Visualizing Belief and Piety in Iranian Shiism [1 ed.] 1441149074, 9781441149077

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lngvild Flaskerud

Visualizing Belief and Piety in Iranian Shiism

'Flaek.rud uplcne the vlelbllly of popular lnlnlan Shl'lem In the oontut of concrete devotloMI prHtloN and 1lloklN queetlana of lcanoQNphy. ~ NPNHntatlon,ernotlOlland 8UbjNtlvfty en way wllh 8lllilytloel dep1h. Dw1IDP1n9 a vlllllll VOOlbul9ly of oommoclNled devotlolllll alda UNd In v8floua ........ and COffllllUIIIII ltClcnowtedgN the NIIIIOIY 91181ddedne11 of mal9rlal culllft. Tllrougta her lllalorloally grounded ......... eplly . . . the lmpoltlllN of votive lmeQN quotklllft ......,. pnlCllce ._..., providing men, new lnlfatll8 Into lwcl llllftllln ...... Shl'lllm.' .... ~ of..... &.IMlllldeof Mldcllle ......m .............,..., of . .IIOh

The RIP'8Sel lt8tiOrt d prophets and saints In Islam Is erroneously bonsldered nonaxistent by many scholars of Islam, Muslms, and the general pubic. The Issue 18 often dealt with 8'4'.)8l'flcial without attention to Its deep roots In piely and religioslty. WsualiZmg 8ellel and Piety In fradan ShJlsm offers new lWlderstandlng of lsflmic lcooogaphy and Muslm perspectlYes on the use of Imageries In ritual contexts and devotional 11'8. Combinng Iconographic and ettmgraphic approaches. Flaskerud intropes imagerle8 (tile-paintings, posters and wall-hangings), ritual caitexts and Interviews with male and female kx:$1 viewers to discuss the raprasentatlon, reception and fmction of lmagarias In oontemporary Iranian Shia envionments. This book presents the argument that Image& and decorative progranmes have stimulating qualities to mentaly 6YOke the saints In the rmds of devotees and inspre ttw reoollectiOl 1, transforming emotlooe and motivating cultlc bahawus. VlaJ8lzetlon and seeing are significant to the dilJlaY*latlon d rellgloua knaNledge, the understanding of api1tual and elhlcal "8kAel, the promotion d peraonal piety, and functions 8$ modes of veneraltlg God end the saints.

........ 18 Postwdoeloral Felow at Uni Glctlel. Unlva'8lty of Bargen. Norwey.

I I I

ISBN 97&-l-44l1-2S24-&

90000

9

81441 125248

Also available from Continuum:

Faith, Ideowgy and Fear, Gabrielle Marranci Iran and Christianity, Mark Bradley Judaism and the Visual Image, Melissa Raphael World Christianity in Muslim Encounter, edited by Stephen Goodwin

Visualizing Belief and Piety in Iranian Shiism

Ingvild Flaskerud

.\\

continuum

Continuum International Publishing Group The Tower Building 80 Maiden Lane 11 York Road Suite 704 London SEl 7NX New York NY 10038

Contents

www.continuumbooks.com © Ingvild Flaskerud, 2010

First published 2010 Paperback edition first published 2012 All rights reserved. o part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any info rmation storage or retrieval system, without prior pe rmission in writing from the publishers.

List of Figures Preface Note on Transliteration Introduction

vi x.i Xlll

1

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Part I: The Portrait of Imam Ali Chapter 1: The Emergence of a Prototypical Model and Its Survival

21

ISBN: HB: 978-1-4411-4907-7 PB: 978-1-4411-2524-8

Chapter 2: Imam Ali in Shia Memory Chapter 3: The Iconography of Imam Ali and its Reception

32 39

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is availab le from the Library of Congress.

