Urartian Architecture 9780860542186, 9781407331911
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English Pages [168] Year 1983
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PREFACE
INTRODUCTION
Chapter I: Hurrians-Mitannians-Hittites-Urartians?
Chapter II: Fortifications
Chapter III: Palaces
Chapter IV: Temples
Chapter V: Tombs
Chapter VI: Houses
APPENDICES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Recommend Papers
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U rartian Architecture
Thomas B. Forbes
BAR International Series 170 1983
B.A.R.
122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England
GENERAL EDITORS
A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D .Phil. D .R • Walker. M.A.
B.A.R.-S170, 1983: 'Urartian Architecture'
©
Thomas B. Forbe s, 1983
The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860542186 paperback ISBN 9781407331911 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542186 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com
T ABLE O F C ONTENTS P age L ist o f I llustrations P reface I ntroduction C hapter I :
1 H urrians Mittanians Hittites Urartians?
C hapter I I:
3
F ortifications
5
A .
G eography ,
B .
a nd t he d ispersal o f f ortifications F ortifications: f orm a nd d ate
C .
F ortresses a nd t he T ranscaucas
1
D .
C onstruction o f f ortresses
1 3
E .
F ortified U rartian s ites
1 6
1 .
r outes,
g overnment
1 6
K armir-Blur
1 6
b .
A rin-Berd
1 8
c .
A rmavir
2 0
d .
O ther U rartian s ites i n t he A rmenian S .S.R .
2 0
U rartian s ites i n T urkey
2 1
a .
A ltintepe
2 1
b .
K ef K alesi a t A dilcevaz
2 1
K efirkalesi C avustepe
2 4 2 4
e .
K ayalidere
2 4
f .
L ower A nzaf K ale a nd Z ivistan K ale
2 7
g .
U pper A nzaf K ale
2 7
h .
V an K ale a nd T oprakkale
2 7
1 . j .
A znavurtepe O ther U rartian s ites i n T urkey
3 0 3 0
U rartian s ites i n I ran a . b .
C hapter I II:
5 8
a .
c . * d.
A . B . C .
t rade
U rartian s ites i n t he A rmenian S .S.R .
2 .
3 .
m ineral r esources,
3 1
B astam Q al'eh H aidari
3 1 3 4
c .
S angar
3 5
d . e .
A shagi K orul W erachram
3 5 3 5
f . g .
H asanlu A grab T epe
3 5 3 8
h .
H aftavan T epe
3 8
i .
K ale S iah
3 8
j .
K iz K alesi a t E voghlu
3 8
k .
O ther U rartian s ites i n I ran
3 9
P alaces
4 1
P lans o t p alaces C onstruction o f t he b uilding C olumned h alls
11 1
4 1 4 6 4 9
1 . 2 .
D .
E .
3 .
H alls w ith t wo r ows o f c olumns
5 6
H alls w ith s everal r ows o f c olumns
5 9 5 9 5 9
D ecorative A spects 1 . 2 .
R eliefs S tone i nlay
6 1 6 4
3 .
W all p aintings
6 4
T he U rartian E conomy a s r eflected i n p alace a rchitecture
2 .
D .
6 9
V ariations o f s quare t emples
6 9
A rin-Berd A rmavir K armirBlur
6 9 7 4 7 4
S tandard s quare t emples W erachram
7 6 7 6
B astam A ltintepe K ayalidere A znavurtepe C avustepe T oprakkale
7 6 7 6 7 8 7 8 8 0 8 1 8 1 8 4
R econstruction o f t he s quare t o t he t emple a t M usasir 1 . A chaemenian p arallels
C hapter V :
i ts
r elevance 8 9 8 9 9 4 9 5
T ombs
9 7 1 00 1 00 1 03 1 05 1 08 1 08 13
R ock-cut t ombs
K ayalidere S angar ' Masonry-built t ombs C remation b urials
C hapter V I:
t emple a nd
T he M usasir t emple T he s quare t emple
V an K ale D ogubayazit
B . C .
6 6 6 9
O pen-air s hrines N iches
2 . 3 .
A .
T emples
S quare T emples 1 .
B . C .
4 9 5 2
4 .
C hapter I V : A .
O rigin o f t he c olumned h all H alls w ith t wo r ows o f p illars
15
H ouses
K armir-Blur
19
Z ernaki T epe A rmavir B as t am
1 22 1 25 1 30
i v
A ppendices
1 35
A ppendix I A ppendix I I U rartian K ing L ist
1 37 1 39 1 41
A bbreviations
1 43
B ibliography
1 45
LLUSTRATIONS L ISTOF I F IGURES: Page
F igure n umber a nd d escription 1 .
6
Map o f U rartu . M ap o f t rade r outes t hroughA natolia. R econstruction o f A zarpay's typeonefortifications.
7 9
ype t wo f ortifications. R econstruction o f A zarpay's t 3 b. ype o ne f ortifications. 4 a. Kleiss' t K leiss' t ype t wo f ortifications. 4 b.
9 1 0 1 0
2 . 3 a.
5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0 .
T he c itadel a t K armir-Blur . T he p alace a t A rin-Berd . Various t ypes o f f ortification w alls. R ock-cut s teps f or f oundations o f w alls. T he b ronze m odel f rom T oprak K ale. R econstruction o f p laster c oating a t K armir-Blur.
rmavir . ortress a nd h ousesof A 1 1. Western f ltinpepe. T emple a nd c olumned h all a t A 1 2.
1 2 1 4 1 5 1 5 9 1 0 1 9 2 2
1 3. 1 4 . 1 5. 1 6 .
S ketch p lan o f C avustepe . L ower A nzaf K ale. Z ivistan K ale. U pper A nzaf K ale .
2 3 2 5 2 5 2 6
1 /. 1 8. 1 9 .
A znavurtepe . B astam Ad rain a t B astam .
2 9 3 2 3 3
T he S outh G ate a t B astam . 2 0. T he N orth G ate a t B astam . 2 1. ection o f t he U rartian w all a tHasanlu. 2. A s 2
3 3 3 3 3 7
A grab T epe 2 3. he b uilding a bove t he S outh G ate a t B astam . 2 4a. T f t he p illared r oom o n t he l ower 2 4b . Reconstruction o
3 7 4 4 4 4
r idge a t B astam R ock-cut s teps a nd a t erraced w all. S ketch o f t he M usasir r elief f rom K horsabad.
4 5 4 7
2 5. 2 6.
toreyof t he c itadel f t heupper s 2 /. Reconstruction o 2 8 .
a t K armir-Blur . asanlu. B urned B uilding I I a t H
4 8 5 0
2 9 . 3 0 .
M egaron 3 a t G ordion . ef K alesi. T he c olumned h all a t K
5 1 5 4
estern f ortress a t A rmavir T he c olumned h all i nthe w 3 1. he N orth G ate a t B astam . T he c olumned h all b y t 3 2. ltintepe. T he c olumned h all a t A 3. 3 econstruction o f t he r elief f rom A dilcevaz. 3 4. Burney's r
5 5 5 7 6 0 6 2
econstruction o f t he r elief fromA dilcevaz 3 5. Seidl's r T he K ef K alesi r elief. 3 6. S tone i nlay f rom T oprak K ale. 3 /.
6 2 6 3 6 3
P lan o f t he t emple a t T oprak K ale. 3 8 . emple a t A rin-Berd . 3 9 . TheHaldi t estern f ortress a t A rmavir . T he w 4 0 .
7 0 7 0 7 5
4 1. 4 2.
emple a t K ayalidere. T he t ltar f rom T oprak K ale. T he a
7 9 7 9
4 3.
hrine o f S arduri I I a t V anKale . T he s
8 5
hrine a t A ltintepe. T heopen-air s 4 4 . eal i mpression f rom T oprak K ale . 4 5. A s An iche o n t he r oad f rom R ezaiyeh t oUshnuiyeh . 4 6. v ii
8 6 8 7 8 7
4 7. 4 8 .
O zgüc's r econstruction o f t he t emple a t A ltinpepe. A kurgal's r econstruction o f t he t emple a t T oprak K ale.
9 0 9 1
4 9 .
T emple o f t he s torm g od a t C archemish .
9 2
5 0 . 5 1. 5 2. 5 3 . 5 4. 5 . 5 5 6. 5 7. 5 8 .
R econstruction o f t he s pears f lanking a t emple d oorway. T he Z endan-i S uleiman a t P asargadae. K leiss's r econstruction o f t he N üsasir t emple. T he t omb d iscovered b y K aznakov a t V an K ale. T he A lishar t omb . T he K horkhor C hambers a t V an K ale. T he r elief o n t he f acade o f t he t omb a t D ogubayazit. T he t omb a t K ayalidere . T he t omb a t S angar .
9 2 9 3 9 3 9 8 9 9 1 04 1 06 1 07
5 9 . 6 0 . 6 1.
T omb I a t A ltintepe. T omb I I a t A ltintepe . T omb I II a t A ltintepe.
1 09 11 12
6 2. 6 3 . 6 4.
C remation b urial a t I gdir . T ype O ne H ouse a t K armirBlur. T ype TW O H ouse a t K armir -Blur .
12 16 17
6 5. 6. 6 6 7 .
T ype T hree H ouse a t K armirBlur . H ouse p lans f rom Z aviyeh . T ype O ne h ouses a t K armirBlur.
18 18 1 20
6 8.
R econstruction o f t he f acade o f t he T ype T wo h ouse a t K armirBlur. T ype T wo h ouse a t Z ernaki T epe . Ah ouse a t K armir -Blur. Ah ouse a t A rmavir . T he " House o f t he O wner o f t he S eal" a t A rmavir. T he " House o f W ar" a t A rmavir . S quatter h ousing a t A rmavir . T he N orth B uilding a t B astam .
1 21 1 24 1 26 1 27 1 28 1 29 1 31 1 32
6 9 . / O . 7 1. 7 2. 7 3. 7 4. 7 5.
7 6a. O ganesian's F our C ubit W all. 7 6b. O ganesian 's F ive C ubit W all. 7 6c. O ganesian 's S even C ubit W all.
1 36 1 36 1 36
P LATES: P late n umber a nd d escription 1 . 2 . 3 .
F ortifications a t V an K ale. As ection o f t he U rartian w alls a t B asanlu . Ap illar o f ac olumned h all a t K ef K alesi .
2 8 3 6 5 3
4 . 5 .
5 8
6 .
As ection o f t he " Ost-Bau" a t B astam . R econstruction o f aw all p ainting f rom t he H aldi t emple a t A rin-Berd . F acade a nd c ourtyard o f t he S usi t emple a t A rin-Berd .
7 . 8 .
T he t emple a t A ltintepe. O ne o f t he c orner d epressions c ut i n t he b edrock
7 7
9 .
f or f oundation d eposits o f t he t emple a t T oprak K ale. T he o pen-air s hrine o f S arduri I I a t V an K ale.
8 2 8 3
1 0 . 1.
P art o f t he s outh f ace o f V an K ale. S tairs t o t he K horkhor C hambers a t V an K ale ; a nnals o f A rgishti I o n t he r ock f ace t o t he l eft o f t he s tairs.
9 6
1 2.
S tairs a nd e ntrance t o t he " Big C ave".
1 02
1 3.
Z ernaki T epe.
1 23
v iii
7 2 7 3
1 01
P REFACE Ib egan t he s tudy o f U rartian a rchitecture a s a p ostgraduate s tudent a t t he U niversity o f L ondon 's I nstitute o f A rchaeology, r eading f or t he d egree o f M . P hil., h aving g iven m uch t hought t o w hether o r n ot i t w as a dvisable t o e nter a n a rea o f s tudy w here m y c olleagues' s tandard r esponse w as .. " you're s tudying
w ho/what."
A dmittedly
i t
i s
n ot
o ne
o f
t he w ell-known a reas
o f
s tudy i n a rchaeology b ut i t h as p roven t o b e a n i nteresting a nd c hallenging e xperience.
T his
b ook
i s
t he
r esult
o f
t he
r esearch
I p resented f or t he
d egree o f M . P hil. i n 1 978 a nd s ubsequent u p-dating o f t he s ame. T he p reparation o f
t his
b ook w ould n ot h ave b een p ossible w ithout t he
h elp a nd a dvice o f m any f riends a nd c olleagues: Mr.
J .M.
M ellaart
A rchaeology,
L ondon ;
K leiss a nd D r. D r.
K .
L .
S .
a nd
M rs.
M r C .
K .R.
P rofessor E .E.D .M.
M axwell-Hyslop
o f
t he
O ates,
I nstitute
B urney o f t he U niversity o f M anchester ;
K roll o f t he D eutsches A rchäologisches I nstitut,
D r.
o f W .
T eheran ;
O ganesian o f t he D epartment o f A ncient M onuments o f t he A rmenian
S .S.R.; D r. M . T aner T arhan, D r V . S evin a nd D r. O ktay B elli o f I stanbul U niversity; t he B ritish I nstitute o f P ersian S tudies i n T eheran , e specially M r. S tronach; a nd t he C entral R esearch F und o f t he U niversity o f L ondon f or t heir s upport d uring t he s ummers o f 1 976 a nd 1 977. t hank H err.
C .
Iw ould a lso l ike t o
C hristophel and H err B . J ünemann f or t heir a dvice o n t he
t ranslation o f v arious p assages i n G erman p ublications, a nd D r. R . H illen a nd M rs. D . D riscoll f or t heir c riticisms.
Ie specially w ant t o t hank M r. R obert
W atson , w hose e ncouragement h as m ade t his b ook p ossible.
I NTRODUCTION O ur K nowledge o f U rartu a s ac ultural e ntity h as e merged i n as plintered a nd o ften h aphazard m anner o ver t he p ast o ne h undred o r s o y ears d ue f or t he m ost p art t o i ts p osition o n t he p eriphery o f M esopotamia a nd P ersia , w ell o utside t he b iblical s cope o f a rchaeology o f t he N ear E ast. T here a re r eferences t o U rartu i n A ssyrian a nnals b ut i n t he p ast a rchaeologists w ere f ar t oo b usy e xcavating s ites w hich c aptured t he i magination o f t he p ublic a nd , o f c ourse , t heir s ponsors. O ne o f t he f irst U rartian s ites i nvestigated w as a t V an i n e astern T urkey ,
w here H ormuzd R assam c onducted e xcavations o n b ehalf o f t he B ritish
M useum i n t he l ate n ineteenth c entury. H is w ork i s d eplorable f or t he m ethods u sed ( or n ot u sed), t hough t hey w ere n ot v ery d ifferent f rom a rchaeological m ethods e mployed o n c ontemporary e xcavations. N evertherless, h is w ork a wakened i nterest i n t he a rea a nd w as t he b eginning o f r esearch o n U rartu . S ince t hen t here h ave b een v arious o rganizations a nd i ndivduals w ho h ave p eriodically v isited t he a rea t o l earn m ore a bout t he U rartians, t hough n ot w ith a ny p articular r egularity. B ecause o f t his a nd t he p olitical o utlook o f t he c ountries w hich t oday o ccupy t he a rea o f a ncient U rartu t here h as
b een a l ack o f f actual d ata ,
p oor a rchaeological i nvestigative m ethod ,
l ocal r obbing o f s ites a nd t he s elling o f a ntiquities a broad ; t here a re a t l east e ight U rartian s ites w hich h ave b een e xcavated o r a re b eing e xcavated : K armir-Blur , A rin-Berd a nd A rmavir i n t he A rmenian S .S.R .; B astam i n I ran , A ltintepe, K ayalidere , T oprakkale a nd C avustepe i n T urkey. M any s ites a re k nown f rom s urveys b ut r emain u nexcavated , w hile s ome h ave b een e xcavated b ut h ave n ot b een w ritten u p o r h ave p oorly w ritten r eports. T he U rartians l ived i n t he m ountainous c ountry o f t he s outhern A rmenian S .S.R .,
n orth-western I ran a nd e astern T urkey.
W ithin t his a rea t here a re
t hree a lkaline l akes: S evan , R ezaiyeh a nd V an . T he U rartians c ame f rom a round L ake V an , f rom w hich t hey e xpanded e ventually t o t he o thers , s ettling a long t he r iver v alleys a s w ell a s t he l akes. P ractically a ll o f t he s urviving
a rchitecture
c enturies B .C.
o n
t hese
s ites
i s
d ated
t o
t he
e ighth a nd s eventh
P erhaps e vidence o f e arlier s ettlement w ould g ive a c lue t o
t he o rigin o f t he U rartians, w hich i s u nknown , t hough m any s uggestions h ave b een m ade a bout w ho t he U rartians w ere a nd w here t hey c ame f rom . I t w ould u ndoubtedly b e b eneficial t o k now t he a nswer t o t his p roblem w hen t rying t o e xplain t he u ses a nd f orms o f U rartian a rchitecture b ut i t i s ap roblem w hich w ill r emain u nsolved u ntil f urther a rchaeological r esearch i s a vailable. T he a uthor h as a ttempted t o s ummarize s ome o f t he p oints m ade b y s cholars c oncerning t he o rigin o f t he U rartrians ( inconclusive t hough t hey a re) i n t he f irst c hapter o f t his b ook. T he c hapters t hat f ollow ( Fortifications, P alaces, T emples, T ombs a nd H ouses) h ave o ccasional r eferences t o p oints b rought o ut i n C hapter O ne a nd w ill g ive t he r eader a c learer i dea o f t he t rends w hich m ay o r m ay n ot h ave b een p assed o n t o t he U rartians b y t heir n eighbours ... o r t heir a ncestors. T he i nformation t hat i s a vailable g ives u s a p icture o f a h ighland c ulture o f c onsiderable b rilliance a nd a rtistic a chievement,
m arked b y t he w elding t ogether o f
e xternal c ultural i nfluences a nd i ndependent i nternal d evelopment.
C hapter I :
H urrians Mitannians -Hittites Urartians?
M any s cholars h ave a t o ne t ime o r o ther p ointed o ut
t hat
U rartian a nd
H urrian a re l inguistically r elated a nd p ossibly i ndicate a c ommon o rigin ( Gelb , 8 3; H rouda , 8 57 ; G oetze , 1 94 ; L ang , 3 8 ; E rzen , 3 83 ; S mith , 9 2; a nd v an U fford , 4 ). T he p resence o f a l arge n umber o f H urrian n ames i n M itanian c orrespondence h as l ead o thers t o p ropose t hat t he H urrians w ere a m ajor e lement i n t he p opulation o f t he M itanian E mpire a nd e xerted c onsiderable i nfluence o n i ts c ulture, w hich w as l ater t ransmitted t o U rartu; t he i mplication b eing t hat t he U rartians w ere o f H urrian s tock , w ho m igrated i nto t he a rea a round L ake V an a nd l ater u nited t o f orm t he U rartian K ingdom ( Lang , 15 ; v an U fford , 4 ). T hose w ho s upport t he l atter i dea r einforce t heir a rguments w ith i nocuous s tatements c oncerning t he s imilarity b etween U rartian f igures o n a nimals a nd s o-called H urrian e xamples ( Akurgal, 1 959 , 8 3; G oetze, 1 95). M oreover, L oseva s tates t hat t here i s aH urro-Mittanian c haracter t o t he a rchitecture o f t he c olonnade o f t he U rartian H aldi t emple a t A rin-Berd ( Loseva , 1 958 , 1 95). O ne c annot h elp b ut w onder w hether h e a ttributes t his t o a n e xchange o f i deas d uring U rartian e xpansion i nto n orthern S yria ( eighth c entury B .C.). N evertheless, t here i s p ractically n o e vidence f or a l ink b etween t he U rartians a nd t he H urrians o ther t han l inguistically , e ven l ess f or o ne t o t he M itanian E mpire ( though O ganesian a rgues
o therwise.
-Organesian ,
i nterview ,
J uly,
1 976).
L ate B ronze A ge
p ottery d iscovered n ear L ake V an i n e astern T urkey a nd L ake R ezaiyeh i n n orth-western I ran m ay b e i ndicative o f a H urrian p opulation b ut f urther r esearch i s n eeded t o c larify t he e vidence 1 966 , 5 ).
( Burney ,
1 975 ,
4 2 ;
V an L oon ,
T he p ossibility t hat t he H ittites w ere a ncestral t o t he U rartians i s a s d oubtful a s t hat o f t he H urrians ( Van L oon , 1 5), t hough t here a re s cholars w ho p oint o ut s upposed c ultural s imilarities: a n U rartian s ystem o f w riting m odified a long t he l ines o f aH ittite s ystem ( Sayce, 1 85); s imilar a rt m otifs ( Akurgal , 1 961, 4 3; A kurgal , 1 959 , 8 7; T asyürek , 1 975 , f ootnote 1 9); s imilar c ult s cenes ( Tasyürek , 1 975 , f ootnote 2 8); c ommon e thnic b ackground ( Lehmann-Haupt , 1 931, 6 82); a nd a s imilarity b etween U rartian a nd H ittite h ieroglyphs ( Barnett, 1 974 , 5 4 ; B arnett, 1 950 , 3 8 ; B arnett, 1 953 , 1 28). T he s imilarities a re v ague a nd i mpossible t o s upport. V arious a rchitectural s imilarities h ave a lso b een p ut f orward: t he d ivision o f a c ity i nto d ifferent q uarters b y w alls, u tilization o f s urface r eleief i n t he c onstruction o f c itadels ( rather t han b uilding a p latform ) ( Oganesian , 1 955, 1 2, 3 6; M artirosian , 1 974, 4 5), a rrangement o f s mall b uildings a round a c entral o ne ( Lehmann-Haupt , 1 931, 4 79) a nd t he c utting a way o f t he b edrock t o p rovide s tep-like f oundations f or t he w alls o f b uildings ( Otto , 9 2; H rouda , 2 58). T hese a re l egitimate c onclusions b ut d o s uch s imilarities i ndicate a nything o ther t han t hat t hey a re s imilar , i .e., d o t hey i ndicate a ny s ort o f c ommon c ultural b ackground? O ne c ould s ay t hat t he u se o f r oughly w orked s tone ( Naumann , 1 971, 7 3), f lattening o f a reas i n t he b edrock f or r ooms a nd w alls ( Kleiss, 1 9/6a, 2 8), u se o f r usticated m asonry ( Naumann , 1 971, 7 3), c arving o f s tone ( Vieyra , 4 6), o r t he p resence o f c olumned h alls ( Bittel, 1 1) i s i ndicative o f a c ommon o rigin. A s imilarity o f s tyle o r f orm d oes n ot n ecessarily s ignify a c ultural c onnection a nd g iven t he t ime g ap b etween t he e nd o f t he H ittite E mpire a nd
3
t he b eginning o f t he U rartian K ingdom ,
a s w ell a s t he l ack o f e vidence f or a
c ultural b ridge b etween t hem , o ne m ust d iscount t hese a rguments a nd t hose w hich s upport a H urrian o rigin u ntil s ignificant e vidence i s a vailable . W ho t he U rartians w ere a nd w here t hey c ame f rom i s a p erplexing p roblem t hat w ill n ot b e e asily s olved. W hat o ne c an b e s ure o f i s t hat t hey w ere a d ynamic p eople w ho m anaged t o e xist i n a h arsh n atural e nvironment w hile k eeping t he A ssyrians a nd o ther o n t heir g uard. T his c an b e s een i n t he a rtifacts o f t heir s ettlements a nd i n t he a rchitecture, w hether i t i s a f ortress , p alace , t emple , t omb o r h ouse.
4
C hapter I I: F ortifications U rartian f ortresses a re o ne o f t he m ost o utstanding e xamples o f U rartian a rchitecture b ut t hey c annot b e c onsidered m erely a s a n a rchitectural f orm ; t hey m ust b e e xamined i n r elation t o t heir e nvironment, i e ., t heir l ocation , g eographical p osition. I t i s o nly t hen t hat o ne m ay o btain a b etter u nderstanding o f
t he c onstruction i tself ,
t he m aterials a nd
t he
b asis
f or
c onstruction o n a p articular s ite. I t i s f or t hese r easons t hat w e w ill b riefly e xamine t he g eography , m ineral r esources, t rade r outes a nd g overnment o f t he U rartian K ingdom a s e xemplified b y t he d istribution o f t heir f ortresses. A .
G eography , m ineral r esources,
t rade r outes a nd g overnment a s e xemplifed
b y t he d istribution o f f ortresses. A b rief g lance a t am ap o f t he a rea a round L ake V an i n e astern T urkey, L ake R ezaiyeh i n n orth-western I ran a nd L ake S evan i n t he A rmenian S .S.R . ( Fig.1) w ill g ive o ne a n i dea o f t he w ay i n w hich t his a rea , w hich c omprised t he c ore o f t he U rartian K ingdom , i s b roken i nto a s eries o f m ountain r idges a nd v alleys, w ith s treams, w hich c an b e i rrigated , j ust a s t hey w ere b y t he U rartians ( Arutunyan , 1 964 , 2 4). I t i s l ikely t hat u nder t he U rartians e ach v alley h ad a t l east o ne m ajor c ontrolling f ortress;
l arge v alleys o ften h ad
m ore, t hough t here i s n o s et p attern. T he m ain f ortress a cted a s a n a dministrative c entre s upported b y s ubsidiary f ortified p osts. T he f ortresses w ere u sually b uilt o n t he s pur o f am ountain r idge , w ith c ommmand o f t he v alley a nd i ts r outes a nd a ccess t o aw ater s upply. A rable l and w as u sed f or f arming a nd g razing , n ot f or b uildings. M ineral r esources a bound i n t he a rea.
E astern T urkey a lone h as:
i ron ,
v arious p yrites, g ypsum, s alt ( Altinli, 1 963a, 7 9 ; A ltinli, 1 964, / /), c opper , l ead a nd z inc ( Altinli, 1 963b , 11; E rentöz, 5 0). I ron o re i s f ound i n t he a reas w est a nd s outh o f L ake V an a nd i t w as p ossibly d ue t o U rartian e xpansion i nto t hese a reas i n t he n inth a nd e ighth c enturies B .C . t hat m ore v igorous c ampaigns w ere m ounted b y t he A ssyrians a gainst t he U rartians ( Maxwell-Hyslop , 1 974 , 1 42), e specially a fter t he f all o f t he a rea a round P alu t o M enua i n t he e ighth c entury B .C . ( Maxwell-Hyslop , 1 974 , 1 50). D uring t he r eign o f M enua t he U rartians u nderwent a r apid e xpansion , a s s hown b y t he i nscriptions a nd b uildings
o f
t he p eriod .
T he
f ortifications
n ot
o nly p rotected l ines o f c o mmunication b ut a lso p revented a ttacks o n t he r esources o f a n a rea. T he c onflict w ith t he A ssyrians s tarted a s e arly a s t he r eign o f S halmaneser I o f A ssyria ( thirteenth c entury B .C .), t hough i t w as p robably a g roup o f t ribes t he A ssyrians f ought a gainst a t t hat e arly d ate; U rartu d oes n ot e merge a s ak ingdom u ntil t he n inth c entury B .C. ( Burney ,
1 971,
1 27).
D uring t he e ighth c entury B .C .
t rade w ith P hrygia p assed a long t he s ame
r oute a s t he m odern h ighway , f rom K araköse t o E rzurum t o E rzincan a nd f urther w estward. A nother r oute l ed f rom V an t o M i ls a nd o n t o E lazig a nd M alatya ( Fig .2) ( Birmingham , 1 93). A long t hese r outes a nd o thers t he U rartians c onstructed f ortresses t o c ontrol t he t raffic a nd t o p rotect t he n earby s ettlements. A s tandard p ractice o bserved w hen b uilding t hese d efensive p ositions w as t o p lace t hem a d ay's j ourney a part ( Lehmann-Haupt, 1 926 , 3 9),
5
•Altintep. •M ount A rarat
W erachram • A znavurt e pe P atnos
S angar
•Z er r taki T e e
Ar axes R iver B astam,
Ad il cevaz•
•Kayali d ere
•U pper A nzaf K ale
•Toprakkale V an K ale •gavuetepe
L ake R ezaiyeh
•M usasir ? •H asanlu
•N ineveh
7 5
2 5
F ig.
1
10 0
M ap o f U rartu .
6
7
M ap o f t rade r outes i n a nd t hrough U rartu ( Birmingham ,
m aking v isual c ommunications p ossible , ( Lehmann-Haupt,
1 9 10 ,
4 72).
e ither b y f ire s ignals o r o ther m eans
T his w as p articularly t rue o f t he s ites a long
t he r outes f rom V an ; i nto I ran v ia C aldiran t o t he n orth o r t hrough A nzaf t o t he e ast. T here w as a lso a r oute b y ç avu tepe s outh o f V an , w hich l ed t o t he h eadwaters o f t he Z ab a t B askale ( Burney, 1 975 , 4 0). T he l atter m ay h ave c ontinued t o t he a rea o f R owanduz i n I raq ( to t he a rea o f M usasir) ( Lehmann-Haupt, 1 926 ,39) a nd o n t oward K irkuk i n I raq ( Levine , 12). S ome o f t hese f ortifications p rotected t he r oute f rom i nternal d isruptions w hile o thers, s uch a s K ayalidere, m ay h ave b een s trong p oints a gainst i nvaders f rom t he n orthern s teppes ( Burney , 1 966 , 6 3). N orthward f rom V an t here w ere r outes t o t he a rea a round E rzurum a nd f rom t here t o K ars a nd t he p lain o f t he A raxes R iver ( Naval I ntelligence , 3 66) u sed b y t he U rartians a s t hey c ontinue i n u se t oday. A long t he p eriphery o f t he p lain t he U rartians e stablished s ettlements a nd f ortifications, s ome o f w hich w ere r egional c entres. A n e xample o f t he l atter i s A ragats i n t he E chmiadzin d istrict o f t he A rmenian S .S.R , w hich h ad t hick m ud-brick w alls a nd a r ather m onolithic f acade , i mitating t he a ppearance o f t he c itadel a t K armir-Blur , t hough o n as mall s cale ( Martirosian , 1 964 , 2 34). U rartian g overnment i s n ot v ery w ell d ocumented , t hough o ne m ay t heorize t hat i t w as b ased u pon a c entral g overnment w ith r egional c entres. T he b asis f or t his s upposition i s t he d ispersal o f s ites i n t he A rmenian S .S.R . ( Piotrovskii, 1 959a , 1 98) a nd t he a uthor's o bservations o n t he d ispersal o f s ites i n T urkey a nd I ran . T he r egional c entres w ere f ortified c itadels w ith a n a ttached s ettlement,
w hich u sually w as n ot f ortified .
O ccasionally t he
c entres i n c onquered t erritories w ere f ormer t ribal c entres ( such a s M enuahinili i n t he A rmenian S .S.R .) ( Martirosian , 1 964 , 2 68), w hich b ecame m ilitary a nd a dministrative c entres u nder t he U La_tian ( Piotrovskii, 1 959 , 1 97; v an L oon , 1 966, 3 8; L ang, 1 40). T hese s heltered t he g overnment r epresentative a nd t he t roops r esponsible f or g uarding l ocal r outes a nd t he p opulace. T he r egional c entres p robably d epended u pon s maller p osts w ithin t heir p rovenance f or i nformation o n a nything f rom l ocal p roblems t o t he a pproach o f h ostile f orces. T his i nformation c ould b e r elayed t o t he r egional c entre a nd f rom t here t o t he c apital. O ne s hould h ave a g eneral i mpression o f am ountainous c ountry m ade u p o f v alleys
a nd
s mall
p lains ,
c onnected b y
r outes
t hrough m ountain p asses a nd
r iver v alleys. T his r ather u nitary f orm i s m ost s uggestive w hen w e t ry t o u nderstand w hat s ort o f g overnment t he U rartians e volved. F urthermore , t he e stablishment o f f ortresses t o p rotect t he r egional u nits a nd t he r outes c onnecting t hem t o e ach o ther , a s w ell a s t heir m ineral r esources, c an o nly t2 a ttributable t o a c entral g overnment w ith e nough p ower t o u nite t ribes i nto a f unctioning e ntity o f m ore t han s light c oncern t o i ts n eighbours.
B .
F ortitications; F ortifications
f orm a nd d ate. m ay
b e
c lassified a s
b eing o f
t wo
b asic
t ypes:
t hose
w hich e nclosed a p alace ( indicated i n U rartian i nscriptions b y t he t erm E .GAL) a nd t hose w hose f unction w as p rimarily d efensive ( Oganesian , 1 961, 2 7). T he f ormer h ad a p alace a nd p rovisions f or a p ermanent g arrison , w hile t he l atter h ad o nly a g arrison . T he p alace h ad s torerooms f or w ine a nd g rain a s w ell a s w orkshops f or l ocal i ndustries, m etal w orking a nd m ilitary a ssociated i ndustries ( Oganesian ,
1 961,
2 5).
8
F ig. 3 a
R econstruction o f A zarpay's t ype o ne f ortifications ( author).
F ig. 3 b
R econstruction o f A zarpay's t ype t wo f ortifications ( author).
9
0
F ig. 4 a
5 0 m
K ale S iah , I ran; a n e xample o f K leiss' t ype o ne f ortifications ( Kleiss , 1 973c , F igure 3 ).
0
F ig. 4 b
2 5
1 0
2 0 M
A s ection o f t he w all o f t he " Ost-Bau" a t B astam , o f K leiss' t ype t wo f ortifications ( Kleiss,
1 0
I ran ;
a n e xample
1 976a , F igure 7 ).
T he m ajority o f
t he
e arly
f ortifications w ere
e stablished
d uring
t he
r eign o f t he U rartian k ing M enua ( 810-786 B .C.), t hough a f ew a re d ateable t o t he r eign o f I shpuini, f ather o f M enua. T hose b uilt d uring t he r eign o f I shpuini h ave w alls w hose ' f acades a re s traight a nd w hich m ay h ave b een t he p redecessor o f t he l ater b uttressed a nd t owered t ype , w hich i s m ore p revalent ( Burney , 1 966 , 6 2). F ortifications c an f urther b e d ifferentiated b y t he s ize a nd a mount o f s tone u sed i n c onstruction . A zarpay s uggests t hat d uring t he n inth a nd e ighth c enturies B .C . l arge s tone b locks w ere u sed f or t he f oundations o f d efensive w alls, t opped b y am ud-brick s uperstructure ( Fig. 3 a). S he s uggests t hat t his w as f ollowed b y t he u se o f s maller b locks o f s tone f or t he f oundations a nd a m ore p redominant m ud-brick s uperstructure d uring t he s eventh t o t he s ixth c enturies B .C. ( Fig.3b) ( Azarpay, 8 8). H er s ystem i s o f l imited a pplicability a s i t d oes n ot a lways w ork, t hough i t c an b e i nitially e mployed t o d etermine a g eneral d ate f or a f ortification , s upported b y p ottery t ypes. Another
s ystem h as
b een
e volved
b y
K leiss
i n
I ran,
p erhaps
whereby
f ortifications o f t he e ighth c entury B .C. a re c haracterized b y t heir u se o f l arge t owers w ith t wo o r t hree e venly s paced b uttresses b etween t hem ( Fig. 4 a); t hose o f t he s eventh c entury B .C. h ave o nly f acades o f e venly s paced b uttresses ( Fig. 4 b) ( Kleiss, 1 967a , 3 5 a nd 3 6). K leiss' s ystem w orks v ery w ell w hen a pplied t o U rartian s ites w ithin I ran b ut f or s ome r eason ( Which t he a uthor c annot e xplain) d oes n ot a lways a pply t o s ites i n T urkey o r t he A rmenian S .S.R . A s a n e xample o ne n eed o nly c onsider t he f acade o f t he w alls a t K armir-Blur ( Fig. 5 ), w hich h as l arge t owers w ith t wo o r t hree b uttresses b etween t hem ; as eventh c entury B .C. s ite w ith a n e ighth c entury B .C. t ype o f f ortification . O n t he o ther h and t he s yste c d oes w ork w hen a pplied t o t he n earby s ite o f A rin-Berd ( Fig. 6 ). A s y ou c an s ee , t he a bility t o a ssign d ates t o f ortifications o n t he b asis o f f orm a lone i s n ot f easible; t here m ust b e s upporting e vidence f rom t he m aterial c ulture. T he e xception t o t his i s i n I ran b ut e ven t here s upporting e vidence i s s ought b efore a d ate i s s uggested f or a s ite. F urthermore , w all t ypes h ave s uch a v ariety o f d etail ( opposing b uttresses, s taggered b uttresses, t owers p rojecting i nto t he f ortress, a nd c asemate w all f orms , a s w ell a s t he m ore s olid , u n-chambered w all) ( Fig. 7 ) t hat w e a re o nly b eginning t o u nderstand t he r easons f or t hese d ifferences, m uch l ess d ate t hem .
C .
F ortresses a nd t he T ranscaucas. A f orm w hich h as n ot b een d iscussed a nd i s e xemplified i n s everal
l ocations a round L ake S evan i s t he " cyclopean" f ortress.
S everal h ave b een
d iscovered o n t he h ills a long t he s hore o f t he l ake a nd h ave o ne o r m ore e ncircling w alls; i n s ome i nstances w alls w ere b uilt o ut f rom t he c entre o f t he f ortress , c rossing t he e ncircling w alls a nd c reating a r adial e ffect. F ortresses w ith t wo e ncircling w alls a nd i nteresecting w alls , h ave r ooms b uilt a gainst t he i nterior f acade o f t he i nmost e ncircling w all , f orming a c itadel w ith a c ourtyard ( there a re n ot a ny p lans o f t hese t o t he a uthors' k nowledge). O ganesian b elieves t hat t he l atter w ere p re-Urartian a nd w ere t he a ncestral f orms o f l ater U rartian e xamples, s uch a s A rin-Berd ( see F ig. 6 ) a nd T oprakkale ( Oganesian , 1 961, 2 1). H e p roposes t hat U rartian f ortress a rchitecture w ay h ave o riginated i n t he T ranscaucas; s ame t ime h e b elieves t hat t he u se o f c yclopean m asonry
1 1
b ut a t t he i n U rartian
F ig. 5
P lan o f t he c itadel a t K armir-Blur, n ear Y erevan, Armenian S .S.R. ( Oganesian , 1 955 , F igure 1 3; v an L oon , 1 966, F igure 4 ).
1 2
a rchitecture i nterview,
( fortresses J uly,
a nd
1 976).
o therwise)
c ame
f rom t he H ittites
O n t he o ther h and.
A dzahn ,
( Oganesian ,
G ouzal'yan a nd
P iotrovkii i n t heir a rticle o n c yclopean f ortresses i ndicate t hat t he e arly f ortresses m ay b e c ontemporary w ith U rartu ( Adzhan , 6 1). T hey d ivide t hem i nto t hree g roups , b ased p rimarily u pon t heir s ize, t hough g roups t wo a nd t hree a re d ifferentiated a ccording t o t he p rogressive r efinement o f t he w orking o f t he s tone. G roup o ne r epresents a v illage; t wo a c itadel w ith a ttached s ettlements a nd t hree r ather t he s ame a s t wo , t hough w ith b urials i n s tone c ists ( Adzhan , 6 3). A s g roup t wo i s d ated t o t he c ollapse o f U rartu ( Adzhan , 6 4), w e a re a ble t o c ompare t he r ough s ingle o r d ouble l ine o f w alls o f g roup o ne w ith k nown U rartian f ortifications; b ut t he c omparison i s n o m ore e nlightening t han t hat o f O ganesian . K nives,
d aggers,
m aceheads a nd a rrowheads f ound i n t ombs n ear t he
f ortresses a nd h aving a ffinities t o U rartian o bjects m ay i nitially b e t hought o f a s i ndicative o f a c onnection b etween t he T ranscaucas a nd t he U rartians b ut t hey a re f rom t he c ist g raves, w hich a ccording t o t he a bove c lassification a re p ost-Urartian . T his i s a lso s upported b y M artirosian ( Martirosian , 1 964 , 2 04). N evertheless, t he a uthor t hinks t he c ist-graves a re p re-Urartian a nd t hat t he e vidence s upports t his c onclusion ( Burney, 1 971, 1 04). C yclopean s tone c onstruction w as u sed i n U rartian d efensive w orks;
o ne
n eed o nly e xamine t he a vailable e xamples ( Bilg 4 , 1 964 , 1 09 ; N ylander , 1 966 , 1 52; A kurgal , 1 968b , 1 ; B urney, 1 957,40). J ust t he s ame, t his d oes n ot s ignify a d efinite c onnection b etween t he f ortifications o f t he T ranscaucas a nd U rartu.
F urther e xcavations o f l ate B ronze A ge s ites a nd t hose o f
e arlier d ate m ay p rovide m ore c oncrete d ata o n t his p roblem .
D .
C onstruction o f f ortresses
W e h ave a lready s tated t hat f ortresses w ere o f t wo t ypes: t hose c ontaining p alaces a nd t hose w hich d id n ot h ave a p alace. T he l atter c an b e d ivided i nto t wo t ypes: r egional c entres a nd s maller f ortifications a long r outes ( a r egional c entre m ay h ave a n o fficial r esidence f or t he g overnment r epresentative -but i t w as n ot n ecessarily a p alace). O ne m ay s uppose t hat t his d ifferention w ould a ppear i n t he l ocation c hosen f or t he c onstruction o f e ach t ype o f f ortification b ut t his i s n ot s o ; t he m ajority o f U rartian f ortifications w ere b uilt o n a m ountain r idge , c onnected t o t he m ass f ortified s addle , w ith p rovisions f or w ater f rom s prings o r c isterns.
b y a T hey
a re s eldom f ound i n a p lain , t hough t here a re s ome n otable e xceptions a s G iriktepe, T urkey a nd A grab T epe, I ran) ( van L oon , 1 966 , 3 8).
