Urban Metabolism and Ecological Management: Vision, tools, practices and beyond 9782759825202, 9782759825196

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Current Natural Sciences

Gengyuan LIU, Marco CASAZZA, Zhifeng YANG and Sergio ULGIATI

Urban Metabolism and Ecological Management Vision, tools, practices and beyond

This book is funded by the Fund for Innovative Research Group of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51721093) and the National Key R&D Program of China (No. 2016YFC0502800).

This book was originally published by Science Press, © Science Press, 2020.

Printed in France

EDP Sciences – ISBN(print): 978-2-7598-2519-6 – ISBN(ebook): 978-2-7598-2520-2 All rights relative to translation, adaptation and reproduction by any means whatsoever are reserved, worldwide. In accordance with the terms of paragraphs 2 and 3 of Article 41 of the French Act dated March 11, 1957, “copies or reproductions reserved strictly for private use and not intended for collective use” and, on the other hand, analyses and short quotations for example or illustrative purposes, are allowed. Otherwise, “any representation or reproduction – whether in full or in part – without the consent of the author or of his successors or assigns, is unlawful” (Article 40, paragraph 1). Any representation or reproduction, by any means whatsoever, will therefore be deemed an infringement of copyright punishable under Articles 425 and following of the French Penal Code. The printed edition is not for sale in Chinese mainland. Customers in Chinese mainland please order the print book from Science Press. ISBN of the China edition: Science Press ISBN: 978-7-03-066166-1 ©

Science Press, EDP Sciences, 2021

Preface

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The world is facing an urgent need for economic, social and environmental transformation, requiring huge efforts for pursuing a sustainable future. In 2015, all 193 United Nations (UN) member States adopted the Agenda 2030 with its 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) — a comprehensive framework comprising many potentially diverging policy goals and aspiring for transformative change in the economic, social, and environmental challenges. These challenges are strongly interlinked, in fact, SDGs are expected to be mutually supportive and need buy-in from all nations. This means that governance processes across multiple sectors, stakeholders and countries are critical and long-term social and economic improvement will need closer attention to be paid to the environment. Meanwhile, great efforts must be made to reduce or change human use of geophysical resources (such as energy, materials or land) to prevent severe ecological degradation and mitigate climate change effects. Climate action is explicitly addressed by SDG13, and is expected to impact almost all aspects of sustainable development, so it is necessary to understand how action to address climate change could reinforce or undermine the other SDGs, and vice versa. A quantitative and comprehensive research is therefore mandatory to link the social, economic and environmental fields, aiming at guiding and monitoring the progress to sustainable levels. At the core of sustainable development science is therefore the need to understand the interactions between Society and Nature, how these interactions change over time and how they will be likely affected in the next future. Metabolic research is an effective system approach for analysing the physical exchange process (material and energy flow) between human society and its natural environment as well as the material and energy flow within human society, and their impacts to the natural environment. SDGs framework introduced a set of detailed monitoring indicators related to metabolism, such as domestic material consumption (DMC), material footprint (MF), resource efficiency, and so on, while scholars from different backgrounds have developed various research strands of socio-metabolic approaches. SMR is based on the assumption that social systems and ecosystems are complex systems that can replicate themselves, affect each other, and develop together over time. System components at different scales tend to act and influence each other by nesting within another. Moreover, scale matters in a wide variety of aspects of driving forces, impacts, and responses to sustainable development challenges, because it is directly related to how and where governance decisions are made. This requires new approaches to multi-scale actions, as far as cross-scale innovative co-management structures can promote sustainable development. As a matter of fact, local decision-making is

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influenced by regional policies, which in turn affects global politics and economy, rising from local to larger scales, and the decisions in turn affect sustainable development: what happens to sustainability at one scale affects sustainability at other scales. As an increasing number of people and human activities are concentrated in cities, with more than 55.3% of the world population living in urban areas, thus cities bring significant and increasing economic contribution to their economies. More and more researches are focused on the urban-scale operation and functioning. However, the environmental issues of cities extend outside the urban boundaries, not only involving multiple dimensions, but also scales of impacts ranging from local, regional to global. This requires larger scales of analyses, taking into account the interaction of urban to national to even global scale. Urban metabolism has been used as a metaphor in multiple fields, indicating that traditional methods may not have fully epistemological tools to face the new challenges, including sustainable development ones. Research has now recognised the importance of scale. So far, metabolic research has been applied to multi-scale research from individual/family, neighbourhood and urban spatial scales to regional and even global scales, as well as from individual sectors to socio-economy. Several questions raised: c being metabolic research applied to complex systems at different scales, what are the main differences among the research methods at different scales?dFrom the perspective of historical development of metabolic theory, what are the focuses at different stages, and which ones should draw more attention in the future? This book contributes to the understanding of the differences of metabolic research applied at different scales. Based on the literature, it outlines the origin and development of metabolic theories and studies at different scales, as well as their analytical methods of metabolism research, and finally puts forward the significance of scale-up framework in metabolic research. We recognize that this book can offer something of a “voyage of discovery” for teachers and students with the background of system ecology, environmental sciences and ecological economics, and also for urban planners, and policy makers.

Contents

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Chapter 0 Urban metabolism for the urban century .............................................................. 1 0.1 Motivation ...................................................................................................................... 3 0.2 The research questions ................................................................................................... 5 0.3 Aim of the book.............................................................................................................. 8

Part A: Vision and Theory Chapter 1 City: A socio-ecological view of human communities .......................................... 11 1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 13 1.2 Urban sustainable development debate ........................................................................ 14 1.3 Urban metabolism and principle of entropy increase ................................................... 15 Chapter 2 Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) of urban sustainability..................... 19 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 21 2.2 Method ......................................................................................................................... 22 2.3 Urban TEK and environmental sustainability .............................................................. 25 2.4 Urban TEK and economic sustainability ...................................................................... 29 2.5 Urban TEK and social sustainability ............................................................................ 30 2.6 Discussion .................................................................................................................... 33 2.7 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 38 Chapter 3 Urban metabolism theory and analysis methods ................................................. 41 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 43 3.2 Origin and development of metabolic theory ............................................................... 43 3.3 Metabolic studies at different scales............................................................................. 49 3.4 Main methods of metabolism research ......................................................................... 53 3.5 Implication of metabolism study on different scale ..................................................... 60 Chapter 4 Environmental accounting and urban metabolism ............................................. 65 4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 67 4.2 Present knowledge for urban environmental accounting and management.................. 69 4.3 Present challenges for urban environmental accounting and management .................. 73 4.4 Discussion .................................................................................................................... 74

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Chapter 5 Ecosystem services accounting framework and urban metabolism................... 77 5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 79 5.2 Literature review .......................................................................................................... 81 5.3 The framework for non-monetary ESV accounting ..................................................... 84 5.4 Discussion .................................................................................................................... 93 5.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 99 Chapter 6 A physical view of urban metabolism dynamics ................................................ 101 6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 103 6.2 Allometric laws and cities .......................................................................................... 103 6.3 Global energy constrains ............................................................................................ 111 6.4 Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 125 Chapter 7 Urban metabolism and urban ecological culture............................................... 127 7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 129 7.2 Analogy between cell and ecological culture ............................................................. 129 7.3 Cellular structure and function ................................................................................... 130 7.4 Concept model of reconstruction of UEC .................................................................. 131 7.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 136 Chapter 8 Circular economy and urban ecological management ...................................... 137 8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 139 8.2 The evolution of circular economy practices in China and Europe ............................ 147 8.3 Concluding remarks ................................................................................................... 159

Part B: Tools and Approaches Chapter 9 Urban metabolic process analysis ....................................................................... 165 9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 167 9.2 Methodology .............................................................................................................. 168 9.3 Ecological economic account of Beijing urban ecosystem ........................................ 173 9.4 Discussion .................................................................................................................. 187 9.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 191 Chapter 10 Urban metabolic flux and structure analysis ................................................... 193 10.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 195 10.2 Methodology and data use ........................................................................................ 197 10.3 Results ...................................................................................................................... 199 10.4 Conclusion and discussion ....................................................................................... 212 Chapter 11 Urban metabolic network structure analysis ................................................... 215 11.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 217 11.2 Methodology ............................................................................................................ 218

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11.3 Extended exergy analysis ......................................................................................... 226 11.4 Ecological network analysis results.......................................................................... 233 11.5 Discussion ................................................................................................................ 237 11.6 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 239 Chapter 12 Environmental impact analysis in urban metabolic system ........................... 241 12.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 243 12.2 Characteristics of the environment and economy in Beijing ......................................... 245 12.3 Methodology ............................................................................................................ 245 12.4 Results and discussion .............................................................................................. 254 12.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 263 Chapter 13 Urban metabolic dynamic analysis ................................................................... 265 13.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 267 13.2 State of the art........................................................................................................... 268 13.3 Material and methods ............................................................................................... 269 13.4 Model calibration and parameter selection ............................................................... 276 13.5 Results ...................................................................................................................... 280 13.6 Discussion and conclusion ....................................................................................... 285 Chapter 14 Urban metabolism health evaluation and spatial development pattern analysis ............................................................................................................... 289 14.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 291 14.2 Materials and methods.............................................................................................. 292 14.3 Results ...................................................................................................................... 298 14.4 Discussion ................................................................................................................ 302 14.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 304 Chapter 15 Urban agglomeration metabolism sustainability analysis .............................. 307 15.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 309 15.2 Methods .................................................................................................................... 313 15.3 Results ...................................................................................................................... 324 15.4 Discussion ................................................................................................................ 333 15.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 336 Chapter 16 Thermodynamic geography of urban metabolic process ................................ 339 16.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 341 16.2 Material and methods ............................................................................................... 345 16.3 Results and discussion .............................................................................................. 356 16.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 366 Chapter 17 Urban food-energy-water nexus analysis to support urban circular economy strategy ............................................................................................................... 369 17.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 371 17.2 Literature review ...................................................................................................... 373

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17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6

Method ..................................................................................................................... 376 Results ...................................................................................................................... 386 Discussion ................................................................................................................ 391 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 402

Part C˖Case studies Chapter 18 Urban municipal solid waste metabolism and management .......................... 407 18.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 409 18.2 Methodology ............................................................................................................ 411 18.3 Results ...................................................................................................................... 417 18.4 Discussion ................................................................................................................ 424 18.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 427 Chapter 19 Hospital solid waste metabolism and management ......................................... 429 19.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 431 19.2 Field test and data collection .................................................................................... 441 19.3 Results ...................................................................................................................... 460 19.4 Discussion ................................................................................................................ 464 19.5 Conclusion and recommendations ............................................................................ 468 Chapter 20 Metabolism efficiency analysis of urban transportation system .................... 471 20.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 473 20.2 Literature review ...................................................................................................... 474 20.3 Methods .................................................................................................................... 476 20.4 Case study................................................................................................................. 479 20.5 Results ...................................................................................................................... 483 20.6 Discussion ................................................................................................................ 495 20.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 496 Chapter 21 Metabolic efficiency analysis of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) .............................................................................................................. 499 21.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 501 21.2 Methodology and analysis ........................................................................................ 519 21.3 Results and discussion .............................................................................................. 537 21.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 558 Chapter 22 Urban wastewater metabolism and sewage sludge management ................... 563 22.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 565 22.2 Current situation in Italy and China ......................................................................... 575 22.3 Method: life cycle assessment .................................................................................. 585 22.4 Nocera superior and Gaobeidian WWTPs................................................................ 591

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22.5 Results and discussion .............................................................................................. 603 22.6 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 642 Chapter 23 Sewage sludge reduction and reuse in clinker production process ................ 645 23.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 647 23.2 Literature review ...................................................................................................... 648 23.3 Materials and methods.............................................................................................. 651 23.4 Results ...................................................................................................................... 657 23.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 666 Chapter 24 Urban water metabolic systems analysis .......................................................... 667 24.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 669 24.2 Methods .................................................................................................................... 672 24.3 Results ...................................................................................................................... 676 24.4 Discussion and conclusion ....................................................................................... 685

Part D: Urban Culture and Arts as A Parallel of Metabolism Thinking Chapter 25 Mapping the world through system modelling and creative languages ........ 691 25.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 693 25.2 The diagram language in system modelling ............................................................. 694 25.3 The language of music.............................................................................................. 699 25.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 701 Chapter 26 Culture, innovation and aesthetics .................................................................... 703 26.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 705 26.2 Culture and the human information cycle ................................................................ 705 26.3 Information and innovation ...................................................................................... 709 26.4 Aesthetics ................................................................................................................. 710 26.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 711 Chapter 27 Artistic approach to urban narratives .............................................................. 713 27.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 715 27.2 Artistic languages and the environment: examples from real artworks.................... 715 References .................................................................................................................................. 735 Appendix .................................................................................................................................... 803 Network analysis data in seven sectors ............................................................................... 803 Afterword ................................................................................................................................... 811

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Chapter 0 Urban metabolism for the urban century

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The traditional Chinese painting work was painted and authorized by Prof. Taining Cheng (〻⌠ᆱ) Academician of Chinese Academy of Engineering, Southeast University.

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Urban Metabolism and Ecological Management

Music is created and performed by Dr. Marco Casazza.

Chapter 0 Urban metabolism for the urban century

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0.1 Motivation As a city is a dynamic system it is therefore important to understand trends in energy use over time. Like the human body, a city can be characterized by its metabolism, where energy and materials are used as input and waste as output. The metabolism approach is a powerful metaphor for the illustration of the processes that mobilize and control the flows of energy and materials through a city. Understanding how a city works as an ecological system will help take control of the vital links between human actions and the quality of the environment. Hence, the knowledge of human-induced energy and material flows with comparison to those of natural flows is a major step towards the design of sustainable development schemes. The impact of cities upon the environment has not always been the same. Cities in developed countries have largely overcome their traditional environmental problems such as waste water removal, sanitation, water supply, indoor air pollution, etc. Thus the attention has turned to their impact on ecosystems further away as well as those that are larger in scale. Cities in the developing world are more concerned with other issues. Challenges for urban development in developing countries have been divided into two categories: inefficient modes of resource use (for example, in the water or energy supply) and a limited capacity for the absorption of pollution and flooding. Brandon and Ramankutty (1993) classify the key urban environmental challenges in the Asian region as water pollution, air pollution, solid waste management and inappropriate land use. A study of urban energy and environmental problems requires an interdisciplinary approach, which in turn requires an interdisciplinary language. One interesting approach is the system theory as applied to ecology (Odum, 1989). At the heart of the system theory is the definition of a system in terms of its boundary, the flows across the boundary and the links within the boundary. Changes in the status of the system depend on positive feedback, which enlarge or otherwise enhance the system, and negative feedback, which reduce it. At the global scale, environmental change is studied as a set of bio-geochemical cycles, following such key elements as water, carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorous and the other nutrients on which plants and animals depend (Munn, 1986; Lovelock, 1991; Nisbet, 1991). The rate at which a particular particle moves through a cycle may be measured through the study of environmental pathways, which show how much time a particle may stay in various environmental media (Mackay, 1991). One aspect of this study, of interest to plant and animal health, is the tendency for harmful residues to accumulate in flora and fauna, a process known as bio-accumulation. On a global scale, this accumulation occurs in sinks such as the atmosphere, the ocean, or the vegetal mass of plants and trees. Functionally, human activities that perturb the natural environment can also be divided into three similar components (Figure 0-1). This human-induced system is called an anthroposystem.

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Productive activities include energy production (fossil fuels), manufacturing (non-fuel minerals) and growing food. The consumers are humans and their domestic animals. Decomposing or recycling activities include treatment of waste water and the recycling of metals. However, whereas an ecosystem relies on its decomposers for a complete recycling of its elements, the system created by human activity lacks such efficient decomposers and recyclers. As such, manufactured materials that are no longer needed and the by-products of industrial activity are disposed of within the physical environment. The process of adding unwanted material to the environment is called pollution. The waste products are taken by the atmosphere and the hydrosphere, and delivered into the biological and geochemical receptors. In this sense, the anthroposystem is a system more open to the engineering point of view (Ayres and Simonis, 1994).

Fig. 0-1 The movement of material through a system resulting from human activity (adapted from Ayre and Simonis, 1994)

The above models provide a convenient framework for comparing an ecosystem to an anthroposystem. The flow of material in both systems is illustrated quantitatively by the arrows in the figures. In an ecosystem most of the material is transferred from the producers (plants) to the recyclers (bacteria); only a small fraction is passed through the consumers to the recyclers. The decomposers (recyclers) return most of the material to the producers for reuse. In the anthroposystem the flow from the producers to the recyclers is small or even non-existent, since it would be pointless to produce (mobilize) material and immediately recycle it without a consumer within the loop. In this system, much of the mobilized material is transferred to the rest of the external environment by the producer or by the consumer. Hence, it is an open system with recycling accounting for only a small fraction of the mobilized matter. In an ecosystem, recycling and sustained development (evolution) is facilitated by the close physical proximity and functional matching between producers and consumers. The physical proximity of producers, consumers, and recyclers in an ecosystem assures that very little energy is required for the physical transport of matter between the plant and its symbiotic bacterial population. Also, the physical proximity allows a reasonably fast mutual adjustment if there is a perturbation in the system. In the anthroposystem, on the other hand, the consumers play a more significant role. There is usually a significant physical displacement between the producer and the consumer.

Chapter 0 Urban metabolism for the urban century

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According to this it is the amount of energy required to transfer the matter back to the producer or to a recycler. This physical separation of consumers, producers, and recyclers appears to be a major difference between the ecosystem and the anthroposystem. It can be noted that the anthroposystems differ from ecosystems mainly in that they lack efficient material recyclers that allow sustainable development (Ayres and Simonis, 1994). All of the flows mentioned by the model also occur within a city. The city can be viewed as an organism with a metabolism that can be studied. Metabolic studies can provide the basis for discussions on the desirability of changes within the type or scale of a city’s metabolism, and how such changes might be best accomplished. Graedel and Allenby (1995) argued that to study a city as organisms and ecosystems, and to devise ways to evaluate their environmental performance could benefit society in three fundamental ways namely, by maintaining human systems, by maintaining environmental systems and then by redesigning human systems.

0.2 The research questions As the center of population and human activity, a city is also the center of the flow of materials. A city gathers resources of all kinds from near and far. For example, Bangkok imports steel and copper from Sweden, porcelain from China, cars from Japan, fashionable goods from France and Italy, and machines from the U.S. Some of this material, such as the steel in buildings, is retained for long periods of time. Other material is transformed within a short time and its residues discarded. Though waste is seldom disposed of within the urban area itself, it generally moves a much shorter distance than the distance from which their progenitors were acquired. Cities are great at attracting but weak at dispersing. The metabolism of a city is a relatively new area of study, and one where much more data needs to be gathered before meaningful results can be derived (Ayres and Simonis, 1994; Newman, 1999; Sahely et al., 2003; Kennedy et al., 2005). The concept of urban metabolism was first developed by Wolman (1965). He viewed the urban environment as an ecosystem and began measuring its metabolic activities. This was in the time when air and water quality was deteriorating rapidly in many American cities. Wolman used the national usage rates of water, food and fuel with the production rates of sewage, waste and air pollutants to derive per capita inflow and outflow the rates for a hypothetical American city of one million people (White, 1994). Wolman’s top-down approach to determining material flow, even with the omission of some inputs such as infrastructure materials, electricity and other durable goods helped to focus attention on the system-wide impacts of the consumption of goods and the generation of wastes within the urban environment (Decker et al., 2000). One of the earliest and most comprehensive studies was that of Brussels, Belgium by ecologists Duvigneaud and Denaeyer-Desmet in 1977, which included quantification of urban biomass and even organic discharges from cats and dogs (Kennedy et al., 2005). The urban metabolism approach to studying cities continued as part of the UNESCO Man and Biosphere

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Project (MAB) in the early 1980s. A significant contribution was made by Newcombe et al. (1978), who studied the metabolic processes of Hong Kong. Using the previous mass balance studies, the Hong Kong study took the urban metabolism model a step further and characterized the physical indicators of the flows through the city and the social variables that affected the human population such as employment, health, mortality and satisfaction (White, 1994). The study was well ahead of its time in promoting the need for a more sustainable urban environment. There are other studies of the metabolism of other cities, including those of Tokyo, Vienna, Greater London and a part of the Swiss Lowlands (Hanya and Ambe, 1976; Baccini, 1997; Hendriks et al., 2000; CIWS, 2002). Not all studies have quantified urban metabolisms as a complete model some of them examine only one perspective. For instance, Bohle (1994) considered the urban food systems in developing countries. While a few studies have focused on quantifying the embodied energy in cities (Zucchetto, 1975; Huang, 1998), other studies have broadly included fluxes of nutrients and materials and the urban hydrologic cycle. Later, a number of scholars built on Wolman’s ideas by treating cities as if they were organisms, and analyzing the processes and mechanisms that formed their metabolism (Newcombe et al., 1978; Newman, 1999; Fischer-Kowalski, 1998). Other scholars have used this evolving theory to study the metabolisms of Sydney (Newman et al., 1996), Hong Kong (Newcombe et al., 1978), Taiwan (Huang, 1998; Warren-Rhodes and Koenig, 2001), Manchester (Douglas et al., 2002), Shanghai (Zhang et al., 2006), Shenzhen (Yan et al., 2003), Nantong (Yu and Huang, 2005), Paris (Barles, 2007), Toronto (Forkes, 2007), and New York (Kane and Erickson, 2007), Beijing (Zhang et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2010). Methods of studying urban metabolism include material-flows accounting and energy flows accounting. We used emergy analysis, one of the energy accounting methods. The method can bridge the gap between socioeconomic development and protection of the environment that sustains the development (Hall et al., 1986), and can provide a single unit of measurement that accounts for material, energy, and monetary flows within the urban metabolic system and between this metabolic system and its surrounding environment (Odum, 1988). From the review of the literature, it can be seen that the model of urban metabolism has been used by engineers (e.g., civil engineers and mechanical engineers), urban planners and system ecologists. Interestingly, a thermodynamic approach to urban metabolism models has been put forward by system ecologists (Odum, 1996). This approach quantifies the flows of embodied energy, which is defined as the total amount of energy needed directly and indirectly to make any goods or services (Bakshi, 2000). Indices and ratios based on embodied flows can be calculated and used to evaluate different types of systems (Ulgiati and Brown, 1998). This concept is adapted in this book; thus, the book will devise ways to evaluate and simulate urban thermodynamic performance that could benefit society in three fundamental ways namely, by maintaining urban human metabolic systems, by maintaining environmental supporting systems and then by redesigning human-nature ecological systems based on latest ecological thermodynamic theory, such as maximum power principle and system emergence.

Chapter 0 Urban metabolism for the urban century

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The book does not take for granted that cities are the only possible future and does not focus on just the relation between available resources and size. These three aspects were dealt with by many other researchers and lead, at their best, to conclusions such as those by Wackernagel and Rees: the ecological footprint of cities is bigger than the available productive land. In general, results of researchers highlight that resources are scarce, that cities grow too fast, and that they are not sustainable, etc. This is a trivial, not innovative, pattern. The only final result of such a study would be that future cities will be even bigger and they will be in trouble when we run out of oil. Instead, we seek to stress what a city is and investigate its performance according to urban metabolic process (focus on flux, efficiency, structure and impact), just like an organism. Cities are not only places where humans live, eat, drive cars, etc. In other words, the main focus cannot be just to take a static picture of the physical structure of a city and its resource use, as well as assessing pollution or traffic, or excess size. Cities are, according to Odum dynamic systems where resources converge and diverge. By using resources, cities generate information and services. Increase of size and excess use of resources is creating real problems in the relationship between cities and their surrounding environment. Therefore, the first question should be “how do we reintegrate cities and their surrounding regions and environment”. A second important question is: Are we able to evaluate how and if cities perform efficiently and environmentally friendly in different scales? Thermodynamic analysis is useful for improving process thermodynamic efficiency by minimizing energy losses. However, increasing the thermodynamic efficiency at this scale cannot only cost more, but need not be good for the environment either. Cities might minimize the direct and indirect environmental impacts of emissions, due to factors of scale, but maybe over a urban size these impacts are abruptly upward. A third question is: How can we get an optimum environmentally conscious decision making based on multi-objective optimization of energy/resource input and various environmental impact functions? Therefore, we attempt to identify an urban metabolic process analysis framework (including flux, efficiency, structure and environmental impact) that a city should provide and check how this task is accomplished as a function of size, internal metabolic processes, and resource use. We might end up with a conclusion that there is an optimum metabolic process (or there is not), or with the awareness that the trend towards megacities is irreversible, or a host of other possible different conclusions, including suggestions for a different dynamic, organization, resource management, etc. In order to do this, we will perform a quantitative investigation of inflows, outflows and internal socio/economic dynamics, but the goal is not only to photograph the cities, but it is also instead to check its suitability to the achievement of the goals we consider important.

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Urban Metabolism and Ecological Management

0.3 Aim of the book The book proposes the latest urban metabolism theory, research framework and methodologies, rich practical cases and beyond the scientist’s or planner’s perspective, what is the urban metabolism from artists, poets, musicians, etc. It is a bold but creative cross-border research and design between science and art. The book enhances the understanding of urban ecosystem as integrated, spatially extensive, complex adaptive systems, offers a sampling of planning practice common and arouses diversified design skills. The book includes four parts. Part A is the vision and theory, and we will use seven chapters to explain: ķ what is city? ĸ Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) of urban sustainability; Ĺ Current urban metabolism theory and analysis methods. After that we will use chapters 4 and 5 to review the environmental accounting methods and ecosystem services valuation accounting methods which are used in urban metabolism analysis. Chapter 6 is the thermodynamic laws of urban metabolism and Chapter 7 and 8 is how to use the analysis results of urban ecological culture to urban ecological management. Part B is the tools and approaches. We use 9 chapters to introduce the latest methods that are used into the urban metabolism analysis. The tools and approaches include emergy methods, input-output analysis methods, ecological network analysis, extended exergy analysis, etc. And this part is organized from four aspects of metabolism, including flux analysis, structure analysis, efficiency analysis and environmental impact analysis, and is considered both the space and time dimension and nexus prespective. Part C is the case studies. We selected 7 cases, such as urban municipal solid waste metabolism, hospital solid waste metabolism, urban transportation system, urban Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) recycling system, urban wastewater and sewage sludge recycling system, sewage sludge reduction and reuse system in clinker production process and urban water metabolic system, and made deep analysis. Part D is the urban culture and arts as a parallel of metabolism thinking. We compare the diagram language in system modelling with the language of music; discuss the culture, innovation and aesthetics and show more artistic approaches to urban narratives, including poetry, theatre, music and figurative arts. Urban metabolism is the idea to look at cities from a systemic point of view linking all the social, economic, political, territorial, ecological, resource, waste, culture, innovation and aesthetics challenges that coexist in the extremely complex systems that cities are. The metaphor conceptualises the city as a living organism where resource flows enter, are transformed or stocked and waste flows exit the territory. This multi-disciplinary book aims to create an understanding of and for the workings and interdependencies of urban systems, which in turn can be applied for a transition to a restorative future.

Chapter 1 City: A socio-ecological view of human communities

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The drawing was painted and authorized by Xiaoning Lv, who is Chief Architect of Nanjing Planning Bureau, China.

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Urban Metabolism and Ecological Management

Music is created and performed by Dr. Marco Casazza.

Chapter 1 City: A socio-ecological view of human communities

13

1.1 Introduction Cities are complex, dynamic systems resisting simple, causative, linear explanation and prescription. In aggregate complexity, individual elements working in concert create complex system, which have internal structure relative to their surrounding environment. The interface between urban economical system and natural system is continuing to receive a lot of attention especially in the face of the declining environmental quality. Traditionally, the economic perspective has put socio-economic wellbeing ahead of environmental concerns, disregarding the complex interactions between the environment and economic activities crucial for accounting for environmental degradation being experienced today. Economists advocated for economic growth as a means to solving the problem of scarcity and alleviation of poverty which is said to be a big problem from a socio-economic point of view. On the other hand, environmentalists have questioned the place “economic growth” has in a world that seems to have used resources and deposited waste at a rate faster that the replenishment and assimilative rate of the environment, respectively. Therefore, the concept of economic growth theory is not only incompatible with the works of the environment but also a divergence from sustainable development principles. Inherent in the concept of sustainability is the desire to preserve or maintain a desirable condition on a specified temporal and special scale (Brown et al., 2000). In this regard, economists’ models require that consumption reaches a certain desirable level and kept constant, therefore preserving utility at that level. However, this conception of sustainability is what has been rejected by environmentalist who argued that such utility violates other forms of utility, which is the “environmental utility”, represented by “regenerative and absorptive” demands of the environment. Therefore, the controversial aspect of sustainability seems to stem from the choice of the thing to preserve, which can take a number of forms depending on field in question. Perhaps the best context of “sustainability” in an all-encompassing form was set out by the Brundtland report which put the “social and biophysical” limits of economic growth on the forefront (WCED, 1987). The Brundtland report acknowledged the need for economic growth to fight poverty while at the same time cautioning against unlimited growth since the current growth could not be sustained without compromising the future generations’ ability to use environmental products and services, which became a working definition of “sustainable development” concept. In this definition is the recognition of the physical and social limits of economic growth. To date, this report has opened up a number of discussions regarding the interdependency of the environment and economy. It is against this background that this paper intends to reconsider the debate about urban sustainable development by drawing lessons from the thermodynamic analysis framework. The research will start by an overview of the general sustainable growth debate, followed by a

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section with some aspects from emergy perspective on the subject.

1.2 Urban sustainable development debate The issues that are dominating in the interface between environmental demands and economic growth debate include the limits of economic growth, differences between qualitative growth and quantitative growth and their role in sustainable development, the role of money in economic growth and the role of perfectly functioning markets and prices in environmental management. There is a general consensus amongst the environmentalists and ecological economists that economic growth has limits. Economic growth is limited by the “regenerative and absorptive capacity” of the environment (Daly and Farley, 2004). Daly and Farley (2004) elaborated on the biophysical limits of growth embodied in the laws of thermodynamics and the cost imposed on future generations. On the other hand, environmental economists are in agreement with the fact that economic growth can not be forever since resources are limited in their supply. However, “pure economists” have limitation of growth in the market mechanisms of supply and demand which regulates resources’ use and the assimilative capacity of the environment. Therefore, the protection of the environment should be left to the market regulating mechanisms. To this extent the term sustainable growth was introduced in an attempt to define and integrate economic growth into the environmental sustainability framework. As pointed out by Nobel Prize winner Sen in 1989, growth-based development approaches are especially strong within the economic sciences, and more specifically in neo-classical economics. Sen (1989) therefore argued that although standard economics often neglect issues such as poverty, misery and well-being, enhancing living conditions for people remains an essential part of development, and therefore needs to be the goal of all economic exercise. There are, however, other factors than economic growth that influence living conditions, such as capabilities, well-being, livelihood security and fairness (Chambers, 1997). As argued by Eisenmenger and Giljum (2007), measuring social and economic well-being by using economic indicators only, has therefore resulted in major shortcomings. In fact, much evidence suggests that there are no correlations between material prosperity, welfare and happiness (Sen, 1989; Bäckstrand and Ingelstam, 2006). Therefore, the development concept needs to include more variables than mere economic growth. Discerning this internal structure provides a means of entry for developing strategies to guide complex urban areas toward more sustainability. We need to find ways to make the complex system we have into one that will allow the players themselves to turn the urban system into a collective intelligence that can sustain itself indefinitely. Norgaard (1994) further argued that the multitude of definitions and practices of development have meant that a combination of several beliefs has been merged into a single whole, which of course has resulted in internal contradictions. Still, the wide-spread belief in development (and the implicit emphasis on

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economic growth) creates what Norgaard (1994) called a collective certainty, i.e., a shared social belief that is seldom criticized or debated in mainstream circles. From this follows that although concrete aspects of development may be debatable, it is highly improper to question the validity of development per se. The near to global consensus of economic growth as a remedy for development has therefore resulted in that opponents to growth-based development strategies are pointed out as bad citizens, and that although individually one may not be convinced of economic growth as a solution to all development problems, in public it is necessary at least to agree to its plausibility (Norgaard, 1994). Whilst development is a concept with many interpretations, sustainability is not less complicated a concept. Ulgiati and Brown (1998b) list the main interpretations of sustainability and its linkages to: ķ resources availability, and ĸ resource use efficiency, Ĺ fairness in terms of how resources are shared between populations today, and ĺ how they should be conserved for future generations, and Ļ how resources are constrained by environmental dynamics. What makes sustainability complicated as a concept, in addition to it accommodating various interpretations, is that most approaches to assess sustainability concentrate on only one or a few of the above-mentioned aspects. The inherent paradox of sustainable development may thus be summarized as follows: whereas sustainability implies leveling off global use of energy and resources, development implies continued expansion of production and consumption. The question is, therefore, from where a society that prioritizes growth is to draw its resources? As argued by Eisenmenger and Giljum (2007), any realistic definition of sustainable development should therefore encourage decreased rather than increased resources extraction and use, which is only possible by decreasing global average consumption and expansion rates. Indeed, this need for adapting society to resource scarcity is increasingly stressed, especially by advocates of alternative definitions of sustainable development, such as resilience (Walker et al., 2006) and the pulsing paradigm (Odum, 2007).

1.3 Urban metabolism and principle of entropy increase Drawing on what has been discussed above, whenever sustainable development is referred to in this thesis it implies a process of production and consumption that is not linear but rather pulses, yet includes transition into a socio-ecological world system that promotes well-being, social, political and economic fairness, fair distribution and sharing of resources, and long term (if oscillating) ecological equilibrium. However, using terms such as equilibrium in this context may be confusing since it implies a steady state. Living systems in fact never reach equilibrium, but flux continuously. A completely steady state, i.e., equilibrium is only reached when all energy transformation processes come to a halt, which is in fact a common definition of death (Capra, 1996). As noticed by Odum H T and Odum E P (2001), pulsing patterns are indeed apparently better at enabling long term efficiency and overall productivity, and therefore, policies

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need to abandon steady state conceptualizations. Equilibrium in this thesis therefore implies a pulsing “steady” state that maintains a desirable structure and function, yet characterized by continuous oscillations of energy and material flows. In reality however, many development initiatives are based on a vision of global industrialization and societal development after a western model, i.e., through economic growth driven by top-down approaches and external aid and investments. This way of thinking of development is still central within economics and politics, and today constitutes the mainstream of international aid and strategies for sustainable development worldwide. However, this vision has not been fulfilled (Stiglitz, 2002). Some scholars have therefore come to criticize this view, and failure, of development (Binns and Nel, 1999; Stiglitz, 2002). Binns and Nel (1999) also argue that one of the reasons for this failure is the free-market ideology on which contemporary society is based. As Eisenmenger and Giljum (2007) points out, the market has proven a successful institution because it makes the exploitative nature of resource extraction and exchange less obvious, than for example, by having colonies of slaves with the purpose of keeping the modern industrialized society running. Though slavery and other obvious forms of domination and exploitation are on the decrease today, resources still need to be taken from somewhere if growth is to continue exponentially. Therefore, it may be argued that exploitation needs to find other ways that at least at a glance appear more ethical. One explanation to why exploitation is always necessary, at least if development is to be based on infinite growth, can be found in the field of thermodynamics, which is one way to study production and consumption in terms of energy transformations. According to the second law of thermodynamics, all production (energy transformation) is a dissipative process that converts raw materials into finished products and produces entropy (disorder) in the process. The second law of thermodynamics dictates that all energy transformation processes move towards increasing entropy, i.e., from order to disorder (Capra, 1996). Although hitherto more used metaphorically, the concept of entropy has also been applied to social contexts. For example, among others Hornborg (2001) argues that “industrialism implies a social transfer of entropy”. Similarly, Capra (1996), points out that creating world order always means simultaneous creation of disorder. As the Figure 1-1 shows, dissipative metabolism occurs in urban metabolic process when the system releases materials or energy into the environment, thereby reducing the level of entropy in the economic system. This disorder is then necessarily transferred somewhere else trough dissipation. Natural system in cities is used as an entropy supply pipe to transport negative entropy to a heat sink. The total entropy turbulence of the total system tends to balance. It can also be transferred in different ways. The concept of entropy was initially coined with the purpose of measuring the unsustainability of urban metabolic systems. Furthermore, the generation and transfer of disorder may be seen as exacerbated by capitalism, and international trade as a system of intergenerational and spatial transfer of entropy. Therefore, Hornborg (2001) argues, criticizing production and trade as it commonly takes place under capitalism is not as much a value judgment as it seems, since there is in fact a natural law

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Fig. 1-1 The principle of urban metabolism entropy increase

suggesting that the generation of order in one place can only be achieved by creating disorder elsewhere. This argument may be exemplified by the current organization of world trade. The ability of a majority of the world’s population to participate in international trade is limited. Consequently, this has resulted in poor people being seemingly abandoned by the dominated global economy, and some countries are therefore today even more economically marginalized than before (Stiglitz, 2002). In this way, some peoples and regions have been appointed losers, or in other words, receivers of entropy, by some societal mechanism, such as for example war, colonization or imperialism etc. The market may thus be seen as yet another such mechanism, albeit with less visible unethical connotations. The Heckscher-Ohlin trade theory suggests that, under free trade, countries would specialize in the production that is intensive in the factors that they are endowed within relative abundance. So as long as there is trade, a part of countries will specialize in resources intensive production. However, current production-based mechanism for allocating entropy reduction burden provides incentive for entropy shift. In Figure 1-2, the consumption demand of developed regions will shift to other regions and increase their production. If resources intensity of these regions is lower

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than others, then global emissions will decrease, on the contrary, other regions' resource use reduction will even increase global emissions. In this sense, a more systematic consumptionbased approach, which can eliminate pollutions leakage and encourage reduction to occur where the costs are lowest, will be better. Moreover, pollutions border tax adjustment has been proposed as a method for addressing competitiveness concerns in global pollutions reduction. In sum, pollutions embodied in trade must be paid more attention to bridge the gap between the concerns of developed and developing countries, encourage active participations and reduce pollutions leakage.

Fig. 1-2 Entropy shift in different scales

However, as if resources or pollutions embodied in trade are fully understood and international responsibilities are reallocated on a consumption basis; it is far from enough to promote global cooperation to combat economic loss and ecological impacts though it would be a great progress, not to mention that net pollutions importers may not accept consumption-based method. Thus, simply trying to seek a single global solution that is implemented by national governmental unit because of global impacts is far from enough. The important role of smaller-scale effects must be recognized. In this sense, a polycentric approach might be a choice for the problem, which means actions at various levels with active oversight of urban, regional, and national stakeholders.

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Music is created and performed by Dr. Marco Casazza.

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2.1 Introduction Urban population is increasing worldwide. United Nation’s analysis showed that 54% of world population lives in cities, while a further increase, up to 66%, is foreseen by year 2050 (United Nations, 2014). In parallel, by 2030, the urbanization phenomenon will fully involve also the developing world, for which more than a half of its population will live in cities in a few decades (Montgomery, 2008). The number and size of the world’s largest cities are also unprecedented. In fact, almost 400 cities, which are prevalently located in the developing world, contain a million people or more (Cohen, 2006). The increased pressure of growing population within cities, the present environmental degradation, as well as the risk of social unrest is increasing, as well documented in the literature. There are case studies focused on both of environmental degradation and resources depletion (e.g.: Gleich, 2014; Hougue and Pincetl, 2015; Kelley et al., 2015), economical impoverishment (e.g.: Levine et al., 2008; Donald et al., 2014; Obeng-Odoom, 2015; Robinson, 2016) and social unstaibilities (e.g.: Buhaug and Urdal, 2013; Marinkoviü, 2013). Consequently, the future of cities is under risk (Moriarty and Honnery, 2015). This is why the challenge of making the urban lifestyle sustainable is still open. Cities can be fundamental drivers of transformation in addressing global environmental threats, including climate change, water stress, loss of biodiversity and resource scarcity (World Bank, 2010; UN-HABITAT, 2011). This process, anyway, requires an adequate level of planning, as well as a clear idea about the nature of cities, which can be viewed as critical structural, functional, and spatial expression of a human ecological reality. The concepts of urban sustainability and ‘smartness’ would also require a further clarification, since they lack of clear definitions and models (e.g.: Berger, 2014; McHale et al., 2015). Moreover, assessment methods should be re-discussed under the light of the most recent literature (Liu et al., 2014; Beloin-Saint-Pierre et al., 2016). Finally, urban governance systems, as drivers of adaptive strategies, need to be informed by urban metabolism and socio-ecological modelling, which include also human perceptions and activities (Li et al., 2016). Ideally, the final goal would be to have a sustainable, smart and low-carbon urban environment, in which human well-being and the quality of the environment are considered together. This process of conceptual understanding and scenario development can be approached through different ways. An under-investigated option, which is considered here, is focused on pre-industrial cities. This choice presents a potential limitation for the lack data availability and the need of a multi-disciplinary approach. Nonetheless, it could have also some advantages. In fact, since the purpose of a societal transition, claimed by many official policy roadmaps, is to enhance the transition toward low-carbon conditions, an assessment of urban lifestyle developed under similar circumstances would be really beneficial. This doesn’t mean either that pre-industrial cities are sustainable or low-carbon by definition. In fact, many places experienced

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collapses, while the problem of pollution was already existing, as reported by many studies. Nonetheless, since the pre-industrial period is considered as reference for acceptable levels of anthropogenic emissions, while carbon use was limited, if not even absent before the ĒĎ century, it is possible to consider the pre-industrial urban environment as a broad reference system to investigate for our purposes. The key question can be reformulated using the same words of Clark (2015): “what does the history of (medieval) cities suggest about contemporary efforts to frame the challenge of sustainable development in terms of a transition toward sustainability?” However, this question should be adapted for increasing our conceptual understanding, as written before. Thus, the question should be rewritten in the following way: “How urban life was, then, conceived during the pre-industrial era in different parts of the world?” This is why such a research should focus on searching the existing evidence about an urban ecological wisdom. In fact, as Young (2016) remarked, ecological wisdom can represent an influential framework for sustainable landscape and urban planning. This is why the purpose of the present work is focused on reviewing the characteristics of pre-industrial cities in Europe and Asia under the light of what is today known as environmental, economic and social sustainability. Readers will be introduced to the context of medieval urbanization and to the approach used for our research. Ecological wisdom about environmental, economic and social sustainability will be discussed, considering historical and archaeological findings, as well as social and cultural practices, documented by the literature and original sources. It is important to remark that sustainability was not a conscious choice in that age. It was, instead, a implicit necessity of survival. In fact, in case either of resource depletion or of socio-economical injustices and inequity or other instability factors, the stability of urban settlements would have been threatened. In other words, cities struggled both for their structural survival as communities, and, somehow, for the inclusiveness of their social structures, depending on the social values of that time. The first novelty of the review consists in its multi-disciplinary approach in merging the evidences derived from natural sciences, social sciences and humanities, while contributing to the present demand of studies in the field, evidenced by important existing research networks, such as IHOPE (http://ihopenet.org/) in the framework of Future Earth (http://www.futureearth.org/). The second novelty is about the comparison between the Western-Europe centered view of history and the long civilization history of China. Third, the comparative approach evidences the implicit traditional ecological knowledge already existing in the pre-industrial age, which is now crucial for developing a sustainable lifestyle for the urban environment.