Part II: The Battle at Karhala Chapter 4: The Battle at Karbala in Shia Memory and Piety

Chapter 5: Visual Karbala Narratives in Shia Piety Chapter 6: The Parcham Wall H anging Chapter 7: The Representation and Reception ofKarbala in Colour Posters

79 85

89 109

Part ill: Images and Decorative Designs in Ritual Space

177 Chapter 8: The Image as a Votive Gift Chapter 9: Images in the Liturgy of Commemoration and Celebration 199 230 Chapter 10: Decorative Programmes across Gendered Ritual Space

Typeset by Newgen Imaging System Pvt Ltd, Chen nai, India Prin ted and bound in Great Britain

Chapter 11: Transposing Iconography

234

Conclusion: Visualizing and Seeing in the Service of Islam

249

Notes References Index

255

283 293

List ofFigures

vii

15 Colour poster depicting the Prophet Muhammad (34 x 50 cm). Captions: la ilaha illaAllah, Muha1111nad rasul Allah, va Ali vali Allah, There is no god but God, Muhammad is God's messenger, and Ali is God's guardian.' Muba'ath rasul akram hf!'1.rat Muhammad, salaAllah alayhu vasallama, 'The calling of the Prophet, the most noble, honourable Muhammad, may God send benediction and greetings to him .' Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2002.

FIGURE

List of Figures

FIGURE 1 Neon sign-board depicting an imaginary portrait of Abu al-Fazl al-Abbas. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2002.

2 Framed poster depicting Imam Ali, displayed in a shop. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2000. FIGURE

3 Postcard depicting Imam Ali (10.5 x 14.5cm) . Caption: Lafata illa Ali, la saif illa Zu al-Feqar, 'There is no true hero like Ali, no sword like Zu al-Feqar. ' Photo: I. Flaskerud, 1999. FIGURE

4 Poster depicting Imam Ali (34 x 50 cm). Caption: Ali ma'a al-haqq, va al-haqq ma 'a Ali, 'Ali is with the truth, and the truth is with Ali.' Print: Khut Sevum, Signature: M. Suhrabi -77 (1999 ad). Photo: I. Flaskerud, Mashhad 2000. FIGURE

5 Colour poster depicting Imam Ali (25 x 35 cm). Caption: There is no true hero like Ali, no sword like Zu al-Feqar.' Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2000.

FIGURE

6 Paper sticker depicting Imam Ali (8 x 11 cm) . Caption: There is no true hero like Ali, no sword like Zu al-Feqar.' Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 1999.

FIGURE

7 Framed poster depicting Imam Ali holding a book presented in a perfumery. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2001.

FIGURE

FIGURE 16 Ali Akbar is represented dressed in green and white, fighting the enemy at the Battle o f Karbala. Ta 'ziyeh performance at Masjed Nadir al-Mulk. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz, 1999.

17 Framed embroidery depicting Imam Ali, presented in a private home. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2002.

FIGURE

FIGURE 18 Framed print depicting the Battle at Karbala (ea. 22 x 34 cm). Applied as wall decoration in a fatemiyyeh. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2001. FIGURE 19 Shimr, represented dressed in red, presenting Husayn's head to Caliph Yazid in Damascus. Ta'ziyeh performed at Masjed Nadir al-Mulk. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 1999.

20 Colour poster depicting al-Abbas at Karbala (35 x 50 cm). Caption: Qamr bani Hashim. Abu al-Fazl al-Abbas, alayhu al-salam. Shaja' tarin parchamdar shah haqq, 'O Moon of the Hashimite Clan. Abu al-Faz! al-Abbas. Peace be upon him. The Bravest Standard-bearer, The True King.' Print: Daryaye Poster, Teheran. Signature: Muhammad, Tajvidi. 1352/ 1973. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2001.

FIGURE

FIGURE 21 Colour poster depicting Imam Husayn and Ali Akbar at the battle at Karbala (35 x 50 cm). Caption: Shadat'e hf!'1.rateAliAkbar (as), 'The Martyr, hezratAli Akbar, Peace be upon him.' Signature: Abu al-Hamid Asadi. Date: (13)78/ 1999. Print: Daryaye Poster, Teheran. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2002.

8 Colour poste r depicting Imam Ali (34 x 50 cm). Print: Torqeh, Signature: B. Zuhrabi, 1379 (2001 ad). Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2003.

FIGURE

9 Early Portrait of Nasr al-Din Shah ca. 1850. Artist Unknown. Courtesy by Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA). Medium: Ink, opaque watercolour and gold on paper. Size: 60.96 x 40.64 cm. Copyright: Photo SCALA, Florence.

