Urban Morphology, Architectural Typology and Cities in Transition 9782759826742

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Current Natural Sciences

Yinsheng TIAN, Kai GU and Wei TAO

Urban Morphology, Architectural Typology and Cities in Transition

5e SCIENCE PRESS

ec%> sciences

The research on which this book is b8lled wllB partially funded by the China Natural Science Foundation (Award references: 40971096, 41271178)

This book was originally published by Science Press,

© Science Press, 2014.

Printed in France

EDP Sciences- ISBN(print): 978-27598-2673-5- ISBN(ebook): 978-2-7598-2674-2 All rights relative to translation, adaptation and reproduction by any means whatsoever are reserved, worldwide. In accordance with the terms of paragraphs 2 and 3 of Article 41 of the French Act dated March 11, 1957, "copies or reproductions reserved strictly for private use and not intended for collective use" and, on the other hand, analyses and short quotations for example or illustrative purposes, are allowed. Otherwise, "any representation or reproduction - whether in full or in part - without the consent of the author or of his successors or BBsigns, is unlawful" (Article 40, paragraph 1). Any representation or reproduction, by any means whatsoever, will therefore be deemed an infringement of copyright punishable under Articles 425 and following of the French

Penal Code. The printed edition is not for sale in Chinese mainland. Customers in Chinese mainland ple8.'3e order the print book from Science Press. ISBN of the China edition: Science Press ISBN: 978-7-03-040218-9 © Science Press, EDP Sciences, 2021

Contributors Dr Michael Barke, University of Northumbria, UK Professor Giancarlo Cataldi,Professor Gian Luigi Maffei and Professor Paolo Vaccaro, Universitd degli Studi di Firenze,Italy Professor Michael Conzen, University of Chicago, USA Dr Fei Chen and Dr Ombretta Romice, University of Strathclyde, UK

Dr Kai Gu, University of Auckland,New Zealand Professor Wei Tao,South China Normal University,China Professor Yinsheng Tian,South China University of Technology,China Professor Jeremy Whitehand and Susan Whitehand, University of Birrningham,UK

Copyright Information Whitehand J W R British urban morphology: The Conzenian tradition. Urban Morphology,2001, 5(2): 103~ 109. Reprinted by permission of Urban Morphology and the author. Conzen M P. How cities internalize their former urban fringes: A cross-cultural comparison. Urban

Morphology,2009,130):29~54.

Reprinted by permis-

sion of Urban Morphology and the author. Cataldi G,Maffei G L, Vaccaro P. Saverio Muratori and the Italian school of planning typology. Urban Morphology, 2002,6 (1): 3~14. Reprinted by permission of Urban Morphology and the authors. Cataldi G. From Muratori to Caniggia: The origins and development of the Italian school of design typology. Urban Morphology, 2003, 7(1): 19~34. Reprinted by permission of Urban Morphology and the author. Whitehand J W R, Gu K Research on Chinese urban form: Retrospect and prospect. Progress in Human Geography,2006,30(3)

:337~355.

The final,defini-

tive version of this paper has been published in Progress in Human Geography, 30(3), 2006 by SAGE Publications Ltd. All rights reserved. ©Progress in Human Geography. Gu K, Tian Y S, Whitehand J W R, Whitehand S M Residential building types as an evolutionary process: The Guangzhou area, China. Urban Morphology,2008, 12(2): 97 ~ 116. Reprinted by permission of Urban Morphology and the authors. Chen F, Romice 0. Preserving the cultural identity of Chinese cities in urban design through a typomorphological approach. Urban Design International,2009, 14(1): 36~54. Reprinted by permission of Urban Design International and the authors.