( such
T he s tonework o f t he w alls r anges f rom r ough t o f airly w ell-dressed a nd i s u sually b asalt, a ndesite o r l imestone ( Burney, 1 957, 4 0 ; v an L oon , 1 966 , 3 8). T he w alls w ere b uilt d irectly o n t he g round s urface o r o n s tep-like c utting 3i n t he b edrock ( Fig.8); i t i s n ot l ikely t hat s uch s teps h ad a r eligious f unction - " Himmelsstufen" -n or a re t hey l ikely t o h ave b een f oundations f or r etaining w alls o f g ardens o n t he s lopes o f ar idge ( LehmannH aupt,
1 931, 6 22;
O tto ,
9 2;
B urney ,
1 95/, 4 1).
T here a re s ome e xamples o f c asemate w alls a re s imply a s ocle o f s tone ,
w alls
i n U rartu b ut g enerally t he
c omposed o f l arger s tones o n t wo s ides o f
ac ore o f s maller p acked s tones, t opped b y as uperstructure o f p lastered m udb rick. T hey a re r ather s imilar t o A ssyrian f ortification w alls , t hough n either t he A ssyrian ( as a t t he W est G ate o f F ort S halmaneser 1 3
O ates,
F ig. 6
P lan o f
t he U rartian a nd A chaemenian s tructures a t A rin-Berd,
Y erevan , A rmenian S .S.R.
( Oganesian ,
1 4
1 973 , F igure 1 ).
n ear
r
c i
-
p -i r "
J
0
r -
2 5
5 0 M
i
r-
-
I -
1
-
d mi inumul i f l f l ig ime e . 1 1 1f l i
F ig. 7
fz f lizal l f la mman
V arious t ypes o f w alls f rom ( a) A ga , I ran ; ( c) E voghlu , I ran ; A znavurtepe, T urkey ( Kleiss,
B astam , I ran ; ( d) W erachram ,
( b) Q aleh I smail I ran ; a nd ( e)
1 976a , F igure 1 9).
,
F ig. 8
R ock-cut s teps
f or t he f oundations
2 ).
1 5
o f w alls
( Kleiss,
1 976a ,
F igure
P late I I), n or t he U rartian w alls h ave a n i nternal c orridor . T he s tone s ocle h as v arying d imensions, t hough o ne m ay s ay t hat i t i s g enerally 3 .004 .00 i n t hick a nd f airly w ell-coursed , e ach c ourse b eing 5 0 c m t o 1 .00m h igh ( Burney , 1 957 , 4 0). T he c ourses a re s et b ack 5 10 c m , f orming a b atter f or t he s uperstructure ; v an L oon s tates t hat t here i s s ometimes a " glacis" o n t he h ill o r r idge ( van L oon , 1 966 , 3 8), t hough t he a uthor d oes n ot k now o f t he o ccurrence o f t his f eature o n a ny U rartian s ite. T he f acade o f t he w all w as b roken u p b y b uttresses a nd t owers, w ith a p arapet a bove a nd p rojecting t o t he f ront o f t hem ; o r s o o ne m ay a scertain f rom t he M usasir R elief f rom t he p alace o f S argon I I a t K horsabad ( Burney , 1 957 , 4 1), ( Fig. 9 ). i nterval o f
o r t he b ronze m odel f rom T oprakkale n ow i n t he B ritish M useum B uttresses w ere s paced a long t he f acade o f t he w all a t a n a verage 1 0 .00 i na nd p roject 1 .00 i n ,
w ith a w idth o f a bout 4 .00 m t hough
t his v aries f rom s ite t o s ite. F ortifications w ere f requently r einforced b y r etaining w alls, a s a t K armir B lur ( van L oon , 1 966 , 4 0). T he m ud-brick s uperstructure w as p robably t opped b y s tepped c renellations o r ac ornice , t hough w e d o n ot h ave a ny a ctual e xamples o f t his e xcept
a s
d epicted
( Piotrovskii,
1 959a ,
i n
A ssyrian
r eliefs
( as
o n
t he
B alawat
G ates)
1 99).
S argon I I o f A ssyria
( 721-705 B .C.) d escribed U rartian f ortresses
( encountered o n h is e ighth c ampaign) w ith w alls 4 .00 i nt hick , o ne h undred a nd t wenty c ourses o f b ricks h igh a nd c renellations a long t he t op ( Melikishvili, 1 954 , 3 38). A ccording t o L ang a w all o f o ne h undred a nd t wenty c ourses o f b ricks w ould h ave b een 1 3.0015.00 i n h igh ( Lang , 1 38), b ut b ased u pon t he t hickness o f b ricks a t K armir-Blur ( 15 c m) a w all o f t hat m any c ourses o f b ricks w ould h ave b een 1 8.00 i nh igh. T his d oes n ot i nclude t he s tone s ocle o f 2 .00 i nh eight. T herefore s uch a w all t opped b y ac renellation o r c ornice ( Ogün , S argon's p ropaganda a s t ruth. A nother h undred a nd f orty c ubits h igh ; o bviously
c ould h ave b een 2 0 .00 i n h igh a nd 4 84); i f o ne i s w illing t o a ccept w all w as d escribed a s b eing t wo t his i s n ot p lausible a nd o ne m ust
a ssume t hat i t w as f lush w ith t he f ace o f a r ocky e minence, e xaggerrated i mpression o f h eight.
t wo. 1 99),
g iving a n
F ortresses h ad a t l east o ne g ateway , t hough s ites a re k nown w hich h ad T he g ateways w ere f lanked b y t owers o r b uttresses ( Piotrovskii, 1 959a , t he a pproach b eing a t a n a ngle , e xposing t he a ttackers t o t he w eaponry
o f t he d efenders.
E .
F ortified U rartian s ites. 1 .
U rartian s ites i n t he A rmenian S .S.R . a .
K armir-Blur
T eshebaini ,
o r a s i t i s n ow k nown ,
, K armirBlur
s tands o n t he s outh-
e astern e dge o f t he c apital o f t he A rmenian S .S.R , Y erevan .
I t i s o n ar ock
h eight i n ab end i n t he R azdan R iver a nd c onsists o f a c itadel a nd t own. T he t own w as n ever c ompletely f ortified . R usa I I o f U rartu ( 685-639 B .C.) f ounded t he c itadel a nd a ttached s ettlement, p robably a s a n a dministrative c entre ( Piotrovskii, 1 950 , 2 0 ; B arnett,
1 959 ,
1 ),
w hich c ontinued t o e xist u ntil i ts
d estruction b y t he
l e em or d o r.w . ' I l i mm umw r
e L L EP t i l
— — —— le er WY— —1 : 03 —
=
r z
z e
_ J
z
z
ra w i
M er t v e re .. .
vc .
e a
2 ( . • • ( C .;
ii
I l r f 1 0
Il l
i t,
F ig. 9
T he b ronze m odel o f a b uilding f rom T oprakkale , n ow i n t he B ritish M useum ( Kleiss,
C
I
)/
)r-- a c r=pr ( DC =C- ) t
•
7
1 0
C
( = > ( C 2 )( )
c pg D ,
; › D
E
n earVan ,
T urkey a nd
1 976a , F igure 6 ).
)( )r C=13 r
F ig.
I l l
C
D )
)C .
u=
J cp .c z3 . 3 [11 1:1
J E 11 = 3
R econstruction o f t he p laster c oating o n a t ower o f t he c itadel a t K armir-Blur , A rmenian S .S.R ., w ith t he o utline o f t he p lastered m udb ricks i n r elief ( author).
1 7
M edes a nd S cythians e arly i n t he s ixth c entury B .C ., ( Martirosian , 1 958 , 1 70 ; P iotrovskii , 1 970 , 2 3).
p robably a bout 5 90 B .C .
T he f ortified f acade o f t he c itadel i s b roken b y t owers a nd b uttresses o f m ud-brick ( size o f m ud-bricks i s 5 2 x3 5 x 1 5 c m ) o n a s tone s ocle 2 .00 m h igh ( Fig. 5 ). T he e xterior f ortifications a re 3 .50 m t hick , w hich i s t he e quivalent o f t en r ows o f U rartian b ricks. T owers o f u p t o 1 2.40 m w idth w ere p laced a t c orners o f t he c itadel a nd o n e ither s ide o f t he m ain g atew ay , w hich s upposedly h ad a w ooden g ate w ith b ronze o r i ron p laques o n i t ( Piotrovskii , 1 950 , 4 3). T he w all d id n ot h ave c renellations b ut i nstead a c ornice o f w ell-dressed b asalt b locks ( Oganesian ,
1 955 ,
7 2).
O ne o f t he m ost i nteresting f eatures o f t he c itadel i s t he p laster c oating o n t he f acade o f t he n ortheastern t ower n ear t he g ateway ( Fig . 1 0). I t c overed t he m ud-brick s uperstructure b ut h ad t he o utline o f b ricks e ngraved u pon i t; a n u nnecessary , t hough d ecorative f eature ( Oganesian , 1 955 ,
7 2). A djoining t he c itadel i s t he i ncomplete t own w all ,
3 .00 m t hick a nd o f
o ne o f t wo s urviving . c ourses o f b asalt b locks; i t m ay h ave h ad a m ud-brick s uperstructure. A t wo h undred m etre l ength o f t he t own w all e xtends f rom t he n orthwestern g ate o f t he c itadel , w hile a l onger s ection i s a ttached t o t he s outheastern c orner o f t he c itadel ( Oganesian , 1 955 , 1). T hese w alls e nclosed t he t own o n t he e ast a nd s outh e ast b ut w ere n ot v ery w ell b uilt; o ne h as t he i mpression o f a h urried j ob. T here a re b uttresses a long p arts o f t he f acade o f t he w alls, w ith t owers a t a ngles. O ther p arts o f t he w alls h ave a f lat, u nrelieved f acade, e specially t oward t he a brupt t erminals. T his m ay b e a n i ndication t hat t he t own w as o riginally u nfortified a nd t hat . the
d efensive
w orks
w ere s tarted h urriedly i n r esponse
t o i nvaders.
T he
t own w as n ot c ompletely e nclosed b y f ortifications. b .
A rin-Berd
A rin-Berd i s t he n ame o f t he U rartian c itadel , E rebuni , w hich i s a lso l ocated n ear Y erevan , o n i ts s outheastern s ide , a way f rom K armir-Blur . I t w as f ounded b y t he U rartian k ing A rgishti I ( 786-764 B .C .) a s a n e conomic a nd a dm inistrative c entre a nd a n orthern m ilitary b ase o f U rartu . A lthough i ts a dministrative r ole a ppears t o h ave d eclined a fter t he f ounding o f K armirB lur , i t c ontinued t o e xist i nto t he f ifth c entury B .C. a nd m ay h ave b een t he s eat o f a n A chaemenian s atrapy ( Loseva , 1 958 , 1 79 ; O ganesian , 1 973 , 5 7). T he f ortifications a re m arkedly d ifferent t o t hose a t K armir-Blur , w here r ooms w ere l y i nt a gainst t he i nner s ide o f t he w alls o f t he c itadel , f orming am assive b lock-like s tructure;
a t A rin-Berd t he f ortifications n ever h ad a
r oom o r b uilding b uilt a gainst t hem . ( Fig. 6 ). T he w hole c itadel h as a p lanned , s patial a spect , w hich m ay h ave b een d ue t o i ts u se a s a p eriodic r oyal r esidence , w hereas K armir-Blur w as s imply a n a dministrative/regional c entre T , ith a r esidence f or t he g overnment r epresentative o n t he u pper s torey . ( Oganesian , T he
1 961,
2 1).
f ortifications
o f
t he s ite h ave b een i ncompletely p ublished.
D uring a v isit t o t he s ite t he a uthor e xamined t he f ortifications, w hich h ave t he t ypical U rartian s tone w ork a nd b uttressed a nd t owered f acade ; b ut t hey h ave b een r econstructed w ith c ement b etween t he c ourses ( Urartian m asonry i s u nmortared). W hether o r n ot t he r econstruction r epresents t he o riginal w all p lan i s u nclear. T he a uthor f eels t hat d ue t o t he f lack o f i nformation o n t he f ortifications a nd t he q uestionable f unctions a ssigned t o o ther 1 8
w estern
f ortress
t he
t own
o f
C Z )
1 9
b uildings o n t he s ite ( such a s a c olonnaded p orch f or g uards, f rescoes!) o ne s hould b e c autious.
c .
d ecorated w ith
A rmavir
A rgishti I f ounded t his s ite t oo, w hich w as n amed a fter . h im , A rgishtihinili ( Fig. 1 1). S ubsequent U rartian k ings c ontinued i ts d evelopment, e specially S arduri I I ( 764-735 B .C .), t he s on o f A rgishti I ( Oganesian , 1 973, 5 8). O ne o f t he m ain r easons f or i ts c ontinued d evelopment w as i ts p osition o n t he t rade r outes t o t he T ranscaucas a nd f urther e ast. B ecause o f t his s trategic p osition i t d eveloped i nto a c ity c overing a n a rea o f f our t o f ive h undred h ectares ( Martirosian , 1 967, 2 21) a nd b ecame a c entre f or a griculture , s tock-breeding , t rade , a rt, r eligion a nd s mall i ndustry ( Martirosian , 1 967 , 2 28 ; P iotrovskii, 1 969 , 7 2). T he f ortification w alls o f d ressed b asalt b locks w ith a m ud-brick s uperstructure e xtended o ver a d istance o f t wo t o t hree k ilometres,
w ith a
f ortress a t e ach e nd o f t he c ity ( Martirosian , 1 964 , 2 23). A ll o f t his a rea w as n ot c overed b y b uildings. O ne i magines t hat t he o pen a reas w ere u sed d uring t imes o f s iege t o q uarter t he l ivestock o r a s s pace f or r efugees. T he w estern f ortress o ccupied a n a rea o f 2 .50 h ectares a nd h ad t wo f ortification w alls , t erraced d own t he s lope o f a h ill ( Kafadaryan , 2 38). T his w as t he c ore o f t he o riginal U rartian f oundation , w hich w as g radually e xtended e astward
( Martirosian ,
1 974 , 4 8).
T he s tone s ocle o f t he w alls o f t he w estern f ortress w as 3 .00 -4.00 m h igh a nd o f v ariable t hickness; 3 .00 m , 2 .00 m a nd 5 .00 m . T he m ud-brick s uperstructure h as s urvived i n s itu i n s ome p laces ( Martirosian , 1 974 , 7 5) ; i t w as o riginally 7 .00 m h igh a nd 2 .50 m t hick . T he w alls o f t he e astern f ortress a re o f r oughly t he s ame d imensions , t hough n o d ecsription i s g iven o f t his p art o f t he s ite. M artirosian s tates t hat a ll c onstruction w ork w as d one b y p risoners o f w ar f rom A ssyria o r M annai ( Martirosian , 1 974, 2 4). A lternatively, o ne s upposes t hat t he U rartian k ing c ould h ave c alled a l evy o f h is s ubjects t o d o t he w ork. T he g ateways o f t he f ortresses w ere a pproached v ia a n e arthern r amp , f lanked b y b uttressed t owers. T he g ate w as o f w ood c overed b y p laques o f c opper o r b ronze
( Martirosian ,
1 974 ,
7 7).
T he l ength o f t he w alls o f t he c ity a nd s trength o f t hem a nd t he a ttached f ortresses i llustrate t he e mphasis t hat t he U rartians p laced u pon t heir d efences, d ue n o d oubt t o t heir p osition o n r outes w hich w ere u sed b y i nvaders, s uch a s t he S cythians a nd t he C immerians ( Lloyd , 1 09). d .
O ther s ites i n t he A rmenian S .S.R .
S everal s ites h ave b een d iscovered d uring s urveys a round L ake S evan a nd a re s aid t o b e U rartian. T hese h ave b een e xcavated i n p art b ut a re n ot p ublished a nd h ave o nly c ome t o t he a uthor's a ttention t hrough p assing r eferences. O ne s ite w hich h as b een e xcavated a nd r eferred t o i n a b rief a rticle i s A ragats, i n t he E chmiadzin d istrict, w hich w as a m ilitary s trongpoint w ith a n a ppearance s imilar t o t he c itadel a t K armir-Blur , t hough s maller . I ts q uadrangular f orm w ith m ore t han o ne s torey , h ad r ooms b uilt a gainst t he f ortification w alls, f orming t he c ubic m ass w e h ave a lready d escribed
b riefly
i n
s ection a .
T he
f acade
2 0
w as
p atterned
b y
p rojecting
b uttresses a nd t owers a nd a s ingle g ateway a pproached b y a r amp ( Martirosian , 1 964 ,234). I t i s r egrettable t hat t here i s n ot m ore i nformation o n t his U rartian s ite. T he U rartian s ites i n t he A raxes V alley w ere o n t he n orthern f rontier o f t he K ingdom , w hich m ay a ccount f or t he f ortificatin o f s ettlements. T he t hreat o f i nvasion b y t he C immerians a nd t he S cythians w as a c onstant p roblem a nd o ne w hich e ventually b rought a bout t he f all o f U rartu .
2 .
U rartian s ites i n T urkey a .
A ltintepe
O ne o f t he m ost w estern ( geographically) U rartian s ites i s A ltintepe. I t w as f ounded i n t he s econd h alf o f t he e ighth c entury B .C. a nd w as c ontinuously o ccupied u ntil t he s econd h alf o f t he s eventh c entury B .C . w hen i t w as a pparently a bandoned b y i ts i nhabitants ( Ozg ik , 1 963 ,49). I t i s n ow q uite w ell k nown f or i ts t emple a nd c olumned h all ( Fig. 1 2), t hough n ot f or i ts f ortifications. T he l atter d o n ot a ppear o n t he s ite p lan , t hough t hey a re d escribed i n p ublications a s b eing a c asemate t ype o f w all w ith a s tone s ocle c omposed o f r oughly r ectangular b locks u p t o 3 .80 m h igh w ith a m udb rick s uperstructure. O ther d ata o n t he f ortifications i ndicate t hat t he w alls w ere u p t o 1 2.00 m t hick a nd h ad r ectangular b uttresses ( 2 .25 m w ide) s paced a t i ntervals o f 1.00 m a long t he w all a nd w hich p rojected 1 .00 m f rom t he w all. T he c ore o f t he w all , c omposed o f s mall s tones a nd e arth , w as h eld i n b y s tones w eighing u p t o f orty t ons e ach . Aw all o f s uch t hickness a nd s trength c ould e asily h ave a s uperstructure o f c onsiderable h eight, f ormed f rom m ud-bricks, w hich w ere 5 2 c m l onL , a nd 1 5 c m t hick. I t i s r egrettable t hat m ore a ccurate i nformation i s n ot a vailable o n t hese d efence w orks ( Özg 4 , 1 969 , 6 0 ; 1 $ 5 zg 4 , 1 967 , 4 1; ö zg 4 , 1 961, 2 77; M ellink , 1 963 , 1 81;
M ellink , b .
1 962 , 7 9).
K ef K alesi a t A dilcevaz
R usa I I o f U rartu ( 685-639 B .C .) s ite i n t he s eventh c entury B .C ., 1 20), 1 969 ,
i s c redited w ith t he f ounding o f t his
p ossibly a s a c ult c entre
t hough i f i t w as, t he p alace w as v ery m uch a p art o f i t 1 32; B ilg 4 , 1 984 , 13). B urney
d iscovered
t he
s ite
a nd
h as
p rovided
s ome
( Bilg 4 ,
1 964 ,
( Piotrovskii,
v ery
a ccurate
i nformation o n t he f ortifications; t hose o f t he t own w ere 3 .50 m t hick a nd b uilt f rom s tones u p t o 1 .50 m l ong. T he w alls o f t he c itadel a re n o l onger i n s itu, t hough t hey a ppear t o h ave e ncircled. T here w as a d ouble c urtain f ortress o n a h ill n orthwest o f t he B urney, 1 960 , 1 89). T he w alls w ere
f ollowed t he e dge o f t he h ill t hey w all w hich c onnected t he c itadel t o a c itadel ( Burney, 1 957, 5 0 a nd 5 1; o ften b ased u pon s teps c ut i nto t he
b edrock a nd h ad t he u sual m ud-brick s uperstructure , c omposed o f m ud-bricks o f t wo s izes: 5 3 x 3 5 x 1 4 c m a nd 5 3 x 5 3 x 1 4 c m ( Anatolian S tudies, 1 973a , 1 3 ;
B ilg 4 ,
1 964 ,
9 7).
E xcavation o f t he s ite h as s o f ar b een c onfined t o t he p alace a rea w ith i ts r eception h alls;
n o o ther a reas h ave b een e xcavated a nd t he s ite h as
b een s ummarily p ublished i n t wo a rticles ( see B ilg 4).
2 1
F ig.
1 2
P lan o f A ltintepe n ear E rzincan , T urkey ( Özg i i,
2 2
1 969 , F igure 3 ).
T EMPLE
I
• •
• 0
-
T EM PLE I
7
-
-1
? _J
1
I1
0
_
3
[ 1
r -
2 3
S ketch p lan o f ç av tepe , s outh o f V an ,
a )
-- c 5 -- o -- o -- 0
c .
K efirkalesi
B urney
i s a lso r esponsible f or t he d iscovery o f t his s ite ,
w hich m ay
h ave b een a r efuge i n t roubled t imes , r elying m ore u pon i ts i naccessibility a t a n a ltitude o f 2 .400 m t han i ts 3 .00-4.00 i n t hick w alls o f u nworked s tones. T he f ortress m ay o r m ay n ot b e U rartian , t hough B urney p ostulates t hat i t c ould h ave b een o ne o f t he t ypes o f f ortresses d escribed b y S argon I I o f A ssyria a s " glittering o n t he m ountain t ops". T he d escription i s a pplicable a nd t he s ite w ould h ave b een p erfect a s a r efuge f rom t he A ssyrians. N evertheless, t he l ack o f s tructures w ithin t he e nclosure a nd p ottery t o s upport o ne's c onclusions m ake a d efinite U rartian i dentification i mpossible ( Burney , 1 957 , 5 1). d .
ç avu tepe
M agnificent i s t he b est w ay t o d escribe t his s ite f ounded b y S arduri I I , 7 64-735 B .C. I t c onsists o f a n u pper a nd a l ower c itadel o n a r idge, c onnected b y a f ortified s addle a nd s eparated f rom t he n earby m ountain b y a r ock-cut d itch 1 0 .00 m w ide ( Fig. 1 3) ( van L oon , 1 966 , 3 8). T he b edrock w as c ut a way t o p rovide f oundations f or t he f ortification w alls a nd b uildings w ithin , t hough t he t hickness o f t he w alls i s n ot m entioned i n t he b rief r eports a vailable. T he
f acade
h as
t owers ,
3 .70 x 3 .75 m ,
a nd b uttresses,
w hich p roject
1 .00 i n f rom t he w all a t i ntervals o f 7 .40 i n . A top t he s tone a lleged w ooden b eams, w hich t he e xcavator b elieves p rovided s upport b etween t he s ocle a nd t he m ud-brick s uperstructure. T he n ot k now o f a ny o ther i nstance o f t his u se o f w ooden b eams o n
s ocle w ere s tructural a uthor d oes a n U rartian
s ite. I t i s u nlikely t hat t hey s uppGrted t he s tructure b ut i t i s a lso d oubtful t hat t hey w ere u sed t o l evel t he s ocle. O ne o f t hese w alls f lanked t he a pproach t o t he g ateway, i nsuring d ifficulty o f a ccess ( Anatolian S tudies , 1 968b , 2 7 ; A natolian S tudies, 1 973b , 2 8 ; A natolian S tudies, 1 974 , 2 5). T he c ore o f t he f ortification w alls i s m uch t he s ame a s o ne e ncounters o n m any U rartian s ites, i e., s mall s tones p acked t ogether ; b ut t he f inish o f t he e xterior s tone b locks i s v ery f ine. T hey a re f itted t ogether w ithout m ortar a nd h ave a c onvex s urface. T he i mpression i s o f p ainstaking a nd s turdy , y et r efined c onstruction ( visit b y t he a uthor , S eptember 1 976). e .
K ayalidere
S eton L loyd a nd C harles B urney e xcavated t his s ite , a n u pper a nd l ower c itadel.
B oth w ere
w hich c onsisted o f
f ortified a nd t he L ower c itadel's
d efences w ere r einforced b y i ts p osition o n as teep s lope o ver a r iver.
T he
r oughly d ressed b locks o f t he w alls w ere u p t o 1 .10 i nl ong a nd w ere m ade l evel a t t he t op o f t he s ocle b y t he a ddition o f s mall s tones b efore t he m udb rick s ection w as c onstructed o ver i t. T he g ateway t o t he c itadel w as 2 .90 m w ide ( later n arrowed t o 1 .50 m ) a nd m ay h ave o riginally b een f lanked b y c olumns ( Burney ,
1 966 ,
E xcavation w as
6 4 a nd 6 7). p ermitted
f or
o nly
o ne
s eason
a nd
t he
a mount
o f
i nformation a vailable , t hough q uite r emarkable , d oes n ot a dd m uch t o o ur k nowledge o f U rartian f ortifications. T he s ite's m ost p rominent f eature w as t he t emple , w hich w ill b e d iscussed i n as ubsequent c hapter. 2 4
- -
gm i m m omm ouP . mun
\ \ .
0
F ig.
1 4
2 5
5 0 M
P lan o f L ower A nzaf K ale , n ear V an , T urkey ( Burney, 1 960 , p .181).
;
•/ -
2 5
F ig. 1 5
5 0 M
P lan o f Z ivistan K ale , n ear V an , T urkey ( Burney ,
2 5
1 960 , p . 1 78).
/
^ _
^
-
0
F ig.
1 6
5 0
1 0 0 M
P lan o f U pper A nzaf K ale , n ear V an , T urkey ( Burney,
2 6
1 960 , p . 1 79).
f .
L ower A nzaf K ale a nd Z ivistan K ale
L ower A nzaf K ale ( Fig . 1 4) a nd Z ivistan K ale ( Fig. 1 5) c an b e d ated t o t he r eign o f I shpuini, f ather o f M enua ( 810-786 B .C.). T hese e arly f ortifications a re q uite i mportant i n t hat t heir f acades a re n ot b roken b y t owers o r b uttresses , i ndicating t hat e arly U rartian f ortifications m ay h ave b een o f t his t ype ,
c hanging d uring t he r eign o f M enua t o t he m ore f amiliar
b uttressed a nd t owered t ype. t hese e arly f ortresses ( Burney ,
B uttresses m ay h ave f lanked t he g ateways o f 1 957 , 4 5 ; B urney , 1 960 , 1 81). D uring t he
U rartian e xpansion o f M enuas's r eign t he n ew t ype o f f ortification m ay h ave b een a dopted , f ollowing i ncreased c ontact w ith t he A ssyrians. T hese f ortresses g uard t he r outes n ear t hem ( Anzaf,
t he r oute i nto I ran
a long t he m odern r ailway ; Z ivistan , t he r oute i nto t he v alley o f t he H osap S uyu) a nd w ere p robably s mall g uard p osts. g .
U pper A nzaf K ale
T he k ale
( fortress) i s o n t he h eights a bove L ower A nzaf K ale ,
p robably r eplaced.
t o t he e astern p art o f t he U rartian k ingdom ( Lehmann-Haupt, h ave r epresented a s tage o f t he j ourney. i nn3r a nd o uter c itadel , b oth f ortified w alls
o f
w hich i t
I t i s a bout a d ay's j ourney o n f oot f rom V an o n t he w ay
r oughly s haped s tone b locks ,
1 926 , 3 8) a nd m ay
B uilt b y M enua , i t c onsists o f a n ( Fig. 1 6). T he i nner c itadel h ad
s et w ithout m ortar ,
t he
g aps
f illed
w ith s mall s tones. I ts w alls a re 4 .00 m t hick a nd h ad b uttresses s paced a long t he f acade a t 1 0 .00 m i ntervals , 2 .50 m w ide a nd p rojecting a bout 1 .00 m f rom t he s urface o f t he w alls. T he w all o f t he o uter c itadel h as b een d escribed a s b eing o f r ough c onstruction ; b ut n o o ther i nformation i s a vailab le ( Burney, 1 957, 4 4; B urney, 1 960 , 1 80). h .
V an K ale a nd T oprakale
V an K ale ,
o ne o f t he m ost i mportant U rartian s ites,
i s u nexcavated b ut
h as s ome w ell p reserved f ortifications. T he d ressing o f t he s tone b locks o f t he U rartian w alls v aries f rom r ough t o w ell-dressed ( Otto, 9 5). O ne s ection o f
f ortifications
o n t he h ighest p art
o f
t he
r idge h as
v ery l arge
t ower-like b uttresses, w hich m ay i ndicate t hat i t i s o ne o f t he e arly s tructures o n t he s ite ( Plate 1 ). T he f oundation o f t he s ite i s t raditionally a ttributed t o S arduri I i n t he n inth c entury B .C. ( Sayce , 1 73), a s i ndicated b y t he b uilding a t t he n orth-western e nd o f t he f ortress, t he s o-called H arbour W all , w hich b ears A ssyrian c uneiform i nscriptions o f t his U rartian k ing, r ecording t he t ransport o f s tone b locks f rom a c ity o n t he o ther s ide o f L ake V an . T he c ity , c alled A lniunu , h as b een i dentified b y L ehmann-Haupt a s p ossibly b eing M alazgirt ( Lehmann-Haupt, 1 926 , 2 0), t hough t he a uthor t hinks t hat t he s ite i s t oo g reat a d istance f rom t he l ake t o h ave b een t he o ne m entioned i n t he i nscription . L imestone b locks u p t o 6 .00 m l ong a nd 7 5 c m h igh w ere u sed t o b uild t his
s tructure
o f
u nknown f unction .
V arious
s uggestions
h ave
b een m ade
c oncerning i ts u se: at emple p latform , at ower t o d efend a n earby s pring , a c ustoms h ouse, a p ier o r a b reakwater ( Naumann , 1 968, 5 4 a nd 5 5). N evertheless, i t r emains a n e nigma. P erhaps i t w as a w harf, d ue t o i ts p roximity t o t he l ake , t he m arshy n ature o f t he a rea a nd t he p ossibility t hat t he l ake w as o nce h igher ( van L oon, 1 966, 3 8: P iotrovskii, 1 969, 4 9 ; B urney ,
1 957 , 4 2). 2 7
P late 1 :
F ortifications o n t he n orth s ide l ower c ourses a re U rartian).
2 8
o f
V an K ale,
T urkey
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‘ 1 i t it t t ut t i t ti l l / 1 00 111l lt 1111d itt 111 .1 1. 14t tlItt IN ,
2 9
T oprakkale m ay h ave b een f ounded b y R usa I ( 735-713 B .C.);
i t w as
d efinitely e stablished b y t he r eign o f R usa I I ( 685-639 B .C .). O n t he s ite a re t he r emains o f al arge m ud-brick s uperstructure , w hich h oused s torerooms. T here i s a lso a s ubterranean c hamber c ut o ut o f t he b edrock a nd a pproached b y a w indowed s taircase a long t he s ide o f t he h ill. F urther a long t he r idge t oward t he s addle w as a t emple , d iscovered b y R assam b ut w hich h as c ompletely d isappeared ( except f or s ome t races o f t he f oundations i n t he b edrock ( Barnett, 1 950 , 2 4). R ecent e xcavation o n t he s ite b y P rofessor A fif E rzen h as b een r eported i n b rief s ummaries i n a rchaeological j ournals; t hey d o n ot m ention t he f ortifications. T here a re m any r ock-cut s teps o n t he r idge a nd t he t races o f s ome w alls u nder t he e arth f ill b ut n o e xcavated f ortifications. i .
A znavurtepe
A znavurtepe , n ear P atnos, i s s ignificant n ot o nly f or i ts t emple b ut a lso f or i ts f ortifications ( Fig. 1 7). T hese h ave b uttresses o n t he e xterior a nd t he i nterior , i n ad irectly o pposing f ashion . T his i s ( to t he a uthor's k nowledge) u nparalleled o n U rartian s ites. T he e nclosure w all i s 3 .70-3.90 m t hick a nd h as a c ore o f s mall s tones c ontained b y af acing o n e ach s ide o f l arge s tones.
A long t he w all a re
t owers, 8 .00 m s quare ( sometimes 8 .80 m s quare) a nd s paced a t i ntervals o f 2 0.00 m . B urney b elieves t hat t hese r ose t o ac onsiderable h eight a bove t he w all ,
a p lausible a ssumption w hen o ne
e xamines
t he
m odel f rom T oprakkale i n t he B ritish M use u m ( Burney , J .
f acade
1 960 ,
o f
t he b ronze
1 92-194).
O ther U rartian s ites i n T urkey
T here a re m any U rartian s ites k nown f rom s urveys i n T urkey a nd r ather t han n ame e ach i ndividual s ite, t he a uthor r efers t he r eader t o t he B ibliography , e specially t he a rticles b y B urney a nd t he t opographical m ap b y K leiss. M ost o f t he v erified U rartian s ites a re i n T urkey , w hich w as t he c entre o f t he K ingdom . N evertheless, a l arge n umber o f U rartian s ites h ave b een d iscovered i n I ran , p rimarily t hough t he S urveys o f D r . K leiss.
3 0
3 .
U rartian s ites i n I ran a .
B astam
B astam i s p rimarily a s eventh c entury B .C. s ite , f ounded b y R usa I I a s i ndicated b y a n i nscription o riginally d iscovered o n t he s ite a nd n ow i n t he B astan M useum i n T eheran .
P ottery
o n
t he s ite
i s m ostly
o f
t he s eventh
c entury B .C. a nd c onfirms t he i nscription . T he c olumned h all o n t he m ay d ate t o t he e ighth c entury B .C., t hough t his i s d ebatable.
s ite
L ocated o n a m ountain r idge a bove t he v illage o f B astam n ear Q ara E ddin i n n orth-western A zerbaidjan , t he f ortress i s a bout 8 50 m l ong a bout 4 00 m w ide a nd c onsists o f a n u pper , m iddle a nd l ower c itadel. s ettlement a t t he b ase o f t he r idge i s 6 00 m l ong a nd 3 00 m w ide a nd w as f ortified ( Fig. 1 8). T he c itadels a nd s ettlement m ay h ave b een o ccupied a bout e ighty y ears ,
u ntil s ometime i n t he s ixth c entury B .C .
( Kleiss,
Z ia a nd T he n ot f or
1 970c ,
7 -9 ; K leiss, 1 970a , 1 76 ; K leiss, 1 974a , 2 07 ; K leiss, 1 975a , 1 76), t hough r ecent e vidence s uggests t hat t he s ite m ay h ave b een d estroyed w ithin a s hort t ime a fter c ompletion a nd w as n ot r eoccupied ( Kroll , 1 982). T he e arl iest f ortification o n t he s ite w as a b uttressed w all , w hich a buts o n t he f acade o f t he c olumned h all a t t he n orth g ate o f t he f ortress. A l ater p hase i s r epresented b y t he a ddition o f t owers o n t he w all i n q uestion ( Kleiss , 1 970a , 1 77). G enerally , t he f ortifications a re 3 .80 m t hick , b uilt o n s teps c ut i nto t he b edrock w ith a s tone s ocle 2 .00-3.00 m h igh w ith m ud-brick a bove i t; t he m ud-bricks a re 4 6 x 4 6 x 1 2 c m . A n i nteresting f eature i ncorporated i n t he w alls t o i nsulate t he m ud-brick f rom t he s tone s ocle w as a l ayer o f l ime a top t he s ocle. T his m ay h ave p revented r ising d amp i n t he s uperstructure a nd t hereby p rolonged t he l ife o f t he w all. T he f acade o f t he f ortification w alls w as r elieved b y " Bastionen" , 5 .405 .50 m l ong, w hich p rojected 1 .00 m f rom t he f acade o f t he w all a nd w ere s paced a t i ntervals o f 5 .90 m ( Kleiss, 1 971, 1 67). T he w alls h ad a c ore o f s mall p acked s tones a nd w ere f aced w ith r oughly w orked s tone u p t o t he t op o f t he s ocle , w here i t w as m ade e ven w ith s mall s tones b efore t he s uperstructure w as a dded. s tones.
A ll g aps w ere f illed w ith s mall
A nother i nteresting f eature o f t hese w alls i s t he p rovision o f d rainage c hannels f or r ain w ater . O ne s uch d evice c onsisted o f a u -shaped p iece o f c od , 2 0 c m w ide a nd 1 2 c m t all , w hich h ad b een w orked f rom a s ingle r ounded p iece o f w ood ( Fig. 1 9). I t w as u sed i n c onjunction w ith a s tone b uilt c hannel a s af lue t o c arry t he w ater t hrough t he w all a nd c lear o f i ts f acade ( Kleiss, 1 972a , 2 2 , 2 4). T here w ere t wo g ates a t B astam ; a s outh a nd a n orth g ate. T he a pproaches w ere p aved w ith f lat s tone s labs ( Kleiss, 1 975a , 1 75), t hough t his d id n ot e xtend v ery f ar o utside o f t he g ateways. T he s outh g ate w as f lanked b y a t ower o n e ach s ide ,
6 .00 x 5 .50 m ( Fig.
2 0) ( Kleiss, 1 971b , 1 66), t hrough w hich t here w as a 5 .00 m w ide p assageway, w hich l ed i nto t he 3 .90 m w ide g ateway p roper . T he w alls n ear t he g ateway a re o f v ariable t hi c kness; t o t he s outh i t i s 2 .80 m t hick a nd t o t he n orth 2 .30 m t hick . A long t he f acade o f e ach w all a re t he u sual b uttresses, 2 .60 -3.00 m w ide , w hich p rojected 6 0 c m f rom t he f ace o f t he w all a nd a re s paced 3 1
e , \
. . , _ . . .. _ . . ,, _ _
. .. 7. „ e. -
. . __ . . _ . . _ . . . . › _ „ _ . , . , . . . „ . . , ., „ , , . ,. _ _ . . _ . _ _ „ , . , . . , _ , . , . .. , , . . , . . . , . , , . . . . . „ % _ „ _ . . , , _ . „ . . _ „ , . ‹ .
i d,
-, . _ , . . , . _
„, ,„
)
1
= -
---- - / > . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ." .. / . . " -
2 b i 7
v
%
% ( J1
2
b
c b
3 2
F ig.
1 9
A d rain a t B astam ,
I ran ( Xleiss,
1 976a, F igure 3 ).
/
11 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 3 1 1 31 13
0
5
F ig. 2 1
3
5 1 0 M
F ig. 2 0
0
\
T he s outh g ate a t B astam , I ran ( Kleiss,
1 972a, F igure 4 ).
1 0M
T he n orth g ate a t B astam ,
I ran ( Kleiss,
3 3
1 970c , F igure 1 2).
a t i ntervals o f 5 .50 i n . T he c onstruction o f t he w alls i s t he u sual c ore o f s mall s tones c ontained b y a f acing o f l arger b locks o n e ach s ide a nd u nmortared ( Kleiss, 1 970c , 3 2 ; K leiss, 1 972a ,7). A d rainage c hannel r an t hrough t he g ateway a nd w as c overed w ith s tone s labs ( Kleiss , 1 972a ,11). T he n orth g ate c onsisted o f t wo t owers, 5 .00 x 5 .00 m , b uilt w ith a b attered b ase ( Fig .21). T he 4 .00 m w ide p assageway l ed i nto t he g ateway , 6 .50 x 6 .20 m w ide , w hich c onnected t o t he 5 .00 m w ide s treet a nd i nto t he f ortress p roper. T he t owers a nd a djoining w alls w ere b uilt i n t he s ame m anner a s s tated f or t he s outh g ate. T he s ocle w as 3 .30 i nh igh o n t he e astern t ower o f t he n orth g ate a nd m ay b e t aken a s t he p robable h eight o f t he s ocles o f b oth t owers ( Kleiss, 1 970c , 2 9). A djoining t he n orth g ate w as a w alled a rea o n t he s lope o f t he r idge , w hose w alls w ere 1 .00 i n t hick a nd c onstructed f rom r oughly w orked s tones a round a c ore o f p acked s maller s tones. T he f unction o f t his f ortified a rea i s n ot c lear ( Kleiss, 1 970c , 2 2). E xcavation h as n ot r evealed a ny i nternal f loors o r s tructures. Ap ossible w ater g ate w as l ocated o n t he w est s ide o f t he f ortress, o verlooking a w ater c hannel , w hich m ay o riginally h ave b een U rartian . R ockc ut s teps t here m ay i ndicate t hat t wo t owers f lanked a p ortal t o p rovide a ccess t o t he w ater ( near t he s outhern e nd o f t he s ite) ( Kleiss, 1 970c , T he f ortifications o n t he w estern s ide o f t he s ite a re 2 .50 i nt hick 1,12). w ith " Bastionen" 2 .50 i n l ong , w hich p rojectd 7 0-80 c m f rom t he f ace o f t he w all ( Kleiss , 1 970c , 1 3). T here i s a s eparate
f ortified e nclosure n ortheast o f t he f ortress,
o n
t he p lain , w hich h ad w alls 1 .60-1.70 m t hick w ith b uttresses 1 .501.60 m l ong ; t hey p rojected a bout 6 0 c m f rom t he f ace o f t he w all a nd w ere s paced a t i ntervals o f 5 .50-6 .00 i n . T his s tructure's w alls w ere b uilt i n t he s ame t echnique a s t hose o f t he c itadel , t hough t hey h ave s maller d imensions. T he e nclosure w as o riginally c onsidered t o b e a p ossible c amp o f b esiegers ( Kleiss , 1 970c ,41 ,42) b ut i t h as p roven t o b e U rartian a nd m ay h ave b een a n a rmy c amp , a s t here i s a s tructure w ithin t he e nclosure w hich w as a s table ( Basta n i e xcavation , S ummer 1 977). A lternatively , i t c ould h ave b een a n e nclosure f or h orses; p erhaps a s a s taging a rea f or c ampaigns i n t he e ast a nd n orth o f t he K ingdom . B astam i s t he o nly m ajor U rartian s ite w hich h as b een e xcavated ( or i s b eing e xcavated) i n I ran a nd t herefore o ur i nformation o n t he U rartian p eriod i n I ran i s s c-ewhat l imited . T his d eficiency h as b een p artially e liminated b y t he s urve ‘ o f t he G erman I nstitute o f A rchaeology i n T eheran , ' w hich h ave b roadened o ur k nowledge o f t he g eographical e xtent o f U rartu . b .