FIGURE

FIGURE

FIGURE

FIGURE 10 Book illustration , Anhar jarieh [Flowing Rivers], Shiraz: Kitabfurushi Ahmadi Shiraz, 1373 ap (1994 ad). Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2000. FIGURE 11 Imam Ali with face veil killing Marhab Kheidari . Lithographic print. Iran,Jouhari, Tufan al-boka'. s. a. ca. 1852-1860. Courtesy by Ulrich Marzolph.

12 Poster depicting Imam Ali (34 x 50 cm). Caption: 'There is no true hero like Ali, no sword like Zu al-Feqar.' Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2000.

FIGURE

13 Colour poster depicting Imam Ali (34 x 50 cm). Captions: There is no true hero like Ali, and no sword like Zu al-Feqar.' Timthal mubarak hf!'1.rat Ali amir al-mu 'minin, alayhu al-salam. 'Image of the blessed, honourable Ali, Leader of the faithful, Peace be upon him.' Print: Galery Elmira. Signature: Muslim Sarlak. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 1999. FIGURE

FIGURE 14 Colour poster, Imam Ali (34 x 50 cm). Captions: Man kuntu maulahu Jahadha Ali maulahu, ' Of whomsoever I am Lord, then Ali is also his Lord. ' Az Ali amuz ikhlas 'am4 'From Ali, learn sincere deeds.' Caption on the sword: 'There is no true hero like Ali, no sword like Zu al-Feqar.' Print: Postere Iran . Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2000.

22 Colour poster depicting al-Abbas at Karbala (35 x 50 cm). Caption: 'O Abu al-Faz! al-Abbas, Peace be upon him .' Print: Poster Kayvan, Teheran. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2001.

23 Wall hanging, parcham. Applique and embroidery on fabric. Presented as an offering, taqdimi, in 1338/1959. On display in a private courtyard during commemoration rituals in Muharram. Photo: I. Flaskerud, 2000. 24 Wall hanging. Embroidery on fabric. On display in a private courtyard during com memoration rituals in Muharram. Photo: I. Flaskerud, 2000.

FIGURE

25 Wall hanging. Embroidery on fabric. Presented as an endowment, vaef. On display in a private courtyard during commemoration rituals in Muharram. Photo: I. Flaskerud, 2000. FIGURE

26 Wall hanging. Applique and embroidery on fabric. On display in an imamz.adeh during commemoration rituals in Muharram . Photo: I. Flaskerud, 2002.

FIGURE

FIGURE 27

Wall hanging. Applique and embroidery on fabric. Labelled HadyehKarbal.a. 'Gift from Karbala.' Presented as an endowment. On display in an imamzadeh during commemoration rituals in Muharram. Photo: I. Flaskerud, 2002. FIGURE 28 Wall hanging depicting Abu al-Faz! al-Abbas, Imam Ali and Imam Husayn with Ali Asghar. Applique and embroidery on fabric. Labelled Hadyeh Najaf va Karbala. 'Gift from Najaf and Karbala.' Presented as an endowment. On display in an imamzadeh during commemoration rituals in Muharram . Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz, 2002.

ix

List of Figures

List of Figures

29 Wall hanging, parcham. Applique and embroidery on fabric. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2002.

foot.' Signature: Majid Radi ' Pour.Date: 1376/ 1997. Print: Daryayeh Poster. Photo: I. Flaskemd, Shiraz 2002.

30 Wall hanging depicting Abu al-Faz! al-Abbas, Imam Ali and Imam Husayn. Applique and embroidery on fabric. On display in an imam:zadeh during commemoration rituals in Muharram. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz, 2002.

FIGURE 43

viii FIGURE

FIGURE

31 A woman touching a wall hanging at a zaynabiyyeh. Photo: I. Flaskemd, Shiraz 2002.

FIGURE

A zaynabiyyehdecorated for Muharram commemoration. Women praying during su.freh Abu al-Fazl al-Abbas. Photo: I. Flaskerud , Shiraz 2002. 44 Children on the flatbed of a lorry. Participating in a street procession, they offer water to passers-by with the words 'O Abu al-Fazl!' Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2000.

FIGURE

32 A pilgrim having his portrait taken against a canvas depicting Imam Reza saving deer from a hunter. Publicity item purchased from the galle1-y 'Akasi Zamani', Mashhad, 2000.