Preface In September 2009, about 250 scholars and practitioners from 26 countries attended the Sixteenth International Seminar on Urban Form in Guangzhou, China. Centred on the theme of urban morphology and urban transformation, many of the conference papers presented recent developments in the study of urban landscapes that are of concern to architects, planners and geographers. The success of the conference reflected the increasing interest in spatial analysis of urban form and its significance for urban planning and design practice. Although the conference papers represented diverse perspectives and approaches to the physical urban environment,research of the Anglo-German geographical school,or Conzenian school, associated with M

R

G. Conzen and the Italian architectural

school, the Caniggian school, associated with G. Caniggia and S. Muratori, were key components. The investigation of the traditions and recent practical applications of these two schools of thought has formed the basis of this book. The Guangzhou conference, the first organized by the International Seminar on Urban Form in Asia, reflected the increasing research interest in Chinese cities at a time of their unprecedented growth and change. This book reviews the work of the Conzenian and Caniggian schools and exemplifies some of the ideas and methods associated with these schools, particularly in relation to changing Chinese urban form. The orgainzation of the conference and the preparation of this book have been aided by a large number of individuals and orgainzations. We should like to record here a number of general acknowledgements. The Natural Science Foundation of China contributed financially to the preparation of the conference and Dr Michael Barke assisted with the financial management. The School of Architecture and Civil Engineering and the State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Building Science at the South China University of Technology hosted the conference on the university campus. Dr Feng Song at Beijing University, Daisy X Dai at Tongji University, Professor Beisi Jia at Hong Kong University, Dr Ian Morley at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, and Professor Yinsheng Tian at South China University of Technology organized post-conference excursions in Beijing,Shang-

viii

Urban Morphology,Architectural Typology and Cities in Transition

hai,Hong Kong,Shenzhen and Guangzhou respectively. We are grateful to Professor Jingtang He, Professor Piper Gaubatz, Professor J ererny Whitehand, Professor Michael Conzen,Professor Gian Luigi Maffei,Professor Nicola Marzot and Mr Haojun Y e for their keynote lectures. Finally, we should like to record our

indebtedness to Professor Jeremy Whitehand and Mrs Susan Whitehand for their detailed guidance and generous assistance in the preparation of the conference and the publication of the book. Yinsheng Tian, South China University of Technology Kai Gu, University of Auckland Wei Tao,South China Normal University

Contents Preface Chapter 1

The Structure of Urban Form: Conzenian and Caniggian Ideas

·· · ·· · 1

1. 1 Research on Urban Form · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · 1 1. 2 Urban Morphology and Design Typology ··· ··· ··· ·················· ...... 2 1. 3 Urban Morphology of Chinese Cities · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 4 1. 4 Structure of the Book · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 5 Notes and References · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · .. ·.. 7 Chapter 2 British Urban Morphology:The Conzenian Tradition ·················· 10 2. 1 The Antecedents of M. R. G. Conzen · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · 10 2. 2 Conzen' s Ideas and their Influence ··· ·················· ··· ··· ··· ......... 11 2. 3 Recent Research ··· ··············· ··· ··· ··· ·················· ··· ··· ··· ········· 14 2. 4

Conclusions · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · 18

Notes and References · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · .. · 18 Chapter 3 How Cities Internalize their Former Urban Fringes: A

Cross-Cultural Comparison ················································ 20 3. 1 Discovery and Conceptualization of Fringe Belts · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · 21 3. 2 A Strategy for Comparative Study of Fringe Belts ··· ··· ··· ··· ········· 31 3. 3 Dynamics and Differentiation of Fringe-Belt Types

··· ··· ··· ········· 36

3. 4 A Framework for Comparative Study ·· · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · 44 3. 5 Closing Remarks · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · 48 Notes and References · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · 49 Chapter 4 Urban Transformation in an Inner City Area: Morphological Processes in Shieldfield,Newcastle upon Tyne, UK····················· 56

4. 1 Introduction · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · 56 4. 2 Creating Shieldfield: The First Transformation ······ ··· ··· ··· ········· 59 4. 3 Redeveloping Shieldfield: The Second Transformation · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · 64 4. 4 Shieldfield and the Inner Fringe Belt: A Third liansformation? · · · · · · · · · 72 Notes and References

· · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · 77

•

X

•

Chapter 5

5.1 5. 2

Urban Morphology,Architectural Typology and Cities in Transition Saverio Muratori and the Italian School of Planning Typology

