Vehicles of Tomorrow 2019: Concepts - Materials - Design (Proceedings) 365829700X, 9783658297008

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Johannes Liebl Editor

Vehicles of Tomorrow 2019 Concepts – Materials – Design

Proceedings

Ein stetig steigender Fundus an Informationen ist heute notwendig, um die immer komplexer werdende Technik heutiger Kraftfahrzeuge zu verstehen. Funktionen, Arbeitsweise, Komponenten und Systeme entwickeln sich rasant. In immer schnelleren Zyklen verbreitet sich aktuelles Wissen gerade aus Konferenzen, Tagungen und Symposien in die Fachwelt. Den raschen Zugriff auf diese Informationen bietet diese Reihe Proceedings, die sich zur Aufgabe gestellt hat, das zum Verständnis topaktueller Technik rund um das Automobil erforderliche spezielle Wissen in der Systematik aus Konferenzen und Tagungen zusammen zu stellen und als Buch in Springer.com wie auch elektronisch in Springer Link und Springer Professional bereit zu stellen. Die Reihe wendet sich an Fahrzeug- und Motoreningenieure sowie Studierende, die aktuelles Fachwissen im Zusammenhang mit Fragestellungen ihres Arbeitsfeldes suchen. Professoren und Dozenten an Universitäten und Hochschulen mit Schwerpunkt Kraftfahrzeug- und Motorentechnik finden hier die Zusammenstellung von Veranstaltungen, die sie selber nicht besuchen konnten. Gutachtern, Forschern und Entwicklungsingenieuren in der Automobil- und Zulieferindustrie sowie Dienstleistern können die Proceedings wertvolle Antworten auf topaktuelle Fragen geben. Today, a steadily growing store of information is called for in order to understand the increasingly complex technologies used in modern automobiles. Functions, modes of operation, components and systems are rapidly evolving, while at the same time the latest expertise is disseminated directly from conferences, congresses and symposia to the professional world in ever-faster cycles. This series of proceedings offers rapid access to this information, gathering the specific knowledge needed to keep up with cutting-edge advances in automotive technologies, employing the same systematic approach used at conferences and congresses and presenting it in print (available at Springer.com) and electronic (at Springer Link and Springer Professional) formats. The series addresses the needs of automotive engineers, motor design engineers and students looking for the latest expertise in connection with key questions in their field, while professors and instructors working in the areas of automotive and motor design engineering will also find summaries of industry events they weren’t able to attend. The proceedings also offer valuable answers to the topical questions that concern assessors, researchers and developmental engineers in the automotive and supplier industry, as well as service providers.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13360

Johannes Liebl Editor

Vehicles of Tomorrow 2019 Concepts – Materials – Design

Editor Johannes Liebl Moosburg a.d.Isar, Germany

ISSN 2198-7432 ISSN 2198-7440 (electronic) Proceedings ISBN 978-3-658-29700-8 ISBN 978-3-658-29701-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-29701-5 © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Responsible Editor: Markus Braun This Springer Vieweg imprint is published by the registered company Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH part of Springer Nature. The registered company address is: Abraham-Lincoln-Str. 46, 65189 Wiesbaden, Germany

Vorwort

Die Mobilität der Zukunft ist gestaltbar! Das intelligente, vernetzte, elektrifizierte und automatisierte Fahrzeug stellt Designer, Fahrzeugentwickler, Werkstoffingenieure und Produktionsfachleute gleichermaßen vor neue Aufgaben, denn es eröffnet bei Karosserie, Fahrwerk, Antrieb und im Innenraum neue Freiheitsgrade und Konzepte. Diese erfordern den Einsatz innovativer Komponenten und Werkstoffverbindungen, die in der Produktion dann aber auch sicher, qualitativ hochwertig und kostengünstig auf die Straße gebracht werden müssen. Zudem hat die Entwicklung neuer Geschäftsmodelle einen maßgeblichen Einfluss – insbesondere auf den Ausbau der „Shared Society“. Gestaltungskriterien zukünftiger Mobilitätslösungen sind nicht nur deren Sicherheit und Effizienz, sondern auch deren Nachhaltigkeit unter Berücksichtigung des kompletten Lebenszyklus. Der neue internationale Kongress wird gemeinsam von der fka GmbH und ATZlive veranstaltet. Er dient als Informations- sowie Kommunikationsplattform und beleuchtet sämtliche Facetten des Mobilitätswandels. Wir freuen uns auf Ihre Teilnahme an der Tagung. Für den Wissenschaftlichen Beirat Dr. Alexander Heintzel Chefredakteur ATZ | MTZ-Gruppe, Springer Nature Dr. Hubert Pelc Leitung Fachmedien Materials | Energies, Konzepte – Werkstoffe – Springer Nature

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Editorial

We can shape the mobility of tomorrow! The intelligent, connected, electric, automated car presents designers, vehicle developers, materials scientists and production specialists with new tasks, because it opens up new opportunities and allows for new concepts in areas such as the body, chassis, powertrain and interior. These require the use of innovative components and combinations of materials, which must produce safe, high-quality and cost-effective results. In addition, the development of new business models will be a major influence, particularly on the growth of the sharing society. Future mobility solutions must be designed with not only safety and efficiency in mind, but also sustainability from the perspective of the entire product life cycle. The new international congress will be jointly organized by the fka GmbH and ATZlive. It is an information and communication platform that highlights all aspects of the mobility transformation. We look forward to welcoming you to the conference. On behalf of the Scientific Advisory Board Dr. Alexander Heintzel Editor-in-Chief ATZ | MTZ Group, Concepts – Materials – Springer Nature Dr. Hubert Pelc Head of Specialist Media Materials | Energies, Springer Nature

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Contents

Keynote Speech Disruption in mobility –new trends, new concepts and new business models?! Florian Herrmann, Sebastian Stegmüller, Lukas Block und Maximilian Werner Purpose-built mobility vehicles –a new breed of cars just around the corner Dr. Wolfgang Bernhart, Jan-Philipp Hasenberg, Dr. Stephan Schickram und Rene Kirchhoff Integrative development conceptfor future vehicle requirements Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Ralph Mayer, Georg Prochatzki und Falko Wagner Customized mobility: innovation managementand the product development process David Hedderich, Markus Kowalski und Volker Lücken Amloy enables weight reductionfor high-performance components in automotive Hans-Jürgen Wachter und Valeska Melde Dual-curing adhesives for fast cycle times and highprecisionalignment of components Stephan Pröller Keynote speech The user experience in tomorrow’s mobility Dr. Karsten Michels

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Contents

Adhesive tapes – solutions for today’s and future car production (Anforderungen an Verbindungstechnologien – heute und in Zukunft) Dr. Marco Bastian Hem flange bonding: a challenging joining processin automotive body construction Fred Jesche und Sandra Menzel Steering wheel and restraint system headingfor automated driving Dr.-Ing. Christian Strümpler und Ingo Kalliske Thermoplastic composites technologies for future aircraftstructures Georg Doll High performance sustainable materials for automotive applications: dream or reality? Philippe Godano, James Taylor, Pascaline Bregeon, Davide Caprioli, Luca Mazzarella, Philippe Funda, Stefano Schnappenberger, Laura Gottardo und Santiago Clara Tagungsbericht Dipl.-Ing. Michael Reichenbach

List of Authors

Marco Bastian  Lohmann GmbH & Co KG, Neuwied, Germany Wolfgang Bernhart  Roland Berger GmbH, Munich, Germany Lukas Block  University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany Pascaline Bregeon  Autoneum Management AG, Zurich, Switzerland Davide Caprioli  Autoneum Management AG, Zurich, Switzerland Santiago Clara  Autoneum Management AG, Zurich, Switzerland Georg Doll German Aerospace Center – Institute of Structures and Design, Cologne, Germany Philippe Funda  Autoneum Management AG, Zurich, Switzerland Philippe Godano  Autoneum Management AG, Zurich, Switzerland Laura Gottardo  Autoneum Management AG, Zurich, Switzerland Jan-Philipp Hasenberg  Roland Berger GmbH, Munich, Germany David Hedderich  e.GO Mobile AG, Aachen, Germany Florian Herrmann  Fraunhofer Institute for Industrial Engineering IAO, Stuttgart, Germany Fred Jesche Fraunhofer Institute for Machine Tools and Forming Technology, Chemnitz, Germany Ingo Kalliske  Joyson Safety Systems, Michigan, USA Rene Kirchhoff  Roland Berger GmbH, Munich, Germany xi

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List of Authors

Volker Lücken  e.GO Mobile AG, Aachen, Germany Ralph Mayer  Technische Universität Chemnitz, Chemnitz, Germany Luca Mazzarella  Autoneum Management AG, Zurich, Switzerland Valeska Melde  Heraeus Amloy Technologies GmbH, Hanau, Germany Sandra Menzel  Fraunhofer Institute for Machine Tools and Forming Technology, Chemnitz, Germany Karsten Michels  Continental, Babenhausen, Germany Georg Prochatzk  Technische Universität Chemnitz, Chemnitz, Germany Stephan Pröller  DELO Industrial Adhesive, Windach, Germany Michael Reichenbach  Wiesbaden, Germany Stephan Schickram  Roland Berger GmbH, Munich, Germany Stefano Schnappenberger  Autoneum Management AG, Zurich, Switzerland Sebastian Stegmüller Fraunhofer Institute for Industrial Engineering IAO, Stuttgart, Germany Christian Strümpler  Joyson Safety Systems, Michigan, USA James Taylor  Autoneum Management AG, Zurich, Switzerland Hans-Jürgen Wachter  Heraeus Amloy Technologies GmbH, Hanau, Germany Falko Wagner  Technische Universität Chemnitz, Chemnitz, Germany Maximilian Werner  University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany

Keynote Speech Disruption in mobility – new trends, new concepts and new business models?! Florian Herrmann1[0000-0002-5507-5531], Sebastian Stegmüller1, Lukas Block2[0000-0001-8899-6866], Maximilian Werner2[0000-0003-3476-7114] 1

Fraunhofer Institute for Industrial Engineering IAO 2 University of Stuttgart

Abstract. Technological progress based on digitalization and automation opens up opportunities for a variety of new mobility and vehicle concepts. Beside that, the way we use and understand mobility in modern society is underlying a drastic change. As a consequence, user-oriented mobility services with high flexibility are piloted and rolled out in urban areas. Within the article, we discuss different types of autonomous and shared concepts and their potentials in modern transport. Based on the use case of so-called Robocabs, results of an international user survey are presented with a strong focus on user acceptance. Furthermore, new mechanisms and models to generate additional revenues linked with the vehicle concept like new forms of advertisement are discussed. A data-driven analysis shows that there lies substantial revenue potential in value-added services, though the value distribution varies to a significant extend. Whereas static or recurring advertisement allows only for limited revenues, geo-located advertisement with tailored offers and context specific options for interacting with the customer hold the potential to multiply the average advertisement revenues. Keywords: Mobility Concepts, Autonomous Driving, Business Models, Robocab, User Acceptance, Value-added Services

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Introduction

Digitalization is changing our lives, our world of work and our industries at a rapid pace. Especially in the automotive industry, the so-called "digital transformation" is on everyone's lips. Automotive manufacturers (OEM) are more or less forced to completely rethink their products and services. Connectivity, electrification and automation of vehicles, as well as service-oriented mobility solutions, are the four main drivers. The intelligent combination of these trends describes what is probably the most promising yet vague vision of the future automobile: Robocabs. It is obvious that selfdriving, electric vehicles, which are no longer owned but booked on-demand via smartphone, will have an immense influence on our mobility system. In particular, today’s heavily overloaded urban traffic could be optimised and made more sustainable. New user groups such as underaged or elderly might become individually mobile. © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2021 J. Liebl (ed.), Vehicles of Tomorrow 2019, Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-29701-5_1

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What sounds like the future, has actually been in the focus of OEMs, software companies or suppliers for several years. Meanwhile in fact, this topic is part of the public discourse and arrived in our society. The media report at high frequency on new pilot projects, prototypes and innovative test tracks. Thus, autonomous driving is slowly becoming an interesting option for potential users, even though up to now direct contact with this technology is very limited. According to our research, a noticeable increase in the number of automated vehicles is to be expected by the next decade. The authors assume that 20 percent of new vehicle registrations in 2030 will be highly automated and 5 percent even fully automated or driverless [1]. Other current studies estimate the share of automated fleet vehicles with automation levels 4 and 5 at 12 to 20 percent in 2030 and 32 to 42 percent in 2035 [2, 3]. Depending on market penetration, high traffic impact potentials are forecasted for automated taxis and shared fleets of "Robocabs". Effects may be noticed in terms of a reduction of parking space, vehicle numbers and thus an improvement of traffic flow, or with regard to the transport costs of urban mobility [4, 5]. Robocabs can give new flexibility to public transport and provide an innovative alternative to existing mobility services. However, it is largely unclear how these vehicles can be imagined and what expectations or reservations future customers have towards them. In our research, we have found that the view of these vehicles varies greatly depending on whether one is discussing with potential users, representatives of the automotive industry or transport operators. Various scientific studies and model calculations, which deal with the topic in more depth, also assume completely different vehicle concepts. The question of how to imagine Robocabs and their less automated, preliminary stages from the user's point of view remains. What do potential users want? What are motivating factors and what are inhibiting factors? Which vehicle concepts are most suitable? User acceptance and social acceptance will play a decisive role in the success, distribution and selection of these new mobility systems. The difficulty lies in the fact that Robocabs are not on the market yet and therefore no fact-based findings have been generated so far. Application-oriented research and exploratory approaches are needed to assess the acceptance of the concept and to determine possible effects of Robocabs on transport and society. On a second pillar, the question of new use cases and possible new business models in combination with the so-called RoboCabs arises. It becomes clear that this concept offers high flexibility and various degrees of freedom when it comes to its integration into existing mobility systems. Furthermore, the ongoing digitalization opens up for an almost unlimited variety of connectivity services, on demand solutions and new business models. Thus, it is not only about how future vehicle concepts and their uses cases might look like. The question is also how interwoven business models, specialized vehicles concepts and trip purposes will be.

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Approach and Methods

The identification of trends, concepts and new business models within the field of new mobility requires a divers set of data, information and knowledge. While some of the

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topics (e.g. trends) ask for an empirical, socio-scientific research approach, business models rely on computable data and information. Thus, our approach connects two different fields of research: User research and mobility simulations. Within this paper, we connect the already existing approaches and findings of [6] and [7] to highlight trends, concepts and the chances of new business models. The connection happens via the aim of both approaches to estimate a future mobility world. This happens by means of Across Method Triangulation. Acceptance, perception and usage backgrounds with regard to shared, autonomous vehicles was investigated in the “Acceptance Study Robocab” [6]. It was realized by a mix of methods: On the one hand, it is based on a representative online survey in three countries (Germany, USA and China), and supplemented with qualitative in-depth interviews in Germany. In addition to examining general usage parameters, the focus of the online survey is on the vehicle concept. A special approach within the survey is that the questionnaire design is based on a storytelling method. The aim is to introduce the respondents to the so far unknown product and the correspondingly unknown requirements with the help of questions in the form of an interactively designed imaginary trip. The respondents are asked to imagine what the Robocab looks like compared to conventional taxicabs. Expectations of the chassis, equipment or user interface are also raised. The quantitative survey thus serves primarily to generate a general mood picture of how a representative section of the population in the three countries imagines the Robocab. However, not only acceptance and usage background play an important role for the automotive industry. Expectations and images of the relevant target group are also important guidelines that should be taken into account in the development. The weakness of the method, however, lies in the standardised query, which leaves only a limited space for recording in-depth impressions or opinion formers. A data-driven approach is conducted in [7] to investigate the possibility of new business models: It is examined to which extent commercials can subsidize Robocabs. Therefore, the revenues in total and per trip are estimated. The idea is to gather an understanding of possible business models: What is a trip worth in terms of passenger attention and how is this value distributed? The revenue comes from two sources: Commercials that target the vehicle’s surrounding, like displays on the vehicle’s roof (exterior ads), and the media that is displayed to the passengers (interior ads). Established advertising metrics are examined and a probabilistic revenue model is created to calculate the value of one individual passenger or a traffic participant paying attention to the vehicle’s advertisement. The value of advertisement is modelled as the revenue, generated by the commercial or respectively the price the advertiser must pay for the passengers’ or pedestrians’ attention. The value of an advertisement campaign is dependent on a diverse set of factors: The number of viewers, how focused the customers can be addressed and how competitive the market for the advertised good or service is [8]. Thus, it is essential that a reliable database for all these measures is present. Therefore, a fleet of autonomous taxis is simulated, based on real-world datasets about mobility demand and supply in New York City. The demand is modelled with the publicly available dataset of Yellow and Green Taxi Rides in March, April and May 2015. Traffic flows and route choices are reconstructed with an approach presented

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in [9] and further developed in [7]. The trip purposes result by adapting the methodology of [10] to NYC. Thus, interior advertisement value can be calculated. The required variables to model the exterior commercials’ revenue are the amount of pedestrians on each street segment and the surrounding land use. We derive the land use via points of interest from the OpenStreetMap API and the GeoNames API. Following [11], the number of pedestrians on each street is analyzed via the amount of geo-located Tweets. To compare different effects, the value of taxi commercials is estimated under three distinct scenarios (see Table 1). The first scenario equals the present advertisement situation in NYC Cabs. The second and third scenario outline different future advertisement forms in Robocabs: With autonomous vehicles, the driving task does no longer tie the passengers up [12]. Additionally, connected, autonomous cabs have far more information than today’s vehicles. Thus, they are allowed to display context-specific and targeted forms of advertisement (scenario 2). For example, the advertisement for a new running shoe could be displayed if the vehicle drives past a sports shop and knows that the passenger is heading for jogging. Going even further, passengers might just tell the Robocab, that they want to go shopping for a certain item. The taxi then drops the people at a suited shopping location. The Robocab operator receives a financial reward from the shop owner in return. This type of advertisement is called affiliate marketing (scenario 3). Insights about internet advertisement behavior help the formulation of a probabilistic model of the passengers’ behavior in this case. For further insights on the methodology, please refer to [7]. Table 1. Three distinct scenarios represent future advertisement possibilities in Robocabs. Scenario Scenario 1 (conservative)

Exterior Advertisement ─ Static image on the vehicle’s roof ─ Fixed pricing

Interior Advertisement ─ TV program with 30 seconds commercial break every 3 minutes ─ Fix price for a time period

Scenario 2 (a productive ride)

─ Same as Scenario 1

─ Passengers use electronic, invehicle devices to work or browse the internet ─ Banner advertisement is priced based on interaction an context ─ Passengers receive information about the environment and can make reservation, place orders, … ─ Pricing is bound to the action of the passengers

Scenario 3 ─ Geo-located advertisement is (car as an interface to displayed to the surrounding the city) pedestrians ─ Dynamic pricing

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Findings

The previous introduction on autonomous driving and new mobility systems in the automotive sector already mentions that in future, there will be no ideal, stereotypical vehicle concept for Robocabs. Instead, it can be assumed that different interest groups

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such as OEMs, operators and users will each pursue their own goals. However, there are some similarities among the different research vehicles and concept studies. The results of the study presented in [6] show that potential users of autonomous mobility on demand – or Robocabs – are open-minded and generally interested in the concept. Contrary to initial expectations however, no ideal vehicle type of the Robocab can be identified (see Fig. 1). Individual requirements for vehicle characteristics, body and equipment change with the respective application and purpose. An autonomous vehicle is not understood as prestige object, but as reliable and fast means of transport. The results recommend its use in urban areas rather than for long distance rides. However, rural peripheral areas should be integrated into the line network in order to offer older and immobile people an attractive alternative to taxis or public transport. In this way, the problem of unprofitable bus routes can also be tackled.

Fig. 1. Positioning of different mobility concepts on the basis of vehicle use and functionality [6]

The results predict a high level of acceptance for the so-called "comfort shuttle". These vehicle concepts, which tend to be large, high-quality but purpose-oriented, can be used efficiently in public sharing models. Additionally, sharing has a positive effect on the advertisement revenue, which can be generated during the trip. While advertisement revenues in the best scenario (Scenario 3) can only finance 5.56% of a Robocab trip with an average utilization of one passenger, this amount doubles if the car is used by three people. The average advertisement revenue is somewhere in between 0.27$ per trip (Scenario 1) and 0.81$ per trip (Scenario 3) [7]. In general targeted interior advertisement is much more valuable (0.55$ per trip, Scenario 2 to 0.70$ per trip, Scenario 3) than exterior advertisement (0.08$ per trip) and commercials that are not targeted at all (0.19$ per trip, Scenario 1 and 2). In general, advertisement can only contribute little to finance cab rides. However, there are few, very valuable trips for certain kind of affluent customers [7]. The comfort shuttle is of particular interest to those who have so far been unable to take advantage of public transport, for example due to a lack of comfort and privacy. They could use such a Robocab instead of their private vehicle. However, it is not yet

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clear whether the Robocab will be used as a substitute or as a supplement to existing services. This aspect encounters diverging opinions and can possibly only be assessed in the actual implementation phase. Early adopters are identified as a relevant target group who, due to their affinity for innovation and technology, have a high interest in using the technology. While these early users act as opinion leaders and role models, the majority of those surveyed would initially observe the Robocabs from a distanced stance and, after a great deal of reflection and conviction, move on to use them. The reason for this skepticism lies in existing safety concerns. In addition to technical fears, for example of hacker attacks or the independence of the vehicle, foreign passengers also trigger ambivalent associations. While some see the sharing option as an opportunity to make contact with others, others fear violent attacks and the loss of their privacy. For this reason, many people reject the Robocab as a transport option for children in particular. Safety-relevant components, such as safety belts, cameras or emergency switches, therefore become highly relevant to ensure confidence. In addition to an expansion of the mobility offer, the respondents see the elimination of the search for a parking space, flexibility and permanent availability as the most convincing factors of the Robocab. In the opinion of the respondents, the use of the Robocab also goes hand in hand with increased emission efficiency and environmental friendliness, as users understand that these are always electrified drive concepts that are equipped with simple batteries and infrastructures, especially on short journeys. Before they can be used, however, it is necessary to clarify who will be the supplier of the Robocab concept in the future and to what extent ethical, legal and insurance issues still need to be regulated on the institutional side. Additionally, prices for such public autonomous transport models are of importance. The difference in annual income between households in the bottom 20 percent and those in the top 20 percent grew steadily for almost all urban areas in the US [13]. Thus, social sustainability is of crucial importance to have these new forms of urban mobility accessible for everyone. However, the advertisement scenario with the highest income is also the one, which focuses the least on social sustainability: Affiliate marketing trips are of high value. In case of differentiated subsidization, households with greater purchasing power will profit. This insight is of general importance. [7] shows, that the less advertisement targets affluent passengers, the less it is worth. The distribution of advertisement revenue is thus of crucial importance from a governance perspective. However, the presented business models need to be enabled through technology. Trip purpose recognition, maps with information about shops close by, navigation by valuable roads and a market place for advertisement in Robocabs are necessary. Thus, not only the driving technology itself is of relevance, but also the surrounding ecosystem, enabling the new business models.

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Discussion of Results

The findings clearly indicate that current vehicle concepts have to be rethought in order to succeed in the future. The trend of autonomous driving changes in-car pastime and creates new opportunities for business models within and around the car. The expert

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interviews show, that the previous providers of private passenger transport, such as taxi companies and car sharing operators, see their existence threatened by Robocabs. It is therefore essential for them to adapt to the coming changes and to undertake restructuring at an early stage. With regard to the future challenges in urban transport, a holistic and efficient range of services should be chosen from the outset in order to contribute to the best possible intermodal transport solutions. It is therefore a matter of counteracting possible restrictions in cities with high efficiency of the systems. In general, suppliers in this segment should consider cooperation with vehicle manufacturers, especially in order to make optimum use of existing infrastructures and resources. Here it is particularly important to clarify whether the service providers buy entire fleets or only arrange individual trips as portal operators. The greatest potential for these stakeholders can be seen in micromobiles or comfort shuttles. The orientation of their business model should therefore focus on these two concepts. However, micromobiles are more suitable for individual use and are therefore not attractive for ridesharing with strangers due to their lack of intimacy. Future, potential users would like to use different vehicle concepts for individual needs. However, it must be examined to what extent this wish can be fulfilled with respect to financial expenditure and profitability. Attractive price models should be developed regardless of concept and equipment. In the field of passenger transport services, price expectations are already firmly established. In order to increase acceptance, future pricing should also be within these guidelines. The omission of the driver in the Robocab can reduce costs on the one hand, but is at the same time the biggest concern of taxi drivers or other providers of private passenger transport. Cross-financing Robocabs through advertisement might lower prices even further. However, social sustainability objectives might contradict with potential, affluent business models. The provision of customer specific services to make good use of the travel time, can open up new business opportunities [12]. Though, they have to focus on the user’s needs to be of additional value. As user preferences in the consumer electronics world change frequently, the service offer has to be adapted constantly. Software can provide these necessary adaptions throughout the lifecycle of a Robocab. However, the capability of software is limited by the platform it is running on. Thus, the vehicle’s hardware and mechanics determine the business model. Especially human machine interfaces like displays and wearables play a crucial role in providing the necessary adaptivity towards the passenger. To ensure a proactive and future-orientated design and evaluation of these elements traditional development processes has to be completely rethought and new innovation formats must be applied [14]. Furthermore, software needs to run on hardware. Thus, the electric and electronic architecture of the vehicle must change fundamentally. Robocab development is not finished, once the vehicle is on the road. New updates and adaptions to promising business needs yield a lifelong evolution of software and hardware components. To keep implementation efforts for new features and functionalities low, the software and hardware architecture must be designed with flexibility in mind. Service oriented principles might provide the necessary flexibility on a software level. At a hardware level, flexibility must be implemented through an adequate and future-facing component and

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interface design. Having additional resources for flexibility available however entails additional effort and costs. Thus, research should focus on new design principles that incorporate change impact, change costs and cost of flexibility (see for example [15]). Traditional development approaches for electronic and software architectures have to be extended, to incorporate measures and guidelines for flexible architecture design.

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Conclusion

This paper shows that upcoming mobility solutions have the potential to reshape our mobility systems to a great extent. Within this transformation not only the physical components and vehicle concepts will change but especially new architectures, digital elements and new business models will complement and enlarge the mobility ecosystem. This also means a shift in existing value creation structures. Linear value-addded processes will be replaced by new patterns. To fulfil the economic potential the players have to open up their innovation processes and start working on cooperative business models based on a highly distributed and connected value added. The examples and use cases shown in this paper only represent a limited section of this new and value-creative mobility playing field arising.

