Upper Teesdale: the archaeology of a North Pennine Valley 9780860543701, 9781407317649

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Upper Teesdale the archaeology of a North Pennine Valley

D. Coggins

BAR British Series 150 1986

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

� -150, 1986 : 'Upper

©

D

Teesdale'.

Coggins, 1986

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860543701 paperback ISBN 9781407317649 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543701 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS P age No. h i t1 T )dUCtiOf l

1

L ist a d f igures

2

1 ia 1 ! f p lates

4

C lm)ier 1

Env ironment

C ar e

I i

Meso l ithic

1 0

Chapte i

[ I I

Neo l i th ic

1 8

Chapter 1 V

E ar ly Bronze Age

2 5

C ) iaptaa V

L ate P reh istor ic

3 3

Ch v er V I

Roman

4 2

Chapter V II

E ar ly Med ieva l

4 9

Chapter V III

M in ing a nd Meta lworking

5 6

F arm ing

6 2

Chapter X

Conc lusion

7 2

Append ix I

Gaxetteer o f S ites

8 0

Append ix 2

Gazetteer o f S tray F inds

1 26

Append ix 3

Gazetteer o f Meta lwork ing S i tes

1 42

Chapter

i x

6

F igures

1 47

P la tes

1 93

B ib l iography

2 11

I NTRODUCTION.

I t i s t wo hundred y ears s ince t he h istor ian W i l l iam Hutch inson o f Barnard Cast le d eterm ined t o r ecord t he an tiqu i ties o f t he r eg ion b efore t hey w ere a l l d estroyed. F ortunate ly t he d estruct ion has n ot b een qu i te s o e xtens ive a s h e f eared i n t he up lands e spec ia l ly, t he r ema ins o f f i e ld s ystems and s ett lements s urv ive i n p rofus ion. W e c an however t ake l i tt le c red i t f or t his s urv iva l which h as b een t he r esu l t o f c hance, o f t he a pparen t i ns ign if icance o f t he r ema ins a nd most i mportan t ly o f t he f act t ha t t hey presented n o o bstac le t o a gr icu lture o r i ndustry . The ma jor monuments o f T eesda le have n ot b een s o f ortuna te : t he c a irn o f K irk Arran and t he s tone c irc le a t Egg lestone were b oth d emo l ished i n t he e ar ly n ineteenth c entury. S urpr ising ly p erhaps, t he a rchaeo log ica l r ema ins o f Teesda le have a ttracted l i tt le i nterest s ince t he t ime o f Hutch inson t hough t he b o tan ica l pecu l iari t ies o f t he r eg ion have b een i ntens ive ly s tud ied. Th is monograph i s a pre l im inary a ttempt t o r edress t he ba lance a nd t o prov ide a rchaeo log ica l ev idence f or t he preh istor ic a nd e ar ly m ed ieva l i nhab itan ts who b egan t he l ong p rocess wh ich h as r esu lted i n t he present l andscape o f Upper Teesda le. I am d eep ly i ndebted t o many p eop le f or t he ir h e lp a nd e ncouragement; t o l i st t hem a l l wou ld b e i mpract ica l a nd I s hou ld l i ke t o t hank a l l o f t hese unnamed he lpers . This work was f irst p roduced a s a n MA t hes is f or t he Un ivers i ty o f Durham a nd I must a cknow ledge

my

g rat i tude

t o

p resen t

and

f ormer

s taff

o f

t he

a rchaeo logy d epartment t here, e spec ia l ly P rof . D . W. Hard ing a nd P rof . R . Cramp. Most c lose ly a ssoc iated w ith m e i n t his p ro ject w ere my c o l leagues i n t he h istory d epartment o f t he n ow d efunct M idd leton S t. George Co l lege o f Educa t ion, Dr. R .P. Hast ings a nd Mr. K .J . Fa ir less. To t he l atter i ndeed I owe more t han I c an s ay. M iss L .J. G idney has g iven i nva luab le h e lp w ith f i eldwork a nd has c ommented o n e ar l ier d raf ts o f t hese c hapters. F ina l ly I must e xpress my t hanks t o t he Curator o f The Bowes Museum, Mrs. E . Conran, and t o Mrs. E . A. Ma ine who has wrest led w ith my h andwrit ing t o p roduce a t ypescr ipt. Though a ny c red it f or t h is w ork must b e s hared among many p eop le, t he r espons ib i l ity f or e rrors o f f act o r i nterpretat ion r ests w ith t he a uthor a lone.

D . Cogg ins The Bowes Museum .

1

L IST OF F IGURES. 1 .

Upper Teesda le :l ocat ion map.

2 .

Upper T eesda le : g eo logy.

3 .

Upper Teesda le :t opography .

4 .

Upper Teesda le :modern s ett lement.

5 .

Upper Teesda le :e ar ly s ett lemen t.

6 .

Upper Teesda le : s tray f inds.

7 .

Upper Teesda le b een

8 .

Compar ison o f d ata f rom f ive po l len s i tes

9 .

Upper Teesda le :e ar ly f i eld s ystems.

f ive

s i tes

f or

which

1 0.

Upper Teesda le : meta lwork ing s i tes.

1 1.

S tap le Crag: meso l i th ic s i te.

1 2.

S tap le Crag : s e lect ion o f f l ints.

1 3.

Merryg i l l Ho lm : f l ints.

1 4.

F l ints

p o l len

d iagrams

have

f rom o ther s i tes i nc lud ing B irkda le ( 1-5) a nd S imy Fo lds

( 20-39). 1 5.

S trands G i l l :s i te p lan.

1 6.

F l int a nd s tone a xes :

1 7.

Carr Crags : s ketch p lan.

1 8.

Ho lw ick :j et b eads.

1 9 .

Ho lw ick :potsherd and s p ind lewhor l .

2 0 .

Barbed a nd t anged a rrowheads : 2 . M ick le F e l l 3 . Cronk ley

2 1.

Bracken R igg : s i te p lan.

2 2.

Bracken R igg :c entra l house p lan.

2 3 .

Harter F el l

2 4.

P asture F oo t :s ketch p lan .,

2 5.

W inch Bridge : s i te p lan.

2 6.

Wh i te F orce : s h ield b oss.

2 7.

F orcegarth

2 8 .

F orcegarth P asture North

p lan o f c en tra l h ouse c omplete .

2 9 .

F orcegarth P asture S outh

s i te p lan.

3 0.

F orcegarth P asture S outh :p lan o f h ouse C

3 1.

F orcegarth F arm : modern l and u se.

3 2.

F orcegarth F arm

3 3 .

B leabeck F oot : s ite p lan.

1 . S trands G i l l 3 . Bowes C lose 5 . M idd leton

2 . Bow lees 4 . S a ir H i l l

1 . Harter F el l ( east) 4 . P ark End 5 . Harter F el l

pa l isaded s i te ( sketch p lan).

P asture North : s i te p lan .

e ar ly f i e ld s ystems.

2

3 4 .

M idd le Hurth : s ketch p lan.

3 5.

S imy F o lds :p lan o f s ett lement.

3 6.

S imy F o lds s i te 2 :p lan b efore e xcavat ion.

3 7.

S imy F o lds s i te 3 :p lan b efore e xcava t ion.

3 8.

S imy F o lds s i te 1 :p lan a f ter e xcavat ion.

3 9 .

Ho iw ick Cast les

4 0.

Y ear l H i l l :s i te p lan.

4 1.

S imy F o lds s i te 4 : s ketch p lan.

4 2.

Dry Beck : s i te p lan.

4 3 .

B irk R igg :t wo s ite p lans.

4 4.

White E arth : s ketch p lan.

4 5.

M idd le Hurth 2

4 6 .

Ho iw ick Head : s i te p lan.

4 7.

P asture F oot :p lan o f n orth s i te.

4 8.

Crossthwa ite Common :p lan o f s outh e ast s i te.

4 9 .

W ithy Br ig S ike : s ketch p lan.

5 0.

Skyer Beck : s ketch p lan.

5 1.

Unthank S cars

5 2.

Upper Teesda le : r ad io c arbon d a tes f rom e xcavat ions.

5 3.

Upper Teesda le : c a l ibrated r ad io c arbon d ates.

s i te p lan.

s ketch p lan.

s i te p lan.

L IST OF PLATES.

1 .

H igh F orce i n f lood.

2 .

Newbigg in f rom Ho iw ick.

3 .

S tap le Crag meso l ith ic s i te.

4 .

B lack H i l l s heepfo ld f rom t he s outh.

5 .

Ca irns o n Burnt S car s een f rom t he s outh west.

6 .

K irk Arran f rom t he west.

7 .

Bracken R igg.

8 .

Crossthwa ite Common :t wo e nc losures.

9 .

J ack S car s pearhead.

C entra l h ouse under e xcavat ion.

1 0.

P asture F oot.

1 1.

Dubby S ike :t he c ircu lar bu i ld ing.

1 2.

Dubby S ike.

1 3.

F orcegarth P asture.

1 4.

F orcegarth North.

1 5.

F orcegarth S outh.

1 6.

S imy F o lds s i tes 2 & 3 f rom t he n orth.

1 7.

S imy F o lds s i te 2 , l ong bu i ld ing under e xcavation.

1 8.

S imy F o lds s i te 2 , s ma l l bu i ld ing e xcavated.

1 9 .

S ett lement s i te o n Unthank S cars.

Two o f t he p its i n t he r ing c a irn.

House C e xcavated.

4

t he r ap id progress o f c u lt ivat ion i n t he n orthern c ounties, w ithin t h is c entury, t hreatens t he d estruct ion o f many o f t he ir a nt ique r ema ins:- t he p lough-share has a lready i n many p laces g one o ver t hem a nd p erhaps i n a nother a ge n ot even t he ir n ames w i l l r ema in t o d enote t he ir s i te t o p reserve t he ir memory t o a f ter t imes, t o p o int o ut a nd d escr ibe t he ir s trength, f orm a nd m agn itude, I humb ly p resume, a re n o i ns ign if ican t pursu its

W i l l iam Hutch inson " An excursion t o t he L akes"

1 775

5

CHAPTER 1 Geo logy,

Topography,

C l imate,

Natura l Vegetation

The e xact g eograph ica l l im its o f Upper Teesda le a re a rguable. F or s ome wr iters i t i nc ludes t he upper da le w est o f Barnard Cast le but f or t he purposes o f t his s tudy t he a rea i s t hat d ef ined by J ohnson ( 1976. 1 3) " Upper Teesda le i s a s omewha t i naccess ib le r eg ion s tretch ing f rom t he s ource o f t he Tees on t he e astern f lank o f Cross F e l l, d own t he va l ley t o M idd leton i n Teesda le." ( F ig. 1 ) Cross F e l l, t he h ighest po int o f t he P enn ines a t j ust under t hree t housand f eet, i s par t o f t he s umm it r idge watershed which d iv ides t he Eden Va l ley a rea t o t he west f rom t he Tees Va l ley t o t he e ast. The r ocks o f t he west f ace o f t he watershed a re f au l ted and f orm a s teep e scarpment but t o t he e ast d ip much more g ent ly t owards t he c oast. Thus wh i le App leby i n t he Eden Va l ley l i es a t a bout 1 22m1400f t o n ly e ight m i les f rom Cross F e l l, M idd leton i n Teesda le a t 2 99m/750f t i s s ome t wenty m i les f rom t he s umm i t. The t rans i t ion f rom t he f ert i le f i elds o f t he Eden Va l ley t o t he barren up lands i s r apid a nd wel l d ef ined but i n T eesda le i t i s s low and d iffuse. The g eo logy o f Upper Teesda le has b een d escr ibed by s evera l wr iters b eg inn ing w ith F orster ( 1809). A c omprehensive s ummary i s g iven by J ohnson & P igott ( 1978). The under ly ing b edrock o f most o f Upper Teesda le i s t he M idd le L imestone g roup o f t he Carbon iferous s er ies c ons ist ing o f s equences o f l imestone, s andstone, s ha le a nd t h in c oa l s eams. These f orm t he c haracter istic ' benches ' which r un para l le l t o t he r iver a t var ious a l t i tudes a long t he s i tes o f t he v a l ley a nd wh ich s eem t o have p layed a n i mportant r o le i n i ts s ett lement. The

Basement,

L ower,

Grea t

a nd

Upper

L imestones

a re

a lso

p resent a nd v isib le a t v ar ious po ints i n t he v a l ley. The e astward d ip o f t he s trata means t ha t t he o lder a nd l ower r ocks appear a t t he western e nd o f t he d a le. The most c onspicuous g eo log ica l f eature h owever i s t he Grea t Wh in S i l l ( F ig.2), a n i ntrus ion o f quartz d o ler i te i nto both L ower a nd M idd le l imestones which f orms t he c o lumnar c l iffs s o c haracter ist ic o f t he da le, a s wel l a s t he wa terfa l ls o f Cau ldron Snout a nd H igh F orce. This i ntrusion i n l a te Carbon iferous t imes was a lso r esponsible f or t he ' bak ing ' o f t he a d jacent l imestones which metamorphosed i nto t he c oarsely c rysta l l ine ' sugar l imes tone ? which weathers e as i ly i nto c haracter ist ic r ed b rown s o i ls s upport ing t he f amous Teesda le r e l ict l ate-g lac ia l f lora.

a lso

A t a bout t he t ime o f t he i ntrus ion o f t he Whin S i l l t here b egan t he l ong p rocess o f m inera l izat ion. L ead, z inc, f luorspar, a nd

barytes were o f t hese i n

d epos i ted i n v ert ica l f issures i n t he l imestone. M in ing h istorica l t imes has c aused many o f t he s triking

t opograph ica l f eatures o f t he d a le. The g eo log ica l p icture i s c ompl icated by t he d eep cutt ing o f t he r iver a nd by t wo ma jor d isturbances: t he Teesda le Fau lt a nd t he Burtreeford D isturbance ( F ig.2). The f ormer r uns more o r l ess

6

p ara l le l w ith a nd o n t he s outh s ide o f t he r iver f rom Cronk ley B r idge t o M idd leton. The s teep d ip which i t i mparts t o t he s trata c an be s een c lear ly i n t he r iver b ed n ear W inch Br idge. As a r esu lt o f t his f au lt t he Whin S i l l o utcrops c h ief ly o n t he s outh s ide o f t he r iver and t hus t he n orth f ac ing a nd s outh f ac ing s lopes o f t he va l ley a re ent ire ly d ifferent i n phys ica l c haracter , a d ifference wh ich s eems t o have h ad a marked e ffect o n e ar ly s ett lement. The Burtreeford D isturbance i s a s trong monoc l ina l f o ld wh ich c rosses t he v a l ley i n a N -S d irect ion n ear W iddybank F arm. On t he w estern f lank o f t h is a s ma l ler i n l ier o f Ordov ician r ocks b e long ing t o t he S k iddaw S late a nd Borrowda le Vo lcan ic S er ies i s e xposed i n t he r iver b ed. Upper Teesda le was h eav i ly g lac iated a nd i t s eems t ha t even t he h ighest g round i n t he r eg ion was c overed a t t he t ime o f t he maximum a dvance o f t he Quaternary i ce s heets. Bounder c lay, wh ich i s d er ived who l ly f rom l oca l r ocks c overs much o f t he v a l ley b e low 6 10m/2000f t, a bove t his h eight e ros ion has s tr ipped t he d r if t wh ich h as b een r edeposi ted a s g rave l a nd a l luv ium i n t he va l ley b ottom. The most r ecent a ccumu lat ion a nd s lower

g eo log ica l p rocess has b een t he r apid e ros ion o f b lanket p ea t o ver much o f t he

l and a bove t he 3 05ml1000f t c ontour. The t opography o f Upper Teesda le r ef lects t hese g eo log ica l f actors. ( F ig.3) The upper r eaches o f t he r iver a nd o f i t s t wo ma in t r ibutar ies Harwood Beck a nd Ma ize Beck d ra in huge a reas o f h igh d eso late moor land, t ree less, a lmost c ompletely w ithout h abi tat ion a nd l argely c overed by b lanket b og d om inated by h eather a nd c ottongrass. I n many p laces t he p ea t i s d issected by gu l l ies a nd i s e roding. I n even t he most r emote parts o f t he a rea t he l ead m iner h as l ef t t races o f h is p resence: hushes, s po i lheaps, d r if ts, b e l l p its a nd water leats. Ev idences o f more r ecent a ct iv it ies a re p rov ided by t he Nature Conservancy F ie ld Centre a t Moor House a nd t he c lay a nd c oncrete d am o f t he Cow Green r eservo ir. A t Cau ldron S nout t he r iver f a l ls i n a c ataract o f 4 5m1150f t o ver ac l iff f ormed by t he Wh in S i l l a nd i s t hen j o ined by t he Ma ize Beck wh ich r ises l ess t han a m i le f rom H igh Cup N ick, a hugh amph itheatre o f wh in c l iffs o ver look ing t he Eden Va l ley. The p resent d ay P enn ine Way f ootpath b etween M idd leton i n Teesda le a nd Dufton f o l lows t he ' Green Trod ' r oute which p resents o ne o f t he s hortest a nd e as iest ways a cross t he P ennines a nd must s ure ly have b een i n u se s ince p rehistor ic t imes. B e low Cau ldron S nout t he r iver p asses t he whin c l iffs o f F a lcon C l ints, Cronk ley S car a nd D ineho im b efore p lung ing o ver a nother a t H igh F orce. The whinstone c l iffs a re o n a l ternate b anks a nd o ppos ite t hem t he v a l ley f l oor i s c overed by d rum l ins a nd mora ine. Between C ronk ley a nd D ineho im t he Harwood Beck j o ins t he T ees a nd t he v a l ley t akes o n a more s ett led a ppearance w ith f arm land e xtend ing f rom t he r iver h igh up t he f e l l s ide o n t he n orth bank t hough t he s outh r ema ins l argely moor land. Below H igh F orce t he r iver passes t hrough a narrow wooded g orge a nd t hen over a s er ies o f sma l l f a l ls n ear W inch Br idge a f ter which i t t akes o n a more mature f orm w ith many meanders. H ere t he va l ley b ecomes b roader a nd more s ha l low w ith extens ive m eadow a nd pasture o n b oth b anks.