Q al'eh H aidari
Q al'eh H aidari c overs a n a rea 2 95 m l ong a nd 8 0125 i nw ide o n a r idge w est o f S iah C hesmeh i n n orth-western I ran . T he 4 .00 i nt hick f ortifications h ave l arge t owers , 7 .50 i nw ide , p rojecting 4 .00 i nf rom t he w all , a s w ell a s b uttresses 3 .00 w ide a nd w hich p roject 7 0 c m f rom t he w all. T his t ype o f w all i s v ery t ypical o f U rartian f ortifications o f t he e ighth c entury B .C . a nd i ts l ocation o n a r oute i nto t he e astern p art o f U rartu m ay b e a n i ndication o f i ts s trategic i mportance d uring t he e xpansion o f t he U rartians u nder t he g uidance o f M bnua ( Kleiss ,
1 976b , 2 0-22). 3 4
C .
S angar
A lthough t he s ite i s b est k nown f or i ts r ock-cut t omb , i t a lso h as t wo l ines o f f ortifications. T he i nner o ne i s 1 .60 m t hick a nd t he o uter i s 2 .30 m t hick . B oth a re b uilt f rom l imestone a nd l ava i n t he u sual f orm o f a c ore o f s maller s tones, b ased u pon r ock-cut s teps. T he s tones u sed f or t he w alls o f t he c itadel p roper a re o f ay ellow-brown l imestone ( Kleiss, 1 968 , 3 8 ). T he c itadel i s l ocated o n t he r oute f rom D ogubayazit i n T urkey , w hich g oes o n t o Q al 'eh S iah a nd P ol-i D asht o n t he A raxes R iver . T his s trategic p osition w ould h ave g iven i t c ontrol o ver t raffic a long t he r oute b etween V an a nd t he A raxes V alley a nd t he U rartian s ettlements t here ( Kleiss , 1 976b , 3 9). d .
A shagi K orul
N ear B astam i s ar ectangular f ortification , w hich m ay h ave b een a g uard p ost o n t he r oute i n t he A g C ay v alley b etween B astam a nd t his s tructure a t t he v illage o f A shagi K orul. T he U rartian c itadel a t B astam c an b e s een f rom n earby r idges. T he u nmortared w alls o f r oughly d ressed s tones a re 2 .50 m t hick a nd h ave b uttresses 2 .30 -2.40 m w ide , w hich p roject 7 0 c m f rom t he f ace o f t he w all a nd a re s paced a t i ntervals o f 6 .00 m . A lthough i t h as n ot b een e xcavated , i ts s mall s ize a nd l ocation , a s w ell a s e vidence f or a s ettlement, i ndicate i ts f unction a s ag uard p ost ( Kleiss , 1 970c ,64 ,65 ; K leiss , 1 972a ,67 ,68). e .
W erachram
W erachram i s o n ar idge a long t he A raxes R iver a nd c onsists o f a n i nner t own a nd c itadel, w hose f ortifications a re s imilar t o t he U rartian f ortifications a t H asanlu. T he 2 .70 -2.80 m t hick w all o f b lack l ava b locks h as b uttresses 2 .70 m w ide , w hich p roject 7 0 c m f rom t he w all a nd a re s paced a t i ntervals o f 7 .50-8 .50 m . T he r eader m ay r ecall t hat t here i s a n U rartian s ite i n T urkey , A znavurtepe , w hich h ad f ortifications w ith d irectly o pposed i nternal a nd e xternal b uttresses. T his i s f ound a t W erachram t oo , t hough t he b uttresses a re n ot d irectly o pposed b ut s taggered ( see F ig . 4 ) ( Kleiss , 1 976a , 3 6). T he t owers o n t he w alls a re 1 0 .50 m l ong a nd 1 0 .00 m w ide a nd s pan t he w alls r ather t han a buting t hem , t o w hich t hey a re j oined b y a b utt-joint. T here a re t wo b uttresses b etween e ach t ower, a s i n t he U rartian f ortifications a t H asanlu ( Kleiss , 1 974b , 9 1). O ne o f t he w alls e xtends t owards t he A raxes a nd m ay h ave b een t he a pproach o f a b ridge a cross t he r iver. T here a re s tructural r emains d irectly o n t he o pposite s ide o f t he r iver , w hich r einforce t he p ossibility o f ab ridge ( Kleiss , 1 974b ,84). f .
H asanlu
T he M ännaean c itadel o f H asanlu w as s acked b y t he U rartians, w ho r ebuilt t he w alls w ith b oulders a nd l imestone b lo c ks a nd t he u sual s uperstructure o f m ud-brick ( Plate 2 ). T he 2 .74 m t hick w alls h ad l arge t owers, w hich s panned t he w alls a t i ntervals o f 9 .15 m . s paced b uttresses ( Fig. 2 2) ( Dyson ,
B etween t he t owers w ere t wo e qually 1 959 , 5 .-8). T he w alls w ere o riginally 3 5
P late 2 :
As ection o f t he U rartian w alls a t H asanlu ,
3 6
I ran.
e F ig. 2 2
l PI I
:
111 11 1 1 1‚
0)
1 0
U rartian w alls a t H asanlu , n ear N aqadeh , I ran ( Dyson ,
1 0
F ig. 2 3
4
2 0 M
1 959 , p .6).
2 0 M
P lan o f A grab T epe, n ear H asanlu ( Kleiss,
3 7
1 976a , F igure 8 ).
c onsidered t o b e M annaean , t hough a r econsideration o f t he c onstruction t echnique a nd t he s tratigraphical m aterial h as p roven t hat t hey a re U rartian ( Dyson , 1 975 , 1 85). g .
A grab T epe
T his s ite , l ocated o n a s mall t epe a bout t wo m iles f rom H asanlu , m ay h ave b een a s mall g uard p ost. T he c rest o f t he t epe i s f ortified a nd t he i nterior i s d ivided i nto a s eries o f r ooms. T here a re e ight b uttresses a long t he e xterior f acade o f t he w all a nd a l arge t ower, w hich p robably p rovided a ccess t o t he i nterior . T he e ncircling w all i s 1 .90 -2.00 m t hick w ith b uttresses 3 .00 -3.70 m w ide , s paced a t i ntervals o f 4 .50 -4.70 m a nd w hich p roject 1 .10 -1.30 m . T he t ower i s 9 .00 m w ide a nd p rojects 7 .00 m f rom t he w all. T he t hirteen r ooms w ithin t he w all h ad v arious f unctions , t o l iving q uarters ( Fig . 2 3).
f rom s torage
T he s ite w as n ot o riginally U rartian , t hough s ome o f t he c onstruction a nd p ottery i ndicate t hat t he U rartians d id u se t his s ite. I t w as d estroyed i n t he s ixth c entury B .C . o r e arlier i n t he s eventh c entury B .C . ( Muscarella , 1 973 , 4 7-76). h .
H aftavan T epe
O nly a s mall p art o f t his s ite a ppears t o h ave b een U rartian..
T he
e xcavation r eports s tate t hat t here w ere m ud-brick w alls o n s tone f oundations; m uch a s o ne w ould f ind a t a ny U rartian s ite p reviously l isted . T he b uildings w ithin t he f ortifications m ay h ave c omprised p art o f a p alace f or a p rovincial g overnor ( Burney , 1 972b , 1 39 ; B urney , 1 974 , 2 14 ; B urney , 1 975 , 1 62). I f s o o ne w ould h ope t hat m ore s ubstantial r emains w ould b e f ound . i .
K ale S iah
K ale S iah , w hich i s l ocated e ast o f M äku , a s t he n inth c entury B .C . a s s hown b y t he u se l ike b uttresses o n t he f ortification w alls, b etween e ach p air o f b astions. A gain , t his U rartian H asanlu . T he w alls o f t he i nner f ortress l ater o uter f ortress a re 2 .00 -3.25 a re 1 0 .50 m l ong a nd p roject 5 .50 m , ( Kleiss , 1 973c , 8 5-87 ; K leiss , 1 968 , j .
m ay h ave b een f ounded a s e arly o f a l arge n umber o f b astionw ith t wo s maller b uttresses i s c omparable t o t he p lan o f
a re 3 .10 m t hick , w hile t hose o f t he t hick . T he t owers o f t he i nner w all s paced a t i ntervals o f 2 1.50 -23 .00 m 1 7).
K iz K alesi a t E voghlu
K iz K alesi m ay a lso d ate t o t he n inth c entury B .C .,
a s i t h as a p lan
s imilar t o t hat o f K ale S iah. T here i s a l ater a ddition t o t he f ortifications o n t he s ite i n t he s eventh c entury B .C ., w hich m ay r epresent a s trengthening o f t he f ortifications o n t his a nd o ther U rartian s ites t o r epel i nvaders. T he e nclosure w all i s 2 .70 i n t hick a nd h as a g ateway 4 .50 i nw ide. B uttresses a long t he w alls a re 2 .70 i n l ong a nd p roject 8 0 c m , i nterval o f 7 .20 m b etween t hem. T he m aterial w as a s u sual
w ith a n a n
u nmortared s ocle o f r oughly d ressed s tones w ith a m ud-brick s uperstructure ( Kleiss, 1 973c ,87 ; K leiss, 1 974b ,82). k .
O ther U rartian s ites i n I ran
T here a re m any m ore U rartian s ites i n I ran , k nown p rimarily t hrough s urveys. T he a uthor r efers t he r eader t o t he B ibliography , e specially t he a rticles b y K leiss. U rartian f ortifications e volved f rom a s mooth u nrelieved f acade i n u se d uring t he n inth c entury B .C . t o a b uttressed a nd t owered f orm b y t he r eign o f M enua ( eighth c entury B .C.). I t i s p erhaps r ather u nusual t hat t he U rartians w ere b uilding m ajor f ortifications d uring t he r eign o f M enua a t a t ime w hen t hey w ere e xpanding a nd h ad f ew r eal e nemies t o w orry a bout.
T he
A ssyrians w ere n ot e ffectively c ampaigning a gainst t hem a nd n o o ther p owers w ere n ear e nough t o c oncern t hem . Y et t hey b uilt b uttressed a nd t owered f ortifications, w hich w ere s tronger a nd b etter a dapted t o w ithstanding a ttacks ( the a ngles o f t he b uttresses a nd t owers g ave t he d efenders a w ider r ange o f f ire a s w ell a s m aking i t d ifficult t o b atter t he w alls). T here w ere n o r eally t hreatening e nemies a nd o ne m ay a ssume t hat t he U rartians w ere d oing w hat a ny e xpanding a nd a mbitious p ower w ould h ave d one , i .e., b uilding i mpressive f ortifications w ithin t he k ingdom a nd n ew t erritories t o i mpress t he p opulace w ith t he m ight o f t he k ing a nd t he U rartian n ation i n g eneral. T hey w ere v isible s igns t hat t he p eople , l and a nd r outes o f c ommunication w ere p rotected .
T he r egional c entres r elied u pon t heir o utposts f or s upport
a nd r etained c ontrol t hrough c ommunication f rom o ne c entre t o t he n ext. c apital c ould r apidly b e a dvised o f a ny d evelopment.
T he
D uring t he s eventh c entury B .C . t he U rartians w ere n o l onger e xpanding b ut r etreating a nd c onsolidating t he c orc o f t heir k ingdom . T he A ssyrians p ushed t hem o ut o f t heir n ew t erritories a nd k ept a w ary e ye o n t hem ; b ut g enerally d id l ittle e lse. B ack i n t heir h omeland t he U rartians c hanged t heir f ortifications t o aw all w ith a b uttressed f acade; t he t owers w ere n o l onger a p rominent f eature , e xcept i n t he a rea n orth o f t he A raxes r iver. T he e ighth c entury B .C . s ystem m ay h ave b een r etained i n t he A raxes V alley b ecause t he U rartians b elieved t hat t he t hreat t hat f aced t hem c ame f rom t he T ranscaucas...the C immerians a nd t he S cythians. T hey d ropped t heir e xpansionist d reams b y t he s eventh c entury B .C. a nd w ere m ore c oncrened w ith p rotection f rom i nvaders, a s i s r eflected i n t he a rchitecture , e specially t hat i n t he A raxes V alley. T he U rartian f ortress a t B astam w as p ossibly s acked s hortly a fter i ts c ompletion i n t he s eventh c entury B .C . T his w ould l ikely i ndicate a m uch e arlier c rumbling o f t he n orthern U rartian f rontier a nd t he e nd o f U rartu a s a K ingdom b efore t he d emise o f t he A ssyrians. f ears o f t he U rartians w ere w ell-founded .
T he
C hapter I II: P alaces
D uring t he l ate n inth c entury B .C. a nd t he e arly e ighth c entury B .C. t he U rartians e xpanded t heir k ingdom f rom t he i mmediate a rea o f L ake V an t o t he w est a nd n orth , d efeating t he k ing o f M alatya ( Suluhauali), w ho l aid t ribute b efore M anua ( Winter , 1 27). M eanwhile , e xpansion c ontinued t o t he n orth a nd e ast,
w hich b rought t he U rartians i nto c ontact w ith t he M annaeans
( van
U fford, 5 ). I t i s d uring t his e arly p eriod t hat U rartian a rchitecture a chieved i ts h ighest s tandards o f c onstruction a nd f orm ; d ue n o d oubt t o t he e xpansion , w hich b rought t he U rartians i nto c ontact w ith m ore c osmopolitan c ultures. T he s ubsequent p eriod ,
f rom t he r eign o f R use I ( 735-713 B .C .) t o t he
e nd o f t he U rartian K ingdom i n t he s ixth c entury B .C., h as a m arkedly d ifferent d evelopment i n a rchitecture, w ith m ore e mphasis p laced u pon e conomic a nd a gricultural d evelopment a s r eflected i n t he s implified a rchitecture o f p alaces w ith v ast s torage f acilities f or t he p roducts o f t he w orkshop a nd t he f ields ( van L oon , 1 966 , 1 8). T he f ollowing d iscussion , s tarting w ith e arly e xamples o f p alaces, w ill u nderline t he d ifferences b etween t he a rchitecture o f t he e arly p eriod i n r elation t o t he s ubsequent c hanges. W e w ill e xamine t he p alaces a t A rin-Berd , K armir-Blur a nd A rmavir ( in t he A rmenian S .S.R); A ltintepe, K ef K alesi o f A dilcevaz, G iriktepe a nd C ävustepe f eatures,
( in T urkey); a nd B asta n i ( in I ran), e xamining t he p lans, b asic c olumned h alls, d ecorative a spects a nd e conomic f unctions o f t he
p alace i n U rartu . A .
P lans o f p alaces
T he U rartian p alace a t A rin-Berd ( Fig. 6 ), f ounded b y A rgishti I i n 7 81 B .C ., i s t he e arliest e xample o f a p alace i n U rartu. I t c onsists o f s everal s eparate a reas , e ach a n i ndependent u nit, c onnected t o t he o thers b y c hambers a nd c ourtyards;
l ike a ll U rartian p alaces,
i t w as b uilt
o f
s un-
d ried m ud-brick w ith a p laster c oating. I t i s t he b est a vailable e xample o f p alace p lanning i n U rartu, t hough C avustepe i s a c lose, s lightly l ater p arallel , b ut w hose p lanning i s m ore l imited b y t opographical c onsiderations t han A rin-Berd ( Burney , 1 957 ,45). W hether o r n ot t he s ettlement o f c aptives f rom U rartian c ampaigns i n N orth S yria a nd T supani ( Azarpay , 1 8) h ad a ny i nfluence o n p alace a rchitecture , t hrough t he u se o f t hem a s w orkmen , i s d ebatable ( Piotrovskii , 1 959b ,171). I t i s m ore f easible t o l ook f or t heir i nfluence i n d omestic a rchitecture ( see C hapter V I). A nother s ite f ounded b y A rgishti I w as A rmavir, r eferred t o b y t he U rartians a s A rgishtihinili ( Fig . 1 1). I t e xtends o ver a s eries o f h ills b etween t wo f ortresses. T he l atter h ave p alatial s ections i n w hich t he b uildings a re u nits c onnected b y p assages a nd c ourtyards, t hough t hey l ack t he s patial a rrangement o f A rin-Berd. I nscriptions o f A rgishti I , S arduri I , R usa I a nd R usa I a nd R usa I II ( Märtirosian , I
1 967 , 2 21) i ndicate t hat t he
s ite w as i n u se u ntil t he e nd o f t he U rartian k ingdom a nd t his m ay a ccount
f or t he r ather d ispersed l ay-out o f t he b uildings, e specially w hen c ompared t o s eventh c entury B .C . K armir-Blur ( see F ig .5), w here a ll t he c eremonial r ooms w ere o n t he s torey a bove t he w orkshops a nd s torerooms. A c losely b uilt s eventh c entury B .C. c itadel o f r ooms o ccupying a s pace o f 1 6000 m2 ( Lloyd , 13 ; P iotrovskii , 1 950 , 4 3) i s ac onsiderable c ontrast t o t he e ighth c entury B .C . p lans o f A rin-Berd a nd A rgishtihinili , n ot o nly b ecause o f t he m assiveness o f K armir-Blur b ut t he e xternal a ppearance, w hich S oviet a rchaeologists a rgue h as a m ore M esopotamian c haracter t han o ther U rartian p alaces i n t he A rmenian S .S.R ( Martirosian , 1 958 , 1 63), a n a ssumption b ased p rimarily o n t he e xtensive u se o f m ud-brick i n c onstruction i n a n a rea w here s tone i s r eadily a vailable. N evertheless, t his i s o nly s lightly a t v ariance w ith t he u sual U rartian m ethods o f c onstruction . T he p redominant u se o f m ud-brick m ay h ave b een a r egional a rchitectural s tyle p eculiar t o t his a rea. ( Martirosian , 1 964 , 2 34). a vuetepe ( Fig. 1 3), w hich h as a lready b een m entioned a bove, w as s urveyed b y C harles B urney ( Burney , 1 957 , 4 5-47) a nd h as s ince b een a lmost c ompletely e xcavated b y P rofessor A fif E rzen . T he f ew e xcavation s ummaries a vailable i n a rchaeological j ournals i ndicate t hat t he s ite h ad a m ajor U rartian p alace a nd s trong, w ell-constructed f ortifications ( Anatolian S tudies , 1 968b ,29). P arts o f t he p alace w ere f ormed f rom c uttings i n t he b edrock ; S tudies ,
c isterns , f loors a nd t he f ootings o f w alls a nd s upports ( Anatolian 1 973b ,29-32).
T he p alace a rea a t C avustepe i s o n al ong r ock r idge a bout o ne k ilometre l ong , p ointing d own t he H osap S uyu p lain t oward L ake V an . I t h as a c entral r oom , w hose l ower w alls a nd s upports a re c ut f rom t he b edrock, a nd s ide r ooms. T he c entral r oom h as f our a reas c ut o ut o f t he b edrock a nd l ined w ith b locks o f s tone , w hich m ay h ave b een c isterns. A t t he e astern e nd o f t he r oom w as a b akery a nd a k itchen , w ith n earby s torage r ooms c ontaining l arge p ithoi. T he p alace w as c onnected t o t he c entre o f t he s ite ( the t emple o f S arduri I I) b y al ong s treet ( see F ig . 1 3). T his b rief d escription o f t he p alace a t C avustepe g ives o ne a p icture o f t he i nter-related f unctions o f t he p alace a nd t he t emple . A n e ven b etter e xample c an b e f ound i n t he p lan o f A rin-Berd ( Fig. 6 ): t he n orthern c ourtyard ( No .1) a nd i ts r ooms; t he p eristyle c ourtyard ( No .2) w ith i ts c eremonial h all ( No.3) a nd " Susi" t emple ( N o.4); a nd a n o uter c ourtyard ( No.5) t o t he s outh , i n w hich t here w as a t emple o f H aldi ( No .6), t he m ain d eity o f t he U rartian p antheon ( Martirosian , 1 964 , 2 37). E ach s eparate u nit h as a p articular f unction e ither c eremonial o r r eligious; b ut a ll w ere a p art o f t he p alace. T he c eremonial f unctions o f t he p alace c ould t ake p lace i n c on junction w ith t hose o f t he t emple o r s eparate f rom t hem . I t s eems t o h ave b een a p art o f t he r itual l ife i n t he p alace. T he p roximity o f t he t emples t o t he p alace p roper i s i ndicative o f t he s pecial r elationship b etween t he t wo. T he p lann ing a t A rin-Berd i ndicates t hat t hey w ere p art o f t he p alace, t hough p erhaps t he H aldi t emple w as a ccessible t o t he p opulace. T he " Susi" t emple w as i n t he h eart o f t he p alace , s urrounded b y f ormal r ooms a nd n ot e asily a ccessible . S imilar , t hough l ess f ormal a rrangments e xist o n o ther U rartian s ites, i ncluding A rmavir , K armir-Blur , a nd B astam ( Kafadaryan , 2 39 ; M artirosian , 1 974 , 8 6 ; O ganesian , 1 955 , 4 2 ; K leiss , 1 972a , 3 2). T he s ize o f t he p alace l argely d epends o n t he t errain o f t he s ite. A rin-Berd a nd A ltintepe a re a pproximately t he s ame s ize ( Arin-Berd i s s ix h ectares) ( Oganesian , 1 955 , 9 ), w hile G iriktepe i s r ather s maller a nd o n a
l ow m ound.
T he l atter w as d estroyed i n t he e ighth c entury B .C .
h all i n w hich t he v ictims o f t he h olocaust w ere d iscovered ,
a nd h ad a
e ach h olding a
s mall b ronze l ion ( Özg 4 ,1966 ,47; O rthmann ,168 ; a nd M ellink , 1 963 , 1 83). T he s imilarity o f t his s ite t o H asanlu m ust n ot b e o veremphasized , e specially i n r elation t o t he a rchitecture a nd c ulture o f e ither s ite a s i t r esults i n c onfusion . T he s imilarity i s o ne o f a t errible d estruction a nd n othing m ore. M ost U rartian p alaces w ere b uilt o n m ountainous r idges, w ere s ometimes b uilt o n al ow h ill.
t hough t hey
L evelling o f a s ite b efore c onstruction i s o nly e ncountered d uring t he e arly p eriod o f U rartian a rchitecture, a s a t A rin-Berd, A ltintepe a nd G irikepe ( Oganerian , 1 961,22); d uring s ubsequent p eriods b uildings w ere b uilt d irectly o n t he g round s urface o r w ere b uilt o n i ndividually l evelled a nd/or t erraced a reas ( Barnett , r astam
i s
a s plendid
1 959 ,11).
e xample
o f
t he u tilization o f
t erracing ,
w here
a rtifical p latforms/retaining w alls o r f lattened a reas i n t he b edrock w ere m ade f or b uildings. T erracing w as u sed d uring t he c onstruction o f t he b uilding a bove t he s outh g ate , w hich w as 4 1.00 m l ong , 2 0 .00 m w ide a nd h ad a c ourtyard 2 5.3e m b y 6 .00 m w ith c olumns a t e ach e nd t o s upport a r oof o r u pper s toreys. T he e ast s ide o f t he c ourtyard h ad w alls o f a c asemate t ype b ut w hich , d ue t o t he s lope o f t he h ill w ould h ave b een 8 .00 m h igher t han t he w alls o n t he o pposite s ide , w here t here w ere t wo l ong r ooms. A r oom a t t he n orth e nd o f t he b uilding, w hich w as 1 .40 m w ide, w as p robably a s tairwell ( Fig . 2 4a) ( Kleiss, 1 974c , 12). E lsewhere o n t he s ite t here a re o ther t erraced a reas f or b uildings, s uch a s t he l ong p illared r oom o n t he s outh e nd o f t he s ite ( Fig .24b).
M any o f t he b uldings w ere m ulti-storied.
A t errace w as f ormed b y t he c onstruction o f ar etaining w all a nd f illing i n t he a rea b ehind i t w ith s mall s tones a nd e arth t o c reate a n e ven s urface u pon w hich a s tructure c ould b e r aised. T he r etaining w alls t hemselves a re o ften o f a f aily c omplicated n ature. T he f ront o f s uch a w all w as u sually b ased u pon a l ower r ock-cut s tep a nd t he a rea b etween t he f acade o f t he w all a nd t he r ock-cut s tep f urther b ack ( and s lightly a bove t he o ther) f illed w ith a p acking o f s tones a nd e arth ( Fig.25). T hese s tones w ere h ammered i nto p lace t o i nsure a s table f oundation ; t he l ocal i nhabitants i n B astam s till u se t he s ame t echnique. T he p lan o f
t he p alace a reas a t
B astam a nd a t K armir-Blur a re o f
s ignificant c ontrast , t hough b oth a re U rartian s ites o f t he s eventh c entury B .C. ( Fig.5 a nd 1 8). T he p alace a rea a t K armir-Blur i s c oncentrated b ehind a m assive f acade , w ith t he r ooms f orming a b lock-like s tructure w ith t he p alace o n t he u pper s torey; a t B astam t he b uildings a re d ispersed o ver t he s ite a nd t hough i ndividual b uildings m ay h ave a m assive e xterior, t he i mpression i s s patial a nd t erraced r ather t han a c oncentrated m ass. T his d ifference o f p lan m ay b e i ndicative o f r egional v ariations i n U rartian a rchitecture m entioned p reviously i n c onnection w ith t he A raxes v alley, b earing a s imilarity t o M esopotamian a rchitecture ( Piotrovskii , 1 950 , 1 7) b y t he e xtensive u se o f m ud-brick. A s h as b een i ndicated , t he p lans o f U rartian p alaces w ere l imited b y t he n ature o f t he t errain o n w hich t hey w ere b uilt. S ome w ere b uilt d irectly o n t he g roupd , w hile o thers w ere c onstructed o n a rtificially l evelled s ites. M ost w ere b uilt o n m ountainous r idges, w here r ock-cut s teps a nd t erraces w ere n ecessary f or t he f oundations o f b uildings ( usually o f m ore t han o ne s torey). N evertheless, w ithin t hose l imits t here w as a n i nter-play b etween t he c eremonial f unctions o f t he p alace a nd t he t emple.
P alaces w ere p lanned i n
I :
l a mm l i Ww - -. -' w e _
- • --
-
;
5
F ig. 2 4a
1 0 M
P lan o f t he b uilding a bove t he s outh g ate a t B astam , r epresents r ock—cut s teps) ( Kleiss, 1 974c , F igure 7 ).
_
1
I ran ( stipling
_ 1 51 •
F ig. 2 4b
R econstruction o f t he pillared r oam o n t he s outhern projection o f t he r idge o f B astam ,
I ran ( Kleiss,
4 4
1 974c , F igure 6 ).
6 ge" me gMO
,4 a r ame. g ie . 7 1 ": -• ;;Ä 7 .4 Ke l le f t e l l ie y. e
g gij
a l
f äh
l
i
a I M
P
e t t le . "e i e l i s l a i t m j9 3 . 7 1 1 1 1 1 "1 7 4 1 3 -
0
F ig. 2 5
5M
i
R ock—cut s teps a nd t erraced w all ( Kleiss,
4 5
1 972a, F igure 1 7).
s uch a w ay t hat t he f unctions o f b oth c ould b e c ombined o r r emain s eparate. P alaces o f t he e ighth c entury B .C. d id n ot a pproach t he v ast ( see s ection o n e conomy). p oints
o f
c eremony
a nd
h ad s ome s torage f acilities,
t hough t hey
s ize o f t hose b uilt i n t he s eventh c entury B .C . T he e arlier p alaces a ppear t o h ave b een f ocal
r eligion ,
w hich w ere o ver-shadowed
b y
t he e conomic
n ecessities a nd n eed f or c ontrol o f s upplies i n t he s eventh c entury B .C . B .
C onstruction o f t he b uilding T he w alls o f t he p alace w ere b uilt o f s un-dried m ud-brick , c oated w ith a
l ayer o f m ud-plaster .
T he m ud-brick
i s
n ot u sually
l aid d irectly o n t he
g round s urface b ut u pon a l ow s ocle o f s tone. A t B astam i t h as b een f ound t hat a l ayer o f l ime w as s pread b etween t he s tone s ocle a nd t he m ud-brick , p erhaps t o p revent t he d amp f rom r ising i nto t he m ud-brick. b uilt c ompletely o f s tone. F loors o f p alaces w ere e ither ( Oganesian , 1 960 ,294) w ith a c overing p acked e arth a nd s tones c overed w ith 1 974 , 8 2). U pper s toreys o f b uildings
W alls a re n ever
p acked e arth/clay a s a t A rin-Berd o f r eed m ats ( Loseva , 1 958 , 1 89) o r p laster , a s a t A rmavir ( Martirosian , h ad f loors o f w ooden b eams s upporting
c losely f itted p lanks c overed b y w oven r eed m ats ( Piotrovskii, 1 950 , 4 5). F inds f rom s everal U rartian s ites i ndicate t hat u pper s toreys d id e xist ( Bastam, K armir-Blur, A rmavir a nd C avustepe); t his i s s upported b y t he r elief f rom K ef K alesi ( Fig.36) a nd t he b ronze m odel f rom T oprakale ( Fig.9), w hich d epict m ulti-storied b uildings. I t i s l ikely t hat t he M usasir r elief ( Fig.26) f rom t he p alace o f S argon I I a t K horsabad d epicts m ulti-storied b uildings, d epending o n w hether o ne i nterprets t he b uildings t o t he l eft o f t he t emple a s m ulti-storied o r t erraced o n a h illside ; t he a uthor b elieves t hey w ere t erraced a s i ndicated b y t he c ornice a t e ach l evel. T he c onstruction o f t he f loors o f t he u pper s tories w as r ather s imilar t o t he m ethods u sed f or r oofs/ceilings, t hough t he l atter a re m ore c omplex . T wo m ethods w ere u sed f or r oofs: ( 1) b eams w ere s et c lose t ogether a nd c overed b y a l ayer o f r eeds, a l ayer o f t wigs, a nd a nother l ayer o f r eeds b efore a t hick l ayer o f w et c lay w as p acked o nto t he r eeds; e xactly l ike m ethod o ne e xcept r ight a ngles t o f orm s quares.
o f
w as
t hat b eams w ere l aid a cross e ach o ther a t T he s econd o f t hese m ethods w as t he m ost
p revalent o ne u sed i n t he s tore r ooms a t K armir-Blur ( Piotrovskii, A n a nalysis
( 2)
t he w ood u sed
f or f loors a nd
c eilings
a t
1 950 ,44). K armir-Blur
r eveals t hat t he U rartians u sed p ine , p oplar , b eech , o ak a nd a sh : p ine w as f avoured f or c eilings ( 80 p er c ent), e ven t hough i t h ad t o b e i mported f rom a d istance o f u p t o o ne h undred k ilometres. O n t he o ther h and o ak w as u sed m ost o ften f or f loors ( 45 p er c ent), t hough a sh ( 30 p er c ent) a nd p oplar ( 25 p er c ent) w ere a lso u tilized. A sh a nd p oplar w ere r eadily a vailable b ut w ere n ot u sed e xtensively ( Piotrovskii, 1 955 , 6 2). W ood w as a lso u sed t o c onstruct s taircases a nd r amps a t K armir-Blur ( Piotrovskii,
1 950 ,
4 4).
L ight f or t he i nterior o f b uildings p robably c ame t hrough w indows h igh i n t he w alls ( Fig.26). O therwise , i t c ame f rom l ight w ells o r l amps. T he u nroofed r ooms a t K armir-Blur w ere p robably l ight-wells, w hich w ere s upplemented b y t erraces a nd o pen c ourtyards o n t he u pper s torey ( Fig. 2 7). T he p alace c ould b e b uilt i n t erraces s o t hat t he w indows o f o ne r oom w ere a bove t he r oof o f t he n ext r oom d own t he h illside ( Piotrovskii, 1 950 , 4 4). W indows m ay h ave b een f ramed i n w ood o r s tone; n o e xamples h ave b een f ound , t hough r elief r epresentations s uggest t his p ossibility. 4 6
4 7
1 966 , F igure 5 b).
r--T
-- e-
r
L _ , L
4
,
T
7 -
_
--
I44
7
-
--
-
-
r
H .r- -
1 L
L
_
__; _ _ . .
2 5
F ig. 2 7
5 0 M
R econstruction o f t he p lan o f t he u pper s torey o f t he c itadel a t K armir-Blur , ( 2)
A rmenian S .S.R .,
a n o pen t errace a nd
( 3)
4 8
i ncorporating
( 1)
a p illared
a c olumned c ourtyard ( author).
h all ,
T he r emaining f eature t o b e d iscussed i s t he c ornice o r c renellation . T he M usasir r elief ( Fig. 2 6) h as v ery p lain c ornices o n t he b uildings t o t he l eft o f t he t emple ; t he b ronze m odel f rom T oprakale ( Fig.9) h as r ather m ore e laborate o nes, i n t he s hape o f c renellations, w hich a re a lso d epicted o n t he r elief f rom K ef K alesi ( Fig.36). P art o f a s imple b asalt c ornice w as d iscovered a t K armir-Blur , e ach b lock 5 2 c m h igh. I t w as p robably p laced a t t he t op o f t he m ud-brick s uperstructure a nd p rojected s lightly f orward. C ornices a t o ther U rartian s ites m ay h ave b een s imilar , t hough t his i s t he o nly o ne w hich h as b een d iscovered ( Piotrovskii, 1 950 ,45). C .
C olumned h alls.
U rartian c olumned h alls w ere r ectangular s tructures, p robably u sed f or a v ariety o f p urposes. T hey m ay b e c lassified a s o ne o f t hree t ypes, a ccording t o t he f orm a nd n umber o f s upports u sed: ( 1) ad ouble r ow o f p illars; ( 2) a d ouble r ow o f c olumns; a nd ( 3) s everal r ows o f c olumns. T hey h ave b een f ound a t s everal U rartian s ites, i ncluding B astam , A rmavir ( Kleiss, 1 976a,37), C avustepe ( Anatolian S tudies, 1 976, 3 3), A ltintepe ( Mellink , 1 963 ,181) a nd K ef K alesi ( Anatolian S tudies, 1 968a , 2 6). A lthough t hey w ere p art o f t he p alace, t hey d id n ot a ll h ave t he s ame f unction. 1 .
O rigin o f t he c olumned h all
T he
c olumned h all m ay h ave o riginated i n U rartu ,
I ran i s m ore l ikely,
t hough n orth-western
a s i ndicated b y t he h all a t H asanlu ( Hrouda,259).
T here a re a t l east t hree h alls a t H asanlu , d ated t o t he p eriod o f H asanlu I V ( about t he t enth t o t he e ighth c entury B .C.) a nd d esignated a s B .B. I , B .B.III.
T hey a re m ore o r l ess r ectangular ,
w ith a r ow o f m assive p illars
d own e ach s ide , w hich p robably s upported a h eavy s uperstructure. C uyler Y oung h as p roposed t hat t he c entre o f t he b uilding h ad a h earth o n a p avement, w ith t he a rea a bove i t o pen t o t he s ky a nd w as f lanked b y b alconies ( Fig.28) ( C. Y oung , 1 966 , 5 6). H e s tates t hat t he r oof w ould h ave b een g abled , a s i ndicated b y t he h eavy s uperstructure o f t he w alls, w hich w ould h ave s upported s uch a r oof.
I n s upport o f t he u se o f t his t ype o f r oof h e
d raws a ttention t o t he s o-called g abled r oof o n t he U rartian t emple M usasir r elief ( Fig. 2 6).
i n t he
T he h alls a t H asanlu w ere u sed f or s acred a nd p rofane f unctions; m aybe e ven a s ar esidence ( C . Y oung , 1 966 , 5 8). P ossible a ntecedents o f t he f orm a re t he B it-Hilani ( which O ganesian b elieves w as a dapted i n t he c onstruction o f t he H aldi t emple a t A rin-Berd ; G ordion) ( C. Y oung ,
s ee c hapter I V) a nd t he " megaron"
( as a t
1 966 ,61,62).
B efore w e b egin t he d iscussion o f U rartian c olumned h alls p roper , w e w ill b riefly c onsider " Megaron 3 " a t G ordion ( Fig. 2 9). T here i s n ot a d irect l ink b etween t his b uilding a nd t he U rartian c olumned h alls b ut t he p arallels a re s uch t hat t hey m ay i ndicate a n A natolian o rigin f or t he l atter a nd t he p ossibility t hat " Megaron 3 " a nd t he U rartian c olumned h alls h ave a c ommon o rigin . T he a uthor d oes n ot f eel t hat t he t radition n ecessarily s pread f rom G reek a ntecendents
( the " megaron" m ay n ot b e G reek),
a re u nknown i n A natolia a fter T roy I I , E .B .2 ( C. Y oung ,
1 966 ,
a s e xamples
7 1).
T he " megaron" p lan b uildings a t G ordion a re " Burnt B rick B uilding" , " Mosaic B uilding" , " Megaron 3 " a nd s everal s tructures s outh o f t he " Terrace B uilding". 4 9
0
F ig. 2 8
5
1 0M
P lan o f B urned B uilding I I a t H asanlu , 1 ).
5 0
I ran ( T .C. Y oung,
1 966 , F igure
F ig. 2 9
P lan o f M egaron 3 a t G ordion , T urkey ( R . Y oung,
5 1
1 962b , p .9).
" Megaron 3 " ( Fig.29) i s r ectangular w ith a c entral n ave a nd t wo s ide a isles, t he l atter s et o ff f rom t he n ave b y w ooden b eams s et i nto t he f loor , w hich s upported f our u pright w ooden b eams o n e ach s ide a nd w hich t hemselves m ay h ave s upported a b alcony. O riginally t here w as a h earth i n t he m iddle o f t he b uilding , w hich w as s panned b y a g abled r oof, s moke e scaping t hrough a h ole i n t he r oof ( R . Y oung , 1 962b ,9). E vidence f or t he g abled r oof c omes m ainly f rom r epresentations o f t he f rom o n r ock-cut f acades o f t ombs n ear t he " city o f M idas" , s outh-east o f G ordion ( R . Y oung , 1 962b ,6). T hough t he b uilding a nd t he B .B . b uildings o f H asanlu ( Fig.28) h ave s ome b asic s imilarities, t he c onstruction i s r ather d ifferent. S lim b eans u sed a s s upports a t G ordion a re q uite a c ontrast t o t he h eavy p illars a t H asanlu. A t t he s ame t ime o ne m ust p oint o ut t he s imilarity b etween t he B .B. b uildings a t H asanlu a nd t he U rartian c olumned h alls. T hat a nd t he c ontact b etween t he U rartians a nd t he i nhabitants o f n orth-western I ran m ake i t m ore t han l ikely t hat t he U rartian c olumned h all i s n ot b ased u pon a n a natolian o rigin . 2 .
H alls w ith t wo r ows o f p illars
H alls w ith t wo r ows o f p illars a re k nown f rom ç avu tepe a nd K ef K alesi a nd i t i s p ossible t o r econstruct o ne o n t he u pper s torey o f t he c itadel a t K armir-Blur. T he p illars r eferred t o a re e xemplified b y t hose d iscovered i n ah all a t K ef K alesi , w hich w ere 2 .99 x 2 .00 m a nd 1 .53 m h igh . T hey w ere c omposed o f t hree c ourses o f s moothly f inished b asalt b locks, e ach s ide r ecessed 1 8 c m , w hich g ave t he c orners a b uttressed e ffect ( Plate 3 ). T he u pper p art o f t he p illars w as c omposed o f m ud-brick ( Bilg 4 ,1964 ,111,112). T hey h ad f oundations a bout s tones ( Bilg 4 ,1964 ,108).