2.2 Method This review is focused on the urban sustainability wisdom, with a specific interest for medieval Europe and pre-industrial China. According to Merriam-Webster dictionary, we define

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wisdom as a wise attitude, belief, or course of action. We use this term to distinguish it from knowledge in any fixed or codified form, since no specific codification of habits with respect to sustainability existed at that time. The model of sustainability, to which this study refers, must be delineated. Maclaren (1996) discussed the terms “urban sustainability” and “sustainable urban development”, which are often alternatively used with the same meaning. According to this author, who approached to this issue considering the dynamical condition of sustainability in the urban context, these words refer to “a desirable state or set of conditions that persists over time”. The latter term is sometimes defined differently as “a process by which sustainability can be attained” (Yigitcanlar and Teriman, 2015). The same transformative dimension was discussed by Wu (2014), who found some key elements associated to urban sustainability: environment (ecosystem processes, ecosystem services and biodiversity, which are associated to the natural biota); the social dimension (health, security, freedom, culture, availability of resources). Indicators of urban sustainability are difficult to define, because no consensus exists yet on this subject (Tanguay et al., 2010; Liu et al., 2017a). The most common approach refers to the three pillars of sustainability, also indicated as Triple Bottom Line (TBL) (Tatham et al., 2014). Henri Pirenne (1952) tried to develop a general theory of the growth of cities, nonetheless this experiment failed due to the morphological approach, instead than a socio-ecological one. Recent works are focused on extended metabolic models, where the the bio-physical dimensions are defined together with the human one, enabling the development of input-output models (Newman, 1999). There, the author lists a set of potential indicators referred to different aspects: energy and air quality; water, raw materials and waste; land, green spaces and biodiversity; transportation; livability, human amenity and health. Even if a quantitative approach is not possible yet in our case, we refer qualitatively to the same list for our purposes. Consequently, we assess the environmental side of sustainability against: spatial planning, urban structure, urban-rural connection; food production; water management; biodiversity; energy-related resources (primarily wood). Air quality and waste management, which are considered within the multiple set of measurable indicators in the extended metabolism model, are not included here, due to the lack of available data. Economy and its dynamics in the transition to medieval age is assessed here, together with handcraft and service and trade sectors activities. On the other side, transport is excluded, due to its limited environmental impact during the pre-industrial era, particularly before the age of long-range geographic explorations. Public health, social cohesion, the development of associated public spaces and the cultural dimensions, which were almost excluded by Newmann, are discussed here as parts of the social-side of sustainability. Next, due to its variability, the wide time-frame considered in the present study needs to be discussed, considering the different historical evolutions in Europe and in China. In particular, the medieval city in Europe, which started to define its identity from the late antiquity (in the Č century AD), had its origin around the Đ-đ centuries AD (Le Goff, 2011). On the other side, the nature of urbanism in China is more difficult to describe. In fact, the Chinese “city”, which is

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usually loosely translated in English as “city”, includes three levels: Firstly, municipality of China, for example, Beijing and Shanghai; Secondly, prefecture-level city, e.g.: Shenzhen in Guangdong Province; Thirdly, county-level city, e.g.: Yiwu (under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Jinhua). It is important to specify the definition of “city” when referring to statistical data of Chinese cities, otherwise confusion may arise. For instance, in the case either of a municipality or a sub-provincial city or a prefecture-level city, the data associated to urban city district are merged with the ones of suburb adjacent subdistricts. For the county-level city, instead, only central subdistricts are included. This definition is close to the strict meaning of “city” in western countries. For decades fascinating stories were available on the frequently huge prehistoric and early historic cities of the Shang, Western Zhou Dynasty, Spring and Autumn Period, and Warring States periods (c.1700221 BC). However, scholars, aware of what regional settlement-pattern studies in other parts of the world accomplished, were frustrated by the absence of comparable data from China. This lack of data changed only in recent times (Cowgill, 2004). Paradoxically, while urbanization in China is a very recent phenomenon, Chinese cities were among the oldest in the world. As the geographer Wheatley (1971) put it, the North China Plain is one of a handful of regions of primary urbanization in the world. Nonetheless, at the beginning of the twentieth century, urban population amounted to about 10% of the total, since China was still a predominantly rural society (Friedman, 2006). Besides, the reason for choosing such a parallel between Europe and China must be explained. This fact emerges considering the history of urban evolution. There are, in fact, similar patterns of urban development, considering both the militarized urban environment, the growth of beurocracy and, then, the economic evolution, occurring almost in the same periods. Just in the case of China, as reported again by Friendman (2006), and starting with the Tang Dynasty, major ruptures with the past occurred during at least five periods. The first was the long transition from Tang cities to the cities of the Northern Song Dynasty (AD 9601127), symbolized respectively by the militarized fortress city of Chang’an and the open, bureaucratic city of Kaifeng. The next far-reaching change occurred during the late Ming Dynasty (AD 13681644), with the rise of the flourishing cities of merchant guilds. With their vivid street life, Ming cities continued the ‘openness’ of the Northern Song, gradually filling out an interconnected imperial network of urban places that completed the pre-modern system of cities at different size levels and with interlocking political and economic functions. Then, the review methodology must be defined. In particular the available literature is reviewed using “Google Scholar” search engine. The following settings were chosen: quotations and pattents were excluded; the results were, first, limited including only the last five years of published works; the search output time limitation was, then, removed, in order to look for potential important investigations of the previous years; finally, the results were further selected on the basis of abstract content, relevance of the subject, authors’ production on the same subject. The first part of the review, focused on the environment, was based on the search of the following words: “urban shape” “urban-rural” “water use” “land use” and “urban agriculture”, together

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with “urban” or “city” and “medieval”. For the economic sustainability, where the keywords were “economy” and “production”, together with “urban” or “city” and “medieval”. The same approach was used for the social sustainability, where “public space” and “public health” were used. The study of some reference works for European and Chinese urbanization, to which we referred previously, were also considered. Finally, an attempt to discuss about culture and sustainability was also developed, based on the keywords “culture” and “instruction”. The review section, which includes three sub-sections, is based on a comparison, for each given indicator, between the present knowledge and the historical evidence on each different issue. The literature references, thus, will refer to both.

2.3 Urban TEK and environmental sustainability The urban environment constitutes the substrate for any socio-ecological development and growth. The first environmental dimension of any settlement is space. Consequently, urban spatial structure must be considered. Initially, only a limited number of urban places became real cities (Antrop, 2004). The majority of settlements were small towns, villages and hamlets and the countryside was everywhere. The city was the exception; the countryside was the common. Life in medieval towns and free communes was closely related to suburban and peri-urban areas, where citizens cultivated the fields and raised animals for home consumption (Ronchi et al., 2014). In central Italy, during the Renaissance, many gardens were planned as complement of the nobiliary residences; the structure of these historical gardens included portions for fruit orchards and forest products (Botti and Biasi, 2009). This urban form is still preserved in many cities in central and northern Italy, although it has been adapted and shaped by different political, economic, social and cultural rights, that have occurred over the centuries. The same was true for China. In fact, there can be little doubt that sprawl, following Bruegmann’s definition (Bruegmann, 1977), existed around many ancient cities. In fact, walled cities usually developed beyond their borders (Smith, 2010). Urbanization transformed the landscape, impacting on its patterns, functionality and dynamics (Haase and Nuissl, 2010). Gradually, the urban-to-rural gradient became a conceptual dichotomy, well represented by the prevailing paradigm at the turn of the nineteenth century (Davoudi and Stead, 2002). The “urban fringe”, which is “the built-up area just outside the corporate limits of the city”, was also conceptualized more recently (Pryor, 1968). The distinction between urban and rural spaces was also present in China. Far-reaching transformation of the conception of the city in relation to the countryside took place during the period of the Qin unification (ca. 221 BC) (Xu, 2000). In early Zhou Dynasty (1056256 BC), the “country”, not only denoted an enfeoffed territory but also meant the walled city where the seat of the head of the fief resided. In political terms, a city of this kind was constructed to defend the authority of a prince or duke over his fiefdom, while the peasantry is living outside of the wall. The walled city is acted as an island of civilization surrounded and sometimes threatened by a sea

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of less civilized and probably hostile peasantry (Xu, 2000). Two main extended spatial patterns existed in medieval Europe: the city, dominated by a vast hinterland; the cluster of cities at relatively close distance. Good examples of the first type can be found in the 16th century with Paris, London, Lisbon, Naples, Constantinople and the Hanseatic towns such as Danzig and Novgorod. Examples of city clusters were found in medieval Flanders and Northern Italy. The term ‘extended’ is referred to their extension beyond the urban boundaries. On the other side, there are internal patterns, related to the urban structure and shape. Presently, it is recognized that a fundamental attribute, shared by resilient living cities, is a high degree of organized complexity (Salat and Bourdic, 2012). The fractal assemblage of elements, where a unit is repeated across different scales, distinguishes a coherent urban morphology. Salingaros (1998) investigated the relation between resilience and fractal street patterns. In particular, he found that a complex city is a network of topologically deformable paths. The fractal approach, while showing a high plasticity, enables a higher connection among scales-particularly the smaller ones-and a larger degree of redundancy within the road network. Salat and Bourdic (2011) suggested the comparison between an urban structure and an arborescence, where a highly hierarchic structure exists, which enables an increased efficiency of the system. This confirms the previous findings by Alexander (1965), who compared the structure of street networks to trees and leaves. In fact, small streets show a higher number of interconnections and connections to higher-level ones in what is known as semilattice structure. The same is found in the veins system of most deciduous trees, which not only have a clear scale hierarchy, but also display a higher connectivity among the midsize veins and the venules. In the historical European cities, the street grid structure and subdivision can be traced back to the Middle Ages and sometimes even to the Roman Empire (Salat and Bourdic, 2011). This capacity to retain the urban identity, surviving even to disasters and total reconstructions-like Lisbon after the 1755 earthquake, London after the Great Fire in 1666, Kyoto after the fires in the Middle Ages, and the 1923 earthquake is what we call urban resilience, a complex concept related to the permanence of a memory at once social, symbolic and material. The case of China was discussed in a paper and a book by Skinner (1976, 1977), where he argued that urban structure and hierarchy were generated on the basis of distinct economic systems and trade linkages among the hierarchy of central and local metropolises, on one side, and regional, greater, local cities and market towns, on the other side. Cities require food for the survival of their inhabitants. It is evident that urban food production partially contributes to address food security in urban centres both in developed and developing countries (Ghisellini and Casazza, 2016). Urban agriculture is referred both to the urban and peri-urban areas (Gallaher and Njenga, 2014). Presently, urban food production covers 15%20% of the world’s food demand (Armar-Klemesu, 2000). Urban residents have cultivated home gardens for thousands of years. During the Middle Ages, European kitchen gardens provided food, flowers and medicinal herbs to families and their servants (O’brien and De La Escosura, 1992). The importance of food production was already remarked in a medieval text by

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Thomas Aquinas (12251274). The author reported the importance of internal cultivation and food supply by trade, writing that the first option is preferable with respect to the second (Aquinas, 1949). Recently, Elmqvist et al. (2013) investigated some historical case studies. The first one is about cities in Meso-America. Due to the variability of seasonal conditions and the energy cost of inland transport, urban Maya Indians used to produce food in areas close to their cities, even if they traded goods also from long distances. In particular, large sectors of fertile soils inside the urban landscape were used as city infields and urban inhabitants carefully fertilized the fields using the organic waste they produced. This care for gardens guaranteed the food security for the population, as well as other stable ecosystem services. The rich level of biodiversity still found in some cities is witness of such a co-evolution. The second case is about Constantinople. In this case, periodic sieges posed a threat to food security. This forced its inhabitants to erect the Theodosian Wall, located 1.5 km westwards the Constantine Wall. Major water cisterns, as well as a 3 km2 green common space, were included between the two walls and used for cultivation and pasture. The whole agricultural area, including a 2 km2 space just outside the walls, measured about 15 km2. A third case was discussed by Billen et al. (2012). They showed that the evolution of Brussels, a typical second-generation city, was strictly related to the agricultural growth in its proximal rural territory. The definition of a spatial structure came later, only when Brussels became a market centre. The demand for food, drink and fuel, in the case of London, influenced the spatial planning of the surrounding region (Keene, 2012). There, waterways played a prominent role, since water rather than land transport was available. The preservation of biodiversity was important (as it is now) to guarantee the communities survival. A couple of examples are again contained in the study by Elmqvist et al. (2013). The contemporary Istanbul region still preserves remnant seminatural patches, which are products of co-evolution between cultural practices and the bio-physical environment. Also the National Urban Park of Stockholm (protected by law since 1995) represents an example of biodiversityrich land previously used for producing food, fuel, fiber and other useful materials. The role of water is vital to driving urban evolution (Kaushal et al., 2015). Structure, function, and services of cities were shaped also by water bodies. Cities located on a river developed a relation among ecosystem services, man and technologies which mainly evolved in two steps (Gómez-Sal et al., 2003). In the first one, local communities used renewable products, which could be replaced by a new supply. Later, due to demand and technological development, effective production systems grew up, extracting and transforming valuable goods. This is why a low-volume trade of expensive goods gradually grew. During this stage ports were also developed. Within this context, rivers played a crucial role. In fact, goods for trade were transported on rivers, while the river water was necessary for the development of different techniques of traditional handicraft, serving also as a fresh water supply and wastewater disposal (Levin-Keitel, 2014). Case studies are reported in the literature, such as the city of ToruĔ (Poland), founded by the Teutonic Knights and located near the Vistula River, and Dublin (Ireland), where water supply was drawn from watercourses within the city environs (Rivers

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Poddle and Dodder and the Grand Canal) until the middle of the 19th century (Czarnecki et al., 2014; Kelly-Quinn et al., 2014). The roots of recycled effluent came just after the Medieval Period, as reported in a recent study (Meehan et al., 2013). During the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci drew blueprints to flush waste from Roman cities, with the idea that an ‘odourless city’ signalled a new, modern phase of urban development. In 16th century France, cities issued regulations that required citizens to “clean up in front of one’s house” and “give [dirty] waters chase with a bucketful of clean water to hasten their course” away from settled areas. The Spanish colonial government developed sewerage networks in Mexico City, patterned after ancient Aztec infrastructure, to rid the downtown core of wastewater and secure conditions for commerce and growth. Finally, all the basic water-related technologies were developed from ancient times: cisterns (Mays et al., 2013), water pumps (Yannopoulos et al., 2014), and aqueducts (De Feo et al., 2013). We have some details about water resources management in historical China. Water was relatively abundant, even if very unevenly distributed along China’s long agricultural society. In specific seasons or regions, both droughts and hydro-geological hazards could be observed. These conditions, together with the gradually increasing need of lands for agriculture and urban development, led to a qualitative change on the relationship between human-land and human-water. For example, in the Tang dynasty, Guanzhong and the surrounding Loess Plateau region not only were theatres of frequent political conflicts due to the excess of land reclamation, but also of frequent “mud rain” episodes, associated to soil erosion and fragmentation. Another example. After the collapse of Han Dynasty (Ċ century AD), during the Late Antique Little Ice Age (LALIA), in the Chaohu Lake Basin, a combination of floods, earthquakes and some other natural disasters, as well as the North-South political and geographic division led to a war. This, in turn, caused the gradual decline of the ancient “Chao-Fei Channel”, while it destroyed its agricultural and economic background (Wu et al., 2012). Consequently, settlements also started to decline, as witnessed by the reduced number of archaeological and burial sites. It was, then, understood that a comprehensive utilization and management of water resources had to rely on better and stronger management, where both the government and non-governmental parties played a crucial role. The societal response consisted into adding a new legal system for water conservancy and integrated water resources management, which implemented the administrative management of water resources, as well as the policy of “prohibiting the use of water resources in some particular area” to regulate human and water contradictions. As a result, the integrated management of water resources ensured the basic water security and the rights to water access for the people in the agricultural era. Three major goals were reached: flood control, irrigation and water transport. An improved interaction between communities and water resources allowed to promote a water conservancy civilization. In fact, the ancient Chinese water conservancy projects were far more than the ones in Western countries. For example, during the Tang dynasty, 16 different irrigation projects were developed. After that, the number continued to rise sharply. Around year 1400, about 30% of the cultivated land area was irrigated (Wang, 2005). It can be

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said that no country like China mobilized a lot of resources and labor to carry out large-scale water conservancy facilities.

2.4 Urban TEK and economic sustainability The present economy has some ‘hot themes’. Among the others: the value of money; the change of economic model (i.e.: circular economy, stationary economy, etc.); economic inequities related to the increasing poverty; the relation between economy and environment. The present economic state is a complex evolution of the medieval one, since the even the premise of industrialization and economic thought are rooted in that time, after the collapse of the Roman Empire. It is not possible, for sure, to take direct inspiration from the medieval cities for thinking about the future economic sustainability. To date, policy debates have occupied most of the airspace around cities and the sharing economy (Rinne, 2014). Meanwhile, circular economy, based on products recycle and reuse, is gaining public interest and might shape also the future of cities (Gunter, 2013). A new compass is needed to guide bold policy directions, change incentive structures, reduce or phase out harmful subsidies and engage business leaders in a vision for an innovative, new economy. Consequently, a summary of existing evidences from the pre-industrial past is reported to give the opportunity of future reflections with respect to this issue. First, during the collapse of the Roman empire, cities were gradually abandoned. In a letter, Ambrosius of Milan (340397 AD) described the status of a large number of semi-destroyed cities (Cipolla, 1974). At the end of Ē century this phenomenon came to an end. The existing fortified villages, called curtes, gradually grew up, becoming also market places. Thus, after a few centuries, the troubadour Chrétien de Troyes (end of Ĕ century) witnessed: “And one can say and believe, that there is a fair every day in the city”. Urban migrations, depending on a “push and pull” process, were drivers of urban economic development (Cipolla, 2007). While also the rural economy, strongly supported by monasteries, was improving between the Ē and Ēċ centuries, local feudal powers represented a factor of social inequity in these areas, forcing people to move toward cities. Growing up, the urban environment became the place of co-existence of both low nobles, merchants and craftsmen. A new middle-class gave impulse to the cities economic development, while commerce supported the growth of urban-based trade (Le Goff, 2011). Corporations and guilds appeared from the ē century, as well as markets (later, from the Ĕ century) and the precursors of the tertiary sector (Clark, 2009). The development of trade created a conflictual view, as reported by Thomas Aquinas, who was witness of such a change. In particular, the presence of foreigners was looked with suspect for the risk of change of civic morality, which was argumented considering their different moral approach to money as wrong (Aquinas, 1949). The same author considered the increase of urban population as a risk for urban stability due to the problem of dependency on

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external supply of goods. The theme of poverty, which was particularly related to the rural world, is still a present threat to economic sustainability. The importance of poor in the public discourse is not recent. A new vision on poverty emerged, maybe for the first time, in the transition between the Roman empire and the Middle Ages. In the Roman world, charity was already an existing practice, but mainly focused on private investments for public works or public games with the purpose of supporting private political careers (Brown, 2012). Moreover, local administrations used to provide economic support to the poor citizens for their basic needs (i.e.: food). Nonetheless, there was no socio-economic support for non-citizens. As described by Peter Brown, the advent and spread of christianity evidenced, for the first time, the global dimension of poverty, and, along with the creation of local bishoprics, it stimulated a diversion of private investments toward the local Christian communities, which increased investment to support the destitutes. This didn’t solve the problem, but gradually introduced a new socio-economical vision, based on inclusiveness, starting from the villages where the bishops resided. Looking to the economic situation in China, the specifical presence of an urban class, which may loosely be termed as bourgeoisie, was taken as the defining characteristic of the city (Xu, 2000). However, China had no urban class comparable to that of the West. Yet, this fundamental social and political distinction between cities in imperial China and their Western counterparts did not conspicuously arise in the pre-Qin dynasty (before 221 BC), when the cities in China contained “the same basic ideas” and developed in a way similar to the feudal West. Considering a larger pre-industrial period, China performed much better than the Europe, enjoying a superiority in agriculture, military power, commerce, science and technology (Deng, 2000). A remarkable degree of social mobility as well as internal migration were a cause, for urban citizens, of incentive to study and to accumulate wealth. On the other side, China protected and nurtured producers’ incentives with reasonably well-defined property rights (China was dominated by free small-scale farmers, working under a system of private land-ownership).

2.5 Urban TEK and social sustainability The social dimension within the urban environment can be referred to various subjects, starting from the social inclusiveness and justice. Social inclusion and social cohesion hare basic terms. There related to the social dimension of sustainability. The former is the extent to which individuals have access to the available institutions and social relations (Beck et al., 2001). The latter is in the nature of social relations based on shared identities, values and norms (Beck et al., 1997). A most influential approach to urban sociology sprang from Chicago with the Wirthian theory of urbanism as a way of life. Wirth synthesized a wide range of deterministic principles relevant to individual as well as group behaviour in his classic essay, ‘Urbanism as a way of life’ (Wirth, 1969). This author attributed the social and psychological consequences of city life (i.e.:

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‘urbanism’) to the combined effects of three factors: the increased size of populations; the increased density of populations; and the increased heterogeneity, or differentiation, of populations. The importance of these dimensions becomes evident thinking about the growth of specific quality-of-life indices and ‘territorial justice’ as important concerns within human geography (Knox and Pinch, 2010). Interest in patterns of social well-being reflects a number of factors. The growing social inequality in Western societies and the influence of continental European intellectual traditions were among the causes of attention upon ideas of social exclusion. Poverty gradually has become something more than the mere lack of access to material resources. Instead, it has been assessed also in terms of social participation and belonging and embodied in a redefinition of the concept of citizenship. Third, the resurgence of interest in environmental issues encouraged the search for measures of environmental impact and broader quality-of-life factors in addition to measures of economic growth. Finally, the importance of public spaces, with their aesthetic and social dimension (material form vs. use and meaning), to create an awareness of urban heritage and citizenship feeling was underlined in a recent study (Garcìa-Doménech, 2015). First, the social dimension is generally supported by interconnection infrastructures. Today, along with transportation system, we should also include the digital dimension (e.g.: social networks). During the middle ages, interconnections were guaranteed by the existence of major roads, which facilitated the development of an urban society, of communication with their hinterlands, as well as trade with other cities (Madanipour, 2013). Crossroads were the main nodes of urban development inside cities, since they implicitly determined the potential meeting spaces for people. The first public space in the urban environment was constituted by roads. Obviously, the development of new transport and communication technologies altered this framework in the following centuries. Consequently, present time analysis is more complex. This is a reason of the past reduced average length of main street segments with respect to the present ones. This was evidenced in a study, focused on networks of historic (i.e.: ancient, medieval, renaissance, baroque and industrial) case studies, where much smaller roads are found with respect contemporary cities (i.e.: Garden City, Radiant City and New Urbanism) (Porta et al., 2014). A specific pattern was coherently defined, termed the ‘400-metre rule’. According to this rule, residential urban areas, also termed ‘sanctuary areas’ after Appleyard (1981), were bordered by main streets, that intersect at intervals that seldom exceed 400 metres. Intersections occurred at the junction of two or more streets, though not necessarily in the form of a rectilinear grid pattern. The 400-metre rule reflected the limitations of pedestrian movements and the self-organizing logic of social urban life prior to the advent of the automobile, highways systems and the application of professional urban design paradigms in the early 20th century. The growing urban context, supported by the growth of physical networks, gradually transformed the existing socio-ecological systems, which gradually modified their structure, leading to an urban environment governed by its own ecological rules.

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Second, public spaces characteristics depend also on the communities that created them (Sokolowski, 2014). Their feature in Flanders during the medieval period represent a clear example of this. In fact, a distinct urban identity appeared there during the conflict among cities and the nobility of Flanders, France and Burgundy. Consequently, public spaces were used to protect peoples’ political rights and liberties. From the Chinese side, cities did not totally lack public squares and public gardens. However, citizens probably preferred small, private, but open and sunny courtyards (Xu, 2000). Nonetheless, the very few cases of open areas do not necessarily indicate that Chinese cities had to a lesser degree a similar need of public squares than their European counterparts. It should also be noted that public gardens, accessible to both urban and rural residents, especially on festivals and holidays, were located in the rural areas around the city as much as within the city walls, where natural landscapes were transformed. Third point. Along public spaces and infrastructures, as well as community characteristics, also practices should be considered. In particular, the formation of social practices and to performativity, in the sense of ‘practise’ associated to the mechanisms of creating identity, should be investigated. In fact, practices can be also associated to a spatial dimension. Practice is defined as ‘a routinized type of behavior’ (Reckwitz, 2002). Patterns of practice in different phases can be traced in archaeological data, based on the following premises: ķ the stabilization process of patterns of practice involves physical resources that through their nature, scope, and composition enable the identification of the intent and purpose; ĸ the process of routinization leaves traces in the form of identifiable wear patterns and/or the rearrangement of spaces and/or areas; and Ĺ the stabilized patterns of practice are linked to spaces or areas that are constructed and adapted according to their intentional meaning (Christophersen, 2015). According to the mentioned study, three patterns of practice in different phases existed. Proto-practices were non-stabilized and routinized. ‘Meaning’ emerged, as a second phase, together with specific physical objects and structures. Stabilized practices exist, as a third phase, when a link appears between routinized actions, objects and structures. In our case, town houses represented the main space of practice and experience. This is why landownership arrangements and residential environments were studied in detail. In the typical small-scale and fragmented medieval townscape, people and their activities existed in many small concentrated units. There, widely different practical tasks were performed in close physical proximity, which required a detailed spatial division, that caused the formation of bundles. Gradually, different types of craftsmaker moved into specific areas to form craftsmakers’ quarters, sharing the same spaces, which was necessary for the productive activities of entire groups of craftsmakers. Activities were progressively located close to markets, so that potential buyers would pass the craftsmaker’s stalls and workshops. The evolution of social practices, depending also on time, developed in ‘sequence, synchronization, proximity or necessary co-existence’ (Shove et al., 2012). This is why advanced communities of workers grew up together with production processes, that shared production sites and needed further synchronization and shared expertise. The evidence of the relation of public performance and spaces is further confirmed from the study of medieval literary documents and is worth of future

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investigation (Clarke, 2015). This proliferation of urban centres and activities simultaneously exacerbated the existing social pressures. Among them, the need of provision, for their inhabitants, of a safe, healthy and productive surrounding in which to live, work and procreate. The challenges facing pre-modern cities were indeed great. Yet, as recent historiography demonstrates, at least some pre-modern urban governments and residents rose to meet these challenges, at times explicitly citing a commitment to people’s greater health (lat: pro maiori sanitate hominum) (Geltner, 2013). For example, in early fourteenth-century Lucca (Italy), one government organ began expanding to promote public hygiene and safety in ways that suggest both a concern for and an appreciation of preventative public healthcare. Evidence for this shift (which is traceable in and beyond the Italian peninsula) is mostly found in documents of practice, such as court and financial records, which augment and complicate the traditional view afforded by urban statutes and medical treatises. In the case of China, the lack of an urban administration before the early twentieth century led to a local autonomy, that made urban public space equally accessible to the members of all social classes. Commoners freely conducted all sorts of recreational and commercial activities on the street and in other shared spaces, such as public squares, temple fronts, ends of bridges and teahouses. The streets were controlled primarily through the neighborhood-organized “Baojia” system. “Baojia” leaders were selected from local residents, but they were not formal officials in the city, though sometimes they represented the government to carry out “official” duties, such as security. The Qing dynasty government had little direct involvement in control of the street. This pattern of management had a profound impact on urban life; the activities organized by the residents of a street or neighborhood clearly reflected a degree of community cohesion and control (Wang, 2003).

2.6 Discussion Urban development, which emerged from the local-scale, evolved as the outcome of dynamic interactions among biophysical, human and socio-economic forces, in which each component contributed to the form and behaviour of the whole (Kaniewski et al., 2013). An urban ecosystem is truly socio-ecological system, where the environmental and the social dimensions both coexist and interact (Su et al., 2010). The urban ecosystem is dependent and fragile. This fact is further aggravated by a huge demand of resources for industrial production and human consumption, as well as pollutant emissions. When the ecosystem stress is within the ecosystem’s regenerative capacity, it can self-restore. However, more intensive human activities result in adverse environmental changes that jeopardize sustainability and impair ecological functions and societal services. Thus, management actions directed toward urban health are needed. These actions need to be based on reliable scenarios, which are generally derived by

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present-day data, which should be based on the availability (and nature) of various indicators, which make the process of scenarios drawing easier. The integration of different monitoring options together with use and management of big data can support the development of adequate remediation and mitigation actions. On the other side, it is possible to look back to urban history and to ecological wisdom. Merging together the evidence from past studies in different fields we obtained a first comprehensive view, which is summarized in Table 2-1. Table 2-1
Summary of investigated urban sustainability indicators and found evidences for pre-industrial Europe and China Indicator

Pre-industrial (medieval) Europe

Pre-industrial China

Urban shape

Distinct separation between urban and rural spaces. Distinct separation between urban and rural spaces. Peri-urban areas were used mainly for food production Peri-urban areas were used mainly for food production and intermediate areas and intermediate areas

Urban structure

Complex hierarchical structure with high number of Complex hierarchical structure with high number of interconnections (roads) interconnections (roads)

Food production

Internal and peri-urban food production

Internal and peri-urban food production

Ecosystem services and green spaces

High value of common green spaces (also for food High value of common green spaces (also for food production) production)

Biodiversity preservation

High level of recorded biodiversity. Nonetheless, this High level of biodiversity recorded. Nonetheless, this was not considered as an explicit value was not considered as an explicit value

Water management

High level of integration for ancient stormwater management practices, such as low-impact development Evidence of water management. Cities usually grew and sustainable drainage systems. Breakthroughs in close to water bodies controlling annual river flooding go back as far as 256 BC when the Du Jiang Dam (Li and Xu, 2006) was built in Chengdu. Cities usually grew close to water bodies

Energy management

Surely existing. Forestry regulations were developed Surely existing. Taking ancient architecture (timber-frame in Italy around the ē century AD for wood provision halls) as an example, they were able to achieve optimal (both as a construction material and for energy levels of comfort using contemporary technology purposes)

Air quality

Air pollution was already existing. Regulations Air pollution was already existing. Regulations appeared later, jointly with the introduction of coal appeared later, jointly with the introduction of coal burning burning

Economy

Local productions were favoured. Service sector was China is still largely an agricultural country and its already existing. Eradicating poverty was already economy has relied on farming practice for a very long considered a goal time

Trade

Trade was less developed, since local productions China was, until quite recently, an almost closed were favoured society with little foreign trade in agricultural goods

Transport

The Great Canal from Beijing to Hangzhou was started in 486 BC for military purposes and was the longest (Long-range) transport not included, since it was not and greatest canal in the ancient world with a length of relevant, until the time of great geographic explorations 1797 km. It served as a major transportation artery and prosperous settlements thrived along its course (Luo et al., 2015)

Public Health

Ancient Chinese embraced a concept of health that included physical well-being, psychological balance, Evidence of public health management practices in the and social harmony as well as an extended longevity late medieval period and a considerable amount of both awareness of and control over their health conditions (from Qin in 214AD)

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Continued  Indicator Public spaces

Culture, creativity and education

Pre-industrial (medieval) Europe Relevant for the social dimension

Pre-industrial China Relevant for the social dimension

The ancient oriental philosopher and poet Lao Zi (571471 BC) noted that humans should not interfere First world university created in Bologna (year 1088 with nature and should also follow the common rules AD). Creativity was highly stimulated within the urban of the natural world. This philosophy has dominated environment Chinese urban over the long term via promotion of orderly human activities (Ye et al., 2001)

From the Table 2-1, the evidence of an existing ecological wisdom with respect to urban sustainability both for Europe and China. We remark the fact that it is not possible to claim that pre-industrial cities were sustainable. Nonetheless, they needed to struggle to survive, basing their survival on ecosystem services and socio-economical dynamical equilibrium. This ‘dialogue’ between the human communities and nature, was not supported by fossil fuels (carbon combustion was introduced mainly from the 16th century AD). This makes our analysis interesting, since there are clear plans to create future low-carbon societies. A still debated subject, which is generally missing, is the importance of culture, as a further pillar of sustainability. This fact is particularly important in the context of landscape and urban planning. In fact, as written by Antrop (2004), “landscapes change because they are the expression of the dynamic interaction between natural and cultural forces in the environment. First, it is important to consider the relation between the ecosystem and the culture trough Cultural Ecosystem Services (CES). They are described as “non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic experiences”, and connected to 10 subservices, to wit: cultural diversity, spiritual and religious values, knowledge systems, educational values, inspiration, aesthetic values, social relations, sense of place, cultural heritage as well as recreation, and ecotourism (MEA, 2005). According to the categorization system of CICES (Common International Classification of ES), CES “include all non-material ecosystem outputs that have symbolic, cultural or intellectual significance” by dividing them into ķ “physical and intellectual interactions and ĸ spiritual, symbolic and other interactions with biota, ecosystems and land/seascapes” (Maes et al., 2013). Others see CES as the “ecosystems contribution to the nonmaterial benefits (e.g.: capabilities and experiences) that arise from human ecosystem relationships” (Chan et al., 2012). In the Middle Ages these processes were evident trough the literary production. We could, for instance, consider the case of Boccaccio Decameron, which is set in a garden, or the case of the edenic view in the letters of the hermit Pier Damiani (2000). The role of creativity and arts was also important in the urban context. In fact, creativity and arts are triggers of aesthetic reflective actions, which are important for sustainability (Casazza et al., 2017). Today, creativity and imagination are among the most important ingredients to cope with post-normal times, in order to be able to transform the individualistic/atomistic view of Modernity towards a more contextual, collaborative, complex approach (Montuori, 2013). There is no need to stress the

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beauty of Medieval artistic production, which is still available trough buildings or work of arts, such as frescoes, or literary production, such as the poetry of 13th14th century (for example, in China and in Italy), which were mainly developed within a city context. Finally, considering that a global trend exits, where universities are collaborating with local government, industry and civic organizations to advance the sustainable transformation of a specific town, city or region (Trencher et al., 2014), we have to take into account the creation of university. In fact, the first real known university was created in Bologna in 1088. It is important to stress the fact that this subject is regaining attention under the light of Paris Agreement on international climate policies (UNFCCC, 2015), which underlines the importance of traditional knowledge as an important part of culture for sustainability. China, whose civilization history spans several thousand years, is basically an inland country with more than two thirds of its territory as mountain or hilly areas and densely populated with one fourth of the world population (Wang et al., 2011). To survive from the marginal environment, people had to understand and efficiently use the eco-complex and to take the strategy of accordance with, rather than against, nature. The most fruitful period of the Chinese human ecological thoughts was Chun-Qiu (from Spring and Autumn to Warring States: 720221 BC), when various thoughts were developed, including Confucianism, Taoism, Legalisam, Yin & Yang, Zhouyi and Feng & Shui (Wang, 1991, Table 2-2). A systematic set of principles for managing the relationships between man and environment, which is now called ecological aesthetics, was defined. The Chinese way to promote a sustainable future is to return to the naturalness of the ecosystem and the natural laws. Based on the ancient human ecological philosophy in China and through observation and study of the dynamics of natural and human ecosystem, ten cybernetical principles for urban ecological regulation were summarized (Wang and Qi, 1991). Among these principles, the holism, symbiosis, recycling and self-reliance were always emphasized in ancient China. Indeed, in some cases the correlation between states of affairs in the natural and human worlds was thought to be so strongly causal in either or both directions, so that little action was carried out prior to the undertaking of some divination procedure (Fung, 1947). Such a strong view of correlation and interdependence would render distinctions between the human and the non-human, or the human and the natural, meaningless. Table 2-2
The dynamic characteristics of transitional eco-coupling of urban system in China Theory

Yin & Yang theory:

Contents

Main dynamic characteristics

It is a theory on the relationship and rules of things and phenomena. Yang originally referred to the sun or the heaven; while Yin refers to the moon or earth. Yang means male, positive, hot, bright, dry, hard, etc.; Yin represents female, negative, cold, dark, damp, soft, etc. The interaction between Yin and Yang produces all things and phenomena and maintains a specific balance. The interdependence and transformation between Yin and Yang result in the dynamics of nature and human society (Wang and Qi, 1991)

Hierachy and networking The urban eco-complex is organized in an ecological order by both vertical and horizontal connections, forming units at different scales from individual to the community and the urban ecosystem It does not only involve the topography of the earth, fauna, flora and the effects of movements of the soil and waters, but also the continents and the seas

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Continued  Theory

Contents

Main dynamic characteristics

Wuxing theory

It was used to explain the network relationships within nature, society and human body. All natural phenomena and human activities are in this network and connected with each other. One action will properly coordinate and balance the different proportions of the five elements and their respective correlations, together with the transformations that occur between them. Many cases are given of inappropriate actions and behaviors of the emperor with were believed to have sent both human affairs and natural processes into disarray

Balance and proportion Having its dominant and diversified components, the city is able to drive and maintain its productive and sustainable development

Feng & Shui theory

It is associated with superstitious beliefs or ways of choosing tombs for the dead, has also an environmental dimension and practical side when it comes to residential place selection and urban planning (Chen, 2015). Many aspects of Feng & Shui are complicated and even uselessly obscure, but it crucially highlights the importance of the idea of landscape. Places with good Feng & Shui are also beautiful landscapes, making thus the aesthetic dimension of the place as important as its location and configuration

Structure and function Being open to the outside lets the city make full use of external resources, and being independent from the outside enables the city to be more self-reliant and keep away from outside risks

Wang et al. (2011) defined the urban sustainability in China as a Social-Economic-Natural Complex Ecosystem (SENCE). This happened after the reduction of the ten mentioned principles into three categories (Wang et al., 2001): competition for efficient resource and available of econiche; symbiosis between man and nature, among different groups of human beings, and between any human ecological unit and its upper level ecosystem; and self-reliance to sustain its structural, functional and process stability through self-organisation and recycling. Any weakening of these mechanisms will cause a decline in the urban sustainability. The representation of such a set of interrelation, with the purpose of representing the complexity of socio-ecological structure and its underlying bonds is known under the general name of eco-coupling. The eco-coupling sustainability theories in China now provide deep insight into the complex interactions between humans and nature from an eco-centric point of view. Ecocentrism represents the broadest critique of reform environmentalism due to its prescriptions for the rejection of the current dominant worldview that perpetuates anti-ecological behavior and the subsequent construction of fundamentally new personal connections with the natural world (Means, 2013). The same author suggested that ecocentrism can find potential openings in emerging discussions of the precautionary principle in environmental decision-making practices-a principle that challenges the superiority and axiological priority granted to human well-being and development. Brown and Ulgiati (2011) also suggested redefining and redirecting human wants in ways that are less consuming of natural resources to achieve sustainability. According to Means (2013), we should recognize definitive ecological constraints and adjust the scale of anthropogenic systems to fit within the confines of the natural world. Based on these macrohistorical theories, Hoffman (2014) developed four alternative futures for China; in the first future, there is a regime change, with moves towards democracy and greater human rights. In the second future, there is a Golden Age for China and the world with major scientific, political and cultural achievements. In the third future, change is material and shallow, and in the fourth future there is collapse. Looking to the

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found evidences, even if we cannot claim that cities in the Middle Ages were sustainable, it is possible to affirm that a body of sustainability wisdom developed both in Europe and in China in the urban context. For example, it is evident that several actions were taken to guarantee the environmental sustainability, on which the survival of the urban population was strongly dependent. Suggestions with regard to economic sustainability are less evident looking to the past, even if the problem of poverty eradication was known and taken into consideration. Social sustainability was supported by the existence of public inclusive spaces. Finally, the cultural sustainability is, maybe, the less evident, but more present factor in the medieval urban environment, where CES were existing and influenced the aesthetic and creative productions and where the dialogue and instruction was fostered by the birth and spreading of universities. Finally, different theories developed in the Chinese world witness that a reflection on the complex interplay between humans and the urban space already existed in the past. The question then arise: “Can there be absolute sustainability in future urban environments when socio-political landscape profess a radical dynamism?” Any attempt to find a direct answer to this question should link the past (medieval age), the postmedieval, the present, and the future. It is worth noting that modern forces and policies of education, industrialisation, mechanization, electrification and urbanization have conspired to draw and subsequently disconnect people from patterns of past generations. The new type of industrial city, that is appearing all over China, has massively unsustainable character and so threatens China’s culture and environment (Levine et al., 2008). There exist a total mislink of the social and cultural support, which characterized the pre-industrial age cities. Thus, a reconciliation of the past ecological knowledge and the present context is needed. Cleaner production can support such an action, which should be well planned, in order to obtain a transition toward sustainable and low-carbon societal lifestyles. Finally, environmental monitoring and elaboration of available environmental data will play a crucial role in the process of potential adaptation of what we called sustainability wisdom into real urban environments. In particular, the use of proximal and remote sensing from aerial and satellite platforms can further enhance this process (e.g.: Lega and Napoli, 2008; Nguyen et al., 2010a, 2010b; Persechino et al., 2010; Lega and Persechino, 2014; Lega et al., 2014; Errico et al., 2015; Lin et al., 2015). The ability of correctly representing energy and resources flows is also important for establishing appropriate scenarios applied to urban, regional or national planning (Basosi et al., 2017; Li et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2017b, 2017c). Moreover, the role of GIS representation of environmental data is now widely recognized by the scientific literature for this purpose (e.g.: SáĖka et al., 2014; Kanakiya et al., 2015; Réquia Júnior et al., 2015; Zou et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2016).