7

The r iver Tees i n t his f i rst p art o f i t s c ourse i s sw if t f low ing a nd l i ab le t o s udden f lood ing. Even i n s ummer i t i s n ot e as i ly f ordab le; a f ter h eavy r ain o r melt ing s now i t b ecomes a f orm idab le b arr ier. A l l t he e x ist ing b ridges a re modern . The s ites o f s ome e ar l ier f ords c an b e i dent if ied by t he p lace n ame e lement ' wath '. ( F ig. 3 ) The c l imate o f t he North P enn ines has h ad a p rofound e ffect on v egetat ion a nd s ett lement h istory . I t has b een t he s ub ject o f s tud ies by Man ley ( 1936 , 1 942, 1 952) a nd by P igott ( 1978). Writ ing o f t he w estern a nd hghest part o f Upper T eesda le Man ley s ays: " we t herefore f orm a c oncept ion o f a n e xcess ive ly w indy a nd p ervas ively w et a utumn, a v ery v ar iable a nd s tormy w inter w ith l ong s pel ls o f s now c over, h igh hum id ity a nd e xtremely b i tter w ind a lterna t ing w ith b r ief p er iods o f r a in a nd t haw. Apr i l has a m ean t emperature l i tt le a bove f reez ing po int a nd s unny d ays i n May a re o ffset by c o ld po lar a ir; wh i le t he s hort a nd c loudy s ummer i s n ot qu ite warm e nough f or t he g rowth o f t rees. Throughout t he y ear i ndeed t he s umm its a re f requent ly c overed i n c loud." (Man ley 1 952.151) P erhaps t he most a ffect ing s ett lement i n

i mportant c l imat ic f actor t o b e c ons idered a s Upper T eesda le i s t he v ery s low r ise o f t he

mean t emperature i n s pring . S ince t he g rowth o f g rasses b eg ins on ly when t he m ean t emperature e xceeds 4 2°F a nd s ince mean t emperature f a l ls a bout 1 °F f or e very 8 0m/270f t o f a l t i tude t he l ength o f t he g row ing s eason d ecreases v ery r apid ly w ith r e lative ly sma l l i ncreases i n h eight a bove s ea l eve l . " n o r eco l lect ion i s more v iv id i n t he wri ter 's m ind t han t ha t o f a w el l known Sw iss p rofessor o f g eo logy, who, c onfronted a t 5 18m/1700f t the l eve l o f Berne- w ith a w ide s tretch o f t he P enn ines b etween T eesda le and W earda le s urpr ising ly d ec lared ' th is i s t he t undra ' ( Man ley, 1 952.222) I t

I n f act a c hange o f l eve l o f on ly a bout 5 49m/1800f t h a lves t he g row ing s eason. The h igher f el ls t herefore c an now o n ly b e u sed f or s ummer g raz ing. Despite t he unfavourab le c l imatic c ond it ions d iscussed a bove, p resent d ay s ett lement i n Upper Teesda le e xtends up t o a nd i n a f ew c ases a bove t he 4 57m/1500f t c ontour. I n t he h ey-day o f t he l eadm in ing i ndustry dur ing t he n ineteenth c entury i t extended even h igher: t he n ow-abandoned f arm o f Grass H i l l f or e xamp le l i es j ust b e low 6 10m/2000f t a nd must s ure ly have b een o ne o f t he h ighest f arms i n t he Bri tish I sles. Whi le no p reh istor ic s i te has s o f ar b een f ound a t t h is h eight, e ar ly s ett lers c erta in ly e xp lo i ted t he l and up t o a t l east 5 18m/1700f t. Though i n many ways t he n atura l v egetat ion a ssemblage o f much o f Upper T eesda le i s f a ir ly t yp ica l o f t ha t o f t he North P enn ines g enera l ly i t a lso c on ta ins many s pec ies o f f lower ing p lants, f erns, mosses, l iverworts a nd l i chens wh ich a re r are o r a bsent e lsewhere. The r emarkab le n ature o f t he ' Teesda le Assemblage ' o f p lants has b een known s ince t he e ar ly d iscover ies o f J ohn Ray i n 1 718 . Dur ing t he n ineteenth c entury more a nd more r are s pec ies were a dded t o t he l i st a nd dur ing t he e ar ly t went ieth c entury t here was much s pecu lat ion a bout t he o r ig in a nd h istory o f t h is f l ora. F rom a bout

8

t he m idd le o f t his c entury i t has b ecome i ncreas ing ly c lear t ha t many o f t he c haracter ist ic T eesda le p lants w ere w idespread i n t he r est o f t he Brit ish I sles a nd Europe dur ing l ate g lac ia l t imes. I n many c ases t he Teesda le r epresentat ives a re s l ight ly d ifferent f rom t heir E uropean c ounterparts, s omet imes warrant ing r e-c lass if ica t ion a s d ist inct s ubspec ies, s how ing t ha t t hey have b een i so lated f or a l ong p er iod. I t i s r emarkab le t ha t t he Teesda le Assemblage c onta ins r epresentat ives o f v ar ious d ifferen t g eograph ica l l oca t ions: a re t h-a lpine, s ub-arct ic, a lpine, n orthern montane a nd s outhern montane. The r easons f or t he ir s urv iva l h ere a re n ot y et f u l ly understood but may b e s ign if icant when c ons ider ing e ar ly s ett lement. Bel lamy, e t.a l. ( 1969) s uggest t wo hypotheses t o a ccount f or t he r estricted r ange o f t hese p lan ts a nd t he ir s urv iva l i n Upper T eesda le. The f i rst o f t hese i s c oncerned w ith t he l ack o f c ompetit ion f rom o ther s pec ies b ecause o f t he s ever i ty o f t he c l imate. The s econd, s upported by J ones ( 1973) s hows t ha t t he T eesda le r ar it ies t end t o o ccur 1 i n a n a rea o f c ontact b etween a ssoc iations o f t wo o rders o f v egetat ion, d eve loped i n a c l imatica l ly marg ina l s i tuat ion " ( Bel lamy e t.a l. o p.c it. 5 ) The a uthors s uggest t hat human i nf luence i s a nd has b een s ign if icant i n t he d e l imitat ion o f t hese z ones. Godw in ( 1949), P igott ( 1956) a nd Bradshaw ( 1976) a l l a gree t ha t o ne o f t he most i mportant f actors i n t he s urv iva l o f t he T eesda le r ar i t ies was t he e x istence a nd ma intenance o f o pen a reas " t hey s urv ived i n t his p redom inant ly wooded a nd p ea t-covered l andscape b ecause t here w ere a lways a f ew o pen hab ita ts " P igo tt ( 1956.578) warns a ga inst „ a t oo f ac i le a cceptance t ha t t he T eesda le hab ita ts a re n atura l ly .

.

o pen The e v idence f rom p o l len a na lysis o f p ea t f rom v ar ious s i tes i n T eesda le which w i l l b e d iscussed l ater c erta in ly s uggest t hat human a ct iv ity has b een a n i mportant f actor f rom i mmed iate post g lac ia l t imes onward i n e stab l ish ing a nd ma inta in ing t hese o pen a reas.

9

CHAPTER I Me s o l ithic. Ev idence f or t he a ct iv i ties o f m eso l ith ic man i n Upper T eesda le i s o f t wo k inds: d irect, i n t he f orm o f a rtefacts, e specia l ly f l int, a nd, i nd irect, p rov ided l arge ly by i nferences a bout v egetationa l c hanges d er ived f rom i nformat ion o bta ined f rom p o l len d iagrams ( F igs. 7 & 8 ). F inds o f meso l i thic a rtefacts f rom Upper T eesda le a re f ewer t han f rom n eighbour ing Wearda le but t here a re s uff icient t o enab le t hem t o b e u sed t o y ie ld i nformat ion a bout e ar ly o ccupat ion. A d ist inct ion s hou ld b e made b etween a ssemblages o f f l ints which p robably i nd icate a l iving s i te a nd s tray f inds o f o ne o r t wo i tems. The f ormer a re i nc luded i n t he s i te d istr ibut ion map ( F ig. 5 ) a nd t he l atter o n t he s tray f inds d istr ibut ion map ( F ig.6). On ly o ne e xcavated s i te has y ielded m eso l ithic mater ia l . This i s M idd le Hurth ( F ig.5:8) where on a l imestone s he lf i s al ong i rregu lar l ow mound o ver la id by a c ircu lar b ank. The mater ia l o f t he mound which has p resumab ly b een s craped t ogether f rom t he s urround ing s urface c onta ined over 3 50 f l ints o f l ate meso l ithic c haracter ( Cogg ins & F a ir less i n preparat ion). The s i te which has s o f ar y ielded t he l arges t number o f f l ints w ithout e xcavat ion i s S tap le Crag ( F ig.5 :1). On t he s outh s ide o f t he r iver, e ast o f W inch Bridge a n o utcrop o f wh instone t he s ize o f a sma l l c ottage p ro jects i nto t he r iver . I n t he l ee o f t h is i s a sma l l a l luv ia l f lat b etween t he r iver a nd S tony B eck . A t t he western end o f t h is r iver e ros ion a nd r abb i t burrow ing have p roduced a sma l l s car s ome 1 3m. l ong a nd w ith a max imum h eight o f 1 .5m. Between t h is a nd t he r iver i s a sma l l a rea where t he s o i l has b een r emoved by f loods t o r evea l a n under ly ing s tratum o f s and, p ebb les a nd r ock •f ragments ( F ig. 1 1). Unt i l t he bu i ld ing o f t he Cow Green r eservo ir t his a rea was r egu lar ly s coured by f loods but t hese now o ccur on ly r are ly. F rom t his l ayer f l ints have b een r ecovered by t he wr iter s ince t hey w ere f irst not iced i n c .1970. I f t he number o f f l ints f ound i s t o b e ac r iter ion t hen t he n ext most i mportant s i te i s a ga in s outh bank a t Merryg i l l Ho lm

by t he s ide o f t he T ees a nd on t he ( F ig.5 :2) a t t he f oo t o f Cronk ley F el l.

Aga in t he f inds w ere made o n t he s and a nd g rave l s urface o f a sma l l i n let e roded by t he r iver. F lakes a nd a h ammerstone were f ound by t he wri ter a t var ious d a tes f rom 1 967 o n . Near B irkda le ( F ig.5:3) a t j ust o ver 4 57 rn/150f t s evera l worked f l ints have b een r ecovered f rom t he e rod ing s o i l o f a n o utcrop o f l imestone o n t he e ast s ide o f Cock lake S ike i mmed iate ly n orth o f t he f ord a cross i t . These w ere f ound a t v ar ious d ates f rom c .1953 o nwards a nd unfortunate ly s ome o f t he e ar l ier f inds have b een l ost. The o n ly o ther s i te which has y ielded more t han a f ew f l ints i s a t t he t op o f t he d a le i n t he Moor House Nature R eserve. This i s o n Hard H i l l ( F ig.5:85) b etween Trout B eck a nd t he T ees, a t 6 86m/2250ft, where s evera l f l int f lakes w ere f ound i n a ssoc iat ion w ith 1 0

t wo horns o n ap ea t s urface a bout o ne metre a bove m inera l s o i l. The s i te has b een f u l ly d escr ibed by J ohnson & Dunham ( 1963 .156-157) a nd i s o f p art icu lar i nterest b ecause o f t he a ssociation o f f l ints w ith h orns o f c a tt le a nd b ecause i t has b een p oss ible t o a ssoc iate t he f l int h or izon w ith a s pec if ic po l len-zone. Most o f t he o ther s ites a re s imp ly chance f inds o f s ing le f l ints. Two e xcept ions a re Upper Moss F la ts ( F ig.6:11) where f ive f lakes o f b anded c hert w ere f ound o n a n e roded p eat s urface a t 6 40m12100f t, a nd Teeshead ( F ig.6:6) where t hree f l ints were f ound a t 7 70m/2540f t i n e rod ing p eat 0 .68m a bove t he m inera l s o i l a nd i n a ssoc iation w ith f ragmentary r ema ins o f Bos h orns ( Johnson & Dunham o p. c it.). One o ther f ind o f f l ints i n a ssoc iat ion w ith h orns o f Bos has b een r eported f rom t he watershed b etween T eesda le a nd Wearda le on F endr ith H i l l ( F ig.6:4) ( Stevens 1 970). Catt le h orns have a lso b een f ound a t o ther l oca l it ies ( Johnson & Dunham 1 963 .158-161), a nd one unpubl ished f ind d eserves s pec ia l m ent ion. Th is was t he d iscovery made c .1960 by a b eater o n M idd le E nd Moor ( F ig.6:7) o f a horn wh ich had b een c harred a nd b ore t races o f c utt ing. The h orn was s ent t o Durham Un ivers ity a nd f rom t here t o S under land Museum. I t c anno t n ow b e f ound. P o l len d iagrams h ave b een c onstructed f or s evera l s i tes i n Upper Teesda le. On ly o ne Hard H i l l ( F ig.6:1) r efers d irect ly t o a f l int hor izon. Here, f l ints a nd horns w ere f ound a t a d epth o f 1 36cms. i n c otton-grass p eat, a l eve l c ons idered t o b e long t o a t ime n ear t he e nd o f p o l len z one V illa. A t t h is hor izon t here i s a n i ncrease i n a lder a nd e spec ia l ly haze l t ogether w ith a r e lat ive d ec l ine -

i n o ak, p ine a nd e lm ( Johnson & Dunham 1 963). Unfortunately n o r ad io-carbon d a te i s a va i lab le f or t h is s ite. O ther s i tes i n t he Moor H ouse Nature Reserve have b een r ad io-carbon d ated h owever. One o f t hese i s Va l ley Bog ( F ig 7 :1 ) where i n t he l oca l p o l len z one Oc, wh ich i s l ike ly t o r epresen t t he l atter p art o f Godwins z one V ila i n .

U pper Teesda le, a t emporary but s ign if ican t i ncrease i n h aze l i s a ccompan ied by a r e lat ive d ec l ine i n o ak a nd e lm t ogether w ith a n i ncrease i n b racken a nd s evera l h erbs. Two r ad io-carbon d a tes o f 5 950±60 b p ( S.R.R.92) a nd 5 945±50 bp • (S.R. R.93) h ave b een o bta ined f or t h is c learance phase. These d isturbances a t Va l ley Bog a nd Hard H i l l f i nds o f f l ints

a re l i ke ly t o b e c ontemporary a nd t ogether w i th t he f rom t he l atter s i te must b e c ons idered a s b eing due

t o c learances made by Meso l ith ic man. A f ew m i les t o t he w est Wee lhead Moss, ( F ig.7:2) was a lso s tud ied by Chambers. Here, n ear t he t op o f z one 0 , j ust b elow a h or izon r ad io-carbon d ated t o 5 770±110 bp ( Gak 2 915) a s im i lar sma l l i ncrease i n haze l a ccompan ies a t emporary but d ist inct d ec l ine i n o ak, e lm a nd p ine. F ox E arth G i l l ( F ig.7:3) o n Cronk ley F e l l i s o n ly h a lf a m i le f rom t he f l int s i te o f M errygi l Ho lme a nd has b een s tud ied by S qu ires ( 1970). Though o f c ourse n o d irect c orrela tion i s p oss ib le b etween t he t wo s i tes i t i s p erhaps s ign if icant t ha t a r ad io-carbon d ate o f 5 404 bp ( Squ ires p ers.comm.) i mmed iate ly p ostdates a t emporary i ncrease o f haze l a t t he e xpense o f o ak, e lm a nd p ine a t t he f ormer s i te. A t Duf ton Moss ( F ig.7:4) a lso s tud ied b y Squires, a r ad io-carbon d ated hor izon o f 5 697 bp i s j ust a bove y et another s im i lar ly c omposed po l len a ssemblage: i ncreased haze l a ccompan ied by a d ecrease o f most o ther t rees, e spec ia l ly o ak a nd a n i ncrease i n s evera l h erbs ( Squ ires, p ers . comm.).