79

Saverio Muratori ·· · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · 79 Saverio Muratori' s Roman School · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · 83

5. 3 The Dispersal from Rome · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · 84 5. 4 Gianfranco Caniggia · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · .. · 86 5. 5 The Present School · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · 88 Notes and References Chapter 6

·· · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · 91

From Muratori to Caniggia: The Origins and Development of the Italian School of Design Typology · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · 95

6. 1

Muratori' s Roman School · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · 95

6. 2 Muratori as a Philosopher · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · 96 6. 3 Muratori' s Cultural Background ··· ·················· ··· ··· ··· ············ 97 6. 4 The Architectural Issue of Technique and Language ··· ··· ············ 99 6. 5 The Philosophical Issue of Typological 'Features' ·················· 100 6. 6 The Constructional Issue of the Built Environment ············ ··· ··· 102 6. 7 The Urban Issue of the Development of Towns ··············· ··· ··· 103 6. 8 The Geographical Issue of the Human Environment ········· ··· ··· 105 6. 9 The Historical Issue of the Development of Civilization ······ ··· ··· 106 6. 10

The Scuola Muratoriana ··· ··············· ··· ··· ··· ·················· ··· ··· 107

6. 11 6. 12

Formative Generation Gaps ············ ··· ··· ··· ·················· ··· ··· 108 The Relative Accomplishments of Muratori and Caniggia · · · · · · · · · 112

6. 13

Final Judgement and Criticism ·········································· 113

6. 14 Conclusions ······ ··· ··· ··· ·················· ··· ··· ··· ·················· ··· ··· 114 Notes and References · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · 115 Chapter 7 Research on Chinese Urban Form:Retrospect and Prospect········· 120 7. 1 Research on Traditional Cities ············································· 121 7. 2 Research on Early Modern Cities ······ ··· ··· ··· ·················· ··· ... 129 7. 3 Research on Socialist and Post-Reform Cities ·················· ··· ··· 131 7. 4 Historical Preservation and Conservation ··· ··· ·················· ··· ··· 132 7. 5 The Challenge for Urban Morphology ................................. 133 7. 6 The Application of Conzenian and Caniggian Approaches

··· ··· ··· 135

7. 7 Conclusions ····································································· 137 Notes and References ··· ··· ··· ··· ·················· ··· ··· ··· ·················· ··· ... 139

Contents

01apter 8

xi

Rrsklmlial Building 'JYpes as an Ewlutilllllll"Y l'roceoi: The Guangzhou Area,Orlna ..................................................................... 147

8. 1

Guangzhou: History and Research Sources · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · 148

8. 2 8. 3

Rural and Small-Town Building Types · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · 150 Residential Building Forms in Guangzhou ................................. 153

8. 4

Multi-Storey Zhutongwu and Zhutongwu Flats

· · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · 155 8. 5 The Xiguan Dawu · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · 157 8. 6 8. 7

The Qilou · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · 159 The Dongshan House ......................................................... 160

8. 8

Adaptations and New Types ············ ··· ··· ··· ··············· ··· ··· ··· ······ 161

8. 9

Interpreting Residential Building Forms in Guangzhou

8. 10

·················· 163

Conclusions ··· ··· ··· ··· ··············· ··· ··· ··· ·················· ··· ··· ··· ······ 167

Notes and References · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 169 Olapta- 9 Preserving the Cultumlldentity of sJ. In both this school of thought and the Conzenian one the urban landscape is viewed as a historical phenomenon: past, present and future are indissolubly linked. In both schools, sound planning and design are rooted in understanding the pastl26l. There are intriguing links between Conzenian and Caniggian thinking. At the core of Caniggian thinking is the way in which physical structures, notably buildings,are altered over time, for example by certain recurrent types of adaptation and addition. Such changes to existing buildings eventually become the basis for a new generation of buildings,a new 'type' which contains,from its inception, features that in earlier buildings had been adaptations. This sequence is known as a ' typological process *'l. The link between this line of thought and a major aspect of Conzenian thinking merits much more exploration. Conzen emphasized how different building types are constructed in different historical periods and contribute to the character of the different growth phases that can be distinguished in a city's development["]. These growth phases, each constrained by features already existing as a