FIGURE

33 Wall hanging. Applique and embroidery on fabric. On display in a private courtyard during commemoration rituals in Muharram. Photo: I. Flaskerud, 2000.

FIGURE

FIGURE

FIGURE

34 Wall hanging. Applique and embroidery on fabric. Presented as an endowment, vaqf. On display in a private courtyard during commemoration rituals in Muharram. Photo: I. Flaskerud, 2000.

FIGURE

35 Colour poster depicting Imam Husayn with Zaynab (35 x 50 cm). Caption: Veda 'hezrat Zaynab, 'The Farewell ofZaynab.' Print: ashbabak. Signature: Ashrafi. Photo: I. Flaskerud , Shiraz 2002.

FIGURE

36 Colour poster depicting al-Abbas at Karbala (35 x 50 cm). Print: Poster Nuri. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2001.

FIGURE

37 Colour poster depicting Imam Husayn with Ali Asghar (35 x 50 cm ). Caption: Taqdimi beh hamaye kudakane jahan keh mazlumane raftand va khahaH kochekam, 'Offering on behalf of all little children in the world who died unjustly, and my little sister (who is dead).' Signature: Majid Radi ' Pour. Photo: I. Flaskemd, Shiraz 2002.

FIGURE

38 Colour poster depicting Imam Husayn with Ali Asghar (35 x 50 cm) . Caption: Sayyedna al-Imam Husayn, m 'a tiflehu al-rasi', ' Our Lord Imam Husayn with his infant child.' Signature: Bande [the Humble] Kamtarin Muslim Sarlak, Date: 1378/ 1999. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2002.

FIGURE

39 Colour poster depicting Ali Akbar at the battle at Karbala (35 x 50 cm). Caption: Effigy (timthal) of the Blessed Excellency Ali Akbar, Peace be upon him. Artist: Muslim Sarmak. Print: Galery Elmira. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2001. FIGURE

40 Colour poster depicting Imam Husayn and Ali Akbar at the battle at Karbala (25 x 35 cm. Caption: 'Effigy of his Excellency Ali Akbar, Peace be upon him. At the time when he became a martyr on Ashura in the lap of his great father, his Excellency Aba Abd Allah al-Husayn. Peace be upon him.' Signature: Hajj Muhammad Tajvidi. Print: Daryaye Poster, Teheran. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2002. FIGURE

41 Colour poster depicting al-Abbas and Imam Husayn at Karbala (35 x 50 cm). Caption: va allahu inn qata 'tum lamini inni uhami abadan 'an dini, ' I swear to God, if they chop off my hand , verily I protect always from my religion.' Photo: I. Flaskemd, Shiraz 2002.

FIGURE

42 Colour poster depicting al-Abbas and Imam Husayn at Karbala (35 x 50 cm). Caption: Band khaq pay hezrat Abbas, 'I am the earth under Abbas'

FIGURE

45 Saqqa-khaneh. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2000.

FIGURE

46 Commemorating the death of Ali Asghar, at a zaynabiyyeh. Photo:

I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2002.

47 Colour poster depicting Imam Husayn (35 x 50 cm) . Caption: Ashura Print: Nashr Babak, ' Babak Publication'. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2002. 48 Colour poster depicting Imam Husayn (35 x 50 cm). Caption: ' O Husayn Martyr.' Print: Poster Nuri , Teheran. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2002.

FIGURE

49 Colour poster depicting the camp at Karbala (25 x 35). Caption: Akharin veda Zu alfenah pas az shuhadat hezrat Sayyed al-Shuhada (alayhu al-salam) ba ahl al-bayt, 'The last farewell of Zu al:Jenah after the martyrdom of The Lord the Martyr with the ahl al-bayt.' Print: Daryaye Poster Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2001.

FIGURE

50 Card depicting the camp at Karbala (14 x 19). Caption: 'The evening of Ashura.' Signature: Mahmoud Farshchian. Date: 1359, 1981. Print: Zarrin and Simin Books, Teheran. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2001.

FIGURE

51 Card depicting the family of Imam Husayn as hostages in Damascus (14 x 19). Caption: Kharabehaye Sham, 'The Ruin in Sham ' . Signature: Muhammad Reza Sharifi . Print: Gooya Card. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2001.

FIGURE

52 Wall hanging. Embroidery on synthetic fabric. Decorating private courtyard for Muharram commemoration. Presented as an endowment. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2002.