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9 11. Botta F, Moat HS, Preis T (2015) Quantifying crowd size with mobile phone and Twitter data. R Soc Open Sci 2(5): 150162. doi: 10.1098/rsos.150162 12. Dungs, J., Herrmann, F., Duwe, D., Schmidt, A., Stegmüller, S., Gaydoul, R., Peters, P. L., Sohl, M. (2016) The Value of Time – Nutzerbezogene Service-Potenziale durch autonomes Fahren 13. Del Guidice V, Lu W (2017) America’s Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Replaced by Robots. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-04-26/america-s-rich-poordivide-keeps-ballooning-as-robots-take-jobs. Accessed 01 Oct 2019 14. Möller T, Schneiderbauer T, Herrmann F et al. (2019) Learn, work, play, shop, encounter – how to create the best mobility experience in (conditional) autonomous vehicles. Mobility Experience and Technology Lab (MXT Lab). Fraunhofer IAO / McKinsey Center for Future Mobility, Stuttgart 15. Block L, Riedel O, Herrmann F (2019) A lifecycle model to support continuous component evolution in embedded automotive systems. In: Bargende M, Reuss H-C, Wagner A et al. (eds) 19. Internationales Stuttgarter Symposium, vol 24. Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden, Wiesbaden, pp 1175–1189

Purpose-built mobility vehicles – a new breed of cars just around the corner Dr. Wolfgang Bernhart1, Jan-Philipp Hasenberg1, Dr. Stephan Schickram1 and Rene Kirchhoff1 1

Roland Berger GmbH

Abstract. Growing demand for on-demand mobility services such as ride hailing, taxis and car sharing is giving rise to a new category of vehicles: cars focused on the passengers rather than the driver and whose flexible interiors can be individually tailored to the needs of users. The addressable market for these purposebuilt mobility vehicles will reach almost 1.3 million vehicles by 2020, with demand already expected to double to about 2.6 million by 2025. By then, all these vehicles will also be electric. Established carmakers and new players alike have announced plans to introduce these vehicles in the years ahead. This article outlines how the market is developing and examines the issues device manufacturers must tackle to end up on the winning side. This paper is an update of Roland Berger's 2018 publication "A new breed of cars – Purpose-built electric vehicles for mobility on demand". Keywords: Purpose-built vehicles, mobility services, electric cars.

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Mobility on demand is the latest buzzword. But what does it mean for the industry?

It is commonly accepted today that the automotive market will gradually shift from vehicle ownership to new shared mobility concepts within the coming decade. Mobility on demand and mobility as a service (MaaS) are the latest buzzwords. While this undoubtedly creates headaches for executives in the automotive industry given that fewer vehicles will be sold to end customers, it also opens up a new opportunity – a new breed of purpose-built vehicles for shared mobility concepts! Ultimately, these cars will be fully autonomous vehicles or "robocabs". Several players (such as NAVYA) are already operating on a smaller scale, and Toyota has announced plans to launch such vehicles within a year. However, more widespread adoption will most likely not occur before 2025. Nevertheless, now is vehicle manufacturers' chance to start producing a new breed of car: purpose-built electric vehicles for on-demand mobility solutions. If they do so, they can gain a foothold in this new segment and build up valuable experience from which they will later benefit in the production of fully autonomous vehicles.

© Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2021 J. Liebl (ed.), Vehicles of Tomorrow 2019, Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-29701-5_2

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1.1

Challenges and opportunities

Optimizing vehicle concepts for shared mobility requires a radical shift of focus, from driver experience to passenger ride experience. It means designing flexible interior concepts to support different use cases, concentrating on durability and serviceability and including a significant amount of additional vehicle content. Passengers value "quality time" during rides and will soon expect to be able to request a vehicle with an interior design and facilities tailored to their needs and moods – whether that is getting work done, catching up on sleep or simply having fun with friends. At the same time, purposebuilt ride sharing vehicles give automakers an opportunity to significantly lower vehicleto-market costs thanks to their shorter development times, lower vehicle complexity and limited number of customers. This new breed of vehicles also has implications for lifecycle management, as they have shorter lifetimes and their modular nature makes it easy to replace parts. In this paper we take a closer look at what the coming revolution means for vehicle manufacturers and rental service providers in particular: How will the market change and what is the size of the opportunity for these players? We investigate what passengers expect from tomorrow's ride sharing vehicles and suggest three different interior design options tailored to differing needs. Lastly, we look at the vehicles announced by various players and investigate the role of device manufacturers.

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A new market segment is about to emerge. Say hello to a new breed of vehicles.

The changes taking place in the automotive industry are hard to ignore. First, we are seeing a shift in the mobility market from vehicle ownership to on-demand services – a movement from ownership to usership that is apparent across many industries. Second, technology is developing that will soon allow fully autonomous vehicles. 2.1

A chance to gain new experience now

OEMs are busy working on designs for fully autonomous "robocabs". But these vehicles are unlikely to enter mass production before 2024. In the meantime, automakers have a unique opportunity to capture the valuable new market for purpose-built vehicles for on-demand mobility services – an emerging segment they cannot afford to ignore. If they can succeed in positioning themselves in the game now, winning customers and building up valuable early experience, they will be well prepared for the next step into the robocab universe. When driverless technology finally arrives, it will then be relatively simple for them to take their tried-and-tested, purpose-built vehicle designs and basically replace the driver with the automated driving system. By that time, users' experience of driving the vehicle will already have been tested and largely optimized. This will put some OEMs ahead of the game compared to others that have taken a more cautious, wait-and-see approach.

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2.2

Sizing the market opportunity

The shift from vehicle ownership to new mobility concepts is unstoppable. Dominating the new types of on-demand mobility services is ride sharing (also known as "ride hailing" or "ride for hire"). Players such as Uber and Lyft in the United States, Didi Chuxing in China and Grab in Southeast Asia do pretty much what taxis did in the past, moving passengers from A to B in return for payment of a fare. However, the competitive pricing of these new entrants and their focus on convenient service offerings has added a new dimension to the traditional market. Even so, it will be a gradual process rather than a sudden change. We expect the size of the global fleet to remain ownershipdriven, with private cars retaining a share of more than 90% in USA and China and roughly 75% in Europe (due to the latter's larger proportion of company cars) in 2025. The addressable global market for new mobility-oriented vehicle sales will be above 2.6 million in 2025, including car sharing, ride hailing/pooling and taxi use (see Fig. 1). That equates to approximately 3% of expected vehicle sales for private usage in 2025.

Fig. 1. Addressable worldwide market potential for purpose-built mobility vehicles [k units].

Geographically, growth in purpose-built electric vehicles that provide mobility on demand in the period to 2020 will undoubtedly be driven by the one region where the need for these vehicles has already been communicated. China will thus account for in excess of 60 percent of business – more than North America, the EU, the Middle East and North Africa put together. Consequently, OEMs may want to consider entering into cooperation with a Chinese partner. This is a chance for them to position themselves for the future, gaining a share of a new market that is growing exponentially prior to the emergence of fully autonomous robocabs. Moreover, what they learn about developing purpose-built vehicles today will stand them in good stead as they progress to developing their own autonomous vehicles. To a large extent, they will then already know exactly what passengers want and what traffic conditions demand (e.g. to access/leave the vehicle quickly and easily). More importantly, they will have the expertise to meet these requirements.

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Fig. 2. Distribution of addressable purpose-built mobility vehicle sales market, by region 2025

The scale of this exciting new market makes this an opportunity that OEMs and suppliers cannot afford to miss. The question is, what sort of vehicles should these mobility-on-demand services use? The black cab in London was developed over decades with particular needs in mind: a narrow turning circle, access for wheelchair users, capacity for six, seven or even eight passengers and space for luggage instead of a front passenger seat, depending on the model. Other purpose-built electric vehicles – albeit not designed for mobility on demand – have a very different history. Deutsche Post, having failed to find an OEM that would produce a vehicle to meet its specific requirements, acquired an existing startup: StreetScooter. There is a lesson here for OEMs. To avoid missing out on such opportunities in the future, they should remember that tomorrow's on-demand mobility service vehicles will likewise be purpose-built, with the needs of tomorrow's passengers and drivers in mind.

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OEMs must shift their focus from drivers to passengers. Increasingly, passengers expect a unique experience.

Designing vehicles for specific uses is already common for commercial vehicles, such as buses and postal delivery vans. Passenger vehicles on the other hand are designed for private use, with their primary focus on the driver. Ride sharing is essentially an extension of passenger vehicle use. Rather than using their own cars, passengers consume a mobility service. But because they are paying customers, they expect the design of the vehicle to be geared toward their needs rather than those of the driver. This requires a shift of perspective for automotive manufacturers who decide to produce purpose-built vehicles, be they for mobility service providers or traditional taxi firms. Today's traditional taxis – with the exception of London's black cabs and JPN taxi (Toyota) – are little more than conventional vehicles with a taxi sign on top. Purpose-

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built vehicles are a whole new ball game. They offer almost unlimited potential for automakers to shape a unique selling proposition (USP), generate customer enthusiasm and at the same time build a powerful brand identity. 3.1

Eliminate pain points, add value

In order to identify current "pain points" – real or perceived problems – we conducted a survey among users of taxis and ride hailing services. We also asked what features vehicle manufacturers could include that would add value. The things that passengers complained about came as no surprise: The ride was uncomfortable when the vehicle was full. They couldn't control the air conditioning in the rear seats of the vehicle. They had problems fitting baby strollers into conventional vehicles, let alone wheelchairs. They were tired of annoying conversations with opinionated drivers. Purpose-built vehicles can eliminate these problems. More importantly still, they can create "wow" effects for customers – features that surprise and delight them. We believe that these features should be based around the core elements of the future mobility experience: connectivity, infotainment and customization. Based on our research we have defined three interior design options, each of which meets different passenger needs. 3.2

Three interior designs for happy passengers

Vehicles need to be constructed in such a way that they can quickly adapt to the different design options using swiveling seats, adjustable lighting and foldable tables and monitors. When placing their order through an app, passengers would choose what sort of interior setup and facilities they require: a "productive" design that allows them to work during the journey, a "relaxing" design so they can rest or even catch up on sleep, or a "fun" design if they are on their way to a party or sightseeing in a new city. The options available would depend on the location. Each vehicle would automatically adapt its interior to the desired setup while on the way to pick up the customer (see Fig. 3).

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Fig. 3. Three interior designs for happy passengers.

A number of established carmakers and new players are following this approach to the letter and have already presented or announced purpose-built mobility vehicles. Here are three examples: Toyota e-Palette These fully automated, next-generation battery electric vehicles are designed to be scalable and customizable for a range of mobility as a service businesses. Built in partnership with the likes of Amazon, Didi Chuxing, Mazda, Pizza Hut and Uber, they are expected to debut at the 2020 Olympic Games in Tokyo. The concept will be based on a fully electric skateboard platform with a flexible, plug-and-play top hat concept. The latter facilitates a wide range of applications, from mobile restaurants to autonomous parcel delivery vehicles. Vehicle speeds will initially be limited to city levels to avoid stricter crash regulations and save battery life. NAVYA Founded in 2014, NAVYA was the first player to launch completely autonomous purpose-built electric mobility vehicles (in Canada in August 2018 and in Florida in September 2019, for example). Today the company employs more than 250 people in France and the United States. NAVYA focuses on autonomous vehicles that combine high levels of robotic, digital and driving technologies. Its vehicles are designed from the ground up with neither steering wheels nor foot pedals. In all pilot programs to date,

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the speed of NAVYA autonomous vehicles has been limited to 10 mph (about 16 km/h). Didi, Magna and BAIC In June 2018, Magna and BAIC signed a joint venture agreement with the aim of building premium electric vehicles for the Chinese market. The cars will be built at an existing BAIC factory in Zhenjiang, which already has capacity for up to 180,000 vehicles a year. The first models should be ready in 2020. Didi, a Chinese mobility provider, ultimately wants to build fully autonomous and electric vehicles based on Magna and BAIC's new EV platform. To this end, Didi has also formed an alliance with BYD as a second partner to actively advance the development of purpose-built vehicles. At the same time, tier-1 suppliers too have identified the importance of – and opportunities for – purpose-built mobility vehicles. Newly designed interiors and dedicated use as fleet vehicles create an attractive new playground for both innovative hardware and cloud service solutions. The Bosch IOT Shuttle, for example, comprehensively showcases what can be implemented in these vehicles: Bosch IoT Shuttle Unveiled at CES 2019 in Las Vegas, the light, airy Shuttle combines large-format infotainment screens and glass windows to deliver a new type of mobility experience. The concept demonstrates the sheer variety of Bosch's innovative systems, including over-the-air updates and predictive maintenance that will appeal to private users and fleet operators alike. It is powered by the Bosch eAxle, which combines an electric motor, the transmission, power electronics and the axle. Redundant systems and predictive road condition services enable safe automated driving. Smartphones can be used as digital door openers. Platform-based vehicle concepts prepare the ground not only for different interior setups for mobility services, but also for private usage and commercial delivery. One start-up that highlights this potential is Canoo: Canoo California-based Canoo took the wraps off its concept in September 2019. Led by former high-ranking managers and e-mobility pioneers from German premium OEMs, it is said to have earmarked total funds of a billion dollars for the global roll-out of the seven-seater electric vehicle it plans to launch in 2021. The technical setup is optimized to increase usable interior space of the vehicle: A shift-by-wire system reduces the space needed for the steering system, for example. At the same time, a platform-based concept will allow body styles to be adapted depending on the desired form of usage: Development is currently being optimized for lifestyle, commercial, ride hailing and commuting applications. The EV will be built around the company's own electric propulsion platform and will have a range of up to 400 km. It will be sold as a subscriptiononly model, including full maintenance coverage.

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Purpose-built vehicles can significantly reduce vehicleto-market costs.

OEMs have three options when it comes to designing this new breed of cars. The first is the simplest option of basing the vehicle on an existing model. This would entail high production costs: We estimate around EUR 32,500 for a six-seater MPVsized car in 2020, based on an annual production volume of 100,000 vehicles. To make this economically attractive, production volumes would need to be as high as possible. The second option is to follow the traditional product development pattern and build the new, purpose-built vehicle on the basis of an existing model or platform, reducing the number of features or downgrading the performance specifications in order to optimize costs. A moderate production volume would be needed for this approach, but production costs may be up to 25% lower. This approach is suitable for manufacturers who are able to produce vehicles more cheaply than traditional OEMs. The third option is to design a completely new, out-of-the-box vehicle concept. This approach would be more expensive on the design side but highly competitive in terms of production costs, which we estimate to be 40% lower of the first option. Manufacturers could use 3D printing for the majority of parts or construct them from a single block of aluminum, as with the StreetScooter. This approach is economically viable even with very low volumes, and producing the vehicles in China would reduce costs even further: The additional saving could be up to EUR 600 per vehicle. Whichever solution automakers choose, they should aim for the least complexity possible. The simpler the vehicle's design, the easier it will be to build it on the production line – and the simpler and cheaper to manufacture the end product. 4.1

Other benefits of purpose-built vehicles

Another area where manufacturers can substantially reduce the vehicle-to-market cost is in selling, general and administrative (SG&A) expenses. Around 90 percent of this cost block consists of marketing and selling efforts, including price discounts. In the case of purpose-built cars, manufacturers can employ direct sales structures, selling the same vehicle in bulk directly to their fleet customers without having to invest in advertising. Margins for a dealer-based retail network or other intermediaries can be saved by cutting this link out of the value chain. One positive side effect is that sales of electric purpose-built vehicles with short lifecycles would make it much easier for OEMs to meet CO2 emission targets for their fleets. Manufacturers need to comply with these regulations in most regions, and the easiest way for them to do so is with electric vehicles. Electric purpose-built vehicles, cheaply produced and sold in high volumes, make it easier to quickly meet the regulations. Since purpose-built vehicles will form part of a digital mobility service, they will have to evolve at a speed closer to that of consumer electronics than that of traditional vehicles. Customers are likely to consider them old after just a few years, even though their technical components are still in good condition. Rather than seven to eight years between models, we expect to see a gap of 3-5 years. As the new vehicles will be

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modular in design it will be relatively easy to swap individual modules, such as the seats or the battery, for updated modules with minor improvements. That means a longer run for vehicle components and spare parts. The new, updated versions of models should feature improvements primarily in area that customers can see and experience – the exterior of the vehicle, the interior design, the infotainment system and so on. Replacing these modules will give passengers the sensation that they are in a new vehicle although in fact the underlying powertrain components (electric motor, power electronics and so on) will be reused from the previous model. This will significantly reduce the costs per model of second-generation cars.

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The new breed of vehicles requires a review of business models. Players have a number of options to choose from to conquer markets with fresh concepts.

The development of purpose-built vehicles for mobility on demand will go hand in hand with the emergence of new business models for established automotive OEMs, suppliers, mobility platform providers and new entrants. All these players will be looking for opportunities to conquer the markets with fresh concepts. We foresee three main potential business models, which we outline below. 5.1

Select your business model

First, OEMs could develop and produce purpose-built vehicles and also operate their own ride sharing services. We already see this happening in the car sharing industry, with automakers such as BMW and Daimler (through ShareNow) using their car sharing fleet for revenue as well as an extra channel for acquiring new customers. Given the high costs of vehicle production and maintenance by the OEM through its own inhouse service network, the profit margins from operating the fleet will be rather low, making lean ride sharing operations essential. This business model is both a threat and an opportunity for the automotive industry. While new mobility offers will reduce sales of passenger cars and light commercial vehicles, autonomous fleets will create an attractive new market for the service network. The second option would be for OEMs to create purpose-built vehicles and provide ride sharing companies such as Uber and Didi with car as a service (CaaS) solutions. These solutions would bundle the financing, insurance, service, repair and operation of the vehicle fleet. Essentially, this translates into a fixed monthly fee or "pay-per-km" model. It would mean a new role for OEMs, one that offers new revenue streams but also demands new skills, such as maintenance-free vehicles, residual value management and the remarketing of fleets. A third option would be for ride sharing providers, be they current players or newcomers, to specify their requirements for a vehicle and then contract manufacturers to build that vehicle for them on a white-label basis. Once again, OEMs would miss out on a valuable opportunity to develop their own vehicles. For ride sharing companies, this is probably the most cost-effective option. We have calculated the approximate

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price per kilometer for transportation under each of these business models. Today, taxi services are the most expensive mode of transportation at EUR 1.5-2 per kilometer. Moving down the price scale, we have ride sharing services and traditional vehicle ownership. However, using the new purpose-built vehicles for ride sharing gives an even lower price at around EUR 0.5-0.8 per kilometer – a direct result of the vehicleto-market cost reduction potential of purpose-built electric vehicles. The only options that beat these vehicles on price per kilometer are public transit and, looking forward, fully automated robocabs. 5.2

Necessary actions

Where does that leave the incumbent players in the automotive industry? With some important decisions to make. A new market segment is evolving that requires a new breed of vehicles. This represents an attractive opportunity in terms of market size, customer demand and cost assumptions. But OEMs are not the only ones to have spotted the emerging potential: Ride sharing service providers may want to muscle in on the action, too. All players must therefore make careful decisions about their investment strategy and how they plan to integrate their value chain, if at all. And they must make those decisions sooner rather than later. To keep their business model from collapsing, OEMs must become either integrated mobility service providers, CaaS brands or device manufacturers. The alternative is to see themselves phased out. In the disrupted mobility ecosystem that will prevail after 2030, the CaaS and mobility as a service (MaaS) business models will coexist, although MaaS will tend to gain in importance. Pure mobility service providers – including car rental, car sharing, ride hailing, and autonomous robocab firms – will focus exclusively on MaaS. This segment will most likely be dominated by new entrants, while the vehicles themselves will be provided by white-label contract manufacturers. CaaS can become a playground for both traditional and new OEMs who address the ongoing need for ownership by offering their services in both the luxury and mid-range segments. Pure device manufacturers will focus on cost efficient manufacturing, their core competence being in production and systems integration. New businesses with limited R&D expenditures will stay out of the CaaS segment. In their current structure, most traditional OEMs are not expected to become dominant mobility service providers in the mobility ecosystem beyond the year 2030 – certainly not the ones that do not yet have MaaS offerings, as they will simply be too late. Flush with cash to invest, OEMs have a strategic decision to make: Do they, like BMW and Daimler, want to consolidate with other OEMs to sharpen their focus on MaaS offerings? Or do they want to follow the lead of GM and Softbank, accepting equity interests but losing autonomy? Clearly, new MaaS players with significant funding from venture capitalists such as Lyft, Didi and Uber will gain a firm foothold as tough competitors.

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References 1. Bernhart, W., et.al.: A new breed of cars – Purpose-built electric vehicles for mobility on demand (2018).

Integrative development concept for future vehicle requirements Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Ralph Mayer1, Georg Prochatzki2, M.Sc., Falko Wagner3, M.Sc. Technische Universität Chemnitz Technische Universität Chemnitz 3 Technische Universität Chemnitz 1 2

Abstract. The automotive industry is subject to fundamental change through the extension and modification of the powertrain, as well as through diversification of vehicle concepts. Complex tasks are already causing increasing challenges in industrialization of conventional vehicle projects. Today's successful market presence is often based on a consistent implementation of platform, modular and modular construction kit strategies. In addition, manufacturers endeavor to shorten the automobile product development process by so-called frontloading. From various research activities exist sometimes excellent results, which are indeed confirmed on a laboratory scale to have promising potential for automotive applications, but so far experienced no industrial conversion. This is partly due to the named manufacturing strategies and furthermore in the subsequent process chains with diverse supplier structures. The disadvantage of this established methodologies is the prevention of possible innovations through the manifested production cycles. Intention of the presented new development concept is the combination of functional and design-optimized product design with multiple functional integration. Through the holistic consideration of the whole vehicle life cycle and by using newest technologies an integrative concept should break up current development and manufacturing structures to fulfill the challenges of future vehicle requirements. Keywords: Vehicle Development and Manufacturing Strategies, Future Vehicle Requirements, Integrative Development Concept.

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Motivation

The automotive industry is going through fundamental changes, especial through changes in propulsion technology (hybridization, electrification) and diversification of vehicle variants (derivatives and additional vehicle concepts such as people mover). Complex tasks, such as additional chassis functions, are already causing increasing challenges in industrialization in conventional vehicle projects [1]. Today's successful market presence is often based on a consistent implementation of platform and modular strategies (Fig. 1). Furthermore, efforts are made to reduce the automotive product development process, e.g. by gathering up time with so-called frontloading. © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2021 J. Liebl (ed.), Vehicles of Tomorrow 2019, Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-29701-5_3

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In addition, various research activities, such as for instance Collaborative Research Centres 1, provide often excellent results, which are indeed confirmed on a laboratory scale to have promising potential for automotive applications [2], but so far experienced no industrial conversion. This is partly due to the named manufacturing strategies that currently require clearly defined interfaces, which are caused by the development organization of an OEM and furthermore in the subsequent process chains with diverse supplier structures. Thus, on the one hand, a variety of vehicle models can be realized across brands as well as at various production sites across the globe and can be produced in millions of units per year. This requires a high level of standardization both in the field of production technology and in the product itself. Assuming an average development time of about four years for a vehicle follow-up project and the connected derivation of various model variants and derivatives, the period between the market launch of the pilot model and the last derivative can be equal to the development time. The disadvantage of this established methodology is the prevention of possible innovations through the manifested production cycles: The risk of aging of model series concerning the competitive environment becomes impending. Even with large-scale productions applied methods such as "Design for Manufacture and Assembly" (DFMA) can achieve with an iterative procedure through part reduction, improvement of manufacturability and assembly optimization [3] only a selective improvement. On the other hand there are clear development trends and increasing expectations in the field of disruptive technologies. Through an integrative development concept, existing development methods should be reconsidered and replaced to fulfill future vehicle requirements. Explicitly not excluded is the building of a new strategic cluster as a possible result, but which is subject to new framework conditions.

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Collaborative Research Centres are long-term university-based research institutions, established for up to 12 years, in which researchers work together within a multidisciplinary research program.

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Fig. 1. Manufacturing strategies

Due to the gradual expansion of technical opportunities, an increasing specialization of vehicles can take place. This can be identified exemplary by possible effects in following areas: • • • •

Optimization of manufacturing costs  establishing of a sub brand Reduced use of resources and environmental protection  lightweight materials Vehicle dynamics  rear axle steering Joy of driving and comfort  sales in luxury cars segment.

Thus, a change and an extension of the requirement profile are to be considered both at the component level and in the entire vehicle. Multiple progressions in various directions in terms of the vehicle industry offer the opportunity to realize new and differentiated vehicle concepts. This expansion of technical opportunities can be structured inter alia in the following core disciplines of mechanical engineering: • Material sciences  lightweight constructions, friction, abrasion • Production technology  manufacturing time, effort, diversity and new structures (additive manufacturing) • CAE  reduced developement time (virtual prototype), possible elimination of prototypes • Vehicle engineering  Overcoming of target conflicts, e.g. vehicle dynamics vs. comfort Trends and changing requirements that have arisen due to changed, also social, basic conditions of recent years, for example: • Reduced emission (CO2, abrasion, etc.): o Electrification of primary and secondary drives o Hybrid drives

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• • • •

o Coated break discs o Reduced tire abrasion Ecological consideration of the primary drive (well to wheel [4]) Thermo management for changed drives: aggregates, passenger cell Crash behavior (vision zero) of lightweight materials (e.g. FRC 2) Sustainable manufacturing (recycling and energy consumption)

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Disadvantages of Present Development and Production Processes

Today’s common vehicle developments are basing on manufacturing strategies, which show their advantages in optimized derivation of various model variants concerning costs and effort on the one hand and a possible increasing production on the other [5]. Following those strategies different modules are assembled from submodules according to their defined interfaces. This allows inter alia an expansion within these conceptual and constructive bounds (e.g. use of a modular brake system with unified joining constellation at the steering knuckle or wheel carrier). Functional extensions in the vehicle require in general a modular extension. Due this, it is necessary to be prepared for the changed package and the additional weight and the concerning energy consumption. Active chassis with an adjustable damper characteristic, pneumatic suspension or the advanced combination of both are an example for an extended function. The highest variability offer ABC 3-chassis, which use in present designs electrified actuators to influence vertical wheel forces [6]. In one kind of design the estimated corresponding additional weight is 50 kg [7]. Besides the CO2relevance of the additional weight in driving mode, the impact to the vehicle dynamic (body rolling etc.) through the changed balance point has to be considered as well as the reduced assembly space. According this example, borders can be identified, which make the continuation of previous development methods and concepts seem only conditional or even no longer expedient. The rising complexity also exacerbates the framework conditions if assemblies such as axles are developed and configured for the production for more than just one vehicle generation and functional extensions can no longer integrated in the vehicle architecture out of missing space.

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Integrative Development Concept

3.1

Modular vs. Integral Product Architecture

Current modular strategies pursued by many OEMs show besides the named advantages of increased production and a wide derivate offer within low production costs

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Fiber Reinforced Composite Active Body Control

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also significant deficits. The following table (Table 1) gives an overview about the problems caused by present development and manufacturing strategies [8], [9]. Table 1. Disadvantages of modular strategies Disadvantages of modular design and construction kit strategies • Missing product integrity • Manufacturing and assembling effort through high number of parts and interfaces • Subopitmal product design • Low product differentation • Risk of reverse engineering through competitors • Product changes and adjustments are economical only at long intervals • Unfavorable package • High effort in planning, construction and documentation • Inconvenient mounting conditions

Properties such as size, weight and function fulfillment are often only suboptimal in modules that can be used in different models. The use of modular products with few functions or even only one (sub-) function also causes a large number of required interfaces. For integral product architectures, on the other hand, several (partial) functions are performed by one component. A classic example of multiple uses of a physical component to perform additional functions, also known as “function sharing” [10], represents the so-called McPherson strut. It serves for suspension and vibration damping of the vehicle and takes over the tasks of a handlebar at the same time. Out of this multi-function integration fewer components becomes necessary, manufacturing time will be reduced and assembly processes simplified. Furthermore the number of needed interfaces between parts and modules can be reduced, which can decrease the mounting effort and raise the reliability of the whole vehicle. 3.2

Integrative Concept

The intention of the new development concept is the pursuing of a mixed form of modular and integral product architecture, to use the advantages of the integral architecture for sections of an overall modular conceptualized vehicle by conserving the concerning advantages. Such a mixed form is also called functional-modular product architecture. This Concept is especially useful if the design of a highly integrated module is performed in a way that it does not or only slightly have to be varied to meet different customer requirements [9]. The aim of the new development concept is the combination of functional and design-optimized product design with multiple functional integration. For this purpose, existing product architectures have to be disbanded, modules have to be disassembled into their individual components and these have to be optimized with regard to current and future vehicle requirements using the latest technologies.