2.7 Conclusion This chapter constitutes a first attempt to merge different factors existing in the pre-

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industrial age under the light of sustainability. The emerging body of sustainability wisdom might well complement the present drawing of scenarios for the future of world urbanization. Both empirical/field and post-processual research approaches are needed to further support the present body of knowledge in this field. In particular, the economic processes, even if already investigated, should be reinterpreted, as well as the social ones. This is also true in the case on interplay between the environment and culture trough the CES. The analysis, focused mainly on European and Chinese cities, should be also enlarged to other areas of the world. The efficacy of future policies and planning measures will depend upon the ability of integrating the present knowledge with effective sustainable urban transition measures, in order to increase, from one side, the use of cleaner productions, and, on the other side, to increase their effectiveness and efficiency, contextualising them within a liveable and equitable context. This integration should be complemented with effective monitoring actions, which constitute both the mean for an adequate assessment of urban dynamics and an appropriate instrument for checking the efficacy of taken actions. Thus, a further development of such a research could well support both policy-makers and urban planners in view of the urgent need of developing more sustainable and equitable post fossil carbon societies within the context of cities.

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Chapter 3 Urban metabolism theory and analysis methods

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The pencil sketch was drawn and authorized by Xiaoning Lv, who is Chief Architect of Nanjing Planning Bureau, China.

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Music is created and performed by Dr. Marco Casazza.

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3.1 Introduction As the pressures of climate change increase, people’s concerns about resource adequacy and environmental issues are growing (Wang, 2016). Metabolic theory is an effective method for analyzing the physical exchange process (material and energy flow) between human society and its natural environment, as well as the material and energy flow within human society (Ayres and Simonis, 1994; Fischer-Kowalski, 1998; Oliver-Solà et al., 2008). An increasing number of people and human activities are concentrated in cities, with more than 55.3% of the world’s population living in cities (UN-DESA, 2018). Therefore, more and more researches are being focused on the urban-scale operation and functioning. However, environmental issues require larger scales of analyses, taking into account the interaction from local to regional to even global scale (Bai, 2003, 2007). And as to the interaction between system components on different scales and with the outside world, as pointed out for example by Pincetl et al. (2012) system components at different scales tend to act and influence each other by nesting within another. Local decision-making is influenced by regional policies, which in turn affects global politics and economy, rising to larger scales from local scales. Metabolic theory is applied to multi-scale research from individual/family, community and urban spatial scales to regional, national, and even global scales (Agudelo-Vera et al., 2012; Kennedy and Hoornweg, 2012; Pincetl et al., 2012), as well as from individual sectors to socio-economy (Odum, 2007; Oliver-Solà et al., 2008). Currently, as our knowledge, researches have not defined the national metabolism clearly and its application. In this chapter, we contribute to the understanding of the differences of national metabolism and urban metabolism with focus on the characteristics of the country as a whole and the cities. Based on previous studies, this chapter tries to summarize the origin and development of metabolic theories, metabolic studies at different scales and the analysis methods of metabolism research, and finally puts forward the significance of national scale metabolic studies compared the metabolism research and methods on different scales. The research questions are as follows: ķ Which are more applicable to metabolic theory, autotrophic or heterotrophic systems? ĸ Should national metabolic studies be considered within small-scale metabolic studies (urban metabolism)? Ĺ In what do the urban metabolism and national metabolism differ? ĺ What is the relationship between urbanization and national and urban metabolism?

3.2 Origin and development of metabolic theory The term “metabolism” was coined in the early 19th century to describe chemical changes in living cells and was widely used by chemists concerned with the use of wastewater and fertilizers

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in agricultural production (Barles, 2010). Later, it was also applied to the field of biochemistry in which biochemical metabolism refers to the complex biochemical reaction network catalyzed by enzymes, allowing to adjust the concentration of the substrate and the product and reaction rate. It is used to characterize the organic decomposition process between organism internal parts (cell level) and the organism itself along with the external environment (Haberl et al., 2004). The vast majority of creatures share the same basic biochemical process; however, the rate of absorption, transformation and allocation of resources may vary significantly (Brown et al., 2004). According to that view, ecosystems can be regarded as functional entities and then analyzed to describe the dynamics of energy and nutrient flows (Conan, 2000). The term metabolism applied to the study of ecosystems addresses all physical and chemical processes, including the supply of substances and energy from the external environment to the metabolic body, the transfer and storage in the body, and the whole process of metabolic waste and waste energy discharged to the external environment (Lu and Chen, 2015). The structural and functional similarities between artificial ecosystems and natural ecosystems was then addressed by Odum family (Odum E P, 1959; Odum H T, 1981). Artificial ecosystems such as cities, like organisms, require energy and resource inputs and produce waste (Bettencourt et al., 2007; Pincetl et al., 2012; Li and Kwan, 2018). Therefore, through bionics and analogy, the concept of metabolism has been gradually introduced into the study of artificial ecosystems, especially cities. This research method is used to analyze the physical exchange process (material and energy flow) between human society and its natural environment, as well as the material and energy flow within human society (Ayres and Simonis, 1994; Fischer-Kowalski, 1998; Oliver-Solà et al., 2008). In the development process of metabolic research, there are different views in the academic community about the initiator of the introduction of metabolic theory into artificial ecosystem research. Some scholars indicate as the initiator of urban metabolism Wolman (Kennedy et al., 2007, 2011; Zhang et al., 2015), who in “The Metabolism of Cities” (Wolman, 1965) describes “All the materials and commodities needed to sustain the city’s inhabitants at home, at work and at play”. Lin and colleagues (2012) commented that the word “urban metabolism” was first proposed by Ernest Burgess, a sociologist, 40 years before Wolman (Lin, 2012), pointing out that in 1953 Burgess compared urban growth to anabolism and catabolism without a formal definition of urban metabolism. But urban metabolism research can be traced back to 1894 (Lederer and Kral, 2015). At that time, the famous German chemist and doctor Theodor Weyl, in the “Essays on the metabolism of Berlin”, examined the nutrients excreted from Berlin and compared them with those absorbed through food. Following Lederer and Kral, the research titles, methods and wording in the book are enough to show that Theodor Weyl is a pioneer of urban metabolism (Lederer et al., 2015; Musango et al., 2017). In fact, as early as in 1884, Karl Marx described the material and energy exchange between the society and the environment in the “Economic & Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844”. This is the first discussion about the theory of metabolism in the field of social economy (Pincetl et al., 2012; Zhang, 2013; Nuss and Blengini, 2018). Contemporary critical urban theorists, such as Sywngedeou, Kaika, and Heynen, studied urban

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metabolism from the perspective of new Marxism and applied Marx’s method to “analyze the dynamic internal relationship between man and nature” (Heynen et al., 2006; Pincetl et al., 2012). It is worth mentioning that the history of comparing artificial ecosystems such as cities to organisms is earlier than the application of metabolic theory in socio-economic systems. A recent study (Céspedes Restrepo and Morales-Pinzón, 2018) pointed out how the history of the human group (i.e., a city) organization was metaphorized for the first time as an organism and biological system several centuries ago (Sennett, 1996). The analogy of city and “organism” is based on the advancement of medicine in the 17th century. Thomas Willis and Albrecht von Haller conducted research on the neural systems, using the connections and circulation of electrical impulses and blood as the basis for the health and development of individual tissues (Céspedes Restrepo and Morales-Pinzón, 2018). The transformation of the health paradigm brought about by new discoveries led researchers to begin taking a new perspective based on flow, health and personality to understand the human body and society (Sennett, 1996). Urban planners incorporated these new findings into the design of the eighteenth-century city with the objective that it “worked like a healthy body, flowing freely and enjoying a clean skin”. This comparison produced within the the architects community a language based on the city-human body metaphor, in which terms such as “vein” and “artery” are used to denote one-way roads and other expressions such as “urban heart” are used to differentiate the functional centre of the cities (Sennett, 1996). The history of the metaphor of artificial ecosystems (such as cities) as organisms indicates that the theory of metabolism has a certain theoretical basis. The emergence of the concept of metabolism reinforced the organic city-human body metaphor, giving an isomorphic character to what until the eighteenth century represented only an analogy between the spatial configuration of the city and how living beings operate (Céspedes Restrepo and Morales-Pinzón, 2018). In general, the research of metabolic theory in social science and artificial ecosystems has gone through a process of conceptual step-wise growth (Barles, 2010; Zhang et al., 2015). In the 1860s, the concept of metabolism arose in the field of biology, and soon it was found somewhat connected with many classic theories on social science (Fischer-Kowalski and Huttler, 1988). Researches on metabolic theory in the artificial ecosystems become an emerging field of study. Later, with the further development of biology and ecology, the use of metabolic theory in social science was somewhat limited (Fischer-Kowalski, 1988). After a decline of about 10 years, with the increase of environmental issues and related laws and regulations people’s interest in the study of artificial ecosystems metabolism restarted increasing in the late 1990s (Davoudi and Sturzaker, 2017). Based on the research results of many scholars, the development process of metabolic theory may be summarized as shown in Table 3-1.

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3.3 Metabolic studies at different scales With the development of metabolic research at different scales, many studies have extended the connotation of metabolic theory, including Personal Metabolism (PM), Household Metabolism (HM), and Service Sector Metabolism (Service Sector), Industrial Metabolism (IM), Urban Metabolism (UM), Social Metabolism (SM), Regional Metabolism (RM), and even Anthroposphere Metabolism (AM), as show in Fig. 3-1 (see Table 3-2 in the following for the corresponding fundamental references). However, the differences among the different scale metabolism remain to be explored, especially at the national metabolism one. Does social metabolism equal to national metabolism? This chapter will sort out the metabolic research and methods of artificial ecosystems at different scales, and propose the concept of metabolism at national scale and the characteristics of different methods.

Fig. 3-1 Illustration of the multiple scales and disciplines that should be considered in studies of an urban metabolism Notes: AM, Anthroposphere Metabolism; EF, ecological footprint; EFA, energy-flow analysis; ENA, ecological network analysis; HANPP, human appropriation of net primary production; HM, Household Metabolism; IOA, input-output analysis; LCA, life-cycle assessment; MEFA, material-and energy-flow analysis; MFA, material-flow analysis; NM, Neighborhood Metabolism; RM, Regional Metabolism; SFA, substance-flow analysis; SM, Social Metabolism; UM, Urban Metabolism Source: Zhang et al., 2015

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Table 3-2
Metabolic studies at different scales Category/Time

Definition/Description

ķ“sum of the technical and socio-economic processes that occur within the cities, resulting in growth, production of energy, and elimination of waste”(Kennedy et al., 2011); Urban Metabolism ĸ“collection of complex sociotechnical and (UM), 1894 socio-ecological processes by which flows of materials, energy, people, and information shape the city, service the needs of its populace, and impact the surrounding hinterland(Currie and Musango, 2017)

Personal metabolism (PM)

Household Metabolism (HM), 1988

PM is an estimate of the annual consumption patterns (also known as metabolic flow) of individuals living in a particular area, and provides an overall framework for analyzing the environmental burdens of city dwellers (Kenny and Gray 2009; Kalbar et al., 2016) A household is defined as a group of people who share the same living quarters, pool some or all of their income and wealth, and consume certain types of goods and services together (United Nations 2009). HM is an internal mode of studying the input and output of resources in household

Regional Metabolism (RM), 1996

The research scope of regional metabolism is larger than that of urban metabolism

Industrial metabolism (IM), 1988

Under stable conditions, raw materials, energy and labor are ultimately converted into products and wastes. It is “the flow of all materials and energy through the industrial system” (Fischer-Kowalski and Huttler 1988; Ayres and Simonis, 1994; Erkman, 1997)

Boundary Objective/Carrier Urban systems. Because the boundaries between human and nature are not obvious, it is difficult to define (Hermanowicz and Asano 1999; Pincetl, Bunje et al., 2012); Usually physical or administrative boundaries Water, energy, food, (Pares, Pou et al., 1985; Barracó, Parés et al., building materials, 1999; Tello and Ostos, 2012). However, the waste, pollutants, research boundaries of many studies are bordnutrients, etc. ered by administrative regions, including not only urban built-up areas, but also suburbs and rural areas (Zhang et al., 2006; Wheeler and Beatley, 2014). Personal consumption, including food, water, goods, energy, services, and the Food, water, waste, environmental impact. Focus on elements, energy, services, carbon emissions, etc. The data source is education, etc. mainly questionnaire survey Household consumption systems. Boundary determination, high data accuracy required, Food, water, waste, focusing on the consumption of certain energy, services, household living materials or element education, etc. metabolism process analysis In general, the advantage of conducting research at the regional level is that the way in which regions are selected ensures that the definition of biophysical systems conforms to the definition of political and economic systems to a large extent, thus permitting the adoption of methods within both frameworks (Fischer-Kowalski and Huttler, 1988) Industrial systems, focusing on the flow of materials and energy in modern industrial society through the chain of extraction, production, consumption, and disposal. It is a multidisciplinary research subject, mainly involving scientists in physics, chemistry, engineering and other fields, as well as experts in life science and economics (Fischer-Kowalski, 1998) The socio-economic system is not limited to industrial society, but also includes non-industrial society (Fischer-Kowalski and Huttler, 1988). Most of them are large-scale and long-term dynamic studies, Water, raw which are mainly based on the combination materials, food, of material flow analysis and space technwaste, land use, etc ology, and are the upper concepts of urban metabolism, which have been applied in global, national, regional, city, department and company levels (Haberl, FischerKowalski et al., 2011)

The process by which human societies exchange material and energy with their natural environment. The goal is to have a comprehensive understanding of the interactions between society and its environment in order to move Social Metabolism development towards a more sustainable future. (SM), 1969 The goal is not to address symptoms, but rather to understand the root causes and linkages of human societies causing environmental stress (Fischer-Kowalski, 1998; Haberl et al., 2011; Schandal and Schulz, 2002; Ayres and Kneese, 1969) The study of anthropogenic systems and their physical flows provides information on system metabolism and related environmental costs (Rueda, Alier et al. 1999, Oliver-Soli, Anthroposphere (Baccini and Brunner, 1991; Baccini and Metabolism, (AM) Ntñez et al. 2008). Adequate understanding Brunner, 2012) of the flow and storage of natural substances and the metabolism of human industry and society provides important background information (Nuss and Blengini, 2018)

Elements

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3.3.1 Urban Metabolism Like the ecosystem, the city, acting as a “superorganism”, interacts with its environment. The physical, chemical, and biological processes in cities that transform resources/materials into usable products and wastes resemble that of human bodies or ecosystems (Newman, 1999). Based on this idea, in the late 20th century the Urban Metabolism Theory (UM) developed into a creative method for studying urban resource use, energy conversion, carbon emissions and its impact on urban systems. At present, many scholars have defined urban metabolism. Kennedy et al. (2007) define urban metabolism as “sum of the technical and socio-economic processes that occur within the cities, resulting in growth, production of energy, and elimination of waste”. Some scholars address the urban metabolism as a “collection of complex sociotechnical and socio-ecological processes by which flows of materials, energy, people, and information shape the city, service the needs of its population, and impact the surrounding hinterland” (Currie and Musango, 2017). With the development of urban metabolic researches, the concept of urban metabolism used to describe how interactions within cities affect the use of resources and energy has been widely accepted (Musango et al., 2017). Similarly, metabolic studies of artificial ecosystems at different scales have been proposed and explored, such as regional metabolism (Baccini, 1996; Baccni and Bader, 1996) and social metabolism (Fischer-Kowalski et al., 1988; Fischer-Kowalski, 1998; Pastore et al., 2000; Baynes, 2016), Industrial Metabolism (Ayres et al., 1994, Wassenaar, 2015). Lu et al. (2015) address a narrow perspective, in which urban metabolism only refers to the metabolism within the urban system; from a broader perspective, other scales of metabolic research can represent an expansion and extension of urban metabolism (Lu et al., 2015). As pointed out by Decker et al. (2000), industrial metabolism, industrial ecology, and regional metabolism may be regarded as further nomenclatures for human activity energy and material accounting, that differ from urban metabolism (Decker et al., 2000; Oliver-Solà et al., 2008).

3.3.2 Social Metabolism In the 19th century, Marx and Engels applied the word “metabolism” to the Society (FischerKowalski, 1998). Societal metabolism was first introduced by Marx’s Capital (Foster, 1999; Martinez-Alier, 2009; Broto et al., 2012), which offers firm foundations for the development of a strong environmental sociology (Foster, 1999). The term societal metabolism was then taken up by ecological economists and combined with political ecology (Martinez-Alier et al., 2010). The concept of “social metabolism” (or “economic”, “socioeconomic” or “societal” metabolism) grew from the observation that biological systems-e.g., organisms and ecosystems-and socioeconomic systems-e.g., households, firms and economies-(Gerber and Scheidel, 2018), describing how human societies organize their growing energy and materials and their interactions with the environment (Fischer-Kowalski, 1998; Giampietro and Mayumi, 2000; Rodríguez-Huerta et al., 2019). In other words, social metabolism can be used to measure the process by which a society

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transforms energy and matter to ensure its continued existence (Fischer-Kowalski, 1998; Giampietro et al., 2009). More specifically, the “social metabolism” refers to all the energy and material transformations that are taking place within an open social system such as an economy, and between this system and its environment (Gerber et al., 2018). These complex processes determine the functional structure of the system, ensure its reproduction, maintain and repair its parts, and present specific dynamics according to different contexts (Giampietro, 2012). Social metabolism begins with appropriate materials and energies (inputs) in human societies and ends with them being stored in natural areas (outputs) as waste, smoke, or residues. There is a cycle of transformation and consumption of materials between inputs and outputs (Rodríguez-Huerta et al., 2019). Societal metabolism puts its emphasis on the relationship between flows and the agents that transform input flows into output flows while maintaining and preserving their own identity. It focuses on material flow and exchange of energy, material and information between nature and society (Dombi et al., 2018). Hence, it connects funds (i.e., the agents and transformers of a process) and flows (i.e., the elements that are utilized and dissipated) to generate indicators characterizing specific features of the system (Rodríguez-Huerta et al., 2019). Analyzing a complex system by using a social metabolic approach provides an overview of the multiple flows in the system and an understanding of their interactions and impact on the environment (Rodríguez-Huerta et al., 2019), therefore addressing the causes and solutions of its environmental problems of a society (Fischer-Kowalski and Haberl, 1998). Main attempts to quantify and operationalize social metabolism relate to the work of Fischer-Kowalski (Fischer-Kowalski, 1998; Fischer-Kowalski and Hüttler, 1999) and that of Giampietro (Giampietro and Mayumi, 2000; Giampietro et al., 2009; Rodríguez-Huerta et al., 2019). The research on societal metabolism in two periods from 1860 to 1970 and 1970 to 1988 were reviewed (Fischer-Kowalski, 1988, 1998), and the research scale of social metabolism is summarized as global level, national level, regional level, level of an economic unit and longrange historical perspective. Fischer-Kowalski and Hüttler (1999) proposed that societal metabolism involves industrial metabolism from broader perspectives.

3.3.3 National Metabolism The city acts as a complex system, in which its different components, itself and its external environment interact and exchange materials with each other (Zhang et al., 2015; Pulido Barrera et al., 2018). The country is a larger system than the city, and it exhibits a high degree of self-organization which makes it more complex than the urban system. From a spatial perspective, the theory of metabolism has been studied in the individual-family-urban-region scales, but as to national scale, no comprehensive descriptions of national metabolism have been addressed so far. Musango et al. (2017) indicate that metabolic assessment studies are often more available at the national or regional level for mobile data or trade agents. In the other hand, social metabolism studies are often mostly based on a national scale. But societal metabolism is different from national metabolism. The country exhibits multi-dimentional characteristics including society,

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economy and nature dimensions altogether. In other words, its intension and extension are broader than the social metabolism. We claim that within the artificial ecosystems at different scales, the interaction mechanisms of its different components with the external environment are different. Thus, the methods of studying artificial ecosystems at different scales should also be different. Therefore, it plays a significant role in multi-scale researches to define different artificial ecosystem and choose related research methods.

3.4 Main methods of metabolism research Traditional research methods for quantifying resources and environmental load are mainly non-mass analysis (i.e., emergy) and material flow analysis (MFA) (Kennedy et al., 2011; Pincetl et al., 2012; Pulido Barrera et al., 2018). Pincetl et al. (2012) divides urban metabolism into UM 1.0 and UM 2.0. In UM 1.0, the methods used are principally energy-material flux (including material flow analysis and mass balance) and emergy. In UM 2.0, LCA, geographical methods, ecological methods, ecosystem service methods, political ecology methods and political economic methods are often applied (Pincetl et al., 2012). The city metabolic metaphor has expanded into multiple fields, which means that traditional methods cannot completely face new problems (Musango et al., 2017). Although the LCA and Input & Output (IO) method of environment extension have been adopted by most scholars (Beloin-Saint-Pierre et al., 2017), other research methods shows advantages in some other aspects. In order to better solve different problems of artificial ecosystems (such as cities and countries), it is necessary to combine different evaluation methods (Beloin-Saint-Pierre et al., 2017). A United Nations report (Musango et al., 2017) reviewed the research methods on the metabolism of 165 peer-reviewed articles, as shown in the figures (Figures 3-2 and 3-3). Because of the difference of research output of data availability or expectations, many studies have put the production or consumption of energy, material, or waste of basic accounting methods-that is to say, with the development of the accounting methods, more and more structured approaches come out (Musango et al., 2017). Different metabolic evaluation methods offer different perspectives for understanding the city. Accounting method usually don’t strictly follow a method, but it can offer insights into the driving factors of urban metabolism, improve the ability of predicting resource consumption level. Accounting method can also provide direct number of resource consumption, give advices to reduce consumption or increase policy suggestions to obtain certain resources. The simulation method can provide concrete behavioral and technical advice. Life cycle analysis of infrastructure system can compare the relative environmental impacts due to current or the proposed initiative about resource efficiency (Musango et al., 2017).

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Fig. 3-2 Number of urban metabolism assessment studies over time, showing the increasing diversity of approaches utilized Source: Musango et al. (2017)

Fig. 3-3 The location of, and method utilized in, 165 urban metabolism case studies Source: Musango et al. (2017)

3.4.1 Material flow analysis (MFA) The MFA method refers to ensuring the flow of materials and stocks and flows into the system in the form of pollution, waste or exports, and the resulting output from the system to other systems (Pincetl et al., 2012). MFA method quantifies the flow of resources by the weight or volume of materials (Musango et al., 2017). The method can investigate resource or human problems related to the relationship between individual activities and their external

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environmental impact (Loiseau et al., 2012). This approach focuses on three main issues: system definition, quantification of stocks and flows, and interpretation of results (Kennedy et al., 2007). It provides a quantitative approach to assess finite resources and to maintain the meta-curve process of urban systems (Li et al., 2018). At the same time, according to the conservation law of mass, the effective flow characteristics and material weight conversion in a specific area are realized (Qi et al., 2017). The MFA system is its system boundary, with five components in this boundary, including resource inputs, production, consumption (or use), waste management, and disused stock (Li et al., 2018). Eurostat (2001) developed a set of standardized economy-wide material flow analysis (EW-MFA) method, mainly intended for national level, while also applicable to city level (Eurostat, 2001; Barles, 2009; Musango et al., 2017). MFA has an advantage in assessing urban materials, flow and stock, and is widely used in urban metabolic analysis (Barles, 2009). It can be performed on multiple scales and offers a wide range of details about metabolic flows (Barles, 2010). Economy-wide logistics analysis can provide a basis for regional or city-scale logistics management and dematerialization strategies (Barles, 2009), and contribute to the definition of public environmental policies (Musango et al., 2017). Based on EW-MFA and the raw material equivalent (RME) of the input-output table, it attempts to explain the upstream raw material consumption of MFA (Barles, 2009; Kalbar et al., 2016). Unlike Odum’s consideration on energy, MFA reports stock and resource flows by quality (Kennedy et al., 2011). The Emergy assessment method takes a more comprehensive approach than MFA, considering the embodied energy of metabolic flows across urban system boundaries (Liu et al., 2011). MFA studies only consider the direct exchanges of materials and energy, so neglecting the embedded upstream and downstream processes required to provide urban residents with unit resource consumption (Goldstein et al., 2013), and it cannot be used for integrated systems of different materials (Qi et al., 2017). Economy-wide MFA also tends to describe large material flows, although smaller material flows have potentially high environmental impacts (Hammer et al., 2003), i.e., EW-MFA may not be sufficient for representing smaller material flows (Musango et al., 2017). While the material flow analysis of the entire economy can describe the flow of each sector, streamlining resource flows inputs and outputs, ignoring some of the mutual role and blurring potential intervention methods (Hammer et al., 2003; Musango et al., 2017). It is worth mentioning that Substance Flow Analysis (SFA) can compensate for these problems of MFA, which can be used to track specific path of matter or group of substances from origin to destination, determining where they accumulate (Baccini et al., 2012). The most widely studied substances are still mainly at the national level, including steel, copper, zinc, chromium, phosphorus, or a combination of nitrogen and phosphorus (Yuan et al., 2011). Since the SFA produced very detailed information may be used to provide targeted material flow management strategy. Eurostat MFA divides materials into six parts: domestic mining, import, export, domestic production output, balanced projects and net inventory increase (Eurostat, 2018). Material-based

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analysis is easier by tracking material flows and how do those flows degrade over time (Li et al., 2018). Only direct quality and energy exchange are considered, thus ignoring the embedded upstream and downstream processes required to provide urban residents with unit resource consumption (Kalbar et al., 2016). However, urban metabolic studies often lack uniform data classification. When applying material-based analytical methods, this is often one of the biggest obstacles to integrating different data sets (Li and Kwan, 2018). It is a quantitative method (Li and Kwan, 2018), Extensive research at the national scale (Weisz et al., 2006). The main differences between local and national MFA are data sources (Hammer et al., 2003). Research at the national level is often based on national information (e.g., statistics and indicators), depending on different backgrounds and perspectives (Rosado et al., 2016). The MFA examines the flow of resources used and transformed as they flow through an area. The method focuses on three main areas in the analysis: system definition, quantification of inventory and flow, and interpretation of results (Kennedy et al., 2007).

3.4.2 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a method of cradle-to-grave accounting for specific production processes and assessing the supply chain effects of resource conversion and utilization, which requires consideration of environmental impact of products, services and systems throughout the supply chain, as well as waste treatment (Beloin-Saint-Pierre et al., 2017). There are five different phases of life cycle assessment: target and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment, interpretation and application. These five phases are not isolated but interacted (Chau et al., 2015). There are two fundamental approaches in LCA analysis, namely, process-based LCA and economic input-output LCA (EIO-LCA), which are often combined for related research (Li et al., 2018). This combination can be reduced in the modeling process of the entire economic supply chain. EIO-LCA focuses more on the calculation, evaluation and prediction of urban inputs and outputs in various economic sectors related to economic activity. LCA can be applied to single-year and time-series assessments to assess all flows and effects of the entire product from cradle to grave (Beloin-Saint-Pierre et al., 2017). Artificial ecosystems (e.g.: cities and countries) are complex systems. It is quite challenging to define its life cycle, which often requires long-term data collection from start to finish. Beloin et al. pointed out that although life cycle is an important modeling perspective for assessing sustainability, most urban metabolic studies do not clearly define the life cycle (start-end) of complex systems like cities (Beloin-Saint-Pierre et al., 2017).

3.4.3 Ecological footprint analysis (EFA) Ecological footprint refers to the land area required by a country, a region, a city, a county, or a census tract to meet the metabolic needs of its inputs and outputs (Li et al., 2018). Urban ecological footprint refers to urban development, and natural resources and the area of biological production required to treat waste generated by urban systems (Li et al., 2018). The sustainability

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of urban metabolism can also be assessed by ecological footprint. The equivalent land area of ecosystems for sustainable urban development is about two orders of magnitude larger than the relevant urban area (Kennedy et al., 2007). This means that the city relies on large amounts of land to provide input resources and process waste output (Decker et al., 2000). Ecological footprint assessment matches the physical resources and energy needed to produce the city and the biocapacity required to absorb waste generated by the city (Li et al., 2018). Ecological footprint assessment can also achieve urban demand compared with supply (Moore et al., 2013).

3.4.4 Emergy analysis Emergy analysis was first proposed by the American ecologist H.T. Odum (Odum, 1971). Odum describes the available energy directly or indirectly used to produce a product or service, expressed in solar energy units (Odum, 1983). All the contributions involved in the production are therefore measured in the same unit, and the resulting quantity is called Emergy (from embodied energy). The unit is the sej (solar emergy joule) (Odum, 1996). Emergy analysis may therefore connect ecological and economic systems, overcoming the lack of the traditional economic statistics analysis methods which cannot compare different energy use on the same scale (Qi et al., 2017). As detailed in (Campbell et al., 2004), quantitative emergy-based indicators may be set up for environmental, social and economic assessment, following five steps: ķ Draw a detailed system diagram containing all relevant energy flow pathways between human and natural components of the urban system; ĸ Address specific pathways by translating variables into an aggregated diagram; Ĺ Translate energy flow pathways into emergy analysis tables; ĺ Change the raw data gathered from authorities into emergy units by using transformity conversion factors; Ļ Calculate indices from subsets of data to evaluate systems, predict trends, and suggest alternatives to improve emergy efficiency. Emergy ensures that the energy that makes up the creation and flow of all materials is considered together with the material, and explains the difference in material and energy quality. Emergy-based analysis often encounters insufficient data and different problems, as well as the difficulty of combining different energy sources represented by different units. In fact, the complexity of emergy based analysis and the resulting limited application are due to energy. Flow to the solar joule metric conversion (Huang, 1998). Appropriate energy transformation rates must be determined for all flows, and the methods of accounting for wastes have not been unified. Standard energy units that emphasize all resources, including nutrient flows in biophysical systems (Musango et al., 2017).

3.4.5 Input-output (IO) analysis Input-output analysis assesses material flows between economic sectors by tracking product and sector-specific resource flows (Musango et al., 2017). It was originally proposed for commodities between the various production and consumption sectors of the national economy. The flow is empirically analyzed (Leontief, 1936; Miller and Blair, 1985; Duchin and Lange,

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1998). The economic model based on input-output analysis reveals how the industry interacts to generate GDP by purchase tracking of resources and products. Although input-output analysis provides similar information for material-flow analysis across the economy, opening up “black boxes” to show internal flows (Daniels, 2008) and how resources interact with urban activities, it fills some gaps when applied to the urban environment, and a detailed distinction is made between the various actors of the urban system, which is necessary to simulate the function of urban metabolism (Zhang, 2013). These participants are divided into different departments. The metabolic flow between these sectors is clearly expressed in the form of a physical input-output table. Therefore, input-output analysis tracks product and sector-specific productivity and resource flows to assess the material flows between the sectors of the economy (Giljum and Hubacek, 2009). Evaluate the flow of resources between the materials department to the economy-specific product and department-specific resource flows (Musango et al., 2017). Combining economic factors with material and energy flow analysis can build an environmental input-output table that helps us better understand the participants in urban metabolic processes. Within the city, data must be obtained from provinces and countries that communicate with urban areas to quantify the differences in inputs or imported products or technologies included in the service. The combination of material and energy flows and input-output tables is difficult. Since the data on material and energy flows is limited (it must be calculated using the economic-capital-matrix), exchanges between departments can be considered, but the results are still a rough simulation.

3.4.6 Multi-scale integrated analysis of the societal and ecosystem metabolism (MuSIASEM) The multi-scale integrated analysis of societal and ecosystem metabolism (MuSIASEM)originally proposed as MSIASM (Giampietro et al., 2009), is used to characterize the formation of energy and matter necessary for the further development of society (Geng et al., 2011), which is necessary for the sustainability of the society (Fischer-Kowalski, 1998; Giampietro et al., 2009). The approach was developed by Giampietro and colleagues (Smit et al., 2018) and is based on Georgescu-Roegen’s flow-fund model (Giampietro et al., 2000; Giampietro and Mayumi, 2000). MuSIASEM is an open framework that takes into account economic, environmental and social aspects and differentiates flows, such as water, energy, food or money (IASTE, 2014). MuSIASEM is an economic, social and ecological approach, and the research is both qualitative and quantitative (Geng et al., 2011). It is a decision support tool for analysis of different scenarios, including current trends and preferred scenarios that remain within ecosystem boundaries (Rodríguez-Huerta et al., 2019). However, MuSIASEM has limited ability to analyze resources, environment and ecology in urban metabolic system (Qi et al., 2017). In MuSIASEM framework (Fig. 3-4), the urban system is analyzed at three levels. The level of n is, the whole city system is divided into paid work (PW) and family (HH) departments level (n1). Then, PW further

Chapter 3 Urban metabolism theory and analysis methods

Fig. 3-4 Map of methodological choices used to address different goals of UM studies Notes: CF-carbon footprint; EF-ecological footprint; EFA-energy flow analysis; ENA-environmental network analysis; I/O-input-output analysis; LCA-life cycle analysis; MFA-material flow analysis; SFA-substance flow analysis Source: Beloin-Saint-Pierre et al., 2017

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broken down into three departments (level of n2), including primary school, middle school and the third sector. The changes in the a level cannot because there are a lot of feedback between various departments, deduce to another level (Wang et al., 2017). Sustainable policy is scientific to deal with multi-dimensional and multi-scale analysis. A comprehensive evaluation is about the information related to decision-making. In this regard, MSIASM is general ecological efficiency evaluation of regional development of a suitable method. This method can help the development of the national and regional government determine its main obstacles, to formulate appropriate policies to balance the various departments and regions. Especially in the energy consumption of different departments and regions for the description of the system, policy makers can realize its advantages and disadvantages of development, as well as the challenges and opportunities (Geng et al., 2011). Table 3-3 shows the summary of current metabolic studies at different scales and their methods. Table 3-3
Metabolic studies at different scales and their methods Input Output Emergy

Life Cycle Material Flow Ecological Footprint MuSIASEM Other Total Assessment Analysis Analysis

Urban Metabolism

69

42

37

111

23

8

102

Personal Metabolism

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

290 2

Household Metabolism

3

1

3

4

0

0

11

Sectoral Metabolism

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

1

Industrial Metabolism

12

3

12

38

1

0

20

66

Regional Metabolism

0

1

0

1

0

0

2

2

Social Metabolism

8

3

2

2

2

4

91

21

National Metabolism

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

0

3.5 Implication of metabolism study on different scale As the pressures of climate change increase, people’s concerns about resource adequacy and environmental issues are growing (Wang, 2016). How can a city, a region, a country, a supranational entity, such as the EU or the entire human race, become more sustainable or less sustainable at a particular time (Haberl et al., 2004)? Given the current political commitment to sustainable development, this issue has extremely important practical implications (UNEP, 2002). Metabolic theory is a resource for environmental efficiency analysis approach which has been applied to various disciplines to assess cities, sustainability relationship, resource consumption and waste generation. The gap in environmental efficiency between countries at different stage of development is an issue of international concern, as well as whether the gap is expanding or shrinking. The differences among countries, such as economic development, factor input utilization and pollution abatement etc., inevitably lead to differences in environmental performances (Li and Wang, 2014). If implemented correctly, resource efficiency initiatives can increase competitiveness,

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ensure growth and employment, promote innovation, reduce resource requirements, and allow improved access to resources. The current development model is not in line with environmental protection plans. If developing countries begin to consume the same level of resources as developed countries, the Earth will soon be in a catastrophic situation (Santana et al., 2014). Researches on metabolism at the national scale help to understand the local and global impacts of national and global production, living and ecological activities on countries. Effective actions at the national level help to solve global environmental problems and achieve the goal of sustainable development, requiring better understanding of the impacts of production, living and ecological activities within the countries (Table 3-4). The concept of urban metabolism promotes a quantitative approach to the assessment of urban resource flows and stimulates the idea of designing sustainable cities to identify the levers of resource efficiency interventions. The view of the urban environment as a metabolic system has led to a rethinking of how environmental, social and economic factors interact to shape urban phenomena (Musango et al., 2017). One research was conducted to explore the differences in the metabolism of the country as a whole and two cities, the finding showed that the metabolism of the two cities does not have the same characteristics as the metabolism for the country, and the metabolism of the cities does not replicate the national metabolism, and the two cities each have their own distinct metabolism profiles (Kalmykova et al., 2015).

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4.1 Introduction At the end of 19th Century, the development of several new branches of sciences supported the birth of a new vision of the world. Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, chemistry (with the year 1860 conference in Karlsruhe) and ecology were among the key emerging disciplines, which enabled the disclosure of new narratives about our planet and the biosphere. Close to the Second World War, interdisciplinary enquiries tried, for the first time, to find deeper connections among chemistry, physics and biology. This is the case of the book “What is life?” by E. Schrödinger (1944). The same attention was given to the intersections between physics and social sciences, as suggested in the posthumous paper, published in year 1942, by the Italian physicist Ettore Majorana (Majorana and Mantegna, 2006). The focus on resources limitation, pollution and the environment developed a few decades later. The publication of “Silent Spring” (Carson, 1962), “Patient Earth” (Harte and Socolow, 1971) and “The limits to Growth” (Meadows et al., 1972) were among the signs of such a shift of attention. Systems ecology views, with the outstanding works by H.T. Odum (1924í2002), created a fertile background for further research, trying to develop a holistic view, in order to integrate the biophysical and socio-economic dimensions of human society. New interdisciplinary integration attempts, which are of interest for environmental accounting, were represented by ecophysics and evolutionary physics. In particular, starting from the 1970s, the study of physical conditions for life stability on planets were studied. In particular, they were developed on the basis of non-equilibrium thermodynamics and quantum mechanics, considering planet-star relations (e.g.: Sertorio, 1991; Sertorio and Renda, 2009). Then, allometric scaling laws for different living species were connected to the stability of different living species, also considering the differences among them, with a specific focus on humans (e.g.: Gorshkov, 1995). The interactions among humans, technologies and the environment, as well as economy, was discussed from a physical perspective (e.g.: Casazza, 2012; Sertorio and Renda, 2018), as well as from a socio-ecological perspective (e.g.: Odum, 2007; Singh et al., 2012; Lockie et al., 2013; Park and Guille-Escuret, 2017). Finally, the ecosystem dynamics was re-discussed, introducing the use of goal functions (also called orientors) instead of state functions (Tiezzi, 2006). Three main facts are evident: Since the 1950s, humans have been the main cause of global environmental transformation, crossing the existing planetary boundaries, which constitute a safe space for humanity (Steffen et al., 2015); Biophysical and socio-economical processes cannot be understood and described separately, due to their mutual influences; Maintaining a “business-as-usual” style, ecosystem services and the biosphere will continue to decline (Crutzen and Stoermer, 2000; Crutzen, 2002; Palmer et al., 2004; Steffen et al., 2007; Lewis and Maslin, 2015; Drutschinin et al., 2015). Consequently, evidence-based policies and actions should be adequately developed.