FIGURE

53 Wall hanging. Embroidery on fabric. Presented as an endowment. On display in a private courtyard during commemoration rituals in Muharram . Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2000. FIGURE 54 Imaginary replica of the shrine of Ruqayyeh . Presented at a husayniyyeh for commemoration ceremonies in Safar. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2002.

FIGURE

FIGURE 55

Women performing a pilgrimage to the replica of the shrine ofRuqayyeh. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2002.

56 Ibrahim smashing the idols. From the ta 'ziyeh production 'Narnimruzi' played by a group from Khurasan at the Nadir al-Mulk mosque. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 1999. FIGURE 57 The interior or the ceremonial hall of the irnam:zadeh. Tiled wall painting of the shrine of Abu al-Faz! al-Abbas at Karbala. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2001. Photo: FIGURE 58 A zaynabiyyeh decorated for Muharram commemoration.

FIGURE

I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2002. 59 A zaynabiyyeh decorated for Muharram commemoration. Photo: I. Flaske rud, Shiraz 2002.

FIGURE

X

List ofFigures

FIGURE 60 Wall hanging representing the Prophet Muhammad. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2002. FIGURE 61 A zaynabiyyeh decorated for the celebration of Imam Husayn 's birthday. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2001. FIGURE

62 Mowludi decoration in a zaynabiyyeh. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2001.

FIGURE

63 Celebrating mowludi at a zaynabiyyeh. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2001.

Preface

64 The courtyard of imamzadeh Sayyid Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Husayn, facmg the entrance wall of the ceremonial hall. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2001.

FIGURE

FI~URE 65 The courtyard of imamzadeh Sayyid Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Husayn, facmg the entrance gate. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2001.

66 The courtyard of imamzadeh Sayyid Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Husayn , next to the entrance gate. Compare with Figure 65. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2001.

FIGURE

FIGURE 67 The courtyard of imamzadeh Sayyid Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Husayn, facing the main kitchen. Compare with Figure 64. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2001. FIG~RE 68 The courtyard of the imamzadeh Sayyid Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Husayn, dunng Muharram commemoration. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2002.

69 Wall decorations at imamzadeh Sayyid Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Husayn. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2001.

FIGURE

FIGURE 70 Wall decorations at imamzadeh Sayyid Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Husayn. Photo: I. Flaskerud, Shiraz 2001.

The representation of prophets and saints in Islam is erroneously considered nonexistent by many scholars of Islam, Muslims and the general public. The issue is often dealt with superficially without attention to its deep roots in piety and religiosity. Visualizing Belief and Piety in Iranian Shiism offers new understanding of Islamic iconography and Muslim perspectives on the use of imageries in ritual contexts and devotional life through an analysis of the representation, reception and function of imageries in Iranian Shia environments. The study is based on ethnographic field research conducted in Iran between 1999 and 2003 with male and female informants. The examination combines iconographic and ethnographic approaches to introduce and discuss an extensive collection of data, including imageries such as tile-paintings, posters and wall hangings presenting imaginary portraits of Imam Ali, visual narratives relating to the battle at Karbala and religious texts, in addition to ritual performance and interview with local viewers. The context-situated analysis of the meaning and function of imageries is related to the wider Iranian Shia culture of representation, including visual, textual, vocal and performative forms of expressions, to explain how pictorial models are developed historically and situated culturally. Contemporary Iranian Shia iconography draws on the polysemic quality of visual signs. The iconography appears as multi-layered with signs taking on iconic, indexical and symbolic meanings. Individual viewers' interpretive strategies are inspired by their knowledge of Shia history and hagiography, the saints' positions in the Shia perception, personal sentiments and reverence for the saints, and personal experiences of saints ' positive intervention in situations of difficulty. The use of imageries is embedded in votive practices and serves as invocation and thanksgivings, nazri, as well as declarations of faith and expressions of praise. Imageries are also used to decorate communal ritual spaces and are instrumental in defining the liturgical orientation of the ceremony to create a mood, hal, to facilitate private and communal devotion . The main argument presented is that visualization and seeing have representative and transformative qualities. Images and decorative programmes mentally evoke the saints in the minds of d evotees and inspire their recollection. Such cognitive processes can transform emotions and generate cultic behaviours that facilitate making contact with the saints. Visualization and seeing are significant to the dissemination of religious knowledge and to the understanding of spiritual and ethical values. Within the context of Shia theology of redemption, both visualization and seeing function as modes of venerating God and the saints, and reinforce p ersonal piety.