8 0
c m d eep o f
p ebbles
c overed w ith l arge r ough
A nother h all o n t he s ite h ad p illars 3 .00 m x 3 .00 m w ith s imilar f oundations a nd c oursing ( each c ourse w as 5 0-52 c m h igh) a nd s eparated b y a n i nterval o f 4 .50 m . T hey w ere a rranged i n t wo r ows a long t he s ides o f t he r oom , t hree i n e ach r ow , w ith o ne p illar o n t he s hort e nds o f t he r oom , b etween t he t erminal p illars o f e ach r ow ( Fig.30) ( Ogün ,489). T he b rief e xcavation r eports a vailable d o n ot s tate w hether t he e xcavator i nterprets t he c entral a rea a s o pen o r r oofed , t he c ontinuation o f s ide ( Burney, 1 958 ,
t hough t here w as a n u pper s torey,
w here
t he p illars w as t opped b y b locks w ith r eliefs o n e ach 2 16 ; A natolian S tudies, 1 968a ,26). I f o ne u ses t he
h alls a t H asanlu a nd G ordion a s e xamples,
t he c entral a rea c ould h ave b een
p artially o pen ; b ut U rartian c olumned h alls w ere p robably n ot o pen t o t he s ky. T he a uthor f eels t hat t he h alls w ere r oofed, e specially w hen o ne c onsiders
t he
c limatic
c onditions
o f
t he
U rartian
h ighland
a rchaeological e vidence f rom o ther U rartian c olumned h alls ,
a nd
t he
i ndicating t hat
t he b uildings w ere r oofed. T he h alls a t K ef K alesi w ere f or f ormal c eremonies,
a ssociated w ith t he
s ecular p alace a nd t he w orship o f H aldi. T he r eligious f unction i s i ndicated b y i nscriptions o n t he s tone r elief b locks, w hich s tate t hat t he h all w as a p lace f or l ibations t o H aldi ( Ogün ,494,497). I ts u se a s a s ecular " reception r oom" i s r einforced b y t he p roposed r econstruction a t K armir-Blur , o n t he u pper s torey. B oth o f t hese s ites d ate t o t he s eventh c entury B .C., t heir h alls r epresenting a n a rchitectural f orm b egun d uring t he r eign o f R usa I I . T he c olumned h all o f t his t ype a t ç avu tepe i s s imilar t o t hat a t K ef K alesi t hough n ot n ecessarily o f t he s ame d ate ( no d ate i s a vailable). I t 5 2
P late 3 :
Ap illar f rom o ne o f t he c olumned h alls a t K ef K alesi , T urkey.
5 3
r a %f
EZ)
• 1 11
X
a h oe
Q C OO
t •-
• 1
1 1. 1. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M IN I
M
S TORAGE V ES SELS
F ig. 3 0
P lan o f a c olumned h all a t K ef K alesi, F igure 5 ).
n ear A dilcevaz,
T urkey ( Ögün ,
A rmenian S .S.R
i s l ocated n ext t o t he t emple o n t he l ower c itadel a nd m ay h ave b een u sed i n a ssociation w ith i t. 3 .
H alls w ith t wo r ows o f c olumns
T he b est e xamples o f t his t ype o f c olumned h all a re a t A rmavir a nd B astam a nd c onsist o f s tone c olumn b ases t o s upport w ooden c olumns, a rranged i n t wo p arallel r ows ( Fig.11). A f ew o f t he c olumn b ases a re i nscribed a nd a re u seful a s a n i ndicator o f t he s pread o f U rartian p ower ( Riemschneider , 1 965 ,318). T he c olumned h all a t A rmavir i s l ocated i n t he w estern f ortress a nd i s a r ectangular b uilding w ith t wo r ows o f c olumns, t en ( ?) c olumns i n e ach r ow . S outh o f t he h all a re t wo r ooms, w hich t he e xcavator h as d etermined w ere w ine s torage r ooms. T he s outh-east e nd o f t he h all h ad a s mall c hamber , w hich m ay h ave b een a g uard c hamber. T he n orthern e dge o f t he h all h ad r ooms, w hich w ere l iving q uarters a nd s ervants q uarters. A ll o f t hese r ooms a nd t he h all r epresent t he c ore o f t he p alace , w ith a f ormal r eception r oom a nd n earby d omestic q uarters ( Märtirosian , 1 974 ,82). A c ourtyard n orth-west o f t he h all h ad r ooms ( Märtirosian ,
f or s ervants a nd o ther s ervice o riented r ooms
( Fig.31)
1 974 ,90).
A rmavir w as f ounded i n t he e ighth c entury B .C .;
t his a nd t he s imilar
d esign o f t he b uilding a t B astam m ay i ndicate t hat i t t oo w as b uilt d uring t he e ighth c entury B .C . T he e xcavator o f B astam , H err K leiss , b elieves t hat i t i s p ossible t hat t he h all m ay h ave b een b uilt a s e arly a s t he r eign o f A rgishti I I , j e., l ate e ighth c entury B .C . ( Kleiss, 1 970 ,32), a c onclusion s upported b y p ottery f inds o f t hat d ate ( Kleiss, 1 975a , 1 75). T he c olumned h all a t B astam ( Fig.32) i s l ocated b y t he n orth g ate a nd h ad r ooms a long i ts e astern s ide , w hich t he e xcavator b elieves m ay d ate t o t he s ame p eriod a s t he m ain b uilding. I t i s 2 8.90 x 1 0.30 m , w ith a 1 .50 m t hick w all c omposed o f l arge b roken s tones, t he g aps f illed b y s maller s tones. T here i s a l ayer o f l ime b etween t he s tone s ocle a nd t he m ud-brick s uperstructure; a f eature c ommon t o m any w alls o n t he s ite ( Kleiss, 1 972a,18). A lthough t he h all h ad t wo p arallel r ows o f c olumns, s even c olumns i n e ach r ow , i t i s s maller t han t he o ne a t A rmavir a nd d id n ot h ave t he v ariety o f s ervice r ooms a nd d omestic q uarters. T his m ay w ell b e d ue t o t he m ain p alace b eing o n t he r idge r ather t han a t i ts b ase w ith t he c olumned h all ( Kleiss, 1 972a,14). A l ater p hase o f c onstruction i n t he h all i s m arked b y t he c onstruction o f aw all o ver e ach r ow o f c olumns, w hich m ay r epresent a c hange o f f unction ( Kleiss,
1 971b ,166).
M ore r ecent e vidence f rom B astam s hows t hat t his t ype o f b uilding w as u sed a s a s s table. T he h all f ound a t B astam i n t he e nclosure o utside t he c itadel p roper , t he " Ost-Bau" , h ad a n u npaved c entral n ave a nd t wo p aved s ide a reas ( Plate 4 ). S oil s amples h ave b een a nalysed a nd i ndicate t hat i t w as u sed a s as table. A long t he w alls w ere s light b ench-like p rojections o f t he m asonry, w hich c ould h ave b een s upports f or f eed m angers. T he s ame f eatures i n t he h all b y t he n orth g ate a nd a nother s tructure o n t he c itadel m ay i ndicate a d ispersal o f c avalry u nits o ver t he w hole s ite. T he s table i n t he " Ost-Bau" w as i n a f ortified e nclosure o utside o f t he c itadel a nd m ay r epresent a s table a nd c orral a rea ( Kroll , 1 976b). I f t he e ighth c entury B .C. f orm o f h all b ecame a s table, w hat t ype o f h all r eplaced i t? U ndoubtedly t he t ype o f h all f ound a t K 2F K alesi ( Fig.30), w hich d oes n ot a ppear u ntil a bout t he s eventh c entury F .C . 5 6
A
•
•
5
F ig. 3 2
1 0 M
T he c olumned h all a t t he n orth g ate o f t he c itadel a t B astam , ( Kleiss, 1 974c , F igure 3 ).
' 37
I ran
P late
P art o f t he s table i n t he " Ost-Bau" a t B astam ,
5 8
I ran.
4 .
H alls w ith s everal r ows o f c olumns
T here i s o nly o ne e xample o f t his t ype o f b uilding , a t A ltintepe ( Level I I)
( özg ik ,1967 ,44).
T he l ack o f o ther e xamples d oes n ot i ndicate t hat t he
b uilding i s n ot U rartian , a s f urther e xcavation o f U rartian s ites m ay b ring t o l ight o ther h alls o f t his t ype. N evertheless, t he a uthor b elieves t hat t he a vailable e vidence d oes n ot s upport t he U rartian d esignation g iven t o i t. I t i s a r ectangular s tructure , 4 4 x 2 5.30 i n , w ith m ud-brick w alls 3 .00 m t hick. A long t he a xis o f t he r oom a re t hree r ows o f c olumns, s ix c olumns i n e ach r ow ,
o n a f loor o f c ompacted e arth w ith a p lastered s urface
( Fig.33).
I t i s d ated b y t he e xcavator t o h is l evel I I , t he s econd h alf o f t he s eventh c entury B .C. ( özg 4 ,1966 ,46). R egrettably t here i s v ery l ittle e vidence t o d ate t his s tructure t o t he U rartian p eriod ; n o o bjects w ere f ound ( in t he h all) w hich c ould b e s ecurely d ated t o t he U rartian p eriod ( özg 4 ,1966 ,58) a nd t he p ainted p ottery i s p robably n ot U rartian . P ainted p ottery i s k nown f rom U rartian s ites , t hough i n m ost i nstances i t b elongs t o a l ater p eriod ( Kroll , 1 976a ,165). T he r eport o n t he p ainted p ottery f rom A ltintepe i s v ery c onfusing a nd l eads o ne t o t he a ssumption t hat i t c ould b e o f a ny d ate, t hough i t i s d efined a s U rartian ( see K .Emre , " The U rartian p ottery f rom A ltintepe", B elleten 1 31,1969 ,279ff). t hat t he U rartians " took g reat c are p roportions" ;
F urthermore , t he e xcavator s tates t o e nsure s ymmetry a nd c orrect
t he c olumned h all a t A ltintepe w as c ertainly n ot b uilt w ith
t his i n m ind a s i t " encroaches u pon t he s outh-east c orner o f t he t emple p orticoes" ( Ozg ik , 1 966 ,44). T he a uthor d oes n ot k now o f a ny o ther U rartian s ite w here t his s ort o f t hing h as o ccured. I t i s u nlikely t hat t he U rartians w ould h ave b uilt a p rofane s tructure i n s uch a w ay t hat i t o verlapped a s acred o ne. T he o nly o ther e vidence a vailable t o p rove t hat t he b uilding w as U rartian a re t he w all p aintings. T he f ollowing s tatement b y t he e xcavator o f A ltintepe s ums u p t he e vidence f or t he d ate o f t he c olumned h all, w hich i s r eferred t o a s a n a padana: " The w all p aintings o f L evel I a re c loser i n c olour , s ize a nd s tyle t o t hose f rom A rin-Berd t han t hose f rom t he a padana" ö zgü ,1966,57). O bviously w e h ave a d ifferent s tyle o f w all p ainting i n t he L evel I I c olumned h all ,
l ikely o f a l ater p eriod .
T he e xcavator s tates
t hat
t he
U rartians
p assed on t heir knowledge o f w all p ainting t o t he A chaemenians ( Ozg 4 ,1963 ,45); p ossibly t he c olumned h all a t A ltintepe i s a n A chaemenian a padana , l ike t he o ne b uilt o n t he U rartian s ite a t A rin-Berd. I t i s n ot U rartian . D .
D ecorative A spects U rartian
p alaces
w ere
d ecorated w ith
s tone
r eliefs,
s tone
i nlay
( on
f loors a nd p ossibly o n t he w alls) a nd w ith w all p aintings. E xamples o f t he f irst t wo t ypes o f d ecoration a re r ather s parse i n c omparison w ith t he e vidence f or w all p aintings, w hich a ppear t o h ave s erved t he s ame d ecorative f unction a s o rthostats i n A ssyria, t hough t his m ay b e a n a rchaeological c oincidence ( özg 4,1966,51).
P iotrovskii b elieves t hat U rartian w all
p aintings a re b ased o n A ssyrian e xamples a nd w ere s ubstitutes f or o rthostats, w hich w ere s eldom T extiles
o r
( Piotrovskii,
o bjects
( if a t a ll) u sed i n U rartu ( such a s
( Piotrovskii,
b ronze s hields) m ay h ave
1 950 , 6 2).
5 9
1 952,43).
d ecorated t he w alls
5 1 .1.9
F ig. 3 3
1 0
2 0 M
E nd
T he c olumned h all a t A ltintepe, T urkey ( Özgü ,1963 , F igure 2 ).
6 0
1 .
R eliefs
W e d o n ot k now v ery m uch a bout U rartian r eliefs a s t here a re o nly s ix e xamples a nd t hey a re n ot c omplete, e xcept f or t he r elief b locks f rom A dilcevaz ( Kleiss, 1 970c ,14 ; K leiss , 1 973c ,89 ; C alneyer , 1 973 , 5 8 ; B urney , 1 958 ,216 ; a nd B arnett,1959 ,5). T here i s o ne e xample f rom B astam , w ith r epresentations o f c renellations. I t w as n ot f ound i n s itu a nd i s r ather s mall , p erhaps p art o f ar elief ( Kleiss , 1 970c ,14). L ehmann-Haupt w as t he f irst s cholar t o f ind r elief f ragments a t A dilcevaz; f rom s everal d ifferent r eliefs a nd n ot n ecessarily U rartian ( Lehmann-Haupt, 1 931,745). O ne f ragment d epicting t he m id-section o f ab ull w as c onsidered U rartian a nd a roused s peculation i n v iew o f a s imilar f ind a t T oprakkale b y a R ussian e xpedition i n 1 912/13. T he l atter w as o n ap iece o f r ed m arble a nd h ad t wo b ulls f acing e ach o ther w ith a t ree o f l ife i n t he c entre, o utlined b y ag eometric b order ( Barnett, 1 959 , 5 ; P iotrovskii, 1 967 ,66). T his m otif i s f ound o n a r econstructed g lazed b rick p anel f rom C ourtyard I o f F ort S halmanesar ( Reade,38). I ts i nscription d ates i t t o t he r eign o f S halmanesar I II a nd t ogether w ith s imilar r epresentations i n A ssyrian a rt , i t w as u ndoubtedly t he s ource o f l ater U rartian o nes. M ore r ecent d iscoveries h ave b een m ade b y C harles B urney d uring h is s urveys o f t he L ake V an a rea. B urney d iscovered s ix f ragments o f a r elief o n b asalt b locks f rom t he a rea o f t he c astle a t A dilcevaz a nd t he p rimary s chool i n t he t own . T hese d epict t wo d eities w ith t he o ne o n t he r ight B oth a ppear t o b e f acing a t riple s pear m otif , b ehind t he f igure o n t he r ight,
( Fig.34) s tanding o n a b ull. w hile t he s ame m otif a ppears
w ho h as a c one a nd a b owl i n h is h ands,
a n
o ften r epeated A ssyrian m otif. H e w ears a n e laborate b rocade-like c ostume e dged w ith a c hevron m otif a nd a n e laborate h ead-dress d ecorated w ith h orn s, r osettes a nd a s tar m otif. T he f igure o n t he l eft c an b e r econstructed t o s ome d egree b y s urviving f ragments o f t he f igures o n t he r ight, t hough o ne c annot s ay w ith c ertainty t hat t he a nimal h e w as s tanding o n w ould b e t he s ame ( Burney, 1 958 ,211). I nscription f ragments f ound i n t he s chool y ard w ith t he r elief f ragments w ere o f R usa I I ( 685-639 B .C.) a nd m ay b e u sed a s a n i ndicator o f t he d ate o f t he f ragment ( Burney , 1 958 ,212). T he A dilcevaz r elief c an b e r econstructed w ith e special r eference t o A ssyrian e xamples. S eidl h as p roposed t hat t he A dilcevaz r elief o f ad eity o n a b ull c ould h ave b een p laced o n o ne s ide o f a d oor w ith s imilar r epresentations o n t he o ther s ide; i .e., o rthostats o n e ach s ide o f t he d oor. T his i s b ased u pon t he p resence o f as tepped b order a long t he e dge o f o ne r elief. T he f ragments o f a n o pposing f igure d iscovered o n t he s ite i ndicates t hat a s ymmetrical a rrangement w as p ossible. T he d oorway i tself c ould h ave b een f lat o r a rched, t hough S eidl r econstructs i t a s f lat ( fig.35).
E ither i s p ossible d epending o n w hether o r n ot o ne u ses t he
b ronze m odel f rom T oiprakkale a s am odel o r t he n iche " Meher K apisi" o n Z imzim D ag a t V an ; t he f ormer h as a r ounded t op, t he l atter a f lat o ne. T he r eliefs c ould h ave b een p laced i n p osition f lanking t he d oorway o r w ithin t he p assageway a nd f acing o utward ( Seidl , 16). T he d eities o n t he A dilcevaz r elief a re c omparable t o A ssyrian d eities, e specially t hose i n l ate A ssyrian p alaces U rartian e xamples a re n ot w inged. f lanking t he ( Seid1 ,119).
( Barnett,
1 970 ,
P late
1 ),
t hough
T he M usasir r eleif d epicts d eities
d oorway o f a t emple, t hough t hey w ere p robably s tatues T his d oes n ot n egate t he p ossibility t hat r eliefs c ould h ave
b een u sed f or a s imilar p urpose.
F ig.
3 4
A r econstruction o f t he f igures i n r elief A dilcevaz, T urkey ( Burney, 1 958 , F igure 1 ).
f rom
t he
c astle
a t
--1
1
F ig. 3 5
L
S eidl's r econstruction o f t he r elief i n F igure 3 4 ( Seidl, F igure 4 4).
6 2
0 vA v Av A V . 6 VAVAVAVA
0
0
0
0
V AVAVA WAV C r ahV aA 7 AVAVA W 7AVAVAVAV DAV
F ig. 3 6
7 F ig. 3
A VAVAVA7AvAvAvAVAvAV z A VAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVA
T he K ef K alesi r elief ( Bilg 4 ,1964 , F igure 2 ).
C oncentric r ings o f 1 954a , F igure 2 ).
s tone
i nlay
f rom
T oprakkale ,
T urkey
( Barnett,
A nother r elief ,
f rom K ef K alesi ,
a bove i n t hat i t n ot o nly d epicts
a bove A dilcevaz,
d eities
b ut
i s d ifferent f rom t he
a lso a b uilding .
T he s ame
r elief i s r epeated o n e ach o f t he f our s ides o f ab asalt b lock a nd d epicts a b uilding w ith a p arapet, b uttresses a nd w indows ( Fig.36) ( Burney , 1 958 ,216).
s ite
T he d iscovery o f t he r elief b locks h as l ed t o i ncreased i nterest i n t he a nd a n e xcavation a t K ef K alesi i n 1 964 a nd 1 965 b y T urkish
a rchaeologists, B ilg 4 ,1965 ,17).
b ringing t o l ight f urther e xamples ( Bilgiv,1964,100; T hey a re 1 .40 x 1 .40 x 1 .10 m a nd a ll h ave t he s ame s cene
( Bilg 4 ,1965 ,16 ; B ilg 41964 ,100) w hich d epicts a f acade w ith a t ower a t e ach e nd a nd a nother t ower i n t he c entre. A d eity s tanding o n a l ion a nd h olding ab ucket a nd c one , f ills t he s pace o n e ither s ide o f t he c entral t ower . T he p arapet o f t he w all o n e ither s ide o f t he c entral t ower h as t hree c renellations , w ith b irds o f p rey h olding a r abbit b y t he t ail i n i ts b eak o n e ither s ide o f t he c entral c renellation , w hich i s t opped b y ap almette.
T he
f acade d epicts a b uilding w ith a f lat r oof a nd o f a t l east t wo s toreys h eight, t hough t he t owers r ise a bove t he b uilding t o t hree s tories. T here a re t hree o ther f ragmentary U rartian r eliefs t o b e m entioned , w hich m ay o r m ay n ot h ave d ecorated p arts o f ap alace. O ne i s a r elief s howing t he h ead a nd t orso o f a d eity , w earing a h orned h eaddress a nd h olding a p lant s ymbol a nd a n i bex . T he f ragmentary r elief w as n ot f ound i n s itu b ut i s s aid t o h ave c ome f rom K iz K alesi n ear E voghlu i n I ran a nd m ay i ndicate t hat a r esidence o f s ome s ort e xisted i n t he c itadel ( Kleiss, 1 973c ,89). T he o ther r elief i s i n t he V an m useum a nd d epicts a c hariot p ulled b y t wo h orses w ith t wo f allen f igures b eneath t hem . T he w eathered b lock w as f ound i n t he w all o f a l ocal h ouse a t V an a nd i ts e xact c ontext i s u ncertain , t hough i t m ay h ave b een p art o f a n e ighth c entury B .C. r esidence i n t he a rea ( Calmeyer, 1 973,58). L ast o f a ll i s t he b ronze m odel f rom T oprakkale w hich t he a uthor c hinks m ay h ave b een a ttached t o aw all a s ap art o f ad ecorative b ronze f rieze; o r w as a m odel o f ab uilding ( Fig. 9 ). 2 .
S tone i nlay
O ther d ecorative e lements e mployed i n p alaces w ere s tone i nlay a nd w all p aintings. T he f ormer w ere f irst d iscovered b y L ehmann-Haupt d uring h is w ork a t T oprakkale , w here h e f ound c oncentric c ircles o f d ifferent c oloured s tones f itted t ogether , w hich h e d ecided w ere e lements o f t he p aving o f a n i nner
r oom
o f
a t emple
o r
o ther
i mportant
b uilding
( Lehmann-Haupt,
1 931,553,554). T hese s tones o f b lack , d ark r ed a nd w hite w ere i nlaid i n s labs o f d ark a nd l ight c oloured s tones w ith a c onical c entre , w hose c entral f lat b ase f aced u pward a nd w as f ixed i n p osition b y a m etal p in ( Fig . O ther p ieces
o f
i nlay
o f
o blong a nd
r hombic
s hapes w ere r emains
3 7).
o f o ther
i ntricate g eometrical d esigns e ither f or f loors o r w alls ( Piotrovskii, 1 967 ,68). A s imilar p iece o f b lack g ranite w as d iscovered a t B astam a nd m ay i ndicated t hat f urther d iscoveries w ill b e f orthcoming ( Kleiss, 1 972a ,45). M eanwhile, i t d oes s eem l ikely t hat f loors o f i mportant b uildings w ere c overed w ith m osaics o f d ifferent c oloured s tones; p ossibly t he w alls t oo ( Kleiss , 3 .
1 972a , 4 6), t hough n ot t he c omplete s urface. W all p aintings
W all p aintings w ere t he p rimary f orm o f i nterior d ecoration i n U rartian p alaces. R emains o f t hese h ave b een d iscovered a t A rin-Berd , K armir-Blur a nd A ltintepe. T hey h ave c lear a nalogies t o p aintings i n A ssyrian p alaces, a s s hown b y t heir a rrangement, d epiction o f s cenes ( Martirosian , 1 964 ,246) a nd s imilar m otifs: c renellations, r osettes, p almettes, p omegranates, t rees o f 6 4
l ife f lanked b y d eities,
o rnamental f riezes a nd c oncave s ided s quares w ith
w inged h uman-headed b ulls,
l ions a nd b ulls k neeling b efore t hem ( Oganesian ,
1 973 ,63). T hey d epict r eligious s cenes, s uch a s d eities, t rees o f l ife , p rocessions o f d eities, a nd d eities a nd a nimals, a s w ell a s s ecular s cenes ... h unting a nd c attle b reeding ( Oganesian , 1 973 , 6 1). T hese h ave b een i nspired b y A ssyrian e xamples a s e arly a s t he e ighth c entury B .C., t hough t hey d eveloped a n i ndividuality a nd i nterpretation w hich w as n ot A ssyrian ( Akurgal , 1 968b ,19). T he p aintings w ere n ot a ll s ymbolic b ut o ften m erely d ecorative a rrangements o f g eometrical m otifs ( Oganesian , 1 961,58). T he u se o f t he s ame e lements i n w all p aintings a s i n s tone r eliefs a re a n i ndication o f t he o rigin o f t he p aintings. T he r elative e ase o f e xecution o f w all p aintings m ay a ccount f or t he g reater u se o f o pposed t o t he n ot s o n umerous r eliefs ( Oganesian , 1 961,74).
t hem a s
T he w all w as p repared f or a p ainting b y t he a pplication o f a c oat o f v ery f ine , l ightly c oloured p laster. T he o utlines o f t he f igures, b ands a nd e tc.
w ere p ainted i n b lack w ith t he a id o f a r uler ,
c ompass a nd b rush a fter
t he p laster h ad d ried ; t he t echnique w as s ecco , n ot f resco. D etails o f f igures w ere f illed i n w ith a b rush , u sing a w ide r ange o f c olours. B lank s paces w ere u sually p ainted m edium b lue ( Azarpay , T he p aintings, t he f loor ,
l ocated a t a h eight o f
1 9 ;
O zg 4 ,1966 ,48).
1 .50 -1.60 m f rom t he l evel o f
m ade u se o f c olours i n v arious s hades o f r ed ,
b rown ,
b lue , w hite ,
b lack a nd g reen . R eds a nd b lue w ere t he m ost f requently u sed c olours; b rown a nd g reen l ess f requently u sed ( Ozg 4 ,1966 ,48). A t ypical s chematic s equence i n w all p ainting i s e xemplified b y t he p aintings o f t he H aldi t emple ( No.6 , F ig.6) a t A rin-Berd , w here ( starting f rom t he t op o f t he w all) o ne h as a n a rea o f c ircles a round s tars,
f ollowed
b y b ands o f p almettes i n r ed a nd b lue , c renellations, b ulls a nd r ams, s acred t rees f lanked b y d eities a nd a l arge f igure o f a d eity ( Piotrovskii, 1 959a,203). S imilar m otifs w ere u sed, t hough i n d ifferent o rder, t o d ecorate t he w alls a round t he c ourtyard i n f ront o f t he " Susi" t emple ( no.2 , F ig.6) a nd t he c eremonial h all ( No.3 , F ig.6) ( Oganesian , 1 961,65). T he m otifs u sed i n t he l atter a rea a re t he s ame a s t hose m entioned a bove , t hough h ere o ne a lso f inds b ulls k neeling b efore c oncave s ided s quares a nd l ions f lanking o ther s uch s quares b ut k neeling A zarpay,19 ; O ganesian , 1 973 ,66).
b efore
t hem
( Oganesian ,
1 961,73;
S imilar s cenes a re f ound i n t he p alace a t A rin-Berd , s uch a s t he s o7 ,11ed e xternal p ortico ( No.7, F ig.6) ( Oganesian , 1 973 ,64) a nd a l ong n arrow Ij OM ( No.8 , F ig.6) s outh o f t he c eremonial h all ( Loseva , 1 955 ,148); b ut t he p aintings i n t he l atter a re q uite r emarkable , a s t hey a re v ery n aturalistic a nd p ortray s ecular s cenes. T he
l ong n arrow r oom a t A rin-Berd h as a r ow o f
c olumn b ases d own i ts
c entre b earing i nscriptions o f A rgishti I ; t his e arly d ate m ay a lso b e u sed t o d ate t he p aintings, w hich h ave a v ery A ssyrian s tyle , a s i n t he p ortrayal o f w inged b ulls a nd l ions w ith h uman t orsos. M otifs u sed i n t he w all p ainting a re a b and o f p almettes a nd c renellations a long t he t op o f t he
w all
a nd a l ower b and o f t rees o f l ife. E lsewhere a long t he w alls w as a p rocession o f d eities, a l arge f igure o f a d eity w ith s everal b ands o f t rees o f l ife i n f ront a nd s cenes o f b ulls b eing l ed a long ; v ery f ragmentary s tate w hen i t w as s acrificial c eremony ( Oganesian , 1 973 ,
a ll o f t his w as i n a
d iscovered b ut s eems t o d epict a 6 7). F urther a long t he w all w as a
l arge s cene o f a f igure i n ac hariot, w hich h ad w heels w ith e ight s pokes. A f igure o n f oot b y t he c hariot i s o nly o ne q uarter o f t he s ize o f t he o ne i n 6 5
t he c hariot. T rees a nd s hrubs a re d epicted , am arshy a rea a nd t he a nimals b eing h unted ; " leopard" , b ull a nd a c alf. T his i s a n e xtremely n aturalistic s cene ( Oganesian , 1 973 , 7 0). O ther f ragments f rom t he r oom p ortray d ogs b eing f ed , c attle h erded , s heep a nd t heir s heperd ( Oganesian , 1 973 , 7 2) , t illing o f t he l and a nd f orest s cenes w ith b irds s itting o n b ranches o f t rees ( Oganesian , 1 973 , 7 3). P iotrovskii h as p ointed o ut t hat t here i s c onsiderable s imilarity b etween U rartian w all p aintings a nd t hose o f A ssyria , e specially t hose o f r oom t wo
i n b uilding K ,
s outh-east o f t he N abu t emple a t K horsabad.
T he
s cene o f S argon I I a nd h is a ttendant b efore t he g od A sshur ( Loud , 8 5) , a s w ell a s t he o rnamental f rame o f t he s cene , g eometric m otifs a nd t he b ulls s tanding b efore d iscs, i ndicate a s imilarity o f c omposition a nd m otifs a nd t he A ssyrian a ncestry o f U rartian w all p aintings ( Piotrovskii , 1 959a ,203). T hough t he e vidence p oints t o A ssyria a s t he s ource o f U rartian w all p ainting , i t t akes o n aw ider r ange o f c olours a nd a m ore n aturalistic s tyle u nder t he U rartians ( Ozg ik ,1969 , 6 3). E .
T he U rartian E conomy a s r eflected i n p alace a rchitecture W e h ave a lready m entioned s tables i n a ssociation w ith p alaces,
a lso
c omprised
b uildings
w ith
f acilities
f or
t he
s torage
o f
b ut t hey
a gricultural
p roduce a nd w orkshops, P alaces w ere n ot o nly f ormal r esidences b ut a lso a dministrative c entres ( Piotrovskii , 1 950 , 2 0), w ith c ontrol o ver t he l ocal r esources ( agricultural and o therwise) ( Martirosian , 1 974, 1 36; M elikishvili, 1 954 , 3 58). T he a dministrative c entre w as c ommanded b y a r egional g overnor , w ho m ay h ave b een a m ember o f t he k ing's f amily , w hich w ould a ccount f or t he r eferences o f S argon I I o f A ssyria i n h is e ighth c ampaign t o t owns o f t he b rothers o f t he U rartian k ing , R usa I ( Melikishvili, 1 954 , 3 57); t hough o ne w ould s uspect t hat t hey c ould j ust a s e asily h ave b een a bsentee
l andlords,
w ho
o wned
t he
t own a nd i ts
l ands
a nd
l ived
e lsewhere , r eceiving t he r evenues. S everal S oviet
s cholars m aintain t hat
t he b asis
o f t he w hole U rartian
e conomy w as s lave l abour , p rocured d uring m ilitary c ampaigns, e specially t hose d uring t he h igh p oint o f U rartian e xpansion i n t he e ighth c entury B .C. ( Arutunyan , 1 964 , 2 14). P risoners o f w ar w ere u ndoubtedly t aken , e ither s oldiers o r i nhabitants o f t he c onquered a reas, a s i s b orne o ut b y a n i nscription f rom A rin-Berd , w hich r ecords t he r esettlement o f s ix t housand s ix h undred i nhabitants o f T supani a nd H atti ( North-Syria) i n A rgishti's n ew c ity a nd w hom t he S oviet s cholar , L oseva , b elieves w ere r ehabilitated a s a rtists, s oldiers, a dministrators a nd c onstruction l abourers ( Loseva , 1 955 , 1 45; O ganesian , 1 960 ,290), t hough t heir i nfluence i s n ot v ery e vident i n t he p alace a rchitecture o f t he s ite. T he r esettlement o f c onquered p eoples w as af airly c ommon p ractice o f t he A ssyrians a nd w ould n ot b e o ut o f p lace a mongst o ther p eoples o f t he t ime. N evertheless,
i t
i s m ore
l ikely t hat
t he U rartians
r elied u pon t hose
t hey c onquered t o s erve i n al evy o f t he p opulace t han o n s lave l abour. T he h ouses a t K armir-Blur a re s aid t o r eveal t he b uilding t raditions o f a c onquered a boriginal p opulation ,
r esponsible f or w ork i n t he w orkshops a nd
s torerooms o f t he c itadel , a s w ell a s t ending t he f ields a nd l ivestock o f t he n earby l and ( Martirosian , 1 958 , 1 69). A f ew S oviet s cholars m aintain t hat t hese p eople w ere t he l owest c lass o f U rartian s ociety ( excluding s laves) a nd w orked f or t he s tate ( Piotrovskii,
1 955 ,
1 6).
s hould b e l ess p olitical i n t he i nterpretation .
T his m ay b e t rue t hough o ne
M ost m ajor U rartian p alaces o f t he s eventh c entury B .C.,
h ad s torerooms
o f c onsiderable s torage c apacity ; a t K armir-Blur t he s torage v essels o f r ooms 2 5 a nd 2 8 t otalled o ne h undred a nd f ifty t wo, w ith a c apacity o f a bout o ne t housand l itres e ach o r a t otal c apacity o f o ne h undred a nd f ifty t housand l itres ( see F ig. 5 f or t he s ubsequent d iscussion) ( Klein , 1 86). T hese v essels a nd t he o thers d iscovered a t K armir-Blur t otalled o ver f our h undred , p roviding s torage c apacity o f a t l east f our h undred t housand l itres ( Piotrovskii, 1 959b , 1 72). T he r ooms w ere o blong , u p t o 3 0 .00 m i n l ength a nd s eldom o ver 4 .00 m w ide, w ith f loors o f t amped e arth o r l arge m ud-bricks c overed w ith a c lay p laster ( Piotrovskii, 1 950 , 4 4). O ne r oom o f s pecial i nterest i n t he s tore r oom a rea w as r oom 3 , w hich h ad a v at c ut f rom a s ingle p iece o f t ufa a nd a c hannel l eading a way f rom i t a nd o ut o f t he c itadel. T his v at w as u sed i n ap rocess t o e xtract o il f rom s esame s eed ( Piotrovskii , 1 950 , 4 7). T he r ooms w ere n ot a ll o n t he s ame l evel b ut w ere c onnected b y s tairways o f m ud-brick , r amps a nd w ooden s tairways ( Piotrovksii , 1 950 , 5 2). T he r emains o f a w ooden d oor a nd a n i ron l ock w ere f ound i n r oom 2 3 ; t he d oor w as m ade o f w ooden p lanks f itted t ogether b y t ransverse b eams a nd p egs, w hile t he l ock w as u -shaped a nd h ad a b olt f itted t hough t he e nd o f i t, w hich c ould b e m oved f rom t he o ther s ide o f t he d oor ( Piotrovskii ,
1 950 , 5 8).
S toreroom 2 5 a t K armir-Blur i s o f s pecial i nterest b ecause o f t he d iscovery o f a n a ltar o f c lay w ith t hree d epressions o n i t f or o fferings. I t w as p laced b etween t wo o f t he s upports i n t he m iddle o f t he r oom a nd h ad a b ox f or a shes a nd a s eat o pposite i t ( Piotrovskii, 1 952 , 2 1). O therwise , t he r oom , w hich w as 3 1.00 i nl ong a nd 1 0.30 m w ide , c ontained s torage v essels, e ighty-two o f t hem ( Piotrovskii, 1 952,16). O ne v essel c ontained b ronze c ups i nscribed w ith t he n ames o f v arious U rartian k ings ( Piotrovskii , 1 952 ,20). F ragments o f w all p aintings f rom a n u pper s torey w ere a lso d iscovered i n t he r oom ( Piotrovskii , 1 952 , 2 4). T he s torerooms a t K armir-Blur w ere f or t he s torage o f w ine a nd g rain . O thers w ere p ottery s torerooms a nd w ork r ooms. R oom 2 9 c ontained o ne t housand a nd t hirty-six j udgs f or w ine, f orty l amps a nd f ifty-five b owls. O bviously n ot o nly a gricultural p roducts w ere k ept i n t he s torerooms ( Piotrovskii , 1 952 , 4 0). O ther r ooms c ontained b ars o f i ron a nd o bjects w hich m ay h ave f allen f rom t he u pper s torey. T he s eries o f s mall r ooms s outh-west o f r oom 3 4 a re c onsidered b y t he e xcavator t o b e s haft-like s tructures w ith t he e ntry h igh i n t he w all a nd i nto w hich g rain w as p oured a nd t he e ntry s ealed ; t his i s r einforced b y t he f ind o f a b ullae i n t he s outh-eastern c orner o f t he f ifth s toreroom a long t he c orridor ,
o n t he e astern s ide.
R ooms o n t he o pposite
s ide o f t he c orridor c ontained v arious t ypes o f v essels a nd b eads, k nives, s ickels, g rindstones a nd p arts o f a n i ron b acelet a nd f ibula , a ll f rom t he u pper s torey ( Piotrovskii , S imilar
f acilities
1 952 ,
e xisted
1 4). o n
o ther
U rartian s ites.
g rain s torage c apacity o f a bout f ive t housand t ons, h undred
t ons
( Martirosian , o blong,
o f
t hat s tored i n t he g ranaries o f
1 974 ,
1 38).
A rmavir h ad a
w ith t wo t housand t hree t he w estern f ortress
T hese r ooms w ere s imilar t o t hose a t K armir-Blur ;
u p t o 3 0.00 m l ong ( Kafadaryan ,
2 40).
O ne s toreroom ( No.1 o n
F ig.40) n orth o f t he p alace i n t he w estern f ortress i s s imilar t o t he s haftl ike t ype a t K armir-Blur , t hough i t a ppears t o h ave b een e ntered t hough t he r oof, r ather t han t hough a n e ntry h igh i n t he w all.
T he w alls w ere p robably
1 0 .00 12.00 m h igh a nd t he r oom h ad a n a rea o f t hree h undred s quare m etres ( Martirosian , 1 974 , 8 5). T he s torerooms c ontained w heat, b arley a nd l entils a nd w ine. T hree w ine c ellars h ave b een d iscovered i n t he w estern f ortress 6 7
a t A rmavir ,
c omprising a n a rea o f
s ix h undred a nd f ifty s quare m etres a nd
w ith s torage c apacity o f o ne h undred a nd s ixty t housand l itres o f w ine. T his i s n ot m uch i n c omparison t o t he f our h undred t housand l itres o f K armirB lur b ut i t r epresents o nly a p artially e xcavated s ite a nd o ne w hich w as u ndoubtedly o f m ore i mportance t han K armir-Blur ( Martirosian , 1 974 , 1 38) , h aving b een o ccupied a nd d eveloped s ince i ts f oundation i n t he e ighth c entury B. C. T he s torerooms a t A ltintepe a re n ot v ery l arge o r v ery w ell p ublished ; t here i s a t l east o ne s tore r oom c onsisting o f t hree r ows o f v essels p artially b uried i n t he t amped e arth f loor ( Özg 4 ,1961,280 ; Ö zg 4 ,1963 ,48) a nd w hich w as c ontemporary w ith t he t emple n ear w hich i t w as b uilt ( Klein , 9 2). S torerooms h ave a lso b een f ound a t T oprakkale ( Lehmann-Haupt,1931, 4 67 ; E rzen , 4 13), K ef K alesi ( Anatolian S tudies, 1 966 , 2 9 ; Ö gün , 4 85-486), A rin-Berd ( Oganesian , 1 961,18) a nd K ayalidere. T he s toreroom a t K ayalidere c ontained t wenty-five v essels a nd w as e ntered b y a d oorway , 1 .20 m a bove t he l evel o f t he r oom 's f loor l evel. T he e xcavator p roposed t hat a ccess w as p ossibly b y a l adder o r w ooden w alk-way, b uilt a round t he m outh o f t he u pright v essels ( Burney, 1 966, 8 4). A s imilar a rrangement w as u sed a t B astam , w here e vidence o f aw ooden g angway w as f ound d uring e xcavation o f a s torage r oom ( Kleiss, 1 971b , 1 67), c omprising t hree r ows o f t wenty-eight v essels. A r ow o f s upports i n t he c entre o f t he r oom d ivided t he r ows o f v essels, w ith t wo r ows o f v essels a ccessible f rom t he s upports a nd a nother r ow o f v essels a ccessible o nly b y aw ooden g angway. N earby w ere t wo r ooms f or t he s torage o f r ed b urnished w are, w hich m ay h ave f unctioned i n a ssociation w ith t he s toreroom ( Kleiss, 1 972a , 3 0). T hese f acilities n ot o nly s upported t he l ocal r uler a nd/or k ing a nd h is f amily b ut a lso s upported t he r etainers. I t s erved t he a dditional f unction a s a s ource o f r evenue ( Arutunyan , 1 01). T he v ariety o f p lant a nd a nimal r emains f rom t hese s torerooms i s i ndicative o f t he n ative a gricultural e conomy ( though s ome o f i t m ay h ave b een g athered f rom n on-domesticated p lant l ife): c herry, a pple, p each , c herry-plum , p omegranate , l egumes ( Arutunyan , 1 38), g rape ( Arutunyan ,
1 34), w heat, b arley, m illet, s esame
( Arutunyan , 8 2),
r ye, a nd l entils ( Martirosian , 1 964 , 2 56). T hese i tems w ere e aten a s t hey w ere o r p rocessed t o m ake o ther p roducts, s uch a s b eer ( Arutunyan , 8 8), o r i n t he c ase o f s easame s eed , o il o r e ven a t ype o f f odder f or t he c attle t o f eed o n d uring t he w inter ( Arutunyan , 9 4). T he l atter w ere v ery i mportant t o t he t emple f or s acrifices ( Melikishvili, 1 954 , 3 55) a nd i nscriptions m ention l arge n umbers o f c attle , l arge a nd s mall h orned , t aken i n b attles a nd r aids ( Melikishvili, 1 954 ,209), t hough o ne w onders i f t he l ess h ardy c attle w ere s laughtered b efore t he h arsh w inter , l eaving t he h ealthier o nes t o s urvive. O ther a nimal r emains f ound o n U rartian s ites a re t hose o f h orses, d onkeys, o x , g oat , p ig a nd d og ( Melikishvili, 1 954 , 1 84). A n umber o f w ild a nimals w ere h unted ( Martirosian , 1 974 , 1 21). T he c hange f rom a p alace f or s ecular a nd r eligious c eremony t o o ne i ncorporating t hese f unctions p lus v ast s torage f acilities i s i ndicative o f t he c hange i n U rartian p olicy i n t he s eventh c entury B .C . T he U rartians h ad r etreated f rom t heir c onquests o f t he e ighth c entury B .C. a nd w ere d oing a ll t hey c ould t o m aintain t heir h omeland a nd t he f rontier a reas, e specially i n t he n orth a nd e ast.