• 4 •

Urban Morphology,Architectural Typology and Cities in Transition

result of earlier phases, result in cities being structured into a variety of areas each of which is to varying degree distinct from its neighbours in physical character. These areas are referred to variously as morphological regions, urban landscape units,or character areas. Each area tends to be historically influenced in two ways :first, through the environment provided by existing forms, especially their layout; secondly, by the way in which forms, most obviously buildings, though new and embodying the innovations of their period of construction, also embody characteristics 'inherited' from previous generations of forms. To understand

this process of creating a mosaic of character areas, which is itself in flux, it is necessary to appreciate not only the physical sequences of which the mosaic is a product, but also the decision-making processes, planned and spontaneous, that it represents[29J.

1. 3

Urban Morphology of Chinese Cities

Chinese cities have undergone unprecedented growth and transformation, presenting great challenges for the comprehension and management of urban landscape change. The threat of homogenization of the built environment has become apparent in the era of economic and intellectual globalization. At the same time, there is increasing awareness of the value of preserving regional and local distinctiveness in urban forms for reinforcing social identity and supporting cultural tourism. In the past decade,research on Chinese urban form has grown rapidly both in China itself and in other parts of the world. Hitherto research on Chinese urban form across a range of disciplines, including architectural history, urban planning, archaeology and urban geography, has tended to be descriptive and has contained scant comparison, either of findings or methods, with that on towns and cities in other parts of the world. Analytical and conceptual approaches, such as have been applied to good effect within parts of Europe, have been comparatively rare. Urban morphological and design typological ideas can provide a frame of reference that helps understanding of the extent to which generalizations that have been recognized elsewhere in the world can be applied in China Language barriers, contrasts in theoretical orientation and the long isolation of China from the outside world may explain the fact that very few publications have focused on the urban morphology and design typology of Chinese cities. Pau-

Chapter 1 The Structure of Urban Fonn, Conzenian and Caniggian Ideas

• 5 •

city of historical and contemporary ground plans of Chinese cities has been a serious impediment. However, to assist conservation planning, many important

historical cities, such as Beijing, Pingyao and Lijiang, have prepared true ground plans of their historical areas. This has facilitated the development of a new research frontier for research in urban morphology and design typology in China. Within the ambits of historico-geographical and historico-architectural studies, which are now being shown to have many commonalities, the application of Conzenian and Caniggian approaches to Chinese towns and cities has undoubted potential["].

1. 4

Structure of the Book

The chapters that follow fall into two groups. Chapters

2~6

review or exem-

plify the Conzenian and Caniggian schools of thought, largely within the Western context in which they have until recently developed. Chapters 7 ~9 are essentially concerned with very recent applications of the ideas and methods of these two schools to Chinese cities. Chapter 2, provides a systematic review of the origins and developments of historical morphological ideas that are grounded in research of M R G. Conzen. Inspired by early pioneering studies of urban morphogenesis in central European countries in the late-nineteenth century, Conzenian ideas provide a powerful tool for understanding and characterizing the structure and transformation of urban landscapes. This chapter also highlights recent explorations of historical morphology, especially interdisciplinary integration and the relationship between research and practice. Chapter 3 develops one of the major themes of Chapter 2 , focusing on the concept of urban fringe belts,one of the most frequently studied Conzenian ideas. Based on areview of the birth and growth of fringe-belt theory over three-quarters of a century, this chapter focuses on its application in a number of cities in different geographical regions. It explores the efficacy and limits of the fringe-belt concept in examining and managing the urban landscape in diverse cultural contexts. Chapter 4 investigates the transformation process of an inner city area in the British city of Newcastle upon Tyne in relation to Conzenian ideas, especially morphological periods and fringe belts. Articulation of broad periods of morphological change and identification of elements from previous phases have exerted

• 6 •

Urban Morphology,Architectural Typology and Cities in Transition

influence upon the detailed form of later developments and are important m understanding and managing the changing urban landscape. Chapters 5 and 6 outline the development of the Italian school of design typology. They particularly describe the contributions of Saverio Muratori and Gianfranco Caniggia to the formation of the typological school of thinking. The wider cultural and philosophical influences on typological ideas, especially concerning architectural organism, type, tissue and territory are discussed.