XII

Preface

The present research could not have been accomplished without the generosity and collaboration of many individuals in Iran. I am particularly indebted to Mariam Kamali and her husband Mushtaba Haqnegahdar, and to Ms Haqnegahdar and the late Hajj Haqnegahdar. I am also grateful for the support offered by Zahra Kamalkhani, Parvin Pourmirza and Karim Mousavi and their families. I have received great inspiration from conversations with Richard Johan Natvig, Peter Chelkowski and Ulrich Marzolph. My sincerest thanks are due to Jurgen Wasim Frembgen, Faegheh Shirazi, Rossella Ragazzi, Lena Liepe and Stephen Wolfe who offered valuable comments at earlier drafts. I would also like to thank Julian Raby and Erika Friedl who provided important references for the research. The encouragements from 0yvind Norderval and Jill Wolfe have been helpful throughout the project. Finally, I would like to thank Bruno Laeng for his continuous support, help and advice. I am in particular grateful to Ulrich Marzolph and the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (lACMA) for allowing me to reproduce images from their collection. The study was generously funded by The Norwegian Council of Research.

Note on Transliteration

The primary source material includes written sources in Arabic and Persian, and oral sources in Persian. A simplified transliteration system has been used m an attempt to incorporate the three vernaculars into one consistent style that be recognized throughout the book. For example, the expression ahl al-bayt is transcribed in a form closer to written Arabic and Persian, omitting the Persian genitive particle of ahl-ewhich is used in oral language. Regarding diphthongs, I opted for the form bayt, instead of beit or beyt. Hopefully, the general reader will be able to recognize the orthographic pattern also in the terms like 'alayhu. I have not used diacritical marks. All transliterated words, except proper names, are written in italics. In general, the dating in the book follows the Gregorian solar calendar, which is identified as AD (anno Domini). Some written sources such as wall hangings, as well as interview, refer to the Persian solar calendar, which is identified as AP (anno Persico). In some cases, it is also relevant to refer to the Muslim Lunar calendar, which is identified as AH (anno Hijra).

Introduction

Mr. Azadi moved a portable neon signboard with an image representing Abu al-Faz! al-Abbas out of the courtyard of the shrine where it was kept and into the line of the mourning procession which his hay 'at organized on the evening of the seventh of Muharram. 11 The signboard showed Abu al-Faz! alAbbas, the half-brother of Imam Husayn and standard-bearer at the battle at Karbala in 680 AD, wearing a helmet decorated with a green headband and topped with two feathers (Figure 1). A green shawl surrounded his strong neck and shoulders. Blood dripped from a cut on the left side of his forehead. evertheless, his facial expression was composed and firm. His head was surrounded by a halo and at the level of his shoulders the light-beams merged with a transparent watery pattern enclosing his chest. The halo indicated holiness, whereas the water referred to his last mission: bringing water from the Euphrates River to thirsty family members and supporters in their camp at Karbala. The wound carried a message about the destiny that met Abu al-Faz! at the banks of the river: suffering and death, but also martyrdom and triumph , as emphasized by the halo. The float carrying the image was given a prominent place in the hay 'at 's mourning procession since its members perceived themselves as the 'succeeding allies' ( mutahede janesharan) of Abu al-Fazl al-Abbas. The image was a recent gift to the hay 'at. It was presented as a nazri, a thanksgiving to a prayerfor-help (ex-voto) that a member had requested from Abu al-Faz!. He is commonly known as the bab al-havaij, 'The Gate to the Wishes', and in the community there were many stories about his immediate response to requests for help. As the image was transported through the streets, two chadordressed women parted from the watching crowd on the flanks and approached it. They stroke the face of Abu al-Faz! with their hands and then repeated the movement, now crossing their hands over their own face. Touching objects that are connected to holy people is generally believed to secure the believer's blessing (taharuk). The women then stepped aside to let the float pass on. The presentation of a saint's image in a Shia Muslim mourning procession, as described above , calls attention to the existence of figurative images in Muslim visual culture, its iconographic expressions and meanings, and the function of images in ritual and devotional life, a topic that has until now received little attention. While the figurative representation of prophets and saints in Islam is