1 1

P eat s amp les f rom s ix s i tes a round a nd n ow b eneath Cow Green r eservo ir have b een i ntens ive ly s tud ied by Turner e t.a l. ( 1973). Wr i t ing o f post-g lac ia l p er iod 4 d at ing f rom 5 770 5 000 bp. t hey f ind t ha t i t i s d iff icu lt t o b e c ertain o f t he v egetat ion b ecause i n t he r eservo ir bas in a rea l i tt le p ea t f ormed. The e xplana t ion f or t his i s p robab ly c l imatic a nd s im i lar f eatures h ave b een r ecorded i n t he s outh P enn ines. They s uggest t hat p ea t was unable t o f orm b ecause e xcept iona l ly h igh r a infa l l a nd h igh t emperatures c aused t he e rosion o f p eat s urfaces. H igher o n t he f e l l p ea t d id f orm a nd i t s eems t hat t his was t he p er iod o f f orest max imum i n t he a rea . Even s o t he f orest was o pen, w ith h erb po l len a ccount ing f or s ome 3 0% 4 0% o f t he t ota l c ompared w ith o n ly 5 % f or l ow land Co. Durham -

-

-

-

( Turner 1 970.401-2). S uch o pen f orest wou ld b e a n i dea l h ab i ta t f or g ame a nd s o f or Meso l ithic man , wh i le t he a l t i tud ina l e xtens ion o f t he f orest b ecause o f r e lat ive ly h igh t emperatures wou ld a ccount f or t he f inds o f f l ints a t over 6 10m/2000f t. A c omparison o f t he i nformation a va i lab le f or Upper T eesda le w ith t hat f rom s im i lar a reas may b e i nstruct ive. T ins ley has s tud ied v ar ious s i tes o n t he N idderda le Moors ( T ins ley 1 975). A t F oun ta ins E arth a t a d epth o f 3 .4m t he l ower part o f l oca l z one N-B wh ich has b een e st imated t o d ate f rom c. 5 000 bp s hows a n i ncrease i n h aze l w ith a s l ight d ec l ine i n o ther t rees a nd a marked i ncrease i n g rasses, s edges a nd me lampyrum ( cow-whea t). Charcoa l was f ound a t t his l eve l. A t S tump C ross n ear Grass ing ton f l int f lakes w ere f ound s trat if ied i n mud b e long ing t o t he e ar ly p art o f p o l len z one V ila ( Wa lker 1 956). Charcoa l a ssoc iated w ith t hese f l ints w as r ad io-carbon d ated t o 6 450±310 bp ( Q 1 41). The mater ia l f inds f rom t he Moor House N .N. R. have b een f u l ly d escr ibed by J ohnson & Dunham ( 1963 ). The t ota l a ssemblage c ons ists o f t h irteen p ieces o f s truck f l int a nd f ive o f banded c hert. The f l int i s most ly buff-grey w ith wh ite mott l ing o f t he t ype f ound i n t he Cretaceous c ha lk d epos i ts o f S .E.Yorkshire, and c ommon ly u sed i n t he S . P enn ine m icro l i th ic i ndustr ies. One f ragmentary m icro l ith was o f b lue-grey o pa l ine f l int. The banded c hert m ay have b een f ound i n t he F our-fathom l imestone e xposed a t Sw inda le Beck Head b e low Knock F e l l o n t he w estern e scarpment o f t he P enn ines. Two o f t he f l ints a re m icro l iths, o ne a n o b l ique ly b lunted p o int and t he o ther a s ca lene t riang le. J ohnson & Dunham c ons ider t ha t i f t he a ssemblage has t he a ppearance o f b e long ing t o a h omogenous m icro l ith ic a ssemb lage, but i s n o t s uff icient i n q uant ity t o d eterm ine t he e xact t ype o f c u lture p resent". They a lso s uggest t hat t he a bsence o f f l int workshop s i tes i n t he a rea i nd ica tes t hat a l l t he s truck f lakes s hou ld b e r egarded a s ' l ost o r d iscarded t oo ls v a lued i mplements c arr ied a nd u sed by hunting part ies .. .' ( Johnson & Dunham

1 963.155-156).

O f t he f ive f l ints f rom B irkda le t wo s ma l l b lades a re c overed by a whi te pat ina , t wo o ther f lakes a re o f mo tt led g rey f l int a nd t he f i f th i s a sma l l a nd d e l icate b lade i n t rans lucent b rown f l int. On ly o ne, a n otched b lade, s hows a ny c erta in s ign o f s econdary w orking a nd whi le t heir a ppearance i s c ons istent w ith a m eso l ith ic a ssemblage, n one i s d iagnost ic ( F ig.14:1-5). The s i te a t M erryg i l l Ho lm has p roduced t welve f l ints, t hree p ieces o f b anded c hert a nd a sma l l h ammerstone ( F ig.13). The l a tter i s r ough ly egg-shaped a nd 1 2

s ized, one e nd s hows i ntens ive ba tter ing a nd t here a re smooth a reas wh ich probab ly r esu lt f rom much hand l ing. One f l ake o f mott led g rey f l int ( No.4) has a f ine ob l ique r etrouch o n o ne c oncave e dge a nd may have b een u sed a s a s pokeshave. There a re t wo kn ives, o ne ( No .2 ) i s a ga in o f mott led g rey f l int a nd has a s ing le e dge much w orn, whi le t he o ther ( No. 7 ) a c urved b lade o f amber f l int 7 0mm l ong, shows w ear o n t wo e dges f or a bout h a lf i ts l ength. O f t he r ema ining f l ints f our s truck f lakes a nd t wo i ndeterminate p ieces a re a lso o f mott led g rey mater ia l , t here i s a b rown t rans lucent f l ake, a b roken c ore o f b lack c oarse f l int, a nd a s econd l arger b roken c ore o f y e l low-brown o paque f l int. The c hert c ons ists o f t hree s truck f l akes, o ne o f wh ich may b e r egarded a s a sma l l kn ife. Once a ga in t he a ssemblage i s t oo sma l l f or s ure c onc lus ions t o b e d rawn but i t w ou ld not b e o ut o f p lace i n a Meso l ith ic c ontext. S tap le Crag h as produced over 2 00 f ragments o f f l int a nd c hert. Most o f t he f l ints a re o f t he mo tt led g rey mater ia l c haracter ist ic o f S .E. Yorksh ire a nd s evera l a re c overed w ith a wh i te pat ina . Among t he s truck f lakes a re t hree sma l l b lades a nd f our b lade f ragments; t wo b lades a nd o ne f ragment a re o f t rans lucent b rown f l int a nd t he o thers o f mott led g rey. The t oo ls f ound a t t he s i te a re s hown i n F ig.12 . No.5 i s a r ather l arge t r iang le o f r ed/amber f l int w ith a s teep r etouch o n o ne s ide, a nd No.7 a s im i lar t hough s l ight ly sma l ler o ne o f d ark g rey f l int. A sma l l r ed/amber f ragmen t i s p robab ly par t o f a nother t riang le. No.2 i s a s craper o f d ark g rey mott led f l int, b oth t he c oncave a nd c onvex e dges s how f ine o bl ique r etouch. No.11 i s a sma l l c ream-co loured n otched b lade a nd No.10 a ' t humbna i l s craper o f s imi lar mater ia l. No .1 9 i s a bur in o f t he s ame g rey mott led f l int a s No. 2 , wh i le No. 2 0 i s a curved f lake o f white pat inated f l int o ne e dge o f which i s v ery f ine ly t oothed. There c an b e no d oubt o f t he meso l ithic o r ig ina l o f t h is a ssemblage. Thus o n ly t wo s i tes M idd le Hurth a nd S taple Crag h ave p roduced s uff icient mater ia l f or t ypo log ica l s tudy t o b e s ign if icant. The t able f o l low ing s hows t he c ompos it ion o f t he a ssemblages. The s ample o f mater ia l r ecovered f rom e ach s i te however i s n ot n ecessar i ly c haracter ist ic o f t he who le a ssemb lage s o t ha t c onc lus ions -

-

must b e d rawn w ith c aut ion.

1 3

Upper T eesda le Meso l ith ic S i tes

F l int a nd Chert

M idd le Hurth

S taple C rag

Cores

5

5

S crapers

5

8

Arrowheads

5

l v icro l iths

1 2

Dent icu lated b lades

5

-

Bur ins

-

1

Borers/Aw ls

1

-

-

No tched f lakes

1

M icrobur ins

1

Unworked p ebb les

-

-

-

M is. r etouched / ut i l ised f lakes/b lades

3

Hammerstones

1

B lades a nd b lade f ragments

-

5

2 3

Retouched kn ives

2 3

1

Tanged i mplements

1

-

Waste mater ia l

3 22

O ther

-

1 68 7

-

3 80

TOTAL

*

-

2 23

%f l int

8 9.5

7 2.2

%c hert

1 0.5

2 4.6

% worked mater ia l o f t ota l

1 5

2 3 .3

5f lakes o f p robab ly L angda le s tone a nd t wo s ha le b eads.

1 4

*

None o f t he s tray f inds o f t he a rea c an b e c ons idered a s b e ing c er ta in ly meso l ith ic, t hough s evera l a re l ikely t o b e s o ( F ig. 1 4:6-19). Among t hese a re a b roken b lade o f y e l low ish f l int f rom t he upper r eaches o f t he T ees ( F ig.6: 1 2) a nd a n e ndscraper o f d ark g rey mott led f l int f rom E ttersg i l l ( F ig. 6 :17). F rom Barney Byre ( F ig.6:25) c omes a c ore o f b luish o pa l ine f l int which i s l ike ly a lso t o b e m eso l ith ic a nd r eca l ls t he m icro l ith o f s im i lar mater ia l f rom Moor House. I t w i l l b e s een t hat t here i s no un iform ity o f mater ia l i n t he f inds t hough many a re o f t he g rey mott led f l int wh ich a ppears c haracter ist ic o f t he Yorksh ire wo lds. The s ource o f t he b anded c hert may we l l b e t hat s uggested by J ohnson & Dunham Knock F el l t hough o ther o utcrops o f t he s ame mater ia l a re p oss ible. ( In p art icu lar t here a re e xtens ive o utcrops o f c hert i n t he v a l ley o f t he G reta, a t ributary o f t he T ees.) The b lack f l int o f t he c ore f rom S tap le Crag r esemb les s ome o f t he mater ia l f rom Hart lepoo l a nd t he r ed/amber t hat f rom Crimdon Dene ( D. S prat t p ers.comm.). The s ources o f t he o ther y e l low, b rown a nd d ark g rey f l int a re l ikely t o b e t he Durham a nd/or Cumbrian c oasts. -

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J acobi ( 1976) has p roposed t he d iv ision o f t he European M eso l i thic i nto t hree p er iods E ar ly, L ater a nd L atest t he t h ird p hase o f wh ich s eems t o b e c omplete ly a bsent f rom Br i ta in. I t h as u sua l ly b een a ssumed t hat t he Meso l ith ic i n Upper T eesda le b e longs t o t he ' Later ' p er iod, t he e ar l iest d ate i n Bri ta in f or wh ich i s p rov ided by t he County Durham c oasta l s i te o f F i lpoke Beacon ( 8760±140 bp Q 1 474). J acobi , Ta l l is & Mel lar ( 1976) wr iting o f t he S outh P enn ines s how t ha t " r ad io c arbon d at ings i nd ica te a r egu lar a nd poss ibly i ncreas ing e xp lo i tation o f t he moors f rom c .7600 -

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. . .

t o c .3400 b c

"

( p .3 1 0 ) .

I f i t i s a ssumed t ha t Godw in 's po l len z one V II i s l ike ly t o r epresent a more o r l ess s ynchronous v egetat ion p er iod t hroughout Upper Teesda le t hen t he f l ints f rom Hard H i l l f ound a t t he h or izon i n t he l ater p ar t o f t ha t z one a nd a ssoc iated w ith a n i ncrease i n h aze l, may b e r egarded a s c ontemporary w i th a s im i lar i ncrease i n h aze l i n z one Oc a t Va l ley Bog . I t i s t rue t hat t he p o l len a ssemblages o f Godw in 's z one V II d o n ot e xact ly c orrespond w i th t he l oca l Teesda le a ssemblages ( Chambers 1 978) but n onetheless where c omparison has b een poss ible a s i t has b een a t Va l ley Bog where J ohnson a nd Dunham 's undated d iagram o f 1 963 c an b e c ompared w ith Chambers r adio-carbon d ated d iagram o f 1 976 a c orre lat ion c an b e m ade. Unfortunate ly n o o ther f l int f inds c an b e d ated e ven by s uch a ssoc iat ion t hough i f t he t emporary c hanges i n v egetat ion f ound a ssoc iated w ith t he f l ints a t Hard H i l l a nd r ad io-carbon d a ted t o 5 950±60 bp ( SRR 9 2) a t Va l ley Bog a re r egarded a s b eing p roduced by human man ipu lat ion o f t he env ironment t hen t he a ct iv ity o f m eso l ithic man c an b e i nferred a t most i f n ot a l l o f t he p o l len s ample s i tes. I n e ach c ase t he d ate i s r e lat ively l ate s uggesting t hat t he M eso l ithic i n Upper Teesda le i ndeed was qui te l ate t hough s t i l l w el l w ith in t he t ime b racket s uggested by J acob i e t.a l. ( 1976). Whether o r n ot i t p ersisted i nto l ater t imes c annot a t p resent b e d ec ided but i t i s i nterest ing t o n ote t hat t he a rtefacts f rom t he North York Moors s i te o f P eat Moss s how both Meso l ith ic a nd Bronze Age c haracter ist ics ( C larke 1 973). 1 5

The m icro l iths f rom M idd le Hurth a re sma l l w ith s ca lene t riang les a nd r ods predom inat ing a nd t he s i te i s t hus l ike ly t o b e l ate. S taple Crag however has produced f orms s uch a s a s houldered p o int more c haracter ist ic o f t he e ar ly m eso l ith ic. There a re a lso t wo p erforated s ha le b eads, a t ype w i th e ar ly a ff in i t ies. A more d eta i led s tudy o f t he s i te i s i n p rogress a nd i t i s h oped t ha t e ventua l ly mater ia l f or r ad io c arbon d eterm ina t ion w i l l b e r ecovered. -

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A p ro l if ic d iscovered by

f l int Mr.

s i te T .

i n l ower T eesda le h as r ecent ly ( 1982 ) b een L aur ie who has k ind ly a l lowed i t t o b e

ment ioned h ere. There c an b e n o d oubt o f t he e arly m eso l ith ic c haracter o f t he f l int a ssemblage f rom t h is s i te and t hus t he p robabi l i ty o f a n e ar ly d ate f or S tap le Crag i s g reat ly i ncreased. The i mportance o f t he f orest e dge z one t o p reh istor ic m an a nd t he l atter 's c apab i l ity t o a l ter t his e nv ironmen t by means o f f i re have b een s tressed by many a uthors i n r ecent y ears ( Evans 1 975 , Mel lars 1 975, S immons 1 975). I n t he ir s urvey o f p reh istor ic a ctiv i t ies o n t he North York Moors S pratt a nd S immons ( 1976) s ay " f orest edge b ecomes a n i mportant a rea f or s ubsistence b ecause o f t he p resumed a bundance o f s hrubs s uch a s h aze l wh ich p rov ided b rowse f or h erb ivorous an ima ls a nd nuts f or t he human p opu lat ion " A hunt ing popu lat ion m ight " s elect ive ly c amp n ear t he t ree l i ne a nd n ear water a nd i n g enera l m ight t ry t o i ncrease t he s hrub c onten t o f t he v egetat ion by t he u se o f f ire I t ( pp. 1 97-198) . . .

. . .