T he b asis f or s tability w as a n a ssured a nd p rotected
s upply o f f ood a nd e quipment, g athered a nd o r p roduced a t t he a dministrative c entre/palace u nder t he a uthority o f t he k ing o r h is r epresentative. A s l ong a s t he c entre p alaces s urvived ,
t he a rmy h ad t he a bility t o r espond t o
t he i nvaders. 6 8
C hapter I V T emples
T he f irst U rartian t emple w as d iscovered b y R assam a t T oprakkale ,
n ear
V an d uring h is e xcavations o n b ehalf o f t he B ritish M useum . T he t emple w as ( supposedly) b uilt o f s moothly f inished b locks o f b lack b asalt a nd h ad a p latform o f l imestone b locks a long t he f ront ( Rassam , 3 78), f inished i n a r usticated s tyle. t he H ittites
T his t ype o f s tone w ork i s a ttributed b y s ome s cholars t o
( Akurgal ,
1 968b ,
8 );
o thers
t o a n U rartian o rigin
( Lehmann-
H aupt, 1 910 ,393), f rom w here i t w as p assed o n t o t he A chaemenians ( Herzfeld , 1 941, P late X L). N evertheless, e xamples o f r usticated s tone w orking i n U rartu a re s o f ew t hat o ne i s i nclined t o n egate a ny i nfluence o n t he A chaemenians, w hose m asonry i s m uch m ore f inely f inished ( coarse r ustication i n A chamenian m asonry i s s imply u nfinished m asonry) ( Nylander , 1 970 ,76). W ork o n U rartian s ites
i n t he n ineteenth c entury d id n ot p roduce v ery
a ccurate i nformation , t hough t he l ater w ork o f L ehmann-Haupt c larified s ome o f t he a mbiguities, e specially a t T oprakkale ( Lehmann-Haupt, 1 931, 4 56-359). S ince t hen T oprakkale h as b een r e-examined b y P rofessor A fif E rzen , w ho h as p roposed a r econstruction o f i ts t emple a long t he l ines o f t he c lassic s quare U rartian t emple ( Fig. 3 8) ( Erzen , 3 98). T his i s i n a greement w ith p lans o f m ore r ecently d iscovered t emples f rom A ltintepe , K ayalidere , A znavurtepe , C avustepe a nd A rin-Berd. A .
S quare T emples T he s quare t emple c onsisted o f a s mall c ella ,
e ntered b y as ingle d oor
i n t he t hick m ud-brick w alls. T he w alls, w hich w ere c oated w ith p laster , w ere b uilt o n a s ocle o f s moothly f inished s tone b locks ( usually b asalt o r a ndesite), w hich w ere j oined w ithout m ortar . T he i nterior w as d ecorated w ith w all p aintings a nd m ay h ave b een i lluminated b y w indows i n t he u pper p arts o f t he w all , t hough i t i s m ore l ikely t hat t he l ight c ame f rom l amps o r t hough t he d oorway. O pposite t he d oor s tood t he f igure o r s ymbol o f t he d eity, w ho l ooked o ut t o a n a ltar i n f ront o f t he e ntry t o t he c ella. T here i s a v ariation i n t he f orm a s w e s hall s ee i n t he f ollowing s ection b ut g enerally t he p lan i s s quare w ith b uttressed c orners. T hose t emples w hich d o v ary f rom t he s quare p lan a re l ocated i n t he A rmenian S .S.R .; a t A rinB erd , A rmavir a nd K armir Blur .
1 .
V ariations o f s quare t emples
A rin-Berd A rin-Berd h ad t wo t emples;
t he H aldi t emple
( 6 o n F ig.6) a nd t he s o-
c alled ' Susi' t emple ( 4 o n F ig .6). T he H aldi t emple ( according t o S oviet s cholars) h ad a p ortico s imilar t o aB it-Hilani , w ith t wo r ows o f s ix c olumns e ach ,
i n f ront o f t he e ntrance t o t he t emple f lanked b y a s tairwell a t i ts'
s outhern e nd ( Fig. 3 9) ( Piotrovskii, 1 960,5; M artirosian , 1 964,238; O ganesian , 1 960 ,294). T he r esemblance t o t he B it-Hilani i s i naccurate a s t here a re f ar m ore c olumns i n t he p ortico t han o ne w ould f ind i n aB itH ilani.
I t i s s imply a c olonnaded p ortico . 6 9
I t s tretches a long t he
l ong
7
1 0 M
F ig. 3 8
P lan o f t he t emple a t T oprakkale , 1 ).
1 0
F ig. 3 9
P lan
o f
t he
H aldi
t emple
a t
T urkey ( Kleiss,
7 0
F igure
2 0 M
A rin-Berd,
1 961, F igure 2 56).
1 96 3 /19 64,
A rmenian
S .S.R .
( Oganesian ,
s ide w all o f t he a nteroom o f t he t emple w hich h ad a d oor i n t he c entre. s outhern e nd o f t he o blong a nteroom h ad a d oorway i nto t he c ella , t urn h ad a d oorway i nto t he s ide r oom a nd i ts s tairs. t hat
t he
s tairwell
w as
a z iggurat-like
s tructure
T he
w hich i n
S oviet s cholars c laim
a ttached
t o
t he
t emple;
t his i s n ot s upported b y t he a rchaeological e vidence. T here i s as triking s imilarity b etween t his t emple a nd t he p lans o f t emples
i n M esopotam ia
a nd A ssyria.
E ntry w as
t hrough
t he
l ong a nteroom
( 37.00 b y 8 .00 m ) t oward t he c ella; ab ent a xis a pproach. T he w alls o f t he a nteroom w ere d ecorated w ith p aintings o f d eities, o ne o f w hom h as b een t entatively
i dentified a s
p ieces o f w ood ,
H aldi,
t he g od
o f w ar.
T he
s imilar t o a p arquet f loor ( Oganesian ,
f loor w as
m ade
o f
1 961,53) t hough t his
m ay b e A chaemenian. O ther t han t he w all p aintings ( Plate 5 ), t here i s p ractically n o e vidence f or d esignating t he s tructure a s a t emple. T he o ccupation o f t he s ite d uring t he A chaemenian p erioC , m ay h ave o bliterated a ll t races o f i ts u se f or s acred p urposes, l eaving o nly t he w all p aintings a nd t he p lan o f t he b uilding , w ith t he p ortico e xtended t o f orm a n a padana. O ne c an o nly s ay t hat i f i t w as a t emple , i t i s t he o nly k now U rartian e xample w ith a M esopotamian p lan . A m ore
t raditional
c olonnaded c ourtyard o f ' Susi'
t emple
p lan w as
t he
p alace
( 4 o n F ig.6),
l ocated a t
o n
A rin-Berd
t he w estern e dge
o f
t he
( Plate
i s
t he
6 ).
T his
w hich t he e xcavator b elieves h ad a r ectangular
p lan , t hough t he b ack w all w as n ot w ell d efined. T he t emple, c ourtyard w ith a n a ltar i n t he c entre and t he r ooms a t t he o pposite e nd, a ppear t o h ave f ormed a c ult c omplex ( Oganesian ,
1 961,
4 2), a n i dea r einforced b y t he b ypass
c orridor f rom t he o uter c ourtyard i n f ront o f t he H aldi t emple ( covered b y t he l ater a padana) t o t he n orthern c ourtyard o f t he p alace ( see F ig. 6 ). T he
t emple,
i nternal s ize,
w hich w as
1 0.00 b y
1 3.45 m e xternal s ize,
5 .05 b y 8 .08 m
w as d edicated t o I UBSHA ( an U rartian d eity o f u nknown s tatus)
a nd i s t hought t o h ave h ad a f lat r oof w ith w indows j ust b elow t he r oof o r a s moke h ole f or i nterior i ll u m ination .
T here i s n o a rchaeological e vidence
f or e ither a h ole i n t he r oof o r w indows j ust u nder t he r oof; a f lat r oof.
( unspecified e xcept w hich d oes
n ot
t o s tate
t hat
t hey w ere w ooden b eams a nd r eeds/twigs),
n ecessarily i ndicate w hether t he
r oof w as
T he q uestion o f i nterior l ighting i s s peculative, b uildings s how t hat t hey w ere s ometimes w alls
e ven l ess f or
T he f orm o f t he r oof i s b ased u pon t he e xcavated r emains p itched
o r
f lat.
t hough r eliefs o f U rartian
i lluminated b y w indows h igh i n t he
( see F ig.9). T he
i nterior o f
t he
g eometric f rieze i n s everal
' susi'
t emple w as
c olours
o n t he
p ainted b lue,
u pper
p art
o f
e xcept f or a
t he
w all.
T he
f acade h ad a s ocle o f s moothly d ressed b locks o f t ufa a nd a s uperstructure o f m ud-brick, c oated w ith p laster a nd p ainted b lue w ith a f rieze a t t he t op ( Oganesian ,
1 961,35).
T he c olonnade o f t he c ourtyard f ormed a p ortico a long
t he t emple f acade. R ecent v isits t o t he s ite b y t he a uthor a nd o thers h ave l ed t o a r econsideration o f t he t emple's p lan . n ot
r ectangular
b ut
s quare ,
i ts
I t
i s
p ossible t hat t he
a ppearance h aving b een a ltered
A chaemenian o ccupation o f t he s ite
( Kleiss,
1 976a,40).
d uring
t he
N evertheless,
w ithout a ccess t o t he e xcavation r ecords o ne c an o nly s peculate.
7 1
t emple w as
P late 5 :
A r econstruction o f t he w all painting o n the interior w all o f t he a nteroom o f t he H aldi t emple S .S.R .
7 2
( 6 o n F ig . 6 ) a t A rin-Berd , A rmenian
P late 6 :
T he f acade F ig.
p art
o f t he c ourtyard o f t he S usi t emple ( 4 o n
6 ) a t A rin-Berd.
a nd
S tones i n t he f oreground a re p art o f a n
A chaemenian f ire t emple.
7 3
A rmavir I nscriptions
o f
S arduri
I I m ention s even
t o t en d ifferent
t emples
a t
A rmavir , l eading M artirosian t o c onclude t hat t he s ite w as a r eligious c entre ( Martirosian , 1 967 , 2 26). T he t emples r eferred t o i n t he i nscriptions h ave n ot b een d iscovered , t hough t hree t emples d iscovered i n t he W estern f ortress m ay h ave b een f ounded b y h im . T wo o f t hem a re r ather n ondescript, h aving n o w all p aintings o r o ther i ndications o f r eligious u sage e xcept f or t hose e xcavated i tems w hich S oviet s cholars a ssociate w ith s uch a f unction: v essels, l amps a nd i ron w all-nails ( Martirosian , 1 974 ,86). T he b uildings a re l ocated n ear t he i ncompletely e xcavated n orthern c ourtyard ( 2 o n F ig. 4 0), o pposite t he t hird t emple. T emple 3 ( 3 o n F ig. 4 0) t hough n ot c ompletely e xcavated , a ppears t o h ave h ad f our r ooms: t wo o blong o nes a nd t wo s quare o nes. I t i s a r ectangular b uilding , t he e xterior s ocle f aced w ith s moothly d ressed b asalt b locks a nd a s uperstructure l ike t hat o f t he ' Susi' t emple a t A rin-Berd , i e., m ud-brick c overed w ith p ainted p laster . T he d oorway, f ramed b y t wo u pright b asalt b locks w ith a nother b lock a s al intel , h ad s teps d own i nto t he f irst r oom a nd a d oor , f ormed f rom a p iece o f b asalt, 1 .00 b y 1 .20 m a nd 2 0 c m t hick , w hich h ad a h alf s pherical a xis ( Kafadaryan , 2 39). T he a lmost m onolithic a spect o f t his t emple, w ith a d oor w eighing f our t o f ive t ons a nd w alls 2 .50 m t hick ( except o n t he r ear w all , w hich w as 5 .00 m t hick a nd s erved a s p art o f t he f ortification w all), t he i nterior d ivided b y w alls i nto t hree a nd l ater f our r ooms ( Martirosian , 1 974 , 8 6), i s s o d ifferent f rom a ny o ther U rartian t emple p lan t hat o ne w onders i f i t i s a t emple. I ts c lassification a s a t emple , i s b ased u pon f inds o f p ottery , s tamp s eals, o bjects o f s emiprecious s tone, a t ufa b ox n ear t he d oorway a nd u nspecified M esopotamian p arallels ( Martirosian , 1 974, 8 8). T he a uthor b elieves t hat t he a rchaeological m aterial d oes n ot n ecessarily p rove t hat t he b uilding w as a t emple a nd a s t here a re n o i nscriptions o n t he b uilding o r n ear i t i t i s m ore l ikely t hat i t w as t he d welling o f a n i mportant p erson . I t i s r egrettable t hat t he a vailable m aterial i s n ot m ore i nformative. K armirBlur T here i s o ne o ther t emple p lan , o r p erhaps w e s hould s ay o ne o ther t emple , w hich s hould b e m entioned. T he e xcavations a t K armir-Blur r evealed t hat t he u pper s torey o f t he c itadel m ay h ave h ad a t emple , b ased o n f inds o f f ragments o f w all p aintings o f s acred s cenes, b ronze h elmets a nd s hields, b ronze v essels, s ilver v essels a nd a l arge c opper c auldron w ith a c apacity o f a bout s ix h undred l itres ( Martirosian , 1 964 , 2 54) w hich f ell i nto r ooms 2 3-26 f rom t he u pper s torey d uring i ts d estruction . T hese r ooms w ere s upposedly a d epository f or b ones f rom s acrifices, t hough i t i s d oubtful t hat t he s acrifices w ere h uman , a s s ome S oviet s cholars b elieve ( Oganesian , 1 955 ,58). S imilar r ooms a t B astam w ere s torerooms o f m eat, w hich i s p robably t he f unction o f t hese r ooms. I f t here w as a t emple f or r eligious c eremonies, i t m ay h ave b een a ssociated w ith l ibation c eremonies, a s w as t he c ase w ith t he u pper s torey a t K ef K alesi , e specially w hen o ne c onsiders t he e vidence o f t he w all p aintings, c auldron a nd f ragments o f b asalt b lock p illars t hose a t K ef K alesi).
( similar t o
R oom n umber 2 5 h ad a s mall a ltar a nd a p ainting o f aw inged d eity o n o ne o f t he s upports,
w hich m ay h ave s erved a s a t emporary s anctuary d uring t he
s iege o f t he p alace ( Oganesian ,
1 955 , 6 0).
M ost o f w hat i s k nown a bout U rartian t emples i s d ue t o t he d iscoveries 7 4
4 e 4
2 5
F ig. 4 0
' > %
5 0 M
T he w estern f ortress a t A rmavir , A rmenian S .S.R . F igure 2 9).
7 5
( Martirosian ,
1 974 ,
m ade i n t he c entre o f U rartu ; i .e., e astern T urkey. B efore w e c onsider t hat a rea a nd i ts s ites w e w ill r eview t he s parse , t hough i mportant f inds w hich a re b eginning t o e merge f rom I ran .
2 .
S tandard S quare T emples
W erachram At errace l arge e nough t o a ccomodate a s quare t emple h as b een d iscovered a t K iz K alesi i n n orth-western I ran ( Kleiss, 1 974b,81) a nd a nother a t W erachram o n t he A raxes. T he t errace a t t he l atter i s a bout 4 0 .00 m l ong a nd 3 0 .00 m w ide , w ith r uins o f as quare b uilding a t i ts w estern e nd . T he r uins h ave a n e xternal s ize o f 1 1.50 b y 1.50 m , w ith a c ella o f 5 .50 b y 5 .50 m , w alls 2 .40 m t hick a nd b uttresses a t t he c orner , w hich a re a bout 3 .00 mw ide a nd p roject 6 0 c m . T he b uilding i s u nexcavated b ut t he m easurements a nd f orm a re v ery s uggestive o f t he p lan o f a n U rartian s quare t emple ( Kleiss , 1 974b ,91). B as t am O n t he o ther h and , e vidence f or a t emple a t B astam i s c ircumstantial , b ased o n t he w idth a nd l ength o f ag roup o f t erraces ( Fig .18) h alf-way u p t he s lope o f t he c itadel , 5 5.00 m l ong a nd 2 2.50 m w ide. R emains o f am ud-brick s uperstructure o n t he t erraces ( Kleiss, 1 970c15), a f ragment o f a n i nscription a nd t he s ize o f t he t erraces (w hich c ould a ccomodate a s quare t emple o f 1 3 .80 b y 1 3.80 m ) a re i ndications t hat t his w as t he p robable s ite o n t he H aldi t emple a t B astam ( Kleiss, 1 972a ,32). N ow t hat w e h ave c onsidered t he p lans o f t emples i n t he A rmenian S .S.R . a nd I ran a nd w ill l ook a t t hose i n T urkey. T he t emples a re f rom t he f ollowing s ites: A ltintepe, K ayalidere, A znavurtepe, C avustepe a nd T oprakkale. T hey a ll h ad s quare p lans a nd s imilar e xterior m easurements w ith o nly s light v ariations. T he t emple a t A ltintepe w as 1 3.90 b y 1 3 .90 m ; a t A znavurtepe 1 4.00 b y 1 4.00 m ; a t K ayalidere 1 2.50 b y 1 2.50 -m ; a t T oprakkale 1 3.80 b y 1 3.80 m ( Akurgal, 1 968b, 1 0); a t C avustepe 1 0.00 m ( Stronach , 1 967 , 2 79). A ltintepe T he t emple a t A ltintepe ( see F ig.12) w as i n a c ourtyard , t he e ntrance f ramed b y s moothly f inished a ndesite b locks , s et c losely t ogether w ithout m ortar . T he e xcavator p roposed t hat t he e ntrance t o t he c ourtyard m ay h ave b een g abled , t hough t here i s n o a rchaeological e vidence t o s upport t his p roposition ( özg ik ,1963 ,46). T he 2 7.00 b y 2 7.00 m c ourtyard ( drained b y a s vbterranean c hannel o f r ectangular b locks, c overed b y s tones ( özg 4 ,1966 ,439) h ad a c olonnade o n f our s ides, s urrounded b y a2 .00 m t hick w all o f m ud-brick o n s tones f ootings. T he t wenty w ooden c olumns a re t hought t o h ave b een 4 .50 m h igh ( bzg 4 ,1969 ,60). T hey s upported a r oof o f w ooden p oles a nd c lay a nd w ere s et o n a desite b ases 7 0 c m d iameter a nd 2 0 c m h eight. T he a rea c overed b y t he c olonnade w as p aved w ith s tone s labs, t hough s ome p arts w ere c overed o nly w ith a l ayer o f s and, a s i n t he c ourtyard i tself ( özg ik ,1969 ,39). T he c ella , 5 .20 m o n e ach s ide ( özg ik ,1969 ,40), h ad w alls ( 4.35 m t hick) o f t hree c ourses o f s moothly f inished a ndesite b locks w ith a m ud-brick s uperstructure , w hose c orners p rojected 5 0 c m f rom t he f ace o f t he w all ,
P late 7 :
T he t emple a t A ltintepe, T urkey.
7 7
f orming b uttresses.
T he e ntrance w as a pproached b y t wo s teps f lanked b y a
b lock o n e ach s ide w ith a h ole i n i t. T he 1 .15 m w ide e ntrance l ed i nto a c orridor , 3 .80 m l ong a nd 1 .50 m w ide ( Plate 7 ) ( Ozg ik , 1 969 , 3 9). D irectly i n f ront w as a c ircular a rea o f s tones i n t he c ourtyard , o n a d irect a xis w ith t he e ntrance t o t he c ourtyard a nd t he t emple, w hich w as p robably t he a ltar. T rough-shaped a nd c ircular s tone o bjects f ound i n t he c ourtyard m ay h ave b een s ubsidiary a ltars. T he o rientation o f t he e ntrance t o t he c ourtyard , t he t emple a ltar a nd t he t emple d oor , a ll o n a n a xis, c reated a f ocal p oint f or t he w orshipper; t he i mage o r s ymbol o f t he d eity i n t he c ella. T he c ella o f t he t emple a t A ltintepe h ad a n a rea o f d ressed s tones o pposite t he d oorway, 1 .97 b y 1 .43 m , w hich c ould h ave b een t he b ase f or a n i mage o f ad eity, t hough o ne w as n ot d iscovered. I nside t he t emple w as a f loor o f t amped e arth a nd p lastered m ud-brick w alls, p ainted i n g eometric m otifs i n r ed , w hite , b lue , b lack a nd b rown . L ight f or t he c ella m ay h ave c ome t hrough w indows h igh u p i n t he w alls ( Ozg i i, 1 969 , 4 0). T he
t emple
d id
n ot
h ave
a n
i nscription ,
t hough
v otive
g ifts
o f
s pearheads m ay i ndicate t hat i t w as a t emple o f H aldi , g od o f w ar . T his d oes n ot m ean t hat a ll s quare t emples s hould b e a ssociated w ith t his p articular d eity. K ayalidere T he t emple a t A ltintepe i s o ne o f t he b est e xamples o f a n U rartian t emple; b ut t hat a t K ayalidere i s e qually i mportant, a lbeit o f r ougher c onstruction ( Burney , 1 966 , 6 8). T he c ella i s s maller t han a t A ltintepe, 5 .00 b y
5 .00 m w ith w alls
o f
v arying
t hickness
( 3.20-5.20 m ) ,
c orners p roject t he s ame d istance ( 50 a m) ( Fig.41). T he s tone s ocle w ere f airly w ell f itted t ogether b ut t hey a re n ot a s w ell s moothly f inished a s t hose a t A ltintepe ( Burney , 1 966 , 6 9). s tates t hat t he m asonry o f t he t emple i s m ore i )Ke t hat o f w alls t han o f t emples ( Burney , 1 966 , 7 0).
t hough
t he
b locks o f t he c oursed o r a s T he e xcavator f ortification
T he f loor o f t he c ella w as h ard s oil m ixed w ith s mall s tones a s a f oundation f or a l ayer o f s mall s tones , w hich m ay h ave c overed t he f loor ( as a t A znavurtepe). A l ine o f t hese w as s till i n s itu a t t he d oorway; i ndirect e vidence t hat t hey c ontinued i nto t he c ella. N o s tone b locks w ith h oles i n t hem w ere f ound n ear t he d oorway, a s a t A ltintepe ( Burney, 1 966 , 7 4). T he t emple f orecourt w as n ot c olonnaded b ut p aved w ith s tones,
w ith a
s tela b ase o n a n a xis t o t he t emple d oorway ; w hether o r n ot t here w as a n i mage o f a d eity i n l ine w ith t his a t t he b ack w all o f t he c ella i s u ncertain , t hough t he e vidence f rom A ltintepe w ould i ndicate s uch a p ossibility. A r ectangular a rea o f s moothly d ressed s tone s labs w ith t hree h oof m arks i n t hem , l ocated s outh-east o f t he s tela b ase , a re a n i ndication t hat a t ripod f or a v essel ( similar t o t he f ind f rom A ltintepe a nd t he o nes d epicted i n t he M usasir r elief)
o nce s tood
i n t he
c ourtyard
( Burney,
1 966 , 7 2). O therwise , t he c ourtyard m ay h ave h ad a c overed a rea o n t he s outh-east s ide. T he s tela m ay h ave b een p art o f a n o pen-air s hrine ( Burney,
1 966 , 7 5).
A znavurtepe T he t emple a t A znavurtepe w as s quare a nd b uttressed w ith a n i nscription 7 8
1 0 M
F ig. 4 1
P lan o f t he t emple a t K ayalidere , T urkey ( Burney,
F ig. 4 2
T he a ltar f rom T oprakkale , T urkey ( Barnett,
7 9
1 966 , F igure 4 ).
1 950 , F igure 1 0).
o f M enua ( Mellink , 1 3.63 m ( Orthmann ,
1 963 , 1 83). I t h as a n e xterior m easurement o f 1 4.09 b y 1 68) a nd a c ella 5 .00 b y 5 .00 m . T he w alls w ere 4 .00 m
t hick, m ade o f t hree c ourses o f s quare s tone b locks ( 90 b y 9 0 b y 9 0 c m), f itted t ogether w ithout m ortar a nd t opped b y am ud-brick s uperstructure ( Balkan , 1 02), w hose b ricks w ere 6 0 b y 6 0 b y 1 0cm. T he i nterior w as d ecorated w ith w all p aintings, t hough t hey c annot b e r econstructed f rom t he r ecovered f ragments.
T he f loor w as c overed w ith s mall s tones ( Balkan ,
T he t emple d id n ot h ave a ny s ubsidiary r ooms o r a c olonnade ,
1 03).
t hough i t
d id h ave a 2 0.00 b y 1 4.00 m c ourtyard . T he t emple a rea i s n ot v ery l arge , d ue t o t he t opography o f t he s ite , w hich l imited t he s pace a vailable f or c onstruction ( Ozg i l, 1 966 , 4 7). T he e xcavator o f
t he t emple b elieves t hat t he i nscription d ates i t t o
t he r eign o f M enua ( Balkan ,
13).
O n t he o ther h and F rancovich s tates t hat
t he i nscription w as m oved t o t he s ite a nd r eused i n c onstruction o f t he t emple. A dmittedly t his i s p ossible t hough a s t he i nscription i s a w ar r eport t o a d eity ( Francovich , 2 50), i t c ould j ust a s e asily b e a t emple o f H aldi, w here s uch a n i nscription w ould b e i n c haracter. T herefore , i t i s u nlikely t hat t he i nscription w as m oved t here a nd a d ate d uring t he r eign o f M enua i s p robable g iving o ne t he e arliest e xample o f a n U rartian s quare t emple. T he a pproximately 1 4.00 b y 1 4.00 i n e xterior s ize a nd t he 5 .00 b y 5 .00 m c ella w ere a s tandard w hich c ontinued t o b e f ollowed i nto t he s eventh c entury B .C. 9 avu9tepe T he t emple a t 9 avuytepe ( Temple I )
( Fig.13) w as b uilt b y S arduri I I a nd
d edicated t o t he d eity I rmusi, m entioned i n i nscriptions o n t he t emple f acade. I t i s s maller t han m ost t emples ( 10 .00 b y 1 0.00 m ), w ith a c ella 4 .50 b y 4 .50 i n ( Stronach ,
1 967 , 2 79).
T he t emple f acade h ad a b attered e ffect, i ts s moothly d ressed a nd f itted b asalt s ocle o f t wo c ourses o f b locks t apered i n a nd u p t o t he m ud-brick a bove i t. T he c orners w ere b uttressed , t hough i t i s d ifficult t o s ee t his o n t he ( approximate) n orthern , s outhern a nd w estern s ides d ue t o a djoining s tructures. T he f orecourt o f t he t emple w as s quare , 2 1.50 m o n e ach s ide w ith s everal f eatures, i ncluding a w hite-washed m ud-brick b ench ( along i ts e astern s ide) , a r ectangular m ud-brick c onstruction ( possibly a n o ffering t able) a nd a c ircular s andstone o bject ( at t he n orthern e nd o f t he c ourtyard), w hich t he e xcavator i dentifies a s a s acrificial a ltar . A long t he n orthern s ide o f t he t emple w as t he b eginning o f ac orridor , w hich l ed t o t he p alace a rea p roper . I ron l ance-points f ound i n t he c orridor h ave l ed t he e xcavator t o p ropose t hat t hey m ay h ave s urmounted t he r oof , p oint ( ?) c rowned t he r oof S tudies, 1 968b , 2 8).
o f
i n m uch t he s ame w ay t hat
t he t emple i n t he M usasir . relief
a l ance( Anatolian
A nother t emple h as r ecently b een d iscovered a t p avu tepe ( Temple I I), i n t he u pper c itadel. T emple I I m ay b e o lder t han T emple I , a s i t i s o f r ougher c onstruction a nd i s r eferred t o i n t he i nscription o f T emple I . I t w as s quare w ith b uttressed c orners a nd t he u sual s tone s ocle a nd m ud-brick s uperstructure.
8 0
T oprakkale T he l ast o f t he m ajor t emples w e w ill d iscuss i s a t T oprakkale n ear V an ( see F ig .38). ( Bossert, 8 9 ;
E arly r ecords o f A kurgal , 1 961, 2 4;
t he p lan d epict a r ectangular s tructure G oetze , 1 98), t hough a r econsideration o f
t he w ork ( Barnett, 1 950 , 1 3 ; B arnett, 1 954a , 3 ) a nd r ecent e xcavation b y P rofessor E rzen h as p roven t hat t he t emple w as s quare. D uring t he 1 960 e xcavation s eason f our d epressions f or f oundation d eposits w ere d iscovered i n t he b edrock , e ach o ne s quare , 2 0 b y 2 0 c m , a nd 3 -4 c m d eep ( Plate 8 ). T wo o f t he d epressions c ontained a b ronze p late i nlaid w ith a g old r homb a nd s ilver r ectangle. T he p late h ad b een f ixed i n t he d epression b y a c ementl ike m ixture a nd c overed b y a s tone. T he d epressions m arking t he b uttrressei c orners o f t he t emple ( Erzen , 3 98) b ring t o m ind A ssyrian p arallels, t hat g o b ack a s e arly a s t he r eign o f S halmanesar I ( thirteenth c entury B .C.) i n A ssyria ( Erzen , 3 99). T he c orner d epressions h ave m ade i t p ossible t o r econstruct t he p lan o f t he t emple, b ased o n k nown e xamples. T his r esulted i n a 1 3.80 b y 1 3.80 m p lan w ith w alls 4 .00 m t hick. R assam r eported t hat t he t emple h ad a s ocle o f s tone b locks i n a lternating l ight a nd d ark c oloured s tones, u sual m ud-bri c k s uperstructure ( Erzen ,403). m arble o utside t he t emple e ntrance ( Fig.42), ( Lynch ,6 3).
t opped b y t he
H e a lso d iscovered a b lo c k o f w hich m ay h ave b een a n a ltar
T he t emple a t T oprakkale w as p robably b uilt b y R usa I I , a s n o o bjects a ntedating h is r eign h ave b een f ound o n t he s ite ( van L oon , 1 966 , 4 9). T he s quare t emple w as i n u se a t t hat t ime o n o ther s ites i n U rartu ; i t i s o nly t he d etails o f t he s tructure w hich w e c annot b e s ure a bout, t hough o ne w ould n ot e xpect t hem t o d iffer f rom t hose o f o ther s quare t emples. T he p revious s ections o n t emples i n t he A rmenian S .S.R ., I ran a nd T urkey h ave e xamined a ll t he k nown e xcavated e xamples; o ther c m ay b e r econstructed f rom s urface i ndications a nd i nscriptions n ow i n m useums ( Din o1,19 26). N evertheless, t here a ppear t o b e o nly t wo p ossible t ypes o f U rartian t emples p roper: ( 1) t he a lleged M esopotamian t ype , w ith a b ent-axis a pproach ( the o nly e xample a t A rin-Berd), a nd ( 2) t he s quare t ype. W e h ave s hown t hat t he r ectangular t ype a t A rin-Berd w as p robably a s quare t emple a nd t hat t he t emple a t T oprakkale ( originally c onsidered t o h ave b een r ectangular) w as a lso s quare.
T he
s quare t emple h ad c orner b uttresses a nd a c entral d oorway
t hrough o ne o f t he t hick w alls, w hich c onsisted o f a s tone s ocle ( often o f s moothly f inished a nd w ell d ressed b locks f itted t ogether w ithout m ortar) a nd am ud-brick s uperstructure. T here w as o ften a c ourtyard, w hich e ither c ompletely s urrounded t he t emple o r w as c onfined t o i ts f ront. S ometimes t he
c ourtyard w as
c olonnaded ,
t hough
t his
i s
n ot a lways
t he c ase a nd i ts
i nclusion o r e xclusion m ay h ave d epended s olely o n t he t opography. T he a ltar w as u sually o n a n a xis w ith t he d oorway, w hile t he i mage, m ay h ave b een p laced a gainst t he b ack w all o f t he c ella , o pposite t he e ntrance. B oth t ypes o f t emples w ere d ecorated w ith w all p aintings a nd h ad f loors o f t amped e arth o r s tone. W e w ill r econsider t he s quare t emple i n t he c oncluding s ection o f t he c hapter , w hen w e d iscuss t he M usasir t emple i n r elation t o t he a vailable a rchaeological m aterial. B .
O pen-air s hrines O pen-air s hrines a re i nadequately d ocumented ,
t hough e xamples a re k nown
f rom V an K ale, A ltintepe a nd B ostankaya ( west o f L ake V an) T hey w ere
c ourtyard-like a reas,
o pen t o
t he s ky , 8 1
( Lang,
1 49).
w hich c ontained a n a ltar
P late 8 :
Ad epression i n t he b edrock a t o ne o f t he c orners o f t he t emple a t T oprak K ale, T urkey ( see F ig. 3 8) ( the c oin i n t he d epression i s 2 .60 c m. d iameter .
P late 9 :
T he o pen-air s hrine o f S arduri I I a t V an K ale , T urkey.
8 3
a nd/or s telae. T hey w ere s ometimes h ewn f rom t he b edrock ( as a t V an a nd B ostankaya) a nd c ompleted b y a p latform o f b locks o f s tone ( Akurgal , 1 968b , 1 3). T he b est e xamples a re t hose a t V an a nd A ltintepe, d iscuss i n t his s ection . T he s hrine a t V an ( Plate 9 ),
w hich w e w ill
e xcavated b y t he R ussians i n 1 916 ,
i s t he
m ost i mpressive o f a ll t he o pen-air s hrines ( Fig .43). I t h as a r ock-cut p latform 5 0 m l ong a nd u p t o 1 0m w ide , a s maller p latform w ith a r ock-cut c hannel ( 1.00 m h igher t han t he n iches a nd p ossibly a p lace f or o fferings) a nd a n e astern a nd a w estern n iche c ut f rom t he b edrock ( Marr, 9 ). T he e astern n iche w as 2 .80 m w ide a nd 2 .20 m d eep a nd a rched ( Marr, 1 3). A s quare c utting i n t he b edrock f loor o f t he n iche , 1 .48 m w ide, c ontained a f urther d eepening , 6 5 b y 4 6 b y 2 9 c m , w hich m ay r epresent t he f oundation f or as tela , t hough o ne w as n ot f ound b y t he e xcavators ( Marr ,19). O n t he o ther h and , t he w estern n iche , w hich w as 2 .60 i n w ide a nd 2 .30 m d eep a nd a rched , c ontained a n i nscription o f S arduri I I o n t he b ack w all a s w ell a s o n a s tela a nd i ts b ase. T he s tela b ase w as s quare , 1 .56 m w ide a nd 1 .08 m h igh , w hile t he s tela i tself w as 2 .27 m h igh , 1 .00 m w ide a nd 4 6 c m t hick . T he s tela ( which l ists t he c ampaigns o f S arduri I I) a nd i ts n iches a re a c ontrast t o t he o pen-air s hrine a t A ltintepe , w hich d id n ot h ave n iches b ut r ather f our r ound-topped , u ninscribed s telae , s et u p i n t he o pen n ear t he t ombs d iscovered t here a nd p robably i ndicative o f a c ult a ssociated w ith t he d ead ( Özg 4,1963,48). T he s hrine a t V an K ale w as p ossibly a s hrine t o c ommemorate S arduri I I . T he s hrine a t A ltintepe w as i n a c ourtyard o f t amped e arth o ver a f ill o f a ndesite r ubble , 7 .75 m w ide a nd 1 1.70 m l ong , i n w hich t here w ere f our a ndesite s telae o n s tone b ases, s et u p 1 .00 m f rom t he s outh-west w all o f t he c ourtyard (w hich w as a lso t he n orth-east w all o f T omb I a nd c ontemporary w ith i t)
( Fig.44).
T he s telae b ases a re 7 0 c m w ide a nd 1 .00 i n l ong a nd h ave a
d eepening 4 0 c m l ong a nd 2 0 c m w ide f or t he p rojecting b ase o f t he s tela. D irectly i n f ront o f t he s econd s tela f rom t he n orth-east w as a c ircular p iece o f ac n , ice, 5 0 c m d iameter, i n w hi- . 1 te h re w as a h ole o f 1 4 c m d iameter , t hough i t d id n ot p enetrate c ompletely t hrough t he s tone. T his a ltar ( Ozg ik ,1969 , 7 3) w as p robably f or l ibations t o t he d ead , a s i s b orne o ut
b y a n U rartian s eal i mpression s howing a f igure s tanding b efore t hree
s telae w ith a n earby s pouted j ug f or l ibations ( Fig .45) ( Özg ik ,
1 969 ,
7 4).
T he d ifferences b etween t hese t wo s hrines a re t he p resence o r a bsence o f i nscriptions a nd n iches a nd t he f orm , n umber a nd s ize o f t he s telae. N evertheless, t hey p robably s erved t he s ame f unction ... t o c ommemorate t he d ead.
I t i s
l ikely t hat
t his w as
t he
f unction o f
a ll
o pen-air
s hrines.
T hey a re a s tark c ontrast t o t he s quare t emples, w hich w ere e nclosed i n a l imited s pace, p ainted i n b rilliant c olours a nd p robably r ather d ark. N evertheless, e ach w as u sed f or i ts o wn f orm o f w orship; t he s quare t emples f or t he d eities a nd t he o pen-air s hrines f or a ncestors. W hether t he k ing w as w orshipped a s a d eity i n U rartu i s u ncertain , a s t here i s n o e vidence t hat U rartian k ings w ere d eified . C .
N iches N iches w ere a n a malgam o f t he t emple a nd t he o pen-air s hrine ( van L oon ,
1 966 ,
5 4),
s erving a f unction r ather l ike a w ay-side s hrine i n t he c ountry-
s ide ( Melikishvili, L ehmann-Haupt r ock-cut)
w as
1 954 , 3 54). s uggested t hat
e vidence
o f
t he f orm o f
a p ossible
t he n iches
c onnection
( often a rched a nd
f urther
w est;
w ith
5
F ig. 4 3
1 0 M
T he s hrine o f S arduri I I a t V an K ale, T urkey ( Karr , p .14).
8 5
^ --
o
F ig. 4 4
5
1 0 M
T he o pen-air s hrine a t A ltintepe , T urkey ( Özg 4 ,
8 6
1 969 , F igure 3 0).
F ig. 4 5
A s eal i mpression f rom T oprakkale , Turkey o f ad evotee b efore s telae ( Piotrovskii, 1 959a , F igure 7 3).
„ ' . 1 I •K Z -" / , -> : : 7 ,,,
' , / , i ( .
, ; • :> ; -,-
-\_ ,
, / , , . :^
F ig. 4 6
A n iche w ith i nscription o n t he r oad b etween R ezaiyeh a nd U shnuiyeh , I ran ( Kleiss, 1 972b , F igure 2 3).
8 7
P aphylagonian t ombs a nd f urther a field t o G reece a nd E truria ( Lehmann-Haupt , 1 931, 6 25). T his w as b ased u pon t he f orm o f t he n iches a nd a rtifacts w hich m ight s upport a rguments f or t rade c onnections a nd t he t ransmission o f i deas a long t he s ame r outes ( Lehmann-Haupt, 1 931,483). L ehmann-Haupt, t hough h e p ointed o ut t he s imilarities, r ealized t hat t here w ere c hronological d ifferences b etween U rartu a nd G reece ( and E truria) w hich m ade a ny e xplanation d ifficult;
t he s ituation h as n ot c hanged.