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The present situation stimulated a growing convergence between Earth systems analysis (Schellnhuber et al., 2004) and sustainability scientists (Kates et al., 2001). In parallel, the quest for solutions stimulated the development of cleaner productions, circular economy, as well as newly emerging disciplines, like biomimicry. However, despite the huge amount of work already done, Folke et al. (2011) argued that it would be necessary to further integrate natural and social dimensions through new perspectives. Any narrative in this context requires a knowledge, which is generated by the elaboration of quantitative and qualitative field data. This is why socioeconomic systems dynamics should be supported, first, by statistically reliable data, that can be used in numerical simulation, as well as for supporting appropriate decision making options. In between data and narrative, which transform data into useful information, environmental accounting plays a crucial role. Broadly paralleling anatomy and physiology, environmental accounting can unveil the structures and functions of processes and society at different levels. This is why the word ‘metabolism’, which unveils the co-existence of concept assumes the multi-dimensional nature of accounting process, is often used (Lomas and Giampietro, 2017). Many different approaches, with respect to environmental accounting and management, came into light since the 1990s. They often developed as separate methods, having different conceptualizations behind them. Environmental accounting conceptualizations and narratives are not separate. This is why, for example, in the case of LCA, the system characteristics, as well as impact categories, accounting methods, data quality requirements and report phase are defined during the scoping phase (EU-JRC, 2010). This is particularly true in the case of sustainability, where different interpretations co-exist (Patterson et al., 2017). In particular, ecological interpretations (e.g.: Grimm et al., 2005; Schlüter et al., 2014; Rounsevell et al., 2012) evolved from the idea of steady state (now disputed), to thresholds (as in the case of planetary boundaries) and carrying capacity, showing the connections of ecological and socio-economic processes, which are embedded in a global bio-physical system. In parallel, economic interpretations (e.g.: Coscieme et al., 2013; Filatova et al., 2013; Hinkel et al., 2014) tried to modify the vision of environmental costs as externalities with respect to economic activities. This allows to approach to the principle of intergenerational equity, integrating economic well-being with the preservation of the environment. Thermodynamic and ecological-economic interpretations (e.g.: Jørgensen et al., 2016; Wallace, 2016) described the socio-ecological dynamics on the basis of existing bio-physical constrains and on the use of statistical mechanics and thermodynamic language. The role of citizens, policy-makers and experts was discussed, considering the necessity of integrating all the existing views for developing sustainable public policies (Bäckstrand, 2003; Barr, 2016). In parallel, environmental accounting techniques were developed to include spatial representation of biophysical flows and resources use to identify appropriate planning options (e.g.: Zhang et al., 2007; Pulselli, 2010; Borriello, 2013). The importance, in environmental accounting practices, of having a shared methodological and conceptual framework is a known fact. However, some limitations are still relevant in the

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development of accounting methods and practices. In particular: The links between local and global levels are often missed; Information flows are often neglected, even if they contribute to shaping the behavior of bio-system at all scales, is usually neglected (Young et al., 2006; Brown and Ulgiati, 2010; Pretty, 2011; UN-FCCC, 2015; Nielsen, 2016). Consequently, environmental accounting and management tools need to address these challenges: ķ use a multicriteria, multiscale, multipurpose framework, capable to integrate hierarchies, as well as the local and global visions; ĸ adapt an assessed metrological approach for environmental accounting purposes; Ĺ integrate information into metabolic dynamics. Beijing Normal University organized a World Summit on Environmental Accounting and Management, which was held in Beijing on July 46, 2016, on “Designing A Prosperous and Sustainable Future”. The main purpose was to discuss about the integration of system-wide effects into on-site environmental impacts, within the framework of environmental accounting and management. This international summit aimed to provide an opportunity to academic and decision-making professionals to discuss recent progress in biophysical and socioeconomic accounting as well as in modeling the impacts of anthropogenic activities on environmental and socioeconomic systems. Among the outcomes, this Special Volume (SV) of the Journal of Cleaner Production (JCLP) is now published. This chapter has the purpose of giving a framework to the collected results, which include cutting-edge papers focused on promoting the theories, ideas and practices involved in ecological accounting and management. Moreover, results are discussed to identify the future challenges, which will support a better integration of the process, which starts from field data collection and develops into useful narratives for accelerating the transition to sustainable (and socially equitable) post fossil-carbon societies.

4.2 Present knowledge for urban environmental accounting and management The global scientific production on environmental accounting, limitedly to research and review papers, counts up to 371 works, according to Web of Science (WOS), starting from year 1991, and 781 works, according to Scopus (Sc), going back to year 1976. Table 4-1 displays the top 15 WOS categories and Sc subject areas, including also the number of papers associated to each category or subject area. Table 4-1
Top 15 WOS categories and Sc subject areas, adding also the number of papers associated to each category or subject area WOS Category

Paper count (WOS)

Scopus subject area

Paper count (Sc)

Environmental Sciences

161

Business, Management and Accounting

372

Environmental Studies

84

Environmental Science

356

70

Urban Metabolism and Ecological Management

Continued  WOS Category

Paper count (WOS)

Scopus subject area

Paper count (Sc)

Ecology

77

Economics, Econometrics and Finance

243

Economics

67

Social Sciences

211

Engineering Environmental

65

Energy

89

Business Finance

60

Engineering

86

Green Sustainable Science Technology

59

Agricultural and Biological Sciences

73

Management

26

Decision Sciences

68

Business

21

Earth and Planetary Sciences

33

Energy Fuels

12

Arts and Humanities

11

Biodiversity Conservation

11

Medicine

11

Ethics

9

Chemical Engineering

9

Planning Development

8

Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology

8

Forestry

7

Mathematics

5

Agriculture Multidisciplinary

5

Chemistry

4

Table 4-2 illustrates the top 15 source titles according to WOS and Sc, together with the number of papers published in each journal. Finally, Table 4-3 lists the top 15 Countries, whose Authors published a work in the field of environmental accounting, combined with the number of published papers associated to each listed Country. Data are given both from WOS and Sc. Table 4-2
Top 15 source titles according to WOS and Sc, and number of papers published in each journal Paper count (WOS)

Journal

Paper count (Sc)

Journal of Cleaner Production

37

Social and Environmental Accountability Journal

54

Ecological Economics

34

Ecological Economics

38

Ecological Modelling

27

Journal of Cleaner Production

38

Accounting Auditing Accountability Journal

20

Critical Perspectives on Accounting

30

Journal of Industrial Ecology

10

Accounting Auditing and Accountability Journal

27

Critical Perspectives on Accounting

9

Ecological Modelling

26

Ecological Indicators

9

Accounting Forum

19

Environmental Resource Economics

9

Accounting Auditing Accountability Journal

12

Accounting Organizations and Society

8

Business Strategy and The Environment

12

Journal of Business Ethics

8

Sustainability Accounting Management and Policy Journal

12

Journal of Environmental Management

8

Ecological Indicators

11

Sustainability Accounting Management and Policy Journal

8

Environmental and Resource Economics

11

Environmental Management

6

Journal of Industrial Ecology

11

Sustainability

5

Accounting Organizations and Society

9

4

Journal of Environmental Accounting and Management

9

Journal

Agriculture Ecosystems Environment

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Table 4-3
Top 15 Countries, whose Authors published a paper about environmental accounting Authors’ Country

Paper count (WOS)

Authors’ Country

Paper count (Sc)

USA Italy

88

USA

148

66

England

123

England Australia

39

Italy

94

36

Australia

93

Germany

24

Spain

46

Spain

24

Brazil

37

Brazil

21

New Zealand

34

China

21

Canada

31

Canada

20

China

30

New Zealand

17

Germany

29

Scotland

16

France

18

Netherlands

15

Netherlands

18

Sweden

12

Japan

17

France

11

South Africa

17

Norway

11

Sweden

17

Note: Authors’ Countries are ranked against the number of published papers according to WOS and Sc.

Contrasting to the statement by Russel et al. (2017), who declared that “there is little or no environment in environmental accounting, and certainly no ecology”, environmental studies, environmental sciences and ecology represent the three top categories of published papers in environmental accounting. The areas of “Business, Management and Accounting”, as well as “Social sciences” should be added too, according to Scopus classification. USA, Italy and England represent the three top producing Countries in this field. Top journal titles include: Journal of Cleaner Production; Ecological Economics; Ecological Modelling; Social and Environmental Accountability Journal. The integration of biophysical and socioeconomic variables across different accounting methods represents one of the major challenges for the future of this discipline. In year 2014, The System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA) (https://seea.un.org/) Central Framework (European Commission, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, United Nations, & World Bank, 2014) was published for the first time. Using SEEA as a starting point, Banerjee et al. (2016) suggested to include its use into economic Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) models, indicating implicitly, in the last part of their work, some important factors in the application of any accounting method: the need of enhanced analytical power; the need of avoiding strong assumption in the integration of economic-environmental inputs; need of timeliness in developing appropriate advices for evidence-based policies. This is not the only case of integration between the two dimensions of human socioecological systems (here, ‘human’ is specified, since socio-ecology also focuses on other social

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animals and, particularly, primates). In fact, paralleling Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), Social Life Cycle Assessment (S-LCA) focuses on the social dimension of sustainability. S-LCA has been developed since 2004 with the aim to integrate social criteria into LCA. With respect to other approaches, H.T. Odum and followers were able to develop an accounting approach, known under the name of “emergy accounting”, which uses a unified metrological approach (the use of solar equivalent joules, sej) to quantify both biophysical and socio-economic variables. Moreover, an updated version of emergy datasets at Country level, known as National Environmental Accounting Database (NEAD), is now available onlineķ. The improvements contained in NEAD version 2 are described through a paper by Pan et al. (2017). Quite interestingly, WOS detects 938 papers (research or reviews, starting from 1991) about emergy, while Scopus records (starting earlier, in 1960), are 1,161. However, adding “environmental accounting”, as well as the connector “AND”, to see how many papers about emergy were classified as environmental accounting papers, only 95 (WOS) (i.e., 10%) and 89 (Scopus) papers (i.e., 7%) were found. This partially explains the statement by Russel et al. (2017). Moreover, this result indicates that the apparent fragmentation of research products might be also related to the difficulties in detecting the available material through bibliographical researches. Similar results are obtained in the case of another method: The Multi-scale integrated analysis of societal and ecosystem metabolism (MuSIASEM). MuSIASEM theoretical foundations were recently detailed in a paper by Giampietro et al. (2009). WOS detects 37 papers focused on this method, while Scopus finds 35 papers about MuSIASEM. Instead, adding the words “environmental accounting”, as done in the case of emergy, only 1 paper appears, both in the case of WOS and in the case of Scopus. Thus, the results shown in Tables 4-1, 4-2 and 4-3 are defective in numbers, due to potential matching errors in the classification processes. With respect to sustainability and its goals, which were described in the United Nations global sustainable development agenda (UN, 2015), Bebbington and Unerman (2018) individuated three challenges for the future: a better use of accounting technologies, used to collect and analyze available data, which should be available in a coherent form; a better integration on the three pillars of sustainability; the need re-examining the available theoretical frameworks and methods under the light of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs); the need of engaging with new fields of interdisciplinary investigation and theorization, integrating different scientific domains. Another paper by Bebbington et al. (2017) unveiled two other challenges within the same framework: the inclusion of more holistic visions into accounting process; the need of conceptualizing ‘engagement’, to transform data into appropriate narratives for sustainability. The importance of measuring is, then, stressed in a paper by Lindenmayer et al. (2015). In particular, the following steps are recommended: take a survey of existing monitoring programs ķ www.emergy-nead.com/home.

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and their outcomes; define the ecosystem targets of environmental monitoring; develop appropriate conceptual models, which also include the use of systematic syntheses, which are necessary to improve the transparency of results; find and measure the environmental variables, which drive each ecosystem’s dynamics and which should be monitored. The component related to data (characteristics and quality) is crucial to improve the overall level of environmental and social accounting inputs. Big data, data openness and transparency are also relevant topics nowadays (Song et al., 2017). Due to the multi-dimensional nature of environmental and social processes, a paradigm shift would be relevant with respect to data acquisition. Some contaminations might derive from environmental forensics, where the concept of ‘scene analysis’, the use of hierarchical monitoring techniques and the spatio-temporal data representation are parts of the developed expertise within this domain (Agosto et al., 2008; Wolf and Ashe, 2009; Lega and Persechino, 2014; Errico et al., 2015; Gargiulo et al., 2016; Lega and Teta, 2016; Di Fiore et al., 2017).

4.3 Present challenges for urban environmental accounting and management Environmental accounting is the practice which transforms raw data into information. Consequently, the choice of a narrative, which depends on the definition of goals and scope, is crucial. A recent book by Curran (2017) focalized on the interconnection between the first and the interpretation phases with respect to LCA. With this respect, strategic rationality is relevant to integrate the biophysical and socio-economic narratives through appropriate belief systems, while participative processes should be enhanced to facilitate organizational learning (Heggen et al., 2018). However, strategic rationality is not the only way to develop narratives. In fact, aesthetic rationality, a value-oriented rationality that serves to encourage sustainable behavior in organizations (Shrivastava et al., 2017), can also be applied. In order to “move beyond this binary logic” and to “capture the emotionally charged, value-laden processes” (Poldner et al., 2017), aesthetic practices can improve the knowledge translation of the outcomes derived from accounting processes into empowering actions toward sustainability (Shrivastava, 2014; Casazza et al., 2017; Crichton and Shrivastava, 2017; Shrivastava and Guimarães-Costa, 2017; Shrivastava and Persson, 2018). Derived from this analysis, a list of challenges and research needs is given in Table 4-4. Table 4-4
List of challenges and needs to improve the use of environmental accounting, as a component in between raw data acquisition and information use for management purposes Challenges

Desired actions and needs

Better integration of biophysical and socio-economic dimensions; Improvement of data entry for existing published papers in official databases (specifically: WOS and Scopus); engagement with new Multi-dimensional integration fields of interdisciplinary investigation and theorization, integrating different scientific domains; Re-examination of available theoretical frameworks and methods under the light of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs); Better integration, based on the three pillars of sustainability

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Continued  Challenges

Desired actions and needs

Data acquisition and management

Survey of existing monitoring programs; define ecosystem targets of environmental monitoring; find and measure the environmental variables, which drive each ecosystem’s dynamics; conceptual shift from existing measures to hierarchical and multi-dimensional scene analysis; big data management, data openness and transparency

Analytical processes

Develop appropriate conceptual analytical and synthesis models to improve the transparency of results; Avoid strong assumptions in the integration of economic-environmental inputs; Coherent form of analytical process outcome; the need of engaging with new fields of interdisciplinary investigation and theorization, integrating different scientific domains; the inclusion of more holistic visions into accounting process

Synthesis and narratives

Timeliness in developing appropriate advices for evidence-based policies; ‘Engagement’ conceptualization, to transform data into appropriate narratives for sustainability; Integration of strategic rationality into biophysical and socio-economic narratives through appropriate belief system; Use of aesthetic rationality, aesthetic inquiry and creativity to support knowledge-translation processes (i.e.: from numbers to motivations and attitudes) and to empower communities toward sustainability

4.4 Discussion The integration of environmental accounting and management tools and methods is of paramount importance both to define the best available cleaner production options and to support policymakers for accelerating the transition to equitable post fossil-carbon societies, which can be classified into eight subjects, including: ķ Environmental flow analysis; ĸ Emergy Analysis; Ĺ Energy Analysis/Exergy Analysis; ĺ Carbon Footprint; Ļ Ecological Network Analysis; ļ Life Cycle Assessment; Ľ Environmental Inventory Analysis; ľ Multi-criteria Optimization and Management. Multi-dimensional and fractal models, which reflect the existing hierarchy of Socio-Ecological Systems (SES), worth to be further investigated. In particular, agents and interactions should reflect the real nature of SES: open; dissipative; non-linear. The validity of many physical principles, such as the least action one, should be also considered. General methods, which are capable to fully represent the whole hierarchy of human energy, as well as the huge variety human means of interaction, represent a potential future integrated approach to the axiomatization of sustainability study. This is, in our opinion, the most promising fact, which will require many efforts. In fact, the ability of describing and, possibly, forecasting the transformations of human sustainability as a coherent structure would allow more efficient decision-making processes, from which, in turn, better results in supporting the transition toward a more sustainable socio-ecological lifestyle could be obtained. Accounting methods should be integrated with the new reality of big data. However, this would require further researches and discussions among peers, since data quality, openness and transparency are crucial for improving the quality of results too. Meanwhile, the development of appropriate narratives, which stems from a growing attention to the preliminary phases of accounting, such as scoping in LCA, is worth of attention, together with an improvement of synthesis and communication phases, which represent the end of accounting process.

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The latest environmental accounting methods used in this SV suggest that opportunities exist for many fields, for both environmental, business and regulation reasons, to become more active and adventurous in environmental accounting and management, and that the pressures on them to do so will increase. However, any method needs to be realistic and cost-effective. Thus, this discipline will likely evolve through incremental changes to existing activities, rather than through the introduction of completely new processes. Several topics, which are summarized below, will likely become relevant in the near future: 1) Multi-scale Environmental Accounting Frameworks; 2) Understanding and managing environmental costs; 3) Integrating environment into decisions with long-term implications on capital expenditure and environmental support capability evaluation; 4) Understanding and managing life-cycle costs; 5) Tool-based decision making support for complex environmental systems; 6) Linking data held by different environmental and business functions. Environmental accounting and management could also go beyond environmental economics. A central objective is to be a significant driver of action and regulation, through demonstrating the long-term implications of sustainability and creating a vision of how this can be achieved. As already stressed before, research should point to what was defined a “narrative” role of making sense of a complex world (McAuley et al., 1997), as well as a “logico-scientific” role of developing an accurate representation of reality.

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5.1 Introduction The traditional measure of progress, economic activity, still predominates. However, critiques to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a measure limited to economic performance which excludes both social and human welfare, entered the global debate. This dispute highlights the need for better measurements of progress, which can inform different policies and public perceptions (Daly, 1996; Pulselli et al., 2011; Fioramonti, 2017). A change of perspective, from economic to ecological, is putting ecosystem services at the core of sustainable development framework. However, this has become a controversial and difficult topic, depending on the different understandings about their connotation and implications (Fioramonti, 2013, 2017). Ecosystem services, as a term, first appeared in 1981(Ehrlich and Ehrlich, 1981). However, the concept of translating the work of the environment into economic benefit is much older. For example, there are the cases of economic ornithology, i.e. the quantification of economic benefit of bird species as pest control being done in the 1800’s (Whelan et al., 2015) and more holistic approaches, acknowledging the role of the environment in supporting the human economy, as proposed in the 1970’s (Kapp, 1970; Georgescu-Roegen, 1971; Odum, 1971; Daly, 1977). In the 1990s, ecologists began to systemically quantify the dependence of humans’ survival and development on ecosystem services. Daily (1997) suggested that ecosystem services functions, which support ecological process to maintain human being’s survival, refer to natural environment conditions. Costanza et al. (1997) defined ecosystem services as the ecological characteristics, functions, or processes, that directly or indirectly contribute to human wellbeing (MEA, 2005; Costanza et al., 1997). This definition refers to the benefits that people derive from ecosystem goods and services. Several researches stemmed out from the publication of these papers, as well as policies, and further developments of previous ideas (Almeida et al., 2017; Costanza et al., 2017). However, the paper by Costanza et al. (1997) also sparked controversy and criticism, due to its methods and results (Hueting et al., 1998; Norgaard and Bode, 1998; Pearce, 1998; Bockstael et al., 2000a). In 2005, the United Nations published the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) report, which assessed that about 60% of world ecosystem are still in the state of degradation (MEA, 2005). After that, Germany and the European Commission initiated “The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity” project (TEEB) (Costanza et al., 2017). These programs tried to establish a complete monetary accounting framework for ecosystem services. However, both the uncertainties and complexity of methods make ESV and ecological protection practices difficult to effectively carry out. Both market systems for trading ecosystem goods or services and promotion of enterprise sustainable behavior rely on policies and regulations, which should support both environmental protection and green development. In parallel, they depend on public welfare activities such as

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financial subsidies and donations from nonprofit organizations, conducted by governments and non-governmental environmental organizations. Therefore, it is difficult to truly form a long-term market based mechanism, which consciously supports ecosystem and environment protection. Green development is now considered a solution for pursuing economic growth and development while preventing environmental degradation, loss of biodiversity and unsustainable use of natural resources (OECD, 2011). However, in order to be effective, it requires a better accounting process of ESV (Alkemade et al., 2014). After year 2008 financial crisis, green development is recognized as a way, which can bring new opportunities for economic growth. This leaded to the definition of several policy innovations to promote green development (Redclift, 2011). Among them, market mechanisms, based on resource pricing, were widely studied (Fenichel et al., 2016). In parallel, the basic procedure for ecosystem services value accounting was also assessed (Ouyang et al., 2016). Green development is not without criticism, suffering from a lack of a consistent framework, as well as a general lack of consideration of “strong sustainability” (Georgeson et al., 2017). In fact, while green development practices are likely “less bad” (i.e.: less impactful on natural ecosystems or resources), they may not meet the definition of true (i.e.: strong) sustainability practices, that do not have significant negative impacts on ecosystems, do not deplete natural resources and can be continued indefinitely into the future (Georgeson et al., 2017; LópeHoffman et al., 2017). ESV based on economic methods was criticized for not considering the sustainability of the resource conferring the benefit. Moreover, a higher difficulty depends on the use of different accounting systems necessary to address both human preference for ESV and biophysical quantities to gauge sustainable resources use (Ulgiati et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2014b; Costanza et al., 2017). The method proposed in this chapter will help to bridge this gap, through an ESV accounting approach, using units, that can also be used to quantify resource sustainability. Complexity and uncertainty in accounting methods still exist, dependent on three aspects: ES classification systems; ESV accounting techniques; and Total ESV calculation (MEA, 2005; Costanza et al., 2017). To address these issues, this paper will overview the available ESV methods, their advantages and limitations. Then, a new framework for non-monetary ESV accounting will be defined, by integrating and bridging these methods, based on their potential to solve the three issues. As a case study, an ESV assessment for the forest ecosystem in Jing-Jin-Ji urban agglomeration will be performed to validate the new framework. This study is a critical way for policy makers to guide green development, establishing an ecologically-oriented urban outlook, promoting the implementation of integrated ecological civilization reform, ecological civilization construction and the sustainable development of cities, all of which should be based on assessment of ecosystem services valuation.

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5.2 Literature review 5.2.1 Literature review on ecosystem services classification systems First, a taxonomy of ecosystem services studies is desirable, as a premise to better ESV definition. Daily (1997) divided ES into 13 types, while Costanza et al. (1997) included 17 services. Other classification systems were developed later. Table 5-1 summarizes these classifications. Table 5-1
Comparison of four of the main ecosystem services classification systems used worldwide and their differences and similarities Categorya

Provisioning

Costanza et al. (1997) b

MEA (2005)

CICES (2017) c

TEEB (2010)

Food production (13)

Food

Food

Biomass-Nutrition

Water supply (5)

Fresh water

Water

Water

Raw materials (14)

Fibre, etc.

Raw materials

Biomass-Fibre, energy & other

Ornamental resources

Ornamental resources

materials

Genetic resources

Genetic resources

í

Medicinal resources

í

í Genetic resources (15) í

Biochemicals and natural medicines

í

í

í

Biomass-Mechanical energy

Gas regulation (1)

Air quality regulation

Air purification

Mediation of gas-& air-flows

Climate regulation (2)

Climate regulation

Climate regulation

Atmospheric composition & climate regulation

Disturbance regulation (storm Natural hazard regulation protection & flood control) (3)

Disturbance prevention Mediation of air & liquid flows or moderation

Water regulation (e.g. natural irrigation & drought prevention) Water regulation (4)

Regulation flows

Regulating & Waste treatment (9) Habitat

Water purification and waste treatment

Erosion control & sediment Erosion regulation retention (8)

of

water

Waste treatment (esp.

Mediation of liquid flows

water purification)

Mediation of waste, toxics, and other nuisances

Erosion prevention

Mediation of mass-flows

Soil formation (7)

Soil formation (supporting Maintenance of soil formation Maintaining soil fertility service) and composition

Pollination (10)

Pollination

Pollination

Life cycle maintenance (incl. pollination)

Biological control (11)

Regulation of pests & human diseases

Biological control

Maintenance of pest-and disease control

Nutrient cycling (8)

Nutrient cycling & photosynthesis, primary production

Refugia (nursery, migration habitat) (12)

Biodiversity

Supporting & Habitat

í Lifecycle maintenance

í

Life cycle maintenance, habitat, (esp. nursery), Gene pool and gene pool protection protection

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Continued  Category

Cultural

Costanza et al. (1997) b

MEA (2005)

TEEB (2010)

CICES (2017) c Physical and experiential

Recreation (incl. eco-tourism Recreation & eco-tourism & outdoor activities) (16)

Recreation & eco-tourism

Cultural (incl. aesthetic, artistic, spiritual, education, & science) Aesthetic values (17)

Aesthetic information

í

í

interactions

í

Cultural diversity

Inspiration for culture, art, & design

í

Spiritual & religious values

Spiritual experience

Spiritual and/or emblematic interactions

í

Knowledge systems, Educational values

Information for cognitive development

Intellectual and representative interactions

Notes. a: Costanza et al. (2017); b: Costanza et al. (1997), without a division in categories; (1-17): Costanza et al. (1997); c: components under development. This list (version 4.3) is based on data from https://cices.eu/cices-structure/ (accessed: 07/05/17).

MEA (2005) divided ES into four categories: provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural services. It was adopted, but then modified in TEEB (2010). In particular, it established the core of the most recent classifications, detailing their economic aspects. The Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) was developed to provide a hierarchically consistent and science-based classification to be used for natural capital accounting purposes (Haines-Young and Potschin, 2012). However, there are some controversies on these classifications during the accounting processes: 1) Many studies directly sum up all the monetary ESV to obtain the total value. However, one ecological process can support more than one ecosystem services (as co-products). For example, both NPP increase and carbon sequestration are the products of photosynthesis, while the biomass produced by photosynthesis is a part of raw material for soil building. If NPP increase and carbon sequestration values are added together, it will result in double-counting. Meanwhile, some cultural services may partially overlap with others, i.e., tourism and recreation values, culture and educational value. Direct summation of these two values would overestimate cultural services value. 2) There is still a lack of proper methods to value the supporting services, such as biodiversity and climate regulation. Obviously, they are long term and global impacts. A new method should use to explain the trans-scale mechanism and localized effect sharing, which should sweeten the deal for local politicians. Therefore, while double-counting should be avoided, a systematic and comprehensive classification systems is needed to assess all types of ESV.

5.2.2 ESV accounting techniques ESV accounting techniques mainly include monetary (Costanza et al., 1997; Bockstael et al., 2000b; Lerouge et al., 2017; Obeng and Aguilar, 2018) and non-monetary methods (Brown et al., 2006; Campbell and Brown, 2012; Dong et al., 2012). Monetary methods asses the economic

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value of ESV from the consumer side. In strict economic terms, they represent the aggregate willingness-to-pay either for the stream of received services or as compensation for their loss (Costanza et al., 2017). This approach quantifies values based on human preferences. Revealed and stated preferences are the two main conventional economic methods (Unai Pascual, 2010; Costanza et al., 2017). Revealed preference involves the analysis of individual choices in real-world settings and infers a value from those observed choices (Costanza et al., 2017). Stated preference relies on individuals’ responses to hypothetical scenarios, which involve ecosystem services and include contingent valuation and structured choice experiments (Fioramonti, 2014). These two methods are both based on human perceptions or preference. Thus, there is the risk of measuring ESV in terms of each individual’s perceived wellbeing (Bockstael et al., 2000b; Freeman et al., 2014). As a consequence, individuals might give no value to ES, if they don’t know or don’t understand the role and the influence of a certain service on their wellbeing (Norton et al., 1998). Moreover, the sources of human welfare also include social capital, such as human and built capital (Costanza et al., 2014). Therefore, monetary evaluation of holistic benefits from ecosystem services is still a key challenge for economic methods (Boumans et al., 2002; Barbier et al., 2008; Koch et al., 2009). Finally, Costanza et al. (2017) also acknowledged that economic methods are too narrow to measure the full breadth of all the ways people benefit from ecosystem services. Human perception-centered evaluations quantify the receiver perspective with respect to each aspect of value. Consequently, a universal framework to evaluate ESV from production or supply perspective would be desirable. Using a donor side perspective, the donor was identified as the Sun, solar energy being the driver of all geo-biosphere dynamics. Consequently, solar energy, tidal energy and deep heat were identified as the baseline for ESV assessment (Brown and Ulgiati, 2016a; Odum, 1996). The emergy method, is based on this premise. Emergy is the total available energy, directly and indirectly involved in the processes of making a good or service (product) (Odum, 1996). Many studies used emergy to evaluate different ecosystems services (e.g.: forest, grassland, crop agriculture, etc.) at different scales (e.g.: national, provincial, etc.) (Brown et al., 2006; Giannetti et al., 2011; Campbell and Brown, 2012; Giannetti et al., 2017). In fact, such a method, providing a “supply-side” evaluation, is able to reflect the quality differences of different inputs in systems (Brown and Ulgiati, 2004; Liu et al., 2014a; Yu et al., 2016). However, there are still some problems in current use, in particular: 1) Emergy-based system flow diagram is an effective tool to reflect the energy input and output of the whole ecological process. Thus, how to accurate position ecological services on the emergy diagram will be the first question. 2) Some studies simply used physical data multiply unit emergy values (UEVs) or even use the money values multiply the emergy money ratios (EMRs). It can't be equal to “donor side” in a real sense and should be should avoided in subsequent method use. 3) Emergy method has the advantage of assessing services from the natural ecosystem perspective. However, ESV based on humans’ preference, such as tourism and recreation value, cultural and educational value, seem more appropriately measured by economic methods. The

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bridge of the two methods is another key issue.

5.3 The framework for non-monetary ESV accounting 5.3.1 Ecosystem services classification system ESV are subject to direct services, indirect services and existence services. Direct services are main products/services related to the changes in stock and flows of ecosystems. These benefits can be direct, as in the production of provisions, such as food and water. Indirect services are co-products or even by-products of the ecological processes, through the functioning of ecosystem processes that produce the direct services. Existence services result from the presence of ecosystems, which have a certain value. Evaluations are applied to eight ecosystems, which include, according to Matthews (1982): Forest; Woodland; Grassland; Wetland; Tundra; Desert; Glacier; Cultivated ecosystem. The specific classification system is shown as Figure 5-1. Direct valuation of services is divided as: production related; soil related; water related. Cultivated land is listed independently within production services, since it can provide agricultural products, which are distinct from others. With respect to soil systems, soil building services includes soil organic matter and increase of minerals. Wetland ecosystems are evaluated differently, since they can provide water for agricultural irrigation and domestic usage, as well as hydropower. Indirect services refer to the different environmental matrices: air; water; soil. Specifically, ecosystems can purify air pollution (SO2, NOx, PM10, PM2.5, etc.), water pollution (BOD, COD, N, P, etc.) and soil pollution (heavy metal, etc.). Grassland and cultivated ecosystem can also degrade animals (A) and humans (H, A) excrements. Due to the coverage of ecosystems, soil erosion can be neglected and the local microclimate can be regulated, such as cooling and humidification, if compared with bare land. Existence services include climate regulation, biodiversity maintenance, water and runoff regulation, tourism and recreation value, culture and education value. The first two reflect the global ecosystem services at local level and can be considered as shared services. The last four are at the local level.

5.3.2 Accounting techniques on ecosystem services valuation A forest ecosystem, which represents a hypothetical natural ecosystem, is selected as case study as to detail the ESV accounting techniques. Figure 5-2 shows that direct services from forest ecosystem includes NPP increase, carbon sequestration, soil building and groundwater recharge. Indirect services comprise air, water and soil purification, reduction in soil erosion. Finally, existence services consist of climate regulation, biodiversity maintenance, tourism and recreation value, cultural and educational value.

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Fig. 5-2 The emergy diagram of forest ecosystem services Letter “W” in the diagram means waste

5.3.2.1
Direct services (1) NPP increase Net primary production (NPP) is the difference between the fixed energy by photosynthesis and the consumed energy by plant respiration. This energy is available for plant growth and reproduction. Figure 5-3 shows that NPP increase is driven by renewable resources.

Fig. 5-3 The emergy diagram of NPP increase and carbon sequestration

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The formula of NPP increase is:

EmNPP

MAX( Ri )

(5-1) Where, EmNPP is the emergy required by NPP increase in study area (sej). MAX( Ri ) is the local renewable resources, including solar energy, tidal energy, deep heat, wind energy, wave energy, rain (chemical potential energy), runoff (geopotential and chemical potential energy). Because sunlight, deep heat and tidal energy are the three original driving force of geobiosphere, which means the last five energy forms are transformed by the first three driving energy forms. Therefore, to avoid double-counting, the maximum value among the last five energy and the sum of three driving force is taken to calculate MAX( Ri ) as follows: MAX(Ri) = Max(Sum(sunlight, deep heat, tidal energy), wind energy, wave energy, rain (chemical potential energy), runoff (geopotential and chemical potential energy)) (5-2) (2) Carbon Sequestration Atmospheric carbon dioxide is converted into carbohydrates and fixed into plants and soil in form of organic carbon through photosynthesis. Carbon in vegetation is transferred into soils, producing carbon sequestration in soil. Therefore, the carbon sequestration value equals the difference between carbon sequestration through photosynthesis and the carbon sequestration in soil. EmCS

1 1 B u 'B u S u UEVBio u u S u UEVBio 2 2 T EmNPP /S UEVBio NPP

(5-3) (5-4)

Where, EmCS is the emergy required by carbon sequestration (sej); 'B is the increased biomass per unit area per year of forest ecosystem (g/(ha · yr)); S is the area of forest ecosystem (ha); B is the total biomass of forest ecosystem over years (g); T is the turnover time of forest biomass (a); B is the share of total biomass per unit area per year of forest ecosystem (g/(ha · yr)), which is T actually the increased biomass per unit area per year of forest, i.e. 'B ; considering that carbon sequestration amount in plants is about a half of the biomass, the right hand-side of the equation has to be multiplied by 0.5; UEVBio is the transformity of biomass (sej/g); EmNPP is the same as EmNPP in equation (5-1) (sej); NPP is the NPP mass per unit area per year (g/(ha · yr)). (3) Soil building Soil building is represented in Figure 5-4. Biomass in ecosystems is increased through photosynthesis. Plant litter (a part of biomass) enters into the soil and increases soil organic matter, which can be measured by organic carbon. The source of soil minerals is mainly from weathering of parent rock driven by a combination of climatic factors and geologic processes (Campbell, 2012). Parent rock produces available minerals through weathering, which is a long-term physical, chemical and biological process. Therefore, soil organic matter increase and

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soil minerals increase are different processes. Consequently, these two values need to be added together as the total value of soil building.

Fig. 5-4 The emergy diagram of soil building, including organic matter and minerals increase

The formula of soil organic matter increase can be written as: EmSC EmRE u k1 u k2 EmNPP u k1 u k2

(5-5)

Where, EmSC is the emergy required by soil organic matter increase (sej); EmRE is the renewable emergy for this case study (sej), which is the same as EmNPP in equation (5-1); k1 is the ratio of forest litter to the biomass (%); k2 is the proportion of litter containing carbon to litter (%). The equation of soil mineral increase is:

¦  (P n

EmMin

ijM

u BDi u Di u S ) / T j u UEV jM

(5-6)

i 1

Where, EmMin is the emergy required by soil minerals increase (sej); PijM is the percentage of j-th minerals in soil layer i (%); BDi is the soil bulk density in i-th soil layer (g/cm3); Di is the corresponding depth of the i-th soil layer (cm); S is the area of forest ecosystem (ha); T j is the turnover time of the j-th mineral (a); UEV jM is the specific emergy of j-th mineral (sej/g). Therefore, the soil building service can be calculated as follows: EmSB EmSC  EmMin

(5-7)

(4) Groundwater recharge Considering the increase of groundwater recharge due to the presence of forests, the formula of groundwater recharge is: EmGW P u S u U u k u UEVGW (5-8)

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Where, EmGW is the emergy required by groundwater recharge (sej); P is the precipitation in forest ecosystem (mm/yr); S is the area of forest ecosystem (ha); U is the density of water (g/cm3);

k is recharge coefficient of precipitation infiltration (%); UEVGW is the specific emergy of groundwater (sej/g).

5.3.2.2
Indirect services (1) Air purification A number of methods were previously used for evaluating the environmental impact of emissions (Hasan and Rahman, 2017; Stolaroff et al., 2018). It would be a useful step to integrate these methods within a procedure, capable of quantifying the actual damage to humans and assets from the perspective of emergy (Liu et al., 2011). For example, due to their purification function, ecosystems can reduce the adverse impacts toward natural and human capital. In this study, a preliminary damage assessment of losses is performed, according to the framework of the Eco-Indicator 99 assessment method (Goedkoop and Spriensma, 2000). Such a method, similar to all end-point life cycle impact assessments, has large uncertainties intrinsically embodied in its procedure for the evaluation of final impacts. Nonetheless, it is able to provide a preliminary estimate of impacts to be used in the calculation procedure of total emergy investment (Liu et al., 2011; Timm et al., 2016). Damage to human health is expressed as Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs). In parallel, damages to ecosystem quality are measured by the Potentially Disappeared Fraction (PDF) of species (Murray et al., 1994; Goedkoop and Spriensma, 2000; Ukidwe and Bakshi, 2007). DALYs estimates the total amount of ill people, due to disability and premature death, attributable to specific diseases and injuries. A damage of 1 means one life year of one individual is lost, or one person suffers four year from a disability with a weight of 0.25. The ecosystem quality damages are specified as PDF · m2 · yr. A damage of one means all species disappear from one m2 during one year, or 10% of all species disappear from 10 m2 during one year, or 10% of all species disappear from 1 m2 during 10 years. The PDF can be interpreted as the fraction of species, that has a high probability of no occurrence in a region due to unfavorable conditions. Therefore, DALYs and PDF are used to evaluate the emergy input of reducing damages to human health and ecosystems due to pollution purification respectively. Also because different pollutants have different damage to human health and ecosystem quality, thus, purifying pollutants can both bring reduction in human health and ecosystem quality losses. Therefore, these two part are added together to assess the total air purification service. Forest ecosystems have the effect of purifying air pollutants such as SO2, NOx and PM10 (including PM2.5). The reduction in human health and ecosystem quality losses are measured respectively as follows. Reduction in human health losses The formula of reduction in human health losses brought by air purification are as follows: EmHH ¦ M i u S u DALYi u W H (5-9)

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Where, EmHH is the emergy required to reduce harmful effects on human health (sej); M i is the capacity of forest ecosystems to purify the i-th air pollutant (kg/(ha · yr)); S is the area of forest ecosystem (ha); DALYi is the disability adjusted life year of one individual caused by i-th air pollutant (cap · yr/kg); W H is the total area emergy used per capita (sej/cap). Reduction in ecosystem quality losses EmEQ ¦ M i u PDFi u Emsp ¦ M i u PDFi u MAX(Ri ) (5-10) where, EmEQ is the emergy required to reduce harmful effects on ecosystem quality (sej); M i is the capacity of forest ecosystems to purify the i-th air pollutant (kg/(ha · yr)); PDFi is the potential extinction ratio of species affected by the i-th air pollutant (PDF · ha · yr/kg); Emsp is the emergy required by species in study area (sej); MAX(Ri ) is the emergy required by local renewable resources (sej), which is the same as MAX(Ri ) in equation (5-1). Therefore, the total air purification service can be expressed as follows: EmAP EmHH  EmEQ (5-11) (2) Water purification

The accounting approach to water purification is the same as the air purification one. In this study, water pollutants, such as BOD, COD, N, P, etc., are mainly considered. However, the parameter M i in equations (5-9) and (5-10) needs to be changed into the capacity to purify from water pollution. (3) Soil purification Similar to air and water purification, the purification effect of forest ecosystems on soil pollutants such as heavy metal can be accounted. The parameter M i in equations (5-10) and (5-11) is changed into the capacity to purify soil pollution. (4) Reduction in soil erosion Due to the cover of the forest ecosystem, soil erosion is reduced. Therefore, the difference between potential and actual erosion modulus is used to measure the value of reduction in soil erosion. The formula is as follows: Emg G

G u 106 u UEVg

(5-12)

(GP  GR ) u S

Where, Emg is the emergy required to reduce erosion (sej); G is the soil retention due to forest cover (t/yr); UEVg is the transformity of soil (sej/g); GP is the potential soil erosion modulus (t/(km2 · yr)); GR is the real soil erosion modulus in forest ecosystem (t/(km2 · yr));S is the area of forest ecosystem (ha). (5) Microclimate regulation Forest ecosystems play a role in regulating microclimate by increasing humidity, precipitation and decreasing temperature. Since the energy absorbed during evapotranspiration equals that of increasing humidity and decreasing temperature in ecosystem, the energy required by evapotranspiration can be used to measure the humidity increase and temperature decrease values. The calculation is as follows:

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EEW u S u U w u 1  D u UEVEw

EmE

91

(5-13)

Where, EmE is the emergy required by evapotranspiration (sej); EEW is the forest evapotranspiration (mm/yr); S is the area of forest ecosystem (ha); U w is water density (kg/m3); D is the percentage of water used by photosynthesis during the process of evapotranspiration (%); UEVEw is the specific emergy of steam (sej/g). Please note that the evapotranspiration here includes forestland evaporation (including forest soil evaporation, litter layer evaporation), canopy interception and forest plant transpiration.