The e x istence o f a v ast a rea o f f orest e dge habitat i n Upper T eesda le has a lready b een n oted. Evans ( op.cit.) d iscusses i n d eta i l t he p oss ib le r e lat ionsh ip b etween meso l ithic man a nd Bos p r im igen ius. S he s uggests t hat t he c haracter ist ic P a laeo l ith ic " herd a ssoc iation" c ont inued t hrough t he Meso l ith ic a nd t ha t Bos. s hou ld b e r egarded a s a n o pen-country m igratory s pec ies s pend ing w inters on t he c oasta l f lats. Coasta l g rass land s uch a s t ha t o f t he S o lway p la in o r t he Tees e stuary wou ld p rov ide a n e xcess o f s od ium i n t he d iet, a n i mba lance which c ou ld b e c orrected by phosphorus-r ich g razing. " t he s implest way o f a ch iev ing t h is wou ld b e by s ymbios is w i th t ha t r edoubtab le f i re r a iser, Meso l ithic man " ( ibid . 46). The f inds o f Bos horn i n Upper Teesda le p rov ide s ome measure o f c onf irma t ion f or f i T t heory. The e x istence o f o pen c oun try , t he i ncrease o f h aze l a t c erta in p o ints i n t he po l len d iagrams a nd t he ev idence f or burn ing s hown a t o ne s i te a t l east , a l l s uppor t t he i dea t hat Meso l ith ic man was a s ummer v isi tor t o Upper T eesda le l iv ing i n s ome f orm o f s pec ia l a ssoc iat ion w ith t he w i ld c a tt le. The w inter quarters o f b o th m an a nd c att le wou ld most p robab ly b e t he c oasta l p la ins o f t he S o lway a nd T ees e stuaries. I f t he Meso l ithic i n Upper T eesda le was l ate t hen t h is may b e b ecause t he s pread o f f orest i nto t he a rea was a lso l ate. Chambers ( 1976) has s hown t hat " t he t ime a t which max imum t ree c over o ccurred a lso b ecame p rogress ive ly l ater a t h igher l at itude " i .e. f rom c .9000 bp i n l ower T eesda le t o 6 000 bp i n t he upper da le. Man a nd c a tt le f o l lowed t he a dvanc ing f orest e dge. I n t he l ight o f t he ev idence f or e ar ly m eso l ith ic a ctiv ity p rov ided by t he s i tes a t S tap le Crag a nd L art ington i t s eems t ha t t h is v iew w i l l n eed t o b e r ev ised, t hough unt i l d ates a re ava i lab le l i tt le p rogress c an b e made w ith s uch r ev is ion. 1 6

S pratt a nd S immons ( op . ci t.) prov ide a d istr ibut ion map o f meso l ithic s i tes o n t he North York moors, These, t hey s uggest, may b e d iv ided i nto t wo d istinc t t ypes t he.'exp lo i tat ion c amp ' o ccupied by a f am i ly g roup t he upland e xamples o f which a re u sua l ly s i tua ted n ear s pr ing h eads a t a bove 3 96m11300f t, a nd t he ' base c amp ' o f a n e xtended g roup o f p erhaps 2 5 p eop le s i tuated a t a l ower a lt itude. ' Base c amps ' c haracter ised by a f l int i ndustry w ith a pprox imate ly e qua l numbers o f m icro l ithG t o s crapers, whi le ' exp lo i tation c amps ' have a h igh r at io o f m iero l iths t o o ther t oo ls. S uch a model wou ld f i t t he a dmitted ly r a ther sma l l number o f f inds f rom Upper Teesda le. The s i te a t S taple Crag may b e r egarded a s a base c amp t o wh ich hun t ing part ies c ou ld r eturn a f ter t he ir t rips t o t he h igher g raz ing g rounds o f w i ld c a tt le, wh i le s i tes s uch a s M idd le Hurth, Merryg i l l Ho lm, B irkda le a nd Hard H i l l w i l l r epresent t he t emporary c amp ing s i tes o f s uch hunt ing p art ies. -

One p rob lem which must b e f aced when d iscussing t he Meso l ith ic p er iod i n Upper T eesda le i s t ha t wh ich has a lready b een m ent ioned, o f t he r e lat ive ly s ma l l number o f f inds c ompared w i th t hose o f t he n eighbouring va l ley o f Wearda le. The a uthors o f Archaeo logy i n t he North po int o ut t ha t " i n on ly one v a l ley Wearda le i s t here a s ign if icant amount o f meso l i th ic mater ia l " They a dd h owever present d istr ibut ion r ef lects p erhaps n ot s o much t he a ct iv i t ies o f meso l ith ic man a s o f modern f i eld workers " ( C lack a nd Gos l ing 1 976.16). I t i s n o t poss ible t o b e s ure whether t he g rea t d ispar ity i n numbers o f f inds b etween t he t wo da les i s r ea l o r a pparent. Not on ly must t he a ct iv i t ies o f f i eldworkers b e c ons idered but a lso t he var ious processes which may have a ffected b oth s urv iva l o f e v idence a nd t he c hances o f i ts d iscovery. The amount o f p ea t c over and r a te o f i t s e ros ion, t he quanti ty o f r ecent p lough ing a nd t he e xtent o f quarry ing a re on ly s ome o f t hese f actors wh ich must b e t aken i nto a ccount b efore a mean ingfu l c ompar ison c an b e made. -

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These a nd o ther p rob lems r elat ing t o meso l ith ic s tud ies i n t he n or th-east have r ecent ly b een c ons idered by R . Young ( Cogg ins, L awrie a nd Young 1 985), where t hey a re d ea l t w ith i n more d eta i l t han i s a ppropr iate h ere.

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CHAPTER II The N eo l ith ic No Neo l i th ic s i te has y et b een excavated i n Upper Teesda le n or i ndeed h as a ny i nd isputab ly n eo l ith ic s i te b een i dent if ied t hough o ne a t S trands G i l l ( F ig.5:4 , F ig.15) may w e l l b e long t o t h is p er iod. This s i te l i es o n t he west bank o f t he B lackmea Crag S l i ce a t t he t op o f t he p rec ipi tous c l iffs o f Ho lwick S cars. I t c onsists o f a s ma l l f i eld a bout 3 0m x 2 0m f lanked by t wo even sma l ler i rregu lar p lots. These a re e nc losed by l ow c learance banks o f s tones over 2 .0m b road i n p laces. Many o f t he s tones a re qu ite sma l l a nd wou ld on ly h ave b een r emoved f rom t he p lots i f t hese w ere t o h ave b een u sed f or a rab le. I t i s p robab le t ha t t he s i te e xtends f urther t o t he s outh but h ere t he g round i s c overed by p ea t bog a nd t he e nc losure wa l ls a re v is ible f or on ly a s hort d istance. A t t he s outh e nd o f t he l arger f i eld i s a modern s heepfo ld which over l ies a n e ar l ier t hough p oss ib ly s t i l l r e lat ive ly modern t riangu lar s tructure. The l a tter i s s hown i n F ig.15 which was d rawn b efore t he s heepfo ld w as bu i lt. -

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A lso a ttached t o t he s outhern wa l l i s a s ub-rectangu lar f oundation a bout 4 .0m x 2 .5m. The e astern p lot c on ta ins a c a irn a bout 4 .0m i n d iameter w ith a k erb o n i t s w estern s ide . A t t he n orth-eastern e xtrem ity o f t he s i te i s a s ub-c ircu lar f oundat ion p oss ibly a h ouse o f s ome 3 .Om i nterna l d iameter . A t r ia l e xcava t ion o f o ne quadrant o f t he c a irn was c ommenced by t he wri ter i n 1 955 but was a bandoned a t a v ery e ar ly s tage b ecause o f t he a ct iv it ies o f ' t reasure-hunters '. I t was n ot poss ible t herefore t o d eterm ine whether t he c a irn was s epu lchra l o r mere ly t he r esu lt o f f i eld c learance. On ly o ne f ind was made: t he butt o f a po l ished s tone a xe, ( F ig .16:1), which i s n ow i n The Bowes Museum. I t i s 8 5mm l ong , 4 5mm b road a t t he b reak, 2 0mm t hick, o va l i n s ect ion a nd i s made o f a c reamy-ye l low f ine g ra ined r ock which was i dent if ied a t t he Geo logy Department o f Durham Un iversi ty by P rofessor K ings ley Dunham. He r eported t he mater ia l t o b e " a s er ic it ised f e itzi te o f i gneous o r ig in t hough t ough i t wou ld hard ly b e poss ible t o p roduce a s harp edge o n i t p oss ib ly d er ived f rom l oca l g lac ia l mora ine but s im i lar t o t ha t e xposed a t Dryg i l l n orth-west o f Carrock F e l l 1 . . .

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One o ther a xe o r r ather part o f a n a xe h as b een p roduced by e xcavat ion. This was d iscovered i n 1 979 b eneath t he f oundat ions o f a n e ighth c entury AD bu i lding a t S imy F o lds ( F ig.5:34). Th is was a ga in t he butt e nd o f a po l ished s tone a xe probab ly o f L angda le ( Group V I) mater ia l . I t had a pparent ly a lso b een u sed a s a c ore f rom which f lakes had b een s truck . The a xe i s n ow i n The Bowes Museum. I n c ontrast a t l east e ight a xes a nd p art o f a n inth h ave b een f ound a cc identa l ly. Three o f t hese o ne f l int a nd t wo s tone a re i n -

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The Bowes Museum. The f l int a xe ( F ig. 1 6:3) was f ound a t Bowes C lose, Harwood ( F ig.6 :35) dur ing t he 1 950s by Raby E states workmen who w ere d igg ing o ut t he f loor o f a house b efore c oncret ing i t . The a xe i s o f pa le g rey f l int, 9 5mm l ong, 4 5mm max imum b readth a nd 2 2mm t h ick. On ly t he c utt ing e dge has b een g round a nd po l ished, t he b ody o f t he a xe b eing quite r ough ly f laked. The t wo s tone a xes d iffer 1 8

marked ly f rom e ach o ther. The e xample s hown a t F ig. 1 6:2 was f ound i n August 1 956 by Mr. J . Hutch inson , a Raby . E states f orester, among t he r oots o f a n overb lown t ree I n Bow lees p lant ing ( F ig.6:51). I t i s o f t he ' Br id l ington ' t ype , r ound i n s ect ion w i th a p o inted butt. I t i s 1 50mm l ong a nd 4 5mm b road a t t he e dge. Rather unexpected ly i t h as proved t o b e o f Group 1 mater ia l d er iv ing f rom Cornwa l l. The r ema ining s pec imen f rom t he Museum c o l lect ion i s i n c ontrast a f ine e xample o f t he ' Scand inav ian ' t ype b eing a lmost r ectangu lar i n s ect ion w ith f la t e dges a nd s l ightly c onvex f aces ( F ig.16:5). One f ace i s s l ight ly b roader t han t he o ther a nd t he c utt ing e dge i s a symetrica l. I t i s 1 27mm l ong , 5 4mm b road a t t he e dge, 2 2mm b road a t t he butt, 2 8mm t hick a nd w eighs 3 65gm. The a xe i s made o f whin s tone, h igh ly p o l ished a nd a part f rom s ome d amage i nc luding r ecent f i le marks t o t he butt, i s i n e xce l lent c ond it ion. I t was f ound by Mr. F . Nev ison o f Barnard Cast le wh i le f i sh ing i n t he T ees n ear M idd leton a bout 1 960. Unfortunate ly i ts e xact f indspot i s n o t r ecorded ( F ig. 6 :38). The o ther a xes f ound i n t he d a le r ema in i n p r ivate hands. -

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A f l int a xe i s i n t he p ossess ion o f Mr. H .L. B ead le a f ormer r es ident o f F orest-in-Teesda le, who n ow l ives i n R ichmond. He has k ind ly g iven t he f o l low ing d eta i ls " t he a xe was dug up i n 1 919 by J ohn W inter Ta l lent ire when h e, w i th o thers, was engaged i n d igg ing ho les f or t he overhead r opeway which r an b etween Cowrake a nd L angdon Beck. He s tated t ha t t his was f ound t wo t o t hree f eet b e low t he s urface a t t he f oundat ions a bout P eghorn L odge ( F ig.6:34) t he a xe i s o f f l int a nd measures t hree i nches l ong by o ne a nd a h a lf i nches w ide " I t i s i n f ac t s im i lar i n s ize a nd mater ia l t o t he e xample f rom Bowes C lose d escr ibed a bove. Dr. G .A.L. J ohnson o f t he Geo logy Department o f Durham Un iversi ty has o ne o f t he s tone a xes which was g iven t o h im by t he f inder, Mr. J . N ewrick, who a t t ha t t ime ( about 1 960) was Agr icu ltura l Adv isory O ff icer f or T eesda le a nd Wearda le. I t was f ound n ear S a ir H i l l F arm ( F ig. 6 : 3 6). The a xe i s o f c oarse g ranu lar i ron-sta ined wh instone, b lunt edged, o va l i n s ect ion a nd w ith a r ounded butt. I t i s 1 00mm l ong, 5 5mm b road a t t he b lade e dge a nd 3 5mm t h ick ( F ig. 1 6:4). . . .

The n ext a xe t o b e c ons idered i s i n many ways t he most i nteresting. I t was pub l ished s hort ly a f ter i t s d iscovery ( Woo ler 1 960) " a po l ished s tone a xe was f ound i n t he r iver T ees o n t he Durham s ide a bout 2 00 yards a bove where t he f a l ls s tart o ut o f t he W ee l a t Cau ldron S nout o n 9 th May 1 910 ( F ig. 6 :33). l t was f ound embedded i n d ark c o loured c lay b etween f ive a nd s ix f eet b e low t he s urface. The t hick e nd was i n t he c lay a nd t he p o inted end was p ro ject ing o ut o f i t a bout t hree i nches a t t he s ide o f t he r iver. The a xe h as b een p o l ished a nd measured 6 2 1 i nches l ong by 2 2 /8 i nches b road a t o ne e nd t aper ing t o t he o ther. I ts t h ickness i n t he m idd le i s 1 3 /8 i nches, s harp a t t he e dges a l l r ound a nd w eighs 1 22 1 o zs. The a xe i s made o f j adei te " The a xe was p resented t o t he Wh i tby Museum i n 1 926. Two s tone a xes have b een f ound by Mr. F . L ee o f Ho lwick a nd r ema in i n h is possess ion. Their f indspots have n ot b een r evea led. One i s a l arge r ounded e xamp le o f t he Brid l ington t ype made f rom a f ine s andstone. The o ther, sma l ler a nd f latter w ith f lat e dges, i s o f ad ark g rey-green b anded s tone which i s s o f ar un identif ied. 1 9

One f urther f ind d eserves ment ion t hough i t i s n ot a c omplete a xe. This i s at h in f lake o f s tone a bout 5 cms ç 3 ,5 cr ns. One s urface i s smooth a nd s l ight ly c onvex and f a int s triat ions c aused by p o l ish ing c an b e s een. The materia l i s a g rey/green f ine g ra ined s tone wh ich a ppears t o b e i gneous . P robab ly t he f lake h as b een d etached f rom a po l ished s tone a xe o f L angda le o r ig in. I t was f ound i n J u ly 1 977 by t he s ide o f t he ' Green Trod ' o n B irk R igg ( F ig. 6 :3 9) No o ther a rtefacts o r monuments c an b e c erta in ly a ttr ibuted t o t he N eo l ithic s o t ha t ev idence f rom p o l len d iagrams i s o nce more v ery i mportant. Whi le i t has l ong b een r ea l ised t ha t ma jor c hanges i n v egetat ion c over b egan t o t ake p lace t hroughout Europe d ur ing t he c entur ies a round 5 000 bp t he e xact c auses o f t he changes a re n ot c erta in. Smi th ( 1970) c ons iders t ha t i t a t t he A t lant ic/Sub-borea l t rans i t ion we a re d ea l ing w i th a c omp lex o f e ffects a nd i n d ifferent a reas d ifferen t f actors o r c ombina t ions o f f actors may have b een c r i tica l f or t he v egeta t ion I t One r emarkab ly c onsistent f eature o f t he v egeta t iona l c hange a t t h is p er iod i s t he s udden a nd o f ten p ermanent d ec l ine i n e lm p o l len. Th is d ec l ine o f ten c o inc ides a pprox imate ly w ith t he a ppearance o f c erea l po l len a nd an i ncrease i n s uch ' weeds ' a s d ock a nd n arrow-leaved p lanta in. I t has b ecome u sua l t o c ons ider t he ' e lm d ec l ine ' a pparent i n po l len d iagrams a s a n i nd icator o f t he b eg inn ing o f Neo l ith ic agr icu lture a nd t o a ssume a possible c ause t o b e t he s e lect ive c ropping o f e lm l eaves a nd s hoots f or use a s c a tt le f odder. F or n orth-west Eng land P enn ington ( 1975) has s hown t hat i n t he f ew c entur ies b efore 5 000 bp t he e ffect o f man o n both u pland a nd l ow land l andscape i ncreased d ramat ica l ly i n t ha t t he e lm d ec l ine i s a ccompan ied by w ide-spread d estruct ion o f f ores t a nd qu ite l arge s ca le c learance f or c erea l c u lt ivat ion . I n l ower Teesda le t he p o l len d iagram f rom Neasham F en ( Chambers 1 974) s hows a marked e lm d ec l ine d a ted t o 5 468±80 bp which i s r ather e ar l ier t han most s uch d ates. , There i s n o d irec t ev idence h ere f or a nthropogen ic a ct iv ity c erea ls, p lanta in a nd docks a ppear ing o n ly l ater but f rom Hart lepoo l, o n ly 1 8 m i les away, human r ema ins a nd c harcoa l a ppear a t t he h or izon o f t he e lm d ec l ine i n as im i lar p rof i le ( Bart ley e t.a l. 1 976). The e lm d ec l ine i s a lso o bservab le o n d iagrams f rom Upper Teesda le. A t Duf ton Moss i t i s d ated t o 4 561 bp ( Squ ires 1 970) a nd i s a ccompan ied by a n i ncrease i n haze l , h eather a nd s evera l h erbs t ogether w ith t he f i rst a ppearance o f narrowleaved p lanta in. The f i rst c erea l po l len however i s a t a much h igher l eve l . A t F ox E arth G i l l e lm p o l len a lmost d isappears a t 4 776 bp ( Squ ires o p.c i t.). Th is d ec l ine marks t he b eg inn ing o f t he phase l ead ing t o t he d om ina t ion o f t he a rea by h eather . Aga in c erea l p o l len i s no t p resent a t t h is l eve l t hough p lanta in s hows a marked i ncrease. On b oth t hese d iagrams t he e lm d ec l ine i s s een t o b e a t emporary phenomenon which i s r epeated a t l east t w ice i n t he upper h or izons o f t he d iagram. A t both s i tes t oo i t s eems t o b e a ssoc iated w ith a d ecrease i n p ine t hough n ot o f o ther t rees, a t F ox E arth G i l l i ndeed p ine d isappears a l together a nd does no t r eappear. The r etardat ion i n p eat d epos i t ion i n t he a rea o f Cow Green r eservo ir dur ing t he p er iod c overed by Godw in 's po l len z one V II has a lready b een n o ted. This means t hat a v ery t h in l ayer o f p eat r epresents a l ong s pan o f t ime a nd h ence i t i s i mposs ible t o g ive a p rec ise d ate f or t he e lm 2 0 -