3

Visualizing Belief and Piety in Iranian Shiism

Introduction

often considered nonexistent by scholars of Islam, Muslims and the general public, a more accurate account is that Musbms hold divergent views on the production and use of figurative imageries, particularly in the context of religious practice. Indeed, aniconic attitudes prevail among Sunni theologians and Sunni popular practices, although exceptions to such positions among the Sunnis are many. 2 Adherents to the Twelver branch ofShiism in Iran have taken a different position and can look back at a long history of producing figurative imagery with themes from the Shia hagiography to be used in the service of religion. Visualizing Belief and Piety in Iranian Shiism addresses the presence of images in contemporary Iranian Shiism to discuss the visualization of belief and piety. The study introduces and discusses contemporary religious iconography and epigraphy, examines its content and meaning, and analyses the use of images in devotional practices. The aim is to elaborate on our information about the visual vocabulary applied in contemporary Iranian Shia popular art, the significance of images in expressing religious belief and sentiments and possible functions of images in ritual locations and devotional practices. In the Iranian Shia setting, ritual participants are presented with locally created and culturally embedded multifaceted sensory experiences in which visualisation and seeing is part of complex ritual aesthetics. I argue that to many ritual observers, visualization and seeing is central to the recollection of Divine will and saintly power, the dissemination of religious knowledge, the transformation of emotions, to cultic behaviour, the understanding of ethical values and spiritual experiences. As such , there is an intricate relationship between the visual and other aesthetic expressions and sensory experiences. Shia devotional practices, including praying, honouring, thanksgiving and commemoration, are expressed in aesthetical practices such as recitation, chanting, music, gesticulation, performance, visual culture and food, expressions which stimulate a range of sensory experiences that are acoustic, kinaesthetic, visual , gustatory and olfactory. Aesthetic sensory experiences are valued for their cognitive and emotive significances, which are held to have transformative effects on ritual observers. It is believed that through engaging with these forms of aesthetic expressions the social agent can gain insight into and reflect on religious truths, activities that are believed to encourage saintly mediation and Divine redemption. The examination of the representation, reception and function of images is therefore a most rewarding entry into the study of peoples ' religious beliefs, sentiments, values, forms of piety and contemporary lay-perspectives on the Twelver Shia faith in Iran .

revolutionary and post-revolutionary images in Iran conveying a more explicit politicized iconography. 3 By the turn of the twenty-first century, the hagiographic related iconography can be separated into three main categories: (1) portraits, meant to offer a representation of a person which expresses something about his or her personality and temperament; (2) narratives, meant to tell a story about an event and (3) symbolic representations, typically in the form of saints' attributes with the signifying power of standing for the saint. The most typically seen design in public and private spaces is the single portrait of Imam Ali. In addition , Imam Ali is represented in double portraiture together with son Imam Husayn, and in triple portraiture together with his sons, Imam Hassan and Imam Husayn, or Imam Husayn and Abu al-Fazl alAbbas. Another portraiture genre is the group portrait in which Imam Ali is depicted together with Hassan and Husayn and his father-in-law, the Prophet Muhammad. In some group portraits they are accompanied by Fatemeh alZahra, the Prophet's daughter and Imam Ali 's wife. Moreover, Imam Ali is represented seated together with the subsequent ten, and sometimes e leven, Imams. A traditional, but today less common depiction, presents Imam Ali together with Salman al-Parsi and Qanbar. 4 Visual narrations from the life story of Imam Ali span the time from his birth to his death. The particular circumstance around his birth has given Ali the epithet walad al-Ka 'ba, 'The baby of Ka' ba', and one pictorial theme shows Imam Ali 's mother carrying the newborn Ali out from the Ka' ba in Mecca. Another design depicts the Imam tearing off and carrying away the gate of the fortress of Qamus. A quite different characteristic of Imam Ali is addressed in scenes in which he brings bread to a fatherless family and cares for poor children. The final assault on the Imam 's life is suggested in a scene in which he is about to enter the mosque in Kufa, followed by his two sons Hassan and Husayn, while ducks try to prevent him from entering. The assault is illustrated in a scene depicting Imam Ali about to be stabbed while praying in front of the congregation in the mosque of Kufa. The most common visual narration in contemporary Iranian Shia visual culture is, however, the battle at Karbala. Some designs draw on the established genre of visual narratives, pardeh-dari, developed in Iran in the nineteenth century, to depict a combination of scenes from the battle. Other images present single episodic designs focusing on the fate of individual main protagonists from the battle, such as Imam Husayn, his two sons Ali Akbar and Ali Asghar, his nephew Qasem and half-brother Abu al-Fazl al-Abbas. In addition, Imam Husayn , al-Abbas and Imam Hassan are represented in single portraits, of which the two first mentioned are the most popular in use. Visual representations of later imams include al-Reza and al-Mahdi. Imam Reza is typically depicted protecting a small group of deer from a hunter, while there also exists a visual rendering of the Imam dining with Caliph Mamun, by whom the Imam is assumed to have been poisoned. The hidden Imam, al-Mahdi, is depicted in the process of re-appearing in the human world. Among the prophets, Ibrahim and Muhammad are the favourite characters. In colour posters, Prophet Ibrahim is