5.3.2.3
Existence services Climate regulation and biodiversity conservation are both the reflection of global services at local level, thereby contributions per unit area of climate regulation and biodiversity should be the physical data to evaluate these services, and the specific calculation formula can be as follows. (1) Climate regulation According to United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), climate change is mainly manifested by global warming, acid rain and ozone layer destruction. Global warming is the most urgent problem for human beings. Also due to the available data from (IPCC, 2013) and (Goedkoop and Spriensma, 2000), the global forest ecosystem as carbon sink to reduce the impact on global climate change is considered here to evaluate the climate regulation in this study. The calculation formula is as follows: EmCR1 ¦ Ci u DALYci u W H (5-14) EmCR 2

¦ Ci u PDF(%)i u EBio

(5-15)

Where, EmCR1 is the emergy required by climate regulation to reduce human health losses (sej/ha); EmCR 2 is the emergy required by climate regulation to reduce ecosystem quality losses (sej/ha); Ci is the i-th greenhouse gas amount sequestrated by forest ecosystem (kg/m2); DALYci is the disability adjustment life year caused by i-th greenhouse gas (cap · yr/kg); W H is ratio of the total emergy to total population (sej/cap); PDFi is the potential extinction ratio of species affected by the i-th greenhouse gas (PDF · ha · yr/kg); EBio is the specific emergy of biomass (sej/g). (2) Biodiversity Consider the forests can maintain biodiversity and the calculation formula is as follows: Ebc N1 u S u (GEB u T ) / N 0 (5-16) Where, Ebc is the emergy required by biodiversity conservation (sej); N1 is the species density in the study area (N0 / ha); S is the area of forest ecosystem (ha); GEB is the geobiosphere emergy baseline (GEB) (sej/yr); T is the average turnover time of species (a); N 0 is the number of global species. Though the accounting equation on biodiversity ESV has been listed as shown by equation (5-16), due to the unavailability of data on the species density per unit area, this service is not calculated in the study. The current accounting method based on emergy uses the product of the local species number and the UEV of one species. Yet, the limitation of this method is that the

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sum of the local species may be larger than the global species number, indicating the double counting of some species. If the data on the global species density is available, the accounting results on biodiversity ESV should be compared with the values measured by economic methods especially the comparison on the value order of magnitude. (3) Tourism and recreational value Forest ecosystem is a type of landscape, which can bring tourism income for local residents. Both touristic and recreational income can be measured as product of tourism income and emergy dollar ratio. The specific formula is as follows: EmT I T u EMR (5-17) Where, EmT is the emergy required by forest tourism value (sej); I T is the income brought by forest ecosystem ($); EMR is the emergy dollar ratio (sej/$). Tourists can be divided into local, domestic and international tourists. Therefore, the corresponding local, domestic and international EMR are needed. (4) Cultural and educational value Cultural and educational services of forest ecosystems involve many aspects, to be more specific, aesthetic, artistic, educational and scientific research. For example, forest ecosystem can provide information on botany, soil science, geography, landscape painting and so on. To current, there is no unified measurement method to account these services. While, there is study calculating these values through the amount of information cycle in the study subjects (Abel, 2013). Yet it is still hard to gain data on information cycle provided by ecosystems, therefore the calculation method and result on this service are not included in this study currently and will be developed in the further study.

5.3.3 Calculation principle on total ESV Several accounting principles are possible to avoid double-counting. 1) Take the maximum value of NPP increase and carbon sequestration. Because these two services are both the products of photosynthesis (Figure 5-3), the maximum of these two valuation should be used, rather than summing NPP increase and carbon sequestration. 2) Sum the soil organic matter and minerals increase as the total value of soil building. Figure 5-4 indicates that soil organic matter and minerals have different sources. Therefore, these two values should be added together as the total value of soil building. Therefore, the formula of indirect value can be written as: Direct services = MAX (NPP increase, carbon sequestration) + (organic matter increase+ mineral increase) +groundwater recharge (5-18) 3) Different air, water and soil pollutants have different influences on human health and ecosystem. Therefore, the damage to human and ecological capital can be added together. Thus, the indirect value can be measured as: Indirect services = reduction harmful effects on human health & ecological biomass +

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reduction in soil erosion + microclimate regulation (5-19) 4) Because tourism and recreation value has cross section with cultural and educational value, to avoid overestimate of existence services, the maximum value of these two values is taken a part of existence value. Therefore, the formula of existence services is as follows: Existence services=climate regulation + biodiversity + Max (tourism and recreation value, cultural and educational value) (5-20) Based on the four principles, the total ESV can be calculated as follows: Total ESV = Direct services + Indirect services + Existence services (5-21) Please note that though there are no calculation results on some services, such as biodiversity, cultural and educational service due to the lack of physical data in the study area, all the forest ESV are included in equations (5-18) to (5-21) to detail the ESV sum principle on how to calculate total ESV.

5.4 Discussion 5.4.1 Advantages and limitations of the framework This study establishes a new framework for non-monetary ESV accounting method, to address the limitations of previous ESV accounting methods. To be more specific, such a framework has the following advantages: 1) By accounting the value of every service term, researchers can select their own study focuses. 2) By presenting the accounting techniques and calculation principle on total ESV, this framework can evaluate ESV from donor side, avoiding double counting. 3) For tourism and recreational value, tourists are divided into local, domestic and international tourists, due to the existing divisions on tourists and tourism income in statistical yearbook. Different emergy dollar ratios for different countries are used in the process of the local, domestic and international tourism income calculation, enabled due to the update of the National Environmental Accounting Database (V2.0)ķ. 4) This framework can evaluate ESV at different regional scales and for different ecosystem services types. 5) Accounting for ESV in units that are common to the resource from which the service is dependent on (i.e.: natural capital) allows for the sustainability of resource use to be evaluated within the same accounting framework. ķ https://www.emergy-nead.com.

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In parallel, this framework can still be improved in the following aspects: 1) The classification system does not include all land use types, such as transportation land, industrial land, residential land, and so on. 2) Since the framework was not applied to evaluate all the ecosystems in Figure 5-1, ecosystem services classification and name expressions (nomenclature?) may need more consideration and improvements. 3) Scientific and feasible methods are needed to measure climate regulation and biodiversity values. These two values can be seen as the share of global service at local level. In this study, biodiversity value is not evaluated, because of the lack of scientific measurements. Some studies used species abundance to evaluate the biodiversity value. But local extinctions do not represent an inevitable loss of global biodiversity. If we simply equate the loss of local species with the loss of global biodiversity, we may reach erroneous conclusions that the sum of the parts is greater than the whole. With respect to climate regulation, the authors of this paper are still considering how to allocate the global impact of the service into the local level. Allocation based on area may be appropriate, but still lacks of specific and reasonable assessment methods. Therefore, it is important to consider the scale of inference when evaluating ecosystem services. 4) The framework still has uncertainty in the aspects of physical data, parameter and evaluation models as present in Table 5-2 due to the alternate data and parameter sources and scenario setting, the development of socio-economic and so on. The location (“what is the sources of uncertainty?”) and type (“how certain are we?”) (Hamel and Bryant, 2017) of the uncertainty in this framework are shown in Table 5-2. Because the data sources of the case study in this paper mainly include literatures, statistical yearbook, field monitoring stations in one year, therefore the qualitative uncertainty analysis are presented here and lacks quantitative analysis.

5.4.2 Ecosystem services at different scales The used calculation principle varies at local, meso-and large scale. For example, at local scale, ecosystem services, such as NPP increase and carbon sequestration, take place within the boundary. To avoid double counting, the maximum value of related ecological processes should be considered. Ecosystem services have interaction with surroundings. For example, due to the ecosystem purification capacity, the damage to human health and ecosystem quality caused by pollutants can be reduced. The summation of pollutants’ effects actually reflects the influence of each pollutant, as well as its frequency. In particular, one pollutant might cause gastric cancer, colorectal cancer and skin cancer. This, in turn, means that the influence of the pollutant would be evaluated three times, due to different effects. This is the reflection of influence frequency and why the effects are multiplicative.

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Ecosystem services at large scale clearly do not belong to lower scales. For example, rare or endangered species, such as panda mainly inhabiting Sichuan Province in China, plays a more significant role as one part of its global gene pool, rather than just a local species. Bottom-up methods exist to evaluate the reflection of large scale ecosystem services at local scale. However, problems also exist with this approach. In particular, the sum of local species population does not equal to global species population. Therefore, measurements for large scale ecosystem services still need more improvement.

5.4.3 The combination of monetary and non-monetary accounting methods Decision-making often takes place at the local or regional level, requiring the involvement of many stakeholders during the valuation process (Costanza et al., 2017). A combination of monetary and non-monetary deliberative valuation processes is needed to provide a comprehensive picture of value and sustainable outcomes (Kenter, 2016). Therefore, using emergy method to assess the “biosphere value” of ecological capital (i.e.: ecosystem services) is a good complement to present monetary methods. If measurements for ecological capital and ecosystem services are not available, dual accounting method is recommended. In particular, emergy can be used to record environmental debt and establish a balance sheet to state the economic conditions and the environmental contribution to economic development. As stated by Barnes (2006), a completely new financial system, called “Market Economy 3.0”, is needed to realize the return of wealth including all “stakeholders” of nature. Bimonte and Ulgiati (2002) pointed out the concept of “new scarcity”, which is the essential components of an eco-support system, which is becoming more and more inadequate. This means that the capacity of ecosystems to be the primary source of resources and a collector of waste is not unlimited, as it was treated the past. In fact, degraded ecosystems are increasingly unable to provide basic ecosystem services (water cycle, photosynthesis, biodiversity etc.). Therefore, Bimonte and Ulgiati (2002) suggested to introduce a taxation tool, based on Odum’s emergy method. Moreover, they proposed to establish a taxation system for ecosystem integrity, based on environmental sustainable index (ESI). Such an indicator takes both economic advantages (based on emergy yield ratio (EYR), to measure the emergy return rate on investment) and environmental loading (expressed by environmental loading ratio, ELR) into consideration. In fact, ESI is the quotient of EYR and ELR. By this way, a unified and comprehensive assessment on ecosystem services and economic inputs in the entire region can be conducted, while ecological and environmental policies, based on this approach can be implemented.

5.4.4 The comparison between ES and NCP Recently, Díaz et al. (2018) proposed the term “nature’s contribution to people” (NCP) which refers to all the contributions, both positive and negative, of living nature (diversity of organisms, ecosystems, and their associated ecological and evolutionary processes) to people’s quality of life. Two perspectives (a generalizing and a context-specific perspective) were

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proposed to view NCP. To distinguish between ES and NCP, their evaluation frameworks are compared, as shown in Table 5-3. Table 5-3
The evaluation framework comparison between ecosystem services and nature’s contribution to people Ecosystem Services (ES) Evaluation method

Nature’s Contribution to People Emergy method

Contribution

Positive

Economic method Positive

Positive and negative

Direct, indirect and existence Provisioning, supporting, regulating and Material, non-material and regulating value (this study) cultural services (MEA, 2005) NCP (Díaz et al., 2018) Classification Considering ES straddling across groups

Lack consideration on cross sectional Considering NCP straddling across ES groups

Perspective

Donor-side

Consumer-side

Calculation techniques

This study

Estimate the monetary value of ecosystem services flows to identify trade-offs among them and their impacts on wellbeing

í

Calculation principles

Avoid double counting

Add all ESV directly and may exist double counting

í

Generalizing and a context-specific perspective

Note: “í” means it still lacks specific evaluation methodology currently.

Though it still lacks the specific NCP evaluation methodology, the innovative point consists of taking specific cultural, socioeconomic, temporal or spatial context into consideration, when mapping the NCP categories. Thus, insights on ES evaluation in specific study cases are suggested. In addition, NCP includes positive and negative contributions to people. Ecosystem services are defined as positive benefits, that people derive from functioning ecosystems, although the concept of accounting for negative effects from the natural environment is not new, other work has termed these impacts “ecosystem disservices” (Dunn, 2010; Döhren and Haase, 2015). The study by Díaz et al. (2018) considers ecological processes or functions, which may produce either positive or negative effects on different subjects. For example, for a lake, eutrophication can increase the biomass of algae or other plankton, while it can result in a reduction in water dissolved oxygen, deteriorating water quality, leading to the death of other organisms. However, since the net biomass increase is used as the basic physical reference, double counting can still be avoided. Studies on positive or both positive and negative ecosystems’ or nature’s contributions to people cannot be simply evaluated as good or bad. Instead, it depends on specific cases, conditions, scales and so on.

5.4.5 The comparison among emergy-based ESV studies To current, there are also studies on emergy-based ESV. For example, Campbell et al. (2014) sought to value ecosystem services provided by forest in Maryland based on emergy and used “eco-price” to convert emergy flow to dollars to inform real policy choices and potential payment to ecosystem services (PES) programs. Our study provide suggestions on the future

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policy-making and ecosystem management for this study. Lu et al. (2017) also quantified the provision of ecosystem services during restoration and succession of subtropical forests and plantations in terms of both donor and receiver values. This research comes to a common conclusion with our study that emergy evaluation is not an alternative method to the environmental economic assessment, but a complementary and systemic approach to highlight the donor-side value of ecosystem services (Lu et al., 2017). Giannetti et al. (2018) evaluated the different contributions of economic systems and ecosystems to human well-being by using emergy in historical series (19812011). It concluded that nature’s contributions are almost constant throughout the historical series considered, where services from the economy oscillate, representing a less stable source of well-being. This study also provides insights for the application study.

5.4.6 Operationalization of emergy-based ecosystem services valuation for urban policy making Ecosystem-Based Management (EBM) would be a desirable outcome to transform our lifestyle, improve human well-being, as well as to increase the livability of our planet. The importance of inclusion of EBM viewpoints into policy-making processes would be a necessary premise, as remarked by Cormier et al. (2017). The identification of specific venues, where policy-action takes place, considering the predominant social and economic concerns of ESV accounting users, as well as the finality of their actions, is also relevant to use the developed system in an effective way (Jordan and Russel, 2014). Two other considerations are also necessary. First, in order to transform the discussed ESV accounting framework into a useful tool for policy-makers, three criteria should be met, as shown by Van Wensem et al. (2017): ķ The defined indicators should connect ecosystem variables with human well-being; ĸ ESV should be assessed in their totality when considering the impact of policy and management actions; Ĺ ESV accounting should be able to capture how changes affect different stakeholders. While point ĸ is already met in this work, point ķ and Ĺ require further work. The proposed framework should be transformed, in order to become an instrument for community shared learning and collaborative policy-making (Bennett et al., 2015). The development and use of e-tools is especially promising for both purposes, since it is possible to integrate the use of multiple indicators to display alternative management scenarios with participatory approaches (Isenmann et al., 2007; Ramos and Caeiro, 2010; Moreno-Pires and Fidélis, 2012; Nabatchi, 2012; Iribarnegaray et al., 2015; Makkar et al., 2016). Thus, it could be used and further developed with respect to ecosystem services and ESV accounting, using the framework discussed in this paper. This would become a testbed for a new type of socially-impacting outreach activity, consisting in developing digital tools for socio-ecology participatory policy-making.

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5.5 Conclusion The complex and uncertain of ESV accounting methods makes ecological conservation and restoration difficult to be effectively put into practice. However, the growth in global green development, and the requirements on achieving a truly sustainable development, creates an urgent need for accurate ESV accounting. This chapter establishes a non-monetary accounting framework for ESV, which classifies the ES into direct services (directly related to the stock and flow), indirect services (through the functioning of ecosystem processes that produce the direct services) and existence services (cultural services and global benefit). New framework tries to ķ construct system emergy flow diagram and merging calculation method to avoid double counting; ĸ propose new methods for biodiversity and climate regulation; and Ĺ bridge the non- monetary and economic values. The results show that emergy can be used to record environmental debt and establish a balance sheet to state the economic conditions and the environmental contribution to economic development. However, emergy is not an alternative method to the economic assessment, but a complementary and systemic approach to highlight the donor-side value of ES. The new framework is needed to realize the return of wealth including all “stakeholders” of nature. In conclusion, this study can overcome the limitations of ESV accounting methods, becoming a significant attempt to improve the accounting theories and methodologies. It can also provide scientific basis for valuing ecosystem services, establishing ecological compensation mechanism and the integrated reform of ecological process.

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Chapter 6 A physical view of urban metabolism dynamics

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6.1 Introduction Urban metabolism is constrained by physical rules. Consequently, physics can support the understanding of urban dynamics in different ways. This chapter focuses on some principles and constrains, which can be applied also to the urban environment. In the following section, allometric laws related to cities will be introduced. In the third part, energy. In the third part, energy in a wider context, as planetary boundary.

6.2 Allometric laws and cities 6.2.1 Allometric laws Urban systems are systems, characterized by a complex and evolutionary dynamics. Allometric scaling can reflect its underlying mechanisms, dynamics and structures. In particular, various patterns extending over different scales (scaling) can be analyzed to understand if they belong to the same entity (allometry). More in detail, allometry designates the relative growth of a part in relation to the whole entity. It has been proven that cities exhibit universal macroscopic patterns, including allometric scaling, scale-free distribution and fractal geometry (Portugali et al., 2000). Urban morphology can be described using fractals and statistical self-similarity (Batty and Longley, 1986, 1994). Moreover, fractal dimension also characterizes the hierarchy of different sub-centers or clusters at different scales (Batty, 2008). An independent analysis of different urban indicator is often inadequate in the case of cities, since agglomeration effects remain unconsidered. Instead, several characteristics show a dependence on the system’s size. This is, for example, the case of phenomena dependent on population size. Generally, power laws reflect such behaviors. In the case of physical infrastructures, like road networks, they grow less than proportionally with respect to city size (Jiang and Claramunt, 2004; Lämmer et al., 2006; Samaniego and Moses, 2008; Roth et al., 2012; Louf et al., 2014). This indicates that a negative allometry is followed (sub-linear power scaling, with factor smaller than 1). In contrast, there are cases in which scaling power is greater than 1, leading to a positive allometry. Obviously, these laws are not static and might change over time. Bettencourt et al. (2010) introduced an urban scaling as a function of a city population size. However, it has been proven that the results are influenced by the definition of urban boundaries (Oliveira et al., 2014). This problem was already recognized by Bettencourt et al. (2010), saying that population size might rather be a “proxy aggregate variable […] than a causal force”. Instead, multiple legacies appear to dominate on the long-term, in relation to administrative traditions,

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political priorities and other factors (Cristelli et al., 2012). Observed scaling generates an output complexity, emerging from the complex inputs of a system. In particular, the complexity of initial and boundary conditions, shape the spatiotemporal evolution of a system. Consequently, systems displaying long correlations of key dynamical variables in space and time exhibit output complexity (Irwin et al., 2009). It is worth considering that simple a low input complexity can generate scaling phenomena, emerging from self-organizing processes (Barabási, 1999). However, unlike localized physical systems with little heterogeneity, human and biological systems are characterized by a far greater input complexity, characterized by multiple scales and heterogeneity (Mitchell, 2009).

6.2.2 Scaling in spatial networks Cities size distribution follows Zipf’s Law. In particular, the size of the large cities decays with its descending rank, r, in a power law, rĮ. However, as claimed by Li et al. (2015), only the upper tail of size distribution curve can be well described by a power law, whereas the whole spectrum can be better depicted by the discrete generalized beta distribution (DGBD) function: (rmax  1  r )b (6-1) rD Where, rmax is the total number of natural cities in the region under examination; r is the rank; and S(r) is the size of the r-th largest connected cluster, measured by the area it covers; A, b, and Į are parameters to be estimated, in which exponent b characterizes the exponential head. The conventional Zipf’s Law can be recovered by setting b=0. It is worth considering that this distribution refers to natural cities, i.e. to any urban center delimited by its natural boundaries instead than administrative ones. Considering the existence of different networks (both physical and socio-economic) within an urban space, it must be noticed that the vast majority of the existing spatial networks do not seem to result from a global optimization. Instead, they evolve from the progressive addition of nodes and segments generated by local optimization processes. One of the most important features of spatial networks, as in the case of many spatial structures, there is a strong path dependency. This means that a cost, in relation to links lengths, exists, profoundly influencing the global structure of these networks, as proved by Louf et al. (2013). In particular, the length of a real or virtual ‘edge’ can be taken as a proxy for the cost associated with the existence of that edge. Considering a set nodes, uniformly distributed within a plan, and hypothesizing that all the actors involved in the building process are perfectly rational (i.e.: the most profitable edge is built at each step), it is possible to build a link, connecting a new node i to a node j, already belonging to the network. Then, the quantity Rij will be maximized: Rij =Bij í Ci (6-2) Where, Bij is the expected benefit associated with the construction of the edge between node i and node j, while Cij is the expected cost associated with such a construction. Equation (6-1) represents a cost-benefit analysis related to the expansion of an existing network. Costs, S (r )

A

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represented by Cij, are usually proportional to the Euclidean distance dij between i and j: Cij = țdij (6-3) Benefits can be assessed as a function of distance and expected traffic, Tij, between cities i and j: Bij = ȘTijdij (6-4) Where, Ș represents the benefits of an individual per unit of edge length. Usually, traffic is esteemed using a gravity-type law: Tij

k

MiM j dija

(6-5)

Where, Mij is the population of city and k is the rate associated with the process. The exponent, a, is fixed to be a>1. Conversely, a 100,000 PE

Total phosphorus

İ2

İ1

Total nitrogen

İ15

İ10

Concerning the reuse of treated wastewater in Italy, the agricultural use of reclaimed wastewater (municipal and agro-industrial) is regulated by Ministerial Decree no. 185/2003. With regard to microbiological contamination levels in particular, this Decree has defined some significantly lower threshold values (e.g., Escherichia coli, 90% in modern incineration plants. Here, we considered conversion efficiency = 90%.

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Table 23-5
Emergy table for sludge synergic disposal system D4 Amount per year #

UEV (sej/unit)

Ref.

Emergy (sej/yr)

1.45×1011

This study

8.40×1017

1.92×103

This study

8.11×1017

6.28×1011

After Odum et al.(2000)

7.25×1015

5.68×105

6.28×1011

After Odum et al. (2000)

3.57×1017

t

5.94×102

2.01×1015

This study

1.20×1018

Non-potable water

t

5.80×106

2.06×1011

This study

1.20×1018

CO2

kg

3.27×105

NOx

kg

1.13×103

SO2

kg

1.72×103

Dust

kg

7.61×102

9.77×1017

Item

Unit

Dewatering Process

#1

Sludge (untreated)

t

5.80×106

#2

Fuel (Waste heat recycling from cement plant)a

J

#3

Electricity (Recycled electricity from cement plant) a

kW · h

#4

Electricity

kW · h

#5

Sludge (after dewatering)

#6

Sludge disposal process

Yield

Drying Processb

Stirring process

4.22×1014

2.40×102

#7

Fuel

L

2.46×105

3.98×1012

After Brown and Ulgiati (2010)

#8

Vehicle (weight)

t

8.12

2.87×1015

This study

2.33×1016

Vehicle (L&S)

$

2.38×104

8.44×1012

Country Emergy/$ ratio

2.01×1017

Labor and Service

$

1.87×103

8.44×1012

Country Emergy/$ ratio

9.36×1015







Transportation process #9



SOx

kg

7.59×102

NOx

kg

9.59×103

Dust

kg

6.68×102

CO2

kg

7.15×105

N2O

kg

17.9





Notes: a. Based on the system boundary, the recycled heat and electricity form downstream process of clinker manufacturing should be considered as the inputs. Thus, the emergy value of total inputs is 3.23×1019 sej/yr. In this study, the consideration without adding the recycled energy is more beneficial to the metrics comparison and emergy breakdown data comparison. b. Here, the drying system uses the waste heat from downstream cement factory for the drying of dewatered sewage sludge, which then is sent back to the cement factory as alternative material in their clinker production.

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23.4.2 Emissions’ impact Emission impacts are shown in Table 23-6. Our study will deal with the harmful emissions for the human health and ecosystem. Only air emissions, including SO2, dust and NOx (respiratory disorders), CO2 and N2O (climate change), are considered in the study. Data about CO2 and N2O are calculated as greenhouse gases released at local and global scales, based on direct and indirect energy consumption. For mechanical dewatering systems, the value of emission impacts on human health was 9.81×1016 sej/yr, which mainly came from the damages to human health resulting from NOx (49.78%, respiratory effects on humans caused by inorganic substances), TSP-caused respiratory effects (27.76%), and CO2 (11.54%, climate change). The ecosystem loss mainly came from the damage to Ecosystem Quality caused by the combined effect of NOx and SO2’s acidification and eutrophication. The emission impacts of anaerobic digestion and drying process were much lower than those of the synergic processings because of the raw material and energy substitution. The human health losses are 3.52×1016 sej/yr and 6.44×1016 sej/yr in D3 and D2 scenarios respectively. The largest contributor was the damages to human health resulting from NOx-caused respiratory effects on humans (55.51% and 52.28%). The ecosystem losses were mainly caused by NOx’s acidification and eutrophication. The results also indicate that the human health losses caused by the harmful air emissions are ranked in this order: D1 (Mechanical dewatering) > D2 (Anaerobic digestion and dewatering) > D4 (Anaerobic digestion and drying) > D3 (Anaerobic digestion and drying), while the ecosystem losses are ranked with the same sequence. The raw material substitution (CH4 replaced coal) and energy substitution (alternative electric supply and waste-heat utilization) greatly reduce the emissions created a damage to ecosystem quality caused by the combined effect of acidification and eutrophication. Table 23-6
Emission impacts of the four synergic processings of sludge treatment system D1

CO2

D2

D3

D4

DALY

PDF

DALY

PDF

DALY

PDF

DALY

PDF

Lw,1

Lw,2

Lw,1

Lw,2

Lw,1

Lw,2

Lw,1

Lw,2

1.13×10

16 15

ü

3.17×10

15

ü

4.76×10

15

ü

4.46×10

15

ü

CO

3.21×10

ü

0

ü

0

ü

0

ü

NOx

4.88×1016

2.10×1017

3.57×1016

1.53×1017

1.84×1016

7.91×1016

2.82×1016

1.21×1017

SO2

6.56×1015

8.34×1015

4.80×1015

6.11×1015

3.54×1015

4.50×1015

4.02×1015

5.11×1015

TSP

2.72×10

16

9.36×10

14

N2O

ü ü

2.00×10

16

6.66×10

14

ü ü

8.47×10

15

2.25×10

13

ü ü

1.59×10

16

ü

3.67×10

13

ü

23.4.3 Results of emergy-based indicators Table 23-7 summarizes the emergy indices of the four systems considering recycling and

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economic and ecological losses. The EYR results suggest that the scenario D1 (mechanical dewatering) is the most economical synergic process techniques. That means that the influence of cycling-utilization of waste heat and electricity improve the productivity of sludge (local nonrenewable). The larger the use amount of recycles, the lower needs of the outsides import of resources. If the waste-heat utilization are considered as the imports into the system, the scenarios D4 with the energy substitution have the largest values of EYR. Due to the combined effect of environmental impact, the EYR' dropped significantly, thus suggesting that emissions greatly increase the extra input of the system by pulling resources for damage repair and for replacement of lost natural and human-made capital, amounting to about 10% of the total emergy investment. The results confirm that the fossil fuel substitution by sewage sludge represents a significant environmental savings from the point of view of human and ecological health damage assessment when compared to the clinker production without substitution and also to raw material substitution scenario. Table 23-7
The values of the four synergic processings’ emergy based indicators Unit Lw,1*

sej/yr

Lw,2*

sej/yr

Fb

sej/yr

D1

D2

9.81×10

16

2.18×10

17

0 18

D3

1.60×10

17

8.40×10

17

D4

3.52×10

16

5.27×1016

8.36×10

16

1.26×1017

9.02×1016

8.20×1017

8.18×1017

18

18

2.41×1018

U

sej/yr

3.37×10

2.42×10

1.66×10

U'=U+ Lw,1*+ Lw,2*

sej/yr

3.69×1018

2.65×1018

1.78×1018

2.59×1018

EYR

ü

0.75

0.65

0.49

0.65

EYR'

ü

0.69

0.60

0.46

0.61

RBR

ü

0

0.04

0.49

0.34

RYR

ü

0

0.09

0.98

0.68

LRR

ü

ü

2.49

0.14

0.22

RBR is the ratio of recycle emergy used in providing an alternative material/energy from raw resources/energy to the total emergy use. The larger the ratio the greater the advantage of recycle. The ERR are ranked: D3 (0.49) > D4 (0.34) > D2 (0.09) > D1 (0). RYR is the ratio of emergy in recycled material to the emergy of yield. A large ratio indicates the more yield can be drive by recycle. LRR is calculated by adding the emergy equivalent of impact of a given emission on resources and human body to the recycle emergy. The lower the ratio means the higher the recycle benefit to the environment. The benefits of recycle are significant suggesting that it costs system 2.49 times the emergy for damage repair than the saved emergy by recycle them in scenario D2. For the same sludge, D3 only costs 14% of the saved emergy by recycling to repair the damage.

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23.5 Conclusion As various technologies for reuse of sewage sludge have been developed and put into operation, a recycling rate in dewatering process has increased rapidly. This paper presented a comparison of four synergic processing of sludge treatment transformation with clinker production. An emergy analysis to evaluate the synergic reduction effect of urban sewage sludge use as alternative raw material or fuel in clinker production was carried out. The environmental impact assessment model is based on the sustainability promotion perspective, and emphasizes the determinants of human health and ecosystem integrity. Concordance or discordance between the present calculation and previous computed values highlights that the character of emergy accounting is particularly sensitive to context and systems boundaries. The synergic reduction effects, in terms of alternative raw material or fuel and recycling process, due to the different methods of sludge disposal, are analyzed. The use of emergy accounting may provide life cycle and recycle indices that lead to ease of comparability and with the added benefit of providing quantitative metrics of eco-industrial sustainability and synergic reduction effect.

Chapter 24 Urban water metabolic systems analysis

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24.1 Introduction Finite water resources, increasing demands and aging water infrastructures are some of the greatest challenges for China and many other regions of the world. Nowadays, to scientifically protect and to utilize reasonably water resources is one of the primary tasks of all mankind. However, finite water resources, increasing demands and aging water infrastructures are some of the greatest challenges for China and many other regions of the world. These facts represent a major threat, particularly in more vulnerable areas, among which urban centers are included, due to the higher population density of cities. The rapid increase in water demand and the reduction of the fresh water supply resulted in water shortages, is now a serious problem in many countries (Wang et al., 2016). The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) predicts that global water demand will increase by 44% in 2050, with residential water growing nearly 1.5-fold (UNESCO, 2014). Without a constant supply of water, human society cannot smoothly and continuously develop (Chen et al., 2016). The United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) Safe and Sustainable Water Resources (SSWR) research program is focused on a research and analyses, that strive for solutions to the availability and quality of water for the future generations. In particular, this research program already developed sustainable solutions with a transdisciplinary approach, which also includes social, environmental and economic outcomes. Complex water issues cannot be solved through the traditional “siloed” water management approach. In a water-connected world, sustainable solutions require a system-based approach. In particular, water services (traditionally: wastewater, stormwater, and drinking water) should be integrated with the effort of maximizing the recovery of resources (i.e.: energy, nutrients, materials, and, obviously, water). SSWR research approached to this problem using holistic analyses for water resources and infrastructures, since these are able to provide a full life-time water system assessment, The main reason for this choice is trying to avoid planning scenarios, which might transfer the existing problems from one area to another. Instead, this choice should enable to find different solutions for the next-generation sustainable water systems, which employ effective water management practices, providing safe and sustainable water both as source of drinking water tap and as receiving water. Moreover, the need of an adaptive approach is chosen to address also changing societal aspirations, demographics, and climate. Beijing can represent a very interesting open laboratory for such a purpose. Beijing is located in the northern portion of the North China Plain. Its water sources mainly come from surface runoff and groundwater water produced by precipitation (Ni et al., 2001). With the rapid population growth, the economic development and the expansion of the third industry (i.e.: the service industry), Beijing has already become a seriously water-deficient area in China. The sharp contradiction between water resource supply and demand must be addressed promptly. For this

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reason, in early 2014, President Xi Jinping visited the Ministry of Water Resources in Beijing to investigate the situation. A clear political will emerged from his indications, focused on the transformation from “supplying according to demand” to “consuming according to supply.” Therefore, planning should change from purely considering water amounts to comprehensively considering input, efficiency, and sustainability in the water supply process. A value analysis method provides a good approach for such an undertaking. Hu et al. (2013) showed that the majority of the present water consumption in Beijing is due to family use, i.e., domestic water. Before the operation of the South-North Water Transfer Project (SNWTP) in 2014, Beijing’s water mainly came from the local surface water and groundwater. However, this limited supply couldn’t meet the demands of Beijing. As an “alternative source” of traditional surface water and groundwater, SNWTP greatly alleviated the pressures on the Beijing water supply. From the perspective of economy, some scholars attempted to find a way to minimize the water network input costs, annual input, construction and energy input, total input, and greenhouse gas emissions. This was done with many methods, such as a genetic algorithm (Gupta et al., 1999; Prasad, 2010), nonlinear programming (Gomes and Silva, 2006), integer linear programming (Samani and Mottaghi, 2006), quadratic programming (Bai et al., 2007), multi-objective genetic algorithm (Wu et al., 2012; Vamvakeridou-Lyroudia et al., 2007), multi-objective hybrid algorithm (di Pierro et al., 2009), random transmission algorithm (Bolognesi et al., 2010), and multi-objective particle swarm optimization algorithm (Montalvo et al., 2010). The existing research involves supply facilities scale (e.g., such as water supply plants and sewage treatment plants), the entire process scale (e.g., such as water supply, water division, and sewage treatment), as well as the regional scale (e.g., city, province, and country) (Lin, 2015). Life cycle approach was used in different studies. Raluy et al. (2005) compared the expected energy consumption of the Transfer Project on the Obo River (Spain) in three different situations within the Spanish national hydrological planning. Nalanie and Robert (2006) explored energy consumption and CO2 emissions associated to the water supply network system of Auckland, New Zealand. Lundie et al. (2004) predicted the water supply’s influence on the environment in Sydney, Australia in 2021. Stokes and Horvath (2011) and Lyons (2009), respectively, used the life cycle analysis method and hybrid life cycle analysis to study water energy consumption and its influencing factors in different water supply plants with different water sources. Venkatesh et al. (2014) performed a case analysis of Oslo, Nantes, Toronto, and Turin to investigate energy demand factors per unit of water, water treatment, water distribution, and sewage treatment. They also calculated the proportion of the water unit of energy demand and carbon emissions in the entire water system. However, also other approaches are possible. Among them, an affordable system-based method is the emergy synthesis (Odum, 1988, 1996). Emergy synthesis method is commonly used for various systems at multiple scales to incorporate environmental, social, and economic aspects into a common unit of nonmonetary measure (solar energy equivalents, sej) and

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objectively assess the sustainability of the systems (Brown and McClannahan, 1996; Brown and Ulgiati, 2004; Liu et al., 2009, 2013, 2015). It not only quantitatively assesses the direct and indirect energy required to produce goods and services, but also provides managers a decision criterion to evaluate the efficacy of alternatives. For example, at the drinking water supply and distribution level, emergy will provide a unique holistic aspect of the system that capture the natural capitals in the background supporting any economic system, such as the “free” contribution of rain to the economy (Brown et al., 2010). Emergy can be used to evaluate the impacts of the following in terms of overall system efficiency: dual water quality, nutrient and energy recovery, natural green infrastructure, aquifer storage recovery, and regional water allocation. This method has the potential to integrate sustainability principles to water system management at different scales and levels. This method is often compliment to and integrated with other system metrics, such as life cycle assessment (LCA) (Raugei et al., 2014; Reza et al., 2014). It is obvious that a large number of engineering and construction investments on the project will inevitably increase the water supply cost, regardless of the economic costs or energy inputs measured from the perspective of emergy, and the cost will be higher than that of the local water supply. So, how high is the cost? Water desalination is a different life alternative water source in the long term. Which unit volume of emergy is lower, water from desalination or from the project? What is the emergy input of the two local water sources and alternative water resources in each process of water mining, allocation, processing, and end-user arrival through the municipal pipe network? It is beneficial to clarify the above issues from the viewpoint of emergy and provide suggestions for rational planning and configuration of domestic water in Beijing. Conceptually, domestic water is comprised of water used by residents and by the municipal public construction (Yuan, 2004). From the perspective of emergy, Zhou et al. (2013) estimated that the water system energy consumption accounts for ~10% of the total urban energy consumption. Energy consumption depended on water resources, population, climate, and other factors. Water extraction, processing, and transmission require electricity (Ramos et al., 2011). It was estimated that 2%-3% of power consumed in the world is applied in the water supply system (Alliance to Save Energy, 2002). In Brazil, it took an average of 0.862±0.046 kW · h electricity to accommodate 1 m3 of water production and supply. Thus, Brazil’s direct electricity consumption by the water supply system accounted for >1.9% of its national power consumption in 2012. Due to water loss in water supply systems, 30% of the power was wasted (Vilanova and Balestieri, 2015). This indicated that water loss both wastes water and results in useless energy consumption. Cheung et al. (2013) suggested that the energy efficiency of the water supply system of tall buildings could be improved by a new optimal design in tank location. The purpose of this work is to elaborate an analysis of environmental data related to urban water metabolic system. In detail, we adopted the latest emergy baseline value, constructed the urban domestic water supplying process metabolism model as well as accounting framework.

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Then, the whole process of the supplying of domestic water was analyzed from four sources for Beijing (surface water, ground water, water of the South-to-North Water Transfer Project, SNWDP; potential desalinated water from Tianjing) using the emergy synthesis approach.

24.2 Methods 24.2.1 System description and boundaries The present Beijing urban water supply system is made up of a mixed system of natural water resources and of water supply engineering systems. To be specific, it refers to a series of engineering combinations in that humans obtain water from natural or other water supply systems, process the raw water, and supply the processed water as required for each user, generally including obtaining natural water sources, processing, and the water distribution facilities (Ren and Fei, 2006). Urban water supply engineering systems in Beijing include obtaining water, water purification, water transportation, and water distribution (He, 2009). Currently, urban water can be obtained from surface water or groundwater through water pumps, processed in a water treatment plant or water plant, and then distributed to each user through the urban water supply pipe network. Tap water supply processing requires material, energy, labor input, and corresponding facilities. According to the traditional energy analysis procedure, the research boundary of this part was identified as the session from the source water entering the water plant to the source water being processed into the supply network, after which a system emergy map was drawn based on the emergy circuit language created by Odum (the energy map of this part including the process before and after the treatment). From the perspective of emergy, the water resource itself actually has types kinds of values, chemical potential energy and gravitational potential energy, so it has UEV. The water supply involves economic costs including material, energy, labor inputs, and infrastructure construction (Brown et al., 2010). According to the traditional emergy analysis procedure, the boundaries of this part of the system were fixed from the source water entering into the potabilization plant to the source water being processed into the supply network. A system emergy diagram was drawn in Figure 24-1. Since the south-north water Transfer Project in 2014, Beijing’s water supply mainly comes from three sources: Miyun Reservoir (surface water), groundwater, and the center-line water of the south-north water Transfer Project (Qi, 2012). In fact, due to water shortages in Beijing, Beijing once transferred water from four reservoirs in Hebei Province before 2014. However, this method was not worth promoting because the water was diverted at the expense of the agricultural water in Hebei Province. It served as a part of the emergency water diversion and the diversion of water resources that secured the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games and has been replaced by the water diversion from the Danjiangkou Reservoir in Hubei Province. The Danjiangkou

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Fig. 24-1 Emergy diagram of urban water system in Beijing

Reservoir provides the center-line water for the south-north water Transfer Project for Beijing domestic water, also known as the Hanjiang River source of the Yangtze River. Therefore, this chapter does not focus on it as part of the research object. An important section of this study will clarify the complex engineering and calculate the emergy input caused by the project. Second, this section also calculates the emergy of using Tianjin’s desalination water as a potential alternative source of clean water in Beijing and compares it with Beijing’s local surface water, groundwater, and water from the project from the angle of the same life cycle process and emergy. It is noticeable that the study only considers the subject until water arrives to the terminal user; it does not include

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water and drainage from subsequent users or treatment by the sewage treatment plant.