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Fig. 2. Classification of the functional-modular product architecture according to [9]

At the same time, potentials for component and function integration should be identified and the feasibility demonstrated by simulations and tests. Apart from existing structures, new clusters can emerge from highly integrated modules, however adapted to the framework conditions of future developments. In this case, a holistic consideration takes into account entire life cycle of the vehicle, viz. new concept is being developed that incorporates the main research topics of materials, drive, chassis and lightweight construction of the professorships involved in the project, while at the same time simplifying and automating production and assembly processes. In addition themes like maintenance, recycling and conservation of resources will be considered, too. The integrative development approach is intended to generate the following added values through the use of the advantages of modular and integral product architecture as well as through holistic consideration using new development and manufacturing methods: • • • • •

Holoistic function optimization, Reduce of assembly parts and interfaces, Identification and removal of innovation barriers, Efficient manufacturing and assembling, Automized assembling.

This will be illustrated and discussed in the next section by an example with reference to the constructive design of an idea of a patent application in the field of suspension.

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Opportunities of the Integrative Method: Exemplary Explanation based on a Chassis Module

Current chassis modules consist of a large number of individual components that only fulfill one or a few (sub-) functions. A conventional corner module as submodule of the chassis, contains the components of the wheel suspension (wheel carrier, hub with bearing, spring, damper, bars) and the parts of the brake system (e.g. brake disc, caliper and brake pads). These components must be reliably connected via clearly defined interfaces. Frequently, the development and manufacture of the individual parts is carried out by different suppliers or various internal departments, which makes the definition of these interfaces even more difficult. By dissolving conventional development and production structures along with defined supplier relationships, new configurations can be found, which can ensure and optimize the performance of the chassis. At the same time assembling and manufacturing effort should be reduced. 4.1

Function Integrated Steering Knuckle

The following example is intended to illustrate this: A patent application filed in 2014 by the author as co-inventor with the name „Arrangement with steering knuckle and caliper” deals with the function integration of a caliper into a knuckle [11], so two chassis components, which originate in general from different suppliers with different manufacturing technics. According to the invention the one half of a splitted fixed caliper (Fig. 3.1) should be integrated in the steering knuckle (Fig. 3.3). The conventional connection with 2 bolts can be omitted (Fig. 3.2).

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Fig. 3. Patented solution of an integrated caliper

Since the intention in this first step is to illustrate the idea of the integrative development method, initially only a simple comparison between the state of the art and the integrated steering knuckle should be made. For this purpose, two corresponding CAD models were created. With help of the finite element method (FEM), the behavior of the two designs is computer aided simulated for the same stresses. In the integrated variant, stub axle and one half of the splitted fixed caliper are designed as one cast component (with aluminum alloy Al-Si1MgMn). In this way the connection with bolts can be omitted according to the patented idea (Fig. 3.3). The connection between the two halves of the caliper continues form-fitted via screws. All other geometries (piston diameter, disc diameter etc.) will not be changed for this first comparison.

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4.2

Simulation Process

Using the ABAQUS program, an FE mesh (C3D8: Linear 4-Node Tetrahedron) was created for both steering knuckle variants. The load of the caliper is carried out according to a standard load case, which simulates the braking when cornering. For this quasistatic load case, 0.75 times the gravitational acceleration in the longitudinal and in the transverse direction is assumed [9]. The simulation of the load takes place in two steps. First, a preload force according to the strength classes is applied to all used screw connections. Subsequently, the load is made according to the load case. A transverse force is introduced at the level of the brake piston surfaces. The force in the longitudinal direction takes place on the areas where the back plates of the brake pads are supported on the two caliper halves (see Fig. 4). The amount of forces results from the contact pressure applied by the pistons (𝑝𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 100 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏) multiplied by the friction coefficient (µ𝐵𝐵 = 0.4) and the factor 0.75 corresponding to the assumed load case: 𝐹𝐹𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.75 𝑝𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 ∙ 𝐴𝐴𝑃𝑃 ∙ µ𝐵𝐵

(1)

Fig. 4. Caliper surfaces for force introducing (red marked)

The values mentioned are taken from calculation approaches from technical literature. Therefore, the following boundary conditions apply to the simulation: • Firm clamping of the stub axle in 3 places according to the mounting points of the handlebars, • M10 bolts for connecting the brake caliper halves: 40kN pre-tensioning force, • M12 bolts for mounting the brake caliper at the knuckle: 58kN pre-tensioning force, • Force introducing in longitudinal and transverse direction

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4.3

Simulation Results

The results of the simulation carried out in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 show the displacements through the introduced forces in the steering knuckle-brake caliper-assembly. As expected, the course of the moving is similar for both variants. The maximum displacement of the conventional design is marginal lower. However, with the integrated variant a significant weight loss has been obtained.

Fig. 5. Results of the simulation with the conventional design

Fig. 6. Results of the simulation with the integrated design Table 2. Results of the FEM-simulation variant

max. displacement [mm]

weight loss [g]

basic

10,814

0

integrated

11,019

-340

11

This comparison of the simulation results illustrates the advantages of multiple functional integration. By the partially integration of the caliper in the steering knuckle, a significant weight reduction can be achieved as shown in this example. Simultaneous the manufacturing and mounting effort is reduced through the omitting of the connection bolts. Easily recognizable is, that an adjusted design can increase the rigidity of the whole system while maintaining the same weight comparing to the basic design. Further constructive measures, such as a more force flow-optimized design, can be used to expand the advantages by applying the methods of an integrative development

References 1. Leistner, B., Mayer, R., Berkan, D.: Produktentwicklungsprozess für das Fahrwerk, ATZ, pp. 74-79, Januar 2019. 2. n.n., Dialog Materialwissenschaft und Werkstofftechnik – SFB 692 HALS, Alpha, Lampertheim, 2015. 3. Gusig, L.-O.: Fahrzeugentwicklung im Automobilbau, München: Hanser, 2010. 4. Liebl, J. und e. al.: Energiemanagement im Kraftfahrzeug, Wiesbaden: Springer Vieweg, 2014. 5. Greiner, E., Steuer, C., Schaser, J.: „Variabilität durch Standardisierung,“ ATZ extra Mercedes-Benz A-Klasse, pp. 24-27, September 2012. 6. Jablonowski, C., Schimmel, C., Underberg, V.: The chassis of the all-new AUDI A8, in 8th International Munich Chassis Sympsoium 2017, Wiesbaden, Springer Vieweg, 2017, pp. 7-26. 7. Cytrynski, S.: Das aktive Fahrwerk des neuen GLE von Mercedes-Benz, ATZ, pp. 42-45, Dezember 2018. 8. Hoffmann, C.-A.: Methodik zur Steuerung modularer Produktbaukästen, Wolfsburg: Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH 2018, 2017. 9. Feldhusen, J., et al: Pahl/Beitz Konstruktionslehre Methoden und Anwendung erfoglreicher Produktentwicklung, Berlin: Springer Vieweg, 2013. 10. Ulrich, K. T., Seering, W. P.: Function Sharing in Mechanical Design, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, AAAI, 1988. 11. Mayer, R., Sprandel, G.: Anordnung mit Achsschenkel und Bremssattel. Deutschland Patent DE 10 2014 008 489 A1, 27 11 2014. 12. Heißing, B., Ersoy, M., Gies, S.: Fahrwerkhandbuch, 1. Hrsg., Wiesbaden: Vieweg+Teubner, 2011.

Customized mobility: innovation management and the product development process David Hedderich1, Markus Kowalski1 and Volker Lücken1 1

e.GO Mobile AG

Abstract. This paper is motivated by the recent technology leaps in the area of electric mobility as well as autonomous and connected driving and focuses on utilizing tools of digitalization and agile development along with approaches from literature of open innovation to enable a more customized mobility. We used digital technologies with regards to the innovation concept of technology push and market pull to identify and develop an agile strategy towards a market pull orientation. Hence, by implementing these technologies in organizations, agile structures and processes are required. Also, an innovative culture as a key for future product and service development against the background of technology acceptance represents a further foundation. Finally, to absorb external knowledge and resources from the outside of organizational boundaries, we propose the product and service development according to the principles of agile development both for software and hardware development. We conclude our research with the approach of using Natural Language Processing for integrating customer feedback in terms of multilateral product and service interactions directly into the development process. Beyond that, we present our experience from the ‘Living Lab Aachen’ which keeps up the opportunity of initiating and managing open innovation networks for organizations to gain innovative solutions for the customer. Keywords: Open Innovation, Agile Development, Natural Language Processing, Netnography, Innovation Network

1

Introduction

Due to the fact that organizations need a strategic and agile management to be prepared for the future (Whittington, Cailluet, & Yakis-Douglas, 2011; West, Salter, Vanhaverbeke, & Chesbrough, 2014; Kowalski, 2018), the observed kind of silo-separation of knowledge and skills in practice between different management departments and internal and external actors of organizational hierarchies are striking (Grabher & Powell, 2004). Towards this end, one of the key pervasive challenges for organizations is to cope with and handle the temporal mode of the future considering developing customized services and to cope with challenges of digital transformation (Koch, Krämer, Reckwitz, & Wenzel, 2016). Hence, whereas no future state is predictable and management research usually explains contemporary occurrences from actions that happened in the past (Mahoney, 2000), an application of an openness-framework is needed. By using methods from agile innovation management and research about © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2021 J. Liebl (ed.), Vehicles of Tomorrow 2019, Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-29701-5_4

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digital transformation (e.g. Natural Language Processing), organizations of the future can be managed in terms of future challenges. Hence, in our context of mobility we developed a system of innovation networks which consist of three or more collaborating entities (Grabher & Powell, 2004). In addition, organizational openness is defined by various forms of agile relationships with external and internal actors due to the fact, that customized activities are not possible in isolation (Chesbrough, 2003; Kowalski, 2018). Thus, when customized services in the area of mobility are needed, the organization has to rebuild open innovation processes and engage in resource-intensive activities to investigate new combinations of knowledge and resources to get innovative solutions, e.g. personalized interior concepts or a user-centered-feedback-app. Therefore, the organization has to engage with partners outside the internal boundaries in terms of absorbing knowledge and resources from the external environment (Laursen & Salter, 2014). In order to absorb the efforts of external collaborations effectively, organizations need to enable a capacity to absorb knowledge successfully (Cohen & Levinthal, 1990). Hence, this can happen by using methods and concepts of digital transformation, e.g. by utilizing natural language processing, to keep the innovation in loop. The feedback and knowledge of the user is the most important resource in this customer-centric environment. Building on this conceptual shift in organizational behavior from analyzing the past towards the important role that the temporal mode of the future plays in exploring processes of organizing and in terms of customized services and products, organizations with actors from research appear now being able to observe and understand the way to deal with things to come (Afuah & Tucci, 2012).

2

Customized mobility – Organizational openness as the starting point

The technological and socioeconomic characteristics that build the ecosystem of mobility by now are currently changing in a rapid pace. Hence, it is common knowledge that the rural population has been moving to the urban and sub-urban areas all over the world for more than a decade, which is a continuous trend leading from an urban population of 75% in 2018 to about 85% by 2050 (United Nations, 2018). This shift is accompanied by an ever-growing vehicle ownership metric of vehicles per 1000 inhabitants, that has been expanding in non-OECD and OECD countries since 1960 at a fast rate (Dargay, Gately, & Sommer, 2007). This kind of development pursues not only a high air pollution, but is also exposing the local population to a health risk (Barth & Boriboonsomsin, 2008). Beyond that, the socioeconomic circumstances in the ecosystem of mobility face multiple technology leaps e.g. in the field of electric mobility, autonomous and connected driving as well as digitalization. Equipped with these technological developments profit/no-profit and public organizations have the tools and methods to create new customized products and services to cope with and handle future challenges towards an ecosystem of customized mobility.

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2.1

Market pull and technology push

Towards this end, the development of new products or services is fundamental for profit-oriented organizations. Therefore, they have to develop a capacity to re-think about their business model and markets to survive in the long term (Ansoff, 1965). Thus, the development of new products and services creates the requirement of new ideas, that either come from existing believes or from a guided process by agile methods of finding new ideas in co-operation with users, employees or other stakeholders of the respective product or service (Kelley & Littman, 2005). In literature the overarching term for the process of orchestrating ideas and technology research to a final market launch of a product or service is Innovation Management (Specht, 2002). The initial start of this process can either be based on a specific customer or market desire, which subsequently is seen as market pull, or on technology push, that predominantly originates from a respective technology leap in a certain field of technology. Hence, technology push is mainly the driver of innovation in the earlier phases of ideation, where big steps in form of product or service characteristics are achieved, while market pull uses the dedicated feedback-loops of the stakeholders for gradual improvements at the later phase of the product life cycle (Abernathy & Utterback, 1978; Pavitt, 1984). Transferring this theoretical concept from literature to the state of the ecosystem of mobility in our days, the technology leaps of electric mobility and autonomous driving in the past can be interpreted as technology push (Barth, 2015; Lorentz, Wenger, John, & März, 2015). Hence, to face future development in this field and especially combined with the enabling factors of digitalization, a more market pull centered strategy of innovation will be the key to first of all raise acceptance for these technologies and second towards a pleasant and customized mobility. Thus, we want to consider some details about market pull methodologies in the innovation management process and therefore we shed some lights on two forms of organizational openness as the starting point towards a customized mobility: open innovation and agile development. 2.2

Open innovation

The innovation process of creating new ideas and bringing the respective products and services finally to the market to fulfill a customer need, is only possible, if the organization created a certain amount of openness to overcome isolation (Chesbrough, 2003). Openness in these terms means, that an organization embeds itself into the desired ecosystem to supplement internal research and development efforts with external resources. These resources consist of, for example, other non-profit/profit organizations, customers or appropriate state of the art scientific research. The mentioned external sources of innovation have in common, that there is the necessity of a certain overlap of competencies or interests in the respective field to generate the described results (Granstrand, Patel, & Pavitt, 1997; Brusoni, Prencipe, & Pavitt, 2001). A previously conducted comprehensive literature review by Dahlander and Gann (2010) divides the research field of open innovation into four types: Outbound innovation revealing – This type relates to the openness and to the diffusion of internal innovations and knowledge to external organizations. It bases on the idea, that multiple organizations, sharing a part

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of their internal resources, can leverage the proceeding of the whole network via their own contribution and participation; Outbound innovation selling – This type describes the common practice of selling or licensing technologies to other organizations to monetize the respective previous investments in research and development. It has been a focus for some organizations for a couple of years (Fosfuri, 2006; Dahlander & Gann, 2010); Inbound innovation sourcing – This type consists of the usage of external resources and ideas. Out of Chesbrough, Vanhaverbeke, and West (2006) perspective, a continuous evaluation of the product and service perception by customers and the management of the whole ecosystem is the key in this regard; Inbound innovation acquiring – This type describes the acquisition of external expertise into the internal innovation process. The form of combination of these four types to create a thriving business, based on innovation, is still a lack in research, while the underlying principle of improved innovation remains (Dahlander & Gann, 2010). Hence, we focus here on the usage of the previously defined inbound innovation sourcing in terms of the fact that by building a customized mobility ecosystem the external resources have to be part of the process. 2.3

Agile development

The term agile development is related to the software industry, where it has been successfully implemented in and used by organizations for over two decades (Karlström & Runeson, 2006). Beyond that, agile software development summarizes a multitude of methodologies like Extreme Programming, Scrum, Feature Driven Development, etc. A condensed summary of agile software development methods can be simplified as focusing on a first prototype with only the bare minimum of necessary features before reiterating the prototype with user feedback (Abrahamsson, Salo, Ronkainen, & Warsta, 2017) – so called minimum viable product or service. In terms of electric mobility as well as autonomous and connected driving new methodologies are proposed to address a more hardware orientated agile development. The so-called agile product development utilizes radical physical innovation, which also puts iterative feedback of users, who experience the physical prototype, at its center (Gartzen, Brambring, & Basse, 2016). Based on the necessary documentation, quality inspections, manufacturing requirements and standards of a physical series product, the agile product development process can be subdivided into three maturity stages, which range from a highly agile prototype stage, over a functional product stage to the final pre-series/series stage. In terms of these three stages of maturity the amount of possible changes decreases (Schuh, Gartzen, Saucy-Bouchard, & Basse, 2017). Towards this end, organizations have to combine methods from agile software development and agile product development to use the feedback of all necessary stakeholders for an innovative product or service in the area of future mobility.

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3

Discussion

Over the past decade, 'customization', 'openness' and 'digitalization' have become the most imperative virtues of modern organizations. The growing popularity and diversity of these concepts deserve more comprehensive theories (Dahlander & Gann, 2010). However, we began this contribution with the observation that there is a lack of clarity how the concept of openness’ has been used in practice. There is a need for customized mobility in society and innovation management can support it by offering an agile and user-centered product development process. Hence, it seems to be difficult to compare empirical results in this realm due to the existing fragmented literature on this topic (Dahlander & Gann, 2010). Therefore, we summarize main challenges in theory with regard to their characteristics and what different forms of openness can be used in practice to face customized mobility. 3.1

Challenges in theory

Towards this end, different open paradigm' share hopes of combining greater efficiency with more transparent and inclusive forms of organizing. However, considering the research stream of openness (Chesbrough, 2003; Dahlander & Gann, 2010) we focus on two phenomena in theory which are prevalent for customized mobility: open strategy and network governance. Open strategy. Hence, open strategy builds on the origin concept of open innovation (Chesbrough, 2003) by connecting knowledge and ideas with the external environment and develop new solutions for the customer. Organizational strategy is a wide field which origins in Chandler´s seminal ‘Strategy and Structure’, published in 1962, where Chandler elucidates how scale and scope of economies provide new opportunities of growth during the second industrial revolution. Beyond that, the article by Whittington et al. (2011) expresses the origin contribution in terms of the research stream of ‘open strategy’. Hence, organizational strategy work has become more ‘open’ and in relation with the concept of ‘open innovation’ (Chesbrough, 2003) it is time for organizations to open their strategy process (Whittington et al., 2011). Organizations must face the challenge of an agile environment and the fact that solutions, especially in the mobility area, can only be built by networks (Chesbrough & Prencipe, 2008; Kowalski, 2018). Different partners from different areas must cooperate and build together solutions to drive the future of mobility. Open strategy balances the tenets of the most traditional ‘closed’ strategy in organizations in line with the characteristics and principles of open innovation (Dahlander & Gann, 2010). Therefore, by implementing structures and processes within a network you can embrace the opportunities of openness as a means of increasing the value creation of organizations by getting an open culture. Beyond that, open strategy offers the opportunity for the development of new business models – e.g. the invention of new ideas and the coordination of resources undertaken in networks or with individuals (Chesbrough & Appleyard, 2007; Whittington et al., 2011). If you have a look on this topic in terms of mobility area, open strategy can balance the

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value creation forces that can be found in collaboration with individuals, organizations or in networks. The tenets of traditional business strategy (Chandler, 1962) can be solved with the suggestions which are pushed forward by open innovation scholars (Chesbrough & Appleyard, 2007; Whittington et al., 2011). Network governance: Modus operandi. Interorganizational networks become more and more important in management theory and practice (Sydow, Schüßler, & MüllerSeitz, 2016). Early contributions to the management of networks were already provided by Moreno and Jennings (1938) or Richardson (1972) in the middle of the 20th century. Due to the fact that networks consist at least of three or more independent legal actors which are linked through relationships and act in a coordinated way (Sydow et al., 2016), this phenomenon seems to be an important strategic part in terms of customized mobility. The reason for a coordinated cooperation of organizations in networks is to obtain a better quality, faster production and delivery times, lower costs and the handling of short innovation cycles (Provan, Fish, & Sydow, 2007). One pervasive challenge in this context is the modus operandi of network governance. For a long time, hierarchy and market, considered by Coase (1937), seem to be the dominant coordination mechanisms. Further research on this topic led to the evidence that in practice cooperations (Richardson, 1972) or collectives (Butler, 1983) become more and more important. Hence, cooperative structures, flexibility and the high level of commitment of network players are characteristics of innovation networks in the area of mobility (Jarillo & Ricart, 1987). Therefore, Provan and Kenis (2008) characterized three forms of network governance to implement an effective and efficient network management. If the network governance is performed in an informal way and every decision is made by all organizations together Provan and Kenis (2008) call it 'shared governance'. Beyond that, when the network management is a rather formal one and managed by one central organization the modus operandi of network management is called 'lead organization governance' (central organization is part of the network) or ‘network administrative organization’ (central organization is not a part of the network). Furthermore, Kowalski (2018) describes a fourth form of network governance, called ‘impartial organization’. In addition to Provan and Kenis (2008), the impartial organization acts in an informal way and is part of the network. Hence, the leading organization takes care of the whole network so that in the end every organization gets the best result (e.g. quality, profit). Towards this end, the network governance plays an important role for customized mobility and the selection of modus operandi depends on the respective context. Finally, also a combination of several forms of network governance or – in terms of time – switching between different forms of network control in an innovation network is possible. 3.2

Challenges in practice

In the process of implementing organizational openness, organizations face significant challenges. In particular, establishing effective intra-, inter- and extra-organizational interfaces represents an important prerequisite. Hence, we target two methods to realize

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this exchange: natural language processing technologies targeting interfaces to customers and citizens, and urban innovation networks for the organizational layer. Natural language processing: Facilitating the stakeholder-in-the-loop. The cooperation of organizations and networks with external stakeholders, more specifically for stakeholder participation, can be assisted by novel technologies. Natural language processing (NLP) techniques support an automated analysis, classification and cross-domain linkage of textual sources. Thus, it facilitates a real-time multi-topic exchange and allows to close the bidirectional feedback loop between organizations and their customers. In the following considerations, this approach is pursued within a product development-cycle where the relationship between customer and the organization is the main part of the process. Customers interact with organizations in many different ways and engage with other people in terms of product-related topics. A significant fraction of these direct and indirect forms of an interaction between customer and organization is available in public – precisely in the digital domain. Therefore, this information, knowledge and nonverbal terms can be gathered and aggregated in an automatic way. Typical online sources are e.g. social media, online bulletin boards, or press and blog articles. Beyond that also direct communication can be incorporated, on the one hand customer e-mails and communication, on the other hand input from direct surveys or app-based feedback systems. Some of the customer-related sources might also not be available in a digitized format, such as audio or written content. Voice recordings can be prepared for succeeding processing stages using automated speech recognition (Gandomi & Haider, 2015), while optical character recognition (OCR) allows to digitize (hand-)written text (Culnan, 1989). In general, text sources can be annotated using sentiment analysis techniques to include emotions for an improved understanding (Cambria, 2016). For speech-based sources, even further sentiment information, such as excitement, frustration and sadness can be extracted from the audio signal (Han, Yu, & Tashev, 2014). A vast amount of unstructured and heterogeneous data is gathered within this approach. Using techniques from the big data domain, such as clustering techniques (Kotsiantis & Pintelas, 2004) or community detection and structural analysis methods (Gandomi & Haider, 2015), a basic understanding of this data and general knowledge discovery (Frawley, Piatetsky-Shapiro, & Matheus, 1992) is facilitated. Towards this end, the main digital domain, as Kozinets uses the term netnography as a neologism constructed from “network” and “ethnography” (Kozinets, 2015), has the target to apply social science approach in online communication. Social media, for instance, is the most relevant digital source of active communication and therefore a valuable source of information for organizations and research. For these types of sources, Kozinets (2015) identifies different basic structures and topologies in communications and topic-related actions. In this regard, we identify that in the field of electrified mobility there exist quite often strongly polarized structures which form disjunct clusters that represent different opinions. The term polarized issue network is used by Kozinets (2015) to describe network structures with such two-fold division. Hence, he characterizes as follows (Kozinets, 2015, pp. 43f): “(…) even though they are talking about the same topic, they ignore each other, like two large and independent continents,

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or they reference them mockingly, or mock their hashtags. Generally, they point to different web resources and use different hashtags. They build their own separate sets of resources. (…)”. Therefore, organizations in the transformation process of the mobility sector have to keep both fields of interests in mind. This highly relevant topic for such controversial themes can be used for market analysis and to build up communication strategies. Finally, these new strategies can be supported by the data-based approaches that exploit natural language processing techniques to achieve a semantic understanding. The results of netnography-based analysis and the implementation of further NLPbased concepts allow to gather an understanding of the large variety of stakeholders and therefore manifest an open-loop support of decision processes. In addition to this indirect knowledge acquisition, also direct, called bidirectional communication with stakeholders, can be realized. With this last step of holistic feedback-loops, these approaches represent the foundation for a customer-in-the-loop, being part of an open innovation process. Still, the management of organizations have to adapt this novel type of bidirectional exchange; otherwise, effects may be limited. In terms of that, the key challenges for organizations are to face organizational openness and implementing an innovative culture. For other types of organizations, e.g. governments, the general technological approach can also be adapted to facilitate decision-making with natural language processing for a tight integration of citizens (Hagen, Uzuner, Kotfila, Harrison, & Lamanna, 2015; Boukchina, Melloli, & Menif, 2018). Finally, the information provision within the organizations’ processes represents a further essential factor to maintain the link between the human user in the agile environment and the automated data acquisition and analysis. Innovation networks: Agile management in practice. Due to the fact that organizations need a strategic and agile management to be competitive in future (Doz & Kosonen, 2007, 2014; Neal, 2013), the silo-separation of knowledge and skills between internal and external actors of organizational hierarchies in cities (Fleming, 2001) should thus be removed by an application of an openness-framework regarding the management of the urban. Therefore, you need to implement a structure of an innovation network, which in our context consists of three or more separate, collaborating entities (Grabher & Powell, 2004), e.g. citizens, profit/non-profit or public organizations. Hence, organizational openness is defined by various forms of relationships with internal and external actors due to the fact, that organization’s operations are not possible in isolation (Chesbrough, 2003). Hence, organizations have in one or the other way to engage with partners outside the internal boundaries to absorb knowledge and resources from the environment (Laursen & Salter, 2006, 2014). In order to absorb these efforts, organizations need to enable a capacity – so called ‘absorptive capacity’, which ensures an effective process of open collaboration (Cohen & Levinthal, 1990). Furthermore, there exists a wide range of important scientific contributions to the idea of openness (e.g. Chesbrough, 2003; Dahlander & Gann, 2010; Laursen & Salter, 2006, 2014) but still there does not exist an integrated approach which combines the idea of openness with the context of managing the urban. Thus, given the importance and prevalence it is surprising that management research and in particular network

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research have neglected cities as a relevant phenomenon and in addition that research on cities and networks have seldom been brought together (Neal, 2013). Towards this end, there is a gap in (innovation) network research and research on managing the urban concerning the active integration and participation of citizens and relevant stakeholders in management processes of a city. In the past, this phenomenon of citizen-participation has often been neglected for large projects in Germany, e.g. the project Stuttgart 21 or Elbphilharmonie in Hamburg. Therefore, we built an innovation network in the area of Aachen, called ‘Living Lab Aachen’ (Erlebniswelt Mobilität Aachen, 2019), which consists of 34 entities from different organizational parts e.g. profit/non-profit, research or public organizations. This multifaceted network of organizations, with an emphasis on the field of urban mobility and transportation, enables the organizational openness through a multi-level exchange. From an outside perspective, the Living Lab provides a unified point of reference, targeting citizens, authorities and external organizations in general. Still, its internal diversification and variety is projected to the outside. Hence, the partners permanently participate in different think tanks within the Living Lab. These relate to general topics, such as ‘Smart City Infrastructure’, ‘Connected Vehicles’ or ‘Traffic Management’; or also to distinct use cases, for instance ‘Smart Parking’ or ‘Business Model Innovation’. The regular think tank sessions then act as a nucleus for joint endeavors, which consolidate in agile working groups for cross-think-tank activities and projects. Towards this end, their results often manifest themselves in consortia and public funded projects. The ‘EnDyVA’ project, funded by the German Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure (BMBF), demonstrates such activities by optimizing traffic monitoring infrastructure with Aachen as the point of departure. Further activities include the steps towards automated driving on public roads, in which a cooperation of several stakeholders, such as cities, public transportation operators, vehicle manufacturers and mobility service providers, is necessary. With these intentions, the different activities within the Living Lab Aachen incorporate an integration of citizens at an early stage, in order to close the innovational loop with this interaction.