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d ec l ine: a t Wee lhead Moss i t s eems t o l i e b etween 5 770±110 bp a nd 5 220±120 bp a nd p robab ly n earer t o t he l atter ( Chambers 1 974). Th is d iagram r esembles t he o ther t wo i n t ha t p ine d ec l ines a t t he s ame t ime a s e lm but d iffers f rom t hem i n t ha t t here s eems t o b e a s l ight r educt ion i n t ota l t ree c over which i s a ccompan ied by a n i ncrease i n g rasses a nd h erbs a nd on ly s l ight ly l ater d oes h eather s how a marked r ise. More i mportan t i s t he p resence o f c erea l p o l len a t t his hor izon. Chambers c ons iders t ha t t hese v egetat iona l c hanges " can o n ly b e c ons idered i n t he l ight o f poss ible human a ct iv i ty i n t he a rea". F or Va l ley Bog on t he Moor House r eserve t wo d iagrams a re a va i lable ( Johnson a nd Dunham 1 963 , Chambers 1 978) and a s has b een n oted, t hese c an b e c orrelated. The e lm d ec l ine h ere, a t a h e igh t o f 5 49m i s a bout 4 596+60 bp a nd i t i s n ot a ssoc iated w ith a s im i lar d ecrease i n p ine. Grasses i ncrease a s d o s evera l h erbs, i nc lud ing docks whi le p lanta in a nd c erea l po l len a re f ound a t a hor izon i mmed iate ly a bove t he r ad io-carbon d ated o ne. Chambers s uggests t ha t t his c erea l po l len was n o t d er ived f rom t he i mmed iate l oca l ity but a ga in po ints o ut t ha t " t hese v egetationa l c hanges a re t ypica l o f t hose b rought a bout by a nthropogen ic a ct iv ity i t The most r ecent po l len d iagram t o have b een c onstructed i s f or t he s i te o f S imy F o lds ( A. Dona ldson i n D . Cogg ins e t.a l. 1 983). The l ower l eve ls a re d om inated by p ine but b etween 1 .0m a nd 0 .9m t h is d ec l ines r apid ly wh i le a lder, haze l , g rasses a nd h erbs s how a c orresponding i ncrease. E lm, n ever p lent ifu l, a lso d ec l ines. Th is c hange i s no t r ad io-carbon d ated but ( 1.02m) which i s d a ted t o 5 920±100 bp.

o ccurs

j ust

a bove

a l eve l

These s evera l d iagrams f rom t he a rea s how t hat f rom a bout 5 000 bp o pen wood land was g iv ing way t o b lanket p ea t where t he s o i l was water logged a nd t o g rass land where i t was b etter d ra ined. I n t he wetter a reas s uch a s t he Cow Green bas in t h is c hange was i rreversible but a t S imy F o lds i t was o n ly a t emporary f eature a nd p ermanent c hange d id no t t ake p lace unt i l much l ater. Turner e t.a l. ( 1973) d iagrams s how t he f ina l

r emark t ha t f a l l i n t he

o ccurring a t t he s ame l eve l s omewhat unusua l f eature i n

t he Upper f requency

T eesda le o f p ine

p o l len po l len

a s t he e lm d ec l ine a nd c a l l t h is " a Bri t ish po l len d iagrams". P enn ington

( op.c it.) c onf irms t he s ame f ea ture i n d iagrams f rom t he L ake D istrict. S ince p ine a nd e lm a re most un l ike ly t o have s hared t he s ame hab itat, t heir d isappearance a t t he s ame t ime s eems t o p o int t o s e lective d isturbance by Neo l ithic man. There c an b e l i tt le d oubt t ha t n eo l ith ic c learances w ere w idespread i n Upper T eesda le a nd t ha t t hey w ere more o r l ess s ynchronous. Nor i s t here a s ign if ican t d ifference i n t ime b etween t hese c learances a nd t hose i n t he l ow lands r epresen ted by t he Neasham F en d iagram. Rad io-carbon d ates f rom p o l len s i tes o n t he w est s ide o f t he P enn ines s how a s im i lar p attern P enn ington ( ib id .). Sm ith ( op . c it.) h as a rgued t ha t t he meso l ith ic / neo l i th ic t rans it ion i s l ike ly t o b e due t o i nd igenous d eve lopmen t o f f ood p roduc ing s pec ia l izat ions a nd t ha t i mm igrat ion o f p eople p robab ly p layed a m inor part " c ommun i t ies d iscovered means whereby t hey c ou ld man ipu late t he p roduct iv ity o f t heir own env ironment t o t heir own a dvantage

1 2 1

I t has b een s hown t ha t even a t t he f orest max imum t he t ree c anopy i n Upper Teesda le was n ever c omp lete ly c losed and t ha t t here were a lways a reas o f o pen g rass land. The i mportance o f s uch z ones t o meso l ithic man has b een a rgued i n t he p rev ious c hapter where i t was s uggested t hat man was a s ummer v isi tor l iv ing i n s ome k ind o f s ymbiot ic r e lat ionsh ip w ith h erds o f w i ld c att le. I t i s t hus p oss ib le t o s ee t he n eo l ith ic a s s imply a n i ntens if ica t ion o f t his r e la t ionsh ip l ead ing t o t he domest icat ion o f c a tt le a nd p ermanent r es idence i n t he a rea. Unfortunate ly a lmost a l l t he ev idence f or n eo l ithic d isturbances i s f rom t hose a reas where b lanket p ea t e ffect ive ly h ides a ny t races o f a gr icu ltura l a ct iv i ty. The d istr ibut ion o f s tone a xes i n Upper Teesda le agrees o n t he who le w ith t he po l len ev idence, s uggest ing t ha t n eo l ith ic s ett lement was p robab ly i n t he h igh f orest edge z one. A l l but one o f t he a xes were r ecovered f rom s i tes l ying b etween 3 05m a nd 4 57m, t he e xcept ion b eing f ound i n t he r iver i tse lf a nd t herefore poss ib ly out o f c ontext. Two a re a ctua l ly f rom known s ett lement s i tes. On ly t wo o f t he a xes a re made f rom a n i nd igenous mater ia l wh instone a nd t he r est must have b een i mported. i f n eo l ithic s ett lement i s c onsidered a s a d irect d eve lopment f rom meso l ithic t ranshumance t hen t he i mport o f e xot ic mater ia ls i s e as i ly e xp l icable. A l l s ave o ne o f t he a xes c an b e c onsidered f unct iona l t oo ls, t he e xcept ion b eing t he j adeite a xe f rom Cau ldron Snout. J adeite a xes have b een d iscussed by Co les ( 1974) i n t he c ontext o f a d iscovery i n t he S omerset marshes. The d istr ibut ion o f t hese a xes a nd t he a pparent ly unused c ond ition o f t he ma jor ity s uggests t hat t hey were no t u t i l itar ian o b jects. The presence o f o ne a t Cau ldron Snout s uggests i ts l oss a long a t rade r oute o r p oss ib ly i ts vo t ive d epos ition r ather t han i ts u se i n t ha t part icu lar a rea. S uch a t rade r oute c an hard ly have b een o ther t han a n e ast-west o ne. A s im i lar c onc lusion may b e d rawn f rom t he p resence o f a f lake f rom a L angda le a xe a t B irk R igg o n t he p resen t P enn ine Way. The t wo f l int a xes must r epresent i mports t hough t he s ource o f t heir mater ia l i s uncerta in, wh i le t he g roup 1 a xe f rom Bow lees i s ev idence f or l ong d istance t rade c onnect ions o f s ome k ind . -

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The p roblems o f t he n eo l ithic s tone a xe t rade i n Bri ta in a nd i ts r e lat ionsh ip w ith c ommun icat ions g enera l ly h ave b een d iscussed by Cumm ins ( 1974, 1 980). Unfortunate ly much o f t he p etro log ica l mater ia l n eeded t o e xtend t he s cope o f t hese s tud ies t o t he n orth a nd w est o f Eng land has no t y et b een pub l ished s o t ha t n o a ccurate c onc lus ions c an b e d rawn f rom t he Teesda le mater ia l. There i s n o c erta in e xample i n Upper T eesda le o f a N eo l ith ic f unerary o r r i tua l monument t hough t here a re one o r two s i tes wh ich may w el l b e long t o t h is p er iod. The

f i rst

o f

t hese

i s

Carr

Crags

( F ig.5:5)

a n

o utcrop

o f

m i l lstone g r it e xtend ing f or a bout 1 km a long t he 5 33m/2000f t c ontour. I t has b een e xtensively worked during t he n ineteenth c entury a nd p robab ly much e ar l ier, f or g ateposts, t roughs a nd m i l lstones. A t l east t wenty e xamples o f t he l atter i n var ious s tages o f c omp let ion c an b e f ound a long t he o utcrop a nd o thers have o bv ious ly b een r emoved. The t ransport o f t hese, e ach w eighing c .1.0 t ons must have b een a

2 2

d iff icu lt t ask . This work ing e xtends a long t he f u l l l eng th o f t he o utcrop. A t t he e xtreme northern end h owever i s a g roup o f r ocks wh ich, . un l ike t he r est, a re d ecorated w ith h em ispher ica l bas inl ike d epressions, mos t o f wh ich have a d iameter o f b etween 1 50mm a nd 2 00m. Wh i le many o f t hose on t he h or izonta l s urfaces a re much e roded t he ones f ound o n v ert ica l a nd s loping s urfaces a re g enera l ly s harp a nd c lear, a s t oo a re e xamp les r evea led by r emov ing t urf a nd p ea t. I t i s c lear t hat t hese ho l lows which o ccur o n ly a t o ne p lace i n t he o utcrop a nd which a re f ound i n both v ert ica l a nd h or izonta l s urfaces must be a rt if icia l. They d o no t b e long t o a ny r ecent i ndustria l p rocess a nd a re b est r egarded a s preh istor ic. The r ocks o n which t hese bas ins a re e ngraved a re o n a f a ir ly s teep p eat-covered s lope f ac ing west. A t f i rst s ight t hese r ocks a ppear t o b e i n n o p articu lar a rrangement but a more c arefu l i nspect ion s hows t ha t t hey have a v ery d ef ini te g rouping. The p r inc ipa l f eature i s a hugh t abu lar b lock s ome 7m x 5 m x 1 .5m, t he upper s urface o f which i s a lmost c omplete ly c overed by bas ins, most o f t hem much e roded. This s tands j ust b e low t he f a lse c rest o f t he s lope. A g roup o f l arge r ecumbent s labs f orms a s em icirc le s ome 2 7m i n d iameter b eh ind t his b lock. E ach s lab i s e ngraved w ith a number o f bas ins . O ther s im i lar s labs c ont inue t he c urve but probably b ecause o f l ater quarry ing i t i s n ot c lear whether t hey o r ig ina l ly f ormed a horseshoe o r a c omp lete c irc le. Further d own t he s lope a d oub le r ow o f s labs engraved o n t heir i nward f ac ing s urfaces f orms a n a pproach f rom t he w est . Two sma l l g roups o f o ut l iers o ccur o n t he c rest o f t he s lope a t d istances o f a bout 5 0m a nd 2 00m s outh o f t he ma in g roup. E ach c ons ists o f o n ly a f ew ' bas ins '. S ome s labs a re p artia l ly c overed by p ea t a nd t urf wh i le i t i s p oss ib le t ha t o thers a re c omp lete ly c overed a nd s o a re n o t v isib le. S ince t he o utcrop has b een quarr ied s ome r ocks h ave c erta in ly b een d amaged a nd s ome may have b een r emoved a l together. I t i s a lso d iff icu lt t o b e s ure whether a l l t he r ocks w ere o r ig ina l ly e rected o r whether t hey h ave a lways b een r ecumbent . A l l o f t hem a re l arge a nd s ome s o e normous t hat i t s eems un l ike ly t ha t t hey c ou ld h ave b een moved a t a l l ( F ig. 1 7). Bur l ( 1976) s tates " v ery f ew ( stone) c irc les i n t he Br it ish I s les a re c upmarked, o n ly j ust o ver 1 % f or t he 7 50+ c irc les o uts ide n orth-east S cot land I n t he l atter a rea t he p roport ion r ises t o 2 1% but e ven t here i t i s u sua l f or o n ly one o r t wo o f t he s tones t o b e c upmarked. Bur l 's gazeteer o f s i tes d oes n o t g ive a s ing le e xamp le o f I t

ac irc le c ons ist ing o f c upmarked s tones. Morr is ( 1977 , 1 979) d oes n ot c ite a s ing le e xamp le o f r ocks c arved w ith l arge ' bas ins ' f rom Argy l l, t he I sle o f Man o r Ga l loway. I n s hort t he wri ter has b een a b le t o f ind n o r eference t o a ny s im i lar s i te i n t his c ountry . Beckensa l l ( 1974) d oes h owever d escr ibe t wo r ocks on O ld Bew ick H i l l, Northumber land wh ich have s im i lar mark ings. One h as a l ine o f basins r unn ing a long a v ertica l f ace wh i le t he s urface o f t he s econd i s c overed w ith i ntersect ing c ups a nd r ings. There i s e v idence t ha t a s tone c irc le f ormer ly e x isted h ere. I t i s i nterest ing s tones a re r e lat ively

t oo t o note t ha t wh i le c up a nd r ing marked c ommon i n L ower T eesda le t hey s eem t o b e

c omplete ly a bsent f rom t he U pper d a le. O f t he 2 0 r ocks a t Carr Crags d ecorated w ith o ver 3 90 ' bas ins ' t here i s o n ly o ne e xamp le o f a ny o ther c arv ing a nd t h is i s s imply t he j o in ing o f t wo b as ins by a g roove.

2 3

I t i s c lear t ha t t he s i te n eeds much more i nvest igat ion b efore i t s s ign if icance c an b e f ul ly a pprec iated. One o ther s i te d eserves a b r ief men tion . This i s n ear Barney Byre ( F ig.5:88) where i mmed iate ly s outh o f t he f e l l wa l l i s a l arge o va l mound which may poss ib ly b e a barrow.

2 4

CHAPTER I V The E ar ly Bronze Age. A t t he t ime o f wri t ing l i tt le a rtefactua l e v idence f or t he o ccupat ion o f Upper Teesda le dur ing t he e ar ly b ronze a ge has b een i dent if ied. I t i s o dd t ha t n o e xample o f a po l ished s haf tho le a xe h as s o f ar b een f ound i n t he upper d a le t hough s evera l a re known f rom l ower Teesda le. Accord ing t o Evans e t.a l. ( 1962) Dunham c ons idered t ha t Upper Teesda le was v ery poss ib ly t he s ource o f t he mater ia l u sed f or g roup XVIII ( whinstone) a xes which have a w ide d istr ibut ion i n Bri ta in. S earch among t he s crees o f Ho lw ick, D ineho lme a nd C ronk ley S car f or poss ible work ing s i tes has b een unsuccessfu l. Wh instone i s a d iff icu lt r ock t o work by c h ipp ing a nd g r ind ing r ough-outs wou ld a lso b e a l abor ious p rocess . A c asua l i nspect ion o f r iver-bed c obbles s hows t ha t e xamples which, w ith a m in imum o f w orking, c ou ld b e made i nto a xes, a re c omparat ive ly c ommon. I f t h is p rocess was i n f ac t f o l lowed t hen t he s earch f or c h ipping f loors w i l l b e a va in o ne. Wh in bou lders a nd c obb les d erived f rom g lac ia l d r if t a re w ide ly d istr ibuted i n N E . Eng land s o t ha t wh i le t he mater ia l o f s ome g roup XVIII a xes may d er ive f rom Upper T eesda le t heir manufacture n eed n ot have b een c onnected w ith t hat a rea . .