24.2.2 Energy investment per unit in exploitation stage The following section analyzes the energy investment per unit implied from the water source to water transportation, mining, and water allocation from the perspective of surface water, groundwater, and water from the Central route of the South-to-North Water Transfer Project and seawater purification project. (1) Surface water exploitation Energy is required to transfer surface water obtained from rivers, lakes, or reservoirs to water plants for further processing. According to the data from Energy - water Nexus in Beijing published by Hu et al. (2013), the average energy intensity factor for surface water in the process of obtaining water in Beijing is 0.19 kW · h/m3. Based on the value of the electric energy conversion rate (1 kW · h = 3.6×106 J), the energy input in surface water exploitation stage is 0.19×3.6×106 = 6.84×105 J/m3. (2) Groundwater pumping Most of the water in Beijing comes from groundwater. The major groundwater source areas are the middle and upper part of the alluvial-proluvial fan of the Yongding River and Chaobai River, where the two biggest underground reservoirs lie (Ni et al., 2012). According to field investigation and calculations of Wang and others, the Beijing groundwater level is 19.14 m, and the electricity intensity of pumping the underground water is 0.44 kW · h/m3 (Hu et al., 2013). The energy investment can be obtained by 0.44×3.6×106 =1.584×106 J/m3. (3) Water from the Central route of the SNWTP China is a country that is relatively rich in total water resources, but a serious imbalance in the spatial distribution of water resources exists, namely an abundance of water in the south and a water shortage in the north, and numerous northern cities encounter severe water shortages. The south-to-north water Transfer Project has very important significance in reasonably allocating domestic water resources, alleviating the serious shortages of water resources in northern China, and ensuring the sustained and stable development of the social economy. The SNWTP is China’s most significant inter-basin water resource allocation project, covering a long distance and accounting for a large amount of water diversion. It has the advantages of good water quality, larger coverage, and artesian water. The strategy can effectively alleviate the water shortage in North China areas, especially Beijing and Tianjin, improve the regional ecological environment, and support sustainable social and economic development (The Beijing Office of the SNWTP Construction Committee, 2008. The Overall Planning of the South-North Water Transfer Project. China Water Power Press, Beijing). It is a major infrastructure project to solve the shortage of water resources in northern China. The centerline of the project has a total length of 1277 km, supplying water to Beijing since 2010. The length of the centerline in Beijing is 80.4 km. According to the water quantity allocation scheme in 2010, the domestic water accounts for 510 million m3 and industrial water

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for 400 million m3. The majority of the sum of the two parts (837 million m3) is transferred to water plants. In other words, water plants are the main channel of realizing the water supply, as declared in the SNWTP overall planning of year 2008. In addition to the water supply to Beijing, the centerline provides domestic and industrial water to more than 20 cities in Henan Province and Hebei Province along the way (Liang, 2013). Therefore, the proportion of the water quantity transferred to Beijing in the centerline total water quantity and the proportion of the water diversion distance in Beijing in the centerline total distance can be reasonably calculated. Then, the proportion of investment in Beijing in the centerline total investment can be obtained on the basis of a reasonable formula. The main portion of the centerline is composed of water source engineering and water transferring engineering. According to the achievements of the Proposal for SNWTP First Phase, the average water transferred for several years is 9.5 billion m3, and the average distribution of water for several years in Beijing is 1.238 billion m3, with 1.052 billion m3 diverted in. Moreover, according to The SNWTP Overall Planning, after considering loss, the scale of the centerline water Transfer Project reaches 120-130 billion m3, among which Beijing accounts for 1.4 billion m3 (the Beijing Office of the SNWTP Construction Committee, 2008). Based on the volume share per unit, the centerline project’s water diversion cost and Beijing supporting engineering cost will be calculated, which respectively contains the total input of the early project and yearly operation maintenance. The water Transfer Project’s total cost should be reasonably allocated to each water-receiving area. The main factors influencing the cost allocation are water volume and distance. Thus, the cost allocation was calculated according to the water distance using the following formula (24-1) C f uC oi

fi

i

wi n

¦ wi u li

ot

u li

(24-2)

i 1

Where, fi is the allocation coefficient area i, Cot is total cost of water diversion, Coi is the water cost of area i, wi is the designed water input, and li is the distance from the branch water outlet in area i to the water diversion source (Xu, 2013). Based on the data and the formula, Beijing’s water diversion cost is 27.1 billion yuan. The reason why it is calculated by investment is that the engineering investment data is intact, while the data of a variety of materials investment required in traditional emergy calculations is difficult to obtain. In addition, a significant portion of the total investment covers the compensating investment of demolition and relocation, which must be included in the calculation. The yearly operation maintenance cost was calculated according to 1.5% of fixed assets investment of the water input project (Zhang et al., 2005), and the annual cost is 1.54 billion yuan. Salary was calculated on the basis of 18,000 yuan per person on average, so 4,933 permanent staff and annually cost 0.89 million yuan. With 14% of the welfare, 10% of the housing accumulation fund, and 17% of labor insurance included, the total is 125 million yuan (Xu, 2013).

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Similarly, Beijing’s cost after the allocation is 440 million yuan. The total investment of Beijing’s supporting engineering for the South-North Water Transfer Project is 12.992 billion yuan. According to the 2016 financial budget report published on the official website of the Beijing Office of the SNWTP Construction Committee, the yearly operation maintenance investment (209.0301 million yuan in 2016) was selected. As mentioned, suppose that the net water input in Beijing is 1.052 billion m3 every year from 2010-2019 and 1.4 billion m3 every year from 2020-2049, and the investment per unit volume is 1.38 yuan. The emergy/$ ratio (9.84×1012 sej/$) (Pang et al., 2015) is transferred to obtain the emergy/$ ratio in this paper (7.46×1012 sej/$). With the known dollar/yuan rate of 6.47 (April 2016), the diversion emergy cost per unit volume reflected in the south-north water Transfer Project is 1.59 ×1012 sej. (4) Water resources from seawater desalination project This paper modified the formula used by Zhou et al. (2013) and applies it to the energy consumption of the water extracted from the sea. The formula is as follows E = ș×Ȗ×H×Q×T/1000Ș (24-3) In the equation, E is the energy consumption of the water in the process of extraction/uplift (Mtce), Ȗ is the unit weight of water (998kg/m3), H is the total dynamic head (9 m), Q is the daily water supply/mining (10 million m3) (Zheng et al., 2014), Ș is the working efficiency of the pump (80% on average), T is the daily running time of the pump (16 h), and ș is the conversion coefficient from electricity to kgce/(kW · h) (0.404). Since Zheng et al. (2014) calculates the standard coal consumption per m3, the amount of time in the process of water extraction/uplift should also be taken into consideration. With E’s value, the coal emergy conversion rate is 3.98×104 sej/J (Odum, 1996) (It is 5.06×104 sej/J after considering benchmark emergy conversion), the fuel calorific value of coal conversion is 2.09×104 kJ/kg, and the conversion coefficient of kW · h and J is 3.6×106. Therefore, the water input emergy per volume of the sea water is 2.71×1011 sej. (5) Energy investment per unit in distribution stage Water distribution is a process, in which the water resource that is being processed through a water treatment plant to meet quality standards is delivered to the end users. In such a process, high-pressure water pumps are applied to transport the water resource to users through a pipe system (Lin, 2015). The urban water supply pipe system provides an amount of water for daily consumption that is higher than actual consumption because waste exists in the distribution (Zhou et al., 2013).

24.3 Results 24.3.1 Emergy analysis of four kinds of water supply systems Water supply source is not always of sufficient quality. This is why it must be treated to

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alleviate peculiar smell, enhance purity and eliminate pathogenic bacteria. The worse the quality of the source water is, the higher standards would the water treatment require, which means the cost is higher (Buenfil, 2001). Here follows an analysis of energy costs for the water treatment of four types of water sources for domestic water consumption in Beijing. Consequently, an associated emergy analysis table is produced. Finally, appropriate indexes are derived and analyzed. Prior to 2000, the annual emergy driving the geobiosphere was calculated as 9.44×1024 sej/yr (Odum, 1996) as the sum of solar radiation, deep heat and tidal momentum (calculated as solar-equivalent amounts). Odum et al. (2000) recalculated the total emergy baseline as 15.83×1024 sej/yr to include the co-activities of solar, gravitational and geothermal sources. Previously calculated UEVs must be multiplied by 1.68 (the ratio of 15.83/9.44) for conversion to the new baseline. Brown and Ulgiati (2010) refined this calculation to 15.2×1024 sej/yr based on updated values and the conversion of energy to exergy units. The emergy baseline is the reference for all main biosphere-scale processes, the UEVs of which are also calculated under this assumption to set the UEV of solar radiation equal to 1 sej/J. All other UEVs of human dominated processes are calculated accordingly as the ratio of the required emergy input flows to the output flow(s). In this study, we choose 15.2×1024 sej/yr as the annual emergy global baseline, based on Brown and Ulgiati (2010). Unit Emergy Values (UEVs) calculated according to Odum (2000) baseline can be left unchanged, because the difference falls within the uncertainty range of the Brown and Ulgiati (2010) baseline, as pointed out by these Authors; UEVs calculated before the year of 2000 (9.44×1024 sej/yr baseline) (Odum) (1996) should be multiplied by 1.61. (1) Surface Water The water treatment process for surface water in Beijing is referred to as in Figure 24-2.

Fig. 24-2 Emergy diagram of surface water treatment (per m3)

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In Table 24-1, the energy inputs of processing the surface water per unit volume (all F-parameters) is 2.66×1012 sej, among which the energy consumption per se (non-purchasing) accounts for the largest share at 56.39%. The energy input needed to obtain the water that is processed into the supply network from the surface water per unit is 2.80×1012 sej. Table 24-1
Emergy analysis of surface water treatment Item

UEV reference

7.46×1011

7.46×1011

0.51kW · h (a)

8.14×105 sej/J

1.50×1012

Calculated based on NEADķ

C.1 Activated carbon

4.10 g (b)

1.98×1010

8.11×1010

After Arbault et al. (2013)

C.2 Regeneration of activated carbon(AC)

2.64 g (c)

1.085×1010

2.866×1010

After Arbault et al. (2013)

C.3 Ozone

0.10 g (d)

4.72×1010

4.72×108

After Campbell and Tilley (2014)

C.4 Acyclic acid

0.16 g (e)

4.51×109

7.22×108

After Arbault et al. (2013)

C.5 Aluminium sulfide

23.69 g (f)

1.50×109

3.55×1010

After Arbault et al. (2013)

C.6 Chlorine

1.32 g (g)

1.91×109

8.48×109

After Arbault et al. (2013)

C.7 NaOH

11.02 g (h)

1.856×109

2.045×1010

After Arbault et al. (2013)

C.8 Sulfuric Acid

6.55 g (i)

5.275×108

3.455×109

After Arbault et al. (2013)

C.9 FeCl3

17.00 g (j)

3.83×109

6.51×1010

After Arbault et al. (2013)

D.1 Employee Salary

0.033$(k)

7. 46×1012

2.54×1011

After Pang et al. (2015)

D.2 Materials Expenses

0.0075$(l)

7. 46×1012

5.77×1010

After Pang et al. (2015)

D.3 Electric Charge

0.039$(m)

7. 46×1012

3.00×1011

After Pang et al. (2015)

D.4 Repair Charge

0.0084$(n)

7. 46×1012

6.46×1010

After Pang et al. (2015)

D.5 Assets Depreciation

0.031$(o)

7. 46×1012

2.42×1011

After Pang et al. (2015)

E.1 Water to the Pipe Network

0.95 m3(p)

4.76×1012

4.05×1012

B. Fuels (F)

B.1 Electricity

E. Output (Y)

Emergy (sej)

1.00 m3

A.1 Surface Water

D. Labor & Services (F)

UEV (sej/Unit)

After Arbault et al. (2013)

A. Renewable (R)

C. Goods (F)

Raw Data

Notes: (a)-(c), (e)-(i) from Arbault et al. (2013); (d), (j) from Wang et al. (2012); (k), (l), (n), (o) from the website of Beijing Waterworks Groupĸ; (m) is calculated from (a) and electricity price in Beijing 2013; (p) is calculated based on loss ratio from Arbault et al. (2013).

(2) Underground Water The water treatment process for underground water in Beijing is referred to as in Figure 24-3. ķ http://www.cep.ees.ufl.edu/nead/. ĸ http://www.bjwatergroup.com.cn/352/2014_3_18/352_6961_1395135922284.html.

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In Table 24-2, the energy inputs of processing underground water per unit volume is 3.01×1012sej, among which the energy consumption per se (non-purchasing) accounts for the largest share at 57.81%. The energy input needed to obtain the water that is processed into the supply network from underground water per unit is 3.54×1012 sej.

Fig. 24-3 Emergy diagram of ground water treatment (per m3) Table 24-2
Emergy analysis of ground water treatment Item A. Renewable (R) B. Fuels (F)

C. Goods (F)

A.1 Underground Water B.1 Electricity

UEV (sej/Unit)

Raw Data 3

1.00 m

0.595kW · h (b)

1.04×10 (a)

12

5

8.14×10 sej/J 1.91×10

9

Emergy (sej)

UEV reference

1.04×10

12

After Buenfil (2001)

1.74×10

12

Calculated based on NEAD

5.10×10

9

Calculated based on UEV of Chlorine in Emergy Database

C.1 Chlorine

2.67 g

C.2 Potassium Permanganate

2.74 g (c)

1.05×1011

2.88×1011

After Arbault et al. (2013)

C.3 Sulfuric Acid

9.05 g

(d)

5.275×10

8

9

After Arbault et al. (2013)

C.4 Polymer

0.15 g (e)

6.70×109

1.00×109

Calculated based on UEV of polyethylene (PE) from Pulselli et al. (2011)

C.5 NaOH

3.52 g (f)

1.856×109

6.53×109

After Arbault et al. (2013)

4.77×10

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Urban Metabolism and Ecological Management

Continued Item D.1 Employee Salary D.2 Materials Expenses

Emergy (sej)

0.033$(g)

7. 46×1012

2.54×1011

0.0075$

(h)

0.039$(i)

D. Labor & Services (F) D.3 Electric Charge

E. Output (Y)

Raw Data

UEV (sej/Unit)

(j)

D.4 Repair Charge

0.0084$

D.5 Assets Depreciation

0.031$(k)

E.1 Water Network

to

the

Pipe

0.85 m3 (l)

7. 46×10

12

7. 46×1012 7. 46×10

12

7. 46×1012 4.76×10 sej/m3

12

UEV reference After Pang et al. (2015)

5.77×1010 After Pang et al. (2015) 3.46×1011

After Pang et al. (2015)

6.46×1010 After Pang et al. (2015) 2.42×1011

After Pang et al. (2015)

4.05×1012

Notes: (a)-(f) from Buenfil (2001); (g), (h), (j), (k) from the website of Beijing Waterworks Group; (i) is calculated from (a) and electricity price in Beijing 2013; (l) is calculated based on loss ratio from Buenfil (2001).

(3) Water to Beijing from the South-North Water Transfer Project This part uses the Tian Cun Shan Water Treatment Plant (water source relies on inflow water to Beijing) as the case to analyze. The water treatment process of the water in Beijing from the South-North water transfer project is referred to as in Figure 24-4.

Fig. 24-4 Emergy diagram of SNWDP water treatment (per m3)

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In Table 24-3, the energy inputs of processing the inflow water to Beijing from the South-North water transfer project per unit volume is 2.69×1012 sej, among which the energy consumption per se (non-purchasing) accounts for the largest share at 57.62%. The energy input needed to obtain the water that is processed into the supply network from underground water per unit is 2.83×1012 sej. Table 24-3
Emergy analysis of SNWDP water treatmenta Item A. Renewable (R)

A.1 Transferred Water

B. Fuels (F)

B.1 Electricity

D. Labor & Services (F)

E. Output (Y)

3

1.00 m

0.53kW · h (b)

UEV (sej/Unit) 7.00×10

11

8.14×105 sej/J

4.72×10

10

7.00×10

11

1.55×1012

Calculated based on NEAD

C.2 Ozone

2.00 g

C.3 Chlorine

1.00 g (e)

1.91×109

1.91×109

Calculated based on UEV of Chlorine in Emergy Database

C.4 Ammonia

0.50 g (f)

9.65×108

4.83×108

Calculated based on Campbell and Tilley (2014)

C.5 FeCl3

12.00 g (g)

3.83×109

4.60×1010

After Arbault et al. (2013)

Calculated based on Campbell and Tilley (2014)

11

After Pang et al. (2015)

0.033$

D.2 Materials Expenses

0.0075$(h)

7. 46×1012

5.77×1010

After Pang et al. (2015)

0.039$(i)

7. 46×1012

3.11×1011

After Pang et al. (2015)

12

10

After Pang et al. (2015) After Pang et al. (2015)

(j)

7. 46×10

2.54×10

After Arbault et al. (2013)

D.1 Employee Salary

D.3 Electric Charge

7. 46×10

9.44×10

10

After Arbault et al. (2013)

(d)

12

7.01×10

10

UEV reference

3.54 g

(g)

1.98×10

10

Emergy (sej)

(c)

C.1 Activated carbon

C. Goods (F)

Raw Data

D.4 Repair Charge

0.0084$

D.5 Assets Depreciation

0.031$(k)

7. 46×1012

6.46×10

2.42×1011

E.1 Water to the Pipe Network

0.95 m3 (l)

3.57×1012

3.39×1012

Notes: (a), (h)-(k) from the website of Beijing Waterworks Group; (b) is calculated from (a) and electricity price in Beijing 2013; (c) from Arbault et al. (2013); (d)-(g) from Tiancunshan Water Treatment Plantķ; (l) is calculated based on los×s ratio from Arbault et al. (2013).

(4) Seawater According to the research of Zheng et al. (2014), Figure 24-5 was created and Table 24-4 was constructed by applying the seawater desalination data from Tianjing. In Table 24-4, the energy inputs of processing seawater per unit volume is 1.85×1013 sej, among which the energy consumption per se (non-purchasing) still accounts for the largest share at 65.95%. The energy input needed to obtain the water that is processed into the supply network from underground water per unit is 4.40×1013 sej, a significantly higher figure compared to processing the other three water sources. There are two reasons for this: first, aside from a considerable increase of energy consumption compared to the three water resources mentioned previously, the three energy values (i.e. power purchase, filtration membranes, and capital investment) are also comparatively higher. Second, the production of seawater treatment is ķ http://www.chinabaike.com/t/11091/2015/0928/3376649.html.

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merely 58%, much lower than the raw water generated by water treatment of the other three water sources.

Fig. 24-5 Emergy diagram of sea water treatment (per m3) Table 24-4
Emergy analysis of sea water treatment Item

Raw data

UEV (sej/Unit) Emergy (sej)

UEV reference

A. Renewable (R)

A.1 Seawater

1.00 m3

8.59×1010

8.59×1010

After Buenfil (2001)

B. Fuels (F)

B.1 Electricity

4.16 kW · h (a)

8.14×105 sej/J

1.22×1013

Calculated based on NEAD

C. Goods (F)

C.1 filter membrane (Polyamide, PA)

0.03 g (b)

6.70×109

2.01×108

Calculated based on UEV of polyethylene (PE) from Pulselli et al. (2011)

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Continued

C. Goods (F)

Item

Raw data

C.2 Polypropylene

0.07 g (c)

6.70×109

4.69×108

Calculated based on UEV of polyethylene (PE) from Pulselli et al. (2011)

C.3 Chlorine

2.94 g (d)

1.91×109

5.62×109

Calculated based on UEV of Chlorine in Emergy Database

C.4 Ferric Chloride

2.94 g (e)

3.83×109

1.13×1010

After Arbault et al. (2013)

C.5 Sulfuric Acid

24.50 g

(f)

5.275×10

C.6 Sodium Hypochlorite

2.45 g (g)

D.1 Electric Charge D.2 Capital investment D. Labor & Services (F)

D.3 Charge of Filter Membrane D.4 Employee Salary D.5 Maintenance Charges

E. Output (Y)

UEV (sej/Unit) Emergy (sej)

8

UEV reference

10

After Arbault et al. (2013)

3.29×109

8.06×109

After Arbault et al. (2013)

0.31$ (h)

7.46×1012

2.40×1012

After Pang et al. (2015)

0.22$

(i)

7.46×10

12

1.68×1012

After Pang et al. (2015)

0.13$

(j)

7.46×10

12

12

After Pang et al. (2015)

1.29×10

1.03×10

0.036$ (k)

7.46×1012

2.77×1011

After Pang et al. (2015)

0.05$ (l)

7.46×1012

3.92×1011

After Pang et al. (2015)

12

11

After Pang et al. (2015)

(m)

D.6 Charges of Chemicals

0.067$

E.1 Drinking Water

0.42 m3 (n)

7.46×10

5.19×10

4.43×1013

1.86×1013



Notes: (a), (h)-(m) from Zheng et al. (2014); (b)-(g) based on the same seawater desalination technology from Tarnacki et al. (2012); (n) is calculated based on loss ratio from Tarnacki et al. (2012).

(5) Summary Table 24-5 below was created based on the following formula:ķ (Arbault et al., 2013) and the energy amount Einput (ratio between total purchased emergy (F) and water output) (24-4) EYR=1+R/F (24-5) ELR=F/R Table 24-5
Emergy indicators of the four water treatment processes Surface Water

Underground Water

South-to-North Transferred Water

Desalination Seawater

EYR

1.28

1.35

1.26

1.00

ELR

3.57

2.89

3.84

2.15×102

EmSI

0.36

0.465

0.33

4.66×103

Einput (×1012 sej)

2.80

3.54

2.83

44.00

In Table 24-5, the EYR value of processing underground water is the highest, whereas that of desalination seawater is the lowest. This is because the UEV value of ground-water is comparatively higher, while that of seawater is the lowest. The ELR value of seawater is the highest (much higher than the ELR value of the other water sources), and the ELR value of groundwater is the lowest, all of which match with the differentiated level of their UEV value. Comparing EmSI values, which are characterized sustainable indicators of the treatment process, ķ Here, local nonrenewable resources are not considered. Thus, the formulas of EYR and ELR has been simplified. It is not inconsistent with the previous formulas.

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the EmSI of groundwater is the highest, and that of seawater is the lowest, with the difference between the former and the latter reaching two magnitudes. Considering Einput, the value for seawater (the highest) is 15.7-fold that of surface water (the lowest). From a holistic perspective of all four indicators in Table 24-5, the indicators for surface water and inflow water to Beijing are not much different because the inflow water to Beijing is also surface water, and the water quality conditions of inflow water to Beijing and the local surface water are similar.

24.3.2 Emergy Analysis of Beijing’s Domestic Water Distribution System Based on calculations, the energy input needed for the water transportation and distribution per unit volume from the Beijing tap-water pipe network is 8.83×1011 sej (total purchased emergy (F) from the Table 24-6). Adding the consideration of the waste in the course of distribution, the transporting energy value needed for the end users to obtain water supply per unit volume is 1.06×1012 sej, a figure resulting from 8.83×1011 sej/m3 being divided by 0.83 m3. Table 24-6
Emergy analysis of desalinated water treatment Item A.1 Electricity A.2 Steel A. Fuels & materials A.3 Concrete (F) A.4 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) A.5 Polyethylene B.1 Electric Charge B. Labor & Services B.2 Employee Salary (F) B.3 Assets Depreciation

C. Output (Y)

Raw Data (a)

0.29 kW · h

UEV (sej/Unit) Emergy (sej) 5

11

UEV reference

8.14×10 sej/J

8.50×10

4.23 g(b)

5.25×109 sej/g

2.22×1010

After Pulselli et al. (2011)

1.50 g(c)

1.56×109 sej/g

2.34×109

After Buenfil (2001)

1.16 g(d)

7.46×109 sej/g

2.01×109

After Pulselli et al. (2011)

0.93 g(e)

6.70×109 sej/g

6.23×109

After Pulselli et al. (2011)

(h)

0.022$

0.004$(i) 0.07$

(j)

B.4 Repair Charge

0.009$(k)

C.1 Water for the end-user

0.83 m3(i)

12

Calculated based on NEAD

7. 46×10 sej/$

1.73×10

11

After Pang et al. (2015)

7. 46×1012 sej/$

3.57×1010

After Pang et al. (2015)

7. 46×10 sej/$

5.53×10

11

After Pang et al. (2015)

7. 46×1012 sej/$

6.92×1010

After Pang et al. (2015)

12

Notes: (a), (b) from Arbault et al. (2013); (c), (d) from Buenfil (2001); (e) from Pulselli et al. (2011); (h)-(k) from the website of Beijing Waterworks Group.

In regard to desalinated seawater, transport from Tianjing to Beijing is required. Thus, we conducted an energy input assessment according to the energy intensity factor within the water intake process at 0.19 kW · h/m3, which is mentioned in the article, Energy-water Nexus in Beijing, published by Hu et al. (2013). Given that the distance between Beijing and Tianjing is 1.75-fold greater than that between the Miyun water reservoir and Beijing, we concluded the energy value should be 9.75×1011 sej/m3. Taking the waste rate applied in the Table above as the wastage rate in this assessment, and adding in the transportation and distribution of the energy input within Beijing’s pipe system, we suggest that the overall transportation and distribution energy value needed after desalination per unit volume, which is obtained by the end users of Beijing, is 2.23×1012 sej.

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24.4 Discussion and conclusion First, we conclude on the waste rates during each stage of the water supply from the above four water sources (Table 24-7). Table 24-7
The loss rates of the whole supplying process of the four kinds of water Exploitation

Purification & treatment

Distribution

Surface Water

1.00

0.95

0.83

Underground Water

1.00

0.85

0.83

South-to-North Transferred Water

0.82

0.95

0.83

Desalination Seawater

1.00

0.42

0.83×0.83ķ

In Table 24-8, considering the waste rates during each stage, we revealed each stage of the water supply per unit volume from four water sources and the ratio between their overall energy input and the energy value of each stage in Figure 24-6 and Figuer 24-7. Table 24-8
The emergy costs of the phrases of supplying unit volume water from four sources Unit×sej Exploitation

Purification & treatment

Distribution

Surface Water

0.56

2.80

1.06

Underground Water

1.29

3.54

1.06

South-to-North Transferred Water

1.59

2.83

1.06

Desalination Seawater

0.27

44.00

2.23

According to the images above, it is discernable that the energy input of inflow water to Beijing from the south-north water transfer project is the highest during the stage of extraction/allocation based on the water supply per unit volume obtained by users. In the stage of treatment and distribution, the energy input needed for seawater is the highest. For all four water sources, the energy input during the stage of water treatment accounts for the highest percentage within the entire water supply process. As to the four water sources in Beijing, namely the surface water, ground-water, inflow water to Beijing from the south-north water transfer project, and desalinated seawater, the overall energy inputs during the supply stage for domestic water per unit volume obtained by the end users are 5.14×1012 sej, 7.15×1012 sej, 6.49×1012 sej, and 67.03×1012 sej respectively. The figure for surface water is the lowest, whereas that of seawater is the highest. The energy input of inflow water to Beijing from the south-north water transfer project is not significantly greater than that of surface water. The reason for this is that under the circumstance where the energy input during water treatment and transportation and distribution ķ Desalination of water pipe network is distributed from Tianjin to Beijing (~137 km).

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within the pipe network is not much different, we calculated the amount of inflow water over the course of the past 40 years, which “diluted” the ratio of the main parts of the south-north water transfer project in Beijing and the preliminary input of Beijing’s auxiliary projects.

Fig. 24-6 The emergy costs of the phrases and the whole process of supplying unit volume water from four sources (×1012 sej)

Fig. 24-7 The proportions of emergy costs of the phrases supplying unit volume water from four sources (×1012 sej)

The principle of Beijing’s water supply regulation is “safety comes first and energy-saving is the key; find water sources in a scientific manner and ensure water supply.” It is important to enable scientific water transfer, water processing, water distribution, and water supply and ensure the safety of the urban water supply by following the laws of science and finding ways to save energy.

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To a certain extent, the losses of water resources caused by leakage must not be ignored in the management of the urban water system (Zhou et al., 2013), and the technological strategic development in detecting, predicting, controlling and restoring water pipe leakage is vital to water suppliers and the masses (Alliance do Save Energy, 2007; Global Water Research Coalitino, 2010; Kishawy and Gabbar, 2010; Li et al., 2011). Such areas of development include strengthening the research on pipe material for water supplies and anti-leaking water meters, improving the promptness rate for the pipe network repairs, and eliminating stealing water to reduce unnecessary losses and pipe network leakage. The water supply system needs new energy management tactics and solutions to improve the energy of the water supply system and the efficiency of utilizing water, and such tactics and solutions should be innovative, cost-effective and environmental friendly (Ramos et al., 2011). Water transfer powered by solar energy is a prospective alternative for traditional water supply systems that are based on electricity or fuel because compared to the traditional energy supply, water transfer powered by solar energy is economically feasible for an urban water supply (Chandel et al., 2015). In addition, other renewable energies are also available for water transfer, such as wind power (Vilanova et al., 2014). By applying renewable energy, the index of sustainability in the energy value of the system can be enhanced. An optimized water supply system can reduce the energy demand from the municipal water sector (Mass, 2009; Debra et al., 2011; Martin et al., 2011). From the perspective of demand, water-saving efforts by the end users will also result in energy-saving efficiency (Alliance to Save Energy, 2002). The reduction of the water demand from the end users can reduce both the water in demand and the sewage treatment required, as a result of which water and energy are both saved (Zhou et al., 2013). In addition, helping the end users utilize water more efficiently and enhancing the public awareness and the acceptance of water-reuse from the masses are also good approaches (Po et al., 2003; Ahmad and Prashar, 2010; The Energy Sector Management Assistance Program, 2012). Although the central and local governments have emphasized household water-saving devices and their technology, the use of such devices and technology should still be promoted (Zhou et al., 2013). It is suggested that the saving water scheme be expanded in all levels of locality, region, and state (Buenfil, 2001). Of household water consumption, approximately 1% is for drinking, 6% for cooking, 10% for washing kitchen appliances, and 20% for other cleaning purposes (Martire and Tiberi, 2007; Gambassi and Iozzi, 2008), which means that only 37% of daily water consumption requires comparatively high quality water. The use of circulating water can be done by avoiding unnecessary water treatment to reach drinking water’s purity so as to save energy. It is suggested that this circulating water that is processed to a certain degree be applied to fire-distinguishing, toilet flushing, and some other outdoor occasions (Zhou et al., 2013). Governments should support rainwater harvesting technology and its apparatuses by administrative and finance means (Muthukumarana et al., 2011), such as requiring new buildings install with the rainwater harvesting and utilizing systems and providing incentives for those who install such systems.

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To maximize the “utility” of the energy value appearing in drinking water, it is beneficial to promote a “double water pipe”: ķ pipe one is for daily drinking water to flow; and ĸ pipe two is for daily cleansing water to circulate. Cleansing water can be the untreated water (such as surface water or underground water) subjected to chlorine bleaching. The former pipe is to transfer drinking water into locations like bathrooms and kitchens; the latter is to bring “cleansing water” into turf irrigation systems and bathrooms (Buenfil, 2001). Based on the research in this article and from the perspective of energy input, the water source from the south-north water transfer project is superior to that from the potential desalinated seawater from Tianjing in terms of the alternative water source for Beijing’s domestic water consumption. Regardless, saving water is more important than transferring water, and we should strengthen the optimization of reservoirs’ operational capacities and address an optimized design for pipe passageways and water networks by following the principle that high quality water should be used in important places and working on a dual water supply and versatile utilities of water (Vilanova et al., 2014). Using the water from the south-north water transfer project contributes to the shift of the model, in which Beijing turns from primarily relying on the supply of ground-water to mostly resorting to the supply of surface water. As a result, it becomes possible to regulate the water supply, gradually recharge the groundwater, and improve the urban environment.

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The traditional Chinese painting work was painted and authorized by Prof. Jianguo Wang (⦻ᔪഭ), who is Academician of Chinese Academy of Engineering, Southeast University.

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Music is created and performed by Dr. Marco Casazza.

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25.1 Introduction Cities are dynamic realities, which are determined by mutually-interacting biophysical and socio-economic factors, not to mention the individual and collective emotional forces of their inhabitants. As a consequence, an axiomatic description of reality would fail, when trying to generate a representation of urban contexts. In fact, any axiomatic approach would disregard, in some way, the changing nature of human societies and the environment, limiting the possibilities to understand the processes under observation. This is why a phenomenological language is more appropriate than an axiomatic-deductive one. With this respect, a representation of systems can be broadly generated through a two-step process, constituted by multiple observations and representations (i.e.: models). This process is known under the name of mapping. All of us have an experience of using maps. For example, this is the case of navigators and maps on mobile phones. Basic texts in topology can give an introduction to maps, as mathematical functions, and their properties (e.g.: Ballmann, 2018; Deo, 2018). Our experience teaches us that a map is a simplified representation of an external reality, based on a given reference system and a metrics. In particular, mapping operation allows to transform the elements of a topological space (known as space of objects) into the elements of a second topological space (the space of images). This scaling operation between two spaces is possible if a metrics is fixed. When we look to the map of a city, we are able to navigate through the roads and to find the position and addresses of different places. An urban map is a miniature representation of a given city. The concept of map can be extended to any definite domain, that can be described through a conventionally-agreed metrics, used both by map generators and users. This means that the language used for this representation is universally accepted. A special place is occupied by dynamic maps. In fact, in order to describe a dynamic system it is necessary to define its representative state and, then, to indicate how this state evolves along time. We can use the above concepts to represent either the structure of an apartment and its changes or a road and its surrounding buildings for a city or even the structure and behavior of atmospheric circulation, which can be used in weather forecasts. We can conclude that it is possible to define a map and its dynamics as an appropriate representation of reality. A ‘faithful’ map will be based on a reference system and metrics with fixed and agreed properties. Conversely, an ‘unfaithful’ map will generate an unreliable representation of reality. A map is a perfectible instrument of knowledge, which can guide humans to the interaction with different aspects of reality. In particular, the inorganic sphere, object of study for chemistry and physics, the organic world, under investigation by biological sciences, society, which is both an object of study and joint participation. Finally, also an introspective map can be defined. It is important to stress again the fact that the space of images (i.e.: the model) is a simplified version

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of a perceived or measured reality. It is not a secondary fact that a map is a synthetic representation of reality. This representation follows precise narrative rules, according to the chosen language. A language, which is an instrument of interaction, is made of signs and symbols (i.e.: a combination of signs with a definite meaning). Moreover, it follows a set of rules for combining signs and symbols in generating a given narrative. For example, in the case of an urban map, there are specific signs for roads, as well as symbols for specific buildings, like schools or hospitals. The same occurs with music, with keys, notes, rhythmic indications, and so on. In the following sections, we will make two different examples pertaining two different domains. The first domain is system modelling using the diagram language developed by the ecologist H. T. Odum. The second example pertains to music. In both cases, the logic structure of both languages will be briefly illustrated.

25.2 The diagram language in system modelling System modelling often deals with complexity. A huge number of different and interconnected data require to be combined into a simplified model, which, however, depicts a complex reality. Consequently, it would be desirable to translate the words into a reliable symbolic language. In fact, while an analytical description of a system requires much space and time to be read, given the knowledge of a language, a synthetic and symbolic representation is able to capture the complexity of a system as a sort of macroscope. In other words, a simplified model can be easily understandable, capturing the essence of the observed reality. Many languages were developed along human history, with the aim of being an instrument for communication, being more precise than verbal language, but relying on a set of symbols of defined nature. Jay Forrester (1961, 1971), in his books on industrial and on world dynamics used a set of symbols, where storages and flows of material quantities were represented, in agreement with a group of defined functions. These functions involved the use of tabular data and factors, which were not shown in the diagrams. With the same aim, H. T. Odum (19242002) developed his own system language, now widely recognized by the scientific community. One of the reasons for this choice, explained with Odum’s words, is that mind, “The language has the interesting property of showing many entirely different kinds of systems as similar in type” (Odum, 1972a). In his book, “Environment, Power and Society” (Odum, 1971) he declared that his purpose was to acquire “ways to discern the broad features and mechanisms of a system of parts. […] In learning how to build from parts into larger wholes and patterns, certain sciences are finding new and clearer lenses for the macroscope. […] The building of electronic systems models is an example of the joining of well-understood parts to comprehend the group phenomena”. This language was further developed in a paper (Odum, 1967) and in a book by Odum H T and Odum E C (1976).

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The common reference framework for this language was, then, defined. It was constituted by open system thermodynamics of ecosystems, general systems theory, and simulation. As later stated by Odum (1995), “Because the existing symbolic and mathematical languages were inadequate to represent the thermodynamics of real ecosystems, we invented the energy systems language as a generalization of electronic circuits”. The common denominator was already clear in the Author’s mind: “To understand a whole system and the full interaction of the parts, we must use a common denominator that expresses all the flows and processes together. Power is a common denominator to all processes and materials. If some portrayal of causal action is needed, the network diagrams must show the flows of causal forces. Since forces are generated from energetic storages, their lines of action may also by represented by the same lines that indicate energy delivery. If potential sources of power deliveries are to be shown, the energy storages must also be given”(Odum, 1971). However, it was soon clear that the contributions of different flows of available energy used to build up a hierarchic structure, typical of any complex system, would have required the introduction of new concepts, like the one of “energy quality”. This idea was first discussed in 1975 inside a conference paper (Odum, 1975). Later, instead of equating energy and work, Odum redefined work as an energy transformation, where an input energy is transformed to a new form (or concentration) of “higher quality”. Soon, based on his new evidences, Odum developed the concept of emergy. Mark T. Brown (2004) reviewed the history of Odum’s diagram language, starting from his first attempts of ecosystem representations (Odum, 1956), followed by the publication of “Systems Ecology: An Introduction” (Odum, 1983) and, later, by “Ecological and General Systems” (Odum, 1984) and, more recently, by “Modelling for all Scales (Odum H T and Odum E P, 2000). Several generic diagrams were offered in Odum’s book “Environmental Accounting: Emergy and Environmental Decision Making” (Odum, 1996). In 1998, Odum suggested, as a major undertaking for the International Society of Ecological Modeling, that modelers represent their simulation models with energy systems diagrams: “In a project supervised by committee and with the participation and approval of the authors of each model, an atlas of diagrams of simulation models can be prepared. Each diagram should be accompanied by the difference and logic equations extracted from the computer codes and also represented by the symbol network. Making models visible and more easily understood will encourage use by more people, more discussion of the structure and functions in previous models and more building of one effort on another. People can trust a model better if they understand what is in it. Then they can suggest the changes they require for additional use in other situations” (Odum, 1998). However, this idea did not receive much attention. Nonetheless, as remarked by Brown, “simplified models which have enough of the characteristics of the original system to resemble reality, but at the same time are simple enough to be understood” represent an “extremely powerful method for humanity to help the system see and understand itself”. Going back to the concept of dynamic map, introduced at the beginning of this chapter, in the case of Odum’s diagrams, the reality that is represented is a system, which is “a group of

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parts that are interacting according to some kind of process” (Odum, 1994). Von Bertalanffy (1950, 1968) gave a background to open-system concepts. An open system is “one that has one or more inflows and outflows”. This is the case of the biosphere on our planet, where materials and energy flow in and out of the system. Then, closed and isolated systems are also contemplated. The quantities stored in a system can vary with time. Such quantities are known as state variables, describing the state of the system and its dynamics. When the storages become constant, considering the balance of inflows and outflows, the system reaches a steady state. Obviously, in order to generate a faithful map, quantitative measures of the real world are used as reference and basis for evaluating the reality of represented concepts. The first step to draw a diagram is to define the system boundaries. The used symbol is a rounded rectangle, within which symbols, representing the different parts belonging to the system, are contained. Outside of the rectangle, sources and outflows are represented. Then, it must be considered that models should include all scales pertinent to the phenomena of interest, because the real world operates simultaneously on many scales. Odum H T and Odum E P (2000) defined a standardized approach to draw a concise diagram. This approach is summarized in Table 25-1. Table 25-1
List of nine steps to draw a clear diagram Step

Description

Define the system boundary

Draw the frame of attention that selects the boundary

List all the important input pathways that cross the boundary

Each input, referred to a source symbol, is placed around the frame, from left to right, roughly in order of transformity. Natural inputs should stay on the left. Other inputs are put above. Outputs are placed on the right of the boundary. Label the symbols with the words

List the components believed to be important

Place the components within the boundary from left to right in order of transformity. Label the symbols with the words

List of the relevant processes within the system

Use these processes to indicate the pathways connecting the symbols. Label processes of special interest

Conservation of matter

Examine both storages and flows of each material to see if anything is missing

Check money flows

Money flows should form a closed loop within the frame. Money inflows across the boundary lead to money outflows. Use dashed lines to distinguish money flows from other flows

Check energy flows

All symbols should have a pathway of degraded (used) energy going out to the heat sink at the bottom of the frame

Use color lines

The following color scheme is suggested: Yellow—sunlight, heat flows including used energy flows; Blue—circulating materials of the biosphere such as water, air, nutrients; Brown—geological components, fuels, mining; Green—environmental areas, producers, production; Red—consumers (animal and economic), population, industry, cities; Purple—money Redraw it to make it neat and save it as a useful inventory and summary of the input knowledge.