4

Concluding remarks

Urbanization can force restriction in quality of life, e.g. for the population it can lead to health issues and significant losses in terms of GDP growth (van Essen & van Grinsven, 2012). Hence, to address these challenges we need to build structures and processes to implement an innovative culture. Finally, a strategy towards a customized mobility is necessary to provide the urban population with alternatives, that benefit the defined metrics. Towards this end, customized products or services have to be built by the ability of organizations to absorb external input within the respective ecosystem and to be more open in a general sense. Therefore, you have to look on methods and strategies in terms of innovation management and foster strategies of technology push and market pull, where the recent technology leaps in electric mobility as well as autonomous and connected driving are identified as technology pushes. Utilizing the digitalization, future development of

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these technologies should be more market pull oriented, which implies a higher degree of external stakeholder integration. Transferring this concept to the product development process, agile principles enable the concept of organizational openness in practice. Beyond that, we introduced NLP- and Netnography-based analysis to create a new openness of organizations to the respective customer and user feedback via the channels of social media, forums as well as comments on press and blog articles. The practice of analyzing the stakeholder’s discussion towards e.g. the controversial topic of electric mobility via these tools can create new opportunities of an organization’s communication strategy and enables incremental and radical product and service improvements according to agile development principles. Regarding the active management of the urban towards the future of mobility and transportation we initiated the innovation network ‘Living Lab Aachen’, where different partners collaborate in an open way. Especially towards the background of the described technology leaps in the field of future mobility this active interaction is the nucleus for various research projects as well as for the creation of automated driving in practice. Hence, the culture of the ecosystem where customer interact with the partner-network is essential and therefore you need collaboration and agile methods to build the future of customized mobility together.

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Amloy enables weight reduction for high-performance components in automotive Hans-Jürgen Wachter1 [0000-1111-2222-3333] and Valeska Melde2 [1111-2222-3333-4444] 1 2

Heraeus Amloy Technologies GmbH Heraeus Amloy Technologies GmbH

Abstract. Amloy is an acronym for amorphous alloy, also known as metallic glass or amorphous metal. It is an undercooled frozen metallic liquid with an amorphous, chaotic atomic order, offering superior properties in comparison to crystalline metals and alloys used in today’s applications. The high strength combined with a high elasticity and comparatively low density to steel allows by example the manufacturing of more robust, smaller, thinner and lighter components. Injection molding or additive manufacturing technologies allow the near net shape processing of Amloy in industrial scale. The development of a completely new injection molding process allows the manufacturing of net shape amorphous parts within 60-90 seconds at tight tolerances and without necessarily required post processing. 3D printing enables completely new designs using honeycomb or bionic structure elements and by taking advantage of the high strength of the material, weight reduction up to 30% in comparison to Titanium alloys are within reach allowing a further optimization of high-performance light weight components Keywords: amorphous alloys, amorphous metal, net shape production, metallic glass, high strength and elastic metallic alloys, 3D-printing, additive manufacturing, injection molding, light weight components

Amloy Definition of Amloy Amloys are undercooled frozen metallic liquids with a chaotic atomic order similar to glass. Thus, this new material class is also called metallic glass or amorphous metal. During the quenching of a metallic liquid, no phase transition from liquid to solid takes place, which leads to the benefit that there is close to no shrinkage of the material enabling the manufacturing of net shape components without post-processing. In addition, Amloy is mechanically robust and chemically resistant as no crystallization takes place. Crystallization leads to grain and phase boundaries, which are the weak points of crystalline materials. Metallic glass has been studied for more than 30 years and was originally developed at CalTech University, CA. In the 1970s, it was possible to manufacture thin ribbons or sheets. Cooling rates of 1,000,000 Kelvin per second were required to shock-freeze the © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2021 J. Liebl (ed.), Vehicles of Tomorrow 2019, Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-29701-5_5

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melt. In the 1990s, the first bulk metallic glass was developed, which allowed products of a few millimeters in size. The main alloy compositions at that time were Palladium, Platinum or Magnesium. Only in the beginning of the 21st century, it became possible to manufacture glass-matrix composites, which enable the manufacturing of components in the range of centimeters within the scientific world. One major reason for this advancement was the development of optimized alloys which need cooling rates of only 100 Kelvin per second.

Fig. 1. Metallic glass development over time: Development of amorphous metals from nmto cm-scale; source: Heraeus AMLOY Technologies GmbH

Today the most promising amorphous alloys are based on Zirconium, Titanium and Copper. Heraeus Amloy Technologies is developing and processing such amorphous alloys. The current offering includes two Zirconium-based amorphous alloys (AMZ4 and VIT105) and one Copper-based amorphous alloy (AMC4). In a joint effort, Heraeus Amloy and Saarland University continue research and development activities in order to broaden the range of alloys towards Titanium, Platinum and Palladium for industrial applications. Titanium is the light-weight material of choice for the aerospace industry and the medical industry. Titanium and its alloys is widely accepted as biocompatible material. The disadvantage of today’s Titanium alloys are their strength and the elasticity, both are rather low and can be dramatically improved by the use of amorphous Zirconium- or Titanium alloys. Precious metals, especially amorphous Platinum, is of high interest to the jewelry industry to improve hardness and scratch resistance. Material properties The non-crystalline structure of amorphous alloys leads to material properties which could not be combined in one material in the past, i.e. a high hardness and strength combined with a high elasticity at the same time. Normally, a yield strength of a crystalline material, like stainless steel, is at 0.2 % elastic strain before plastic deformation takes place. Amloy shows elastic behavior up to 2.0 % combined with a strength of more than 2000 N/mm² before plastic deformation starts.

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Fig. 2. Comparison of crystalline materials with an amorphous metal, i.e. VIT105, in regard to flexural strength vs. strain. Source: Heraeus AMLOY Technologies GmbH

The high flexural strength of the material enables the design of thinner or smaller, and, thus, lighter parts. The low density of 6.6-6.8 gram per cubic centimeter are an additional plus to realize light weight products. The energy content, which can be stored within a material is given by the area under the yield strength. As visualized in Fig. 2, amorphous alloys are excellent at storing and releasing mechanical energy, which lead to many use cases for various industries. Even if the material is called glass, it can be plastically deformed as shown in Fig. 2. But it is hard as glass. The hardness of an amorphous metal can reach up to 600 HV (Vickers Hardness), see Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Comparison of Vickers hardness between Copper-based or Zirconium-based amorphous alloys and crystalline materials, i.e. Martensitic Stainless Steel, Stainless Steel and Titanium. Source: Heraeus AMLOY Technologies GmbH

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Applications requiring high loads and a high elastic limit and a high creep resistance Amloy is the material of choice, too. A good surface finish is a prerequisite to achieve a good fatigue life performance. A surface defect can easily lead to a crack initiation, which is not stopped by any phase- and grain boundaries like in crystalline material. Composite material or an additional coating of the surface as practiced in the glass or telecommunication fiber industry reduces the risk of surface defects and thereby the risk of a crack initiation.

unpolished surface

polished surface

Fig. 4. Fatigue strength of Amloy; source: Heraeus AMLOY Technologies GmbH

In terms of corrosion resistance, amorphous metals outperform stainless steel, which is traditionally the material of choice when it comes to corrosive environments. The better the surface structure of an amorphous metal is, the less corrosion will appear. If the surface structure is not optimal, some pitting might appear or under certain conditions a reaction between Chlorides and Zirconium can occur which can be recognized as white spots on the surface. In each case it is a local phenomenon.

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Fig. 5. Comparison of 316L Steel, Titanium Grade 5 and VIT105 (Zr-based amorphous alloy) in regard to corrosion penetration [1]. Source: Heraeus AMLOY Technologies GmbH

For Zirconium-based alloys, cytotox-tests were conducted to provide a biocompatibility proof. During those tests, no abnormal cell deformations were identified after 72 hours of incubation to elutes. With this result, the material is categorized to be biocompatible according to ISO 10993-5 [2]. It is important to mention that the amorphous structure lead to an isotropic behavior of all mentioned properties. As a consequence, amorphous components have identical properties in all dimensions, which simplifies the design and support the product in its applications. Limitations of amorphous metals Where there is light, there is also shadow, according to a German saying. This is true for Amloy, too. By all the mentioned exceptional properties and its deep temperature ductility, the weak point is its stability at high temperatures. The temperature range between glass transition (approx. 410 °C) and crystallization (approx. 490 °C) describes the limit of use cases for this material. Between the two temperatures the material becomes viscous and can be plastically deformed like a polymer. The property can be used for post-processing of components if the exposure time within the temperature range is not exceeded and crystallization takes place. To avoid creep and crystallization we recommend the use of Amloy materials for application exposed to maximum 350 °C.

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Near Net Shape Processing solutions Injection molding of amorphous components In the past, very small amorphous components could be manufactured in manual scientific driven processes like casting. Geometries were limited in this process and due to manual work, yield rates and repeatability were rather low. It is now possible to use an injection molding process for the manufacturing of amorphous components. The companies Engel Austria and Heraeus Amloy Technologies developed a new concept of metal injection molding equipment. By optimizing prematerial and equipment in a joint-effort the cycle time is reduced by 70% compared to solutions of the past. To manufacture one or several repeatable components with tight tolerances in cycle times of approximately 80 seconds in a single production step is now possible.

Fig. 6. Process flow for metal injection molding of amorphous components from pre-material to finished product; source: Heraeus AMLOY Technologies GmbH

In principle, the process is similar to polymer injection molding with the major difference that an inductive melt chamber is used to melt the metallic pre-material at temperatures above 1,000°C. The melt is hereafter shot into the cavity of the mold tool by a plunger, undercooled and quenched without shrinkage. The use of a metallic pre-material as segment, which is placed by a robot into the melt chamber and not plastic granulates heated and moved into the cavity by a worm gear distinguish both technologies. Breaking- or cutting- off the runners and sprue from the finished parts is equal to polymer injection molding. With the injection molding process, amorphous parts of 0.5 to 5 mm thickness can be manufactured. The maximum length of a part is between 100 and 150 mm, depending on thickness and geometry of the component The number of parts per cycle mainly depends on part size, geometry and the prematerial weight. The pre-material weight ranges from 40 to 120 grams in order to minimize unused material. Components can be manufactured within tolerances of +/-10 µm due to the missing phase transition from liquid to solid which results in a low shrinkage of less than 0.5% and with a mirror like surface finish Ra 0.05 µm if required.

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These are huge advantages of the described amorphous metal injection process in comparison to the powder injection molding (PIM) process. PIM uses metallic powder which is bound by an organic binder. This powder mixture can be processed by a standard polymer injection molding equipment, where the powder mixture is heated and injected by a worm gear into the mold cavity. The binder within the so called manufactured “green part” has to be removed in a de-binding process at elevated temperatures. Hereafter the “brown part” has to be sintered at temperatures close to the melting point to achieve the final metallic component, which leads in total to a shrinkage of 25 to 40% compared to the injection molded green part. Shape distortion of the sintered parts might require post-processing. Additionally, the accuracy of the finished PIM-parts is 30–80 micrometers and the rough surface finish requires extensive post-processing to allow their use for applications with high tolerances and smooth surface finish. The injection molding of amorphous metals is a net shape process offering an overall high yield and offers with it an advantage versus processes requiring an extensive long process chain using various additional processing technologies leading to an overall lower yield with all its consequences by example higher cost, more scrap, more energy consumption. Simulation of the material flow can save time and money in the pre-development phase. For example, Heraeus Amloy simulates the flow behavior of amorphous metal melt during injection molding and analyzes in advance whether the manufacturing process is suitable for the specific component, and where the design of the component and mold can be optimized. This leads to shorter development times, reduced cost and optimized mold tool design as given in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7. Example of material flow simulation for metal injection molding of amorphous components. Source: Heraeus AMLOY Technologies GmbH

Since October 2019, a 2K-process is for the first time shown at the K-fair in Düsseldorf, offering to over-mold an amorphous component with polymers or a metallic crystalline component made of an alloy with a melting point above 1000°C with an amorphous metal.

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Additive manufacturing of amorphous components Additive manufacturing of amorphous components is a second net shape processing solution. With the help of 3D printing or overlay welding, the dimensional limitations are no longer a matter of importance as the melt pool and the required energy can be controlled in such a way, that the critical cooling rate is always achieved during buildup of the components. The only limitation is the size of the build plate or printing chamber. Heraeus Amloy offers qualified spherical powders for additive manufacturing processes. These powders can be processed in general on all available SLM machines.

Fig. 8. Additive manufacturing: Schematic description of the value chain from powder to printed component. Source: Heraeus AMLOY Technologies GmbH

To benefit from the technology mostly a reverse engineering of the part and its use in a given assembly or interaction with other components is required. Heraeus Amloy supports the reverse engineering approach together with the customers to optimize the powder and parameter solution to achieve the best results in regard to effort and cost.

Fig. 9. Services involved to optimize powders and parameters during reverse engineering. Source: Heraeus AMLOY Technologies GmbH

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Like with injection molding, Heraeus is working with industry partners to optimize the printing equipment to the needs of amorphous powder printing to realize shorter printing times and achieve better surface finish and mechanical properties. The mechanical properties in printed components are slightly lower as for cast components, which has its nature in the printing process itself. Printing direction, porosity and higher oxygen content influence the properties as shown in the following diagram.

Fig. 10. Strength 3D printed vs. cast amorphous components. Source: Heraeus AMLOY Technologies GmbH

Even the mechanical properties for amorphous components are lower as in the as cast conditions, the additive manufactured amorphous components show superior properties in comparison to Titanium grade 5 or steel printed crystalline components. The high strength difference of the amorphous metals helps to optimize the geometry of components by reducing dimensions of actual parts and with it achieves weight reduction.

Advantages for the automotive industry Amorphous alloys the light weight material of the future? Since reduction of weight became one key topic for the automotive industry, Titanium, Aluminum or Magnesium and their alloys are in many cases the materials of choice. The major reason is their low density. In comparison to steel materials, weight could be reduced tremendously. An additional advantage is the good corrosion resistance. The amorphous alloys show a much better ratio of young modulus x strain or yield strength x strain to density as Titanium alloys. As consequence, even with a higher density of approx. 6.8 g/cm³ in comparison to approx. 4.5 g/cm³ for Titanium alloys the weight saving can be in the range of 20-40%. This in turn means that components can

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be designed smaller, which supports the trend of miniaturization, designed in the same dimension but withstanding much higher loads or offering longer cycle times in their application.

Fig. 11. Elastic energy storage of Titanium alloys vs. Amloy compositions: weight savings of 20-40% in comparison to TI Grade 5; source: Heraeus AMLOY Technologies GmbH

Amorphous metals in automotive applications With its material properties, amorphous metals offer solutions for vehicles of tomorrow. In particular, components which experience high stress and high elasticity like components for clutches or transmission (axles and gears) are a good example for the application of amorphous metals. Amloy supports a longer lifetime of such components and, at the same time, helps adjusting designs towards thinner lighter products. Due to its high elasticity combined with a high strength the use of amorphous material for spring or damping application offers a good fit. The flexural strength of 1.8-2.0 % enables spring parts and hinges to be made of amorphous metals, being either able to stretch the component further or having a longer lifetime. The additional 2-4 per cent plastic deformation avoids catastrophic failure. Décor elements are another important aspect in the automotive industry. Plastic is not always the material of choice when it comes to high quality appearance or an excellent haptic. Amorphous alloys are scratch resistant and can be manufactures to a mirror-like or dull look without post-processing, including imprints, depending on the surface finish of the tool cavity. Further, due to its low heat conductivity the haptic of the material is excellent, too.

Amorphous metals in vehicles of the future Current trends show that it becomes more important to miniaturize components or making them thinner. In the latter trend, steel is reaching its limits. The high strength of amorphous metals supports the trend of getting smaller and/or thinner and offers a solution for a need which could not be satisfied before. Designers can overcome current limits and develop completely new parts.

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With the miniaturization, weight can be reduced and, thus, CO2 emissions can be reduced, too, which is also an aim for the automotive industry. Not only in traditional automobiles, miniaturization plays a rolenew forms of transportation only become possible where components can become smaller and weight can be reduced or creep resistant materials for small high rotating propellers are required. Examples are drones or flying taxis.

Fig. 12. The mobility of the future; Picture credits: Adobe Stock / chesky *

The new material class of Amloy exceeds the limitation of today’s materials and enables the development of miniaturization and weight reduction of parts and components as well as new technologies.

References 1. Source: Morrison, Mark Lee, “The Mechanical and Electrochemical Properties of Bulk Metallic Glasses.” Phd Diss., University of Tennessee, 2005, Page 159, Figure 27 (Quelle am Ende zu Referenzen) 2. Zentrum für Medizinische Grundlagenforschung, Stiftingtalstrasse 24, A-8010 Graz

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Image can be used free of charge to visualize the article “Amloy enables weight reduction for high-performance components in automotive”

Dual-curing adhesives for fast cycle times and highprecision alignment of components Stephan Pröller1[0000-0002-7984-5705] 1

DELO Industrial Adhesives

Abstract. Dual-curing adhesives offer a high precision, and, due to their manifold curing mechanisms a unique process speed and flexibility in production processes. To reach short cycle times, fast UV fixation is utilized allowing for an immediate continuation of the production process. This initial fixation step is followed by a second final curing step. The example of the production process of a camera for e.g. autonomous driving shows how to finally obtain the adhesive’s properties in the second process step. We present a new hybrid system, a lightfixable 2-component adhesives that allow final curing at room temperature. It therefore saves time, energy and space in the production plant. Keywords: Dual-curing adhesives, low temperature curing, active alignment.

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Dual-curing adhesives

In several industrial processes, including automotive, optical, electronics and mechanical engineering, the application of bonding technologies has enormously increased. The main driving factors are light-weight constructions, miniaturization, multi-material design and the implementation of additional processes or final functions like alignment or sealing of components. Some of the typical bonding applications in cars are depicted in Fig. 1. Aiming for high productivity levels, most manufacturing companies prefer lightcuring adhesives. Components, which have to be bonded, can be aligned to each other with the desired accuracy and the light-curing adhesive can fix them on demand. This curing process happens within a couple of seconds, partially even less than a second when irradiated by highly intensive light. It is usually obtained by high-energy LED lamps generating orders of magnitude higher intensity than normal sunlight in the desired light spectrum, which is specific for the adhesive. Applying purely light-curing adhesives limits the components to be bonded to substrates that allow for transmission of the light. Areas that are not reached by light will remain uncured implying risks of corrosion, outgassing or in the case of optical products, an undesirable effect on the light path. Therefore, shadowed areas must already be avoided during the component design when aiming for the application of purely light-curing adhesives.

© Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2021 J. Liebl (ed.), Vehicles of Tomorrow 2019, Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-29701-5_6

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Fig. 1. Some of the many typical bonding areas in a car, including magnet bonding for e-motors, sensors, cameras and further advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) for autonomous driving as well as interior applications.

In many cases, the limitation to transparent substrates would lead to high material costs or very complicated component or process designs. In order to overcome this drawback, the adhesive industry has developed many dual-curing products. Besides light, this products use a secondary curing mechanisms for reliable bonding even in shadowed areas. This may be humidity, air exclusion or heat depending on the requirements of the production process and the final product. So far, all are one-component products which are isocyanate- and silicone-free, with the exception of UV silicones. After initial light fixation, light-/humidity-curing adhesives react with the natural humidity in the air in the shadowed areas. For the secondary curing process, no additional equipment and no further curing process step are needed. Chemically, light-/humidity-curing adhesives are closely related to conventional light-curing acrylates and possess similar properties. Due to the simplicity of the process, this product group is selected for medium requirements – at maximum temperatures of use of 120-150°C and moderate chemical impact. UV silicones work on the same principle and can even be used in temperatures of up to around 300°C. However, due to their low strength, they are only suitable as sealants and also possess the typical disadvantages of silicones, like swelling, outgassing and contamination of production plant. For harsher requirements, anaerobic curing, instead of humidity, is used as the secondary curing mechanism. Light-/anaerobic-curing adhesives offer high strength levels and service temperature ranges up to 180°C. They are used for challenging applications

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in electric motors with high heat dissipation levels as indicated in Fig. 2. Furthermore, they are also resistant to typical chemicals in the automotive sector, like brake fluid, oil and road salt.

Fig. 2. Light-/anaerobic-curing adhesives are often used in mechanical engineering and are important adhesives for e-motors in the automotive industry. They cure in shadowed areas by contact with metal ions and oxygen exclusion.

Light-/anaerobic-curing adhesives are based on methacrylate metal adhesives widely used in different industries. Thus, they need metal ions and oxygen exclusion to fully cure in shadowed areas. Compared to traditional metal adhesives, they comprise two key benefits: A shorter cycle time due to the fast light fixation and curing at the fillet where usually oxygen is present. Independent of the curing mechanism, the adhesive exhibits similar properties. When sufficient metal ions are available, light-/anaerobic curing adhesives do not require a further process to cure in shadowed areas. The third option is light-/heat-curing materials, in which heat is applied during the secondary curing step to achieve full bond strength. This group is the most diverse. It offers products based on epoxy resins, acrylates and other chemistries. This option is the focus of this article when talking about high strength and high precision of substrate alignment. Epoxies often provide high strengths. They are often harder than e.g. acrylates, and because of their dense polymer network, resist chemicals and high temperatures. Some of these products are so resilient that they can be used in modules which are permanently in contact with hot transmission oil. Acrylates are softer and therefore more flexible and tension-equalizing, allowing for compensation of dynamic stress. An example

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of this is the attachment of decorative trims and cockpit elements in cars where component tension needs to be equalized in a temperature range of -40°C and +100°C. Components are fixed by UV or visible light within a few seconds and therefore a high production precision is achieved compared to standard heat-curing products. Shifting of the components during the secondary curing step is avoided. Heat curing is usually done in convection ovens, alternatively in tunnel ovens, via induction or thermodes. Typical temperatures are around 100°C with a product span between 60°C and 120°C depending on the desired process and product properties.

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Application example of dual-curing adhesives – active alignment of cameras

One of the most advanced applications for dual-curing adhesives is the high-precision active alignment of optical elements for cameras or other optical ADAS systems. Fig. 3 depicts the typical process for active alignment comprising the following four steps: 1. Dispensing of the adhesive 2. Alignment of the optical elements 3. Fast fixation of the adhesive by (UV) light 4. Final curing of the adhesive via secondary curing mechanism (typically heat)

Fig. 3. One advanced application of dual-curing adhesives is the active alignment of optical components (lens barrel to image sensor) for camera systems. A short cycle time is achieved by ultra-fast light fixation, the final bond strength by a secondary curing process.

The adhesive is preferably dispensed using a volumetric needle dispenser to achieve reproducible bead heights of 500-700 µm for automotive applications or down to 100 µm for consumer cameras. Latter ones are by far more miniaturized compared to

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automotive camera systems. Furthermore, the requirements for the adhesive and the bonded materials differ for both applications. After dispensing the materials, the lens barrel and the housing comprising the image sensor are joined and actively aligned. Then the camera is switched on and the lens system is optically aligned to several points on the image sensors. This process consists of precise alignment within up to six axes of the camera lens barrel, during which the adhesive remains liquid. Depending on the lens quality and the machine supplier, this process can take up to 30 s, while it is typically in the range of 5-15 s. Before fixing the lens barrel to the image sensor, shrinkage compensation is applied. The fixation of the adhesive can be achieved within a few seconds via high-intensity light. This step determines the cycle time that can be achieved with the adhesive. The final curing of the adhesive is typically done in a convection oven. Therefore the assembled and light-fixed camera modules are collected to fill a tray. This tray is then brought into the oven in a batch process for the secondary curing step. The process of aligning camera modules shows the precision that can be achieved using dual-curing adhesives. It is of course transferable to different types of alignment. Dual-curing adhesives offer the benefits of light-curing products without compromising on reliability, bond strength and processing quality. They also ensure that the adhesive in the final product is fully cured and permit maximum bonding precision in complex modules.

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From high temperature to room temperature secondary curing

The adhesive’s final properties are achieved in the secondary curing process. These properties include for example glass transition temperature and final strength. In addition, final shrinkage is achieved after final curing. This determines the final accuracy of the previously aligned substrates. For this reason a lot of efforts are spent on the optimization of the secondary curing mechanism. The first dual-curing products for high precision alignment required a curing temperature of around 100°C. The trend in miniaturization and light-weight design, however, has led to the utilization of temperature-sensitive materials. Therefore, new products curing at lower temperatures are needed. Nowadays, curing at low temperatures as low as 60°C allows for bonding temperature-sensitive materials. Combined with reliable fixation in a few seconds, these products increase the production capacity due to the short cycle times. The development from high temperature to low temperature continues towards room temperature as secondary curing. A new approach now combines the excellent final properties of two-component (2C) epoxy resins with the advantage of fast light fixation. 2C epoxy resins are known for their good strength, media resistance and reliable curing at room temperature, with low curing speed being their disadvantage for many high-volume applications. This new hybrid chemistry, however, is much faster than any previous two-component adhesive. After short irradiation by light, the components are fixed on demand and ready for further processing. The strength after an irradiation time of only 5 seconds at an intensity

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of 1000 mW/cm² already amounts to 1 N/mm², a value that is often defined in many industries as initial strength. Reliable final curing, including shadowed areas, is the same as it is for regular two-component products at room temperature. There is still the option of accelerating the curing by heat, but it is not mandatory compared to the 1C products. A process at room temperature is likely more attractive to most users because it saves them from investing in an oven, eliminates energy costs for heat curing, and thus tremendously lowers the CO2 footprint. Furthermore, it saves space on the production floor, while radically reducing cycle times and increasing throughput. Since dispensing, joining and light fixation take place in less than one minute, the next production step can begin much faster. Additionally to the advantages in the production process, light-fixable 2C products provide outstanding mechanical properties, including good bond strengths as shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4. Tensile shear strength of light-fixable 2C adhesive. The high initial strength is preserved after temperature or temperature and humidity storage.

These strengths are achieved thanks to the strong crosslinking ability of epoxy resins. The tensile shear strength of the first product available, DELO-DUOPOX DB8989, on aluminum is 28 MPa and compression shear strength on LCP plastic, known to be difficult to bond, is 13 MPa. The adhesives preserve these high strength levels even when influenced by temperatures and humidity. They maintain its level, even after aging simulations specified in the automotive sector. The dual-curing character does not lead to altered mechanical properties in irradiated or shadowed areas, shown in Fig. 5.

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Fig. 5. Young’s modulus of light-fixable 2C adhesive in irradiated and shadowed areas is comparable. Even after typical automotive test scenarios, the mechanical properties remain constant in practical terms.

