 84, 1 86

Venlo 94, 222

Whitney, Eli 1 68

Tungus

Vera Cruz 29, ! 6 5

Whittle, Frank 265

26, 70-1

Tunisia !88, 233, 269

Verbiest, Ferdinand 83

Whydah 1 1 8

Verdun 197, 237

Wilkinson, Spenser 193

Tupac Amaru 1 1 9

Vermont 1 2 1 , 123-4

William III, King of England 93,

Tupinamba 34

Vernon, Edward 1 20 Vichy 259

Wilmington 1 78

Tunis 44, 1 00

Turfan 72 Turkestan 84, 94, 1 1 6, 171 , 1 80,

1 40, 2 1 5- 1 6, 22 1 Windhoek 1 66

Vicksburg 1 67

1 86, 247

v'ictor Emmanuel Ill,

245-6, 277-8, 282, 290

Vidin 45

Wolseley, Garnet

Vienna 88; Congress of ( 1 8 1 5) 147

women 244, 265; in military 244

Turkey 1 94, 229, 235, 239. 24 1 ,

Turkmen 96--7 , 223

Turks, Ottoman 1 2- 1 3 , 1 5, 1 8-23,

King of

Sardinia 2 5 5

wireless 1 66, 238, 255 Wolfe, James 230 179, 184, 186, 243

Viet Cong 272--4, 279

Woolwich 243

26, 3 ! , 44-5, 86, 90-4, 96,

Viet Minh 270-2, 279

\'\fright brothers 250

1 00-10, 1 1 7, 1 48, 1 53-5, 1 79,

Vietnam 1 9, 23, 52-3, 5 5 , 1 1 6,

1 8 5, 1 8 9-90, 207, 2 1 5 , 2 1 8,

1 56, 227, 248, 271-5, 283

Vietnam, North 262, 279; South 272, 278; Vietnam War ( 1 9 64-

223 Tuscany 226

75) 262, 270, 272-3, 279

Tuscaroras 1 2 1

Vijaya 23

Tuva 72

Wuhan 256 Wu P'ei-fu 248

Wu San-kuei 82-3 Xhosa 1 56 Xinjiang 52, 6 ! , 96, 1 1 6, 221 , 288

Vijayanagara 3 1 , 37, 68, 80, 2 1 9

Tyrol 93

Vikings 20 Ufa 70 Uganda 1 88, 269, 278, 280, 282 Ukraine 1 5, 73, 76--7, 86, 90, 1 58, 205

ULTRA 263, 267

uniforms 1 32 United Provinces 64-5, 92, 207-8,

Yakutat 147

Villa, Francisco 238

Yakuts 71

Virginia 143, 1 7 5 , 1 77, 200

Yamasee 1 2 1

Vladivostok 73, 1 02, 1 80, 1 98

Yap 1 66

Visegrad 88

Yangtze, river 196, 248

Volga, river 26, 40, 70, 76. 1 1 0

Yarkand 72

volley firing 1 1 3, 1 57, 160, 1 99

_vasak 7 1

2 1 1 , 2 14, 222

Yarutsk 70

Unyamwezi 1 86

Wa States 1 87

yellow fever 142, 1 65

Upper Volta 278, 281

Wadi Halfa 1 98

Yemen 3 5 , 25 2-3, 278; North 278,

Ur�s 70, 73, 1 1 0, 266 Uruguay 1 76, 278

Usuman dan Fodio

! 57

USA 146-9, 1 54, 170, 1 87, 193, 1 98-9, 20 1 , 2 1 8, 227-32,

wako 53 W'allachia 1 02, 1 04-5, 108, 153, 179 walls 25 War of 1 8 1 2 ( 1 8 1 2-14) !42, 1 44, 1 49, 163

234-5 , 240-1 , 244, 258, 265-6,

Ward, Frederick Townshend 1 82

270, 285; na'y ! 54, 1 62-3, 1 90, 20 1 , 259-60

\mrrior ( l 860) 1 9 1

Usinskaya Line 1 1 0

Warsaw 247, 250, 257, 2 6 1 Washington 1 49, 1 62

280; South 278, 280

Yen Bay 248 Yenis ey river 7 1 Yermak Timofeyevich 70 Yezidis 96

Yogyakarta 1 53. 1 72 I\1� of Ethiopia 1 84

Yohannis

Yom Kippur War ( 1 973) 1 54, 280 Yorubas 1 86

Ussuri region 1 80

Washington, George 1 34, 1 37-S, 192

Younghusband, Colonel Francis 233

Utes 122. 1 79

Washingcon Naval Treaty (1922) 284

Young Turks 235, 277

Utrecht, Peace of ( 1 7 1 3) 2 1 5

Watchung Mounrains 1 3 8

Ypres 77

Uzbeks 2 1 , 30-1 , 49 , 80, 86, 94-5,

water distillation 1 6 5

Yuan Shih-k'ai 277

\X'atson, Charles 1 1 2

Yucatin 33--4, 1 1 9

1 00, 1 06, 1 1 0, 1 17

Uzun Hasan 1 9-20, 3 1

Wattasids 4 5

Yugoslavia 270-1 , 27 5

Wayne, Anthony ! 5 1

Yuma 1 22

V- 1 2 6 1

Waziris 198, 248-9, 255

Yunnan 8 1

V-2 2 6 1

Weihaiwei 1 85 , 1 88

Valtelline 9 3

Vancouver, George 147 Vargas, Getulio 277 Vasco da Gama 26, 42, 5 8 Vassily lii o f Russia 39

Wellesley, Richard, Marquis 1 52 Wellington 1 88 Wellington, Arthur W'ellesley, 1 s t Duke of 149, 1 5 1-2, ! 6 1

Zambezi, river !67 Zambezi valley 48, 66--7

Wells, H.G. 250

Zashiversk 70

Vattel. Emmerich de 76

West, Benjamin 287

Vauban, Sebastien le Prestre de 45,

West African Frontier Force 1 8 6

77, 1 2 1 , 1 97, 222

Western Front ( 1 9 1 4- 1 8) 236--40

Zaire 26 1 , 28 1

Zanzibar 1 8 8, 269, 278 Zeelandia, Fort 64-5, 83, 97

zeppelins 250 Zeya1 river 72

Vellore 1 2 1

westernisation ! 54-5, 286

Zimbabwe 1 8 6

Veloso, Diego 39 Venezuela 143, 1 98, 278, 28 1

\'\fest Irian 276

Zinder 1 8 5

Wever, Walter 260

Zulus 1 7 1-2, 1 83--4, 1 86, 1 98, 233