Final diagram with more than 25 symbols

For most purposes a simpler model is desirable for an overview for policy discussion or for simulation.

(complex diagram)

Redraw the diagram with the same boundary definition, aggregating symbols, and flows to obtain a model of the desired complexity (perhaps 3 to 10 symbols). You can combine them, but do not leave out any of the inflows and outflows

Two categories of symbols were introduced. Group symbols include: producer, consumer,

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switching unit, miscellaneous box. The precise symbols of the energy language are source, storage, heat sink, interaction, exchange, constant gain amplifier, and loop-limited converter. Group symbols represent categories in the same way as their word descriptions. Instead, precise symbols are used for representing a particular part of a model and its quantitative relationships. They have specific energy and mathematical meanings necessary for writing equations and simulating. Influences from outside the system are sources, which are drawn with a circular symbol placed outside the defined boundary, with a pathway crossing into the system. A whole set of symbols is reported in Table 25-2. Table 25-2
List of group symbols used in H. T. Odum diagrams: Sources, storages, and pathway interactions Symbols

Meaning

Outside source, inflow

Storage

Heat sink, pathway for used energy

Interaction (production with two inputs)

Exchange (material vs. money)

Constant gain amplifier

Loop-limited converter

System/sub-system frame

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Continued Symbols

Meaning

Producer

Consumer

Miscellaneous box

Switching actions, on-off processes

The coherent combination of these symbols, together with arrows, representing the flows, constitutes the basis of the narrative of a diagram. As an example, we will reproduce here the diagram contained in a paper by Casazza et al. (2019). There, the structure of biophysical and economic flows of a Gypsy camp, located in Scampia area (Napoli, South Italy) is approached through a preliminary inventory and a diagram representing resources, their stocks, flows, processes and forcing external factors, considering the Gypsy camp as a system (Fig.25-1). This is the narrative, that can be deduced from the diagram, knowing the meaning and the interpretation of Odum diagram language. On the left, the energy flows generated by natural resources (i.e.: sun, wind, rain) are the natural input to the system. Above, other inputs are considered: water from public water distribution system; fuels, used by the slum dwellers for heating, cooking, as well as for transport (e.g.: cars); electricity, whose expenses are presently sustained by the Municipality of Napoli, as in the case of public water; solid waste materials collected through waste picking, clothes, slum dwellers and money. Stocks within the system: waste materials; solid waste residuals, both generated by waste picking and as household waste; ground-water, where also wastewater flows, in absence of any sewerage system.

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Fig. 25-1 Diagram representation of biophysical and economic dynamics within the Scampia Gypsy camp

25.3 The language of music As remarked by Odum (1994), “the essence of systems is sometimes communicated by means of artistic expressions”. Different languages can be used also in this case. In the case of verbal languages, there is a structure defined by signs (i.e.: alphabet) combined into symbols (words) that can be further structured according to given grammar. It is not a case, for example, that node intersection in network representations were compared to verbs. Again according to Odum, art is a “high-quality general language that can reach more people than concise language”.

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This is, for example, the case of music, which we will use as an exemplification of artistic language. First, a reference system and metrics are given. At the beginning of a music score, an element, known as clef, indicates the position of a note within a set of lines, known as pentagram. The position of the clef at the beginning of each line of music, within the pentagram, also gives the reference for the pitch of all the notes printed on the pentagram. After the clef indication, the key signature, composed by a set of signs, indicating the notes with altered pitches, is given. The pentagram is subdivided in sub-spaces through a vertical bar. Between each couple of bars (this space is called bar by musicians), a certain number of notes is contained, whose total duration is fixed. This duration is indicated, only at the beginning of each music movement or score, by a symbol or numeric indication, referred to the rhythmic subdivision within each couple of bars (i.e.: time signature). Instead, the double bar line indicates the end of a section, while the bold double bar line indicates the end of a music piece. Table 25-3 lists some of the symbols or set of symbols used in music language. Table 25-3
List of some of the symbols or set of symbols used in music language Symbols or set of symbols

Meaning

F clef. The clef indicates the position of the note F

G clef (also known as violin clef). The clef indicates the position of the note G

C clef. The clef indicates the position of the note C

One-octave note and pause (i.e.: silence)

General view of a pentagram and its sections

Music symbols are combined both horizontally (melody) and vertically (harmony, with notes to be played together) in a logic way to create a narrative or a representation. Such a representation doesn’t refer to the outside world, but it is generated by an inward-oriented creative attention. The reproduction (sharing) of this representation follows a universal set of rules, like in the case of the models described in the previous section. However, the perceived meaning of this model could be understood in different ways by people. This means that the former type of model described in this chapter is derived from the representation generated by a

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map of the external world, while the latter one is derived from a representation generated by an inward-oriented map. Conversely, both of the representations share the use of a symbolic language, where shared and conventional rules are fixed by its authors and users. Figure 25-2 reports an example of a choral, extracted from the Cantata BWV153, composed by Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750). Here it is possible to see how the music symbols are combined, following the same metrics of the sung text, creating two half-phrases, which are separated by a red line in the picture. These half-phrases create an antecedent and a consequent inside a music narrative.

Fig. 25-2 Example of choral, from the Cantata BWV153 by Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)

25.4 Conclusion This chapter, introducing the fourth part of the book, showed how, mapping the reality, different representations can be generated, based on different symbolic languages. We discuss, then, the use of two different sets of symbols, pertaining the domains of ecology (H. T. Odum diagrams) and art (music).

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26.1 Introduction The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines culture in different ways. They include: ķ “the customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a racial, religious, or social group”; ĸ “the set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution or organization”; Ĺ “the set of values, conventions, or social practices associated with a particular field, activity, or societal characteristic”; ĺ “the integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends upon the capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations”; Ļ “enlightenment and excellence of taste acquired by intellectual and aesthetic training”. Such definitions capture the multidimensional nature of culture. The first evidence coming from this definition is that culture is broadly related to knowledge and, so, to the domain of information cycle within humans. Cultural information is, then, generated by the sum of individual experiences, then shared, mapped and integrated against an existing set of beliefs, attitudes, values, goals and practices which are memorized into the global unconscious of a community. Culture, then, becomes the substrate for the generation of shared and convergent visions (models) about the reality. This is why it is so relevant to humans. However, culture is vulnerable and often subject to ideological negotiation. Thus, time and culture might become antithetical (Kadir, 2011). In fact, as the authors states, “time, being corrosive, renders culture vulnerable to time’s depredations”. This is why memory is important. Culture determines what is memorable and how and memory determines distinct ways of enabling a culture to manage its past and negotiate its present. Thus, the memorialization of culture and culturalization of memory are dialectic processes. Again, the relation of culture, memory and human information cycle is underlined. In relation to a community, these factors support the generation and dynamics of a shared identity. This is why, within the dimensions of social sustainability, cultural traditions are considered as relevant (Dempsey et al., 2009). Moreover, the cultural dimension of sustainability is sometimes disentangled from the social one, being specifically related to the maintaining of cultural beliefs and practices, as well as of heritage in order to preserve them for future generations. How, then, human culture and cultural expressions can be related to ecology? This is the key question of this chapter.

26.2 Culture and the human information cycle Culture is a component of information, which in turn, can be approached with an ecological perspective. This implies that the components of the system and their relations should be described together. Consequently, the first step consists in identifying the nature of existing

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ontological units. At a basic level, a simple count of the number of individuals belonging to different population of species results in an information, giving some (or several) numbers. These numbers can be used as descriptors, in the same way of Boltzmann numbers of microstates. The derived values, as well-known, are related to entropy and complexity measures. However, a second-level complexity arises in the study of ecosystems, when flows are considered. In fact, as shown by H. T. Odum, flows of resources (materials, energy and information) generate the existing hierarchical structures, from which different levels of energy quality can be deduced. Among the flows, information occupies a special place with respect to understanding the ontological nature of human communities. In fact, the communication exchanged among the system components constitutes a constrain to the system dynamics. Since the time of the seminal proposal by Eugene P. Odum, Howard T. Odum brother (Odum, 1969), the study of emergent properties in biological and ecological systems was proposed, in order to increase our understanding of ecosystems and implement them further in societal development. When moving above the organism level, it is necessary to reformulate the relation among individuals in form of flows among components. Consequently, within a taxonomy of biological information, we are now able to identify a social information, as the information extracted from interactions with, or observations of, other organisms, usually referred to (but not only to) interactions between conspecific animals (Wagner and Danchin, 2010). Moreover, we also identify an inadvertent social information, being constituted by facts that are unintentionally produced by organisms and are detected by other organisms, as well as an intentional information, being synonymous with signal, which is a trait or behavior produced by selection to intentionally transmit information, the adaptive function of which is to alter the behavior of receivers to the benefit of the sender. First, we must consider that ecosystems are cybernetic systems. Cybernetic systems are systems with feedback (Wiener, 1948). In detail, they are a special class of cause-and-effect (input-output) systems in which input is determined, at least in part, by output. The portion of output that is returned to input is the feedback, and this may become the basis for feedback control. According to Patten and Odum (1981), cybernetic attributes emerge passively out of large and complex, decentralized system organization. The interplay of material cycles and energy flows, under informational control, generates self-organizing feedbacks with no discrete controller required. Contrasting with first order cybernetic systems, related to systems with lack of autonomy, defined by an outside constructor, second-order cybernetic systems relate to what first-order cybernetic systems are not (Nielsen, 2016). According to Nielsen, “at least we may say that natural second-order systems are rarely fully determined from and created/shaped by the outside. This is not excluding the influence that the human society is exerting through exploitation, pollution as well as observation on the system (field and lab research)”. In our case, the “observer/observation” is strictly connected to the regulation process itself. In fact humans belong to the same system they observe (first order cybernetics). Dealing with open systems, it is

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obvious that they must have constrains, since not all configuration can be realized. Again, according to Nielsen, systems will not have a fixed goal, but will need to find the optimal way to adjust and respond to constraints (as H. T. Odum maximum empower principle states). The manner to regulate this is through a coupling between cybernetics and semiotics. In particular, in order to govern, a system must possess two important capabilities: to possess information and the capability to treat information of the information possessed by the system as the signals received as well. In simpler words, in the case of humans, we should treat both the information amount and the semantic dimension (i.e.: meaning) of information together. Obviously, “an outcome of the semiotic process should preferably - in the short term - ensure that the process is effectuated properly - and in the long run that the execution is happening as efficient as possible and in accordance with physical constrains”. As the ethologist Jacob von Uexküll recognized, there are interactions between the inner and outer world of organisms through sensing/perception and reaction/action (von Uexküll, 1926). The pathway traced by emerging researches in second-order cybernetics, show that problems should be faced in a hierarchical manner. As a consequence, this hierarchical organization should be described considering exergy gradients, that are needed from the outside to run the systems. This is exactly the pathway that was opened by Howard T. Odum and followers. Tom Abel proposed a view of culture production and reproduction in cycles (Abel, 2014). Each cycle or scale differs in the amount of work required for its production, the energy and material inputs, the impact that each delivers, its cycle time and space, the number of acts of production, and the fidelity of intermediate ‘carriers’. Cultural transmission is fundamentally a learning process, where energy is converged into larger and fewer objects with longer turnover times, larger spatial scales, higher search/exploration ability, higher maintenance cost and larger feedback effects (Abel, 2014). This principle is generally described as a convergence process. Then, it is known that a part of resources are wasted (dispersal process, i.e.: loss of memory). However, waste may be partly captured and reinserted into the convergence process. This stream is not dispersal but is distinguished as ‘divergence’. The global structure of a human socio-ecological system can be represented as Figure 26-1. The hierarchies of human interactions are represented, starting from the ones with ecological services and natural resources, then going to the interactions within human community. The interaction instruments can range from the whole set of available technologies (i.e.: the Technosphere), finance (and economy), laws, policies, research (i.e.: formal education and learning) and culture. Feedbacks are also represented. Storage of shared information is represented on the left. Renewable services (circle on the left) include the geophysical exergy support (i.e.: sun; interior heat; tidal momentum) to any process. Extraction processes are represented below. System feedbacks are reported above. Resources (energy and materials) and shared information support the system dynamics (in the figure: “Operate systems”, rectangles on the left). Finally, information cycle is represented. Sense contribution (rectangle, bottom-right)

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Fig. 26-1 System diagram of a human socio-ecological system (figure drawn by Silvio Viglia) Box sizes are proportional to transformities. From left to right: ecological services, natural resources, human community, technologies (i.e.: the Technosphere), finance (and economy), laws, policies, research (i.e.: formal education and learning) and culture are represented, as modified from Odum (1996) and Abel (2010). Feedbacks are also represented. Storage of shared information is represented on the left. Renewable Sources (circle on the left) include the geophysical exergy support (i.e.: sun; interior heat; tidal momentum) to any process. Extraction processes are represented below. System feedbacks are reported above. Resources (energy and materials) and shared information support the system dynamics (in the figure: “Operate systems”, rectangles on the left). Finally, information cycle is represented. Sense contribution (rectangle, bottom-right) represents the lower-level interaction between humans and the environment, which feedbacks on human behaviour, creating both new ways of man-environment interaction and shared knowledge. In particular, sensorial data are selected and information is extracted from the environment. Then, information is reproduced (i.e.: square “make copies”) and shared (i.e.: square “disperse copies”)

represents the lower-level interaction between humans and the environment, which feedbacks on human behavior, creating both new ways of man-environment interaction and shared knowledge. In particular, sensorial data are selected and information is extracted from the environment. Then, information is shared through the re-generation of narratives (i.e.: square “make copies”) and dispersed (i.e.: square “disperse copies”). In fact, as stated by Abel (2015), information cycle ultimately returns copies to the larger system (“disperse copies”). If it is useful, information will be picked up and cycled again. And it may be cycled in any of the scales of cultural transmission. Culture persists through time only by this cycling process. Cultural information at the end of any cycle does not go to some background concentration, as in the case of nutrient recycle. Instead, it is made available for some other parallel pathway or process of information use and reproduction, keeping it alive. This is the basis for culture and collective unconscious. We can separate the generation of cultural information into different sub-processes, which occur both at individual and collective level at different social scales. The first step can be

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defined as mapping process, as a product of interaction between human beings and what we could call ‘reality’. Then, extracted information is processed and stored into a long-term memory. Successively, information, as a compressed and simplified form generated by the interaction of meaningful components of reality and individuals, are de-compressed into a new narrative (“make copies” in Abel language). This de-compressed narrative is, then, shared and dispersed, becoming part of the knowledge of other individuals, as well as a legacy belonging to culture and its inward dimension, known as collective unconscious.

26.3 Information and innovation Innovation is a key component of culture. The reception of novelty by individuals and communities is not equally perceived around the world. However, the existence of different feedbacks implies that novelties can be detected. Novelty detection is a requirement needed for survival. This is true, for example, in the case of noticing changes in the environment. In particular, when a pattern modification is detected, this novelty can signal either a good a or bad thing. Expectations can be mathematically modelled, considering a well-defined symbol system, through uncomplicated statistical techniques. In particular, expectations are described by probability distributions over the set of allowed symbols. Given such a probability distribution, the degree of unexpectedness of an event can be determined using Shannon’s information theory. This property is relative, being computed in terms of the statistical model. Thus, unexpectedness is relative to the information that the model contains about the set of sequences being modelled. Moreover, it is relative to the immediately precedent sequence. Thus, an individual’s memory can be represented, while the degree of unexpectedness of any event can be computed. In particular, entropy and information content refer to uncertainty and unexpectedness (Pearce and Wiggins, 2012). There are different theories on creative processes. Wallas (1926) focused used a cognitive approach. He identified four parts of a sequence: Preparation, in which the creative goal is identified and considered; Incubation, during which conscious attempts at creativity are not made; Illumination, when an idea appears in conscious awareness; Verification, in which the new idea is applied. Guilford’s model (1967) is more qualitative, without contradicting Wallas. In particular, he proposed a phase of divergent thinking, where different options are considered, followed by one of convergent thinking, in which the idea is fixed. More recently, Csikszentmihalyi (1966) described the subjective experience of creativity, involving a state of flow. However, he was lacked of quantitative analysis and predictive power. Another theory is that of Koestler (1964). He proposed the cognitive operation of bisociation, where cognitive structures are able to represent different ideas to be combined to produce new concepts. Again, this theory lacks of mathematical modeling. More recently, the Information Dynamics Of Thinking (IDyOT) cognitive architecture was introduced (Wiggins, 2012; Wiggins and Forth, 2015), based on Baars’

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Global Workspace Theory (Baars, 1988). According to the authors, cognitive creativity is a result of prediction, whose role is to manage information and action in the world. Outcomes from sensory inputs are analyzed through statistical generators, which continually predict the outcomes, based on statistical models trained by unsupervised observation. When an item enters the Global Workspace (GW), it may be either novel or partly predictable part from an on-going experience. In the former case, creativity has happened. Thus, illumination is generated through the passage into the GW, after the incubation phase. In parallel, what enters the GW is also recorded in memory, becoming available for future prediction. This theory has the advantage of being directly applicable to discrete and continuous symbolic data represented on a computer and to make testable predictions about behavior.

26.4 Aesthetics Gregory Bateson defined information as “the difference which makes the difference”. At large scale, culture is information, as discussed previously in this chapter. To make such a difference, a form of innovation in perceived signals from the world must not only exist, but it must also be detected and elaborated by humans. The starting problem of Bateson was the nature of cybernetic signal events in relation to their triggered meaning. Moreover, such a difference indicates what the signal, or message, is ‘about’. According to Bateson (1973), “Only news of a difference can enter into man’s sense organs, his mapping, into his mind. Only difference can effect and trigger an end organ—so all our information (our universe of perception) is built on differences”. This statement recalls the relevance of brain mapping, as considered in previously chapters and in this chapter. Later, Bateson recognized that both ecology and aesthetics are immanent features of our existence. In relation to Bateson’s works, according to Harries-Jones (2010), “living systems are recursive systems. An ecological aesthetics at the very least gave insight into holistic patterns pertaining to the unity of life and provides a contrast to the ad hoc science of parts of patterns. Aesthetics was also a source of imagination and creativity; a resource against the possible jamming of information in Bioentropic change”. H. T. Odum discussed twice the role of aesthetics within a coherent system ecology theory (Odum, 1962; Odum H T and Odum E C, 1976). Aesthetics is understood as a relevant value for humans. However, the novelty introduced is the relation between aesthetics and energy. In fact, energy is required to develop aesthetic values. For example, this is the case of educational institutions, which form the new generations to the language of arts, also training them to understand old works of art, as well as to produce new ones. In parallel, also the ones who enjoy these works should be educated to understand them. Human preferences, however, are also driven by the temporal dynamics of energy availability. In fact, human feelings can range from the condition of stable climax to the one of successional aperiodic and oscillatory behavior. In particular, the preference given to diversity,

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higher variety and complexity generally appear in climax conditions. Conversely, preferences associated to successional conditions seem to be related to more homogeneous contexts. According to Odum’s thought, the development of aesthetic preferences might be related to the dynamic energy conditions of a society. In particular, the prevalent interest for certain types of visual or performing arts or their specific content might depend on the energy availability. On the other side, Odum hypothesized that, currently, the role of aesthetics could be the generation of a sort of energy buffer, that might be consumed in harder times. Under these circumstances, arts were described as instruments to maintain an energy reservoir to be used in case of need. Considering both the works by H.T. Odum and G. Bateson, it would be possible for the future to develop a joint aesthetic and ecological theory.

26.5 Conclusion After dealing with the languages of reality representation, this chapter enlarged the domain of investigation, in relation to ecology and information, to culture, innovative elements and aesthetics. Within this book, focused on eco-cities, now the role of different languages, as information tools, should be more evident for the reader than before. In the following chapter, the application of arts languages will be discussed in the context of eco-cities, to improve the sustainability and livability of the urban environment, as well as the well-being of cities’ inhabitants.

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27.1 Introduction A simple truth: the biosphere is alive. This fact doesn’t pertain only to the material outward dimension, but also to the interior one. An alive being is filled by desires, as well-proven by psychologists. As written by Andreas Weber (2016): “The biosphere is deeply poetic, not only as a source for romantic storytelling or spiritual nature writing, but as a means and matter of its physical functioning. Being an organism is about constant transformation, about developing a standpoint of concern, about desiring to be a self which yearns for connection with other selves (and this also way below the human needs, as mating, feeding, shelter concern every being), and which takes up chunks of the world as food only to incorporate them into the own physical body”. Poiesis, a Greek world indicating the perception of the world through inwardness. Poetry is originated from this word. Through poiesis, the individual and collective relationships with this world are transformed. In parallel to a “third-person” science, like chemistry or physics, which are instruments to know, understand and interpret reality, there is a “first-person” dimension of science, made by arts. Weber called this dimension biopoetics. Referring to different artistic languages, this chapter describes different artworks aimed at representing the present socio-ecological state and at sustaining a transition toward a more sustainable future, implying a need of change of lifestyles. For such a reasons, motivations cannot be driven only by a “third-person” science approach, that are purely rational, but also by a “first-person” language of representation, involving the inward dimensions of individuals.

27.2 Artistic languages and the environment: examples from real artworks 27.2.1 Poetry The big transformations, which humanity are facing, are generating a sense of disorientation in people, who might feel disconnected from reality. Environmental crisis and globalization, together with a sense of community and place loss, are the features are the feelings of many. Poetry, as a language of representation of reality, is recognized in its power of supporting the re-engagement between people and local environments (Sjollema, 2013). Poetry also served as a mirror of the detached view of spaces given by urban planning, as in the case of Glasgow, Scotland (Fyfe, 1996). Thus, place and feelings can be intersected components of poetry, as

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shown in the paper by Thain (2001). Here, follows an example of a poem by Melania Cappellano. The purpose of this work is to reflect on urban environmental decline and unsustainable lifestyle. Originally written in Italian and now translated in English, respecting the free metrics of the original version, it was composed after a set of conversations and reflections on the societal reactions to a degraded urban environment. The themes of cementification and pollution are associated to the loss of hope, also figured by the sunset and darkness.

Henceforth I imagine us. Sat on our Asphalt River polluted harts awaiting the crepuscle behind the Sun Smoking us against the sky faded by our ephemeral certainties for us all has been done and little remains to do To demonstrate along roads ahead hunted by the genus of sung wins getting by on the shoulders of a prefabricated world We capture what they give us and we have it set aside Without any more question, poor devils Looking out of windows without glasses I forgive you if reading a graffiti on the walls You lose the line of discussion, modern poetry of poets without hope If you feel suffocated by plastics and expectations If you rain to wash away the ashes and the flooded to wash away the entire sea If you rain darker in darkness. Repeated play Cementified here we stop, we surrender ourselves. Here where mistakes are not allowed for the reason that if you mistake all blows up What a jump, fly above and away I forgive you if you stop to look to her, this panoramic life That turns round and goes away, like balloons lost by children

27.2.2 Theatre In this section, we will describe the process of theatre play writing related to “The Wizard of RobOz”. This play was commissioned by the Order of Engineers of Torino Province (Italy), in

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order to develop a shared reflection on the social sustainability of robotization and Artificial Intelligence (AI). Among the most powerful performing arts, characterized by distinction in languages and by exposition of multi-faceted perceptions, theatre occupies a special place. The role of theatre for education and public engagement are already assessed in the literature (Roche et al., 2016; Berger and Robertson-Kirkland, 2017; Harvey, 2017; Bleuer et al., 2018; Rodgers et al., 2018). Theatre is an instrument of public engagement, at least since the time of ancient Greece, when it was used with the purpose of collective purification. Ethical issues were dominant. In fact, social habits and traditions were seen as a guarantee of social stability. This is still true today, particularly in the case of some theatre research works (Howe, 2014). However, moral reflections are not the only focus on art-based researches. For example, some publications report the use of theatre in the field of public health management (Nisker et al., 2006; Cox et al., 2009; Bowman, 2017; Campos and Araújo, 2017). Scientists are trying to better engage society with respect to science relevant topics. The purpose of such an approach is to open a dialogue with the public to raise awareness on relevant social and moral questions faced by science (Amaral et al., 2017). Recently, Heras and Tàbara (2014) began to investigate the application of performing arts to sustainability science as a form of art-based research. The authors found that previous performances on this topic mainly focused on community-based natural resources use and management. With respect to performative approaches, they also identified some common characteristics. In particular: application of self-reflective processes for collective exploration; development of communities’ active participation; integration of different sources of knowledge; transformation of public from passive audience into active protagonists of knowledge, who become able to develop narrative and stories. Finally, the potential development factors of theatre for sustainability were identified: the integration of different sources and kinds of knowledge, perspectives and values; the communication of complexity; the support to social understanding and reflexivity; the increase of socio-ecological consciousness; the increase of emotional engagement, which leads to action. With respect to the application of theatre to sustainability, WOS currently identifies a sub-ensemble of 60 papers dealing with theatre and sustainability, while Scopus shows that 36 papers are focused on this inter-relation. Looking to the numbers, theatre seems to occupy a very limited interest with respect to sustainability. However, Hans J. Schnellnhuber (1999) introduced the crucial metaphor of ‘theatre word’ to describe the paradigms of social and environmental coevolution within the framework of sustainable development. This metaphor indirectly explained how theatre can focus on sustainability, paying attention to such mutual dynamics. Stephenson Jr. and Zanotti (2016) evidenced the rising numbers of public and private actors, which are using music and theatre for increasing social stability and sustainability of communities. This confirms the view of many scientists, who reported that arts can provide an appropriate atmosphere for transmitting complex information, supporting reflection and helping the public to understand complex scientific topics (Curtis et al., 2012). Specific case studies are also reported by the

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literature (e.g.: Jurriëns, 2013; Aaltonen, 2015; Chowdhury et al., 2016; Heras et al., 2016). How a theatre play, as a piece of scientific theatre, could be written on the social sustainability of AI and robotization? “The Wizard of RobOz” is aimed at evidencing the underlying contrasts and the co-evolutionary dynamics of robotization and AI with respect to society. “The Wizard of RobOz”, according to the definition by Weber (2016), can be classified as first-person science research, since the visions of different scientific and technological futures are interlinked with ethical and social questions, enabling the growth of reflective action as well as a bio-poetical tool for enlivenment. This work also represents a trans-disciplinary and undisciplinary art-based research, whose applied working process is adapted from the one used by Freiburg Scientific Theatre group (Juárez-Bourke, 2018). The adoption of robots and virtual reality were used, as previously done in other plays (Ohya et al., 1996; Perkowsky et al., 2005; Demers and Horakova, 2008; Lin et al., 2009; Mavridis and Hanson; 2009; Murphy et al., 2011). Chatley et al. (2010) analysed the public engagement of such a type of play. The authors found that the personalization of robot communication (both verbal and non-verbal) and speech, the robot appearance (i.e.: body components and colours) and task customization were considered relevant by the public. However, none of the previous works considered the use of specific messages conveyed by robots during a theatre play. This theatre play, which translates the complexity of technological and theoretical knowledge to the general public, had the purpose of nurturing empathy and fostering reflection, which are values of arts already recognized by critical realism (Kontos and Poland, 2009). The importance of knowledge translation for the public was already acknowledged by Albert Einstein, who wrote: “This should not be understood as having to cram everyone full of learning and detailed knowledge, as it unfortunately often happens to excess in schools, nor should the broader public make decisions on scientific issues. But every thoughtful person must be given the opportunity to clearly experience the major scientific problems of his day, even when his social position does not permit him to devote a substantial part of his time and energy to pondering theoretical questions” (Einstein and Illy, 2015). In developing “The Wizard of RobOz”, the importance of considering the integration of fictional and real-life frames was considered, as suggested by Davis and Tarrant (2014). Moreover, epistemological agility and methodological groundedness were the two guiding criteria for the development and the performance of this play, as an expression of trans-disciplinary (i.e.: cooperation between scholars and non-scholars on a specific real-world problem) and undisciplinary research (i.e.: strongly-cooperative and integrative problem-based reflexive science) applied to sustainability (Haider et al., 2018). (1) Method for play writing process Based on a case study of the Freiburg Scientific Theatre, as discussed by Juárez-Bourke (2018), 4 working steps were adapted for defining the play writing process: Step 1 – Main theme identification; Step 2 – Brainstorming and bibliographical research; Step 3 – Storyline creation; Step 4 – Creation of interludes. Steps 1 to 3 involved the coordinators of the project, the play

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writers and the play director. In the last step, the performers were also involved. First, the theme was fixed, on the basis of the core reflection topic (i.e.: social sustainability of AI and robotization). With this respect, this theatre play, entitled “The Wizard of RobOz”, is inspired by the novel “The Wonderful Wizard of Oz”, written by L. Frank Baum (1900). This choice was supported by a study, which viewed this novel as a representation of rational-technical myth system, where power, achieved through rationality and technics, is understood as the only instrument to achieve any personal goal (Ingersoll and Adams, 1986). Being rationality and technics two core components of robots and AI, the choice seemed particularly appropriate. The second step was introduced by a brain-storming, aimed at defining the bibliographical research characteristics and the topics to be searched for. Then, a bibliographical research was performed, using Web of Science and Scopus as search engines, on the following keywords: “artificial intelligence” AND “social sustainability”; “robot” AND “social sustainability”; “human-machine” AND “social sustainability”; “big data” AND “social sustainability”. Results were ranked for relevance. A second brainstorming among the participants was aimed at analysing the results of the searches and at identifying the most relevant topics to be presented within the play. This research phase, involving both scholars and performers, allowed to gain complementary views with respect to the selected play theme and topics. After defining the play topics, the story line was created. The purpose of the theatre narration is to support the creation of meanings (i.e.: stimulate the reflections of the public) with respect to the chosen topics. Through the attribution of meaning to robotization and AI (broadly: technologies as a support to humans, preserving also the value of human feelings), this step becomes a bio-poetical tool for enlivenment, as defined by Weber. Since the contrasting views on AI and robotization should be reconciled with respect to the sustainability of human society, the theatre plot should be based on a path from contrast to reconciliation. The flow from contrast to reconciliation and purification constitutes the basic plot scheme of classic Greek theatre, as remarked by Meinel (2015). Thus, the main play scheme of classic Greek tragedy, alternating recitations with interludes, was adopted as a conceptual scheme for “The Wizard of RobOz”. Then, both the characters and the plot were fixed. Finally, the text was written and collectively reviewed. The final step was focused the definition of the interludes. Alternate brainstorming sections and improvisations were fixed with the involved performers in order to find the most suitable performing technical solutions, as well as to gain different perspectives and views with respect to the interludes topics. A final review and harmonization of the text structure and the play contents closed this step before the public performance. This allowed to develop a final text analysis, which will be reported in the results section. The play, presently written in Italian, was performed publicly in Alfieri Theatre, Torino (Italy) on May 19, 2018. (2) Detailed description of production steps

Literature research After fixing the main theme for this art-based research work, as written in the method

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section, the research was focused on the definition of topics. The number of scenes, six, was also fixed during this step. As an outcome of this working phase, Table 27-1 associates the scenes with their specific topics. Each topic is identified and discussed in the papers and books, which were found through the scientific literature search, performed according to the criteria described in the method section. Social sustainability represents a cross-theme of the play. In fact, the following topics are faced, which are typical of social sustainability: safety, recognition of identity and social and environmental responsibility (Eizenberg and Jabareen, 2017); consumer/product responsibility; education and training; fair practices (Ajmal et al., 2018). Table 27-1
List of relevant topics (central column) with respect to robotization and AI side effects and social sustainability Scene No.

Topics

1

1. Creative capacity and intelligence, also in post-human perspective; 2. Body-based creativity and machine design

1. Big data, digital and augmented reality; 2

2. Human emotions; 3. Machine learning and ethics 4. Social sustainability as safety and eco-prosumption

References 1. Kurzweil (2005); 2. Boy (2011); Bianchi-Berthouze and Isbister (2016); Ehlers and Brama (2016) 1. Minchev (2016); Outram (2016); Corbett (2017); Dold and Goopman (2017); Sugiyama et al. (2017) 2. Blar et al. (2015); Nomura (2016); Sugiyama et al. (2017) 3. Sharkey (2016); Schneider and Deml (2017); Arnold (2018) 4. Eizenberg and Jabareen (2017)

3

Big data ethics

Mittelstadt and Floridi (2016); Sugiyama et al. (2017) Marsden et al. (2018); Sharma and Goupta (2018)

4

Human brain-machine interface

Rose (2014); Davies et al. (2015); Harvey et al. (2015); Klump (2018)

5

1. Human-machine competition; 2. Robot/artificial creativity 1. Artificial/machine immortality;

6

2. Social sustainability as consumer/product responsibility and fair practices; 3. Human creativity and human feelings

1. Boy (2011); Jonson et al. (2014); 2. Augello et al. (2014); Moura (2016); Kahn Jr et al. (2016); Jochum et al. (2017); Sandry (2017) 1. Kurzweil (2005); Kim (2018); Krüger (2018); 2. Ajmal et al. (2018); 3. Dimitrova and Wagatsuma (2015)

Notes: Each group of topics is associated to a scene of the theatre play (left column). Each topic was chosen on the basis of specific literature references, which discuss them. The references are reported on the third (right) column.

Play structure, characters and plot The play structure, characters and plot were defined in the third and fourth parts of the working process. The play is composed by one act, subdivided into six scenes. The present version of the text was created for an Italian public and, thus, written in Italian. Each scene recalls a theme, which can be associated to sustainability or to specific side-effects of robotization and AI discussed by Sugiyama et al. (2017). With respect to the formal aspects, “The Wizard of RobOz” has the alternating structure of recitation, where the different topics are exposed to the public, and interludes, where different performing arts are used as ways to support the textual meaning. This structure recalls the basic alternating form (individual recitation – choir)

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already used in ancient Greek tragedy. Another formal aspect is inspired by classical Greek tragedy: the evolving dynamics from contrasts, viewed as destabilizing social aspects, to their removal/harmonization (viewed as collective purification), at the end of the action. Two key characters are taken from the novel by Baum. In particular, Dorothy and the Tin Woodman. The choice is due to the latter character’s desire for a heart, even if made of tin. The special characteristic of this re-adaptation is that the character is played by a robot. The robot, ordered by the Order of Engineers of Turin’s Province, has been developed by “Hot Black Robotics” from a design based on the open source InMoov (online: http: inmoov.fr/_) printed using 3D printing technology and controlled by two boards (Arduino and RaspberryPi), piloted through ROS software over a wireless connection. A microphone signal output (i.e.: voice signal) sends the commands to the ROS node to operate the servomotor, that controls the facial movements of the robot’s head. The choice of open source and open hardware solutions follows the aim to reuse the artefacts as teaching elements both for professionals and students. On the other side, we have Dorothy, which is played by a woman. However, in “The Wizard of RobOz”, Dorothy represents a humanoid robot, which interacts through reflective dialogues with the substitute of Tin Woodman, called RobOz. The main plot component of this theatre play is constituted by a set of dialogues between the two characters. Paralleling the role of choirs in Greek tragedy, there are six interludes, after each dialogue, serving as comments. These interludes were defined in the last step of the workflow. A schematic view of the interludes is given in Table 27-2. Each interlude aims either at focusing on different aspects of the topics introduced by the characters (Table 27-1) or at underlining some human potential reactions to these themes. The interludes were defined to further underline the subject of the dialogues, serving an instrument of visualization related to the dialogues between Dorothy and the RobOz. The multidisciplinary nature of interludes was chosen to reflect also the multi-faceted nature of human creativity. Within the 5th interlude, the use of a second robot is introduced, to represent the resolution of human-machine competition through creative cooperation. This artefact is implemented adding, on top of a laser harp, a set of servo-actuators piloted by an Arduino board and controlled through a PC connection. MIDI protocol is used to control the movement of the ray blocker actuators. This empowers the machine to play autonomously the laser harp. Table 27-2
Interlude list Scene No. 1

Interlude 1. Two acrobats; 2. Singer and classic dancer

Topics Comparison between machine movement and programming versus human movement learning. Body-centred design (represented by the acrobats) and creativity (singer and classic dancer)

2

Steampunk style illusionist

Desire of reconnecting humans to machines (Onion, 2008); relevance of machine design for humans (Bix, 2012)

3

Hip-hop (robot) dancers

Reference to oppression, protest against violence, incarceration and the lack of safe spaces (Roychoudhury et al. 2014; Bachmann, 2017)

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Continued Scene No.

4

Interlude 1. Coin operated boy dance; 2. Sand drawer

Topics Critique on the human relationship and versus a more aseptic automated partnership with a programmed entity that satisfy all the individual need. Risk of destruction of human nature and heritage by robots (referred, during the text, as “dispersed as sand”)

5

Violin player vs. robotic player (music)

Human-machine competition and robot-based art

6

Laser dancer

Reality dematerialization (use of laser light) as a symbol of immortality

Notes: On the left the scene number. On the central column, the characters on stage. On the right column, the topic represented during the interludes.

Final text analysis The last phase of the work, before the public representation, was constituted by a revision and brief textual analysis of “The Wizard of RobOz”, integrating also some considerations on the method, as described in the previous section, used for building the contents of this theatre play. The play is opened by a first dialogue, where the character named RobOz, interpreted by a robot, briefly recalls to the spectators’ memory the story of “The Wonderful Wizard of Oz”, up to the point where a magnificent palace appears. Then, a new story begins, again told by RobOz, which describes Free Intelligence, an immortal agent, who built the palace as well as the best available technologies in the world. Dorothy appears at the end of the monologue, opening a dialogue, which will last until the end of the play, separated by five interludes. In particular, the topics of dialogues (Table 27-1) and of the interludes (Table 27-2) constitute the plot of the play. The closing remark, after the resolution of contrasting views (i.e.: conflicts between humans and technologies), which are presented along the dialogues, is given to Dorothy, who says: “We will bring ahead the miracle of joint intelligence and freedom, as well as purity of aims, so that humans will always remember that they are capable of love. Only love will save them from dispersion”. Then, RobOz replies: “Bright is the intelligence of who designs by heart”. With respect to the formal aspects, “The Wizard of RobOz” has the alternating structure of recitation, where the different topics are exposed to the public, and interludes, where different performing arts are used as ways to support the textual meaning. This structure recalls the basic alternating form (individual recitation – choir) already used in ancient Greek tragedy. Another formal aspect, inspired by classical Greek tragedy, is the evolving dynamics from contrasts. In fact, the plot evolves from contrasts, viewed as destabilizing social aspects, to their removal/harmonization (viewed as collective purification), at end of the action. In this case, the performed dynamics end with the resolution of human-machine conflicts. This is especially clear, in two different moments. The first is the 5th scene interlude, where a music duo between another robot and a violin player is used. During the interlude, three music pieces are used and merged together in a playing list. Each one of them is opened by a robot, also supported by a supplementary audio file, to complete the harmonic and rhythmic sections. The music score uses the same melody line as a form of alliteration. Along the pieces, both rhythms

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and harmonies become more pressing to increase the public engagement. The contrasts between human and robot players are represented by a sudden interruption of the electronic/robot side in the middle of the first two pieces, with the violin player playing alone, to represent the central and moral role of humans in decision-making processes with respect to robot actions. Thus, human player solos represent the key human role behind machines. This is further underlined by the fact that human player directs, as an orchestra conductor, the starting of the selected playlist. The resolved conflict and cooperation are shown during the third section of the playlist, where the whole piece is performed until the end. The second moment, in which the resolution and harmonization of human-robot conflicts is clear, is found at the end of the play. In fact, the RobOz, which is the new ‘incarnation’ of Tin Woodman, pronounces the last phrase, saying that behind the machines there must be a “luminous intelligence” of who designs with feelings. Thus, a double-resolved contrast through harmonization is represented: the one between humans and machines and the one between intelligence and feelings. The text, whose topics were chosen in the way shown in the previous section, alliterates the concepts of ‘free intelligence’ (being also a key-value in the original novel by Baum), which is found 26 times along the play, contrasting with ‘human being’ and ‘heart’, which are found 14 times. In particular, ‘free intelligence’ and ‘heart’ are seen as drivers of technological evolution. Alliteration is a specific rhetoric form often used to focus the attention of the reader/public on key concepts, as well as to create a growing tension and attention along the text. However, they are not presented in a dualistic form. Instead, overcoming the binary vision typical of modern Western world, intelligence and feelings are seen as integrated skills. In fact, a climax is reached in the last phrase, pronounced by Tin Woodsman, when saying that “Illuminated intelligence is the one which designs with the heart” (being heart a known symbol for feelings). Along the plot, the function of the dialogues is to merge the topics (see Table 26-1 and Table 26-2), as well as to introduce them. The working group decided to focus on social sustainability. This is why product responsibility and ethics are often recalled. Safety and eco-prosumption are also recalled, being part of the key components of social sustainability (Eizenberg and Jabareen, 2017).

Outcome phase: the public representation The play was represented on April 19, 2018, in Torino (Northwest Italy), at Alfieri Theatre. The participation was free and open to anyone, but the number of seats was fixed by the Theatre management at 1,300 places. As a result, 1,293 people took part to it. However, the booking system recorded 3,492 individual accesses to book a ticket. For different technical reasons, it hasn’t been possible, up to now, to fix an encore performance. Before the date of the play, an official video trailer was published on YouTube, receiving 832 individual visits. The official trailer is available as supplementary material. The news about the representation was reported by 4 articles published in different nationally-distributed journals. Moreover, the Italian National Radio & TV Broadcast Company (RAI), broadcasted a focus about it on the science news thematic programme ‘TG Leonardo’.