M eherkapi, n ear V an, i s t he b est k nown e xample o f a n iche. I t i s r ectangular w ith r abetted e dges a nd a n i nscription o f I shpuni a nd M enua , r ecording t he o fferings t o b e m ade t o v arious d eities o f t he U rartian p antheon. T his f orm o f n iche w ith r abetted e dges a nd a h orizontal t op ( rather t han a rched) a ppears t o h ave b een u sed p rimarily d uring t he r eigns o f I shpuini a nd M enua, a s n o e xamples a re k nown f rom e arlier o r l ater p eriods ( Sevin , 3 83). As imilar n iche h as r ecently b een i nvestigated a t Y esilali , s outh-east o f V an , w hich h ad a n i nscription w ithin t he r abetted f rame o f t he n iche , a s a t M eherkapi. B ut t his n iche i s d ifferent d ue t o t he c ontent o f t he i nscription , w hich r ecords t he b uilding o f a " su-si o f t he g od H aldi" ( Sevin , 3 83). S evin a nd B elli a rgue t hat t he t erm " su-si" r efers n ot t o a t emple b ut t o t he w hole a rea o f t he n iche a nd a p latform ( Sevin , 3 86). T his w ill u ndoubtedly l ead t o ar econsideration o f t he t erm " Susi" t emple a s i t i s c urrently u nderstood . M eherkapi i s c ut o ut o f t he r ock t o a d epth o f 1 .27 m a t ah eight o f 1 5.24 m a bove t he p resent g round l evel. T he i nscribed a rea i s 1 .96 i n w ide a nd 5 .33 i n h igh ( Lynch , 12). O ne s uspects t hat t he n iche h ad a f unction o ther t han s imply r ecording t he o fferings d ue t o t he g ods;
i t m ay h ave b een
ar eminder o f t he b eneficial p rebence o f t he d eity/deities. O ther n iches h ave b een f ound o n o r n ear U rartian s ites,
s uch a s a n
a rched n iche n ear a s pring o n t he r oute f rom R ezaiyeh t o U shnuiyeh i n I ran ( Fig .46). T he n iche , w hich i s n ear a n U rartian s ettlement, i s 2 .60 m h igh. 1 .50 m w ide a nd u p t o 8 0 c m d eep w ith a n i nscription ( in a v ery d amaged c ondition) o n t he b ack a nd t he s ide w alls. I t h as b een p ossible t o r ecognize t he n ame o f t he d eity H aldi a nd o f t he U rartian k ing , M enua, b ut v ery
l ittle
e lse
( Kleiss ,
1 972b ,
1 50).
N evertheless, i t w as p robably a
d edicatory i nscription , r eminding t he p opulace o f t he f avour o f t he d eity ... a nd t he k ing. T he p roximity o f t he s pring m ay i ndicate t hat t he i nscription r eferred t o t he w ater s upply , p erhaps f or a n i rrigation p roject. M enua's i rrigation p roject n ear V an , t he " Semiramis C anal" t hough n ot m arked b y a d edicatory n iche i s t raced b y i nscribed b locks o f s tone a t p laces a long i ts 8 0 k ilometre l ength. T he c anal w as a n i mportant s upply o f w ater, p roducing o ne t housand f ive h undred l itres o f w ater e ach s econd ( Arutunyan , 1 964 , 1 9). I nscribed n iches w ere s imply a w ay o f p ointing o ut t he f avours o f a p articular d eity a nd t he k ing. A s s uch t hey w ere f ocal p oints o f o nes o beisance. U n fortunately ,
t his
i s
a n
t here i s v ery l ittle i nformation ,
a rea
o f
U rartian a rchitecture
a bout
w hich
t hough i t i s c ertain t hat n iches w ere a n
i mportant p art o f U rartian r eligion. T his i s r evealed b y t he g eneral s imilarity b etween n iches a nd t emple d oorways, w hich h ad r abetted f rames a nd s imilar d imensions ( Tarhan , 4 08). T he r eligious a spect i s i mplicit i n b oth , i n t hat t he d oorway o f t he t emple f ramed t he i mage o f t he d eity w hile t he f rame o f t he n iche h ad t he s ame f unction , e xcept t hat t he d eity w as t hought t o b e r esiding b ehind t he f acade o f t he n iche , w ere c losed ( Tarhan , 4 10). 8
a s w hen t he d oors o f a t emple
D .
R econstruction o f M usasir.
t he s quare t emple a nd i ts r elevance t o t he t emple a t
T he m ost c ontroversial t opic i n U rartian A rchaeology i s t he a ppearance o f t he t emple a t M usasir, w hich t he A ssyrians s acked i n 7 14 B .C. S argon I I' e ighth c ampaign .
d uring
M usasir , t hough a n i ndependent k ingdom , w as t he
l ocation o f t he m ost i mportant t emple o f t he U rartian g od , H aldi. O ne w ould a ssume t hat t he U rartians e xerted s ome i nfluence o n t he c onstruction o f t he t emple, p erhaps g iving i t t he s ame p lan a nd u sing t he s ame d ecorative i deas a s i n t he t emples o f U rartu p roper. B ut t he s ite o f M usasir h as n ot b een d iscovered a nd t he r elief d epicting t he s ack o f t he t emple w as l ost w hen t he b oat c arrying i t f rom t he e xcavation o f S argon 's p alace a t K horsabad s ank. N evertheless, a c omparison b etween a s ketch o f t he r elief a nd p lans o f U rartian s quare t emples p rovide a t entative b asis f or r econstructing t he a ppearance o f t he s quare t emple . S everal s cholars h ave m ade s uggestions c oncerning t he r econstruction o f t he s quare t emple: Ö zg 4 t hat i t w as a t all b uilding w ith a f lat r oof a nd l ight c oming t hrough w indows h igh i n t he w all, a h ole i n t he r oof, t he d oorway o r a c ombination o f t he t hree ( Fig .47) ( özg ik , 1 966 , 4 1); A kurgal s uggests r ather t he s ame , t hough h e b elieves t hat t he b uilding w as t owerl ike, r eaching a h eight o f t hirty m etres ( Fig.48) ( Akurgal, 1 968b, 1 4); N aum ann f or a t emple a bout o ne-third t he h eight o f A kurgal's r econstruction w ith l ight f rom w indows i n t he u pper w alls a nd t he d oorway, c overed b y a l ow t ent r oof ( Naumann , 1 971, 4 25 ; N aumann , 1 968 , 5 3); a nd K leiss f or a t ower t emple w ith a f lattened t ent r oof ( Kleiss, 1 976a , 4 0). W hether t his t emple f orm e volved i n U rartu o r e lsewhere i s a q uestion w hich c e . n ot b e s ettled , t hough H rouda r efers t o t he u se o f t he b asic b uttressed p lan w ith a s ingle e ntrance a t K ültepe ( Hrouda , 2 58) a nd A kurgal b elieves t hat i t r esembles t he I shtan t emple a t B abylon , w hich , t hough h e s ays i t i s o f a l ater p eriod t han t he U rartian e xamples, i s n evertheless d erived f rom e arlier e xamples i n t he a rea ( unspecified) ( Akurgal , 1 968b , 1 4). T he l ate B ronze o t k , ge t emple o f t he s torm g od a t C archemish ( Woolley, 1 70) h as a p lan s imilar t o t he U rartian s quare t emple , w ith a t l east t wo b uttressed c orners ( Fig. 4 9). N evertheless, i t i s u nlikely t hat t he s quare t emple w as o f A ssyrian o rigin a nd i n v iew o f t he l ack o f i nformation i t i s i mpossible t o s uggest a nything m ore d evelopment o f t he f orm f rom a n A natolian p redecessor . 1 .
t han t he
A chaemenian P arallels
O ne o f
t he m ost
U rartian t emple
i s
i ts
c ontroversial p oints r elationship
t o
i n t he
r econstruction o f a n
A chaemenian a rchitecture.
U seful
r esearch h as b een c ompleted b y S tronach, b ased o n p arallels b etween t he Z endan-i S uleiman a nd K a'bah-i Z ardusht i n I ran ( Fig .51) a nd t he p lans o f U rartian s quare t emples.
T he Z endan-i S uleiman a t P asargadae a nd t he
K a'bah-i Z ardusht a t N aqsh-i-Rustam a re t ower-like s tructures, w hich m ay h ave b een f ire t emples, t hough t his i s n ot c ertain . T he s imilarity o f g round p lan b etween t hese s tructures a nd t he U rartian s quare t emple i ndicate t hat t hey m ay h ave b een d erived f rom U rartu , o ne o f t he f irst a reas i nto w hich C yrus t he G reat e xpanded ( where h e c ould h ave s een t hem a nd u sed t hem a s a m odel f or t he l ater K a'bah) ( Stronach ,1967, 2 88). T he s imilarity b etween t he t wo t ypes o f s tructures e xtends b eyond t he g round p lan ; d entil c ornices, r ecessed s paces o n t he f acade a nd t hree r ows o f w indows ( those o n t he A chaemenian s tructures a re f alse b ut f alse w indows w ere a lso u sed i n U rartian a rchitecture). ( Stronach ,1967 ,284). T he b ronze m odel f rom T oprakkale i s t he b est e xample o f t he u se o f s o m any w indows i n a n U rartian b uilding, 8 9
9 0
F ig. 4 8
A kurgal's ( Akurgal,
r econstruction
o f
1 968b , F igure 1 ).
9 1
t he
t emple
a t
T oprakkale,
T urkey
1 0 M
F ig. 4 9
T he t emple o f t he s torm g od a t C archemish ( Woolley , p 1.29).
O
O
F ig. 5 0
A r econstruction o f s pears f lanking a t emple d oorway ( Tarhan , F igure 6 ).
9 2
0
F ig. 5 1
F ig. 5 2
5
T he Z endan-i S uleiman a t P asargadae ,
1 0 M
I ran ( Stronach ,
1 967, F igure 3 ).
K leiss' r econstruction o f t he M üsasir t emple ( Kleiss, 8 ).
9 3
1 963/64, F igure
,
t hough t hey m ay h ave b een f alse w indows. O ne s hould r emember t hat t he b ronze m odel d oes n ot n ecessarily d epict a t emple. D ifferences b etween t he r oofs o f U rartian a nd A chaemenian t emples c an b e e xplained b y t he s witch f rom a w ooden m edium ( assuming t he U rartian t emple t o h ave h ad a r oof w ith a h igher p itch) t o a s tone o ne, r esulting i n al ow p itched t ent r oof o f p yramidical s hape. A lso , t he h eight o f t he c ella f rom t he
g round
i n
t he A chaemenian e xamples
m ay
b e
d ue
t o
a d esire
f or a
c eremonial f light o f s tairs a nd t o p reserve t he h eight o f t he s tructure a s a w hole b ut t o s horten t he h eight o f t he a ctual c ella. T he p arallels b etween t he s tructures e xtends t o t he o ver-all a ppearance; t he t ower-like f orm ( up t o 2 6.00 m h igh f or t he A chaemenian s tructures), t he w indows, d entil c ornice, a t ent r oof a nd a s acred s ymbol o n t op o f t he t emple ( Stronach , 1 967 , 2 85). T he U rartian s quare t emple p robably h ad m uch t he s ame a ppearance e xcept t hat i t w as b uilt p redominantly f rom m ud-brick w hile i ts A chaemenian s uccessor w as b uilt f rom s tone. 2 . T he
T he M hsasir T emple p arallels
b etween
t he
p reviously
m entioned A chaemenian s tructures
a nd t he U rartian s quare t emple a re a u seful s ource o f
i nformation w hen o ne
e ndeavours t o r econstruct t he t emple d epicted o n t he M usasir r elief. K leiss b elieves t hat t he M usasir t emple r epresents a s econd t ype o f t emple w ithin t he a rea o f U rartian h egemony ( Kleiss, 1 976a , 4 0), w hich m ay h ave h ad s ix p rojecting b uttresses r ather t han a c olumned a nteroom ( Kleiss, 1 963/1964 , 8 ); o r a s implified f acade w ith c olumns a round i t, a s a t A ltintepe. T he b uttresses c ould h ave b een o rnamented w ith s hileds o r s tone i n lay ( Kleiss, 1 963/1964, 1 1) o n e ither s ide o f a d oorway a pproached b y s teps. H e r econstructs t he t emple w ith a l ow p yramidical r oof, e ach s ide a t a n a ngle o f a bout t wenty-two a nd o ne h alf d egrees, t iled a nd c rowned b y a l arge l ance p oint ( Kleiss, 1 963/1964 , 1 2). T he b uilding h ad a s quare p lan b ut w as t ower t emple w ith a s hortened f acade ( Fig.52). N evertheless, t emple,
a
o ne m ay r econstruct t he M usasir t emple a s a s quare t ower
e specially i f o ne b ears i n m ind t hat t he A ssyrian a rtisans, w ho
c reated t he r elief,
c ould h ave u sed e xamples o f a rchitecture k nown t o t hem ,
a long w ith r eports o f t he c ampaign , t he r esult b eing a r elief t hat w as n ot n ecessarily a ccurate i n a ll d etails ( Naumann , 1 968, 5 0). A lso, s pace r estrictions c ould h ave l ed t o a d istortion o f t he p roportions, r esulting i n as hortened t emple ( Lloyd , T here
i s
a nother
1 20).
p ossibility w hich
m ust
b e
c onsidered ;
p erhaps
t he
t emple r epresents t he a rchitectural t raditions o f t he c lient k ingdom i n w hich i t w as b uilt. H erzfeld b elieved t hat t he M usasir t emple w as g abled a nd h ad a c olumned f acade , t he c olumns c omposed o f c olumn d rums h eld t ogether b y m etal b ands ( Herzfeld , 1 935 , 1 5). H is s uggestion t hat t he g reater a ge o f t he M usasir t emple i ndicates a c ommon o rigin f or i t a nd G reek t emples ( Herzfeld , 1 941, 1 99) s hould b e a voided , a s t here i s n o e vidence t o s upport t his p roposal. a r egional
T he a rchitecture o f t he t emple i s u ndoubtedly i ndicative o f
v ariation o f
t he s quare
t emple p lan b ut
H erzfeld's
p roposal i s
u nrealistic. I t i s r egrettable t hat t he M usasir t emple h as b een c ompared t o G reek t emples, a lways o n t he s lightest e vidence. O ganesian s upports H erzfeld , b asing h is a rguments u pon i nscriptions f ound i n U rartu , w hich h e s ays r efer t o c olonnades o f t emples ( he d oes n ot s pecify t he s ites n or d oes h e g ive t he
9 4
c ontent o f t hese i nscriptions) ( Oganesian , t hat
t he t emple a t M usasir h ad w alls
1 955 ,
6 ).
i n a ntis;
a ppearance w as l ike t hat p roposed b y K leiss.
I t i s f ar m ore l ikely i n o ther w ords,
i ts
A s s uch i t w as n ot t he u sual
U rartian s quare t emple. I t p robably h ad t he s ame g eneral p lan b ut a s hortened f acade a nd d iffered s omewhat i n i ts e xternal a ppearance.
3 .
T he s quare t emple
T arhan a nd S evin 's w ork c oncerning t he r elationship b etween n iches a nd t emple d oorways h as a lready b een r eferred t o i n t he s ection o n n iches; b ut t hey h ave a lso m ade s ome i nteresting o bservations r egarding t he U rartian s quare t emple.
T hey b elieve t hat t he t emple d oorway w as 4 .00 -5.00 m h igh
w ith a c urved a pex o r a f lat l intel ( Tarhan , 4 10). F urthermore, t hey s uggest t hat t he d oorway w as f lanked b y s pears, s et i n s tone b locks o n e ach s ide , a s a t A ltintepe ( Fig.50). T he i dea i s l ent s upport b y t he M usasir r elief o n w hich s pearbearing s tatues ( ?) a re d epicted o n e ither s ide o f t he t emple d oorway ( Tarhan , 4 04). T he 1 .50 -2.00 m w ide d oorway w ould h ave b een c losed b y a d oor o f t wo w ings, s ecured b y f ixtures i n t he f loor/lower w all a nd t he m ud-brick s uperstructure ( such f ixtures h ave n ever b een f ound o n a n U rartian s ite , e xcept f or p ivot s tones) ( Tarhan , 4 06). T hey c onclude t hat t he t emple i nterior w as l ighted o nly t hrough t he d oorway. T he e xcavated r emains o f s quare t emples a re a mple p roof
t hat
t he
b uilding c ould h ave b een a t ower-like s tructure. T he t hick m ud-brick w alls w ith c orner b uttresses w ould h ave s upported a s uperstructure o f c onsiderable h eight ,
c rowned b y a t ent r oof p itched a t m ore o f a n a ngle t han t hat o f t he
A chaemenian p arallels; b ut n ot i n t he f orm o f a g abled r oof. T he r oof w as c onstructed f rom w ooden b eams, r eeds a nd c lay a nd m ay h ave b een s urmounted b y as ymbol i ndicative o f t he r eligious f unction o f t he b uilding o r i t w as s imply a n a rchitectural d ecoration . M ore t han l ikely t he s quare t emple w as t he o nly b uilding u sed f or w orship o f a d eity/deities i n U rartu, t hough p ossible e xceptions d o e xist. I t r epresents a n U rartian d evelopment i n a rchitecture , w hich m ay h ave o riginated e lsewhere i n A natolia , o r e ven C archemish .
9 5
a s a t K ültepe
P late 1 0 :
P art o f t he s outh f ace o f V an K ale, K horkhor C hambers c an b e s een a s l eft.
< i 6
T urkey.
T he e ntrance t o t he
t he u ppermost o pening t o t he
C hapter V :
T ombs
U rartian t ombs m ay b e c lassified a s t hose r epresenting t he t he n obility a nd t hose r epresenting t he b urials o f t he p opulace.
b urials o f T he f irst
g roup i s r epresented b y r ock-cut t ombs a nd m asonry-built t ombs ( which i mitate t he r ock-cut e xamples). T he s econd g roup i s r epresented b y c remation b urials, u sually i n p ottery v essels p laced i n r ocky c revices. W e w ill r eview m ajor e xamples o f e ach g roup ; t he r ock-cut c hambers a t V an K ale, t he r ock-cut t omb a t D ogubayazit, t he r ock-cut t omb a t K ayalidere , t he r ock-cut t omb a t S angar i n I ran , t he m asonry-built t ombs a t A ltintepe a nd t he s oum m o n t he s lopes o f M ount A rarat, n ear I gdir , T urkey. c alled " coI umba i r.i T he f orm o f t he r ock-cut a nd m asonry-built t ombs, h as b een c ited a s i ndicative o f A ssyrian i nfluence o n t he n obility o f U rartu . b zg ik b elieves t hat t he u se o f f lat c eilings, f alse v aulting a nd b urial i n s arcophagae i n t he t ombs s upport h is c laim ( Özek ,1967 ,71; a lso s ee H aller , D ie G räber u nd G rüfte v on A ssur). I n c ontrast, c remation w as p racticed b y t he p opulace , a f act a ttributable b y h im t o A natolian i nfluence. H e c onjectures t hat c remation w as a p ractice , w hich e ventually s pread t o t he U rartians f rom t he H ittites a nd t he P hrygians ( Özg 4 ,1969 ,72). b z ek b elieves t hat U rartian b urial p ractices r esemble t hose o f t he H ittites d ue t o t he m ingling o f c hildren's b ones w ith a dult b ones a nd t he p lacing o f t he u rn n ext t o a n i nhumation b urial ( Anatolian s tudies, 1 973a,14). B urials w hich f it t his c lassification h ave b een d iscovered a t H armantepe K öy, n ear A dilcevaz ( 1 4ellink , 1 965 , 1 42) a nd m ay i ndicate t hat i nhumation b urial w as p racticed b y t he c ommons a s w ell a s t he n obility,
t hough o n a l ess g randiose s cale.
N everthess, i t d oes n ot p rove t hat t his p ractice c ame t o t he U rartians v ia t he H ittites. L ehmann-Haupt p roposed t hat t here w as a c onnection b etween t he o rigin o f U rartian r ock-cut t ombs a nd r ock-cut f eatures w ith a s imilar p lan i n P aphylagonia, P hrygia, G reece, E truria a nd P alestine ( Lehmann-Haupt, 1 931, 6 33; P iotrovskii , 1 959a , 2 18). B ut t his i s f ounded p rimarily o n b asic s imilarities i n p lan a nd a s s uch i ndicate n othing m ore t han t he u se o f r ock-cut c hambers i n o ther p laces. A s s o a ptly s tated b y P iotrovskii, t here a re e xamples i n I ran ,
w hich a re m ore l ikely t o b e c onnected t o t he U rartian
e xamples t han f or t he l atter t o b e c onnected i n a ny w ay w ith t hose a s a way a s E truria ( Piotrovskii ,
f ar
1 959a , 2 19).
B efore w e b egin t he d iscussion o n t he t ombs p roper, w e m ust f irst m ention w hat P iotrovskii r efers t o a s p ossible c avern t emples/tombs. H e s tates t hat t here a re s everal o f t hese a t T oprakkale o n t he n orth-western s ide o f t he s ite, r eferring t o t he l arge c hamber w ith a n a pproach p assage o f f ifty-six s teps a s h is p rimary e xample. T he c orridor ( 2.00 m w ide a nd 2 .75 -3.00 m h igh) l eading t o t he c hamber ,
h as b een c ut o ut o f t he r ock a nd i s
l ighted b y w indows c ut t hrough t he r ock. I t l eads d own t o a l arge c hamber w ith a r ectangular d eepening i n t he c entre a nd b enches c ut o ut o f t he r ock a long t he e dge ( Piotrovskii, 1 959a , 2 18). I t i s d oubtful t hat i t w as a t emple t hough i t m ay h ave b een a t omb o r a n u nderground w ater r eservoir. I t i s n ow b eing e xcavated b y P rofessor A fif E rzen .
9 7
4M
2
F ig. 5 3
P lan a nd a s ection o f t he t omb d iscovered b y K aznakov a t V an K ale , T urkey ( Piotrovskii , 1 959a , F igure 6 5).
F ig. 5 4
P lan o f t he A lishar t omb ( Piotrovskii ,
9 8
1 959a , F igure 6 6).
1 - 1
r -1
r f - 1
3d 3 c LI
1 _ _ _ _ I
t : f
5
F ig. 5 5
1 0 M
P lan a nd s ections o f t he K horkhor c hambers a t V an K ale, c alled t he A rgishti t omb) ( Piotrovskii,
9 9
T urkey ( also
1 959a , F igure 5 8).
A .
R ock-cut t ombs T hese
t ombs
a re
c haracterized b y
t heir p lan ,
c onsisting f or t he m ost
p art o f a n arrow p latform a t t he e ntrance , w hich l ed i nto a w ide , s hallow r oom ; t here w ere o ften r ooms o n e ither s ide o f t he f irst r oom. O ccasionally t here w as a p latform u pon w hich t he d eceased o r t he s arcophagus m ay h ave
b een p laced.
T he s imilarity b etween t hese a nd l ater A chaemenian
r ock-cut t ombs m ay i ndicate a n U rartian a ncestry f or t he l atter o r a t l east a c ommon s ource ( Calmeyer , 1 975 , 1 02). I nteriors ( and o ften e xterior f acades) w ere s moothly f inished ( LehmannH aupt, 1 910 , 3 76), t hough s tructural e lements w ere s ometimes s hown i n r elief, s uch
a s
a l og
p attern
o n
a c eiling
t o
i ndicate
t he
b eams
( Lehmann-
H aupt, 1 926, 1 27; P iotrovskii, 1 967, 6 2). T he n umber o f r ooms v aried b etween f our a nd s even , w ith n iches f or o fferings ( ?) c ut i nto t he r ock w alls. V an K ale T he m ost f amous e xamples o f r oc k-cut t ombs a re t hose o n t he s outh f ace o f t he r idge o f V an K ale ( Plate 1 0). A lthough n o o bjects o r b urials w ere d iscovered i n t hem ( having b een p lundered i n t he p ast) t hey u ndoubtedly w ere t ombs, e specially n ow t hat o ther e xamples h ave b een d iscovered ( Piotrovskii, 1 959a , 2 18). A .N. K asnakov d iscovered a r ock-cut t omb i n 1 916 a t V an , n ear t he " arsenal" ( Fig .53), c onsisting o f ar oom , 2 0 s quare m etres a nd 2 .55 m h igh , w hich h ad a n o pening h igh i n t he w all t o t he l eft o f t he d rway.
T he
o pening l ed i nto t wo r ooms, t he f irst 4 .76 m l ong, 1 .42 m w ide a nd 9 5 c m h igh, w ith a f lat c eiling; t he s econd r oom h ad a v aulted c eiling a nd c uttings i n t he f loor t o f it a s tone s lab o ver t he e ntrance t o a nother c hamber b elow i t , w hich l ed t o a s ide c hamber , 1 .07 m w ide a nd 8 5 c m h igh. T he l atter w as m ore l ikely t he b urial c hamber , t hough t here w ere n o f inds t o s upport t he c onclusion ( Piotrovskii , 1 959a , 2 16). I t i s a c ontrast t o t he l arge e xamples o n t he s ite , w hich h ad p latforms f or t he d eceased/sarcophagus, o ccasionally a pproached b y s tairs. A s imilar t omb w as d iscovered i n t he n ineteenth c entury o n t he A raxes R iver n ear t he b order p ost o f A lishar ( Fig.54). I t h ad a n o uter r oom w ith a c orbelled v ault c eiling a nd a n i nner c hamber w ith n iches i n t he w all a nd a f lat c eiling . i ndicate t hat i t w as U rartian ( Piotrovskii,
O bjects f rom t he t omb
1 959a , 2 18).
O ne o f t he b est k nown t ombs a t V an K ale a nd t he o ne w e w ill u se a s a d etailed e xample f or a ll ,
i s t he K horkhor C hamber/Argishti c hamber ( Fig .55).
L ehmann-Haupt p roposed t hat t he p rojections f lanking t he d oorway o f t he t omb w ere i mitations o f w alls i n a ntis, p erhaps s ignifying t hat t he c hamber w as a t emple
( Lehmann-Haupt,
1 926 ,
1 23).
A lternatively ,
h e
s uggested
t hat
i t
c ould h ave b een a d welling, t he s hafts i n t he t omb h aving b een w ater r eservoirs ( Lehmann-Haupt, 1 926 , 1 29). M ore r esearch h as b een d one s ince L ehmann-Haupt's p roposals, w ith t he r esult t hat t he c hamber p robably w as a t omb. T his i s s upported b y t he p resence o f t he a nnals o f A rgishti I c arved o n t he s moothed f acade o f t he t omb, a f eature n ot o ut o f p lace i n s uch a c ontext a nd a l ikely i ndication t hat i t w as h is t omb . T he t omb h as a l arge m ain c hamber a nd f our s ubsidiary o nes.
T he m ain
c hamber i s 1 0 .50 m l ong , 6 .00 m w ide a nd 3 .50 m h igh . T here a re t en n iches w ith h orizontal u pper e dges i n t he w alls, a ll w ith r ecessed f rames. A long t he w alls a re c oncave-sided s quares, 1 c m d eep a nd 3 1 c m w ide , p erforated b y
1 0 0
P late 1:
T he
s tairway
t o
t he
K horkhor
C hambers,
A rgi h ti 1 o n t he r ock f ace t o t he l eft.
1 01
w ith
t he
a nnals
o f
P late 1 2 :
T he s tairway a nd e ntrance t o t he " Big C ave" l ocated o n t he e astern e nd o f t he s outh f ace o f V an K ale , T urkey.
1 02
a h ole i n t he c entre;
t hey m ay r epresent a d ecorative f ixture o f s tone o r
m etal o r p erhaps l amps,
w hich h ave d isappeared .
T he n iches a nd s tep-like
p atterns c ut i nto t he w all w ere m ore l ikely p laces f or o fferings a nd/or g rave g oods. W hat t he f unction w as o f t wo d eepenings i n t he r ock-cut f loor r emains u nclear . O ne i s r ectangular , 2 .07 b y 2 .60 m , t he o ther s quare , 1 .11 m o n e ach s ide. B oth a re 2 -3 c m d eep. T he o nly o ther f eatures o f t he t omb a re t he r ooms a t t he r ear ( two) a nd s ides o f t he m ain c hamber ( one a t e ach e nd). T here a re f our n iches i n e ach o f t he r ooms, t hough t he n orthw estern r oom h as a s haft i nstead o f a f ourth n iche, w hich P iotrovskii b elieves w as a m eans o f c ommunication w ith c hambers b elow o r a ccess t o a w ater s upply ( Piotrovskii,1959a, 2 09). I t i s f ar m ore l ikely t hat t he s hafts l ead t o c hambers, p erhaps b urial c hambers. T he
A rgishti
C hamber
w ith
i ts
n arrow p latform
r eached
b y
a r ock-cut
s taircase a nd s mooth f acade c overed w ith c uneiform i nscriptions ( Plate 1) i s a s uitable d esign f or a n U rartian r oyal t omb. T he c uttings f or t he a xis o f t he d oorway m ay b e p ost-Urartian , t hough o ne w ould a ssume t hat t hey r epresent a d oor/slab t hat s ealed t he t omb . O therwise , t he m ain c hamber m ay h ave r emained o pen a nd b een a s ort o f f unerary c hapel t o w hich m embers o r t he d eceased' f am ily b rought o fferings; p erhaps t he d eepenings i n t he f loor o f t he m ain c hamber m ark t he l ocation o f c eremonial f urniture o r s arcophagae w hich h ave d isappeared . T he s ide c hambers m ay h ave b een b urial c hambers, s ealed w ith s tone s labs. T he i nterpretation o f t he f unction o f t he r ock-cut c hambers i s b ased p rimarily o n c omparisons w ith t he A ltintepe t ombs. O ther r ock-cut c hambers a t V an K ale h ave f eatures n ot e ncountered i n a ll r ock-cut t ombs,
s uch a s a f rieze o f s emicircles c ut
j ust b elow t he s pring-
l ine o f t he f alse v aulting i n t he t omb c alled " Naftkouyu". T he f rieze i mitates t he e nds o f b eams o f a c eiling, a s o ne w ould e ncounter o n a n U rartian b uilding ( see F ig. 9 ). F urthermore, t here i s a n o pening a bove t he d oorway o f t he t omb , t hough w hich o fferings c ould h ave b een m ade , i f t he d oorway w as s ealed ( Piotrovskii, 1 959a , 2 09). O ther t ombs w ith u nusual f eatures i nclude " Ichkala" , w hich h as t wo m ain r ooms w ith s ubsidiary r ooms o ff t hem a nd h oles i n t he w alls f or s ome s ort o f d ecoration o r l amps; a nd t he " Big C ave", a pproached b y a f light o f r ock-cut s tairs, l eading t o a p latform i n f ront o f t he t omb e ntrance ( Plate 1 2) ( Piotrovskii, 1 959a , 2 13). T he r ock-cut c hambers a t V an K ale a re c lassic e xamples o f t his t ype o f t omb b ut i t h as o nly b een p ossible t o a nalyze t heir f unction s ince t he d iscovery o f t he t ombs a t K ayalidere a nd A ltintepe.
B efore w e d iscuss t hose
t ombs w e w ill e xamine t he o nly k nown e xample o f a n U rartian t omb w ith a r elief d ecorated f acade , a t D ogubayazit. D ogubayazit T he
r ock-cut
n ear-by
c uttings
p ottery
s herds
t omb i n
a t
t he
i n t he
D ogubayazit
r ock a nd
t he
t omb e ntrance
i s
n ot
d efinitely
d iscovery
( Huff ,
1 968 ,
o f
r ed
U rartian ,
b urnished
t hough U rartian
5 9) p oint t o a n U rartian
o rigin , a f act m ade e ven m ore p lausible b y t he i nterpretation o f t he a rchitecture o f t he t omb a nd i ts r elief a nd t he u se o f n iches i n t he t omb ( Huff, 1 968 , 6 4). T he s tyle o f t he h elmets o n t he r elief h ave n inth c entury B .C., p arallels i n A ssyria a nd e ighth c entury B .C., p arallels i n U rartu ( similar t o h elmets w ith i nscriptions o f A rgishti I a nd S arduri I I) ( Huff, 1 968 , 8 6). T he r elief o n t he f acade o f t he t omb d epicts t wo f igures a nd a n a nimal ( Fig. 5 6);
t he f igure o n t he r ight m ay b e ad eity a nd t he o ne o n t he l eft, a
F ig. 5 6
R elief o n t he f acade o f t he t omb a t D ogubayazit, F igure 2 ).
1 04
T urkey ( Huff ,
1 968 ,
p rince
( Huff ,
1 968 ,
7 4 ,
7 9).
T his i s t he o nly U rartian t omb w ith a r elief
d ecorated f acade; o thers h ave s moothed f acades. H uff s tates t hat A chaemenian t omb r eliefs o f t he f ourth a nd f ifth c enturies B .C . h ad s imilar s cenes, d epicting t he o wner o f t he t omb g reeting a d eity .. j ust a s i n t he U rartian r elief a t D ogubayazit ( Huff, 1 968 , 8 3). T his c ould m ean t hat t he t omb d ates t o t he A chaemenian p eriod ; o r t hat i t i s a n U rartian f orerunner o f a s tyle a dopted b y t he A chaemenians. A rchaeological e vidence i ndicates t hat i t w as U rartian o r b uilt b y ac lient K ing o f U rartu . T he e ntrance t o t he t omb w as a d oorway i n t he r elief, s ituated 8 1 0 .00 m a bove t he n earest g round l evel. O riginally , t here m ay h ave b een a p latform i n f ront o f t he t omb . T he d oorway l ed i nto a r ectangular c hamber w ith f lat c eiling , s moothed w alls a nd a n iche a bout 1 .00 m f rom t he f loor i n t he s outh w all a nd t he w est w all. Ar ectangular s haft i n t he n orth-western p art o f t he r oom g ave a ccess t o t wo c hambers b elow t he l evel o f t he e ntrance c hamber. T he s haft m ay o riginally h ave b een c overed b y a s tone s lab a s s hown b y c uttings a long i ts e dges. T he t wo l ower r ooms h ave a n u nfinished a ppearance , o ne b eing r ound a nd t he o ther o blong. O pposite t he e ntrance t o t he r ound c hamber w as a n iche i n t he w all , w hich m ay h ave b een f or o fferings. T he u nfinished c ondition o f t he r ooms a nd t he w ay t he 5 .00 b y 3 .00 m r elief f ollows t he u ndulating r ock s urface s uggests t hat t he t omb w as n ever c ompleted ( Huff , 1 968 , 6 4). H uff s uggests t hat t he t omb o riginally h ad a t errace a long t he f acade a nd a n a rea o f s telae f or s acrifices/libations. H e b elieves t hat i t w ould h ave b een a c ontinuation o f t he t heme o f t he r elief ( Huff,
1 968 , 8 5).
K ayalidere T he l ast o f t he U rartian r ock-cut t ombs i n T urkey w e w ill d iscuss i s t hat a t K ayalidere ( Fig.57). T his g roup o f s ix c hambers w as a pproached t hrough a s haft , w hich h ad b een f illed w ith l arge s tones a nd a p acking o f e arth a nd s mall s tones. A bove t he r ectangular-shaped d oorway w ere t wo s hafts , e ither t o l et a ir i nto t he t omb o r t o a ssist i n l owering s tone b locks t o s eal t he d oorway, w hich h ad a l arge b asalt b lock a cross i t o n w hich t here w ere t races o f b urning , p erhaps t he r emains o f a s acrifice m ade d uring t he f uneral c eremony. T he 1 .96 m h igh a nd 1 .00 m w ide d oorway w as s ealed w ith s tone b locks ( Burney, 1 966 , 1 02), a s w ere t he d oorways o f t he o ther c hambers, w here s ome o f t he b locks w ere s till i n s itu. O ne o f t he e ntrance d oorways ( the e astern o ne o n t he p lan) h ad m arks o n t he s tone , p erhaps i ndicating t he o rder i n w hich t he s tone b locks w ere t o b e p laced t o s eal t he t omb . A p latform 4 4 c m a bove t he f loor i n t he n orth-west c orner o f r oom 3 h ad a s arcophagus c ut o ut o f t he b edrock , t hough i t m ay n ot b e a n o riginal p art o f t he t omb . A long t he w alls a re s ix r ectangular , a rched n iches a nd i n t he s outh-east c orner a s haft i n t he f loor. O ther r ooms i n t he t omb h ad n iches i n t he w alls
a nd
i n o ne
i nstance
( room
6 )
t here w ere
s mall
c ircular
d epressions c ut i n t he b edrock f loor. T he t wo s hafts i n t he f loor ( rooms 3 a nd 5 ) a re a pproximately t he s ame s ize , t hough o nly t he o ne i n r oom 5 w as f inished. T heir f unction i s n ot k nown . T he s haft i n r oom 3 i s a bout 6 50 m d eep a nd 4 .75 m w ide; t hat i n r oam 5 i s a bout 6 .90 m d eep a nd 5 .35 m w ide a nd h as a s moothly f inished i nterior ( Burney , 1 966 ,105). T he c hambers h ad b een p lundered , p erhaps a s l ate a s o ne t housand y ears a fter t he f all o f U rartu ( Burney ,
1 966 ,
1 03).
T he n iches, w hich w ere a rched a nd h ad c ircular d epressions i n t he b ottom , w ere p robably f or o fferings; B urney s uggests t hat t he d epressions 1 05
5
F ig. 5 7
P lan a nd s ections
o f
1 0 M
t he t omb a t K ayalidere,
F igure 2 2).
1 06
T urkey
( Burney,
1 966 ,
F ig. 5 8
P lan o f t he t omb a t S angar , I ran ( Kleiss,
1 07
1 968 , F igure 6 ).
h eld e ither w ater o r s ome o ther l iquid f or c eremonies a ssociated w ith c ommemoration o f t he d ead , p erhaps o il f or l amps.
T he a uthor t hinks t hat i t
i s m ore l ikely t hat t he d epressions w ere m ade t o s upport r ound-bottomed v essels. T he c ircular d epressions i n r oom 6 c ould h ave s erved t he s ame p urpose. A s f or t he r ock-cut s arcophagus, B urney b elieves t hat i t w as a dded a t al ater d ate a nd t hat t he m ain b urial o f t he t omb m ay y et b e d iscovered i n o ne o f t he u nexcavated c hambers ( Burney ,
1 966 ,
1 07).
T he c hamber o f t he t ombs m ay b e s ummarily d escribed a s f ollows:
r ooms 1
a nd 2 w ere a nterooms, r oom 6 w as a n o ffertory c hamber , r oom 3 w as a b urial c hamber a nd r oom 5 p robably w ould h ave b een o ne i f i t h ad b een c ompleted ( Burney,1966 ,108). T he f unction o f r oom 4 i s n ot m entioned b y B urney. S angar
o f a
S anger , n ear M aku a nd t he T urkish-Iranian b order h as a v ery g ood e xample r ock-cut t omb ( Fig.58). I t i s c ut i nto t he A rarat l ava b eds a nd h as a
r ock-cut s tairway a nd f our r ooms ( Kleiss, 1 970b , 12). T here a re t hirty r ock-cut s teps, 1 .10m w ide, 1 5-20 c m h igh a nd 2 5 c m d eep ( Kleiss, 1 968 , 8 ) , t erminating a t a l anding o utside t he t omb e ntrance. T he e ntrance h as a s tep d own i nto a s mall a nteroom , f ollowed b y t he m ain r oom 1 5 c m l ower t han t he a nteroom . T he m ain r oom i s 5 .45 m l ong , 3 .90 m w ide a nd 3 .15 m h igh. T he e ast w all h as d oorways w ith f rames a round t hem a nd w hich g ive a ccess t o r ooms Ca nd D . T he w est w all o f t he m ain r oom ( room B ) h as t hree n iches, t he n orthernmost l arger t han t he o thers. T he s outhern e nd o f r oom B h as a n a rea i n t he w all, 2 .30 m w ide, 1 .30 m d eep a nd a bout e xcavator b elieves w as t he b ase f or a f unerary s tela.
2 .00 h igh, w hich t he H e a lso b elieves t hat
t he r aised a rea c ould h ave a ccomodated a s arcophagus ( Kleiss, 1 968 , 9 ), a s a t K ayalidere o r V an K ale. A b roken a rea i n f ront o f t he n iche m ay h ave b een w here a p latform f or o fferings w as o riginally b uilt. R oom C i s 2 .85 m l ong,
2 .65 m w ide a nd 2 .50 m h igh a nd h as a n a rched
n iche i n t he w all o pposite t he d oorway. T he n iche i s 5 0 c m w ide , 4 0 c m d eep a nd 7 0 c m h igh . T he w alls o f t he r oom a re s moothly f inished l ike t he o ther r ooms o f t he t omb ( Kleiss,
1 968 ,
1).
T he t omb a t S angar i s r ather s imilar t o t hat a t K ayalidere , w ith i ts a rched n iches a nd p rovision f or t he s arcophagus. F urthermore, t he o rientation o f t he m ain e ntrance t oward M ount A rarat m ay h ave r eligious s ignificance ( Kleiss,
1 968 ,
1 3).
O ther r ock-cut t ombs a re k nown i n I ran , t he r oute b etween R ezaiyeh a nd U shnuiyeh. S angard ,
K ayalidere a nd V an K ale a nd h as a rched n iches a nd a s haft i n t he
f loor ( Kleiss,
1 971c ,
6 2; K leiss, 1 974b, I sma'il A gha ( Kleiss, B .
s uch a s o ne n ear t he n iche o n I t i s s imilar t o t hose a t
6). 6
O ther e xamples a re a t W erachram ( Kleiss,
8 7-88), S heytanabad ( Kleiss, 1 976b , 2 8-29).