There i s however s ome ev idence f or e ar ly b ronze a ge p resence. A s ing le sma l l s herd o f r ed/b lack pottery was f ound by t he w ri ter o n t he g round s urface among t he f oundat ions o f a g roup o f l arge s ub-rectangu lar bu i ld ings a t Whi te E arth ( F ig. 6 :41). Though t he s herd i s worn t he marks o f ac ord i mpressed l ozenge c an b e s een. I t s eems probab le t ha t t he s herd i s f rom a b eaker t hough o f which t ype c annot b e d ec ided ( F ig.19:1). Much

more

d ef ini t ive

a re

t he

t wo

j e t

b eads

i n

t he

Bri t ish

Museum, ( Nos. 1 879 : 1 720 a nd 1 721) which a re d escr ibed i n t he c a ta logue a s b eing ' f ound w ith many o thers f orming a n eck lace i n a b arrow n ear Ho lwick i n T eesda le i n 1 867 '. They have n ot p rev ious ly b een pub l ished. No. 1 720 i s a f la t t rapeze s haped s pacer b ead 3 7mm l ong, 2 3mm w ide a t o ne e nd, 1 5mm a t t he o ther e nd a nd 6 mm t hick. A l l e dges a nd c orners a re r ounded a nd t he s urfaces w ere o r ig ina l ly p o l ished t hough n ow marred by s cratches. I t i s p ierced by t hree t ransverse ho les e ach c .2 mm i n d iameter but e xpanded s l ight ly a t t he mouth. One p lane s urface i s d ecorated w ith a l ozenge pattern o f t iny d r i l led ho les. The b ead has b een b roken a t t he c entre p erfora tion a nd r epa ired p robab ly r ecent ly. One c orner h as a lso b een b roken. No. 1 721 i s a b roken a nd s l ight ly l arger e xample o f t he s ame t ype. The r ema ining p iece i s 2 6mm l ong, 3 0mm w ide a nd 7 mm t h ick. Aga in, o ne s urface i s d ecorated w ith a l ozenge p attern o f t iny h o les t hough t hese a re more r ough ly executed. The r everse o f t h is b ead i s i n p oor c ond ition w ith s ome c rack ing a nd f laking ( F ig. 1 8). S pacer-p late n eck laces o f j e t h ave a l argely n orthern d istribut ion ( Ashbee 1 960) a nd have b een more o f ten f ound i n S cot land t han Eng land t hough t here a re e xamples f rom Wessex a nd a r ecent f ind f rom a r ound b arrow i n S uffo lk ( F. d e M . & H. L. Vatcher 1 976). I n N. Yorksh ire t hey a re part icu lar ly a ssoc iated w ith b eakers a nd Yorkshire v ase f ood v essels ( E lgee 1 930 , Megaw & S impson 1 979). There a re s evera l e xamples f rom Nor thumber land i nc lud ing a n e specia l ly f ine o ne f rom Ky loe ( Brew is 1 928). Craw ( 1928) s uggested t hat t hese j et b eads 2 5

f ormed t he model f or W essex amber s pacer-beads a nd i n t urn f or t he mot ifs o n I rish l unu lae. Megaw & S impson ( ibid .) s uggested t hat t he r everse o f t his p rocess i s more l ike ly a r id fhat t he d ecorated j e t s pacer b eads a re d er ivat ive. I n e i ther c ase t hey a re f ound a t a n e ar ly s tage o f t he b ronze a ge. The B . M. c ata logue e ntry i s n ot v ery s pec if ic a nd i t has s o f ar n ot b een poss ib le t o i dent ify t he f indspot o f t hese b eads. The b arrow i s r eported t o h ave b een e xcava ted i n 1 867 whi le t he b eads h ave a n 1 871 a ccess ion number. A s earch t hrough t he f i les o f l oca l n ewspapers f or 1 867-71 has r evea led n o ment ion o f a ny e xcavat ion t hough t here was s ome i nteres t i n a rchaeo logy i n T eesda le a t t h is p er iod f or i n December 1 866 t he T eesda le Mercury g ive a n a ccount o f al ecture by Canon Greenwel l o n h is b arrow d igg ing over a p er iod o f e ight y ears. This p rovoked s ome d esu ltory c orrespondence i nc lud ing a l etter f rom Mr. W . R. Be l l, v icar o f L a ithk irk, a k een a nt iquary whose p ar ish magazines c onta in a f und o f i nterest ing i nformat ion. He ment ions t he f ind ing i n t he s ame y ear, 1 867 , o f ' a f ine c e lt o r f l int a rrowhead o n P ark End F arm i n a f i eld ( F ig. 6 :2 4) a d jo in ing t he T ees ', but has noth ing t o s ay a bout j et b eads o r a b arrow. I t may b e presumed t ha t h e d id n ot know a bout t hem a nd t ha t t he b arrow was n o t d e l iberate ly e xcavated but was d estroyed i n t he c ourse o f s ome o pera t ion c onnected w ith f arm ing o r p erhaps g rouse-shoot ing a s port wh ich was f ast b ecoming b ig b us iness a t t his t ime. Whatever t he f acts i t s eems un l ike ly t ha t i t w i l l b e p oss ib le t o make a pos i t ive i dent if icat ion o f t he s i te o f t he b arrow. -

The a rrowhead ment ioned a bove i s i n The Bowes Museum ( Mus.No.1958.1803) w ith a l abe l i n Mr. Be l l 's h and g iv ing t he a dd it iona l i nformat ion t ha t i t was f ound by a p otato p icker. I t i s qu ite l arge, 3 2mm l ong a nd 3 0mm b road, r a ther r ough ly made o f mott led g rey f l int w ith t ang a nd barbs o f equa l l ength. S even o ther barbed a nd t anged a rrowheads a re known f rom Upper T eesda le ( F ig. 2 0). Three a re i n The Bowes Museum ( Mus.Nos.1958.1810 , 1 811, 1 812) one i n t he p ossess ion o f Mr. K . F a ir less o f Cotherstone, o ne w ith Mr. J .C. Mars land o f Br ighouse a nd t wo, t he f indspots o f which have n ot b een r evea led, were f ound by Mr. F . L ee o f Ho iw ick a nd r emain i n h is possess ion. No.1810 was f ound i n 1 877 i n a mo lehi l l o n Harter F e l l ( F ig.6:21) a nd was l ater g iven t o t he museum by Mr. Tarn o f S tep E nds F arm. I t i s v ery l arge, 5 1mm l ong a nd 3 8mm w ide w ith a b road t ang p ro ject ing b eyond t he barbs. The mater ia l wh ich i s pa le g rey i n c o lour w ith a i ron s ta in ing o n o ne s urface i s n ot f l int but m ay b e a k ind o f c hert, t hough i t may poss ib ly b e o f L ake D istr ict s tone. No . 1 811 i s i n c ontrast v ery sma l l, 2 0mm l ong a nd 1 9mm b road, m ade on a r ather bu lbous f lake o f g rey-brown f l int w ith t races o f c ortex r ema in ing . I t i s b road i n p roportion t o i t s l ength, t he a ng le a t t he p o int b eing a bout 7 01 r ather t han t he u sua l 4 51 5 00 a nd t he t ang p ro jects b eyond t he barbs. The a rrowhead was f ound i n 1 923 a t t he f oot o f Cronk ley S car ( F ig.6:14) by Mr. N ev ison o f Barna rd Cast le, who p resented i t t o t he museum. The t hi rd a rrowhead i n t he museum c o l lect ion, No. 1 812 i s t he b est s pec imen . I t i s 2 7mm l ong a nd 1 7mm b road, f ine ly made o f s em i-trans lucent g rey-brown f l int. Aga in t he t ang p ro jects s l ight ly b eyond t he b arbs. I t was f ound o n M ickle F e l l ( F ig.6:20) a nd g iven t o t he museum by t he S tra thmore E states. C lose ly r esembl ing No. 1 811 i s t he s pec imen f ound i n August 1 978 b y -

2 6

Mr. Mars land o n Th ist le Green ( F ig.6:16) a nd s t i l l i n h is possess ion. I t was sma l l a nd b road, 1 7mm l ong a nd 1 6mm w ide made o f f l int w ith a d ense whi te pat ina . The t ang p ro jected b eyond t he b arbs but t he t ops o f bo th t ang a nd b arbs s eem t o have b een b roken o ff . The f i f th a rrowhead was f ound by Mr. K .J. F a ir less o n Harter F el l ( F ig.6:43) i mmediate ly w ithin a b anked and d itched e nc losure wh ich o ccup ies t he t op o f a sma l l h i l l. I t i s 2 5mm l ong a nd 2 0mm b road o f wh ite f l int w ith dark mark ings. I t may w e l l b e t ha t i t h as b een made f rom t he c ortex o f a nodu le t hough poss ibly t he a rrowhead h as b een burnt. The t ang p ro jects b eyond t he b arbs a nd t he t op o f t he p o int i s b roken o ff . The a ssoc iat ion o f t his a rrowhead w i l l b e d iscussed l a ter. C lark ( 1963) has po inted o ut t ha t t hough b arbed a nd t anged a rrowheads a re t o b e f ound a s e ar ly a s t he S o lutrean i n F rance t hey a re n everthe less c haracter ist ic o f t he e ar ly b ronze age i n N . W. Europe. Though t he number f rom Upper T eesda le i s sma l l o n ly s ix a l l were f ound o n t he s outh s ide o f t he v a l ley a nd a l l e xcept o ne a t h eights o f a round 4 57m ( 1500f t) o r a bove. -

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W ith t he e xcept ion o f t he un ident if ied b arrow m ent ioned a bove, n o f unerary monument o r s ett lemen t s ite f rom t he upper d a le has b een i dent if ied a s b e ing undoubted ly e ar ly b ronze age. There i s however a s i te wh ich v ery p robab ly was o f t ha t p er iod, t hough i t n o l onger e x ists. The v isi tor t o Upper T eesda le a pproach ing M idd leton f rom t he e ast i s i mmed iate ly aware o f ac lump o f t rees mak ing a v ery p rominent kno l l o ver look ing t he v i l lage a nd o n t he s outh s ide o f t he v a l ley. This i s known a s K irk Arran, K irk Cary , K ircarr ion o r s ome v ar iant o f t his ( F ig.5:7). The c lump o f t rees i s r e lat ive ly r ecent a nd t he kno l l was f ormer ly t he s i te o f al arge c a irn. Once a ga in t he b est s ource o f i nformat ion i s t he v icar o f L a i thk irk, R ev. W R . B el l, whose l etter t o The T eesda le Mercury o f D ecember 2 6th 1 867 i n r ep ly t o a query f rom a c orrespondent, d eserves t o b e quoted a t l ength: .

I t a las, t he t umu lus i s n o more. I t was c arted away f or f enc ing t he a l lotments a t t he d iv is ion o f t he Commons. . I h ave s if ted t he e v idence o f e yew i tnesses o f t he ' f ind ' o f whom a t l east t hree a re s t i l l l iv ing, v iz. Mr. W i l l iam Ra ine o f K irkhouse, Mr. Thos. F oster o f Bowbank a nd Mr. Char les Ra ine o f Ho lw ick . Accord ing t o t hem t he ' f ind ' t ook p lace a bout s ixty y ears a go a nd t he f acts a re t hese:- i n t he c entre o f t he i nner h eap o f s tones was f ound a k ist-vaen f ormed o f f our s tones s et o n e dge and c overed by a f i f th. I nside was a n u rn o f b aked c lay i n which was s ome c arbonaceous matter a nd f ragments o f b ones. The u rn was t aken t o L ord S tra thmore 's b a i l iff a nd f orwarded t o S treat lam Cast le. Mr. Dent o f S treat lam Cast le has l a te ly v ery o b l ig ing ly s ought f or t he u rn but I am s orry t o s ay w ithout f ind ing i t . I t i s however n o t a ltogether i mprobab le t ha t i t s t i l l exists s omewhere f or i t wou ld s eem t ha t L ord S trathmore t ook a v ery great i nterest i n i t a t t he t ime a nd i t i s l ike ly t hat h e would t ake c are i t s hou ld b e p reserved i n h is own p r ivate c o l lect ion o r i n s ome pub l ic museum .

.

S treat lam Cast le i t se lf n o l onger e x ists a nd t hough t he u rn may j ust poss ib ly b e o ne o f t he many ' unprovenanced ' e xamp les i n s ome c o l lection i t i s un l ike ly t ha t i t w i l l b e p ossib le t o t race i t . The t umulus must have b een v ery l arge o r i t wou ld n ot h ave b een worthwh i le t o d emo l ish i t f or bu i lding mater ia l. Unfortunate ly I h ave n ot b een a b le t o f ind a ny e ar ly i l lustrat ion wh ich s hows i t a nd i ndeed

n one may e x ist.

The s i te was not i nc luded by Young 2 7

( 1980)

i n h is l i st o f barrows i n Co. Durham b ecause t hough i t i s i n t he modern c ounty i t was, b efore t he r e-organ isat ion o f l oca l g overnment, i n Yorkshire North R id ing . The ev idence s hows t hat a t K irk Arran t here was a c remat ion bur ia l w i th in a n u rn, t he l atter b eing p laced i n a c ist a nd t he who le c overed by a l arge c a irn. No s econdary bur ia l i s ment ioned. This c ombinat ion c an b e para l leled i n bur ia l s i tes f rom many parts o f Bri ta in a nd i s c haracter ist ic o f t he l ater p art o f t he e ar ly b ronze age ( Ashbee o p.c i t.). S ince t he f orm o f t he ' urn ' f rom K irk Arran i s n o t known i t i s n ot poss ib le t o b e more s pec if ic. The n earest c omparab le s i te i s t ha t a t Craw ley Edge, S tanhope, i n Wearda le, where a s labl ined p i t b eneath a s tone c a irn c onta ined a n u rn ( Young a nd Welfare 1 978). F or t he m idd le b ronze a ge w e have t wo f inds o f meta lwork f rom t he upper da le: b oth f langed a xes. These a re i n The Bowes Museum a nd have b een d escr ibed by J ones ( 1977). One o f t he t wo a xes had b een p rev ious ly pub l ished ( Cowen 1 936). This i s a f langed a xe 1 75mm l ong, 6 3mm w ide a cross t he c utting e dge a nd 3 9mm a cross t he l ozenge-shaped f langes wh ich r ise t o a max imum h e ight o f 1 5mm a bove t he s eptum wh ich has a r ud imentary s top-r idge. The b lade e xpands i n a g ent le c urve t o ab road c rescent ic edge which a ppears t o have b een s harpened. The a xe i s i n g ood c ond it ion, r eta in ing i ts o r ig ina l b ronze c o lour . I t was f ound i n 1 927 i n t he Hudeshope Beck wh ich j o ins t he T ees a t M idd leton by G eorge Surtees, s on o f t he t hen a gent t o t he Raby E states. Unfortuna te ly t he e xact f ind s pot i s n ot r ecorded. The a xe was d epos i ted i n The Bowes Museum by L ord Barnard ( Mus.No.1958.1838). The s econd a xe i s a lso o f t he f langed t ype but i s much sma l ler : 1 42mm l ong , 4 9mm a cross t he e dge a nd 3 0mm a cross t he f langes, wh ich a re l ess a ngu lar t han t hose o f t he p rev ious e xample. I t has para l le l s ides which s p lay o ut t o a c rescent ic c utting e dge. The a xe was b roken i n t wo p ieces when f ound a nd was l ater r epa ired. I t i s s omewha t c orroded w ith a p a le g reen pat ina bu t i ts g enera l c ond it ion i s qu ite g ood. The a xe was f ound i n t he p eat overburden a t D ineho im Quarry ( F ig.6:45) by Mr. T N ixon o f M idd leton who k ept i t f or s ome y ears b efore dona t ing i t t o The Bowes Museum ( Mus.No.1958.1839 ). The p roblems o f t he d at ing o f f langed a xes have b een c ons idered by Burgess & M iket ( 1974). Typo log ica l ly both o f t he Upper T eesda le e xamples wou ld f a l l i nto t heir c ategory o f s hort-f langed a xes, bo th c haracter ist ic o f n orthern Eng land a nd S cot land a nd d at ing p erhaps f rom t he 1 3 th 1 1th c entur ies B C . I t i s s uggested t ha t i n g enera l n arrow a xes w ith p ara l le l s ides a re l ike ly t o b e l ater i n t his s pan o f t ime t han t hose w ith s played s ides. I n t his c ase a xe No.1958.1839 wou ld p oss ib ly d ate f rom a round t he 1 1th c entury B C . wh i le No. 1 958. 1 838 wou ld b e s l ight ly e ar l ier. S ince both w ere s tray f inds w ith n o a ssoc iat ions, t hese d ates c anno t b e c onf irmed. -