For practical use, no difference in the mechanical properties is observed between lightfixed and shadowed area in a connection after curing. After typical automotive test conditions, storage at temperature and humidity for 1000 h, the properties remain stable and do not deviate between irradiated and shadowed areas. Users therefore benefit from the great reliability of their bonded connection and can also remain confident in it in the event of subsequent design changes leading to different geometries. This new hybrid chemistry allows users to combine the advantages of speed and reliable room temperature curing known from classical products. It is possible to choose another process option with low energy consumption and high production speed. Fig. 6 schematically illustrates a simplified comparison of the new hybrid 2C product with existing classical and dual-curing adhesive products. While this presentation neglects variants and exceptions within the individual product groups, it does provide some guidance in the continuously growing range of adhesives available on the market.

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Fig. 6. Comparison of typical properties of various adhesive families.

Thanks to the described properties, this new hybrid chemistry is suitable for structural bonding and reliable encapsulation. With a Young’s modulus ranging from 3000 mW/cm². The polymer chain built up reaction is a cationic reaction type. Hence a short UVbased activation of the UV-LUX tape is enough to initiate the full curing of the tape. After activation, the material will cure completely also in the dark. Therefore in-transparent materials can be bonded with this technology as well. The standard UV-LUX product is transparent. However, there is an adaption of the UV-LUX technology available that provides an easy in-situ process control option by color change as shown in Fig. 3. The standard color of the uncured and not activated system is blue. As soon as the product is activated by defined UV dosage the color of the product is changing to pink. Open time of the activated system can be adjusted within a time frame of several minutes. When fully cured the product changes the color to purple.

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Fig. 3. In-situ process control by change of color

Standard process steps of the system are: 1. Application of UV-LUX tape on one part 2. Activation of UV-LUX tape by defined UV-dosage within seconds 3. Bonding to the second part within the open time 4. Initial tack provides good subsequent processing of the part and pre-application options 5. Full curing within 24h Advantages of the UV-LUX technology at a glance: • • • • • •

Epoxy system for semi-structural bonding of material mix Room temperature curing initiated by UVA and UVC Initial tack for direct processing of bonded parts within seconds Initial tack sufficient for pre-application In-situ process control by color indication Cationic system provides self-curing after UV-activation Fig. 4. Advantages of UV-LUX technology

This technology is actually introduced to the market for pin bonding of locator pins to glass which means bonding a material mix plastics to glass as shown in Fig. 6. For this application moderate bonding strengths are required while high elongation values are needed to avoid glass breakage and micro cracks in the glass also at low temperatures of -40°C. Therefore the specific DuploLUX® 14061for this application shows an elongation value of 550% when fully cured while tensile strength is at 6 MPa (see Fig. 5). The low e-module of about 100 MPa enables stress equalization between the bonded parts while preventing damages to the glass.

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Fig. 5. tensile strength

In the current application at a global automotive supplier UV-LUX gets provided as die-cut part already pre-applied to the locator pin. In comparison to liquid adhesives the die-cut parts show typical advantages like form stability, easy and direct handling without squeeze out.

Fig. 6. UV-LUX application for bonding of locator pins

This application example shows that the new UV-LUX technology is a ready to market technology which covers requirements of the today´s automotive industry. Furthermore it is a technology base providing interesting features for other applications within the

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automotive industry and beyond. For the future we expect to develop further products based on UV-LUX technology to meet new requirements and to improve technical processes in general for automotive production and other industrial applications.

Fig. 7. UV-LUX Color change

3.3

DuploCOLL® TC – a thermal conductive tape

The amount of electronical components in the car grew over the past years and is expected to grow further in the future. Root cause of > 50% of the malfunctions of electronical components is thermal overstress. Therefore the demand for sophisticated thermal management in cars is rising. To define and engineer an effective „heat dissipation path“ – ultimately into the surrounding environment – is a major task in thermal management of electronic components. Heat transfer in general can occur by three different mechanisms: Thermal conduction, Thermal convection and thermal radiation. Thermal conduction describes the heat transfer by mechanical linkage, thermal convection describes transfer of thermal energy by liquids, gas, fluids and thermal radiation describes heat transfer by electromagnetic radiation. Thermal conductive tapes usually transfer heat mainly by thermal conduction, however, in car components (and other applications as well) often different heat transfer mechanisms are at work simultaneously or in line as shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 8. Heat transfer mechanisms at heat sinks bonded to PCBs

Thermal conductive tapes are used as Thermal Interface Materials (TIM). TIMs are the conjunction between heat source (for example IC or LED or PCB) and heat sink (for example aluminum sheets or body). Their task is improving the heat transfer between heat source and heat sink and bonding the two parts together. In most cases the TIMs must be electrically insulating.

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Softness and conformability of pressure sensitive adhesive layers are very suitable for this task. But thermal conductivity is low. Therefore the adhesive is filled with thermal conductive particles. The goal is to keeping high bonding performance combined with high thermal conductivity. The DuploCOLL® TC range fulfills this expectation. Peel values are high (< 15 N/25 mm on aluminum) and thermal conductivity is at 1,0 W/ m*K. One application example: LED stripe bonding. The DuploCOLL® 78250 TC has been introduced into the market for LED stripe bonding. Stripes of DuploCOLL® 78250 TC are applied to the PCB and the complete component is bonded to the backlight unit of a display. The major function is to dissipate the thermal energy produced by the LEDs into the housing. DuploCOLL® TC tape can be provided in die-cuts in any shape from few millimeters up to tenths of centimeters. This enables customers to apply the substrates (PCB, heat sinks) in an automatic and fast process. Moreover there is a colored version of DuploCOLL® TC tape available. It is used in an automatic application process where a camera is used for detecting the assembling. The color is necessary for a better and reliably visibility for the camera.

Hem flange bonding: a challenging joining process in automotive body construction Fred Jesche1 and Sandra Menzel1 1

Fraunhofer Institute for Machine Tools and Forming Technology

Abstract. Hem flange bonding is widely used in the automotive body shop, especially in the manufacturing of hang-on parts such as doors, hoods and tailgates. By combining the hemming and adhesive bonding processes, components can be joined by material fit and form fit. In this way, new properties are integrated into the assembly, such as higher load-bearing capacity and improved resistance to corrosion. However, both processes also influence each other in the joining process and in the further production process chain, which makes the hem flange bonding process really challenging. The paper gives an overview of the state of the art. For this purpose, based on the structure of the bonded hem flange, the requirements and criteria for quality evaluation are described. The common hemming technologies and adhesive application methods as well as the industrial process chain, in which the hemming operation takes place, are presented. Essential correlations between component / process parameters and the quality in the hem flange bonded joint are discussed. Fraunhofer IWU has been researching various aspects of hemming and hem flange bonding for many years and supports the industry in the analysis of assemblies and processes. Our aim is to systematically increase the quality and appearance of hem flange bonded assemblies and the robustness of hem flange bonding processes. Two current examples from research practice will provide a brief insight: Hemming adhesive dimensioning: Adhesive application plays a decisive, quality-defining role in the hemming process. At every point of the circumferential hem seam of an assembly, the adhesive quantity and adhesive position have to match the existing geometry precisely. The paper shows how the adhesive dimensioning can be carried out. Current test results on the effect of glass beads in the adhesive layer to ensure a defined adhesive layer thickness are also discussed. Hem testing: A testing device was developed at Fraunhofer IWU to carry out quasi-static strength tests on hem flange bonded joints. For the first time, the influence of various hem and process parameters on the joint strength can be determined. The functional principle of the test and first results are presented. Keywords: Hem flange bonding, Hemming, Degree of filling, Degree of bonding, Glass beads, Hem flange pull-out test.

© Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2021 J. Liebl (ed.), Vehicles of Tomorrow 2019, Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-29701-5_9

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1

State of the art

1.1

Hemming and hem flange bonding

Hemming is an established technology for joining sheet metal parts without an externally visible joint. The most common application is the joining of a skin panel and an inner part of a car body assembly (eg. doors, hoods, tailgates). In a multi-stage process, a previously produced flange at the outer edge of the outer skin is bent around the inner part. Hem flange bonding combines the form fit joining process of hemming with the material fit joining process of adhesive bonding. Before the hemming process the adhesive is applied to the outer skin and flows between the joining partners into the resulting hem during the hemming process (Fig. 1). The adhesive bonding results in increased work absorption for improved crash safety [1], bending and torsional stiffness ([2], [3]), corrosion protection, more uniform force transmission [4] and vibration damping. These properties are necessary to meet the constantly increasing safety, comfort and quality requirements.

Fig. 1. Hem flange bonding process sequence.

Fig. 2. Structure of a bonded hem.

1.2

Requirements and quality evaluation of a hem flange bonded joint

The requirements for a hem flange bonded joint are as follows: Tightness, mechanical strength, aesthetics. In order to measure the fulfilment of the requirements and to evaluate the quality of a hem flange bonded joint, they can be divided into bonding features and hemming features. They are usually determined by destructive testing. On the one hand by means of microsections and on the other hand by opening the hem adhesive surfaces. Minimum dimensions and tolerances shall be specified in the design for all features to be tested.

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To assess the bonding features of a hem flange bonded joint, it is divided into four areas a, b, c, d (Fig. 3). The requirements for filling these four areas with adhesive are as follows:  Area a and c: complete filling  Area d: visible leakage of adhesive  Area b: filling according to design specification ("degree of filling"). In addition to the degree of filling, the degree of bonding must also be evaluated. This is a measure for the registration of defects in the area a and describes the percentage of bonded surface area to surfaces without adhesive bonding [6].

Fig. 3. Definition of the hem flange bonding areas [5].

The hemming features describe the hem geometry and are measured in the cross section. The most important features are shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4. Hemming features [5].

1.3

Hemming technologies

Tabletop hemming. Classic hemming is tool-bound, i.e. the components lie in a hemming bed and the hem is closed over the entire seam length by hemming tools with linear workpiece contact. The components of the hemming plant are specifically designed for the component to be hemmed. The hemming process of the flange, which is already set to 90°, takes place in two stages (135° pre-hemming, 180° hemming). Each component requires a special two-stage hemming tool with mostly complex tool geometries. Therefore, and due to the short process time, the process is particularly suitable for high quantities.

4 Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of tabletop hemming (according to [7] – [9]).

Advantages  Short cycle times, high productivity  High hemming quality  Simple hemming process  Low tool wear

Disadvantages  Complex tool geometries  High investment costs  Low flexibility

Roller hemming. For roller hemming, the workpieces also lie in a hemming bed. The flange is formed incrementally by driving a robot-guided roll in several steps along the component contour [16]. The process is usually three-stage (30°; 60°; 90°). The tool costs for roller hemming lines are lower than for tabletop hemming, since only the hemming bed is required as a geometry-bound element. Robots and roller hemming tools are highly flexible. The process time depends on the length of the component contour and the number of hemming stages. Especially for large components it is therefore considerably higher than for tabletop hemming. This is one of the reasons why roller hemming lines are designed for smaller quantities [17]. Table 2. Advantages and disadvantages of roller hemming (according to [9] – [15]).

Advantages Disadvantages  High component flexibility and custom-  Long cycle time due to many hemizability ming steps  Low tool and investment costs  High set-up effort, complex process with many parameters to control  High parameter flexibility  Hemming quality depends on stiffness of the robot Pliers hemming. The technology of pliers hemming offers a low investment and spacesaving alternative to the above-mentioned technologies for smallest quantities. Hydraulically operated hemming pliers, which are hand-guided and close the flange step by step along the longitudinal direction of the hem seam from 90° in one stage, are wellknown. There are also servo-electrically driven and robot-supported pliers, which open and close the hemming tool at up to 25 Hz via a swivel mechanism and can thus achieve a high feed speed [18]. Table 3. Advantages and disadvantages of pliers hemming [18].

Advantages Disadvantages  High flexibility/individuality  Complex hemming bed (guide groove required)  High hemming speed  Partial pliers marks on the component  Low device weight surface  Closing from 90° flange opening angle  Effects on bonding features and asin one stage sembly tolerances unknown

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1.4

Hemming adhesives and application methods

Hemming adhesives must meet the following requirements: good gap bridging ability, good adhesion on contaminated sheet metal surfaces, tolerance to further subsequent production steps (e.g. resistance to washing out) and good automation capability. These requirements are mainly met by one- and two-component epoxy resin adhesives and rubber-based adhesives. [19] The common application methods for hemming adhesives are bead application and the Swirl method (Air-Swirl or Electric Swirl). As further possible methods, doublebead application and jet stream spraying are also being investigated. [5]

Fig. 5. Adhesive application: a) bead, b) Electric Swirl, c) double-bead, d) jet stream spraying [5].

1.5

The hem flange bonding process chain

The outer skin and the inner part are brought together in the hemming station. The inner part is usually joined with other parts before hemming (e.g. reinforcing parts). The outer skin comes directly from the press shop, the flange required for hemming was already formed there. The first step in the hemming station is to apply the hemming adhesive to the outer part. The application quality is usually higher if the outer part lies in the hemming bed and the adhesive dispenser is guided along the path by the robot. However, it is also common to work with a fixed dosing unit and robot-guided component under the nozzle. In the subsequent consolidation process, the inner part is placed on the outer part, followed by robot transport of the consolidated assembly to the hemming plant. The inner and outer parts are then fixed on the hemming bed by the blank holder. The hemming can be done by roller hemming or tabletop hemming. After hemming, the adhesive can be pre-cured if high handling strength is required. This is achieved either inductively in a gelling bed or in an oven. There can be a few minutes or several days or weeks between the hemming process and the installation of the assembly on the body-in-white. In some cases, the uncured hem assembly is transported to other plants during this period.

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After mounting on the body-in-white, the hem assembly passes through the cataphoretic painting process. This includes several pretreatment stages, the cataphoretic dip bath and downstream washing processes. The body then passes through the paint oven, where it is heated to a maximum temperature of 190°C for approx. 30 minutes and the hemming adhesive cures. After the KTL process the seam sealing is applied. A PVC plastisol is used as the seam sealing material, which is usually applied automatically by flat or jet stream spraying. Afterwards, the material is heated in a PVC oven to cure all PVC seams. Finally, the further painting processes such as filler and final coat are carried out.

Fig. 6. Process chain [20].

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Correlations between hemming and process parameters and quality

The described hemming process chain clearly demonstrates that the hem flange bonded joint stands at the end of a complex production process. The quality of a bonded hem flange is therefore not only dependent on the hemming process itself, but also on all influencing variables along this process chain, from the individual part to the painting process. With the example of the filling features used for quality evaluation, the most important influencing variables are briefly explained in detail. In order to meet the filling feature requirements described in section 1.2, the applied adhesive volume must correspond exactly to the volume to be filled in the hem. This means that the design of the adhesive application must be based on the hem geometry. The hem geometry itself in turn depends on the individual part and hemming parameters. The sum of the four hem adhesive areas (a, b, c, d see Fig. 3) gives the adhesive section required for the particular hem geometry. The distribution of this adhesive section over the four hem adhesive areas determines the position of the adhesive application. The dilemma of hem filling becomes clear from this context: if one of the three parameters (hem geometry, adhesive quantity, adhesive position) deviates from the specification, the degree of filling changes (Fig. 7).

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Fig. 7. Dependence of the hem filling features.

The adhesive quantity and adhesive position are mainly determined by the adhesive application, i.e. by the path programming of the robot as well as the dosing parameters of the dosing unit and the interaction of both [21]. However, even after application, the adhesive can still be influenced unintentionally by transport processes or during nesting. Even a deviation of the adhesive layer by 2 mm leads, depending on the direction of the deviation, to an adhesive leakage or an underfilling of the areas b and c. Furthermore, the surface condition of the sheets, especially the oiling, has an effect on the adhesive. [22] The hem geometry is described by many parameters, which all depend on different variables (Table 4). Table 4. Hem geometry parameters and influencing variables.

Hem geometry parameters Influencing variables Flange width of the inner part Trimming Adhesive gap thicknesses in a Force and distance of the blank holder, force and and b distance of the hem tools, flange angle inner part Hem position of the inner part (FL)

Flange width inner part, inner part position during nesting, roll-in, relative movements during / after hemming

Inner part position during nesting

Positioning of the outer part, positioning of the inner part, relative movements during nesting

Flange parallelism during nesting

Flange angle inner part, form deviations of the inner part and outer part

Hem overlap (FÜ)

Flange height outer part, hem position of the inner part

Sheet thickness inner part

Semi-finished product, deep drawing process

Bending radius inner part

Deep drawing process

Hem radius hight / length

Bending radius outer part, pre-strain outer part, force and geometry of the pre-hem and hem tools

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It turned out that of these parameters, the thickness of the adhesive layer in the hem flange bonding area a and the flange tilting of the inner part in particular have the greatest influence on the adhesive distribution in the hem. If, for example, the adhesive layer thickness in the area a is 0.05 mm higher than the nominal dimension used for the adhesive design (0.15 mm in this example), more adhesive is required to fill this area. If the adhesive application is not adapted to this deviation, the filling in the hem flange bonding area b is reduced to zero and in the areas c and d to below 80 %. This means that the hem flange bonded joint no longer meets the required filling features. If the flange of the inner part is not plane-parallel to the outer part, this has various negative effects on the hem quality:  The flow direction of the adhesive during consolidation and clamping is asymmetrical, as the following investigation shows. When the adhesive is pressed between plane-parallel flanges, the adhesive flow is approximately symmetrical. When pressing between non-plane-parallel flanges (flange angle inner part -3° or +3°), a larger proportion of the adhesive flows in the direction of the larger gap and a smaller proportion in the direction of the smaller gap:

Fig. 8. Investigation of the adhesive flow direction with tilted inner part.

 The hem geometry is changed, since a non plane-parallel adhesive layer thickness in the hem flange bonding area a is produced. This changes the volume to be filled.  After hemming, spring-back may occur when the blank holder is opened, causing the adhesive gap in area a to increase again. This leads to defects in the adhesive, which reduce the degree of bonding.

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3

Current investigations at Fraunhofer IWU: Glass beads

The adhesives used for hem flange bonding are often filled with glass beads. The glass beads are used as spacers to ensure a minimum adhesive gap thickness [23]. The effectiveness of this method was investigated at Fraunhofer IWU. The basic idea of the spacer effect of glass beads is that they oppose the pressing of the inner and outer parts together with a force as soon as they come into contact with both parts. This force should be above the forces occurring in the hemming process and thus prevent a further reduction in the gap. In order to determine this force, an FE model with a single glass bead between two metal sheets was built. While the lower sheet is fixed, the upper sheet is moved towards the lower sheet in a uniform movement while the force is recorded. This simulation was carried out for different glass bead diameters and sheet materials and verified experimentally. The results permit the following conclusions: A force increase occurs only from a gap height which is equal to the glass bead diameter. As long as the gap is larger than the glass bead, it has no effect (force = 0 N). As soon as the gap is smaller than the glass bead diameter, the glass bead is formed into the metal sheets because the glass is harder than the metal sheets and the contact surface is very small, especially at the beginning of the contact. The measured force effect results from this pressing of the glass bead into the two metal sheets. If two identical sheets are used, the glass bead is formed in half into each sheet at a gap of 0 mm. The force to press in the glass bead increases with increasing glass bead diameter and sheet hardness. A measurement of different batches of glass beads showed that it cannot be assumed that all glass beads contained in hemming adhesives correspond to the nominal diameter specified. Instead, due to the manufacturing process, a frequency distribution of glass bead diameters exists, with the largest glass beads corresponding to the nominal diameter. The majority of glass beads are smaller than the nominal diameter. In the example shown in Fig. 9, instead of one glass bead, there are four glass beads of different sizes in the gap. Since the single force-displacement curves for the four glass bead diameters are known from the FE simulations, the force-displacement curve of this group of glass beads can be analytically determined by summing up the four curves. From the resulting diagram the force, required to press the group of glass beads to a defined gap height, can be determined. Or vice versa: the gap height that will be reached with a given force. This model can be used to determine the amount of glass beads to be added to the hemming adhesive for a given glass bead size distribution, given blank holder force and defined required adhesive gap.

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Fig. 9. Visualization of the glass bead calculation model.

In addition to the glass beads, the adhesive itself also has a gap-defining effect, i.e. it also counteracts pressing with a force. Since the adhesive is a viscoelastic material, this effect depends on time and viscosity. This means that the gap effect of the adhesive is primarily dependent on:  The adhesive rheology: The higher the viscosity of the adhesive, the higher the counterforce and the larger the gap. The viscosity is temperature-dependent, that means the higher the temperature, the lower the viscosity and the smaller the gap.  The velocity of pressing: The faster the gap is reduced, the higher the counterforce of the adhesive and the larger the gap. The slower the gap is reduced, the more time the adhesive has to relax and the lower the counterforce, i.e. the smaller the gap.  The duration of the blank holder force: The adhesive creeps under the effect of the blank holder force. The longer the force is applied, the smaller the gap. The creep behaviour under the force of the blank holder was investigated experimentally. In a test setup, the inner and outer part were pressed by a blank holder to a defined force with a subsequent time of holding the force and simultaneous measurement of the adhesive gap. Under constant conditions, the blank holder force and the amount of glass beads in the adhesive were varied (Fig. 10).

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Fig. 10. Adhesive gap height with and without glass beads under constant load (amount of adhesive = 6.3 g/m, flange width inner part = 20 mm, nominal glass bead diameter = 0.2 mm, pressing speed = 0.1 mm/s)

The nominal diameter of the glass beads was 0.2 mm, i.e. the theoretical adhesive layer thickness should be 0.2 mm. The gap-time curves clearly show that the final adhesive gap is only achieved after a certain time of holding the blank holder force. If no glass beads are contained in the adhesive, the adhesive gap thickness decreases continuously over the holding time, whereby a greater blank holder force causes a smaller adhesive gap. If glass beads are added to the adhesive, the adhesive gap thickness also decreases over the first 20 to 30 seconds of the holding time, but then adjusts to a constant value. This value depends on the amount of glass beads in the adhesive and here, too, a higher blank holder force leads to smaller adhesive layer thicknesses. The experimentally determined relationship between glass beads in the hemming adhesive and the resulting adhesive layer thickness is consistent with the preceding analytical considerations of the glass beads without adhesive influence. Due to the effects of the glass beads being pressed in the sheets and the size distribution of the beads described above, the final adhesive layer thickness is smaller than the nominal glass bead diameter even at a glass bead content of 15 percent by weight. It can be concluded that the behaviour of the hemming adhesive in the gap must be considered for two load cases: The movement of the blank holder: The counterforce of the hemming adhesive against the pressing is determined by its rheological characteristics. Depending on the blank holder force and speed and the adhesive viscosity, no gap thickness in the size of the glass beads is achieved during closing. This only occurs during the holding time of the constant blank holder force. Holding the constant blank holder force during the hemming process: The counterforce of the hemming adhesive against the pressing is determined by its rheological characteristics and the amount and size of glass beads. The adhesive gap decreases over

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the duration of the constant down holder force. Glass beads in the adhesive cause a stop in the reduction of the adhesive gap, whereby the final adhesive gap depends on:    

4

The size distribution of the glass beads The amount of glass beads The blank holder force The hardness of the parts to be joined.

Current investigations at Fraunhofer IWU: Hem flange pull-out test

Fraunhofer IWU has developed a method for measuring the pull-out strength of a hem flange bonded joint. This describes the maximum force required to pull the inner sheet out of the bonded hem flange. This test method can be used to determine the influence of various hemming specific variables such as hem geometry, adhesive layer thickness, degree of filling, degree of bonding, etc. on the strength of a bonded hem flange.

Fig. 11. Test principle, test specimen and test device.

In a series of tests, the influence of the degree of bonding on the pull-out strength of the hem flange bonded joint was determined. For this purpose, the degree of bonding was reduced by means of defects of various sizes. In addition, the influence of the location of a defect was tested in this test series by reducing the degree of bonding using Teflon tape in different locally defined areas. As a result of the test, the pull-out force for several test series as a function of the degree of bonding is shown in Fig. 12. The test series a represents the reference with a degree of filling of 100 % and a degree of bonding of approximately 100 %. In the test series b, the degree of bonding was reduced by different sized defects. In the test series c and d, the degree of bonding was reduced by approx. 50 % using Teflon tape. For the test series e, all surfaces were covered with Teflon tape to achieve a degree of bonding of 0 %. The forces measured at this test series are due to friction within the test device. Overall, there is an approximately linear relationship between the degree of bonding and the pull-out force.

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Fig. 12. Comparison of the pull-out forces as a function of the degree of bonding.

5

Summary and outlook

The paper presents the complexity of the hemming process. The hemming process chain begins with the production of the individual parts and ends with the painting of the car body. All parameters of these production, handling, transport and storage steps of the comparatively large assemblies have an effect on the circumferential hem seam, which is just a few millimetres in width. At the same time, the quality requirements for a hem flange bonded joint and the hem flange bonded assembly are extremely high. This inevitably leads to challenges. Considering, for example, the sensitivity of the quality criterion "degree of filling" to the smallest changes in the hem geometry or adhesive application, it can be seen that even deviations within the permissible tolerances for the single parts and the process lead to measurable differences. In order to improve the quality of hem flange bonded assemblies, it is therefore necessary to understand the process more as a real interaction of the individual processes of bonding and hemming and to consider their mutual dependencies. When commissioning new hemming plants, sometimes only the hemming without adhesive is optimized. The adhesive afterwards has to adapt to the process. However, if the joining technology of hem flange bonding should exploit its full potential, then hemming and bonding must be taken into account with equal weight from the very beginning of design and all processes must be designed for hem flange bonding. The current investigations at Fraunhofer IWU show that the glass bead filling of the adhesive must be designed precisely to the forces to be expected in the hemming process and the required adhesive layer thickness. Adhesive layer defects reduce the degree of bonding and thus the strength of the joint and should be prevented by ensuring an adhesive-oriented hemming process.