Chapter 7 provides a comprehensive review of publications on the form of Chinese cities. Two features in particular emerge from this conspectus of research on Chinese urban form. First, narrative and other types of description are overwhelmingly predominant. Analytical and conceptual approaches have been comparatively rare. Secondly, there is a striking contrast between the historical richness,complexity and immense geographical extent of Chinese urban landscapes on the one hand and the limited amount of research on them on the other. One of the questions that naturally arises as East-West links strengthen concerns the perspectives,methods and concepts in Western urban morphology that might repay exploration in Chinese cities. Chapter 8 illustrates the application the idea of typological processes in understanding residential buildings in Guangzhou, China The idea that an evolutionary process is inherent in the sequence of building types that characterizes an area has been pursued especially by Italian architects. It has hitherto attracted comparatively little attention in China. Findings on the history of residential building types in Guangzhou and its environs are examined in relation to this idea. It is suggested that certain basic building types and their derivative forms are precursors of early modern building forms; the adaptive process is an accumulation and selective replacement of forms;and the persistence and reconciliation of endogenous and exogenous forces explain building adaptations. Finally, Chapter 9 analyses the historical process of transformation of street blocks, plots and building fabrics in Suzhou from the tenth century to the present day,using a typomorphological approach. Typomorphology is an effective tool to solve a number of current problems in urban development, and should be adopted in both the analysis and design of Chinese cities. The typomorphological concept and its application to urban design and management can contribute to maintaining local cultural identity in an era of rapid globalization in China.

Chapter 1 The Structure of Urban Fonn, Conzenian and Caniggian Ideas

• 7 •

Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank Professor I. W. R. Whitehand for his helpful camments on a draft of this chapter.

Notes and References [1] Whitehand J W R The structure of urban landscapes, Strengthening research and practice. Urban

Morphology,2009,13,5~27.

[2] Vance J. The Continuing City, Urban Morphology in Western Civilization. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990;Kostof S. The City Shaped: Urban Patterns and Meanings

Through History. London, Thames and Hudson, 1991. [3] Bowsky W M A Medieval Italian Commune, Siena under the Nine. Berkeley, University of California Press,1981, 1287~ 1355. [4] Kostof,op. cit. (note 2) ,p. 40.

[5] Moudon A V. The evolution of twentieth century residential forms: An American case study//Whitehand J W R,l.arkbam P J. Urban Landscapes, International Perspectives. London, Routledge, 1992. [ 6] Chen F, Gu K. Architectural typology and urban morphology, Integration and application. Architect,2009,58(4) ,53~58(in Chinese) ;Conzen M P. The study of urban fonn in the United States. Urban Morphology,2001,5:3--14;Darin M. The study of urban form in France. Urban Morphology, 1998,2,63~76;Gilliland J ,Gautltier P. The study of urban fonn inCa-

nada. UrbanMorphology,2006,10,51~66;Gu K, Tian Y, Whiteband J W R,et al. Residential building types as an evolutionary process:The Guangzhou area, China. Urban Morphology,2008 ,12, 97 ~ 116; Heineberg H. German geographical urban morphology in an international and interdisciplinary framework. Urban

Morphology,2007,11,5~24;l.arkbam

P J.

The study of urban fonn in Great Britain. Urban Morphology, 2006,10,117 ~ 141; Marzot N. The study of urban from in Italy. Urban

Morphology,2002,6,59~73; Whiteband

J W R,

Gu K Research on Chinese urban form: Retrospect and prospect. Progress in Human Geography,2006,30,337~355.