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F rom t he e v idence o f s tray f inds i t wou ld b e e xpected t ha t t he i nf luence o f man o n t he l andscape o f Upper Teesda le dur ing t he b ronze a ge was m in ima l. There i s however o ther ev idence wh ich t e l ls a d ifferent s tory. P rev ious ment ion has b een made o f t he p o l len a na lys is c arr ied o ut on mater ia l f rom s evera l s i tes. The most w e o f t hese i s Va l ley Bog . Here " a f ter t he e lm d ec l ine t here b egan a p er iod o f wood land c learance wh ich i s i nd ica ted by h igh Gram inae a nd P lantago L anceo lata l eve ls. A lthough t his has n ot b een d ated, a l eve l b e low ( 4596±60 bp SRR 9 0) a nd another a bove 2 8

( 2175±45 bp SRR 8 9) have b een d ated. Thus a ssum ing a un iform r ate o f d epos ition t he o pen ing o f t he t ree c anopy b egan s ome 3 ,300 y ears a go " ( Chambers 1 978.279). A t Wee lhead Moss a nd o ther s i tes n ow i nunda ted by t he Cow Green r eservo ir a s im i lar p icture emerged ( Turner e t.a l. 1 973 ). A t Wee lhead Moss a l eve l d ated by r ad io-carbon t o 3 1350±100 bp a k.2913) marked t he b eg inn ing o f a r ise i n t he p roport ion o f h erb p o l len, e specia l ly g rasses, s edges a nd h eather a nd a c orresponding d ec l ine i n t he p roport ion o f t ree p o l len. Further d own t he da le a t Duf ton Moss a n unpub l ished d iagram by R .Squires ( 1970) s hows a s econdary e lm d ec l ine s l ight ly l ater t han 3 684 bp, ( Squ ires p ers .c omm.) a ccompan ied by a n i ncrease i n g rasses, h eather, s edge and b racken . A l l t hree s i tes s eem t o p rov ide ev idence o f qu i te e xtens ive f orest c learance a t a bout t he s ame t ime b etween 3 100 a nd 3 500 bp a t a p er iod which a rchaeo log ica l ly wou ld b e t he m idd le b ronze a ge. A t a l l t hree s ites a lso t races o f c erea l p o l len o ccur f or t he f i rst t ime. Wr iting o f Va l ley Bog, Chambers s uggests t ha t b ronze a ge p eop le u sed t he c lear ing wh ich t hey c reated f or t he g razing o f d omest ic a n ima ls a nd t ha t t he f ew c erea l g ra ins r ecorded were b lown i n f rom more l ow land a reas. Wh i le t hat e xp lana t ion wou ld p erhaps b e s uff ic ient t o a ccount f or t he p resence o f c erea l p o l len a t a s ing le s i te i t i s l ess c onv inc ing when t he s ame f eature i s f ound a t s evera l s i tes. Though t he quant ity o f c erea l po l len f rom e ach s i te i s a dm itted ly sma l l i t s t i l l s eems t hat i ts p resence o ught t o b e r egarded a s a n i nd icator o f a ctua l c u l t iva tion. H icks ( 1972) h as p o inted o ut t ha t b oth wheat a nd b ar ley a re s e lf-po l l inated a nd r e lease v ery l i tt le po l len i nto t he a tmosphere a nd t hus sma l l amounts i n po l len d iagrams a re l ike ly t o b e s ign if icant. I t i s i nterest ing t o n ote t ha t a l l t hree s i tes a re r e lat ively h igh, Va l ley bog a t 5 50m/1750f t, Wee lhead Moss 4 57m/1500f t a nd Duf ton Moss -

3 86m/ i løøf t. P igott ( 1978) h as po inted o ut t ha t i n Upper Teesda le a nd t he North P enn ines g enera l ly sma l l c hanges i n a lti tude have marked e ffects on t he l eng th o f t he g row ing s eason . A t 4 50m t he h eight o f Wee lhead Moss t he l ength o f t he g row ing s eason i s Apr i l 1 8 -

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October 2 3 . Th is i s b are ly s uff icien t f or a c rop o f c orn t o b e g rown. An i ncrease i n m ean t emperature o f on ly 0 .67°C would h owever a dd t wo w eeks t o t he l ength o f t he g row ing s eason. S ince t here i s s ome e v idence o f s l ight ly h igher t emperatures dur ing t he b ronze a ge, i t wou ld b e possible f or c orn t o b e g rown o n a sma l l s ca le. An i mportant f actor i n d eterm in ing t emperature i s s he lter o r t he l ack o f i t . The p resent upper l imit o f wood land i n T eesda le i n t he a bsence o f man and h is d omest ic a n ima ls wou ld b e 6 00m, t hough a t t h is a l t i tude t he t rees wou ld b e l i tt le more t han l ow c ompact bushes. A t 4 50m i t i s l ike ly t ha t t here wou ld b e r e lat ive ly o pen wood land which wou ld prov ide a n i dea l h abi ta t f or g raz ing a n ima ls a s w el l a s s he lter f or s ma l l c erea l p lots. There i s, unfortunate ly, n o d irect e v idence f or p astora l ism: n o a n ima l bone has s urv ived, o r a t a ny r ate n one h as s o f ar b een d iscovered. I t c an however b e i nferred f rom o ther e v idence. The most s ign if icant ev idence f or t he o ccupat ion o f Upper T eesda le dur ing t he e ar ly a nd m idd le b ronze age h as b een p rov ided 2 9

by t he e xcavat ion i n 1 977 o f t he s ett lement s i te a t Bracken R igg ( F ig.5:9) ( Cogg ins a nd F a ir less, 1 983). Bracken R igg i s a mora in ic r idge o n t he s outh b ank o f t he T ees a bout 1 km d ownstream f rom Cronk ley Br idge. The c rest o f t he r idge wh ich r eaches a h eight o f 3 81m/ 1 250f t i s o ccupied by a n i rregu lar L -shaped e nc losure o f a bout 0 .7 h ectares, w ithin which s tands t he f oundat ion o f as ing le l arge c ircu lar h ouse ( F ig. 2 1). The l ow, w ide wa l l o f t he e nclosure wh ich i s n ot a c ont inuous c urve but a s er ies o f s hor t s tra ight s ect ions, i s made o f wh instone b ou lders a nd was p robab ly t opped by a h edge o r p a l isade. The h ouse has a n i nter ior d iameter o f 8 9 metres whi le t he wa l l ing o f wh in b ou lders was s ome 2 .O m t h ick , s tand ing a bout 0 .5m h igh. The n arrow entrance f aced s outh. The r oof h ad b een s upported by l arge p osts s et i n t he s hape o f a n i rregu lar h exagon a bout m idway b etween t he c entre a nd t he wa l l ( F ig.22). I t i s s uggested t ha t t he r af ters r ested o n t he g round s urface o uts ide t he wa l l ing a nd t hat most o f t he w eight o f t he r oof , wh ich was p robab ly o f h eather, was s upported o n a r ing-beam j o in ing t he h exagon o f p osts. Three s uper imposed h earths w ere f ound n ear t he c entre. F inds f rom t he s i te i nc luded s herds f rom a t l eas t f ive v essels o f s im i lar f abric but d ifferent t ypes. Unfortunate ly t here was s uff icient mater ia l f rom on ly o ne o f t hese t o a l low a ny k ind o f r econstruction. Th is was a bucket u rn o f a v ery c oarse, h eav i ly g r itted f abr ic f or which a d ate i n t he m id/late s econd m i l lenn ium B . C. w ou ld b e a ppropr iate, t hough t he s impl ici ty o f t he f orm makes d ating d iff icu lt. The e xcavat ion produced 1 09 f l ints wh ich have b een s tud ied by R . Young. The p roport ion o f t oo ls a nd u sed f l akes was qu i te h igh, r ef lect ing p erhaps t he d iff icu lty o f o bta in ing f l int s o f ar f rom a -

s ource. Raw f l int was b eing b rought t o t he s i te h owever p robably f rom t he N .E.coast. I nterest ing ly, t here was n o ev idence t ha t c hert was b e ing u sed a s a s ubst itute f or f l int t hough c hert i s r ead i ly a va i lab le i n t he v a l ley o f t he r iver Greta , l ess t han t wen ty m i les away. The f l int a ssemb lage a lso c onta ined e lements which wou ld a ppear t ypo log ica l ly t o b e meso l i thic a nd wh i le t hese may b e r esidua l, i t i s a lso p oss ib le t ha t t he t echn ique o f m icro l i th ic f l int work ing p ers isted i nto t he b ronze a ge ( C lark 1 975). No quern s tones w ere f ound a nd t he s amples o f s o i l t aken f rom t he o ccupat ion l ayer w ith in t he h ouse s howed t ha t i t was unfortunate ly n ot s u i tab le f or t he p reservat ion o f o rgan ic r ema ins. There i s t hus n o d irect e v idence f or e i ther p astora l o r a rab le f arm ing . The n earest s i tes f or which po l len d iagrams a re a va i lab le s how, a s noted a bove, e v idence o f c erea l g row ing c .3500 3 100 bp, a nd i t wou ld s eem r easonab le t o a ssume t ha t t his was a lso g o ing o n a t Bracken R igg. The l arge e nc losure wou ld not have b een s u i tab le f or p lough ing b ecause o f t he number o f whinstone bou lders, but sma l l ' garden p lots ' wou ld have b een qu ite p ract icab le. On ly a s hor t d istance t o t he s outh o f t he s i te i s a n a rea w ith c learance c a irns wh ich may h ave b een u sed f or c erea l g row ing t hough t here i s n o d irec t e v idence t o c onnect i t w ith Bracken R igg . The e nc losure wou ld however have b een s u i tab le f or t he many o perat ions i nvo lved i n l ivestock f arm ing where i t i s n ecessary t o c onf ine a n ima ls f or s hor t o r l ong p eriods c a lv ing , w ean ing, m i lk ing , c astrat ion , c u l l ing , e tc. I t s eems on b a lance t ha t Bracken R igg was i nhab ited t hroughout t he y ear, and t ha t t he e conomy o f i ts i nhabi tants was b ased o n a c omb ina t ion o f s tock-rear ing, hunting a nd a rab le f arm ing . How l ong t he s ite r ema ined i n o ccupat ion i s d iff icu l t t o d eterm ine but s ince t here a re t hree h earths i t must have b een s evera l y ears, t hough s ince t here i s -

-

3 0

no s ure ev idence f or t he r eplacemen t more t han o ne o r t wo g enerat ions.

o f t imbers

i t was p oss ibly n o

Charcoa l f rom a postho le o f t he s i te g ave a r ad io-carbon d ate o f 3 180±60 bp ( HAR 2 414). Bracken R igg i s up t o t he p resent t he o n ly c erta in bronze a ge s i te known i n Upper T eesda le a nd o ne o f t he f ew f rom t he n orth o f Eng land. I t a lso p rov ides o ne o f t he v ery f ew f l int and p ottery a ssemblages f rom t h is p er iod d ated by r ad io-carbon a nd i s t herefore o f s ome i mportance i n b ronze a ge s tud ies. I t i s worth c ons ider ing whether t he s i te and t he f inds f rom i t p ossess a ny character ist ics which may h elp t o i dent ify o ther s i tes a s b eing o f t he s ame p er iod. Morpho log ica l c haracter ist ics a re no t a lways h e lpfu l h ere part icu lar ly a s i t i s unw ise t o t ransfer t hem f rom o ne a rea t o a nother. The s ize o f t he s ing le c ircu lar house i s a n i mportant f eature: i t has s omet imes b een a ssumed t ha t c ircu lar houses w ith l arge d iameters a re l ike ly t o b e i ron a ge r ather t han e ar l ier. Though t he e v idence f rom Bracken R igg s hows t ha t t his i s no t a lways t rue, t he c onverse c annot • be ma inta ined. The method o f c onstructing t he house wa l l ing by a s imp le dump o f s tones w ithout a ny r egu lar c oursing may w el l b e d iagnost ic o f t he b ronze a ge date, but s ince t his f eature o n ly b ecomes a pparent a f ter e xcavat ion i t does no t h e lp w i th t he a ss ignat ion o f s ites by f i eld s urvey on ly. The method o f c onstruct ing t he b oundary wa l l o f t he e nc losure i n s hort l engths j o in ing e ach o ther a t a n a ng le and o f ten w ith a n ode o r r ud imentary c a irn a t t he j o ints o ffers more poss ib i l ity f or f ie ld i dent if icat ion . This f eature a ppears a t s i tes o f s im i lar da te i n t he Chev iots ( Burgess p ers.comm.). Height a bove s ealeve l i s l ike ly t o b e a s ign if icant f actor a lso ; Bracken R igg l i es a t 3 87m/1250f t, a nd i f s im i lar s i tes s hared t he s ame t ype o f e conomy t hen one wou ld e xpec t t o f ind t hem i n a s im i lar s i tua t ion. I t i s t hen poss ible t ha t a n i rregu lar c urv i l inear enc losure c on ta in ing o ne o r perhaps more c ircu lar houses o f l arge d iameter a nd l y ing a t ah e ight o f a bout 3 87m w i l l d ate f rom t he f ina l phase o f t he e ar ly b ronze a ge. The most l ike ly c and idates a re s hown o n t he map ( F ig. 5 ) a nd d eta i ls o f i nd ividua l s i tes a re g iven i n t he g azeteer . They a re L ingy Ho lm ( 5:10), Ho lmwath ( 5:11), B leabeck Washfo ld ( 5:12), Woo l I ng les ( 5:13), Keld Sm ithy ( 5:14), S tone Houses ( 5:15), Crossthwa ite Common Sheepfo ld ( 5:16) a nd Buck R iggs ( 5:17). A l l t hese s i tes l i e a t h eights o f b etween 3 35m/1100f t a nd 4 57m/1500f t. I f t he i dent if icat ion o f t hese i s c orrect t hen i t c an b e s een t ha t t hey l i e a t i nterva ls o f 1 .5 2 .0 km f rom e ach o ther a nd t ha t a l l a re on t he s outh s ide o f t he T eesda le F au l t. I t i s d iff icu lt t o avo id t he c onc lusion t ha t by t he end o f t he e ar ly b ronze a ge t he l and t o t he s outh o f T eesda le F au l t was o rgan ised i nto a s er ies o f l arge f arm ing un its. Add i t iona l ev idence f or t his i s p rov ided by t he f act t ha t s evera l o f t he s i tes a re i n a ssoc iat ion w ith l ong c ontour ing f i e ld boundaries poss ibly u sed f or t he r egu lation o f g raz ing r igh ts. S ince none o f t he s i tes ment ioned has b een e xcavated a nd n one has produced s tray f inds, n o c ompar ison w ith Bracken R igg i s p oss ib le. As n oted a bove, t he f l int a ssemb lage f rom Bracken R igg c onta ined e lements which a ppear t ypo log ica l ly meso l ith ic. The ir a ssoc iat ion w ith r ad io-carbon d ate i n t he m id s econd m i l lenn ium s uggests t ha t s im i lar unda ted a ssemblages may a lso b e long t o t he s ame p er iod, t hough o f c ourse i t c annot c onf irm t hat t hey do s o. No e xample o f p ottery s im i lar t o t hat f rom Bracken R igg has b een f ound i n t he upper d a le. There i s however a n i nterest ing a nd i mportant p ara l lel w ith a f ind -

3 1

f rom j ust o uts ide t he a rea . I n 1 967 Mr. Ra ine, t he postmaster a t Egg lestone, d iscovered a f ter a f lood, a bucket u rn i n t he n orth b ank o f t he r iver Tees b etween M idd leton a nd Egg lestone. This was e xcava ted by Mr. M . Whee ler, t he S choo ls Museum Off icer f or Co. Durham, a nd d epos i ted i n The Bowes Museum ( Museum No.1975.17). The urn which had c onta ined a c remation bur ia l i s a lmost i dentica l i n f abr ic a nd s hape t o t ha t r epresented by t he ma in g roup o f s herds f rom Bracken R igg . The u rn has b een d escr ibed by A. G ibson who c ons idered t ha t i t p robab ly b e longed t o a l ate b ronze a ge t rad it ion ( Gibson 1 978 , 1 980). The r ad io-carbon d ate f rom Bracken R igg s hows t hat i t may b e c ons iderab ly e ar l ier a lthough i t i s n ot n ecessar i ly s o. S uch s imp le bucket u rns f orm a l ink b etween t he e ar l ier a nd t he l ate b ronze a ge. A f urther l ink b etween t he t wo may b e c onnected w ith t he b arbed a nd t anged a rrowhead f ound by M r. F a ir less on Harter F e l l. Th is was l ying o n s o i l f rom a r abbi t burrow wh ich had b een made i n t he bank o f a d i tched a nd banked s ub-rectangu lar e nc losure s ome 5 0m x 4 0m o ccupy ing t he t op o f a sma l l kno l l a t a h eight o f a bout 3 81m/125f t a nd o n ly a f ew hundred metres w est o f t he s i te o f K irk Arran d iscussed a bove ( F ig 5 : 1 9). The s i tuation i s c erta in ly a d efens ive o ne a nd i t s eems a t l east possible t ha t h ere i s a t iny h i l l f ort a ssoc iated w ith t he f unerary c a irn o f K irk Arran, a nd perhaps w ith t he undefended f arm ing s ett lements o f Crossthwa ite Common. The b anked a nd d itched enc losure i s over la in by a much l arger pa l isaded e nc losure c haracter ist ic o f t he l ate b ronze a ge a nd i ron age. .