2

Visual Culture in Contemporary Iranian Shiism The visual material presented and discussed in the book relates primarily to hagiographic sources referring to holy Shia personages and events. The material is therefore to be distinguished from the recently developed genre of

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Visualizing Belief and Piety in Iranian Shiism

Introduction

depicted about to sacrifice his son Ismail but being interrupted by the intervention of the archangel Gibril. Prophet Muhammad is typically represented in prints and wall paintings. In addition to the group portraits mentioned above, two popular motifs show the single portraiture of the Prophet represented as a juvenile, and as a mature man in the appearance of a prophet. 5 The repertoire of female figures in contemporary Iranian Shia hagiographic iconography is scanty. Zaynab, the daughter of Imam Ali and Fatemeh, is in hagiographic literature and ritual practice honoured as an important protagonist at the battle at Karbala, in the following captivity in Damascus and to the developing tradition of commemorative practices. Also Sakineh, Imam Husayn's daughter, is remembered as a protagonist at Karbala. The two women are included in the visual repertoire of Karbala visual narratives but the use of these images in ritual contexts is limited when compared with their male relatives. A more popular theme is the women and children in the camp at Karbala left to witness the martyrdom of those male relatives. A typical hagiographic representation of Fatemeh portrays her standing behind the entrance-door of her house, which is depicted being violently attacked. The scene refers to the event when Umar, after the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632 AD sent a group of men to her house to ask for Ali 's oath of allegiance, bay 'a, to support Abu Bakr as the Prophet's successor. The group of men sent by Umar supposedly acted aggressively and Fatemeh, according to Shia hagiography, was wounded and later died. 6 Symbolic representations appear in the form of popular decorative items used in contexts of ritual performance. The semiotic potential of its iconography, presented in flags and wall hangings, is complex. For example, an amputated arm may refer to the person al-Abbas, as well as to the battle at Karbala and notions of Shia suffering and martyrdom. Contemporary images depicting holy figures and events may be characterized as popular forms of religious art. An essential characteristic of popular art is its conventional appearance with certain themes reproduced in various formats .7 Another general characteristic of popular religious art is that it is affordable and obtainable to a large number of people. Accordingly, the production of Shia popular images includes cheap mass-produced colour posters and stickers, and medallions of cheap metal. Images are produced as small stickers, 2 x 2 cm, and as posters on glossy paper, 100 x 70 cm, and any size in between. Colour posters and prints can be purchased from shops selling prints and cards. Piles of religious imageries can be found next to piles of posters of football-players, musicians and actors from the Middle East. Young men in Western-inspired fashion , styled in the latest haircuts, may just as well buy a poster of Imam Husayn as purchase a poster of a famous football player. Available on the market are also more expensive silver and gold coins, handmade silk carpets, oil paintings on canvas, imprinted neon lights, applique work and embroidery. Most, if not all , posters are printed in Iran. The production of popular religious prints also prevails in Egypt, Syria, Turkey, India and Pakistan, but the prints produced in Iran address more specifically the Twelver Shia understanding of Islam. Wall hangings can be purchased from tailors in the

bazaars of major and minor towns, whereas silk-