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References 1. Rasche, M., Drews, H.: Doppelt gefügt. Die Kombination aus Falzen und Kleben erhöht deutlich die Tragfähigkeit. MM – MaschinenMarkt. Das Industriemagazin (3), 34-35 (2002). 2. Haldenwanger, H.-G., Walther, U.: Klebverbindungen in und an der Fahrzeugstruktur. In: Verein Deutscher Ingenieure VDI-Gesellschaft Kunststofftechnik (eds.) KUNSTSTOFFE IM AUTOMOBILBAU, pp. 85-97. (2002). 3. Friedrich, M., Kötting, G.: Geklebte Bauteile aus konstruktiver Sicht. Teil II. Adhäsion – Kleben & Dichten (4), 28-32 (1994). 4. Lange, F.J.: Untersuchungen zum Falznahtkleben von höherfesten kaltgewalzten Feinblechen unter Berücksichtigung verschiedener Klebstoffsysteme. Paderborn (1983). 5. Woyke, W., Jesche, F., Menzel, S., Landgrebe, D.: Designing a Flawless Hem Flange Bonding Process. Adhesion Adhesives + Sealants 14, 26-29 (2017). 6. Menzel, S., Jesche, F., Landgrebe, D., Woyke, W.: Vermeidung von Fehlern in der Prozesskette Falzkleben. In: Drossel, W.-G., Landgrebe, D., Putz, M. (eds.) KAROSSERIEBAU IM WANDEL, 8. CHEMNITZER KAROSSERIEKOLLOQUIUM, CBC 2017, pp. 175-190, Verlag Wissenschaftliche Scripten, Auerbach (2017). 7. Bleicher, J. P., Theaudin, J.: Konventionelles Bördeln und elektrisches Rotationsbördeln. Aktuelle Tendenzen und Anwendungsbeispiele Mechanisches Fügen und Kleben. In: FÜGETECHNIKEN FÜR DEN EIGENSCHAFTSOPTIMIERTEN LEICHTBAU, 6. PADERBORNER SYMPOSIUM FÜGETECHNIK, pp. 148-159, Labor für Werkstoffund Fügetechnik (LWF), Paderborn (1998). 8. ABB Flexible Automation: Excellence in Hemming. Lines and equipment for automotive closure panels (2006). 9. Klose, L., Petzold, K. H.: Ressourcenmanagement eines modernen Automobilzulieferers mit Presswerk und Rohbau. In: Neugebauer, R. (eds.) KAROSSERIEFERTIGUNG IM SPANNUNGSFELD VON GLOBALISIERUNG, KOSTENEFFIZIENZ UND EMISSIONSSCHUTZ, 5. CHEMNITZER KAROSSERIEKOLLOQUIUM, CBC 2008, pp. 329-344. Verlag Wissenschaftliche Scripten, Zwickau (2008). 10. Frick, W.: Rollfalzen bietet Einsparpotentiale. MM – MaschinenMarkt. Das Industriemagazin (19), 18-19 (2009). 11. Gärtner, W.: Rollfalzen: Innovatives Füge- und Umformverfahren als Kostendrücker im modernen Karosseriebau. MM – MaschinenMarkt. Das Industriemagazin (19), 20-23 (2009). 12. Ostermann, F.: Anwendungstechnologie Aluminium, 2. Aufl. Springer, Berlin (2007). 13. Thuillier, S., Le Maoût, N., Manach, P. Y., Debois, D.: Numerical simulation of the roll hemming process. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 198(1-3), 226-233 (2008). 14. Carsley, J. E.: Microstructural evolution during bending: Conventional vs. Roller hemming. In: TRENDS IN MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING, TMS 2005, pp. 169-174 (2005). 15. Hecht, B., Neugebauer, R., Drossel, W.-G., Barth, D., Rössinger, M., Eckert, A., Perera, C.: Consideration of robot rigidity in roller hemming processes: An experimental and numerical study. In: INNOVATIONS FOR THE SHEET METAL INDUSTRY, pp. 386391, International Deep Drawing Research Group, Paris (2014). 16. Zubeil, M., Roll, K., Merklein, M.: Untersuchung der Gefügeentwicklung beim Rollfalzen. In: Neugebauer, R. (eds.) 17. SÄCHSISCHE FACHTAGUNG UMFORMTECHNIK, SFU 2010, pp. 149-161 (2010).

15 17. Wulfsberg, P., Loitz, H., Derfling, D.: Kraftgeregeltes Rollfalzen. System und Sensoreinsatzstrategien. ZWF Zeitschrift für wirtschaftlichen Fabrikbetrieb (100), 130-135 (2005). 18. Landgrebe, D., Perera, C., Jesche, F., Hensel, S., Grützner, R.: Falzvergleich: Zangenfalzen vs. Rollfalzen. EFB-Forschungsbericht 435, Europäische Forschungsgesellschaft für Blechverarbeitung e.V. (EFB), Hannover (2016). 19. Wiese, E.: Kleb- und prozesstechnische Bewertung des Falzklebens. Forschungsberichte des Instituts für Füge- und Schweißtechnik, Bd 37. Shaker, Herzogenrath (2015). 20. Neumann, I. F., Fricke, H., Mayer, B., Menzel, S., Jesche, F., Landgrebe, D.: Complementary approach for the bubble-free seam sealing of bonded hem flanges. In: Steel Institute VDEh (eds.) METEC and 2nd European Steel Technology and Application Days ESTAD, Düsseldorf (2015). 21. Eckert, M., Weber, J., Hecht, B., Drossel, W.-G., Rössinger, M.: Automatic bead position calculation for hem flange bonding. Procedia Manufacturing 27, pp. 138-143 (2019). 22. Mayer, B., Fricke, H., Neumann, I. F., Landgrebe, D., Jesche, F., Menzel, S.: Komplementäres Konzept zur blasenfreien Nahtabdichtung von Falzklebungen. FOSTA P909, Bremen (2019). 23. Gutgsell, M.: Structural High Performance Adhesives for Hem Flange Bonding. In: Automotive Circle International: TÜREN UND ANBAUTEILE IM KAROSSERIEBAU, Bad Nauheim (2009).

Steering wheel and restraint system heading for automated driving Dr.-Ing. Christian Strümpler and Ingo Kalliske Joyson Safety Systems

Abstract. In the context of automated driving a variety of different technologies will hit the market. Increasing levels of automated driving will have an influence on functions and styling of future steering wheels and layout of restraint systems. Based on a general view on possible automation levels and boundary conditions, three different automated vehicle types have been identified. Those needs and requirements for steering wheel and restraint systems will be discussed in this paper. Ranging from increased sensing functions for driver state, additional input and communication technologies to new steering wheel shapes and foldable steering wheels as well as restraint systems for spacious interiors and relaxed sitting positions. Keywords: Steering Wheel, Restraint System, Automated Driving.

1

Levels of Automation and potential vehicle types

According to SAE there have been 6 levels of automation defined1. These range from Level 0 with no driver assistance to Level 5, which is a fully autonomous system able to operate in any condition as good as an experienced driver. The lower levels of Automation support the driver in operating the vehicle either in longitudinal or lateral control (Level 1) or in both (Level 2). While using these systems the driver needs to stay in the loop to monitor the system and correct any system malfunctions. The driver’s role will change with Automation Level 3 and 4, when the system is able to operate safely under certain circumstances. The two levels differentiate by the fact that a Level 3 system is not capable of handling any situation that can occur while using the system and therefore requests the driver to take over imminent control within a short amount of time. This limited time to take over control requires the driver to monitor the system carefully and limits the execution of non-driving related side tasks. A Level 4 automation system is also able to handle critical situations under certain conditions (e.g. weather or road type) and enables the driver to divert attention from the system and the driving situation. This means that the handover time increases significantly and is limited to the operating conditions of the system. Current production vehicles are equipped with driver assistance systems of Level 1-2. Several vehicle manufacturers announced the introduction of first Level 3 functions within the next 2 years especially for highways, while the introduction of Level 4 systems is announced for 2021 to 2024 timeframe. © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2021 J. Liebl (ed.), Vehicles of Tomorrow 2019, Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-29701-5_10

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Based on the levels of automation and the use of the vehicle, there are three likely groups of automated vehicles being introduced within the next 5 years: 1. Mid-size and economy vehicles, which are privately owned and equipped with Level 1 to 3 systems, that mainly assist on highways and rural roads. 2. Luxury vehicles, which are privately owned or used with Level 4 functions limited to highways. 3. Driverless shared vehicles, which are remotely operated and used for short distance urban transport with Level 4 functions limited to a certain area (e.g. inner city). Within these three vehicles types, the requirements for steering wheels and restraint systems will vary significantly. Ranging from a traditional steering wheel and passive safety concept for manual driving to spacious interiors with relaxed sitting positions and obsolete steering wheels.

2

Impact on steering wheels

The introduction of these technologies will change the way how the user is interacting with the vehicle in general and the steering wheel in particular. While a shared driverless vehicle for urban short distance transport doesn’t need a steering wheel at all, a steering wheel is still used for manual driving in privately owned or operated vehicles with Level 2-4 systems. In those vehicles the steering wheel gets an additional new role, as it is a very present and well known control device within the car. People feel in control of their vehicle when touching the steering wheel. For example, with higher perceived risk of the traffic situation most people tend to touch their wheel with two hands on a higher position on the rim2. This means that the steering wheel is an important interface between automation and the driver in case of handing over control or communicating the automation status. Not only does the driver need to be informed, but also the automation system needs to have a certain knowledge about the driver and therefore needs an according monitoring function. Finally, when it comes to Level 4 highway automation for luxury vehicles, the end user probably will expect to use the newly owned free time for non-driving related tasks. No matter whether the driver is willing to work, enjoy the free time or eat behind the steering wheel, situations will occur where the space to the steering wheel is not sufficient. This will lead to the demand of a changing interior to make the automated journey more convenient. For driverless shared vehicles with Level 5 automation a steering wheel will probably be obsolete during normal operation. Nevertheless in certain situations, e.g. moving the vehicle in car service shops, an auxiliary control device may be necessary to move the vehicle. This is probably not a steering wheel but a control device relaying on the autonomous driving system, which can also be a remote controller. Table 1 shows a couple of steering wheel and steering system technologies, which are relevant for different automation levels. Those are explained and discussed in the following sections in detail.

3 Table 1. Steering wheel and steering system technologies for different levels of automation SAE Level Steering System and Steering Wheel Stroke Steering Wheel Functions

0 Manual

1

2

3

4

5

Partly auto- Highly auto- Fully autoAutonoAssisted mated mated mated mous Electric Power Steer- Reliable Redundant EPS or Steering (EPS) EPS by-Wire (SbW) Active Front Steering (AFS)

approx. +/- 600

> +/-360 Hands on/off detection (HoD)

> +/-180° HoD, Light element on rim, Driver monitoring camera,

Auxillary control device

Foldable steering wheel

2.1

Driver State Sensing

As described above for the different levels of automation, the driver is required to stay in the control loop (L 1,2) or to monitor the system to intervene in a short time frame. In case of a Level 1 system the driver is still responsible to control the vehicle either in lateral or longitudinal direction. To perform this task attention needs to be paid to the road environment and actively controlling the vehicle is required. Thus, an additional monitoring of the driver by the system is not required. Nevertheless, with an analysis of the driver’s input on steering wheel or pedals it is possible to estimate the driver’s anticipation in the driving tasks. This is nowadays used to detect driver’s fatigue and to assist by suggesting a break. With Level 2 systems the driver is no longer required to give any input to the control devices but needs to be ready for any immediate intervention in case of a system failure. To ensure the imminent takeover by the driver especially for lane keeping ECE-r79 requires a hands off detection system for the steering wheel. A system based on the torque sensor of the power steering system measuring the torque input of the driver on the steering wheel, is widely used in series applications. With the Addendum 78 of ECE-r79 in November 2017, new testing provisions have been created requiring the detection of a hands off situation within the full speed range of the systems operation, within 5 seconds on smooth road surfaces. Under these conditions current systems struggle in detecting the hands off condition in a timely manner. To fulfill the requirement, a direct measurement of hands on the steering wheel is already in use by several OEMs and will be adopted by further OEMs within the next two years. Among the three currently known detection methods, the capacitive measurement is superior to camera based visual detection and skin contact detection, as it is independent of lightning scene, coverage of field of view and the use of gloves. Going one-step further with the introduction of partly automated vehicles, the driver is only required to pay attention to the road environment and to intervene within a short

4

time frame. The appropriateness of handover time is not finally defined yet. Current research is discussing a time period of 3 to 10 seconds. Some user studies even indicate longer time frames to ensure that the driver fully anticipates the current traffic scenario and is aware of the situation. Nevertheless, it has been proven that the take over time among different drivers varies significantly depending on individual factors. As these systems take over the driving task, the driver is not needed to touch any control device while using the system. In parallel, the driver increasingly trusts the system as these are getting more advanced in handling many situations. This will result in an extended allowance of side tasks and a lower involvement in monitoring tasks. To overcome this, a monitoring of driver’s visual attention becomes necessary. First series applications are using infrared driver monitoring cameras located close to the steering wheel (see Fig. 1), for example on the steering column shroud, to monitor drivers’ head orientation and eye gaze. This position of the system enables a maximum detection range because the camera is looking from a lower straight frontal direction in the drivers face and thus reduces eye occlusion due to drivers’ head pitch and yaw rotation. In the future, visual attention monitoring systems will be introduced on a wider range, as NTSB3 investigations on an accident with a Level 2 automation system and planned amendments for the ECE-r79 recommend the detection of a driver’s visual attention. Nevertheless, a camera alone is not able to detect any lack in driver’s perception of the road environment, e.g. due to high workload. A driving simulator study showed that the take over time can be significantly reduced when the technology of hands-off detection is used to detect the driver putting both hands on the steering wheel to disable the automated driving system. For systems, allowing hands off driving in Level 3 or 4 the hands off detection is changing to hands on detection. The requirements will also change: to ensure that an unintended deactivation of the system is omitted when touching the steering wheel accidently i.e., the system should differentiate between touching the steering wheel and a full grip with both hands. This requires at least three different sensing zones on the steering wheel: one in the rear and two on the front (left/right side). As driverless shared urban transport vehicles are likely to come without a steering wheel, there are no related additional functions. From a driver monitoring perspective, functions like identification of occupants and detection of persons and objects left behind can become relevant to ensure passenger safety and to maximize user experience when using the service.

5

Fig. 1. Steering Wheel with sensing systems for Level 3/4 automated driving and light element for status communication.

2.2

Communication of Warnings and Automation Status

The steering wheel is already widely used in Level 1 and 2 systems to indicate lane departure warnings or blind spot warnings by a vibration. A rotating unequal mass or a linear mass exciter usually realizes this function. Additionally the steering wheel rotation angle and torque are providing information on the current lateral control of the vehicle. In environments where a moderate steering wheel angle is necessary such as highways, slight movements of the steering wheel can indicate the current operational status of the system. On windy roads and urban environments, the steering wheel movement increases and could be perceived as disturbing. Furthermore, fast rotations of the steering wheel can cause an additional injury risk. Concepts based on AFS or SbW have been presented to either reduce the rotation of the steering wheel or to eliminate it during autonomous driving. In this case, further adoptions of the ECE-r79 legislation and further research is necessary to overcome the steering wheel and steered wheel angle difference when a takeover is initiated either by the driver or the system. To communicate automation status and warnings, a visual light element (Lightbar, see Fig. 1) in the steering wheel rim can be used. A first application is using a light element in the 12 o’clock position to indicate forward collision warnings, automation status and handover processes. The 12 o’clock position of the steering wheel offers the possibility to have a salient warning function in the near- to mid-peripheral view of the driver while driving or while engaged in side tasks. Additionally, if the driver is operating with secondary devices in their lap, the position of the light element will guide the drivers’ attention back to the road environment. This can lead to significantly faster reaction times in handover scenarios as well as in frontal collision warnings. In a driving simulator study, frontal collision warnings supported by a Lightbar element reduced the average distance to stop the vehicle from 40 kph cruise speed by more than 10

6

meters (equal to 39%). Besides the first application in series production in 2018, further applications are expected within the next years. Latest concepts show applications of a light element on the complete rim. These are mainly used for decorative purposes, hand position or grip status indication and activation of secondary vehicle functions. Further use cases in the context of automation need to be investigated. Based on cost and integration complexity, a moderate amount of applications is expected in the future. 2.3

Increasing driver’s space for side tasks

Expert and user interviews show the desire to execute a broad range of side tasks, when the driver is no longer required to stay in the control loop or to monitor the system. For example, these tasks can vary from working, entertainment and eating to sleeping. All these situations have in common that the driver will need more space to execute the task. At present, the steering wheel is in close proximity to the driver, even if the seat is moved backwards and the backrest angle is inclined. Ideally, the steering wheel can be retracted to provide more space. But this is only possible for Level 4 systems where no imminent system initiated take over requests occur. As there will be collisions with surrounding interior parts while retracting the steering wheel, a simple retraction based on steering column adjustment is very limited. Several concepts have been presented to fold the steering wheel in order to retract it. This will require AFS or SbW to ensure that the steering wheel is not moving when folded, as it would cause collisions in its park position. While the introduction of any joint in the steering wheel rim will decrease the steering wheel rim stiffness significantly, it is recommended to install the rotating mechanism in the spoke area. For example, the complete rim can be rotated along an axis close to the steering wheel hub so that the steering wheel can be stowed under the steering column shroud and instrument panel (see Fig. 2). The design of an appropriate user interaction during transitions needs to be investigated as well as impacts on trust in the automation system or mode awareness issues in alignment with regulatory requirements.

Fig. 2. Option for stowing the steering wheel under the steering column shroud and instrument panel.

As a simple but very limited alternative, several OEMs already introduced smaller steering wheel geometries for Level 1 and 2 vehicles (see Fig. 3). Driving simulator studies on maximum required steering wheel stroke as well as possible shape modifications

7

show that a closed geometry is necessary to avoid driver’s grabbing onto nothing while steering. Furthermore, flattened steering wheels in 6 o’clock and 12 o’clock rim area, as used for sportive designs, have already been introduced in Europe.

Fig. 3. Smaller and flattened steering wheel for assisted and highly automated vehicles.

3

Restraint Systems for Automated Vehicles

By changing of the driver’s degree of involvement in the driving task the steering wheel shape and functionality can change or the steering wheel will disappear completely as described in the paragraphs before. At the same time the restraint system has to change. Currently the driver airbag as one of the main restraint components is integrated into the steering wheel, which provides the functional basis and support surface for the airbag. If this basis changes the airbag needs to be re-worked in order to guarantee the occupant restraint. In case the basis is removed the airbag might be re-located in other areas of the interior. Mainly at higher automation levels, the opportunity is given for a more flexible sitting position of the driver. By doing so the position of the occupant with respect to the chassis-fixed seat belt, as the other main restraint component, will change. Currently for the front seats the seat belt’s upper fixation point is mounted in the B-pillar. That means by moving the seat backwards and/or reclining the seat back the occupant’s shoulder might be rearwards of the shoulder belt. Therefore an early restraint of the occupant with the beginning of an accident is not possible. In such a situation a part of the available distance to absorb energy is lost which makes it challenging to keep the occupant loads on a reasonable level. Reclination of the seat back in addition lead to the risk to create submarining. Here the occupant might slide with the pelvis below the seat belt and abdominal injuries are likely. In addition to the above-mentioned challenges for the restraint system development the tools to develop restraint systems for automated driving are lacking behind the market development. The available dummy technology and the simulation tools used currently are made for measuring and assessing accident situations of the occupant in normative position for front, side and rear accidents. The predictability of those tools for the new sitting positions in automated driving is questionable and not proven.

8

Using the most likely groups of automated vehicles as defined in the paragraph before restraint system changes are described hereafter. For mid-size and economy vehicles most likely equipped with automation Level 1 to 3 the changes in the restraint system might be more an evolution of today’s systems. Mainly for Level 3 vehicles first changes of the restraint system might be necessary due to the ability to do limited non-driving related side tasks. Here the driver has to be prepared at any time and able to carry over the driving task immediately if the vehicle is facing a situation, which it is not capable to handle by its own. Thus, the flexibility in seating position is limited. Therefore, it is most likely that the airbag will be adjusted in a way that the protection performance works for the driving position as well as for the slightly relaxed sitting position (seat movement backwards and seat back inclination). The depth adjustment of the airbag seems to be an appropriate countermeasure to balance a good protection level of the occupant in both positions. This kind of adaptivity requires a sensing system to distinguish between a driving and relaxed occupant position. To realize a defined depth of the airbag for both position two sets of tethers are used. The airbag is filled with a dual stage inflator, first stage for bag volume of driving position and both stages for bag volume of relaxed position. By using a 2D shaped airbag (current standard) the depth can only be increased by increasing the diameter. This leads at some point to adverse effects by interaction with other restraint component, such as curtain airbag. A 3D shape can help to adjust airbag depth and diameter independently. (see Fig. 4)

Fig. 4. Driver airbag at driving position (middle) and relaxed position (right)

The belt system is expected to have minor changes and likely be mounted still at the Bpillar. For the slightly relaxed sitting position some countermeasures might be necessary to avoid submarining. Considering private owned luxury vehicles as a likely vehicle group with automation Level 4 the changes in the restraint system are more serious. The usage of the car ranges from driving the vehicle by hand to full automation. In automation mode the vehicle has the capability to handle all driving situations its own. Due to that a wider range of non-driving related tasks are imaginable. To increase the comfort more space is provided (backwards movement and seat back inclination) by increasing the seat adjustment variety. It is most likely that the seat orientation in those cars will be as today, forward facing. This is when the restraint system architecture has to be essentially revised. Important is that the seat will be in contact with the driver in any of its sitting position. Thus, the seat is one of the key elements for occupant protection. It is expected

9

that the belt system is moving into the seat in order to guarantee a permanent contact with the occupant. In automation mode the steering wheel might move to / into the instrument panel. If the seat is moved backwards at the same time, the distance between the occupant and the steering wheel with conventional airbag increases significantly. In case the steering wheel is stowed into the instrument panel the conventional driver airbag is not available any more. In such a situation the traveling distance, where the occupant is only restraint by the belt system is quite long (see Fig. 5). Loadings to the upper / lower body region might happen during that travel which already can bed judged as inacceptable.

Fig. 5. Early restraint situation with conventional driver airbag and seat integrated belt

To solve this problem new restraint systems are necessary. One approach is the integration of an airbag along the shoulder part of the seat belt. This allows to be close to the occupant at any driving situation as long the driver is buckled. This guaranties short distance / short timing to be in protection position to the occupant. Potentially this system can be used in addition to the conventional driver airbag (add-on system) and as single device, replacing the driver airbag. The concept is shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6. Principle of belt attached restraint device

10

The airbag is able to address frontal, oblique and small overlap accident condition in the current design. The main functions are to: • • • •

control the head movement relative to the thorax (head & neck loading) distribute the chest force to a wider range than the seat belt realize pretention of shoulder belt (belt routing runs through the airbag cushion) realize protection together with the driver airbag in case of add-on system / avoid hard contact with interior parts in case of stand-alone.

Furthermore, the belt attached system has the opportunity to protect the occupant from flying parts in the interior, such as books. An additional benefit may be to prevent the occupant from diving into a gap between driver airbag and curtain airbag in case of oblique impacts. Due to a potential more reclined occupant position in automated mode at Level 4 the submarining is getting a bigger issue. In different studies countermeasures are already discussed, such as multi-pretensioning, re-location of seat belt anchor point positions, seat pan airbag4. Another vehicle usage concept are driverless shared vehicles (Level 4/5). These vehicles allow even more flexibility in sitting positions. Here the most likely seat orientations are forward facing and 180° rearward facing. The occupants sitting face to face maybe shifted in vehicle position along the vehicle width. Also for those vehicles the belt will be integrated into the seat. The seat back inclination adjustability might be limited. There will be no longer a dedicated driver. All sitting positions have to be protected against accident outcome in a similar way (see Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. Example of occupant orientation and protection concept for driverless shared vehicles

Maybe these driverless shared vehicles can drive in both directions with the same speed. Therefore front accident for one seat row occupants might be rear accident for the opposite seat row occupants. Also here the belt attached airbag mentioned before has the potential to realize an appropriate protection level as stand-alone. For an overall good restraint system several parameters have to be considered, such as:

11

• • • •

balanced belt characteristics suitable airbag shape with energy absorption behavior positions of the occupants to each other and size of the vehicle and therefore the available distance for protection.

The industry is working on advanced airbag systems giving an even wider range of protection with the potential to reduce other airbag systems such as side airbags.

4

Summary

In this paper several technologies which can be integrated in steering wheels have been discussed in the context of automated driving. It is very likely that functions for hands on/off detection will be widely used for future assisted and automated vehicles to ensure a safe operation of the system as well as safe handovers between automated and manual driving. In addition, several concepts for status and warning communication like steering wheel vibration and light elements on the steering wheel rim will be used in future vehicles. With slightly modified sitting position in these vehicles, the seat belt might be unchanged but depth adaptivity of the airbag is likely to be used. Looking at higher levels of automation where the driver is not required to pay attention to the driving task at all but the vehicle still can be driven manually there are options to stow the steering wheel or to reuse them for non-driving related tasks. For vehicles with higher levels (4+) of automation the restraint has to be re-thought fundamentally and new restraint components and integration strategies have to be considered. A seat belt attached airbag at a seat integrated belt is one promising approach. The introduction of such functions is expected by 2024 or later. To be able to introduce systems like these, a variety of further investigations and changes in regulations are necessary and appropriate tools to evaluate the system capability are needed.

References 1. SAE International: J3016 – Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to Driving Automation Systems for On-Road Motor Vehicles, June 2018 2. Fourie, M., Walton, D., & Thomas, J. A.: Naturalistic observation of drivers’ hands, speed and headway. Transportation Research Part F, 14, 413-421, 2011 3. National Transportation Safety Board: NTSB/HAR-17/02, PB2017-102600, Notation 56955, September 2017 4. M. Shkoukani et al., Preparing For The Future with Safe, Intelligent Mobility, Governmental Industry Meeting, April 3-5, 2019, Washington DC

Thermoplastic composites technologies for future aircraft structures Georg Doll1 1 German Aerospace Center – Institute of Structures and Design Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt – Institut für Bauweisen und Strukturtechnologie

Abstract. Automatization and robust manufacturing processes for composite aerospace structures are getting into the focus. Thermoplastic composites could be a good opportunity for robust and automated processes. Additive manufacturing technologies like the thermoplastic tape placement combined with welding technologies gives the possibility in manufacturing complex, highly integrated parts for cost efficient structures. By reducing single manufacturing steps the part costs could be reduced significantly compared to thermoset technologies. Highly automated processes allow a significant data evaluation of process parameters. These data could be evaluated in-situ. Defects could be recognized during the process. A entire NDT process afterwards isn’t necessary any more. The welding technology could replace the riveting technology that is appropriate for the composite material. A deep understanding concerning the cooling and melting behavior of the thermoplastic materials (PPS, PEEK, PAEK) are necessary for sufficient laminate quality regarding performance and tolerances. Therefore investigation on material level is supporting the process and technological development. Keywords: Thermoplastic, tape placement, thermoplastic welding.

1

Thermoplastic Composites – an Overview

Aerospace applications mainly apply high temperature thermoplastics like PPS, PEEK and PAEK due to their excellent mechanical behavior, their resistance against media and environmental influence. For interiors amorphous thermoplastics like PEI are used. The crystalline thermoplastic like PEEK allows operating temperatures of around 150°C and PPS of around 80°C regarding their glass transition temperature. The most challenging fact is the high processing temperatures of these materials. For PEEK processing temperatures of nearly 400°C are necessary. Therefor huge efforts in tooling, heating concepts and insulation technology are required. Compared to the challenging topics above, there are several benefits with the thermoplastic material class. Thermoplastics are allowing additive manufacturing processes like 3D printing and thermoplastic tape placement. Furthermore there is the possibility in welding single parts to complex components instead of riveting. Another important fact is that there is no chemical crosslinking during tempering as with thermosets. Therefore the thermoplastic are consistent with the new REACH regulatory and other health issues. For aerospace applications implies these technologies an autoclave less consolidation of © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2021 J. Liebl (ed.), Vehicles of Tomorrow 2019, Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-29701-5_11

2

components and replace/reduce the riveting towards welding. Current applications in commercial aircrafts are the Gulfstream Rudder with CF-PPS [1], manufactured with autoclave consolidation. The J-Nose of the Airbus A340 with resistance welded rips to the skin [2]. And several thermoformed clips to connect the stringers to the frames in the Airbus A350 and Boeing Dreamliner [3]. Further technology development is going towards bigger thermoformed parts like stingers and frames, and a skin segment manufactured out of autoclave [4]. To complete the process chain, continues and robust welding technologies are developed for a rivet less joining of stringers to skin and frames to the skin, even to weld single skin segment together. The follow section will describe the state of the art technologies of thermoplastic composites for aerospace applications and their further development at the German Aerospace Center (DLR).

Fig. 1. Left: Thermoplastic Clips [3]. Right: Gulfstream G650 Thermoplastic Rudder [1]

2

Technologies for aerospace Applications – Skins

For skin manufacturing tape placement technology is the method of choice. Tape placement could be used for a two-step process beginning with preforming and an additional consolidation step afterwards. Or a one-step consolidation step could be realized, called in-situ tape placement. No additional consolidation is needed.