[7] Kropf K. M R G. Conzen,Gianfranco Caniggia,Oscar wilde and aesop,or,why urban morphology maybe right but not popular. Urban

Morphology,2004,8,26~28;Kropf

K. Aspects

of urban fonn. Urban Morphology, 2009, 13, 105 ~ 120; Marzot N. Typological anaysis and hermeneutics in the Conzenian and Cahlggian school: Ovelaps and differences. Urban Morpholgy,2005,9:48,.......50;Moudon A V. Urban morphology as an emerging interdisciplinary

field. Urban Morphology,1997 ,1,3~10;Whiteband J W R From Como to Alnwick,In pursuit of Caniggia and Conzen. Urban Morphology,2003, 7, 69~72. [8] Hall T. The fonn-based development plan, Bridging the gap between theory and practice in urban morphology. Urban Morphology, 2008, 12, 77 ~ 95; Samuels L Typomorphology and

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Urban Morphology,Architectural Typology and Cities in Transition

urban design practice. Urban Morphology, 2008, 12, 58- 62; Whiteband, op. cit. (note 1); Whitehand J W R, Morton N J. Fringe belts and the recycling of urban land, An academic concept and planning practice. Environment and Planning B, Planning and Design, 2003, 30, 819-839. [9] Samuels,ibid. (note 8); Whiteband J W R Urban morphology, urban landscape management and fringe belts. Urban Design, 2005,19-21. [10] Sauer C 0. The morphology of landscape. University of California Publications in Geogra-

phy,1925,2(2),19-25. [11] Bowen M Empiricism and Geographical Thought: From Francis Bacon to Alexander von

Humboldt Cambridge,Cambridge University Press, 1981. [12] Sauer,op. cit. (note 10). [13] von Richthofen F. Aufgaben und Methoden der heutigen Geographie. Inaugural Lecture, Berlin,1883. [14] Schluter a Ober den Grundriss der Stiidte. Berlin,Zeitschrift der Gesellscbaft fur Erdkundezu,1899, 34,446-462;&hltiter 0. Bemerkungen zur Siedlungsgeographie. Geographische Zeitschrift, 1899.5 '65-84. [15] Whiteband J W R Background to the urban morphogenetic tradition//Whitehand J W R Theurban Landscape: Historical Development and Management. London: Academic Press,

1981,1-24. [16] Ibid. , p. 2. [17] Fritz J. Deutsche Stsdtanlangen Beilagezum Progrannn 520 des Lyzeums Strassburg. Strassburg, Heitz&.Milndel, 1894; Geisler W. L\mzig, Einsiedlungs Geographischer Versuch. L\mzig, Kafemann,1918;Hassinger H Wiener Heimatschutz und Verkehcsfragen. Vienna,1912. [18] Whiteband,op. cit. (note 15). [19] Conzen M R G. Alnwick,Northwnberland,A Study in Town-Plan Analysis. London, George Philip,1960. [20] Whitehand,op. cit. (note 15) ,p. 21. [21] Whiteband J W R British urban morphology, The Conzenian tradition. Urban Morphology, 2001,5' 103-109. [22] Caniggia G, Maffei G L. Architectural Composition and Building Typology, Interpreting &sic Building. Firenze: Alinea, 2001.

[23] Moudon,op. cit. (note 5), p. 342. [24] Rossi A Tipologia, manualistica architetture//Bonicalzi R Acritti&eltisulL Architettura e la Cittd. Milan, CLUP ,1975, 1956-1972. [25] Moudon A V. Built for Change, Neighborhood Architecture in San Francisco. Cambridge, MIT Press, 1986; Moudon A V. Getting to know the built landscape, Typomophology// Franck K,Scneekloth L. Ordering Space, Type in Architecture and Design. New York, Van Nerstrand Reinhold,1994;Krop£ K S. An alternative approach to zoning in France, Typolo-

Chapter 1 The Structure of Urban Fonn, Conzenian and Caniggian Ideas

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gy, historical character and development control. European Planning Studies, 1996, 4,717~737.