1 973b,
1 971c ,
3 7) a nd Q al'eh
M asonry-built t ombs M ost
o f
t he
i nterpretive
e vidence
f or
r ock-cut
t ombs
c omes
f rom t he
m asonry t ombs a t A ltintepe. T hey w ere b uilt i n a reas d ug o ut o f t he s lope o f t he h ill w ith m asonry w alls a nd c eilings, t he l atter f lat o r w ith f alse a rches c overed w ith m ud-brick a nd s tones. T he t ombs h ad o ne t o t hree r ooms s ealed w ith s tone s labs; t he e xternal e ntrance w as s ealed w ith b locks o f s tone. S tone s arcophagi w ere a ccompanied b y a n a ssortment o f g rave g oods a nd w ere p laced i n s ubsidiary r ooms ( Özg ik ,1969 ,61). T hree t ombs h ave b een 1 08
2
1
5t v l
F ig. 5 9
P lan o f t omb I a t A ltintepe, T urkey ( Özg 4 ,
1 09
1 969 , F igure 4 ).
d iscovered o n t he s ite: n orth-east t omb i n 1 956 ;
t he c entral t omb w as d iscovered,
i n 1 938;
t he
a nd t he s outh-west t omb i n 1 959 ( the o nly o ne w hich
h ad n ot b een p lundered). T hese a re r eferred t o a s T omb I ( 1956), T omb I I ( 1938) a nd T omb I II ( 1959) ( Özgü ,1969 ,65), b ased u pon t he e xcavated f inds, w hich i ndicate t hat T omb I i s t he o ldest, I II t he m ost r ecent. Aw all f rom T omb I i s c ut b y T omb I I, i a nd I I ( Özg i ,1969 ,67).
i ndicating t he c hronological d ifferences b etween I T he e xcavator p roposes t hat T omb I i s s ixty y ears
o lder t han T omb I I, w hich c ontained a b ronze v essel w ith a n i nscription m entioning t he C ilician k ing , U RIKKI , w ho r eigned f rom 7 40-732 B .C . a nd w ould t herefore h ave b een r oughly c ontemporary w ith t he r eign o f S arduri I I o f U rartu . T omb I ( Fig.59) i s a r ectangular-shaped a rrangement o f r ooms, e ach o ne 3 .05 m l ong , 2 .00 m w ide a nd 2 .75 m h igh w ith f loors o f t amped e arth. T he w alls o f t hese r ooms a re s moothly d ressed b locks o f s tone, w hose u nseen e xterior s urface r emained r oughly d ressed. T here w ere f our c ourses o f s tone , t he t hird f orming t he b eginning o f af alse c orbelled v ault, t he f ourth t he t op c ourse o f t he v ault. T he v ault s prings o nly f rom t he l ong w alls; t he s hort w alls h ave v ertical c oursing a nd d o n ot f orm a n e lement i n t he v aulting.
T he r ooms ( from r ight t o l eft o n t he p lan) h ad a rched n iches a nd
w ere s ealed b y s tone s labs. T he c entral r oom ( room 2 ) w as e ntered t hrough t he d oorway, w hich h ad a s moothly f inished s tone s lab s et i n s lots o n e ither s ide o f t he d oorway. I n f ront o f t his w as a w all o f r ough s tone b locks a nd i n f ront o f t he w all a l arge r ough b lock o f s tone. T his m ay h ave b een t he b urial c hamber . R ooms 1 a nd 3 h ad a rched n iches i n t he w alls b ut n o b urials w ere f ound d ue t o p revious p lundering. T he e xcavator e mphasized t hat n o e vidence o f c remation w as f ound. T he a rea a bove t he t omb w as c overed b y l ayers o f c lay a nd a desite r ubble , w hich f ormed a f oundation f or a m ud-brick b uilding 7 .90 m l ong a nd 3 .00 m w ide , w hich t he e xcavator b elieves w as a ssociated w ith c eremonies i n h onour o f t he d eceased .
T he f oundation " w as v ery e roded a nd i nterpretation o f t he s tructural r emains v ery d ifficult ( Ozg ik , 1 969 , 6 6). T omb I I ( Fig .60) i s o nly 2 .00 m s outh-west o f T omb I a nd h as a s moothly f inished i nterior b ut h as o nly a s ingle c hamber ,
a bout
4 .25 m l ong ,
2 .50 -
2 .75 m w ide a nd 2 .00 m h igh w ith a f loor o f e arth o ver b edrock . T he n iches ( eight) w ith h orizontal t erminals w ere n ot f ormed f rom a s ingle b lock o f s tone a s i n T omb I b ut f rom s tone b locks d ivided b y a s tone s lab w ith a d epression ( 15 c m d iameter) i n t he c entre , p ossibly t o h old r ound-bottomed v essels. T he t omb m ay h ave c ontained t he b urial o f aw oman i n aw ooden c offin , t hough i t i s d ifficult t o j udge b y t he r emains. N evertheless, t he f unerary g ifts i ndicate t hat t he b urial w as o f aw oman . T he e ntrance t o T omb I I w as t hrough a " dromos" ,
2 .50 m l ong ,
9 0 c m w ide
a nd n ot o ver 1 .25 m h igh. T he t wo n iches i n t he " dromos" a re d irectly o pposite e ach o ther b ut d o n ot h ave s helves, a s i n t he t omb p roper. T he t omb w as s ealed b y t wo s tone s labs, o ne o f w hich h as a n o pening , 5 0 c m h igh a nd 2 5 c m w ide; p ossibly t o l ook i nto t he t omb o r p ass i n o fferings. T he p assage w as b locked b y a l arge s tone s lab w ith l arge r ocks a gainst i t. A bove t he t omb, a top l ayers o f c lay a nd r ubble, w as a n e roded m ud-brick s tructure , o utlining t he t omb b elow i t. I t i s l ikely t hat t his s tructure w ould h ave s erved t he s ame f unction a s t hat o ver T omb I ( Özg ik ,
a s
1 969 , 6 7).
A s o ne c an s ee, T omb I I w as q uite a c ontast t o T omb I : as ingle c hamber o pposed t o t hree ; n iches w ith h orizontal t erminals a s o pposed t o a rched
o nes a nd n iches c omposed f rom s everal b locks o f s tone r ather t han o ne ; 1 10
f lat
1 L A
0
F ig. 6 0
5M
P lan o f t omb I I a t A ltintepe , T urkey ( 5zg 4 ,
1 11
1 969 , F igure 1 2).
5M
F ig. 6 1
.F ig. 6 2
P lan o f t omb I II a t A ltintepe , T urkey ( Özg 4 ,1969 , F igure 1 8).
A c remation b urial a t I gdir , T urkey ( Barnett,
1 12
1 963 , F igure 3 ).
c eiling a s o pposed t o a f alse c orbelled v aulting:
a nd e ntry t hrough a
" dromos" r ather t han s imply t hrough a d oorway. T he l ay-out o f t he t ombs m ay i ndicate n othing m ore t han t wo s lightly d ifferent t ypes o f t ombs, s eparated b y a s hort p eriod o f t ime; t he e xcavator s uggests t hat t hey o nce f ormed a s ingle
c omplex ,
a s
i ndicated b y s ome c ontinuity o f
c onstruction ,
t hough i t
d oes a ppear t hat i n a t l east o ne i nstance t he w alls o f T omb I I o verlap t hose o f T omb I ( Özg ik ,1969 ,67). N evertheless, i t i s p ossible t hat T omb I I w as c onstructed w ith t he k nowledge o f t he e xistence o f T omb I a nd i n t his s ense o ne c an s peak o f as ingle c omplex . T omb I II ( Fig.61) h ad t hree r ooms a nd i s s eparated f rom t he o ther t ombs b y a d istance o f a bout 1 6.00 m s outh-west o f T omb I I. O utside t he e ntrance t o t he t omb w as a l arge s tone s lab w ith a nother s tone s lab i n t he d oorway i tself, t hough i t w as n ot f itted i n s lots a t t he s ides o f t he d oorway b ut i n s lots o f t he l intel a nd t he t hreshold . T he d oorway l ed i nto r oom 1 , 4 .00 m l ong a nd 2 .00 m w ide , w hich c ontained f unerary g oods o n t he f loor o f t amped e arth . A d oorway f rom t his r oom l ed i nto r oom 2 , 4 .00 m l ong a nd 2 .50 m w ide; a gain t he d oorway w as c losed b y a s lab i n t he s ame m anner a s r oom 1 ( Özg ik , 1 969 , 6 8). R oom 2 c ontained t wo u ndecorated s tone s arcophagi c ut f rom a s ingle b lock o f s tone w ith c onvex l ids. T hey w ere 2 .33 m l ong , 8 5 c m w ide a nd 9 9 c m h igh w ith i nterior m easurements o f 1 .86 m l ength a nd 6 8 c m w idth. O ne c ontained a m ale, t he o ther a f emale. A ll a long t he w alls o f t he r oom a re n iches ( eight), c onstructed i n t he s ame m anner a s t hose o f T omb I I. A n u nsealed d oorway l ed i nto r oom 3 , w hich w as 2 .50 m l ong a nd 4 .00 m w ide a nd u sed a s ar oom f or f unerary g ifts ( Özg ik , 1 969 , 6 9). T he t omb 3 .00 m l ong ,
w as
r oofed
w ith f lat
s tone
s labs
( smoothly
f inished)
o ver
w hich f itted i nto g rooves c ut i nto t he t op c ourse o f t he w alls.
A bove t his w as t he u sual l ayering o f c lay a nd r ubble a nd a s tructure , t his t ime o f s tone , n ot m ud-brick s ame f unction a s i n T ombs I a nd I I.
( Ozg ik ,
1 969 ,
t hough
7 0) b ut p robably w ith t he
T omb I II h as a d ifferent a rrangement o f r ooms i n c omparison t o t he o ther t wo t ombs.
T he c ontrast i s n ot s o m arked b etween T omb I II a nd T omb I I a s i t
i s w ith T omb I . A ll t hree t ombs r epresent a d evelopment f rom a r ather s ymmetrical p lan o f a c entral c hamber a nd i ts s ide c hambers t o a d ifferent a rrangement o f t he c hambers b y t he t ime T omb I II w as c onstructed;
t he
s ymmetry i s g one b ut t he i dea o f a m ain c hamber a nd s ubsidiary o nes c ontinued , t hough t he m ain c hamber b ecame t he b urial c hamber i n m asonry-built t ombs,
w hereas
i t m ay h ave b een a f unerary
c hapel
i n t he
r ock-cut
t ombs.
O ne a lso h as a t ransition f rom a rched n iches t o a ngular o nes, d ivided b y s helves. T here i s n ot e nough e vidence t o s ay w hether a rched n iches i n t ombs i ndicate a n e arlier d ate t han t han t he o nes w ith a h orizontal t erminal, t hough t he w riter's o bservation i s t hat t he u se o f a ngular n iches i n t ombs i s m ost p revalent d uring t he l ate e ighth a nd e arly s eventh c enturies B .C . C .
C remation b urials S everal e xamples o f t his t ype o f b urial e xist
n ot a s w ell a ttested a s
t he r ock-cut
i n U rartu ,
a nd m asonry-built
t ombs.
t hough i t i s T hese a re
r epresented b y b urials o f u rns i n c lefts o f r ocky a reas w ith s ome a dditional r ough s tone c onstruction ; o r s imply b urial o f t he a shes i n a g rave d ug i n t he e arth .
A c emetery l ocated a bout t wo-thirds o f ak ilometre w est o f t he
c itadel a t A rin-Berd h ad c remation b urials o n a f loor o f s trewn p ebbles w ith s mall s tones a long t he s ides a nd a s lab o n t op. T hree b urials d iscovered a t t he s ite r epresent c onsiderable v ariety : o ne i n e xactly t he f orm l isted a bove,
a nother i n a c left i n a r ocky a rea a nd a nother i n a n a rea d ug i n t he 13
e arth
( Martirosian ,
1 964 ,
2 42).
M artirosian
b elieves
t hat
t he
b ody
w as
c remated o n t he s pot a nd c ites a s s upporting e vidence t he b urning o f t he a rea a round o bjects a nd g rave g oods ( Martirosian ,
1 964 ,
2 43).
I t w ould s eem m ore
l ikely t hat t he b ody w as c remated e lsewhere w ith t he g rave g oods a nd t aken t o t he c emetary f or b urial. S imilar b urials h ave b een d iscovered a t A rmavir ( Martirosian ,
1 974,
5 3) a nd a t E vditepesi,
n ear V an ,
t hough t he l atter h ave
r ather d ifferent f orms ( rectangular a nd/or o val s hapes, c onstructed f rom o verlapping i rregular s tones) a nd a re n ot n ecessarily U rartian , t hough t hey d o c ontain a r ed b urnished p ottery ( Anatolian S tudies, 1 964 , 2 2).
n ear
T he t ype s ite f or c remation b urials i s o n t he s lopes o f M ount A rarat, I gdir , T urkey. C remations w ere p laced i n u rns, w hich w ere b uried i n
c lefts o f v olcanic r ock w ith f unerary g ifts a nd c overed b y s tones a nd e arth ( Fig. 6 2) ( Kuftin , 4 ). K uftin b elieved t hat t he b urials r epresented t hose o f t he l ocal U rartian g arrison a nd t heir f amilies ( Kuftin , 1 7). A ltogether f ourteen b urial a reas w ere i nvestigated ( Kuftin,
1 6),
w hich p roduced a
v ariety o f f unerary g ifts a nd b urials o f m en , w omen a nd c hildren ( Kuftin , 4 ). T he b urials w ere n ot a lways s ingle c remations b ut o ften s everal t ogether ; s uch a s f ive u rns i n b urial 5 ( Kuftin , 1 1). B urials w ere i n u rns, w ith a s aucer-like l id, s ometimes p erforated ( Kuftin , 8 ). O ne o f
t he m ost
i nteresting d iscoveries m ade
c overed
i n r ecent y ears m ay
n ecessitate a r econsideration o f b urial p ractices, e specially a s a n i ndicator o f s ocial s tatus. W e h ave p reviously s tated t hat t he n obility w ere b uried i n
r ock-cut
o r
m asonry-built
c lasses w ere c remated. o f
A dilcevaz,
t ombs
( inhumation
b urials),
w hile
t he
l ower
Ö gün i nvestigated b urials e ast o f t he D urakbur a rea
w hich w ere
r ock-cut
t ombs w ith f lat a nd/or v aulted c eilings,
a pproached b y a " dromos".
T hese t ombs h ad a rched n iches i n t he w alls, w hich
w e
w ere
h ave
p reviously
s tated
p robably
f or
o fferings
Ö gün c laims t hat o ne c omplete t omb w as d iscovered ,
o r
f unerary
g ifts.
w ith u rns i n t he n iches;
o ne a ssumes f rom t his d escription t hat t he u rns c ontained c remated h uman r emains, t hough h e d oes n ot s pecifically s tate t his: b ut n or d oes h e m ention a b urial i n a ny o ther c ontext f or t he t omb ( Anatolian S tudies, 1 973a , 1 4). I f s o, o ne w ould h ave t o r econsider t he f unction o f n iches i n a ll t ombs, e specially t hose w hich o bviously c ontained n iches a nd a s arcophagus, a ssuming t he n iches h eld u rns o f c remated r emains.
I f t he t omb i s o f ad ate e arly i n
t he U rartian p eriod i t m ay i ndicate t hat c remation e xisted b efore i nhumation a mong t he n obility. U rartian
c itadel
O n t he o ther h and ,
a t
K ef
K alesi
( seventh
c onsider i t a s a n a rchaic s urvival o f
b urial
u sed
b y
t he
n obility).
i f i t i s t o b e i dentified w ith t he c entury
B .C.)
o ne
s hould
p erhaps
( assum ing c remation w as t he i nitial f orm O therwise ,
i t
c ould s imply
i nhumation a nd c remation w ere p racticed b y t he n obility, p racticed c remation .
1 14
i mply
t hat
w hile t he p opulace
C hapter V I:
H ouses
O ganesian s uggests t hat t here w ere t hree t ypes o f U rartian h ouses, b ased u pon e xamples e xcavated a t K armir-Blur. T ype O ne w as a h ouse o f t wo t o t hree r ooms a nd a c ourtyard ( partially c overed b y a n a wning o n w ooden c olumns) ( Fig.63). T he c ourtyard w as t he e conomic a nd s ocial c entre o f t he T ype O ne h ouse w ith a reas s et a side f or s uch d iverse r oles a s c ooking a nd t he s heltering o f l ivestock ( Oganesian , 1 966 , 1 5). T ype T wo w as a h ouse w ith a c entral h all a nd a ssociated r ooms ( Fig. 6 4). I t w as a u nit o f ab uilding , a s ort o f a partment h ouse, d ependents o f t he s tate.
w hich O ganesian b elieves w as h ousing f or t he T he p rimary e xample o f t his t ype o f d welling a t
K armir-Blur i s c omposed o f f our u nits o f t en r ooms e ach , c overing a n a rea o f 5 50 m2. T he m ain h all w as 6 .15 b y 1 0 .15 m , c overed b y ar oof w ith a c entral o pening s upported o n f our c olumns. T he T ype T hree h ouse i s r eferred t o b y O ganesian a s a " megaron" ( Fig .65). I t h ad a p orch i n a ntis, a r oom w ith a c entral h earth a nd a r oof s upported b y t wo c olumns. O ganesian b elieves t hat t he " megaron" i s r elated " genetically" t o t he S usi t emple a t A rin-Berd a nd t he M usasir t emple ( if o ne s upports t he r ectangular f orm o f b oth a nd t he u se o f c olumns a long t he f acade o f t he M usasir t emple). T hese t hree t ypes o f h ouses w ere b uilt o f m ud-brick a nd b asalt b locks a nd h ad f lat r oofs m ade f rom w ooden p oles, r eeds, a nd p acked m ud ( Oganesian ,
1 966 ,
1 6).
I t i s u nlikely t hat h ouses w ere m ulti-storied, a s i ndicated i n r econstructions b y O ganesian , w ho r efers t o t he b ronze m odel f rom T oprakkale a nd t he r elief f rom K ef K alesi a s e xamples ( Oganesian , 1 966 , 1 6). T here i s a lmost n o a rchaeological m aterial t o s upport t his c onclusion .
T he b uildings
r epresented o n t he r eliefs a re n ot n ecessarily h ouses a nd a re o nly a n i ndication t hat b uildings o f m ore t han o ne s torey e xisted. E xcavated e xamples o f U rartian h ouses h ave n ot p rovided a ny m aterial r emains t o s upport t he i dea o f m ulti-storied h ouses, w ith t he e xception o f t he q uestionable r emains a t Z ernaki T epe. H ouses b uilt o n t erraces m ay b e d epicted i n s uch a w ay o n ar elief ( see t he M usasir r elief) t hat t hey a ppear t o h ave b een m ultis toried b ut a re n ot. I t i s u nlikely t hat t here w as m ore t han a l ightly c onstructed u pper s torey o ver t he g round f loor . H ouses
d iscovered b y K leiss a t Z aviyeh,
n orth o f S iah C heshme i n
n orthwestern I ran f ollow t he O ganesian c hronology i n a s f ar a s t hey a re v ery s imilar i n p lan ( Fig.66). T hese h ouses h ad w alls o f l arge r ough s tones w ith a c ore o f s maller s tones. T he p ottery a ssociated w ith t he s ite i s o f t he f irst m illennium B .C ., t hough p robably n ot U rartian ( Kleiss, 1 973b , 4 0); w e m ust a wait e xcavation t o a scertain a m ore s pecific d ate f or t he s tructures a nd t he p eople w ho b uilt t hem . N evertheless, t he b asic s imilarity b etween t he p lans o f t he h ouses a t K armir-Blur a nd Z aviyeh i s i nteresting , p ossibly p ointing t o ac ommon o rigin . O ganesian 's c lassification o f U rartian h ouses i s a v aluable g uide w hich w ill u ndoubtedly b e u p-dated b y f urther e xcavation . M eanwhile , t here a re m any
e xcavated
e xamples
o f
U rartian h ouses
a t
K armir-Blur ,
w hich w e w ill
r eview i n d etail b efore l ooking a t t hose f rom Z ernaki T epe, B as t am .
15 1
A rmavir a nd
A
0
F ig. 6 3
5
1 0 M
P lan o f a t wo/three r oom h ouse w ith a c ourtyard ( Barnett, F igure 7 ).
1 16
1 959,
CD N--
C D
17
P lan o f O ganesian 's t ype t wo h ousing ( Martirosian ,
-
F ig. 6 5
R econstructed p lan o f O ganesian 's " Megaron" t ype o f h ouse ( author).
i I
0
F ig. 6 6
1 0
2 0 M
K leiss' h ouse t ypes a t Z aviyeh ,
1 18
I ran ( Kleiss,
1 973b , F igure 3 7).
K armir -Blur P iotrovskii s tates t hat t he h ouses a t K armir-Blur r eflect T ranscaucasian i nfluence, t hough ( Piotrovskii, 1 950,
h e d oes n ot e xplain 1 7). P erhaps i t w as
c onstruction o f t he h ouses.
w hat t his t he u se o f
c onstitutes s tone i n t he
T hey w ere a ll b uilt w ith s ocles
o f
u ndressed
g rey b asalt, t hough d ressed s tone w as s ometimes u sed f or t hresholds a nd s pecial p arts o f t he s tructure, j e., c olumn b ases a nd p ivot s tones ( Piotrovskii, 1 952 , 7 9). T ype O ne h ouses w ere t he d wellings o f t he L ower C lass i n U rartu , a gainst e ach o ther
( Fig .67)
b uilt
i n a r ather h aphazard f ashion b etween s traight
s treets, ( Martirosian , 1 964 , s ubsidiary r ooms ( Oganesian ,
2 60). E ach d welling h ad i ts o wn c ourtyard a nd 1 955 , 2 3-28). T he c ourtyard u sually c ontained
ah earth ( 90 b y 9 0 c m) a nd a n a rea p aved w ith s tone s labs, p artially c overed b y a w ooden a wning s upported o n w ooden c olumns o n s tone b ases. T he p aved a rea o f t he c ourtyard , s eparated f rom t he r emaining s pace b y a l ow p artition , w as t he s table f or c attle , e specially d uring t he w inter. T here w as o ften a v essel i n t he c ourtyard w ith a c apacity o f u p t o o ne h undred a nd f ifty l itres, p erhaps f or w ater s torage. A nother f eature o f t he c ourtyard w as a p it , u p t o 1 .80 m d eep , w hich w as a c esspit.
O ne h ouse a t K armir-Blur h ad a
s mall a rea s creened o ff b y v ertically p ositioned s tones, p erhaps s et a side a s as mall s hrine ( Oganesian , 1 955 , 2 8). O ther r ooms c an b e d ivided i nto t wo t ypes; t hose w ith a h earth w ere l iving r ooms; t he r emainder w ere e ither w ork r ooms o r s torerooms, w hich w ere e ntered f rom t he c ourtyard , n ever f rom o ther r ooms o f t he h ouse. A s p reviously s tated ,
t he h ouses w ere b uilt o f s tone a nd m ud-brick a nd
r oofed w ith w ooden p oles, r eeds a nd p acked m ud. T he r oof, w hich w as o ccasionally s upported b y w ooden c olumns o n t ufa b ases ( 52 c m d iameter a nd 3 5 c m h eight) p robably h ad a h ole t 0 l et s moke o ut a nd l ight i n. T he i nhabitants p robably p assed m ost o f t he w inter i n o ne r oom ( Oganesian , 1 955 , 2 9). D uring t he s iege o f K armir-Blur , a ll h ouses w ere a bandonded , t he r esidents r etreating t o t he f ortress, w here t hey l ived i n t he s torerooms o r i n t emporary l ean-to t ype d wellings ( Barnett, 1 952 , 1 34; P iotrovskii, 1 959b , 1 85).
i n
t he
c ourtyard
T ype T wo a nd T ype T hree h ouses a re n ot a s w ell d ocumented a s T ype O ne. T here a re o nly t wo e xamples o f T ype T wo: a t K armir-Blur a nd Z ernaki T epe ( if t hose a t Z ernaki T epe a re U rartian) a nd o nly o ne o f T ype T hree ( to t he a uthor's k nowledge).
T he T ype T hree h ouse h as o nly b een r eferred t o i n
p assing i n t he a vailable m aterial m aking i t i mpossible t o e laborate o n i t. T ype T wo h ouses a re r epresented p rimarily b y t he b uilding a t K armir-Blur ( see F ig.64). I t i s r ectangular, 6 2 b y 3 3 m w ith a b uttressed f acade ( Martirosian, 1 964, 2 60), d ivided i nto f our s ections, t en r ooms i n e ach s ection. T he d oorway ( arched?) o f t he f irst r oom w as 3 .00 m w ide a nd p rovided e nough l ight f or a ll t hree d oorways l eading o ff t he r oom ( Martirosian , 1 964 , 2 61). A l ong , c orridor-like r oom ( which m ay h ave b een u nroofed) l ed t o ah all , w ith f our c olumns s upporting a r oof w ith a c entral o pening ( Martirosian , 1 964 , 2 63). R ainwater w as t aken a way b y c ermaic d rains. M artirosian b elieves t hat t he b uilding w as s imilar t o aB it-Hilani d iscovered a s T ell T ainat ( ninth t o e ighth c enturies B .C .), w hich h e s ays h ad
0
F ig. 6 7
P lan o f O ganesian 's t ype ( Barnett,
o ne
h ouses
1 959 , F igure 7 ).
1 20
5
a t K armir-Blur ,
1 0 M
A rmenian
S .S.R
R econstruction
Lr
1 21 ( Figure 6 4) a t
A rmenian S .S.R .
ap ortico e ntry o nto t hree d oorways a nd t en r ooms b ehind t hem 1 964 ,
2 63).
O ne s hould p oint o ut t hat t he e ntry t o
( Martirosian ,
e ach s ection o f t his
s tructure i s n ot p orticoed , i s n ot l ikely t o b e e arlier t han t he s eventh c entury B .C. a nd h as o nly n ine r ooms b ehind t he f irst r oom. I t i s n ot s imilar t o t he B it-Hilani. I t i s a n U rartian t ype o f h ousing , w hich m ay h ave u sed e lements d erived f rom M esopotamia U rartian i n i nterpretation . T he
( Martirosian ,
b uilding h ad a s ocle o f r ather s quare b asalt
1 964 ,
2 63)
b ut
w as
b locks s et i n m ortar
c omposed o f c lay , c rushed s tone a nd c rushed p ebbles. S ince m ost U rartian s tonework i s u nmortared o ne m ay b e d ealing w ith a b uilding w hich i s n ot U rartian , t hough M artirosian's e vidence i ndicates t he o pposite. A bove t he s ocle t here w as a m ud-brick s uperstructure ( Martirosian , 1 964 , 2 64). M artirosian c laims t hat t he b uilding w as a r esidence f or s tate d ependants a nd b elieves t hat i t w as s imilar t o t he b ronze m odel f rom T oprakkale i n t he B ritish M useum ( see F ig. 9 ) ( Martirosian , 1 964 , 2 64). I t i s m ore l ikely t o h ave b een a r esidence f or w ealthier m embers o f U rartian s ociety , a s s tate d ependants w ere m ore l ikely t o h ave T ype O ne h ousing . A s f or t he s imilarity t o t he b ronze m odel i n t he B ritish M useum , t he a uthor c annot s upport t he c laim o f s imilarity, e specially s ince t he e xcavator h as r econstructed t he b uilding a s as ingle s toried s tructure ( Fig. 6 8) ( the o nly s imilarities a re a rched d oorways a nd a b uttressed f acade). Z ernaki T epe T he T ype T wo h ouse h as a g eneral s imilarity t o t he b uildings d iscovered a long t he g rid p lan o f s treets a t Z ernaki T epe , n ear E rcis i n e astern T urkey ( Plate 1 3). O ne o f t he e arliest r eferences t o t his s ite c omes f orm L ynch , w ho a ttributed i ts f oundation t o A rghisti I I ( Lynch , 2 9). B ut i s t he s ite U rartian? B urney, w ho d id t he f irst s urvey a nd d etailed p lan o f t he s ite , s tated t hat h e t hought i t w as p robably U rartian , d ue p rimarily t o t he c onstruction m ethods o f t he w alls o f t he h ouses; a c ore o f s mall s tones c ontained w ithin r ows o f l arger , i rregular s tones ( Burney , 1 957 , 4 9). B ut o nly a s mall a mount o f U rartian p ottery h as b een f ound o n t he s ite , p erhaps b ecause t he t own w as n ever f inished ( Burney , 1 960 , 1 86). N ylander p roposed t hat i t w as a n U rartian g arrison t own ( Nylander , 1 966 , 1 53). H e d iscovered r emains o f h ouses, w hich h e s ays a ppear t o h ave b een c ompleted. H e g oes o n t o s uggest t hat a s quare m ound o n t he s ite m ay b e a t emple a nd t hat t here w as as torage a rea o n t he s outh-west o f t his s ite, a s w ell a s ah ouse w ith a c ourtyard a nd r ooms o n t hree s ides ( Nylander , 1 966 , 1 46). T he g rid p lan o n t he s ite i s u nparalleled i n U rartu . T he b locks o n t he g rid a re 3 5 t o 3 7 m o n e ach s ide
( Burney,
1 960 ,
1 86)
a nd d ivided b y s treets o f a bout 5 . 0 0 mw idth , t hough t wo o f t he m ain s treets a re 7 . 0 0 m w ide. T he b locks h ad e xternal w alls 1 .40 -1.50 m t hick, i nternal w alls 1 .00 -1.10 m t hick a nd a c entral c orridor d ividing i t i nto t wo s ets o f a partments o n e ach s ide
( Fig.
6 9).
E ach o f
t hese a partments
h ad a s quare r oom , t wo r ectangular r ooms a nd t wo n arrow r ooms, o ne o f w hich c ould h ave b een a s tairway; t he w alls a re o f a t hickness t o s upport a n u pper s torey ( Burney , 1 960 , 1 87). B urney s uggests t hat i f t wenty p eople l ived i n e ach b lock , t he s ite c ould h ave h oused a t l east s even t housand p eople ; o r e ven u p t o t wice t hat a mount ( Burney , 1 960 , 1 88). T he
s mall
a mount
o f
p ottery
a vailable
o n
t he
s ite
i ndicates
a n
e ighth/seventh c entury B .C. d ate ( Nylander , 1 966 , 1 52), s ome o f i t U rartian . I t i s p ossible t hat t he b uildings a re U rartian , a c onclusion p artially 1 22
P late 1 3 :
Z ernaki T epe, T urkey.
1 23
0
F ig. 6 9
1 0
2 0
1
3 0 M t
P lan o f a n a partment h ouse ( ?) a t Z ernaki T epe, T urkey ( Barnett, 1 960 , p .187).
1 24
s upported b y t he s imilarity t o t he T ype T wo h ouse a t K armir-Blur.
T hough i t
i s n ot p ossible t o u se t he b ronze m odel i n t he B ritish M useum i n a r econstruction o f t he b uilding a t K armir-Blur ( except f or b asic f eatures s uch a s d oorways), i t i s p ossible t o d o s o a t Z ernaki T epe , w here t he h ouses w ere p robably t wo s tories h igh. B ut o ne s hould b ear i n m ind t hat t he b ronze m odel m ay n ot b e a h ouse a nd t hat t here a re n ot a ny e vident b uttresses o r d oorways o n t he b uilding a t Z ernaki T epe, t hough e xcavation m ay p roduce c ontrary e vidence. T he l ack o f b uttressing o n t he s tructures i s i n i tself u nusual f or U rartian b uildings. O ther h ouses h ave b een d iscovered ,
w hich r epeat t he p lan o f i ndividual
s ections o f t he " apartment h ouse" a t K armir-Blur , t hough n ot w ith a l arge n umber o f r ooms. O ne o f t hese ( Fig. 7 0) w as f ound i n t he s ame s outhw estern a rea o f K armir-Blur a s t he t ype 2 s tructure. I t h ad a c ourtyard/hall w ith f our c olumns , s upporting a r oof w ith a c entral o pening. T he d oorways o f a ll t he m ain r ooms o f t he h ouse o pened o nto t his c ourtyard/hall , e xcept f or a s eparate c eremonial r oom , w hich M artirosian b elieves w as a dded t o t he o riginal s tructure. I t h ad f our c olumns, s upporting a r oof w ith a c entral o pening a nd w as l ater d ivided i nto t hree r ooms. T he m ain s tructure h ad a b uttressed e ntrance , w hich l ed i nto t wo r ooms , w hich m ay h ave b een r eception r ooms o f t he o wner o f t he h ouse. T he r ooms o n t he o ther s ide o f t he c ourtyard/hall w ere a ssociated w ith t he d omestic a nd e conomic f unction o f t he h ouse ( Martirosian , 1 964, 2 68). T hough t here a re o nly t wo b uttresses o n t he f acade , o ther t han t hose w hich f lank t he d oorway, t his u se o f b uttresses i s r ather m ore c haracteristic o f U rartian a rchitecture t han t heir a bsence , a s a t Z ernaki T epe. N evertheless, m any o f t he U rartian h ouses d iscovered a t A rmavir l ack b uttressed f acades; p erhaps b uttressing w as u sed p redominantly o n p ublic b uildingr r i nd t he h omes o f t he n obility o r m erchants r ather t han o n t hose o f t he p oor. A rmavir M ost o f me h ouses a t A rmavir h ave b een d iscovered i n t bu e astern p art o f t he c ity, b etween t he t wo f ortresses ( Kafadaryan , 2 42) a nd w ere s ingle s toried , t hough K afadaryan b elieves t hat h ouses o f m ore t han o ne s torey c ould h ave b een b uilt ( Kafadaryan , 2 47). H e a nd M artirosian c ite t he b ronze m odel f rom T oprakkale
( Martirosian ,
1 967,
2 22);
r efer t o t he a uthor's
p revious s tatements o n s uch c omparisons. R ather t han d iscuss e ach h ouse p lan o n t he s ite o f A rmavir w e w ill b riefly m ention t wo o r t hree i n o rder t o s how s ome o f t he c ontrast b etween f l iving s pace t hem. O ur f irst e xample i s r ectangular a nd h ad 4 50 m2 o ( Fig . 7 1). T he h ouse , t hough n ot c ompletely e xcavated , h ad a t l east s ix r ooms a round a c ourtyard/living r oom . T he w alls w ere o f b asalt b locks t opped b y ap lastered m ud-brick s uperstructure. T hey w ere b uilt d irectly o n t he o riginal g round s urface w ithout f oundations. T hresholds w ere o f b asalt a nd/or t ufa s labs w ith a p ivot s tone f or t he d oor , w hile t he f loors w ere o f c lay c overed b y p laster . Aw ine s torage r oom i n t he n orth-east c orner h ad v essels
b uried i n t he
t housand l itres.
f loor ,
w hose
t otal
c apacity w as
t welve
t o
t hriteen
D irectly s outh o f t he s torage r oom w as a r oom w ith a p aved
s tone f loor , w hich t he e xcavator s ays w as a s table f or c attle ; f orty c attle c ould h ave b een k ept t here ( Martirosian , 1 974 , 1 04).
t hirty
t o
T he e xcavator b elieves t hat t he h ouse h ad b een i n u se f or a pproximately t wo h undred y ears a nd ( due t o f inds o f u nfinished s tone o bjects) t hat i t w as t he h ome o f as tone m ason ( Martirosian , 1 974 , 1 07).
5
F ig. 7 0
A h ouse a t K armir—Blur , 1 04).
1 0 M
A rmenian S .S.R .
1 26
( Märtirosian ,
1 964 ,
F igure
I S
1 0 M
F ig. 7 1
A h ouse a t A rmavir , A rmenian S .S.R .
1 27
( 4artirosian ,
1 974, F igure 3 9).
1 0 r i
F ig. 7 2
P lan o f t he " House S .S.R .
( Märtirosian ,
o f
t he
o wner o f
t he
1 974 , F igure 4 1).
1 28
S eal" a t
A rmavir ,
A rmenian
1 0M
F ig. 7 3
P lan o f " The H ouse o f W ar" a t A rmavir , 1 974, F igure 4 2).
1 29
A rmenian S .S.R .
( Martirosian ,
T he
" House o f
t he o wner o f
t he
s eal" i s q uite d ifferent.
I t h ad
a b utttressed f acade a nd w as b uilt o n s everal d ifferent l evels ( an a rea o f Fig. 7 2). I t w as c onstructed i n m uch t he s ame m anner a s t he 6 14 m2 ) ( p revious e xample , e xcept f or i ts f acade a nd t he v arious l evels w ithin t he b uilding. A lso, t here w as a c ourtyard w ith t wo c olumn b ases, w hich t he e xcavator b elieves s upported a c onical r oof, a s d epicted i n t he r econstruction o f t he t ype 2 h ouse a t K armir-Blur ( see F ig 6 8). R egrettably t his b uilding i s n ot c ompletely e xcavated ( Martirosian , 1 974 , 1 07). T he " house o f w ar" ( Fig. 7 3) i s n ot s ignificant d ue t o i ts a rchitecture b ut a d iscovery i n i ts c ourtyard. T here w as a c entral h earth a nd p ossibly a c onical r oof, w hile a long t he n orth a nd s outh w alls w ere b enches, b uilt o f s mall s tones s et i n c lay a nd c overed w ith p laster, w hich c ould h ave a ccomodated u p t o t hirty p eople ( Martirosian , 1 974 , 1 09). T he c entral h earth a nd t he b enches a re s ignificant i n t he l ight o f t he d iscovery o f a s lab o f r ed t ufa w ith c ircular d epressions f or h olding v essels, w hich t he e xcavator b elieves w as s et b efore a s tela w ith a r epresentation o f a d eity . P erhaps t he h ouse b elonged t o s omeone a ssociated w ith a t emple; t he e xcavator o ffers n o e xplanation f or t he a rrangement o f t he b enches n or t heir f unction i n t he h ouse. I t i s t he o nly k nown e xample o f a n U rartian h ouse w ith t his c hange i n t he p lan o f t he c ourtyard. T he p roximity o f t he t ufa s lab a nd a rrangement o f t he b enches s uggest a r eligious f unction , p ossibly i n t he f orm o f a n o pen-air s hrine o r a t l east s erving t he s ame p urpose. T he h ouses
f rom A rmavir m ay h ave
b elonged t o l ocal a rtisans;
i n
c ontrast w e h ave t hose o f t he s econd t errace o f t he w estern f ortress, w hich r epresent t he h ouses o f s quatters a fter t he d estruction o f t he s ite ( Fig.74). T hey w ere b uilt i n a h aphazard f ashion a gainst t hzf ortifications , c onsisting o f w alls o f s mall s tones a nd p ebbles a nd a l ight m ud-brick s uperstructure. R oofs w ere c onstructed i n t he u sual m anner a nd t he f loors w ere o f t amped e arth c overed w ith p laster. D oors w ere p oorly c onstructed ... f rom s mall w ooden l imbs ( Martirosian , 1 974 , 9 4). T hese w ere t he h ouses o f t he s urvivors o f t he f inal d estruction o f t he U rartian c ity. B astam T he o nly o ther U rartian s ite w ith a ny i nformation o n h ouses i s B astam , I ran.
T hey w ere b uilt o n t erraces w ith w alls n ot o ver
1 .00 m t hick ,
c omposed o f r ough s tones a nd a m ud-brick s uperstructure ( Kleiss, 1 970c , 1 7). F loors a re n ot w ell p reserved a nd m ay h ave c onsisted o f t amped e arth o ver p acked s tone. A ll p ottery f ound i n a ssociation w ith t he h ouses i ndicate a s eventh c entury B .C . d ate ( Kleiss, 1 972a , 3 6). T he a uthor's e xperience f rom t he e xcavation i s t hat t he h ouses a ppear t o b e o f o ne t ype ( in t he m ajority o f c ases); O ganesian's t ype 1 . O ther h ouses a re k nown f rom t he U rartian s ites a t L ivar ( Kleiss , 1 971c , 5 7) a nd I mam Q uli K andi ( Kleiss , 1 976b , 3 3) b ut t hese a re o nly k nown f rom s urveys a nd a t t he m oment d o n ot f urnish a ny a dditional i nformation . O ne f ully e xcavated h ouse ( ?) w hich w e w ill d iscuss i s t he s o-called n orth b uilding a t B astam
( Fig. 7 5).
T he n orth b uilding i s 4 4 b y 2 6 mw ith b uttresses o n i ts n orth , s outh a nd e ast w alls.
T he o uter w alls a re
1 .70 m t hick ,
1 .00 m t hick; b oth a re m ade o f r ough s tones,
w hile
t he i nner w alls a re
t hough t he i nner w alls w ere
b uilt w ith s maller o nes. T he s uperstructure w ould h ave b een o f c haracteristic m ud-brick ; i f t he b uilding w as f inished ( Kleiss, 1 970c , 2 1). 1 30
1 31
f ortress a t A rmavir ,
t x )
t -,
o F ig. 7 5
1 0
2 0 M
T he n orthern b uilding a t B astam , I ran ( Kleiss,
1 32
1 972a , F igure 3 2).
T he e xcavator d ates t he b uilding t o t he s eventh c entury B .C. 3 6)
and
s uggests
r uler/representative
t hat f rom
i t t he
w as
a
c itadel
s ort
o f
( Kleiss,
( Kleiss,
s ummer
1 972a,
h ouse
3 8).
1 972a, o f
T he
t he
s outhern
p art o f t he b uilding w as p robably a ssociated w ith t he e conomy, w orkshops a nd e tc., w hile t he r ooms i n t he n orthern p art o f t he b uilding w ere t he l iving a rea;
t he
r ectangular o nes
w ere
p robably
r eception r ooms.
N evertheless,
t he b uilding d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een c ompleted a nd m ay d ate t o t he v ery e nd o f t he U rartian p eriod o n t he s ite I n s ummary,
( Kleiss,
4 0).