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Fig. 2. Possibilities for thermoplastic tape placement. Above: one-step. Below: two-step

With the additional consolidation step including an oven or autoclave process, manufacturing defects could be improved. Within the two-step process the tape placement velocity is much faster than using the in-situ process. 2.1

In-situ tape placement

Fig. 3 shows the principle of the tape placement process. A laser heating system is focusing in the nip point between the substrate and the incoming tape. A thermal inspection camera is recording the temperature at the nip point, at the substrate and at the incoming tape. With a fast measurement by the thermal camera and control & regulating system, the nip point temperature could be adapted for the ideal process temperature by controlling the laser power. A compaction roller consolidates the incoming tape with the substrate. The laminate is built up ply by ply. The tooling temperature is influencing the laminate quality.

Fig. 3. Left: principle of tape placement [5]. Right: Facility at DLR-BT

With this technology an additional consolidation with an oven or autoclave isn’t necessary anymore. Nevertheless the process is very sensitive to the quality of tape material regarding tape tolerances and pores inside the tapes. Geometries and part designs should take in account the ability in geometric developability. Fiber steering is possible with some limits. Therefore strategies for gaps and overlaps are developed. The consolidation time is quite short, the material has just a few moments of milliseconds to consolidate complete. Additional pores inside the tape couldn’t be eliminating completely. Heat is applied via laser for each ply. Therefore the first ply undergoes several times heating inserting from the following layers above. This cause an

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unsymmetrical thermal input that provokes additional thermal stresses. Both disadvantages are influencing the laminate performance. The unsymmetrical thermal input could be reduced with a better tooling heating concept. Regarding the pores, high quality tapes are needed. Fig. 4 shows different laminates with different process parameters. One of the promising and challenging parameter is the tooling temperature. High temperature thermoplastics need tooling temperatures in range of their melting temperatures. For PEEK, PAEK and PPS temperatures > 250°C are needed. Flat laminates are showing clear deformations. Wounded parts will freeze the thermal stresses. Theses stresses lead to a burst during cutting the parts.

Fig. 4. Process optimization for flat CF-PEEK laminates. Bottom right: thermal stresses inside a wounded part [6]

Highly automated processes offer the possibility in providing data at every single point of the part including process parameters like pressures, temperatures and quality of incoming tape. In comparing theses data with the ideal process parameters, process anomalies could be easily detected. A costly non-destructive-analysis (NDT) could be reduced. Scrap parts could be rejected at an early stage or during the manufacturing process. Costs for detecting scrap parts could be reduced. [7]

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2.2

Vacuum consolidation technique

If an in-situ tape placement process isn’t possible, the laminates could be consolidated with temperature, pressure and time. One promising technology is the out-of-autoclave consolidation, called vacuum consolidation technique. Laminates that are partial consolidated with a tape placement process or tacked plies could be consolidated with this technology. Temperature is applied via an oven or heated tooling above the melting temperature of the thermoplastic material. The thermoplastic viscosity is decreasing. Pressure is applied with a vacuum bag under maximum atmospheric pressure. The entrapped air inside the laminate is extracted during the process with an air flow between the layers. The air permeability through the thickness isn’t as high as between the layers. The single layers are joining together to a laminate. Again, the process is quite sensitive to the material, a good matrix flow is required and porosity inside the tapes will influence the laminate quality. In ovens the auxiallry materials like vacuum sealants, vacuum bag and breather have to be resist temperature of around 400°C. Fig. 5 shows the setup on a heated tooling. The red dots are showing the electrical cartridge inside the tooling. [8] Kapton Vacuum Foil Caul Plate Glass Fabric Separating Foil Composite Laminate Breather Tacky Tape Vacuum Channel

Steel Tooling

Fig. 5. Principle of the vacuum consolidation process setup on a heated tooling [8]

The process gives advantages compared to autoclaves regarding the facilities itself. A higher part count is just possible with an out of autoclave technique. Ideas are using continuous oven similar to automotive applications.

3

Joining Technologies for Thermoplastics

One of the most promising benefits is the possibility in welding of thermoplastic composites compared to thermoset composites. Welding could be defined in using no additional material for bonding. The joint would consist from the same material than the welding partners. Welding basics are similar to the technologies above, bringing temperature inside the weld to melt the matrix and apply pressure for consolidation. For heat inserting several methods are possible. Heating could be inserting via electrical resistance, by vibration (Ultrasonic), induction or laser. The DLR is focusing at the moment at resistance and Ultrasonic welding. The laser welding is used for the tape placement. Typical joining applications are mentioned in chapter 1. In addition Fig. 6 shows application for welding parts at a fuselage.

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Fig. 6. Typical aircraft fuselage including skin, frames (1) and stringers (2)

3.1

Definition of a thermoplastic weld

Fig. 7 will explains the principle of thermoplastic welding. At the beginning there are two parts a). With pressure there will be an intimate contact between the two surfaces b). Finally the autohesion will eliminate the interface between the two parts. To cause the autohesion, temperature is needed. [9]

Fig. 7. Three steps to develop a successful thermoplastic welding [9]

A sufficient weld accordingly needs pressure and temperature above the melting temperature of the thermoplastic material. Both parameters are influencing the weld quality. Standard analytics like micro-cuts indicate pores and less the interfaces. With etching the thermoplastics and SEM investigations the thermoplastic crystallines could be seen. If they are growing over the interface and no interface is visible anymore, the weld is successfully developed like in Fig. 7c described and can been seen in Fig. 8. With the correct process parameters in Fig. 8 right no interface is visible and a bonding on molecular level is reached. In this case the process temperature was too low. The autohesion couldn’t develop completely.

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Fig. 8. Morphology of a thermoplastic weld with a SEM. Left: insufficient weld. Right: successful weld [8, 10]

The mentioned welding behavior in Fig. 7 will be seek for the different welding technologies regarding different technologies in yielding heat inside the weld line. 3.2

Resistance Welding

Resistance welding is using an electrical conductor to yielding heat inside the weld. Therefore a welding element is placed between the two parts. As an electrical conductor metal mesh and carbon fibers could be used. Both ends of the conductor is contacted with a clamp connection, the electricity can flow. During the process the conductor develops heat and will melt the surfaces of the two parts. A weld zone is developed. Inside the weld line a homogenous temperature distribution has to be spired. Therefore thermal insulation of the weld parts is necessary. During the weld process a current leakage could happen due to the high pressure. Therefore the welding element has to be isolated against other conductive materials like carbon fibers. Glass fiber fabrics and thicker thermoplastic layers could be used as electrical isolation.

Fig. 9. Setup and principle of resistance welding in general [11]

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Fig. 10 shows a micro-cut of a resistance welded specimen. The whit circles are metal wires, worked as electrical conductor. The ellipses are glass fabric rovings that insulate the carbon fiber part form the electrical conductor. The fabric and metal wire are embedded in thermoplastic matrix (grey area).

Fig. 10. Interface of a welded specimen [12]

The resistance welding is restricted to smaller weld lines. For lager weld zones non practicable current and voltage energy is needed. Typical applications are rips to skin, or frame foots the skin.

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Cost-efficient structures with thermoplastic composites

In using thermoplastic composites new designs and manufacturing technologies are possible. As a use case the tail section (Tail Cone) of a UAV-Male was investigated in a design and manufacturing study. The tail cone base line consists out of a thin metal skin stiffened by stiffeners.

Fig. 11. Left: Concept study of a UAV Male 2020 [13]; Right. Integration of a tail cone tooling inside the tape placement cell [6]

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Within the thermoplastic concept, the skin will be manufactured in an in-situ tape winding process. The stiffeners will be integrated in the tooling and the skin is manufactured directly on the stiffeners. The stiffeners will be welded directly to the skin. No additional riveting is needed. With an integrated NDT concept, just a small NDT control has to be done on specific areas of the part. The conventional thermoset prepreg concepts provide an autoclave manufacturing of the skin, riveting the stiffeners to the skin and joining the two parts together. Intensive work for the riveting by drilling and cleaning the holes has to be done. In reducing the NDT effort, using automated fiber placement and integrated thermoplastic welding the cost could be reduced significantly compared to the standard thermoset prepreg process. The two work steps, NDT control and laying up prepreg materials are labor intensive work nowadays. High costs for the thermoplastic raw material and complex toolings could be justified with highly integrated structures for aerospace applications by using automated processes on flexible facilities to reduce costs of manual labor. 120% 100% 80% Invest Cost Toolingkosten Cost

60%

Material Cost Labour Cost

40% 20% 0%

Prepreg Thermoset

In-Situ tape placement

Fig. 12. Cost comparison between thermoset prepreg and thermoplastic in-situ tape placement [6]

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Conclusion

Thermoplastic composites are getting more and more into the focus. Starting with single thermoformed parts in the past, nowadays the focus is on welding and additive manufacturing technologies. However a deep understanding of their material behavior during the manufacturing process is needed. A deep understanding of thermal management and tooling manufacturing is needed as well to ensure a homogeneous heating and cooling of the part to avoid thermal stresses inside the part. However the material

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development and the prepreg manufacturing are still under a steady improvement. At the same time the mentioned manufacturing processes using the new materials for a better laminate and part quality. To achieving cost reduction for aerospace composite structures the whole process chain has to be analyzed including the workflow until the final part. Therefore automated processes with their possibilities in data evaluation could be a good opportunity. The biggest advantages for thermoplastic composites are the combination between the different technologies to highly integrated structures without riveting. Here will be the most cost saving factor.

References 1. Composites manufacturing magazine Homepage, http://compositesmanufacturingmagazine.com/2010/07/gulfstream-doesnt-give-wings-tail/, last access 2019/08/10. 2. Composite World Homepage, www.compositesworld.com/articles/thermoplasticcomposites-gain-leading-edge-on-the-a380, last access 2019/08/10. 3. Composite World Homepage, https://www.compositesworld.com/articles/thermoplasticcomposites-clip-time-labor-on-small-but-crucial-parts, last access 2019/08/10. 4. Composite World Homepage, https://www.compositesworld.com/articles/thermoplasticcomposite-demonstrators-eu-roadmap-for-future-airframes-, last access 2019/08/10. 5. Dreher, Patrik Nikolas und Chadwick, Ashley und Doll, Georg (2018) Optimization of DDP test parameters through DoE for AFP process improvement. Trageser GmbH. ITHEC 2018, 30.-31. Okt. 2018, Bremen, Deutschland. ISBN 978-3-933339-31-7 6. Doll, Georg und Dreher, Patrik und Nowotny, Sebastian und Calomfirescu, Mircea (2017) FFS - THERMOPLASTISCHE BAUWEISEN FÜR SEKUNDÄRSTRUKTUREN. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Luft- und Raumfahrt - Lilienthal-Oberth e.V., Bonn, 2017. Deutscher Luft- und Raumfahrtkongress 2017, 05.-07. Sept. 2017, München. 7. Chadwick, Ashley Robert und Dreher, Patrik Nikolas und Willmeroth, Mark (2018) Data Acquisition and Monitoring for Thermoplastic Components Produced using AFP. Trageser GmbH. ITHEC 2018, 30-31. Okt 2018, Bremen, Deutschland. 8. Doll, G. Kotzur, K. Herrmann, P. (2018), COST-EFFECTIVE OUT-OF-AUTOCLAVE MANUFACTURING OFTHERMOPLASTIC PANELS FOR AEROSPACE STRUCTURES, Sampe Europe Conference 2019, Nantes 9. Ageorges, C; Ye, L.: Fusion Bonding of Polymer Composites. London: Springer, 2002. ISBN: 978-1-4471-1087-3. 10. Kotzur, K. Doll, G. Herrmann, P. (2018), Analysis and Development of a brazing method to bond weld carbon fiber reinforced poly ether ketone ketone (CF/PEKK) with amorphous PEKK, Sampe Europe Conference 2019, Nantes 11. D. Stavrov and H. E. N. Bersee, “Thermal Aspects in Resistance Welding of Thermoplastic Composites,” 2003 12. Bauer, Simon und Endraß, Manuel und Jarka, Stefan und Thellmann, Arthur-Hans und Schuster, Alfons (2018) Mechanical Investigation of resistance welded high-performance reinforced thermoplastics. ITHEC 2018, 30. Okt. - 31. Okt. 2018, Bremen, Deutschland. ISBN 978-3-933339-31-7 13. Flug Revue Homepage, https://www.flugrevue.de/militaer/definitionsstudie-in-arbeiteuropaeisches-male-uav-programm/, last access 2019/08/10

High performance sustainable materials for automotive applications: dream or reality? Philippe Godano, James Taylor, Pascaline Bregeon, Davide Caprioli, Luca Mazzarella, Philippe Funda, Stefano Schnappenberger, Laura Gottardo, Santiago Clara Autoneum Management AG

Abstract. In the past, the evolution of automotive needs and regulations used to be quite foreseeable and the technologies would be, step-by-step, continuously improved. The situation is now different as the cars of tomorrow have to be Connected, Autonomous, Shared and Electric (CASE). Changing the powertrain from internal combustion to electric, adding a massive battery in the floor area, multiple sensors and large ECUs, offering the possibility to the passengers to interact with their vehicle by voice with a digital butler or to share the vehicles between hundreds of users, is not without consequences for the receiving car body and trim. New engineering measures must be found to fight the massive weight increase, the new unpleasant noise sources and to extend battery life and vehicle range. New smart thermal management solutions must be invented to optimize passenger comfort. All these technical developments have finally to deliver a car in tune with the broad societal demand of sustainability and for millennials, minimalism. OEMs are starting to react to these mega trends by developing ambitious sustainability strategies targeting CO2 reduction or increase of recycled content without compromising on performance requirements. Mastering sound and heat, as well as sustainable textile solutions, has enabled Autoneum to develop a range of products for the interior, engine bay and underbody addressing the new challenges and requirements posed by the CASE trends and delivering tangible sustainable benefits. Keywords: CASE, lightweight, sustainability, acoustics, thermal management

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Societal and automotive trends

1.1

CASE

The automotive industry is currently going through a “perfect storm”. The term “perfect storm” is used for an event in which a rare combination of circumstances dramatically aggravates the event itself. Without saying that the automotive industry didn’t experience any changes in the last decades, the improvements in safety, exterior noise and CO2 reduction were quite foreseeable. The road map of the technical solutions didn’t represent a major disruption to the existing OEMs, threatening their own existence, forcing them to acquire new competences and to imagine new business models. The © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2021 J. Liebl (ed.), Vehicles of Tomorrow 2019, Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-29701-5_12

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situation is now different. Cars of tomorrow need to be Connected, Autonomous, Shared and Electric [1]. After offering integrated navigation systems and on-board WiFi, OEMs now have to implement over-the-air software updates a la Tesla, seamless continuation of people’s digital life from their office or home to their automobile and AI enabled, voice actuated virtual butler to anticipate all passenger desires and preferences. Powerful computers, and numerous sensors like LiDARs, are expected to progressively replace the driver at the steering wheel, from level 1 (driver assistance) through level 3 (conditional automation, which is considered the tipping point) until level 5 (complete automation), through the various types of roads, traffics and weather conditions. In 2030, forecasters expect that about half of the cars will have some form of autonomy (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Global volumes of lightweight vehicles per level of autonomy as defined by the SAE, source: IHS Markit, December 2018

Knowing that we generally use our cars only few percent of the time, would it be not cheaper and more flexible to share them instead of owning them? There are already today a lot of examples of companies offering car sharing in various versions (peer to peer by private owners, free floating or stationary car sharing by providers, driver controlled or autonomous). Indeed, it is expected that ~45% of the mileage driven in China will be in a shared vehicle in 2030 (see Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2. Mobility types in private transport, percentage of total personal mileage by region in 2030, sources: Statista, PricewaterhouseCoopers, December 2018

Finally, simple electric motors enabling blistering acceleration, improved frontal crash and generating zero emissions will progressively replace internal combustion engines (ICEs) which have become too complex and costly due to continuously reducing CO2 and emissions targets. Electric cars only represent 2% in 2019 but their worldwide share is expected to reach between 15 to 25% in 2030 (see Fig. 3). To make things even more challenging, the CASE trends are not individually independent: an autonomous car needs to be connected, shared cars will ultimately need to be autonomous and electric to function as a robot taxi, the only way to make mobility-as-a-service a profitable business. This four letter acronym summarizes the hard technological factors, linked to the Silicon Valley born digital transformation, causing today’s perfect storm, which is reshaping the automotive industry. 1.2

The impacts of CASE

In order to realize CASE, a lot of new components, like for example, antennas, ECUs, sensors, actuators, cameras, e-motors and batteries, have to be integrated from a software and hardware point of view. All of these components beside delivering their main functions, create a whole new set of requirements and issues, which will need to be addressed by the OEMs to maximize the value of the car and create a coherent user experience.

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Fig. 3. Different global market share scenarios of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV)

Lightweight. As soon as a vehicle is moving, its weight is a source of energy losses. Moreover, any added weight in a vehicle creates additional weight (and cost) to maintain the performances: a heavier vehicle body requires a bigger engine to deliver the same acceleration, which requires a larger tank to keep the same range, heavier brakes to guarantee the same deceleration and stronger crash zones, which increase the weight of the body. This effect is called mass-compounding [2]. This might be, at first look, less critical for an electric car, but at the end of the day, the higher the vehicle weight, the higher the capacity of the battery in order to achieve the same range. Knowing that range anxiety is the most cited reason to not buy an electric car and considering the cost of each kWh of capacity, it is easy to understand why OEMs are more than ever interested in lightweight solutions. Interior noise. An electric car is definitely quieter, in terms of dB, than a vehicle with internal combustion engine, as shown on Fig. 4. This is already in line with general public expectation and further emphasized by the advertisement campaigns carried out by the OEMs. In a connected autonomous car scenario, for a user experiencing voice activated services or performing office work, absolute quietness will be mandatory. But quieter doesn’t necessary mean more pleasant. The absence of a combustion engine in an electric car will make other noises more audible, like wind noise, rolling noise, e- motor / ancillary noises and ventilation noise. OEMs need to ensure a good attenuation of the wind noise, mostly by carefully developing the exterior shape of the car to minimize turbulences, specific door design and tight door sealing. Rolling noise can feature strong modulations, which are very tiring. E-motors and ancillary noises are high frequency tonal noise (e-motors whine), which do not convey any emotional and/or brand image and are disturbing. All these noises are effectively reduced by exterior parts close to the sources and interior acoustic treatments preventing noises to enter the cabin and dissipating them. Ventilation noise of electric cars is a real nuisance

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without the masking effect of the ICE noise, making radiant heating surfaces appealing. This is further amplified by the wish of the interior designers to reduce ventilation nozzles to invisible slits to simplify the instrument panel visual appearance.

Fig. 4. Comparison of interior noise level in dB(A) between BEV (e-Golf), ICE (Golf 7 1.4l TSI) and PHEV (Golf GTE), between 15-47km/h speed

Exterior noise. From 2020, more severe regulations on pass-by noise will stepwise be implemented in Europe and Asia in order to protect the population against excessive stress, insomnia and other health disorders. With broader and stiffer tires, it has been shown that from 40-50km/h, an electric car is virtually as noisy with respect to exterior noise as an ICE powered car [3]. Acoustically absorbing wheelhouse outer liners and underbody panels can reduce pass-by noise caused by tires and are therefore becoming more and more a standard feature. At very low speed, electric cars are so quiet that by law, an active system warning the pedestrians must be fitted to the vehicle. Interior durability and cleanability. In a shared scenario, the interior of the cars will need to be extremely durable to resist to general wear and unavoidable vandalism, the same requirements for public transportation vehicle interiors like buses and trains. Alternatively, interior parts will have to be easily exchangeable when worn out (today replacing a floor carpet, can take up to 8 hours for a car mechanics). With immediate feedbacks and end-customer ratings, the state of the interior in terms of appearance and cleanliness might decide between success and failure of a Mobility-as-a-Service company. Thermal management. Internal combustion engines have an efficiency of about 30% (against 90% for an electric powertrain), which means that 70% of the energy is transformed into heat. That’s not great news for sustainability, but that represents an abundant source of “free” calories to heat the passenger compartment in winter. On the other side,

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in the case of electrified vehicles (xEVs), the higher system efficiency together with rather low energy density of current serial battery technologies versus conventional fuel, dictate that each single Joule (energy unit) is not wasted or dispersed in accessories, thus eroding the current fragile drive range. Under this perspective, heating the interior compartment of a hybrid or electric car can really have a large impact on the vehicle range [4]. To mitigate this problem, OEMs are adding highly efficient heat pumps and conduction heaters on the seats, the steering wheel and elbow rests. Passive insulation of the cabin with the reduction of thermal inertia of the trims, as well as the development of radiant heaters already mentioned, are being investigated. Another important aspect is the thermal management of the battery pack. In order to function best and last longer, the temperature of the battery pack has to be controlled accurately by liquid based active systems. A thermal insulation around the battery housing minimizes the power requirement of the heat exchanger, both in heating, during winter time, and in cooling phases. It therefore reduces the energy usage and hence, increases the vehicle autonomy. Aerodynamics. Aerodynamics of electric cars is at least as important as for ICE vehicles in order to ensure autonomy and energy efficiency. Benefiting de facto from a large flat surface under the middle part of the car thanks to the battery housing, OEMs tend to cover the rear area of the electric cars with more aerodynamic shields, taking advantage of the absence of rear exhaust mufflers, so that the underbody becomes fully flat. Those underbody panels need to be as light as possible to limit the weight increase and hence, the OEMs tend to prefer textile solutions instead of injection molded plastics. 1.3

Public awareness of sustainability

In the current year, over 7.6 million people went on strike and protested on the streets of Jakarta to New York for climate action this year [5]. Nasa published on the Internet an alarming increase of CO2 level in the atmosphere since 1950 [6]. Early this year, the European Green parties emerged as big winners in the European Parliament elections. [7]. First proposed at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro and celebrated each year on June 8th since 2009, the World Oceans Day is a global event, supported by UNESCO, aiming to inform the public about the importance of the oceans for our planet and to encourage solutions for healthy seas. The plastic pollution of the ocean has become viral. Typing “turtle plastic bag” in Google search engine, returns more than 50 million hits! As of 2015, at global level, approximately 6300 million tons (Mt) of plastic waste had been generated, around 9% of which had been recycled, 12% was incinerated, and 79% was accumulated in landfills or the natural environment. If current production and waste management trends continue, roughly 12000 Mt of plastic waste will be in landfills or in the natural environment by 2050 [8]. Even if there is a lack of global agreement on the origins and the solutions of climate change and pollution of the seas, it is indisputable that sustainability has recently gained considerable momentum in the society, influencing many political leaders, designers and marketers.

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1.4

Minimalism and millennials

The sustainability awareness mentioned earlier in this article, is part of a larger societal change especially in developed countries and led by people born between 1980-1996, the so-called millennials: minimalism. This change affects everything we see from clothing, architecture, furniture … but not only; it represents a rejection of the materialism, which has dominated the last century [9]. Minimalists focus on what they most value to reach clarity and purpose, summarized by the motto “style of life rather than the stuff of life”. As a consequence, a minimalist would rather rent for the experience than buy to own, and strive to reduce his environmental footprint mostly by conscious purchasing decisions and a zero waste ambition. For the automotive market, a minimalist customer would typically be attracted by a shared electric car with high recycled (and vegan!) content and an interior with simple and elegant lines. Technology is not rejected, but serves a purpose without imposing itself, for example having smart textiles instead of multiple buttons, switches and lights like the Shy-tech BMW concept [10]. To summarize, a vehicle for minimalists, if any, is a vehicle having all the basics right: lightweight, aerodynamic, thermally insulated, sustainable, responsible, quiet, with simple lines, beautifully designed and produced. 1.5

Circular economy initiative and regulations

Having recognized the lack of circularity harming the environment and with the ambition to become leader in the field of sustainability, the European Commission set a target in 2018 through its Plastics Strategy [11] to reach 10 million tons of recycled plastic used to make new products every year in Europe by 2025. As a consequence, the same European Commission announced the launch of the Circular Plastics Alliance (CPA) on December 11th 2018 [12]. The launch of the Alliance followed the preliminary assessment of pledges, which showed that pledges from suppliers of recycled plastics were sufficient to reach and even exceed the EU target of 10 million tons of recycled plastics used in Europe by 2025. But pledges received from users of recycled plastics (such as plastics converters and manufacturers) were not sufficient, and action was necessary to bridge the gap between the supply and demand. The CPA involves public and private stakeholders in the plastics value chains to promote voluntary actions and commitments for more recycled plastics. The CPA already met and, among their stakeholders, they agreed to work on five main topics: • • • • •

Collection and sorting of plastic waste Product design for recycling Recycled plastic content in products R&D and investments, including chemical recycling Monitoring of recycled plastics sold in the EU

Beside the strong participation of companies involved in packaging like Nestlé and Unilever in the CPA, it is important to note the membership of the European Association of Automotive Suppliers (CLEPA) and the European Automobile Manufacturer’s Association (ACEA). The initiative relies until now on the goodwill of the industry and

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for many observers, this is announcing a future compulsory regulation on recycled content in manufactured goods. 1.6

OEMs sustainability strategy

The sustainability strategy of carmakers starts with the reduction of the CO2 emissions of their models during driving thanks to electrification (hybrid, plug-in hybrids and full electrics) due to the aggressive worldwide CO2 fleet targets (and their related financial penalties) and the market pull created by governmental incentives as in China. Besides addressing the electric trend on the market, numerous OEMs are working on reducing their environmental footprint, as well as the ones of their suppliers, through either individual or joint initiatives. Volvo cars, the most advanced and consistent OEM in terms of circular economy, committed to reach at least 25% of recycled content of all their plastics by 2025 [13]. Drive sustainability is an automotive partnership including many OEMs (BMW Group, Daimler AG, Scania CV AB, Volkswagen Group, Volvo Cars and Group, Renault Group, Ford, Honda, Jaguar Land Rover and Toyota Motor Europe), which aims to push this topic throughout the supply chain by promoting a common approach within the industry and by integrating sustainability in their procurement process. Resource preservation by promoting the use of sustainable materials and circular use of resources in their value chains belongs to the top five directions for 2030 of this partnership. 1.7

CASES (S for sustainability)

The hard technological trends summarized by CASE are impacting the whole automotive industry in terms of competences, organizations, manufacturing infrastructure and products. A considerable amount of money is being spent and invested in the transformation in terms of research, development and new production lines putting OEMs profitability at risk. As much as these new cars will offer all these new exciting features, they will have to deliver a pleasant end-customer experience at the right price, and fulfill the sustainability regulations and societal demands. This is why at Autoneum, we believe that the future will be driven by CASES, with S standing for sustainability. This will force the whole automotive industry, OEMs and suppliers, to look into its environmental footprint and innovate to meet the new functional requirements, being at the same time more sustainable and affordable.