[26] Whitehcand and Gu,op. cit. (note 6) ,p. 348. [27] Whiteband J W R Towards a more integrated approach. Urban Morphology, 2006,10, 87~88.

[28] Conzen M R G. Alnwick, Northumberland, A Study in Town-Plan Analysis. 2nd edition. London: Institute of British Geographers, 1969.

[29] Whitehand,op. cit. (note 1) ,p. 24. [30] Whiteband and Gu op. cit. (note 6). [31] Conzen M R G. Thinking about Urban Fonn, Essays on Urban Morphology. Oxford, Peter Lang,2004, 1932~1998.

Chapter 2 British Urban Morphology: The Conzenian Tradition ]. W.R. Whitehand Within the United Kingdom the term' urban morphology' is applied to a number of different types of investigation. Though they nearly all focus on the physical forms of urban areas, each has until recently been pursued by a largely separate group of researchers. Within architecture the typomorphologists have tended to work independently of those employing space syntax. Similarly within geography those working in the Conzenian tradition have had little contact with the adherents of spatial analysis. The lack of integration within disciplines has been paralleled by the low level of communication between architects and geographers. There is a need for the different schools of thought to set out their stalls if the intellectual trade that was showing signs of beginning in the last years of the twentieth century is to gain momentum. This chapter describes the development and characteristics of the Conzenian school and gives examples of recent and current research in this tradition, including some that would benefit from closer cooperation with the adherents of other schools of thought[ll.

2. 1 The Antecedents of M. R. G. Conzen The Conzenian school of thought, founded by M R G. Conzen, has its inunediate antecedence at the end of the nineteenth century. The early work of Schliiter was particularly important, notably two papers published in 1899, one on the ground plan of towns[ 2J and the other his views on wider aspects of settlement geographyi:Jl. The latter was important because of its programmatic character. The former, which drew on the earlier work of Fritzl'l, suggested among other things the scope that existed for recognizing within town plans the stages in their development. It was in this respect a forerunner of the far more sophisticated morphogenetic approach which was much later to become a hallmark of Conzen' s work In addition to the impact of his own work, Schliiter exerted influence through the dissertations that he supervised at the University of Halle. The most signifi-

Chapter 2 British Urban Morphology, The Conzenian Tradition

• 11 •

cant of these for the development of urban morphology was on Danzig by Geisler, published io 1918[5J. The map of ioner Danzig that it contained distinguished io colour land and building utilization and the number of storeys in residential buildings. This also bad an influence on Conzen. It was evident in his Stattems

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Of course many parts of towns and cities lack the regularity of plot dimensioD.s that series of J'e3idential plots often have. This is particularly so in the case of fringe belts, which are comprised of plots of a great variety of shapes and sizes. The fringe-belt concept(Figure 2-2) wu first recognized within Berlin in 1936 by Louia,oDe of Conzen's mentors[nJ, but was developed to a far greater degree of sophistication by Conzen in his studies of the English market town of Alnwick and the major English city of Newcastle upon TyneD•J. It was then taken up by numerous other researchers in various parts of the world08J. In one line of investigation the relationship was developed between fringe belts, building cycles,1and values and innovation adoption(Figure 2-3)[1'J. The creation of fringe belts was shown to be associated with slumps in housebuilding,when land values were low, whereas the creation of high--density housing tended to predominate during booms in housebuilding, when land values were high. These dynamics, in combination with geographical obstacles to the uninterrupted outward growth of the built-up area, gave rise to an urban area in which residential growth zones alternated with fringe belts. Fringe belts were shown to have a number of physical attributes. These included large, contiguous vegetated areas, often interspersed with large, often in!ltitutiona!,!lometimes'landmark', building! of architectural note, the vir-

Chapter 2 Brltish Urbm Mozphology, The~ Tradition

• 13 •

tual absence of housing,and a sparse road network, with a low incidence of radial roads and hence a relatively low penetrability to vehicles. Fringe belts form boundaiy zones between historically and morphologically distinct housing areas: for example, in EDgland, between' bye-law' terraced h.ouse3 and inter-war semidetached houses. 8UILOING BOOMS