U rartian h ouses m ay b e c lassified a s:
a c ourtyard a nd t wo o r t hree a ttached r ooms, p oor ;
1 972a,
T ype o ne -those w ith
r epresenting t he h ousing o f t he
T ype T wo -h ouses w ith a c ourtyard a nd s everal s ubsidiary r ooms, w hich
m ay b e s et
o ut i ndividually o r
w hich m ay h ave
b een t he h ouses
j oined i n a b lock o f o f
s everal a partments
a nd
t he u pper e cehelons o f U rartian s ociety;
a nd T ype t hree -the " megaron" t ype o f h ouse , w hich i s n ot w ell a ttested. T he
c ourtyard i n t he
h ousehold , w as
s hrine
t wo t ypes
s erved
w ith a h earth f or c ooking a nd w armth;
a n a rea s et
h ouses,
f irst
a side f or
t he
c attle,
t he
i n T ype o ne h ouses
..
t he
t here
E ach h ouse m ay h ave h ad a
p ossibly f or h ousehold d eities.
r eserved f or e conomic p urposes
c entre o f
w hich w as a lso i ncluded i n T ype t wo
t hough n ot a lways i n t he c ourtyard. i n t he c ourtyard ,
a s
w ine a nd g rain s torage,
O ther r ooms w ere o r a s
l iving a nd
w orking a reas. W alls w ere c omposed o f r ough s tone b locks ( often b asalt) w ith a m udb rick s uperstructure, t opped b y a r oof o f w ooden p oles, r eeds a nd c lay. T he f loor
w as
o f
t amped e arth ,
s ometimes
c overed b y a l ayer o f
estock w as p aved w ith s tone s labs. s tabling a rea f or 14v
p laster ;
t he
F ig. 7 6a
F ig. 7 6b
F ig. 7 6c
O ganesian 's f our c ubit w all ( Oganesian ,
O ganesian 's f ive c ubit w all ( Oganesian ,
O ganesian 's s even c ubit w all ( Oganesian ,
1 36
1 955 , F igure 4 6).
1 955 , F igure 4 6).
1 955 , F igure 4 6).
A PPENDIX I M ud-brick s izes a nd w alls
T he c onstruction o f t he w alls a nd t heir r elation t o t he U rartian c ubit h as b een l argely i gnored i n t he m ain t ext. N evertheless, t he r elationship b etween w all t hickness a nd t he U rartian c ubit h as b een r esearched a t K armirB lur b y O ganesian , w ho d ivides t he w all o n t hat s ite i nto t hree t ypes: t he f our c ubit , f ive c ubit a nd s even c ubit w all. E ach o f t he w alls i s a nalysed a ccording t o t he t ypes o f b ricks u sed a nd t he m anner i n w hich t he b ricks w ere l aid. T wo s izes o f b ricks w ere u sed a t K armir-Blur:
ar ectangular b rick ( 51.8
b y 3 5.0 b y 1 4.9 c m) a nd a s quare b rick ( 51.8 b y 5 1.8 b y 1 4.9 c m). T he b ricks a re a lmost a c ubit i n s ize , w hich w as 5 2.5 c m l ong ( though O ganesian h ints t hat t here m ay h ave b een s light v ariations i n t he s ize o f t he c ubit f rom s ite t o s ite) ( Oganesian , 1 955 , 8 0). B oth s izes o f b ricks w ere u sed i n t he t ypes o f w alls r eferred t o a bove. T he f our c ubit w all
( Fig.
7 6a) c onsisted o f a s quare b rick,
t hree
r ectangular b ricks a nd a nother s quare o ne. A top t his w as a c ourse o f s ix r ectangular b ricks s et s ide b y s ide. T he w idth o f t he w all w as 2 .12 i n ( Oganesian , 1 955 , 8 6). T he f ive c ubit w all
( Fig.
7 6h) h ad t hree s quare b ricks,
o ne o n e ither
s ide a nd a nother i n t he c entre , w ith a r ectangular b rick o n o ne s ide o f t he c entral b rick a nd t wo r ectangular b ricks o n t he o ther s ide. T he n ext c ourse h ad s ix r ectangular b ricks a nd a s quare o ne , t he t he e xterior f acade o f t he w all. T he w all w as 1 955 , 8 6). T he s even c ubit w all
( Fig.
7 6c)
a t e ither s ide a nd o ne a t t he c entre , b ricks o n e ach s ide.
l atter p laced t hird f rom 2 .66 m w ide ( Oganesian ,
h ad a f irst c ourse
o f as quare b rick
w hich w as f lanked b y t hree r ectangular
I t s hould b e p ointed o ut t hat t his u nit o f t he c ourse
w as a lso u sed i n t he f our c ubit w all.
T he s econd c ourse w as f ormed f rom a
s quare b rick f lanked b y f our r ectangular b ricks o n o ne s ide a nd f ive o n t he o ther
( Oganesian ,
1 955 , 8 6-88).
T he b ricks u sed a t A rin-Berd w ere e mployed i n a s imilar m anner , t hey a re o f a d ifferent s ize; 1 2.5
c m
( Oganesian ,
1 961,
3 2.3 b y 4 7.4 b y 1 03).
t hough
1 2.5 c m a nd 4 7.4 b y 4 7.4 b y
N evertheless,
t he
r atio
b etween t hese
b ricks a nd t hose a t K armir-Blur i s s imilar .
t o
O ganesian b elieves t hat U rartian a rchitecture i s b ased u pon a r atio o f 5 8 ( Oganesian , 1 955, 1 04), w hich h e s ays c ontinues i n A rmenian
a rchitecture ( ratio 7 t o 1) ( Oganesian , 1 955 , 1 05). d ivides t he c ubit i nto s ubdivisions o f 1 7.5 c m ( Oganesian ,
1 37
F urthermore , 1 955 , 1 03).
h e
T he a pplication o f t hese d ata t o o ther U rartian s ites p resents p roblems , w hich w e w ill d iscuss a fter t he f ollowing t able.
S ite
W all t hickness
M ud-brick s ize
K armir-Blur
2 .12 m 2 .66 m 3 .66 m
5 1.8 x 3 5.0 x 1 4.9 c m 5 1.8 x 5 1.8 x 1 4.9 c m
A rin-Berd
3 2.3 x 4 7.4 x 1 2.5 c m 4 7.4 x 4 7.4 x 1 2.5 c m
A ltinpepe
1 2.00 m
5 2 x 1 5 c m
K ef K alesi
3 .50 m
5 3 x3 5 x 1 4 c m 5 3 x5 3 x 1 4 c m
B astam
3 .80 m 1 .60 -1.70 m
4 6 x4 6 x 1 2 c m 5 0 x 5 0 x 1 2 c m 5 2 x 2 6 x 1 2 c m
T he v ariation i n t he s ize o f t he m ud-bricks i n t he t able c an b e a ccounted f or ( to s ome e xtent) b y v ariations f rom s ite t o s ite a nd p ossibly b y i naccuracies i n t he o riginal m easurements. O therwise , t he b ricks a re a ll q uite s imilar i n s ize , e xcept f or t hose f rom A rin-Berd a nd B astam ( Kleiss , 1 970c , 4 1). T he s quare b ricks f rom t hose t wo s ites a re s imilar , t hough w hy t hey s hould d iffer f rom t hose o n t he o ther s ites i s n ot k nown . P erhaps a l ocal s ystem o f m easurement w as u sed o n s ome s ites. W all t hickness h as a c onsiderable
r ange a nd o ne s uspects t hat i n s ome
c ases t he t hickness h as b een r ounded o ff , a s t o 3 .50 m r ather t han a n o dd n umber . T he 1 2.00 m w all a t A ltintepe s hould b e a ccepted w ith c aution , a s i t i s a r ather u nlikely m easurement f rom o ne w all.
1 38
A PPENDIX I I S tones a nd t ools T he U rartians u sed l ocally a bundant s tone,
e specially b asalt,
a ndesite
a nd l inestone ( Nylander , 1 970 , 5 0), t hough s tone w as o ccasionally i mported f or p articular p urposes; f or s pecial p arts o f ab uilding o r a n i nscription . T his i s e vident a t B astam , w here o ne h as a f ragment o f a n i nscription o n a p iece o f r ed s andstone a nd a nother i nscription o n a b lock o f g reyish/black t ufa. T he l atter w as p robably i mported f rom t he A rarat l ava b eds ( Kleiss, 1 970c , 4 8). T his s ame t ufa w as a lso u sed f or p ivot s tones , o ther s pecial p arts o f b uildings ( Kleiss , 1 972a , 4 4). S tone w as w orked t o p rovide m any p ieces, c renellations, l imestone).
r eliefs
a nd
d iffferent c olumn
t hresholds a nd
o bjects a nd a rchitectural
b ases
( of
s andstone
a nd
T he t ools t o w ork t he s tone w ere l arge c hisels ( for r ough w ork), s maller c hisels ( for f iner w ork), f lat c hisels a nd a brasives. l ike t he c law c hisel d o n ot a ppear i n U rartian s tone
S pecialized t ools w orking ( Nylander ,
1 970 , 5 1, 5 2), t hough t he v ariety o f t ools f rom K armir -Blur a nd t he n umber o f r ock-cut s tructures t hroughout U rartu i ndicate c onsiderable s kill i n s tone w orking ( van L oon , 1 966 , 8 4).
f ace
O ccasionally s tones w ere w orked s o t hat t he s ides t apered b ack f rom t he o f t he s tone , f acilitating t he j ointing . T he b locks o f s tone w ere
f lush w ith e ach o ther b ut h Ad s paces b ehind t hem c aused b y t he t apering o f t he b locks. T his o blique j ointing w as o ne o f t he t wo t ypes u sed b y t he U rartians, t he o ther b eing t he f lat j oint ( Nylander , 1 970 , 6 1). C lamps w ere n ot u sed
( Nylander ,
1 970 , 6 4).
1 39
U RARTIAN K ING L IST T he k ing l ist i s b ased u pon t hat f ound i n A zarpay's A rtifacts".
A ramu
m entioned i n A ssyrian a nnals
" Urartian A rt a nd
b etween 8 60 a nd 8 46
B .C . S arduri I
s on o f L utipri;
m entioned b y S halmaneser I II o f
A ssyria I shpuini
s on o f S arduri I ; c ampaign o f 8 24 B .C .
M enua
s on o f I shpuini;
A rghishti I
s on o f M enua;
S arduri I I
s on o f A rghishti;
R usa I
s on o f S arduri;
A rghishti I I
s on o f R usa ;
R usa I I
s on
S arduri I II
s on o f R usa ;
E rimena
r eigned 6 34-630 B .C.
R usa I II
s on o f E rimena ;
S arduri I V
s on o f S arduri I II ( ?);
jf
m entioned
i n a n A ssyrian
r eigned 8 10-786 B .C .
r eigned 7 86-764 B .C. r eigned 7 64-735 B .C. r eigned 7 35-713 B .C.
r eigned 7 13-685 B .C .
A rghishti;
r eigned 6 85-639 B .C .
r eigned 6 39-635 B .C .
r eigned 6 29-615 B .C . r eigned 6 14-608 B .C .
A BBREVIATIONS
A rchäologischer A nzeiger A .J.A .
A merican J ournal o f A rchaeology
A •M • I•
A rchäologische M itteilungen a us I ran
A .S.
A natolian S tudies
C .A .H .
C ambridge A ncient H istory
J .C.S.
J ournal o f C uneiform S tudies
J .N .E.S .
J ournal o f N ear E astern S tudies
S .A .
S ovetskaya A rkheologiya
S .V .
S ovetskoe V ostokovedenie
V .D .I.
V estnik D revney I storii
1 43
B IBLIOGRAPHY A dzhan,
A .A .,
G uzal'yan ,
L .T.
a nd P iotrovskii,
B .B.
" Cyclopean
F ortresses o f t he T ranscaucus" ( in R ussian). R eport o f t he S tate A cademy o f t he H istory o f M aterial C ulture , n os. 1 -2 ( 1932): 6 1-64. A kurgal , 7114. 7
E krem .
1 959 .
" Urartäische K unst".
A natolia , v ol .
4 .
( 1959):
A kurgal, E krem. 1 961. D ie K unst A natoliens v on H amer b is A lexander. B erlin : W alter d e G ruyter a nd C o., 1 961. A kurgal , E krem . 1 964. v ol. 8 , ( 1964): 121. 15-
" Chronologie d er P hrygischen K unst".
A kurgal , E krem . 1 968a. T he B irth o f G reek A rt. D ynes. L ondon : M ethuen a nd C o. L td ., 1 968 . A kurgal, A nkara:
E krem.
1 968b.
A natolia ,
T ranslated b y W ayne
U rartäische u nd a ltiranische K unstzentren .
T ürk T arih K urumu Y ayinlarindan ,
1 968.
A ltinli, I .E. ( comp.) 1 963a T ürkiye J eoloji H aritasi: C izre. M aden T etkik v e a rama E nstitüsü Y ayinlarindan , 1 963. A ltinli, I .E.
1 963b
T ürkiye J eoloji H aritasi: E rzurum .
T etkik v e a rama E nstitüsü Y ayinlarindan , A ltinli,
I .E.
A nkara :
A nkara:
M aden
1 963.
1 964 T ürkiye J eoloji H aritasi: V an.
T etkiki v e a rama E nstitüsü Y ayinlarindan ,
A nkara: M aden
1 964.
A natolian S tudies. 1 964 " Rece _ it A rchaeological R esE _ irch i n T urkey : a nd i ts E nvirons". A .S., v ol. 1 4 ( 1964): 2-23. 2
V an
A natolian S tudies. 1 966 " Recent A rchaeological R esearch i n T urkey: A dilcevaz". A .S., v ol. 1 6(1966): 2 8-29 . A natolian
S tudies.
K ef K alesi ( Adilcevaz),
1 968a 1 967".
A natolian S tudies. C avustepe ,
1 967".
A natolian A dilcevaz,
1 968b
A .S., v ol.
S tudies.
1 972".
" Recent
R esearch
i n T urkey :
1 8 ( 1968): 2 5-27.
" Recent A rchaeological R esearch i n T urkey :
1 8 ( 1968): 2 7-29 .
1 973a
" Recent
A .S., v ol. 2 3 ( 1973):
A natolian S tudies. C avustepe , 1 971, 1 972".
A rchaeological
A .S., v ol.
1 973b
A rchaeological
R esearch
i n T urkey :
R esearch
i n T urkey :
1 3-14.
" Recent
A rchaeological
A .S., v ol.23 ( 1973): 2 7-32.
esearch i n T urkey: A natolian S tudies. 1 974 " Recent A rchaeological R C avustepe , 1 973". A .S., v ol.24 ( 1974): 2 5-26. A natolian S tudies. C avustepe ,
1 974".
A natolian S tudies. C avustepe ,
1 975".
1 975
esearch i n T urkey : " Recent A rchaeological R
A .S., v ol.25 ( 1975): 2 2-23. 1 976
" Recent
esearch i n T urkey : A rchaeological R
A .S., v ol. 2 6 ( 1976): 3 3-34 . 1 45
A rutunyan ,
N .V.
R ussian). E revan: R epublic , 1 964. A rutunyan ,
1 964 A griculture
a nd C attle R aising i n U rartu ( in
A cademy o f S cience o f t he A rmenian S oviet
N .V .
1 966 N ew U rartian I nscriptions
( in R ussian).
A cademy o f S cience o f t he A rmenian S oviet S ocialist R epublic , A zarpay,
G uitty.
C alifornia P ress ,
U rartian A rt a nd A rtifacts.
B alkan , K emal.
B arnett, R .D .
B arnett,
R .D .
a nd W atson ,
W .
1 952
" Russian E xcavations
1 954a
N .
1 953 " The F ind o f U rartian B ronzes a t A ltintepe 1 21-129 .
" The E xcavations o f t he B ritish M useum a t T oprak K ale , I raq, v ol.
1 954b
1 957
B arnett.
i n A rmenia".
1 32-147.
1 6 ( 1954): 3 -22.
" The A rchaeology o f U rartu".
t roisieme R encontre A ssyriologique I nternationale, B arnett.
9 9-131.
1 -43.
A .S., v ol.3 ( 1953):
n ear V an-Addenda". B arnett.
A natolia , v ol.5 ( 1960):
1 2 ( 1950):
a nd G okce ,
B arnett.
U niversity o f
1 950 " The E xcavations o f t he B ritish M useum a t T oprak K ale
I raq, v ol.14 ( 1952):
n ear E rzincan".
B erkely:
" Ein U rartäischer T empel a uf A znavurtepe b ei P atnos u nd
I raq, v ol.
B arnett,
E revan :
1 966.
1 968 .
h ier e ntdeckte I nschriften".
n ear V an".
S ocialist
" Persepolis".
1 959
" Further
I raq, v ol. 2 1 ( 1959):
I raq, v ol.19 ( 1957):
R ussian
E xcavations
C ompte r endu d e l a
( 1954):
i n
1 0-18.
5 5-77. A rmenia
( 1949-1953)".
1 -19 .
B arnett. 1 960 A ssyrian P alace R eliefs a nd t heir i nfluence o n t he S culptures o f B abylonia a nd P ersia. L ondon : B atchworth P ress L td ., 1 960 . B arnett.
1 963
" The U rartian C emetary a t I gdir".
A .S.,
v ol.13 ( 1963):
1 53-198. B arnett.
1 970
B ritish M useum , B arnett.
A ssyrian P alace R eliefs.
L ondon:
T rustees o f t he
1 970 . 1 972
" More A ddenda f rom T oprak K ale".
A .S.,
V ol.22
( 1972e :
1 63-178 . B arnett.
1 974
" The H ieroglyphic W riting o f U rartu".
A natolian S tudies
p resented t o H ans G ustav G üterbock o n t he o ccasion o f h is 6 5th b irthday . I stanbul: N ederlands H istorisch-Archaeologisch I nstituut i n H et N abije O osten , 1 974 , 4 3-55. B astam E xcavation , s ummer o f 1 977. B astam E xcavation , s ummer o f 1 978. B atsieva,
S .M .
" The S truggle b etween A ssyria a nd U rartu f or S yria" ( in
R ussian). V .D.I., n o.2 ( 1953):
1 5-36.
B ilgi , A dilcevaz".
E min a nd Ö gün,
B aki.
A natolia , v ol. 8 ( 1964):
B ilgi , E min a nd O gün, B aki. K alesi o f A dilcevaz" A natolia , v ol. B irmingham ,
J .M .
1 964
" Excavations
K urt;
N aumann ,
R .M .
K alesi
o f
1 1-20.
" The O verland R oute a cross A ntolia i n t he e ighth a nd
R udolf;
K urth , G ottfied. B ogazköy I II. B oehmer ,
K ef
1 965 " Second s eason o f E xcation a t K ef 9 ( 1965):
s eventh c enturiesk B .C.". A .S., V ol.11 ( 1961): B ittel ,
a t
9 3-124.
a nd F enner ,
1 85-195.
B eran ,
T homas;
B erlin : G ebr. H .
M ann ,
H achmann ,
R olf;
a nd
1 937.
" Forschungen i n u nd u m M udjesir ( Irakisch-
K urdistan)". A .A ., v ol. 8 8 ( 1973): 4 79-521. B ossert,
T h.
H elmuth.
A ltanatolien .
B erlin :
E rnst W asmuth G .M .B.H.,
1 942. B urney,
C .A .
1 957
" Urartian F ortresses
a nd T owns
i n t he V an R egion".
A .S., v ol. 7 ( 1957)0 : 3 7-53. B urney,
C .A .
a nd L awson ,
G .R .J.
1 958 " Urartian R eliefs a t A dilcevaz,
L ake V an , a nd a r ock r elief f rom K arasu , n ear B irecik". 2 11-218. B urney, F ortresses".
C .A. a nd L awson, G .R.J. 1 960 " Measured P lans o f U rartian A .S., v ol. 1 0 ( 1960): 1 77-196.
B urney,
C .A.
1 966
C itadel o f K ayalidere". B urney,
C .A.
B urney,
" A F irst A .S., v ol.
1 970
P reliminary R eport".
1 6 ( 1966):
" Excavations
C .A. a nd L ang, D .M.
C .A .
S eason o f E xcavations a t t he U rartian
a t
I ran , v ol. 8 ( 1970):
W eidenfeld a nd N icolson , B urney,
o n
A .S., v ol. 8 ( 1958):
1 972a
5-111. 5
H aftavan
T epe,
1 968:
F irst
1 57-171.
1 971 T he P eople o f t he H ills.
L ondon:
1 971. " Urartian I rrigation W orks".
A .S.,
v ol.
2 2
( 1972):
T epe,
1 969:
S econd
T epe,
1 971:
T hird
1 79-186. B urney,
C .A.
1 972b
P reliminary R eport". B urney,
C .A.
1 973
P reliminary R eport". B urney, T epe".
C .A .
I ran , v ol.
B urney,
C almeyer ,
a t
1 0 ( 1972):
" Excavations
I ran , v ol.
1
a t
( 1973):
H aftavan
1 27-142. H aftavan 1 53-172.
1 974 " Survey o f E xcavations
i n I ran ,
1 972-1973:
H aftavan
1 2 ( 1974): 2 13-214.
C .A.
1 975
P reliminary R eport".
( 1973):
" Excavations
I ran , v ol.
P eter ,
" Excavations
I ran , v ol. 1 973
a t
1 3 ( 1975):
H aftavan
T epe,
1 973:
F ourth
1 49-164.
" Zur G enese A ltiranischer M otive".
A .M .I,
v o.
6
1 35-152.
C almeyer ,
P eter ,
1 974 " Zur G enese A ltiranischer M otive:
W agen". A .M .I., v ol. 7 ( 1974): 4 9-77.
I. I
D er L eere
C almeyer , P eter, 1 975 " Zur G enese F elsgräber" . A .M .I ., v ol. 8 ( 1975): 9 9113 . C ulican , H udson , 1 965.
W illiam.
A ltiranischer
1 965 T he M edes a nd P ersians.
L ondon :
C ulican , W illiam , 1 966 T he F irst M erchant V enturers. H ill B ook C ompany , 1 966 . D in ol , A ll M üzaffer. I st. m itt., v ol. 2 6 ( 1976):
M otive:
I II.
T hames a nd
N ew Y ork :
M cGraw
" Die n euen u rartäischen I nschriften a us K örzüt" . 1 9-30 .
D yakonov , I .M . " The L ast y ears o f t he U rartian K ingdom a s r evealed i n A ssyro-Babylonian S ources" ( in R ussian). V .D.I., v ol. 2 ( 1951): 2 9-39 . D yson , R obert H . 1 959 " Digging i n I ran : H asanlu , 1 , n o. 3 ( 1959): 4 -17. D yson , R obert H . ( 1960): 2 11.
1 960 " The D eath o f aC ity".
D yson , R obert H . ( 1969): 3 9-47.
1 969 " A D ecade i n I ran".
D yson , R obert H . a nd P igott , V incent H asanlu". I ran , v ol. 1 3 ( 1975): 1 82-185.
C .
1 958". E xpedition , v ol .
E xpedition , v ol .
E xpedition ,
1 975
" Survey o f
E rentöz, C ahit ( comp.). T ürkiye J eoloji H aritasi: K ars. T etkik v e a rama E nstitüsü Y ayinlarindan , 1 974 . E rzen , A fif. " Untersuchungen i n d er U rartäischen S tadt . an i n d en J ahren 1 959-1961". A .A ., v ol. 7 7 ( 1962): 3 83-414. F rankovich , G eza d e. " Problems W est, v ol. 1 6 ( 1966): 2 01-260 . F rankfort, H enri. H armondsworth , M iddlesex :
H .
v on .
n o.
2
A nkara :
M aden
T oprakkale b ei
E ast a nd
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G hirshman ,
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I ran i n t he A ncient E ast.
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E rnst
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H rouda, B arthel. H uff ,
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A .S., v ol. 6 ( 1956):
1 968 T he P ersian E mpire: S tudies i n G eography a nd
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G oetze, A lbrecht. K leinasien .
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D ietrich.
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" Das
F elsgrab v on E ski
1 971
" Das F elsgrab v on F akhrikah".
p apers
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D ogubayazit".
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v ol.
A .S.,
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P .
I st.Mitt.,
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1 959
" Urartian
I nscriptions
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K afadaryan ,
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1 963/1964
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1 3/14 ( 1963-1964):
1 -14.
K leiss, W . 1 968 " Urartäische I st.Mitt., v ol. 1 8 ( 1968): 1 -44 .
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z wei
A zerbaidjan".
n ach O sten"
E rkundigungsfahrten
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B astam" .
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1 971a " Der T akht-i R ustam b ei P ersepolis u nd d as K yros-Grab A .A ., v ol . 8 6 ( 1971): 1 57162.
K leiss , W . 1 971b " Survey o f E xcavations I ran , v ol. 9 ( 1971): 1 65168 . K leiss , 1 970" .
W .
i n I ran-19691970 :
B astam" .
1 971c " Bericht ü ber E rkundigungsfahrten i n I ran i m J ahre v ol. 4 ( 1971): 5 1111.
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1 9711972 :
B astam" .
K leiss, W . 1 973b " Bericht ü ber E rkundigungsfahrten i n I ran i m J ahre 1 972" . A .M .I ., v ol . 6( 1973): 7 -79 . K leiss , W . ( 1973): 8 1-89 .
1 973c " Aufnahmen U rartäischer B urgen ,
1 972" .
v ol . 6
K leiss , W . 1 973d " Ein u rartäisches G azellenkopf-Trinkgefäss a us B astam" . A .M .I ., v ol. 6 ( 1973): 9 1-93 . K leiss , W . 1 974a " Survey o f E xcavations i n I ran , I ran , v ol . 1 2 ( 1974): 2 05-207 .
1 972-1973:
B astam" .
K leiss, W . 1 974b " Planaufnahmen u rartäischer B urgen u nd N eufunde u rartäischer A nlagen i n I ranisch-Azerbaidjan I m J ahre 1 973". A MI ., v ol . 7 ( 1974): 7 9106 . K leiss , 1 973" .
W .
K leiss ,
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1 974c " Die U rartäischen A nlagen i n B astam n ach d er G rabung , v ol. 7 ( 1974): 1 07-114 . 1 975a " Survey o f E xcavations i n I ran ,
I ran , v ol. 1 3 ( 1975): 1 74176 .
1 9731974 :
B astam" .
K leiss,
W .
1 975b
" Planaufnahmen U rartäischer B urgen u nd U rartäische
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A MI .,
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7 0 . K leiss ,
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1 976a
D ietrich R eimer V erlag ,
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K eramik u rartäischer F estungen i n I ran .
B erlin :
1 976 .
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C .F.
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L ehmann-Haupt ,
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1 926 A rmenien E inst u nd J etzt.
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C .F.
L evine, S tudies,
L ouis D .
V ol.
I I ,
p art
1 .
V ol.
I I ,
p art
2 .
1 926.
1 931 A rmenien E inst u nd J etzt.
B erlin : B .Behr's V erlag/Friedrich F eddersen ,
T oronto:
IB erlin :
1 910 .
1 931.
G eographical S tudies i n t he N eo-Assyrian Z agros.
T he R oyal O ntario M useum a nd t he B ritish I nstitute o f P ersian 1 974 .
L loyd ,
S eaton .
H ill B ook C ompany ,
E arly H ighland P eoples o f A natolia. 1 967.
1 51
N ew Y ork :
M cGraw-
L oon , M aurits N anning v an . 1 966 U rartian A rt. H istorisch-Archaeologisch I nstituut, 1 966. L oon ,
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o f " Urartu".
I stanbul:
N ederlands
1 974 " The E uphrates m entioned b y S arduri I I
A natolian S tudies p resented t o H ans-Gustav G üterbock o n t he
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1 966 N imrud a nd i ts R emains.
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1 972.
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" Excavation o f
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t he h ouses
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( in
t he t own o f
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" Excavation o f A rgishtihinili" ( in R ussian).
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A .A.
S oviet S ocialist R epublic , M axwell-Hyslop , v ol.
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K .R .
E revan :
A cademy o f
S cience
o f
t he
A rmenian
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I raq ,
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K .R .
1 971
W estern A siatic J ewellery.
K .R .
1 974
" Assyrian S ources
L ondon :
M etheun
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1 39145. 1 52
o f
I ron".
I raq,
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M eade, C lare G off, 1 968 " Luristan i n t he f irst h alf o f t he F irst M illenium B .C .". I ran ,m V ol. 6 ( 1968): 1 05-134. M eade, C lare G off. 1 969 " Excavations a t P reliminary R eport". I ran , V ol 7 ( 1969): 15130 .
B aba
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J an ,
1 967:
S econd
J an ,
1 968:
T hird
M elikishvili, G .A . 1 953a " Urartian C uneiform I nscriptions: I nscriptions o f I shpuini, s on o f S arduri" ( in R ussian). V .D.I ., v ol. 1 ( 1953): 2 97-324. M elikishvili, G .A . 1 953b " Urartian C uneiform I nscriptions: o f M enua" ( in R ussian), V .D.I., v ol. 2 ( 1953) : 2 51-308. M elikishvili,
G .A.
1 953c " Urartian I nscriptions:
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I nscriptions
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M elikishvili, G .A . 1 953d " Urartian C uneiform I nscriptions" ( in R ussian). V .D .I., v ol. 4 ( 1953): M elikishvili,
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G .A .
1 954 N airi-Urartu ( in R ussian).
S cience o f t he G eorgian S oviet S ocialist R epublic , M eliskishvili, M oscow :
G .A .
T bilisi: A cademy o f
1 954.
1 960 U rartian C uneiform I nscriptions
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A cademy o f S cience o f t he U nion o f S oviet S ocialist R epublics,
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J .
" The
l ate B ronze A ge M onuments o f E flatun P inar a nd
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1 962
1 960 .
1 2 ( 1962):
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1 965 " Archaeology i n A sia M inor".
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1 33-149 . M uscarella , A ttachements".
O scar W hite ,
M uscarella , w estern I ran".
1 962
" The O riental O rigin o f
O scar W hite ,
1 971
E xpedition , v ol.
M uscarella,
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" Qalatgah:
1 3 ( 1971) 1 973
N aumann , R udolf,
A n U rartian
s ite
i n N orth-
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" Excavations a t A grab T epe,
M etropolitan M useum J ournal , v ol. 8 ( 1973)
v ol.
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N aval A pril ,
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A rchitektur k leinasiens.
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1 942.
I ntelligence D ivision.
T urkey:
G eographical H andbook. v ol.
1 ,
N ylander ,
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" Old
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U ppsala :
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I onians i n P asargadae.
a t
Z ernaki
A lmqvist a nd W iksells B oktryckeri A ktiebolag ,
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K armir-Blur I V
1 961.
1 970 .
I raq, v ol. 2 4
( in R ussian) E revan :
S cience o f t he A rmenian S oviet S ocialist R epublic ,
t he
S tudies i n O ld P ersian
" The E xcavations a t N imrud ( Kalhu),
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a nd
4 9-55.
A cademy o f
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O ganesian , K .L . 1 960 " Excavation o f t he U rartian t own , R ussian). S .A ., v ol. 3 ( 1960): 2 89-296.
E rebuni"
( in
O ganesian , K .L. 1 961 T he A rchitecture o f E rebuni ( in R ussian). E revan : A cademy o f S cience o f t he A rmenian S oviet S ocialist R epublic , 1 961. O ganesian , K .L .
1 966
A rchitecture o f U rartu , b ased u pon m aterials f rom
t he e xcavations i n t he A rmenian S .S.R.
f rom 1 939-1964
D issertation f or t he D octorate o f A rchitecture , L eningrad , O ganesian ,
K .L .
1 973
R ussian a nd E nglish). S ocialist R epublic ,
T he W all P aintings o f E rebuni
E revan :
A cademy
o f
S cience
o f
( in
R ussian).
1 966 . ( in A rmenian),
t he A rmenian S oviet
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O ganesian , K .L .
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G ustav
" Die a merikanischen A usgrabungen a m B urgfelsen v on V an".
T ahsin .
1 961
1 4
( 1941):
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" Excavations a t A ltintepe".
B elleten ,
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2 69-290 .
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A rchiv f ür O rientforschung , v ol.
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A rchiv f ür O rientforschung,
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1 963
" The U rartian A rchitecture o n t he S ummit o f
A natolia , v ol. 7 ( 1963): T ahsin. A nkara: T ahsin .
( 1967):
1 966.
4 3-49 .
A ltintepe:
A rchitectural M onuments a nd W all
T ürk T arih K urumu Y ayinlarindan , 1 967
" Ancient A rarat".
3 8-46.
1 54
1 966.
S cientific A merican , v ol.
2 16 ,
T ahsin. A nkara:
1 969
A ltintepe I I:
T ürk T arih K urumu B asimevi,
P iotrovskii ,
B .B.
1 950
T ombs, S torehouses a nd I vories.
1 969 .
K armir -Blur I ( in R ussian).
o f S cience o f t he A rmenian S oviet S ocialist R epublic , P iotrovskii,
B .B.
1 952
K armir -Blur I I
B .B.
A cademy
E revan :
A cademy
( in R ussian).
o f S cience o f t he A rmenian S oviet S ocialist R epublic , P itotrovskii,
E revan :
1 950.
1 955 K armir-Blur I II
1 952.
( in R ussian).
A cademy o f S cience o f t he A rmenian S oviet S ocialist R epublic , P iotrovskii,
B .B.
E astern L iterature,
B .B.
1 959b
( in R ussian).
P iotrovskii ,
T he U rartian K ingdom
( in R ussian).
M oscow :
1 959 .
P iotrovskii, B lur)".
1 959a
E revan:
1 955.
" The t own o f t he d eity T eisheba ( Karmir-
S .A ., v ol. 2
B .B.
( 1959):
a nd O ganesian ,
K .L .
1 69-186. 1 960
D ie A usgrabungen i n A rin-
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B .B.
1 962 U rartian A rt f rom t he e ighth t o t he s ixth
( in R ussian).
P iotrovskii,
B .B.
L eningrad : T he H ermitage,
1 967
T ransl. b y P eter S . G elling. P iotrovskii, B .B. J ames H ogarth .
l iotrovskii, A rt P ublishers, R assam , M äines,
1 969
L ondon : B .B.
U rartu: L ondon :
1 962.
T he K ingdom o f V an a nd i ts A rt.
E velyn A dams a nd M ac k ay,
1 967.
T he A ncient C ivilization o f U rartu .
B arrie a nd R ockliff: T he C resset P ress, 1 970
K armir-Blur
( in E nglish).
T ransl. b y 1 969 .
L eningrad:
A urora
1 970 .
H ormuzd.
1 897;
A sshur a nd t he L and o f N imrod.
r eprint
P ublishers L td., R eade, J .E.
e d.,
W estmead ,
N ew Y ork:
F arnborough ,
G regg
E aton a nd
I nternational
1 971. " A G lazed-brick p anel f rom N imrud".
I raq, v ol. 2 5
( 1963):
3 8-47. R iemschneider, O rientalia ,
M argarete.
v ol. 3 2
( 1963):
R iemschneider, K önigsinschriften". S ayce,
A .H .
1 963
" Die
u rartäischen
G ottheiten".
1 48-169 .
Margarete.
1 965
O rientalia , v ol. 3 4
" The K ingdom o f V an
" Urartäische
( 1965): ( Urartu)".
B auten
i n
d en
3 12-335. C .A .H.,
v ol.
I II
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1 69-186. S chäfer , H ans-Peter. v ol. 2 3/24
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S chmidt,
E rich
F .
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I st M itt.,
3 3-37. T he T reasury o f P ersepolis a nd o ther d iscoveries i n
t he h omeland o f t he A chaemenians.
C hicago:
1 939 . 1 55
U niversity
o f
C hicago P ress,
S chuler, E inar v on. 1 970 A .M .I., v ol. 3 ( 1970): 9 3-106. S chuler , E inar v on . 1 972 A .M .I., v ol. 5 ( 1972): . 17-134 S eidl, U rsula. ( 1975): . 15-119
" Urartäische I nschriften a us B astan i".
" Urartäische
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" Torschatzende G enien i n U rartu".
B astam
A .M.I.,
I". I
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7
S evin , V eli a nd B elli, O ktay. " Yesilaliç U rartu K utsal a lani v e K alesi; U rartian s acred a rea a nd f ortress a t Y esila1 4". A nadolu A rastirM älari, v ol . 4 -5 ( 1976/1977): 3 67-393. S mith , S idney. 2 2
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S otheby's. D e-ember 8 ,
A ntiquaries J ournal , v ol .
C atalogue o f A ntiquities a nd I slam ic A rt.
D avid.
1 963
I ran , v ol. 1
" Excavations a t
( 1963):
P asargadae,
F irst
S tronach ,
D avid.
S tronach , 2 5
1 965
I ran , v ol. 3
( 1966):
D avid.
S econd P reliminary
" Excavations a t P asargadae,
( 1965): 1 966
P reliminary
1 9-42.
S tronach , D aivd. 1 964 " Excavations a t P asargadae , R eport". I ran , v ol. 2 ( 1964): 2 1-39 .
R eport".
D ate o f s ale :
1 975.
S tronach , R eport".
" The G reek T rade a t A l M ina".
8 7-112.
T hird P reliminary
9 -40 .
" The k uh-i-Shahrak F ire A ltar".
J .N .E.S., v ol .
2 17-227.
S tronach, D avid. 1 967 " Urartian a nd A chaemenian T ower T emples"." J .N .E.S., V ol. 2 6 ( 1967): 2 78-288. S tronach , ( 1969):
D avid.
1 969
" Excavations a t T epe N ush-i J an".
I ran , v ol .
7
1 -20.
S tronach,
D avid a nd R oaf,
S econd I nterim R eport". I ran , S tronach , D avid. N ush-i J an".
1 975
D avid.
v ol.
1
1 973
( 1973):
" Tepe N ush-i J an ,
( 1975):
1 976
1 970:
1 29-138.
" Survey o f E xcavations i n I ran ,
I ran , v ol. 1 3
S tronach,
M ichael.
1 973-1974 :
T epe
1 87-188.
" Excavations
a t
T epe
N ush-i
I nternationaler K ongres f ür I ransiche K unst u nd A rchäologie.
J an".
M ünchen ,
V I
1 976.
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0 .A .
D önmez,
T asyürek ,
1 975
T he U rartian B elts i n t he A dana R egional M useum .
1 975.
0 .A .
1 976
" Urartian F igures a nd M etal V essels i n t he A dana
R egional a nd G aziantep M useums".
T ürk A rkeoloji D ergisi,
1 01-116 .
1 56
v ol.
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W inter ,
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L ondon :
G arni
1 -17.
A lec T iranti L td.,
1 955.
" The K urba'il S tatue o f S halmaneser I II".
I .
I raq,
" North S yria i n t he E arly f irst m illenium B .C . w ith s pecial P h.D . D issertation , C olumbia U niversity ,
W ooley, L . a nd B arnett, R .D .
P art I II;
C archemish :
t he I nner T own a nd t he H ittite I nscriptions.
Y oung ,
a t
9 0115 .
r eference t o i vory c arving".
B ritish M useum ,
a ncient t emple 2 85-304.
" De g eschiedenis v an N oord-West I ran i n d e
P ersica ,
W ilson , J .V . K innier . v ol . 2 4 ( 1962) :
o f t he ( 1949):
d e
L ondon :
1 973.
T he E xcavations i n
T he
T rustees
o f
t he
1 952. o f
1 957:
P reliminary
Y oung , R odney S . 1 960a " The G ordion C ampaign o f 2 R eport". A .J .A ., v ol. 6 4 ( 1960): 27-243.
1 959 :
P reliminary
R eport".
R odney
S .
1 958
Y oung,
R odney
A rchitecture". Y oung , 6 6 ( 1962): Y oung,
Y oung ,
S .
R odney S .
R odney
T .
( 1960):
P hrygian
S .
T .
T .
1 962b
" Gordion:
Y oung ,
C uyler .
A .J .A .,
v ol .
P hrygian
T .
C uyler .
T .
1 968
1 969
4 8-71. " Survey
a nd
. o f E xcavations
( 1968):
" Excavations
1 970
" Survey o f
I ran , v ol. 8
C uyler 1 974
P rogress R eport".
C onstruction
1 966 " Thoughts o n t he A rchitecture o f H asanlu I V" . ( 1966):
I ran , v ol. 6
C uyler .
G odin T epe". Y oung,
a nd
( 1962): 2 -12.
( 1970):
i n I ran d uring
a t
G odin T epe:
F irst
P rogress
( 1969).
E xcavations
i n I ran d uring
1 968-
1 80-182.
" Excavations o f t he G odin P roject:
R oyal O ntario M useum , O ccasional P aper 2 6 ( 1974).
1 57
1 966-
1 60-161.
R eport". R oyal O ntario M useum , O ccasional P aper 1 7
1 969 ;
C onstruction
2 -9 .
" The 1 961 C ampaign a t G ordion".
E xpedition , v ol. 4
C uyler .
G odin T epe". Y oung ,
" Gordion:
1 53168.
I ranica A ntigua, v ol. 6 Y oung ,
1 960b
1 962a
G ordion C ampaign
1 39154.
E xpedition , v ol. 2
A rchitecture: I I".
1 967:
" The
A .J.A ., v ol. 6 2 ( 1958):
S econd