2

Mastering sound and heat

Autoneum is the global market and technology leader in acoustic and thermal management solutions for vehicles and a partner for practically all OEMs around the world. The company develops and produces multifunctional, lightweight components, like for example floor carpet systems, aerodynamic underfloor panels, and motor encapsulations, for optimum noise and heat protection. The innovative products and technologies make vehicles quieter, safer and lighter and therefore help to reduce fuel consumption

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and emissions. Thanks to advanced simulation techniques in the field of acoustics and thermal management, complete vehicles and components can be optimized for highest performances at lowest weight. 2.1

Interior Floor, Underbody and Engine Bay product lines

Floor carpet systems include a face carpet visible to the passenger, a backing layer and a decoupler to fill the gap to the vehicle body. Covering the floor structure of the car, this component reduces effectively the rolling noise perceived by the passengers. Being stepped on by people wearing various types of shoes (boots, high heel shoes), which are often dirty, floor carpet systems need high compression hardness, abrasion resistance, and to be easy to clean. Located behind the instrument panel, inner dash insulators block and dissipate the external noises entering inside the cabin, despite many components (brake cables, fluid pipes, air ducts, electrical wire harness) passing through it. A full underbody system includes aerodynamic shields (engine & floor under cover and rear diffuser) and wheelhouse outer liners (front and rear sets). These parts bring several benefits to the vehicle: aerodynamic improvement, rolling and engine noise reduction, as well as protection against stone impacts. The pull-out force of under floor covers is a very critical property to ensure that the parts don’t detach from the car during high speed driving. Engine bay or e-motor treatment parts have acoustic and thermal functions. They can be fixed on the body (hood or outer dash absorber for example) or directly on the powertrain (engine-mounted and gearbox insulators, or e-motor encapsulations). A hood absorber dissipates acoustic noise inside the engine bay for exterior noise benefits. Powertrain encapsulations, being the closest possible to the acoustic sources, are usually effective counter measures from a performance and engineering point of view. For ICE, they also contribute to reduce CO2 emissions thanks to their thermal insulation [14]. Materials for these parts are selected to resist to harsh environment in terms of temperature resistance, flammability, water absorption and fatigue. 2.2

Lightweighting

The vehicle ‘design for lightweight’ development process is a delicate one, since it needs to be embraced by several stakeholders including vehicle project management, design and various functions, all to be involved in a thorough target cascading procedure, which often is impacting and requiring inputs from different tier suppliers and shall be iterated along several phases of the vehicle development. In this section, we’ll exemplify just a few cases to highlight the main opportunities and common pitfalls, linked to Noise and Vibration Harshness (NVH) development process. One very first element is the identification of the vehicle concept: this is done by means of outlining the bulk directions for body architecture and other main requirements, including NVH material target weight/performance distribution among different vehicle parts. Especially with focus on the definition of the requirements and solutions of the sound package, a typical process used in the industry is to rely on CAE models

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based on Statistical Energy Analysis (SEA); by means of SEA calculations engineers can scout different solutions in order to cope with the targeted vehicle noise filtering performance, possibly coming from benchmarking campaigns of competitor vehicles. Indeed, the identification of the lightest vehicle sound package weight can be achieved by running optimization loops based on vehicle target cascading procedures, aimed at balancing the contribution of all NVH relevant elements, for example avoiding that mass (or insulation based solution) is used in components or surfaces which are less effective than absorption based solutions, or vice versa. After the concept definition phase is completed, and targets are derived for each NVH relevant component, the part design phase takes place. Part light-weighting is quintessentially achieved thanks to both part geometrical design and the exploitation of lightweight material technologies: hurdles are the likely restricted engineering efforts and timelines to design the parts and on the other side, the increased part cost, which is often driven by the higher material cost of lighter (more sophisticated) materials. That’s why the exploitation of reliable and efficient CAE tools is highly sought after by the OEMs. In this respect, Autoneum has invested a large amount of its research resources over the last couple of decades to develop methods which can be jointly applied together with the OEM alongside the full development process [15, 16]. One example has been recently launched on a web platform called Acoustic Garage [17], where anybody can try out, in a simplified form, sound package simulation methods designed by Autoneum. Additionally, users can verify the impact of part design changes and lightweight technologies at full vehicle level. In case of multi-functional parts, which is generally the case, thermal or mechanical simulations (for example Finite Element Models or FEM) are additionally required to identify the material quality and amount, which with the right design, will lead to the lowest part weight. 2.3

Technologies

In general terms, the manufacture of thermal and acoustic automotive components follows one of two approaches. In the first approach, the raw materials, such as fiber, foam, scrims, films or carpets, are combined to form a semi-finished material. Such materials are generally applicable for use in the manufacture of many different parts for multiple customers. Typical of such materials are felts or carpets in either roll or blank form and blocks of foam. These semi-finished goods are then converted into the final product in a molding or forming process followed by the cutting of all excess materials, the so-called cut-outs. The main advantage of such a subtractive manufacturing approach is that the semi-finished materials can be manufactured efficiently on large machines, often with closed loop recycling of any waste produced in the manufacture of the semi-finished material. The disadvantage is that the molding process combined with the complex 3D part shapes demanded by the automotive industry generates, by default, cut-outs that need to be recycled or disposed of, depending on the materials and the distance to the semi-finished production line. A good example is the inner dash, where provision has to be made for the steering column, HVAC and foot pedals that all pass through this component.

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The second manufacturing approach addresses some of these issues by using injection technology in a net shape manufacturing approach, here polymers such as Polypropylene (PP) or Polyamide (PA) as well as Polyurethane (PU) foam are used. Such technologies are extremely well developed for plastic components like door or pillar trims, for which the injection molded PP technology delivers high quality components in a single step. There is of course a price to pay for these benefits as the injection molding requires significant investment in each facility to pay for the preparation step, usually a melting and mixing step in an extruder, as well as complex tooling which becomes very expensive for larger components. From a property point of view, the plastic injection process leads to higher weight (and thermal inertia) and lower acoustic absorption than fiber based solutions produced with the subtractive approach. Injection technology is also frequently used for PU foam, but often still requires a subsequent cutting operation that produces hard to recycle mixed wastes. Whilst they are net shape, or near net shape, production technologies available in the market, it often makes a lot of sense to utilize subtractive manufacturing processes. Due to this, Autoneum and the automotive industry in general, has for many years utilized materials enabling the internal recycling of the cut-outs by mechanical recycling (like thermoplastic cotton shoddy felt), density separation (heavy particles of acoustic barrier and felt or foam) and thermal recycling (extrusion of PET felt in pellets), or with materials holding a market value like aluminum external recycling.

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High performance sustainable solutions

3.1

Life cycle of an automotive part

We can consider 4 main phases in the product lifecycle of an automotive part: • • • •

Raw material production and procurement Production Use phase End-of-life

Due to the long lifetime of the vehicle, the biggest sustainability impact Autoneum can have, as measured in a full LCA analysis, is during the use phase of the vehicle. This potential reduction in the vehicle CO2 footprint of a given material is mostly based on delivering weight reduction through lightweight technologies. Of course, such a benefit is only partly within the hands of Autoneum, as it depends largely on how the OEMs choose to integrate the part within the vehicle and utilize the potential weight savings. Where Autoneum has more control is in the sourcing of materials with the lowest possible CO2 footprint and in reducing waste, energy consumption and related emissions as well as water consumption during its manufacturing process. Sourcing sustainable raw materials is becoming easier, as more recycled materials are now available as alternatives to traditional “virgin” materials. Table 1. gives some examples of the CO2 footprint for each shown material in kgCO2/kg [18], which shows clearly the benefit of recycled materials. We also need to consider the maturity of

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recycling technologies. In general metal recycling is far more established than that for polymers with 30-50% of the metal extracted today being recycled. With polymers, this rate is much lower and even the most recycled polymer (PET) only reaches globally 20-22% of the manufactured PET. Polymers such as PA and PP are in the low single figures. The CO2 footprint of bio polymers would be even lower than recycled polymer, but unfortunately their high price and lack of solid supply chain prohibit today their application in the automotive industry. Table 1. Comparison of CO2 footprint of different materials, either virgin or recycled

Material Aluminum Polyamide PET PP

Virgin kgCO2/kg 11-13 5.5-5.6 2.21-2.45 2.6-2.8

Recycled kgCO2/kg 1.1-1.2 2.31-2.35 0.93-1.03 1.1-1.2

In the production phase of our components, we use a variety of manufacturing technologies such as airlay, CXN (carded cross lapped needle-punched), extrusion, injection molding, foaming, cold or hot forming and water jet cutting. In general, these technologies have a lower carbon footprint than the one of the raw material manufacture. For instance, for the three polymers considered in the table above, polymer extrusion is assessed at 0.25-0.32 kgCO2/kg and polymer molding at 0.65-0.83 kgCO2/kg [18]. The end-of-life treatment of a vehicle is one area where there is still much work to be done. Currently, the directive on end-of-life vehicle (2000/53/EC) imposes the recycling of at least 85% of the vehicle mass and the recovery of at least 95%, including energy recovery by incineration. What this means in practice is that, after removal of liquids, battery, tires, airbags, and other components that can be recycled or re-used, the rest of cars is crushed and shredded to allow the extraction of the ferrous content. A large quantity of the plastic content of the vehicle ends up therefore as part of the Automotive Shredder Residue (ASR), a complex mixture of materials in the form of dust that to date is not suitable for recycling and is largely sent to landfill [19]. 3.2

Sustainability in the innovation process

Within Autoneum’s innovation process, an “Innovation Sustainability Evaluation” has been enforced. It allows the R&T engineers to evaluate the sustainability improvement potential of an innovation based on a series of simplified questions that address its impact in the four stages of the vehicle and component life cycle. Whilst not equivalent to a full Life Cycle Analysis (LCA), the tool allows to easily evaluate innovations from conception through delivery, making sure that, gradually, technologies are becoming more and more sustainable.

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3.3

Why recycled PET?

Polyester fiber has become the fiber of choice within the textile industry, because of its physical properties, price, recyclability, and versatility, which offer a unique set of advantages unmatched by any other fiber [20], the same conclusion applies to 3D automotive textile components. Polyester is indeed widely used in needle-punched carpets, scrims, seat textiles, and various airlay and carded felts for interior and exterior applications. This polymer is also available as co-Polyester with a lower melting point (110 to 180°C instead of 250°C) for the purpose of thermoplastic binder fiber or as glue, opening the door to mono-material multi-layer constructions. Recycled cotton fibers (also called pulled or shoddy fibers) only compete on cost, this is why they are still used in airlay felt process in combination with co-polyester fibers (for interior applications) or resins (for exterior applications). Polyamide is still the preferred polymer to produce yarns for tufted carpets, but some OEMs already source PET tufted carpets in Asia and North America. PP fibers and yarns have impressive cleanability and stain resistance (PP is a non-polar material), but due to its low melting temperature, they are today mostly used in specific applications as binder material. Only considering the amount of PET resin for bottle application and excluding the fiber application, this material ranks 5th in the thermoplastic polymer demand distribution by resin types in 2018 in Europe, after PP, PE-LD/PE-LLD, PE-MD/PE-HD and PVC [21]. Once the cap and the label are removed, bottles are cleaned, sorted by color and shredded. PET bottle flakes can be used directly with the addition of color pigments as raw material for the extrusion of staple fibers for carpet and felt. This is a much easier process compared to the chemical recycling of textiles made of multiple types of fibers, or the mechanical and thermal recycling of end-of-life automotive components, with each time a different design and composition. This explains the high recycling rate of PET bottles. Combining the large production amount of PET resin for bottle with the highest recycling grade among polymers, its properties, versatility and recyclability, it is easily understandable that Autoneum has chosen recycled PET bottle flakes as the base material for the production of high performance, sustainable automotive components. 3.4

Reducing and re-using production waste

As mentioned before, lightweight acoustically and thermally effective textile products have the drawback to produce waste because of the subtractive manufacturing approach. How is this drawback mitigated? At first, the quantity of waste is reduced thanks to design for sustainability taking place in the early phase of the part development. Once the blank dimensions have been optimized using process simulation and advanced blank clamping, different strategies can be applied. If the parts are small enough to be produced in multiple cavities inside one blank, nesting will be investigated. Depending on the part shape, it might be possible to use non-rectangular blanks, for example trapezoidal or even more complex shapes. The stage of cutting the blank has its importance for materials which are converted: pre-cutting the blank just after the semi-finish line and before the conversion

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line creates a short closed recycling loop before the material is processed (heated and molded). Last but not least, in Autoneum’s Injection Fiber Process, or IFP-R2, blanks of felt are produced with variable local area weight to maximize function and minimize fibers outside the finished part (fibers are deposited where they are needed). Ultimately, the remaining production waste needs to be recycled. Mechanical recycling is generally preferred as it allows to process a mixture of fibers, including nonsynthetic fibers like cotton, and to separate different materials by density. It also minimizes the amount of energy required. The mechanically recycled fibers are then re-used to produce acoustic and thermal felts again. In the case of mono-material synthetic constructions, like 100% PET based Ultra-Silent underbody shields, or polyolefin based acoustic barrier particles recovered after density separation, thermal recycling can be implemented to extrude pellets for the subsequent internal production processes. This thermal process represents the best compromise between investment, efficacy and quality in the long term. 3.5

Quantifying CO2 reduction by lightweight

Lightweight components have a positive impact on fuel economy or energy consumption during vehicle life: a lighter car consumes less fuel or energy in a kilometer with respect to their heavier counterparts. What does that mean for the CO2 emissions? In ICEs and hybrid vehicles, fuel consumption is also strictly correlated to CO2 emission: CO2 is a direct result of the combustion reaction, that means that the amount of CO2 a car emits is directly related to the amount of fuel it consumes. The approaching 2021 new emission regulation in Europe, with the parallel introduction of new penalties for the manufacturer that exceeds the emission fleet limit, gives the possibility to attribute to 1kg of vehicle mass saved, an economic value proportional to the reduction in penalty that the OEM will have to pay. The correlation between mass reduction and vehicle emission reduction has been proven by several papers [22, 23, 24] and can be positioned between 3.5 to 4% CO2 saved for 10% vehicle mass reduction considering different driving cycles (NEDC, FTP, WLTP). By projecting these values on 2018 average EU fleet weight and emission, every kilogram reduced can be worth around 5.2 € of incoming EU CO2 penalty. Considering the vehicle emissions during its use, the benefit sums up to 5.5kg of CO2 for every 100’000 km per vehicle. For BEVs, the benefit from an improved energy consumption cannot be linked to CO2 penalties or driving emission savings, but it’s rather off-setting the emissions from the phase of energy production which later is used to charge the battery. Thus, in this case, there are two main factors to be considered in order to evaluate the effects of the vehicle weight reduction: firstly, the vehicle energy consumption, generally expressed in Wh/km, ranging in current production BEVs between 150-250 Wh/km. Secondly, the energy mix of the country where the energy is produced to charge the vehicle. For example, the average emission is 0.25 tons of CO2 per megawatt hour when taking Europe as reference [25]. Combining these two factors with the improvement in vehicle energy savings by reference literature [22] of 3.6% every 100 kilogram of vehicle weight reduced, and considering a reasonable value of secondary mass savings (only 50% of the value reported), it can be found that for BEVs, every kilogram reduced is

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worth around 2.2kg CO2 for every 100’000 km per vehicle. This is approximately only 40% of the value for an ICE, but still not negligible. 3.6

Sustainability champions

Keeping in mind high recycled content, low waste and lightweight properties, specific Autoneum’s product and technology examples with remarkable sustainability value are provided for the product lines interior floor, underbody and engine bay. Di-Light for needle-punched carpet. Di-Light fibers produced in Europe offer 100% post-consumer recycled content whereas standard carpet fibers are typically made of virgin PET. Di-Light carpets are recognized in the automotive industry as the benchmark in terms of abrasion resistance. Using recycled PET from bottle flakes reduces CO2, depletion of resources and pollution in the environment. In fact, between 2015 and 2018 more than 10’000 tons of PET bottle flakes have been recycled in Di-Light carpets, saving more than 18’000 tons of CO2. Di-Light fibers can also be recycled into lightweight acoustic and thermal felts. A Di-Light carpet is 20% lighter than a conventional needledpunch face carpet: this translates to a saving every 100’000 km of 0.5 kg of CO2 for a BEV and 1.2kg of CO2 for an ICE car. In addition to the sustainability credentials, DiLight carpets have loftier pile, higher resilience and better coverage with more uniform appearance, all the necessary properties of a high quality automotive carpet. Ultra-Silent for underbody panels. While alternative products are based on PP injection molded, Ultra-Silent is made of PET fibers only. Autoneum’s plant in Sevelen, located in Switzerland, uses post-consumer waste like bottle flakes as a source of PET instead of virgin polymer, hence reducing resource depletion and pollution in the environment: Ultra-Silent recipes contains up to 70% of recycled polymer. In addition, the trim waste generated by the conversion process can be processed and entirely re-used for the manufacturing of new fiber blanks in a closed recycling loop. Hence, no waste is landfilled nor transported outside our production sites. Since the parts are made from 100% PET, end-of-life recycling is potentially feasible. Lightweight underbody UltraSilent shields are 50% lighter than solid plastic parts: this leads to a weight reduction of about 1.5kg per car in average, which represents a saving every 100’000km of 3.3 kg of CO2 for a BEV and 8.3kg of CO2 for an ICE car. On top of its sustainability advantages, Ultra-Silent can be used as a battery housing thermal insulator, reduces rolling noise and is a benchmark in terms of durability and resistance to gravel impact. It has already improved the aerodynamic of millions of cars in the world. Hybrid-Acoustics PET for powertrain mounted acoustic insulators. Hybrid-Acoustics PET is made exclusively from PET fibers, while conventional alternative products present a combination of different materials, for instance a PP-based fiber carrier with injected PUR foam. Hybrid-Acoustics PET parts contain up to 50% recycled PET fibers from post-consumer and post-industrial content. By minimizing the use of virgin

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materials, depletion of resources and pollution in the environment is thus minimized. The 100% PET material composition of this technology not only enables end-of-life recycling of parts, it also allows a zero waste manufacturing process: trim waste from conversion process can be processed and re-used for the manufacturing of new fiber blanks, which implies that no waste material is generated. Components based on Hybrid-Acoustics PET are 40% lighter than alternative insulating products: this leads to a weight reduction of about 0.5kg per car which translates to a saving every 100’000 km of 1.1 kg of CO2 for a BEV and 2.8kg of CO2 for an ICE car. Furthermore, HybridAcoustics PET insulators are mounted directly on the powertrain in order to attenuate noise emissions at the source: this reduces interior and exterior vehicle noise levels and allows for a lightweight sound pack approach at vehicle level. As a result, weight can be saved also on additional components on the car.

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Conclusion

The automotive market is in a perfect storm. The huge challenges represented by the CASE trends should not overshadow the needed improvements in acoustic, thermal and visual comfort of the end-users in an ever more stressful society and the general demand for more sustainability. Sustainable solutions have to address the climate change (CO2 emissions) and environmental pollution whilst still remaining affordable. Emissions are reduced by better aerodynamics, improved thermal management and lightweight design. The automotive industry has to leverage on the market pull and on the opportunities of the circular economy, including different business sectors like packaging and garment, to increase the amount of recycled content in the cars before the legislation comes. Identifying recycled materials like PET bottle flakes, which meets performance, economical and supply chain automotive requirements as well as clear personal commitment from top managers, cascaded down to their procurement organization by quantified metrics, are key success factors. For interior and exterior automotive trim parts, Autoneum’s sustainable product offering and related sales proves that high performance and sustainability are not just a dream.

References 1. Daimler CASE, https://www.daimler.com/case/en/ 2. Dr. Donald E. Malen, Secondary Mass Changes in Vehicle Design, Estimation and Application, January 2013, http://www.worldautosteel.org 3. Marie Agnès Pallas, Michel Berengier, Roger Chatagnon, Martin Czuka, Marco Conter, et al., Towards a model for electric vehicle noise emission in the European prediction method CNOSSOS-EU. Applied Acoustics, Elsevier, 2016, 113, pp.89-101. 10.1016 / j. apacoust. 2016.06.012. hal-01355872 4. Paolo Iora, Laura Tribioli, Effect of Ambient temperature on Electric Vehicles’ energy consumption and range: Model Definition and Sensitivity Analysis Based on Nissan Leaf Data, World Electric Vehicle Journal, January 7th, 2019 5. https://globalclimatestrike.net/

17 6. https://climate.nasa.gov/climate_resources/24/graphic-the-relentless-rise-of-carbondioxide/ 7. https://www.ft.com/, Green parties emerged as big winners in European Parliament elections, Jim Brunsden, May 28th 2019 8. Roland Geyer, Jenna Jambeck, Kara Lavender Law, Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made, Science Advances 3(7):e1700782 · July 2017 9. https://blog.feedr.co/blog/millennials-and-the-minimalism-trend/, March 19th, 2018 10. https://www.designboom.com/technology/electric-bmw-vision-inext-shy-tech-11-04-2018/ 11. European Commission, a European strategy for plastics in a circular economy 12. https://ec.europa.eu/docsroom/documents/36361 13. https://group.volvocars.com/news/sustainability/2018/volvo-aims-for-25-per-centrecycled-plastics-in-cars-from-2025 14. https://www.autoneum.com/wpcontent/uploads/2017/09/220733_Autoneum_Flyer_ThermalManagement.pdf 15. Lafont T, Bertolini C, Courtois T. Application of Statistical Energy Analysis on a car: from the vehicle modeling to parts targeting. Internoise 2016 16. Bertolini C, Courtois T. An SEA-based Procedure for the Optimal Definition of the Balance between Absorption and Insulation of Lightweight Sound Package Parts. SAE Technical Paper 2012-01-1527 17. www.acoustics.autoneum.com 18. Ashby, M.F.: Materials and the Environment Eco-Informed Material Choice. ButterworthHeinemann, UK (2009) 19. Cossu, R,Lai, T.: Automotive Shredder Residue (ASR) management: An Overview. Waste Management (45), November 2015, 143-151 20. https://ihsmarkit.com/products/polyester-fibers-chemical-economics-handbook.html 21. https://www.plasticseurope.org/application/files/9715/7129/9584/FINAL_web_version_Pl astics_the_facts2019_14102019.pdf 22. ICCT – WORKING PAPER 2014-9, The WLTP: How a new test procedure for cars will affect fuel consumption values in the EU 23. Energy Storage & Transportation Systems Idaho National Laboratory / Advanced Vehicle Testing Activity (AVTA) – Vehicle Mass Impact on Vehicle Losses and Fuel Economy 24. IHS Report 2014 – Weight Reduction in Automotive Design and Manufacture 25. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/cache/infographs/energy/bloc-2a.html

Tagungsbericht Dipl.-Ing. Michael Reichenbach

1 © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2021 J. Liebl (ed.), Vehicles of Tomorrow 2019, Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-29701-5_13

Tagungsbericht

Vehicles of tomorrow 2019 Die ATZ-Fachtagung "Fahrzeuge von morgen" möchte Orientierung geben, welche neuen Materialien und Verbindungstechniken es in die Umsetzung schaffen. Dazu gehören auch innovative Exterieur- und Interieurdesigns. Durch die Trends Elektromobilität und automatisiertes Fahren gibt es Unsicherheiten in der Automobilentwicklung, welches System in welcher Ausprägung und Vielfalt kommen wird. Die ATZ-Fachtagung "Fahrzeuge von morgen" zeigt in Frankfurt am Main Handlungswege auf: Welche neuen Materialien und innovativen Fahrzeugkonzepte können es bei einer großen Bandbreite an Exterieur- und Interieurdesigns, aber auch Mobilitätskonzepten und -dienstleistungen in die Serie schaffen? Prof. Lutz Eckstein, ika der RWTH Aachen, spannte bei der Begrüßung der rund 100 Teilnehmer den großen Rahmen auf. In fünf Ebenen unterteilt, setzt die Politik auf dem ersten Niveau die Vorgaben. Einflüsse machen aber auch soziale Gruppierungen, zu nennen sei hier Greta Thunberg, immer stärker geltend. Die dritte Ebene bestehe aus den ökonomischen Zwängen, seien sie volks- oder betriebswirtschaftlich betrachtet. "Auf Ebene vier kommen Nutzer ins Spiel", strukturierte der Institutsleiter. Erst in der fünften Ebene sind die Ingenieure anzutreffen, die neue Lösungen entwickeln sollen - und das für Systeme von der Mikromobilität bis zum Güterfernverkehr. Dabei genüge es nicht mehr, das Fahrzeug als in sich geschlossenes System zu betrachten. "Vielmehr hält eine vernetzte Denkweise als 'Mobilität in Summe' Einzug", stellte Eckstein fest. Werbung kann Finanzierung des autonomen Fahrens unterstützen "Sharingdienste krempeln die Mobilitätswelt um", konstatierte Florian Herrmann, Fraunhofer IAO, in seiner Keynote im Forschungs- und Bildungszentrum HOLM am Frankfurter Flughafen. Gestern wurde ein Pkw noch als Satz vieler Komponenten verstanden. Heute definiert er sich über Funktionen, die Teil eines mobilen Ökosystems seien. "Wir müssen lernen, das Auto als integrativen Bestandteil dieses Systems zu begreifen", sagte Herrmann. Bei den Mobilitätsdiensten haben die Nutzer laut der IAO Studie "The Value Time" (in Kooperation mit Horváth & Partner) eine

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Tagungsbericht Zahlungsbereitschaft von 1000 bis 1400 Euro für das autonome Fahren erklärt, was aber nicht für die Finanzierung der notwendigen Technologien ausreiche. Als Ausgleich können vielfältige, dynamische und lokalisierte sowie personalisierte Werbeformen auf Robotaxis, People Movern etc. dienen, um die Kosten einzuspielen. Interieurkonzept der Zukunft Für das SAE-Level-5-Fahren sieht Han Hendriks, Yanfeng Technology, folgendes Szenario: Die Erfahrung mit Multisensorik im Innenraum ersetze die herkömmliche Bedienung über solide Tasten und Schalter. Der Dateneingang und -ausgang vom Fahrzeug und zurück werde auf neue Wege gestellt. Komfort und Ruhe gewönnen an Bedeutung, "Silence is gold". Mit dem kreierten Smart-Cabin-Konzept gelangt man in eine vernetzte und mobile neue Welt mit vielfältigen Licht-, Duft-, Desinfizierungsund Unterhaltungsfunktionen. Dieses Konzept habe auch die internen Prozesse des neu aufgestellten chinesischen Zulieferers verändert, die Transformation angetrieben. "Es holte uns aus der Komfortzone", sagte der CTO. Derzeit sammeln 20 PilotTestfahrzeuge, die mit der innovativen Kabinentechnik ausgestattet sind, Daten bei Probanden in China. "Der beste Weg, die Zukunft vorauszusagen, ist, sie zu gestalten", schloss Hendriks. Mehr 3-D-Touchscreens ins Cockpit Die möglichen Formen der Ästhetik für künftige Fahrzeugkonzepte brachte Anders Warming, Warming Design, ins Spiel. "Ein gutes Design muss bemerkenswert sein, man muss es nachzeichnen können, wenn man sich umgedreht hat", stellte er fest. Diesen Wow-Effekt sieht der Stardesigner, der schon für BMW, Volkswagen und Borgward gearbeitet hat, immer öfter in der Architektur von Städten und Häusern, aus denen er Anleihen für das Auto von morgen nimmt, sei es für das Exterieur- oder Interieurdesign. Wichtig ist ihm, den Stellenwert des 3-D-Touchscreens zu stärken, denn mit diesem HMI-System könne auf die zu oft verwendeten Schalter, Hebel und Taster verzichtet werden, der Innenraum werde klarer und aufgeräumter. Viele von ihm vorgeschlagene Bauteile können nur mit neuen Materialien und dem 3-D-Drucker hergestellt werden, wozu die Stylisten eine gute Grundlagenausbildung in möglicher Produktionstechnik

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Tagungsbericht an den Universitäten genießen sollten. Für ein atemberaubendes Design darf kein Stein auf dem anderen bleiben, "die Designer dürfen spinnen".

[Quelle: Reichenbach, M: „Mobilität vernetzt und in Summe denken “,: https://www.atzlive.de/veranstaltungen/fahrzeuge-von-morgen/rueckblick/.]

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