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The fringe-belt concept is linked to a bs.sic tenet of M. R. G. Conzen' s work a the concept of the morphological frame. This relates to the fact that the way in which forms are created on the ground, particularly during the process in which rural land is converted to urban use, acts as a long-term constraint on subsequent change. Plot boundaries and especially streets exert a powerful long-tenn influ-

ence. Many streets and plots survive largely unchanged. H not, their lineaments are often reflected in those of replacement streets and plots. Thus town plans are powerful influence& on future forms, with reaidual features being passed down through successive generations of society,often over very lengthy periods. For MR. G. Conzen the climax of the exploration of the physical development of an urban area was the divi!lion of that area into morphological regions. A morphological region is an area that has a unity in respect of its form that distinguishes it from surrounding areas. However, the boundaries between regions vary in strength. In his map of morphological regions in the EDglish market town of Ludlow, Conzen recognized a five-tier hierarchy of boundaries ( F'JgUre 2-4) [l(]. The map of morphological regions is a composite of separate maps of plan type

• 14 • areas, building type areas ,and land utilization areas. Morphological regions eased on genetic analysis and the combination of systematic fom...'..-:::;::;,........-,

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I st order • • • • • 3rd order ········· 5th order 2nd order 4th order

Figure 2-4 The morphologieal ~ of Ludlow's old town. Baaed upon Comen,op. cit. ,.2S8,F"~g. 17• .2(110te 16).

Such a map is a product of a method designed to illuminate the historical development of an urban area. However,for Conzen the past provided object lessons for the future. Such a map could therefore be harnessed to the needs of planning: it provided a basis for rooting the future management of the urban landscape in its historical development.

2. 3 Recent Research During the last 35 years of the twl!ntieth Cl!lltuly aspects of M

R. G. Conzen.' s

ideas and perspective were taken up widely. To try to do justice within the space

of a few pages to the various lines of investigation that could with justification be tenned 'Ccmzenian' might well result in doing justice to none of them. Therefore the remainder of this chapter will explore just three strands of current research and thought that personal knowledge suggests owe much to the foundations laid by Conzen. These three strands may be referred to as fttst, micromorphology, secondly, the relatioDSbip between morphological periods and the typological process, and thirdly, the link between decision-takiDg and urban form. The recognition of a sub-field of urban micromorphology is little more than acknowledgement that much analysis needs to be undertaken at the scale of the individual plot or indeed within the individual plot. This is new to neither Conze-

Chapter 2 British Urbm Mozphology, The~ Tradition

• 15 •

Dim Jeographers nor most architects. What is fairly new is the detailed analysis of the spatial relationships between the physicsl changes to very ordinary twentieth-century dwelliDJ houses. The discovery that such changes are clustered over time and space accords with various studies of spatial diffusion. The fact that the building of a house extension, for example, increases the probability of another bouse extension being built soon after in the immediate vicinity reflects the operation of a nwnber of factors, in particular the fact that owner-occupiers influence one another: there is a • neighbour effect'[lfl. However, areas vary greatly in the incidence of changes, even when they have undergone their initial development at the same time. The lower the dwelling density of the original development of an

area(i e. the larger the plot size), the higher the probability of a clwelliDJ having an extension. However,if small-scale changes are examined( changes such as door

and window replacements), the direction of the relationship is the reverse: the lower the dwelling density of the original developm.eat, the lower is the nwnber of small-scale changes that a dwelling is likely to have. The strength of the neighbour effect is also related to original dwelling density. In the case of the incidence of house extensions, for example, the neighbour effect is weak in areas developed at low density but stroDJ in areas developed at high density(Figure 2-5)[181. The evidence suggests that a high-density pattern of original development is associated with more imitative behaviour by neighbours than a low-density pattern. Tbis is another influence of the morpholoJical frame, but one that is attributable, it would seem, to the role that plot size, and perhaps variables associated with plot size, have in the social relationships between nei1hbours. 25

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