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27.2.3 Music Music traditions and languages, as a part of global cultural heritage, are often under risk due to the fast-changing global environment (Grant, 2011). However, music and music traditions can play a major role, within art-science approaches, to promote the transition to sustainability under uncertain future conditions is well recognized by scholars worldwide. However, new forms of creative messages are produced and conveyed by musical creativity. The process of sonification, in which scientific data (or evidences) are converted into music, were seen as a way to make “the mute voices of ecosystem heard” (Angeler et al., 2018). In the case of China, reflecting widespread Chinese angst over rapid culture loss and major environmental degradation, a new creative stream generated the production of “original ecology folksongs”, which are now relevant in the framework of Chinese music culture (Rees, 2016). Finally, music can be used as a teaching tool for the environmental and social sustainability (Veiga et al., 2015). An example of music composition, by Carlotta Ferrari, is introduced here. “Hope for a Celestial City”: the history of a musical triptych As a consequence of big air pollution episodes in the region Jing-Jin-Ji (JJJ), in Northern China, the need for developing a new creative work emerged. This work by Casazza et al. (2017), which was inspired by different sources (i.e.: literature and scientific quotes), considered the framework of sustainable urbanization and used music as possible form of universal language. The three-part music composition, by Carlotta Ferrari, called “Hope for a Celestial City”, was inspired by three sets of quotes, referred to the three parts of the triptych. Each of them is divided in two sub-sections: the first one is referred as ‘literature quote’, which serves also as reference for each section of the musical composition; the second one, on the other side, contains a set of scientific and technical references to guide and base the inspiration of the music. After the composition of the music, the piece was recorded live. Even if the piece was mainly intended for live performance, the music recording has been also post-processed in order to create a multimedia file, whose purpose will be discussed in the following section of this paper. Composition structure

Triptych part 1 (Dust). The arrogant industrial civilization The first part of the piece represents the arrogant industrial civilization, “man subdues nature”, with a particular attention to China. The literature quote is taken from Shakespeare’s Cymbeline (Act Č - Scene Ċ) (Shakespeare, 2005): “Fear no more the heat o’ the sun/ Nor the furious winter’s rages;/ Thou thy worldly task hast done,/ Home art gone, and ta’en thy wages:/ Golden lads and girls all must,/ As chimney-sweepers, come to dust”. The following scientific quotes have inspired the writing of the first part: “Aerosol size distribution might have influenced the production of raindrops in

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such a way to obtain an increase in intense rain events, considering other causes too. Among them, it is important to consider the energy involved in the condensation process and the humidity of the air in different climatological conditions. In addition, we are again studying the chemical and physical characterization of solid inorganic particulate matter in urban and rural areas to understand the degree of influence of this in the condensation of water vapour in the atmosphere” (Casazza and Piano, 2003); “Since the prolonged, severe smog that blanketed many Chinese cities in first months of 2013, living in smog has become “normal” to most people living in mainland China. This has not only caused serious harm to public health, but also resulted in massive economic losses in many other ways. Tackling the current air pollution has become crucial to China’s long-term economic and social sustainable development” (Zhang et al., 2014); “The new particle formation were usually followed by a measurable increase in total particle mass concentration and extinction coefficient, indicative of a high abundance of condensable vapours in the atmosphere under study” (Shen et al., 2010); “Urbanization in China accompanies economic development and population growth. Changes in land use leads to changes in both meteorological and chemical fields. Monthly-average simulations show that urbanization causes an increase in 2-m temperature by maximum 2.4 °C in the JJJ Region. Wind speed simulations suggest a decrease (average 1.2 m/s) in nighttime for JJJ. Dew point differences show a dry effect with maximum -3 °C in JJJ. Planetary Boundary Layer (PBL) height increases by 400 m (maximum in JJJ) for daytime, and nighttime increases are less than 100 m. Daytime ozone concentrations in JJJ increase by 20 ppb due to urbanization. Compared to observations, mean errors in urban areas was improved when using updated land use information by 14.2%, and in suburban areas by 5.8%. Updating land use data set in air quality modeling is important in application to regions with rapid urbanization such as China. The effects due to land use change can be as large as those due to 20% increase in emissions” (Yu et al., 2012); “The highly-industrialized regions in China have been facing a serious problem of haze mainly consisted of total suspended particulate matter (TSPM), which has attracted great attention from the public since it clinically increases the risks of various respiratory and pulmonary diseases and directly impairs urban ecosystem health Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei (Jing-Jin-Ji) as the most industrialized district of China is selected for a case study. The result shows that over 70% of TSPM emissions associated with goods consumed in Beijing and Tianjin occurred outside of their own administrative boundaries, implying that Beijing and Tianjin are net TSPM exporters. Meanwhile, 63% of the total TSPM emissions in Hebei province are resulted from the outside demand, indicating Hebei is a net importer. In addition, nearly half of TSPM

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emissions are the by-products related to electricity and heating supply and non-metal mineral production in Jing-Jin-Ji district” (Yang et al., 2014); “Photochemical oxidant formation and acidification are the primary impact factors in the lifecycle of all energy resources and that the total environmental impact load increased steadily from 132.69 million person equivalents (PE) in 1996 to 208.97 million PE in 2010. Among the energy types, coal contributes most to the environmental impact, while the impacts caused by oil, natural gas, and electricity have been growing. The evaluation of the environmental impact of the urban energy lifecycle is useful for regulating energy structures and reducing pollution, which could help achieve sustainable energetic and environmental development” (Chen et al., 2014); “The speed and relative urban growth in Jing-Jin-Ji was highest, followed by the Yangtze River Delta and Pearl River Delta, resulting in a continuously fragmented landscape and substantial decreases in ecosystem service values of approximately 18.5 billion CNY with coastal wetlands and agriculture being the largest contributors” (Haas and Ban, 2014).

Triptych part 2 (Energy). The search for harmony and environmental integrity The second part is focused on puzzling and soul-searching energy and work. In particular, the concept is that human activities can be either harmful or beneficial both for the environment and for elevating the society. The literature quote is taken from the Encyclical Letter ‘Laborem Exercens’ by Pope John Paul Ċ: “Through work man must earn his daily bread and contribute to the continual advance of science and technology and, above all, to elevating unceasingly the cultural and moral level of the society within which he lives in community with those who belong to the same family” (John Paul Ċ, 1981). The following scientific quotes have inspired the writing of the second part: “The health status of the city as the centre of human production and consumption has great influence on the sustainable development of the region, nation and even the world. Urban ecosystem is a social-economic-natural complex ecosystem which incorporates such factors and functions as natural resources and environment elements, industrial production and economic development, human living and social progress. To support its smooth operation, large amount of natural resources and physical components are needed as the foundation of the urban ecosystem, while socioeconomic metabolism among these components associated with human behaviours are the driving force of the urban ecosystem evolution. As an embodied energetic equivalent for integrated ecological economic evaluation, emergy was used to assess and analyse the urban ecosystem health characteristics associated with energy and material flows. It is gratified that the urban ecosystem health level is rising after 1999, which gives

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urban managers more confidence and guidelines to implement urban ecological regulation to optimise the urban ecosystem. The urban ecosystem health state of Beijing based on the emergy-based urban ecosystem health indicator (UEHIem) has been improved during 2006–2008” (Su et al., 2011); “The concept of ecosystem health is a way to assess the holistic operations and development potential of urban ecosystems. Accelerated by the practical need for integrated ecosystem management, assessment of urban ecosystem health has been greatly developed and extensively applied in urban planning and management. Development is aimed at comprehensively evaluating the performance of urban ecosystems, identifying the limiting factors, and providing suggestions for urban regulation. The proposed framework and methods of urban ecosystem health assessment have been extensively applied to analyze many Chinese cities, e.g., Beijing, Chongqing, Guangzhou and other capitals, Fushun, Hangzhou, Xiamen and other medium-small cities. In addition, urban ecosystem health assessments have been extended to other scales, including urban subsystems, urban clusters, and to a comparison among Chinese and foreign cities. By comparing the health levels of thirty-one Chinese cities, the method identified the arch-shaped distribution rule (by longitude) of the level of urban ecosystem health. It revealed that the coastal cities (e.g., Shanghai, Hangzhou, Fuzhou, Guangzhou, etc.) and the frontier areas of inland China (e.g., Ürümqi) are located on the same curve with a relatively low level of health. The coastal municipalities (e.g., Jinan, Wuhan, Changsha, Nanning, etc.) and some inland cities (e.g., Yinchuan, Lanzhou, etc.) are located on a curve with medium level of health. Other inland cities (e.g., Chongqing, Kunming, Chengdu, etc.) are located on another curve with relatively high levels of health. Over-development and over-concentration of urban areas in coastal regions cause great environmental pressure, which restrains healthy urban development. The poverty in northwest China results in relatively low level of health in urban ecosystems. It implies that economic development, resource exploitation and environmental protection should be addressed simultaneously to shape a healthy urban ecosystem” (Su et al., 2014); “The quest for a sustainable lifestyle represents one of the major challenges of the 21st century. Not only declining absolute resource availability, but also environmental constraints (particularly global warming) are affecting national and international markets, economies and quality of life. The transition to a sustainable low-carbon society may be considered an imperative need to prevent a societal collapse” (Alciati and Casazza, 2015).

Triptych part 3 (The Celestial City). Achieving a sustainable lifestyle The third part represents the ‘pilgrimage’ of human life and activities towards a different city: the Celestial City, where efforts achieve the result of harmonious and sustainable life. In other words, a more sustainable city can be built by transforming the present urban systems

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from competition to cooperation within and beyond Jing-Jin-Ji region borders. Implementing control targets, optimizing industrial structures and infrastructures, and achieving both coal consumption and air pollution reduction are seen as important technical steps towards more equitable and fulfilling life, where new patterns of connection, interaction, and exchange among residents are achieved within a healthier urban environment. The literature quote is taken from John Bunyan’s ‘The Pilgrim’s Progress’ (Bunyan, 2003): “I am a pilgrim, and am going to the Celestial City”. On the other side, the scientific quotes with respect to the third section of the music composition are following: “The dynamic of coordination between urbanization and the environment showed a U-shaped curve, and both sub-systems evolved into a superior balance during rapid urbanization. Social urbanization and environmental control make the greatest contribution to the coupling system, indicating that they are the critical factors to consider when adjusting coordination development during decision-making” (Li et al., 2014); “If, as Shakespeare suggested, a city is nothing but its people, the answer may lie in the characteristic patterns of connection, interaction, and exchange among residents” (Ratti and Claudel, 2014); “In large cities, people not only walk faster (a tendency recorded since the 1960s), but they also make – and change – friends faster” (Schläpfer et al., 2014); “A healthy urban ecosystem not only performs well in terms of structural stability and functional completeness under normal conditions, but it also has a strong ability to adapt and recover when facing change and even threat. Urban ecosystem health is relevant to future development potential. It is as important as the current health status, guided by the idea of sustainable development” (Su et al., 2014); “As envisaged by Chinese state planners, the new urban area would combine the cultural and hi-tech industries of Beijing, which has just announced its part of the strategy, with Tianjin’s port facilities and the resources of the surrounding province of Hebei, or Ji as it is known. Hence, it is called by a joint name Jing-jin-ji. Currently the area has a population of approximately 130 million people, which is about the same as Britain and France combined, or 41% of the United States. Its area of 212,379 km2 is difficult to comprehend, so traditionalists might like to think of it as just over the size of 10 Waleses. Or, to put it another way, Jing-Jin-Ji will be about the same size as Scotland and England stuck together. Which, for the time being, they are” (Benedictus, 2015); “The Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei area, also known as Jing-Jin-Ji region, is the national capital region of China and has established ambitious targets for tackling air pollution and set measures to reach these targets within a rather complicated multi-level institutional architecture. A tracked and tailored policy comparative study

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based on Competition & Cooperation framework within and beyond Jing-Jin-Ji region borders is crucial” (Liu et al., 2015).

Introductory analysis of ‘Hope for a Celestial City’ Hope for a Celestial City is a composition for violin in three sections: Dust, Energy, The Celestial City. The whole piece derives from a thematic kernel, to signify the unity of the elements on earth: humankind, animals, the environment, the need for a close relationship with nature, and a responsible use of technology and scientific discoveries. The three-shaped formal layout, on the other hand, represents the idea of a transition to a better society, ruled by the acknowledgement of the importance of individual and global responsibility for a non-polluted environment, where all the above elements can be recognized as crucial. Inspiration for this musical composition has been provided by the environmental situation in China, in particular in Jing-Jin-Ji area (data supplied by the Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of China (http://english.mep.gov.cn/News_service/news_release). The situation needs to be improving with the help of many, artists included. Along with scientists, artists can express their wish for a society moving towards a new environmental awareness. China is quickly developing: the piece needed therefore to include some fast moving sections. China is also starkly polluted, hence the presence of the idea of dust and smog. China on the other hand is a country with an ancient tradition (Cheng, 1997), and this had to be evaluated too in the composition. Actually this third element should be considered the starting point. The choice for a string instrument, deeply related to the expression of human feelings, is a common ground: both Chinese and European traditions know the cultural importance and the emotional side of the sound generated by a bow across the strings. The presence in China of the erhu, the so-called Chinese violin or fiddle, is believed to be dating back to a thousand years ago (Stock, 1993). The European violin, first appeared in Italy in the 16th century, clearly evolves from the 10th century rebec and the renaissance lira da braccio, both derived from old Byzantine instruments (Kartomi, 1990). The similarity between erhu and violin lies in many functional elements. Besides the presence of bow, strings and soundboard, the special feature the two instruments actually share is the pitch. Erhu has only two strings, and they are tuned exactly as the two internal strings of the violin, that is D4 and A4. The fact that the pitch of the erhu is based on a fifth ratio is a symbol for connection between heaven and earth (Randel, 2003), thus representing the ideal of global unity which is also present in the Jing-Jin-Ji project, and strengthening the thought of a close relationship among all elements in the universe. This fundamental idea appears to be the same as the European violin, whose 4 strings are tuned in fifths. Fifth interval is the basis for the construction of scales, both in western Pythagorean scale and in eastern Shí-èr-lԋ, that is the fundamental notes on which it is possible to build scales (Chen, 1996). The basis of both musical systems and grammars is a fifth, which is the interval taken into consideration for this composition. We can easily state that the fifth – in particular the D4-A4 fifth, that is the “central”

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fifth of both European and Chinese most popular string instrument – is the actual basic idea for the entire composition. Between the two notes producing the fundamental fifth, the two pivotal notes, many notes can be used to create a melody, or a melodic fragment. Also the sounds around the two pivots are eligible for having a main role in the piece. The contraction of the fifths thus generates other intervals and scales. The extension of the fifth, on the other hand, also gives birth to other fragments and intervals, moving upwards to another fundamental element of the piece, the repetition of the ground pivotal note on a higher pitch: the octave interval. Another important element for the formal construction of this composition is the alteration of notes, which can be intended both in a modal and in a tonal sense. For instance, in the first and second movement, Dust and Energy, the sharpened F is intended as a modal element in a scale reminding the Chinese formal pattern Shí-èr-lԋ. In the third movement, only one sharpened F makes its appearance, and this time it happens in the very end of the piece and of the triptych itself: in this case it symbolizes peace and rest, introduces the final cadence and is clearly intended in a tonal sense – perhaps the only tonal reminiscence in the whole composition. Being related to the revelation of the Celestial City, a place for unity and peace, the final bars definitely needed to give the idea of a unique element in the composition. The piece features another important element: the use of a pedal note. According to the important role of the pedal note, it had to be a crucial note. Actually it is often a pivot, especially in the last two movements. Both D4 and A4 have been chosen to render the idea of steady polyphony, the most relevant Western-related grammatical element. Actually the presence of this formal element combined with the use of the two strings that are in common with the erhu, gives the composition a global character of unity between two cultures – East and West – who cooperate for sustainability and for the sake of the global environment. The first section of the triptych, called Dust as an echo to Shakespeare’s words, is constructed around the musical image of a dirty environment and inspired by the grey, polluted sky of many metropolitan areas in Jing-Jin-Ji. A sand storm seems to be approaching, but in this case it is not a natural event; its appearance is artificial, created by the exploitation of coal by humankind. Having a glance at the score, the eyes are captured by a black notation, with quick black notes recalling the polluted sky, the dark, wounded landscape, and the colour of coal. This first movements features many harsh passages, with a modal scale recalling the dramatic tonal chromaticism, and some glissandos evoking the quiet atmosphere of a regretted past, when the environment was clean. This evocation is also a dream for the future. The dramatic effect of the environmental exploitation is also rendered through the repeated presence of a lowered E flat. Inside this movement, quicker sections and slower steady passages alternate, to provide the idea of a real sandstorm with a sense of suffocation and dirt. Energy, the second and central movements, features the idea of a cooperation of people in order to create a better environment. Science and technology should provide the correct means to solve the environmental question, and people should cooperate for the sake of the place where everybody lives, the earth. This movement is quieter than the first section, although the hope for

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a solution and for a better future in a cleaner world is not yet a certainty. The chromatic modal fragment is still present, giving a sense of unaccomplished. The fragments, ascending and descending, give anyway the idea of a dual presence. Actually this moving fragments represent technology cooperating with a humanist view on life, two elements which are equally important to build a society with an increasing care about environment and sustainability. Energy features a lowered E flat, however it is “hidden” inside a double stop produced by the two pivotal notes. So the idea of pollution and dust is getting further and further away. The third movement depicts the epiphany of the Celestial City, a metaphor for a society where humankind and animals share a clean environment in the name of unity among all elements on earth. The vision of a world where the demands of science and technology cooperate with the need for a sustainable society. The musical values are all whole notes, which at a glance give the idea of something clear and pure, in opposition to the quick black notes in the first movement. The language is simple: long notes move around the pivots and ascend in a scale leading towards the Celestial City. A calm glissando, in the end, ascends again before ending on the two pivotal notes, a metaphor for communion and universal harmony.

Potential use of the music for creating a digital musical fresco This music composition, which was mainly intended for public performance, could be well used for further spreading through the web, which represents the most recent public space made available to men. Thus a second step of this work was focused on testing the possibility of creating a digital musical fresco. We introduce here the concept of ‘musical fresco’ to distinguish between the use of a sequence of static images (i.e.: photography) instead of animated sequences (i.e.: video sequences). Obviously the adjective ‘digital’ refers to the format of the ‘musical fresco’ (i.e.: digital format). The literary quotes and the music has been merged together with a sequence of static images within a digital multimedia file. The chosen images have been found trough ‘Google’ image search engine, ordered by relevance and restricted to the ones open for public domain use. The selection has been made using the same keywords referred to the three sections of the musical compositions: ‘dust’ and ‘China’ for the first section; ‘human labour’ and ‘China’ for the second section; ‘celestial city’ for the third section. The decision of using photography instead of video sequences is due to several reasons. The first is that photography plays an important, but undervalued and misunderstood, role in how modern urban humans relate to nature and how nature is mediated to us, forming our perceptions and maintaining the identity (Scott et al., 2012). The second is that a pre-established sequence of pictures can be a possible modern substitute for the narrative sequence of medieval frescoes. Gregory the Great justified the use of visual art as the “bible of the illiterate”, in which he corrects the actions of Bishop Serenus of Marseille who, c. 599 AD, destroyed the images in his church: “Pictures are used in churches so that those who are ignorant of letters may at least read by seeing on the walls [of churches] what they cannot read in books. What writing does for the literate, a picture does for the illiterate looking at it, because the ignorant see in it what they ought to do; those who do not know letters read in it. Thus, especially for the nations, a picture

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takes the place of reading. […] Therefore you ought not to have broken that which was placed in the church not in order to be adored but solely in order to instruct the minds of the ignorant” (Duggan, 1989). A further reason for merging texts, music and photography within a multimedia product is also justified by the idea that environmental issues can be defined to a local and broader audience through audio-visual information (Zemits, 2007). Finally, the use of digital space, made available by the web and some websites, as a digital space for public sharing of multimedia materials is one of the present frontiers of public space, which in the past was represented, for example, by cathedrals, where the frescoes where usually located. The sequence of images has been organized in the following way for all the three sections of the digital musical fresco: the literature quote, followed by four pictures. The music, which has been recorded in three separate phases, has been superimposed to the photography. An additional photography has been added to introduce the digital musical fresco and the title of the musical composition.

Further perspectives The second part of the work, regarding the digital musical fresco, has been conducted only as a feasibility experiment, to test the potential development of an integrated multimedia language and is open to a further development, both in relation to the creation of the needed images and with respect to the post-processing phase and creation of the final product. In particular, there are some aspects open to future improvements. The first regards the use a suitable musical language with respect to the public. In fact, since the use of different composition techniques can be referred to different communities, which have developed a certain musical language along the time, the knowledge of the musical tradition (such as in the case of this paper) could be varied depending on the communities to which the work is addressed. Not only the post-processing should be improved and discussed together with multimedia experts, but also the wished final impact could be enhanced discussing with communication experts about the most suitable message to deliver and the best way to deliver it. Finally, the emotional and psychological impact of such materials should be studied, also defining the most suitable means for delivering it and for obtaining the best possible impact. We have limited the final public of the work to Jing-Jin-Ji region, since the purpose of the paper and of the music composition is purely methodological and due to the fact that JJJ region is living a strong development and transformation, which influences the life of millions of people and could strongly change the present landscape characteristics. Nonetheless, it would be also interesting to widen the public, creating a similar video focused on urban environment transition toward a more sustainable and equitable lifestyle. The same approach could be also focused on rural or remote areas or even used for focusing the attention on some production sector needing motivating instruments for enhancing such a transition.

27.2.4 Figurative arts As assessed by scientists, material culture and artifacts can alter the perception of reality

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(Woodward, 2017). Consequently, a ‘transactional’ relationship exists between a plastic mind and a plastic material world, that are correlated at the ontological level. Within this context, Woodward demonstrated that painting can provide clues to the historical specificity of the mind that crosses the lifeworld of human action. The continuous reshaping of the environment alters, enhances and sustains our affective lives. This is the case of painter, who are influenced in their work by the feelings of aesthetic resonance and of fusion with reality. However, the same is true at community level (Saarinen, 2019). This is the case of perception of land use change, transformed into artworks in Tanzania, as witnessed by Johansson and Isgren (2017). Meanwhile, figurative arts, such as painting, can support a reintegration of humans within the urban space (Vegas and Mileto, 2017), contributing to environmental management and planning (Lavey, 2017). The first example offers us a contrasting vision between reality and wishes. The etching by Matilde Negro, reproduced in Figure 27-1, mainly represents a hope for the future of the urban environment. While, usually, the built environment encapsulates rare natural spots, it should be nature that embraces the urban environment in a harmonic way, empowering and sustaining human life. The symbol of empowering appears as a tiger on the left part of the painting. Then, biodiversity is also shown in a simplified way, using trees and the tiger. In the central part, an undefined building becomes a part integrated with other elements. Thus, the contrast between urbanized reality and integrated views appear, as an expression of hope for the future.

Fig. 27-1 A hopeful vision for the future: the built and human-dominated environment embraced by nature Etching by Matilde Negro

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While the first artwork illustrates a vision for the future, the second one gives a dynamic representation of a wished transition from the present polluted reality of the Anthropocene to a more sustainable vision, where human lives are integrated with nature (Figure 27-2). On the left of the illustration, by Carola Nicola, a polluting industry is represented, together with its noxious impacts, visible as the skull (bottom-left), the dead tree and the dead bird (central part of the illustration). The imagine of the sky is also coherent, depicting a dark cloud and rain. The stream, dividing the two parts of the illustration is shown without life in the upper part. Conversely, the same stream is life-bearer in the front part, as visible from the happy fish jumping out of the water. There stems the second half of the reproduced imagine, that is found on the right. The tree returns back to life, while it was dead on the left. The Sun shines in the sky. Besides, instead of an industry, a shed is drawn, as a symbol of human family, union and simpler lifestyle. Thus, the driving idea of this illustration becomes a change of lifestyle, somehow to bring back the life on our planet.

Fig. 27-2 Representing the transition from the polluted built environment Graphic illustration by Carola Nicola

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Appendix

803

"QQFOEJY


Network analysis data in seven sectors 1. Extraction sector Large quantities of fossil fuels, coke, petroleum products (PP) and electricity were obtained from the Ex sector. Primary fossil fuels and secondary energy sources statistics are shown in Table A-1, in which coal is the dominate energy carries, with total exergy input 832.8 PJ. Due to the environmental protection and urban transition permission, the consumption of primary energy carries within this sector was reduced. The imports of secondary energy source may generate few pollutants and be directly consumed in other sectors. Table A-1
Exergy balance for the energy carriers within the Beijing in 2006 Coal

Coke

Oil

PP

Natural gas

(Unit:PJ) Electricity

Item Energy

Exergy

En

Ex

En

Ex

En

Ex

En

Ex

En

Ex

Inland extraction

169.0

179.1

0

0

974.4

1032.9

0

0

0

0

0.2

0.2

Imported

616.7

653.7

47.2

49.6

0

0

49.6

51.7

157.8

164.3

147.4

147.4

Total input

785.7

832.8

47.2

49.6

974.4

1032.9

49.6

51.7

157.8

164.3

147.6

147.6

Exports

149.7

158.7

149.7

158.7

474.5

498.2

12.8

13.4

0

0

0.3

0.3

Inland supply

701.6

1418.4

64.4

67.6

514.4

540.1

154.7

163.8

147.1

153.1

207.1

207.1

Total Output

851.3

902.4

214.1

226.3

988.9

1038.3

167.5

177.2

147.1

153.1

207.4

207.4

Difference

65.6

69.6

166.9

176.7

14.5

5.4

117.9

125.5

-10.7

-11.2

59.8

59.8

2. Conversion sector The main outputs of conversion sector are electricity and district heat. Input and output of energy carriers to the conversion sector are summarized in Tables A-2 and A-3. In this sector, exergies for coal, oil and gas were equivalent to the chemical exergy of the input fuels that were actually used. Coal consumption sums up to 346.7 PJ, of which 119.7 PJ (34.0%) is used for thermal power to produce electricity. In addition, 10.9 PJ petroleum products and 27.1 PJ natural gas are used by thermal power.

804

Urban Metabolism and Ecological Management

Table A-2
Input of energy carriers to the conversion sector in 2006 (Unit: PJ) Energy carrier

Energy

Exergy

Coal

327.0

346.7

Oil

24.8

26.0

Petroleum products

10.4

10.9

Natural gas

26.0

27.1

Sum input from Ex-sector

388.2

410.7

Waterfall energy (from E)

0.2

0.2

Electricity (Imported)

147.4

147.4

Sum input

535.9

558.2

The output of energy carriers from the conversion sector is 290.4 PJ (energy figure), of which electricity is 207.4 PJ, heating 83.0 PJ (exergy content 16.6 PJ). The exergy coefficient of the sector is low due to the low quality of heat energy and heat emission. Table A-3
Output of energy carriers from the conversion sector in 2006 Inland supply

Exported

(Unit:PJ) Total

Item Energy

Exergy

Energy

Exergy

Energy

Exergy

Electricity

207.1

207.1

0.3

0.3

207.4

207.4

Heating

83.0

16.6

0

0

83.0

16.6

Sum

290.1

223.7

0.3

0.3

290.4

224.0

3. Agriculture sector In this sector, activities relevant to agriculture, forestry, livestock, aquatic production, and the food processing industry are covered. The input to this sector includes the natural resources yielded from the environment or the imports, and the energy carriers and chemical products yielded from In-sector and Ex-sector, as the following Tables A-4, A-5 and A-6 showed. Exergy values for the major energy carriers and chemical products input include coal (12.7 PJ), oil (6.4 PJ), nature gas (0.1 PJ), electricity (4.4 PJ) and fertilizer (13.0 PJ). Farm, forest, livestock and aquatic production for the year 2006 was in the order of 10.9 PJ, of which 33.3 PJ rooted in farm products, 0.5 PJ in forest products, 6.6 PJ from livestock products and 0.4 PJ in aquatic products (Table A-5). In this sector, imported exergy, which was almost ten times larger the yield of local environment, was 156.3 PJ, of which 20.8 PJ is from grain, 121.7 PJ from rapeseed, 11.9 PJ from cotton, 1.5 PJ from wood and so forth. Table A-4
Input of energy carriers and chemical products into the agriculture Item

Energy

Exergy

Coal

12.0

12.7

Oil

6.1

6.4

(Unit: PJ)

Appendix

805

Continued Item

Energy

Exergy

Nature gas

0.1

0.1

Electricity

4.4

4.4

Fertilizer

19.6

13.0

Sum total

42.2

36.6

Table A-5
Input of the yield exergy to the agriculture sector in 2006 Item

Units

Mass

Exergy (PJ) 6

Grain

t

1.092×10

Rapeseed

t

2.20×104

0.8

Vegetable

t

3.94×106

13.0

Fruit

t

1.15×106

2.2

Total Farm products

ü

ü

33.3

Wood

m3

6.20×104

0.5

Total forest products

ü

ü

0.5

Meat

t

5.92×105

2.7

Milk

t

6.2×105

3.0

5

17.3

Egg

t

1.52×10

Total livestock products

ü

ü

6.6

0.9

Total aquatic products

t

6.24×104

0.4

Table A-6
Imported yield exergy to the agriculture sector in 2006 Item

Units

Mass

Grain

t

1.32×106

Exergy (PJ)

5

20.8

Cotton

t

7.20×10

Rapeseed

t

3.29×106

121.7

11.9

Wood

m3

1.89×105

1.5

Milk

t

8.04×104

0.4

Sum

ü

ü

156.3

Exported exergy of raw materials from this sector is 27.5 PJ (Table A-7). Personal food consumption in China is estimated as 10 MJ exergy per capita per day. With an average population of 1.3 billion in 2004, of which 0.56 billion in rural areas and 0.75 billion in urban areas, the total net food consumption amounted to 4759.6 PJ. It is assumed that the food directly enters into Do-sector from Ag-sector in rural area, whereas the harvest entered into Do-sector by Te-sector in urban area. Assuming of 10% loss in the household (Do) sector, a 10% loss also is thereafter estimated for the Te-sector (Kotas, 1985). Then, the output from the Ag-sector to Te-sector is calculated to be 31.8 PJ, and the output from the Ag-sector to the Do-sector 21.6 PJ.

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Table A-7
Export exergy from the agriculture sector in 2006 Item

Units

Mass

Exergy (PJ) 6

Grain

t

2.76×10

Rapeseed

t

9.64×104

23.7 3.6

Tea and tobacco

t

3

5.64×10

0.1

Vegetable(including Tubers)

t

1.60×104

0.1

Sum

27.5

4. Industry sector The industry sector comprises some subsystems including textile industry, iron and steel industry, mechanical industry and chemical industry. Through more than ten years of adjustment, the status and the proportion of the primary industry and the secondary industry declined in Beijing. However, this sector still has the largest exergy consumption. The exergy usage of the industry is 726 PJ, of which 636.0 PJ is from Ex-sector, 90.1 PJ is from Co-sector (Table A-8). The overall imported industrial products are 16.1 PJ. Other major extracted material iron ore imported contributes 7.7 PJ. Table A-8
Input of energy carriers into the industry in 2006

(Unit:PJ)

Item

Energy

Exergy

Coal

183.0

193.9

Coke

64.4

67.6

Oil

197.2

207.0

Petroleum products

144.3

152.9

Natural gas

13.9

14.5

Electricity

81.9

81.9

Heat

41.1

8.2

Sum total

725.8

726

As shown in Table A-9 and Table A-10. The total input in In-sector is 37.6 PJ, of which 23.3 PJ is for steel industry, 1.8 PJ for paper and textile industry and 5.4 PJ fro chemical industries, and the total yield is 312.1 PJ. Table A-9
Input of energy carriers into the industry in 2006 Import

Item iron ore

Units t

Mass

Exergy(PJ)

4.60×10

8

21.5

6.80×10

9

1.8

4.09×10

9

0.0

10

0.6 0.1

Steel industry steel Nonferrous industry

Aluminum

t t

Fiber

t

1.85×10

Yarn

t

1.64×1010

Paper and textile industry

Appendix

807

Continued Import

Item

Units

Mass

Cotton

t

1.64×1010

Exergy(PJ) 0.1

t

1.70×10

10

1.0

5.31×10

10

3.9

5.31×10

10

0.9

5.31×10

10

0.6

Paper and textile industry Paper polyethylene Chemical industry

t

polypropylene

t

polystyrene

t

Others

7.1

Table A-10
Input of energy carriers into the industry in 2006 Yield

Item

Units

Mass

Textile industry

Yarn

t

5.00×103

0.1

t

5

2.4

8.18×10

6

55.7

1.02×10

7

69.2

4

53.2 19.0

Paper industry

paper and cardboard crude steel

Exergy(PJ)

1.40×10

t

Steel industry steel Steel industry

t

Pig Iron

t

7.82×10

Cement

t

1.27×107

t

4.60×10

4

1.7

1.81×10

5

31.5

9.91×10

5

0.4

6

32.2 45.6

Chemical Fertilizer(pure) Sodium hydrate

t

Chemical industry Ethylene

Nonferrous industry

t

Plastic Resin and Copolymer

t

1.40×10

Synthetic Rubber

t

2.80×105

t

4

Aluminum Products

3.30×10

1.1

According to metal industry yearbooks, about 44% of the metal products were invested in In-sector, 36% in Te-sector, 7% in Ex-sector, 1% in Co-sector, and 12% in Tr-sector. A rough description of domestic use and export of industry products were given in Table A-11. It is worth noticing that the analysis of industry product fluxes into other sectors is preliminary due to the date approximation and unavailability of complete statistics for this field. Table A-11
Domestic use and export of industry products in 2006 Item

(Unit: PJ)

Ag

Ex

Co

Tr

Te 2.3

0.1

Steel industry

0

20.3

2.9

34.8

104.4

15.5

Chemical industry

13.0

74.3

43.0

Nonferrous industry

0

0.6

0.2

28.5

7.1

Paper and textile industry

Other

0.1

0.2

Export

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Urban Metabolism and Ecological Management

5. Transportation The Tr-sector presents the commercial transportation services (passenger, goods) as well as services directly related to transportation (e.g., storage, post). As listed in Table A-12, the input of energy carriers totals 380.5 PJ, of which oil is the largest energy carriers, consuming 168.0 PJ exergy that accounts for 44.2% of total the sector. In addition, 7.3 PJ coal, 6.2 PJ natural gas, 8.4 PJ electricity and 0.4 PJ heat are also invested to Tr-sector. The public transportation in Beijing has been utilizing natural gas, and electricity is also invested in underground and transportation services. Table A-12
Input of energy carriers to Tr-sector in 2006 Item

(Unit: PJ)

Energy

Exergy

Coal

6.9

7.3

Oil

160.0

168.0

Natural gas

5.9

6.2

Electricity

8.4

8.4

Heat

2.1

0.4

Sum total

366.5

380.5

As the overall exergy efficiency for transportation has been estimated as about 20% (Ji and Chen, 2006), the output of Tr-sector is about 45.1 PJ. To calculate the exergy amounts invested in other sectors by Tr-sector, passenger turnover of each mode (railways, highways and aviation) is converted into corresponding freight turnover by multiplying the efficiency between them which is available from Beijing Statistics Yearbook, as shown in Table A-13. Furthermore, the output of Te-sector can be assigned for each of them grounded on their share of the total freight turnover amount. It is estimated 10% of the output is supplied to freight transport. The final result of exergy output from Tr-sector to other sectors is shown in Table A-14. Table A-13
Equivalent conversion of passenger turnover Passenger turnover (108 passenger-kilometer)

Item

Conversion coefficient

Equivalent freight turnover (108 ton-kilometer)

Railways

412.3

1

412.3

Highways

524.4

0.1

52.4

Aviation

224.1

0.07

15.7

Total

480.4

Table A-14
Exergy output from Tr-sector to other sectors

(Unit: PJ)

Ag

Ex

Co

In

Te

Do

Passenger

0.2 (3.91%)

0.0 (0.21%)

0.0 (0.59%)

0.4 (9.42%)

1.6 (35.87%)

2.3 (50%)

Freight

1.0 (3.61%)

0.3 (0.63)

2.1 (2.77%)

9.2 (35.08%)

27.9 (57.90%)

0.0

Total

1.2

0.3

2.1

9.7

29.5

2.3

Appendix

809

6. Tertiary sector The tertiary sector contains diverse economic activities ranging from commercial offices, education, government, sport and leisure, but excluding transportation services. The total invested exergy of energy carriers from Ex-sector is 241.6 PJ, of which the maximal 108.7 PJ is from coal, 61.6 PJ from oil, and 71.3 PJ from natural gas. In addition, 72.5 PJ electricity and 5.0 PJ heat of Co-sector enter into this sector. The consumed exergy of energy carriers totals 319.1 PJ (Table A-15). Table A-15
Input of energy carriers to Te-sector

(Unit: PJ)

Item

Energy

Exergy

Coal

102.5

108.7

Oil

58.6

61.6

Natural gas

68.5

71.3

Electricity

72.5

72.5

Heat

25.1

5.0

Sum total

327.2

319.1

7. Households The domestic sector consumed 179.5 PJ of exergy, of which 74.4 PJ is from coal, 71.1 PJ from oil, 34.0 PJ from natural gas, all of them are from Ex-sector. Moreover, electricity and heat, 34.5 PJ and 2.9 PJ, respectively, are obtained from Co-sector (Table A-16). The food is mainly obtained from the output from Te-sector to Do-sector is 35.8 PJ, and the direct output from the Ag-sector to the Do-sector is 21.6 PJ. Industry products exergy from Te- to Do- sector is 63.2 PJ. Table A-16
Input of energy carriers to Do-sector

(Unit: PJ)

Item

Energy

Exergy

Coal

70.2

74.4

Oil

67.7

71.1

Natural gas

32.7

34.0

Electricity

34.5

34.5

Heat

14.7

2.9

Sum total

219.7

216.9

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Urban Metabolism and Ecological Management

Afterword

811

"GUFSXPSE


“quantitative understanding of the relationships between human-dominated systems and the biosphere is the realm of emergy analysis” H.T. Odum 1971

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Urban Metabolism and Ecological Management

Music is created and performed by Dr. Marco Casazza.

Afterword

813

Research life is full of challenges and frustrations. On this road we have been fortunately endowed by the care and support of many esteemed and kind people. We would like to thank the following individuals in particular, who made this book possible and helped us enormously in pursuing passion. They are Prof. Mark T. Brown and Dr. Silvio Viglia from University of Florida; Prof. Biagio Giannetti, Prof. C.M.V.B. De Almeida and Prof. Feni Agostinho from University of Paulista; Prof. Bin Chen, Prof. Linyu Xu, Prof. Lixiao Zhang, Prof. Yan Zhang, Prof. Yanwei Zhao, Prof. Yan Hao and Dr. Fanxin Meng from Beijing Normal University; Prof. Pier Paolo Franzese from Parthenope University of Napoli; Prof. Meirong Su from Dongguan University of Technology; Prof. Guoqian Chen and Prof Xi Ji from Peking University; Prof. Lei Shi from Tsinghua University; and all the students, Xinyu Liu, Qing Yang, Jingyan Xue, Xueqi Wang, Ningyu Yan, Chen Wang, Jiamen Pan, Hao Zhang, Hui Li, Wen Zhang, Yan Gao, Yuan Gao, Lisi Guo, Steve-Wonder Amakpah, Asim Nawab, Aamir Mehmood Shah, Giuseppe De Angelis, Antonio Puca, Mercy Arthur, Riaz Ahmad, Syed Mahboob Shah, Junaid Iqbal and Muhammad Taimoor Awais; and Amalia Zucaro, Gabriella Fiorentino, Mariana Totino, Jorge Alberto Alejandre Rosas, Daniela Caprile, Patrizia Ghisellini, Tiinä Häyhä and Rotolo Gloria at the academic workshop in Parthenope University of Napoli. Many hand-painted illustrations are supported by Prof. Taining Cheng and Prof. Jianguo Wang from Academician of Chinese Academy of Engineering and Prof. Jing Wang from Central South University. Parts of chapters in this book is respectively supported by the Fund for Innovative Research Group of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51721093), the National Key R&D Program of China (No. 2016YFC0502800, 2016YFC0503005), Sino-Italian Cooperation of China Natural Science Foundation (No. 71861137001) and the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation, Sino-America International Cooperation of National Natural Science Foundation (No. 51661125010), Beijing Municipal Science & Technology Commission (Z181100009618030, Z181100005318001), the National Ministry of Science and Technology (Grant No. 2007BAC28B03), National Natural Science Foundation (No. 71673029, 41471466, 40871056) and the 111 Project (No. B17005).

Gengyuan Liu, Marco Casazza Zhifeng Yang, Sergio Ulgiati

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Urban Metabolism and Ecological Management