3 2

CHAPTER V The Late Prehistoric. It seems appropriate at this point to modify the conventional three-age system used in previous chapters• and to follow Challis and Harding (1975) in considering the late bronze· and pre-Roman iron age together. It is clear that many of the features once thought to be characteristic of the iron-age: hillforts, palisades, 'Celtic' fields for example - are to be found also in the late bronze age. Megaw and Simpson (1979) writing of the south of England suggests that " ......there are several settlement sites to which the term 'later prehistoric' would seem applicable, eschewing the old Three Ages system entirely ...... 11• This is even more true of the north. The material remains of the late prehistoric settlement in Upper. Teesdale are even scarcer than for earlier periods. There is for example only one example of late bronze age metalwork, the spearhead published by Jones (1977) (but given an incorrect provenance). It is of the plain socketed pegged type with a narrow leaf-shaped blade and tubular mid rib 300m long, 50mm wide at its broadest point and weighing 275gms. The spearhead is in good condition with a dusty green patina and only one or two patches of corrosion and adhesions. The bronze peg is still in place and part of the wooden shaft remains in the socket. A sample of the wood was sent to the Oxford Research Laboratory for dating. I am grateful to Dr. John Gowlett for the following information: 11 • • • • • • the limits for the date are c.960-790 BC at one standard deviation and c .1140-400 BC at two standard deviation ... on the basis of the one date, I think you could take it as a reasonable working hypothesis that the real date is in the range 1000-800 BC...... 11• The spearhead is of a type common in the latest stage of the bronze age and comparable examples occur in the well known assemblage from Heathery Burn cave in Weardale ( Greenwell 1894) and the recently discovered hoard from Gilmonby near Bowes (Burgess and Coggins 1981). It was equated by Jones with an ·example found in the churchyard at Middleton in Teesdale and presented to The Bowes Museum in 1936. This identification was however incorrect. The spearhead was found in 1968 in Jack Scar Cave (NY 948 275) near Middleton and is now on loan to The Bowes Museum (Museum No.2/2). Jack Scar Cave is in the east bank of the Hudeshope Beck which narrow limestone gorge. The present at this point runs through entrance to the cave is some 3. Orn above the level of the beck where a hole, less than 1. Orn high, gives access to a long narrow passage leading to a small cave system which has been thoroughly explored by generations of cavers. No other finds have been reported. The quantity of fallen rock in the bed of the beck suggests that in former times there was a platform with rock overhang and that the present cave mouth was at the rear of this. That the spearhead was found on the floor of a frequently visited cave suggests it may have become dislodged from a hiding-place in a crevice. One other bronze find from the Hudeshope Beck area, an axe, has been described in Chapter IV. Unfortunately its exact findspot is not known, but since it is typologically earlier than the spearhead it is probably not from the same source.

a:

33

There i s o n ly one o ther s tray f ind which c an b e a ttr ibuted t o t he l ater preh istor ic. This i s t he upper s tone o f a bun q uern wh ich i s a t p resent i n t he g arden o f ' Fairy De l l V iew ' a t Newb igg in. I t i s a lmost h em ispher ica l w ith a d iameter o f 3 40mm and h eight o f 1 15mm. I t h as a hopper w ith a d iameter o f 1 30mm a nd t wo s ide ho les f or hand les a t r ight-ang les t o e ach o ther. One n ear t he base i s 2 5mm i n d iameter a nd 4 0mm d eep, wh i le t he o ther ha lfway up t he s tone i s 3 0mm i n d iameter a nd 4 5mm d eep. The qüern i s made o f a c oarse s andstone a nd i s i n g ood c ond i tion . I t was f ound by a f ormer r es ident o f t he h ouse, Mr. W . L ee, probab ly dur ing t he 1 930s. Unfor tunately t he r ecords o f t he many d iscover ies made by Mr. L ee, who t ook a k een i nterest i n a nt iquar ian matters, w ere d estroyed o n h is d ea th, c .1943 , a nd s o i t i s no t poss ib le t o g ive a p rovenance f or t he quern. The r easons f or t he p auc i ty o f s tray f inds f or t h is p eriod a re n ot e asy t o e stab l ish but i t i s un l ike ly t hat t hey r ef lec t a bsence o f s ett lement. I t has o f ten b een p o inted o ut t ha t t he a bsence o f meta l o b jects d oes n o t mean t ha t t hey w ere n ot b eing u sed, on t he c ontrary i t i s p robab ly a n i nd icat ion o f t heir v a lue a nd i n t he c ase o f bronzes, o f t he f act t ha t t hey were b eing r e-cyc led when worn out. The a pparent a bsence o f p ottery may h owever b e r ea l. The e xcavat ion o f t he s i te o f F orcegarth P asture North ( descr ibed i n Chapter V I) p roduced v ery l i tt le pottery, i n c ontrast t o t he r e lat ive profus ion f rom s imi lar l ow land s i tes. F rom a water logged part o f t he s i te h owever a l arge quanti ty o f b irch bark f ragments was r ecovered. S ome o f t hese w ere p erforated a s i f f or s ew ing t ogether, a nd p robab ly r epresented t he r ema ins o f o ne o r more l arge v esse ls. Artefacts o f b ark, wood, l eather a nd o ther o rgan ic ma teria ls must h ave p layed a ma jor part i n prehistor ic e conomy e spec ia l ly i n t he up lands a nd s ince t hey r are ly s urv ive, a re n ow g ross ly under-represented i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord. An i nterest ing f ind o f t wo f ragments o f t urned s ha le which may w el l b e long t o t he p er iod was made n ear S imy F o lds i n 1 981 . An a rea i mmed iately s outh o f S imy F o lds 1 i s e xtensive ly d isturbed by r abb it burrow ing . F rom t he s urface o f s o i l e xcavated f rom o ne o f t he burrows, t he wr iter p icked up t wo p ieces o f j et o r s ha le wh ich, a f ter b eing c leaned, c ou ld b e s een t o have b een t urned. The l arger i s a w e l l f in ished f ragmen t f rom a ho l low o b jec t w ith a n i nter ior d iameter o f c .7 00mm, whi le t he sma l ler i s c urved i n both d imensions. S ince i t i s h igh ly i mprobab le t ha t f ragments f rom t wo s eparate s ha le v esse ls wou ld b e f ound a t t he s ame s po t t he mos t l ike ly r econstruc t ion i s o f a f a ir ly l arge s temmed g ob let . Vases, b ow ls a nd t azza o f sha le a re known f rom t he l ate p re - Roman i ron a ge i n Bedfordsh ire and E ssex where t hey a re c haracter ist ic o f r ich bur ia ls a nd a re s a id t o d er ive t heir f orms f rom Be lg ic pottery ( Kennett 1 977). Sha le a nd j et a re b oth e xtensive ly worked i n Roman Brita in ( Lawson 1 976) but s temmed o r f ooted v esse ls s eem t o b e r are. N ewa l l ( 1927-9) l i sted n ine e xamples o f s ha le c ups f rom Wessex but t hey d o n o t o ccur e lsewhere. Newbigg in ( 1941) d escr ibed t wo e xamples f rom Northumber land, o ne a s ha l low m iniature c up w ith a p edesta l a nd t he o ther a f ragment o f a l arger v esse ls. A b roken a nd unf in ished e xample o f a t urned g ob let was f ound i n 1 979 i n Chesterle-Stree t a nd i s n ow i n The Bowes Museum. I t was unfortunate ly qu i te unstrat if ied, b eing f ound i n a g arden a nd h ence i s n o t d ated. The f ind f rom S imy Fo lds i s t hen o ne o f a v ery f ew e xamples f rom t he north o f Eng land and i s t herefore i mportant. 3 4

There p reh istor ic

i s e nv ironmenta l e v idence f or s ett lemen t a nd t h is must b e l inked w ith t he g enera l

i n t he l ate p rob lems o f

e nv ironmenta l c hange a nd c l imat ic d eteriorat ion wh ich have p rovoked much r ecent d iscuss ion. Evans ( 1975) s uggests t ha t " w e must s ee c l imat ic d eter iorat ion a s a g radua l process c over ing t he f i rst ha lf o f t he f irst m i l lenn ium b .c. a nd i n t erms o f c a lendar y ears e xtend ing w e l l i nto t he s econd m i l lenn ium ". ( p.147). Wha tever t h is may m ean i n t erms o f s ett lement patterns, t here c an b e l i tt le d oubt t hat a f ter t he m idd le o f t he f irst m i l lenn ium b .c . f orest c learance a lmost e verywhere g a thered momentum a nd became more w idespread ( Turner 1 970). I n T eesda le t his f eature has b een i l lustrated a t s evera l s i tes. A t R ed S ike Moss n ow b enea th Cow Green r e s e r v oi r t he s pread o f g rass land was d ated t o 2 570±80 bp ( Gak 2 027) ( Turner 1 978) whi le a t Va l ley Bog " the ma jor phase o f d eforestat ion i s s een a t t he s tart o f s ub z one VB I Vb. Two l eve ls d ated a t 2 212±55 bp ( SRR 8 8) a nd 2 175±45 bp ( SRR 8 9) c lear ly p lace t his .. . i n t he l ater i ron a ge " ( Chambers 1 978 .280). The unpub l ished d iagrams f rom F ox E arth G i l l a nd Duf ton Moss s how ev idence o f f orest c learance a t l evels wh ich a re p robab ly e qu iva lent t o Red S ike a nd Va l ley Bog but n o r ad io-carbon d ates a re ava i lab le f or t hese l eve ls. A t S imy F o lds z one G s hows a d ramat ic i ncrease i n g rasses , s edges, h eather a nd h erbs, e specia l ly p lanta in, w ith a c orrespond ing d ecrease i n t ree po l len i mmediately a bove a l ayer o f a lder wood r ad io-carbon d ated t o 2 400±80 b p ( HAR 3 791). Unfortunate ly t h is d ate c anno t b e a ccurate ly r e lated t o a ny part icu lar phase o f t he a lder wood land, but i t i s s uff ic ien t ly c lose t o t he r esu lts f rom o ther s ites t o make i t p robab le t hat t he s ame p a ttern was o perat ing a nd t ha t t he i ncrease i n g rass land b egan i n t he i ron age. Whether t h is d im inut ion o f t he f orest c an b e a scr ibed t o man and h is s tock o r whether i t was a r esu l t o f d eter iorat ing c l imatic c ond itions i s n ot c erta in. P robab ly both w ere i nvo lved: w etter a nd c oo ler c ond i t ions wou ld make f orest r egenera tion more d iff icu lt a nd c learances wou ld t end t o b e more p ermanent. I f t he c hanges a re t o b e a scr ibed e ven part ly t o human i nterference t hen w e must a sk where t he s ettlement s i tes o f t he l ate p reh istor ic a re t o b e f ound. -

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Three e xcava ted s i tes have p roduced unexpected ev idence r e la t ing t o o ccupat ion t owards t he end o f t he f irst m i l lenn ium b .c. A t M idd le Hurth a l ong l ow i rregu lar mound was o ver la in by a c ircu lar f ea ture w ith bank a nd d i tch. The mound p roduced a n a ssemblage o f l a te meso l ith ic f l ints. Towards t he e astern e nd o f t h is mound a nd p art ly over la id by t he c ircu lar e arthen b ank w ere t he r ema ins o f a s l ighted s tone c a irn a bout 2 .üm i n d iameter . A t t he c entre o f t h is c a irn was a d epos i t o f d ark s o i l c onta in ing a f ew f ragments o f c a lc ined b one a nd a l i tt le c harcoa l. A r ad io-carbon d eterm ina t ion o f t h is mater ia l g ave a d ate o f 2 210±80 bp ( HAR 2 918). A t o ne o r t wo o ther p laces o n t he s urface o f t he mound s im i lar d ark d eposi ts w ere n ot iced. One o f t hese was s urrounded by a p lac ing o f s tones, p robab ly a l l t ha t was l ef t o f a d ismant led c a irn . I t t oo y ie lded t iny f ragments o f c a lc ined bone a nd c harcoa l, but i n i nsuff ic ient quantity f or r adio-carbon d a t ing. There w ere n o f inds e xcept a t iny amount o f c harcoa l f rom t he o ther a reas o f d ark s o i l, but t hey t oo a re l ike ly t o h ave been t he s i tes o f c remat ions. I t s eems t ha t a n e ar ly mound o f unknown purpose w as r e-used f or o ne o r s evera l l ate p reh istor ic b ur ia ls. Whimster ( 1977) has s tressed t he c omparative r ar ity o f r ecogn ised i ron a ge bur ia ls f rom many p arts o f Bri ta in a nd s uggested t ha t t hough i nhumat ion a ppears t o b e t he d om inant p ract ice 3 5

"

i t

may b e n ecessary t o a rgue t he e xistence o f h itherto unrecogn ized d isposa l t ypes " p .325 . Un-urned c remat ion buria ls l eave l i tt le t race, un less , a s a t M idd le Hurth, c overed by a c airn. No s ett lemen t s i te i dentif iab le t o t his p er iod c an b e s een i n t he v ic inity o f M idd le Hurth but t here i s a c ave s i te c lose by wh ich may wel l b e c onnected a nd which w i l l b e d iscussed l ater. A t S imy F o lds ( Cogg ins e t.a l. 1 983) f our s i tes t ogether w ith a n e xtensive f i e ld s ystem o ccupy a l imestone b ench o n t he s outh s ide o f t he r iver. Three o f t he s i tes c ons ist o f f armsteads w ith t wo o r t hree r ectangu lar h ouses a nd have p roduced r ad io-carbon dates i n t he m id e ighth c entury a .d. The f ourth s i te has n ot s o f ar been e xcavated but f i eld wa lk ing i n t he v ic in ity has p roduced s evera l f l ints a nd a f ew b ody s herds o f c oarse pottery which w ou ld f i t e asi ly i nto a l a te p reh istor ic c ontext. A t t he s econd o f t hese s ites where t here were o n ly a f ew c ent imetres o f s o i l a nd t herefore n o r ea l s tra t igraphy , charcoa l f rom a h earth c ut i nto t he bedrock g ave a r ad io-carbon d a te o f 2 33b bp ( HAR 4 035). S imy F o lds c an t hus p erhaps b e b est i nterpreted a s b eing a l ate p reh istor ic s ett lement a bandoned f or a t housand y ears a nd r e-sett led i n t he e ar ly med iaeva l per iod. Unfortunate ly i t has n o t s o f ar b een poss ible t o d eterm ine which o f t he f i e ld b oundar ies a re c ontemporary w ith t he e ar l ier o ccupation. I t i s i nterest ing t hat t he o n ly r ad io-carbon d ate s o f ar ava i lab le f rom t he n earby p o l len s i te a grees w ith t he d at ing o f t he h earth but unfortunate t ha t i t c annot b e r e lated t o a ny s pecif ic human a ct iv ity. The most i mportant o f t he t hree l ate p rehistor ic s ites i s t hat o f Dubby S ike, n ow b eneath t he waters o f C ow Green r eservo ir. The e x istence o f t h is s i te was unknown unt i l t he d rought o f 1 984 l owered t he water l eve l i n t he r eservo ir r evea l ing t he s tone f oundations o f bu i ld ings, c leared o f t heir f ormer c over ing o f p eat d ur ing t he ir s ubmers ion. A r escue e xcavat ion was h ast i ly mounted, f unded b y H B M .C ., a nd c ont i n ued f or f our weeks unt i l t he r is ing waters f orced i ts a bandonment. The s i te o ccupies a g ent le s outh-fac ing s lope o n t he e ast b ank o f t he Dubby S ike j us t b e low t he h igh w a ter mark o f 4 88m/1600f t. I t c ons isted o f t wo g roups o f f oundations s eparated by a g ap o f s ome 3 0m. The e astern g roup was f ormed by a r ing c a irn a bout 5 .O m i n d iameter a nd a n a d jacen t s ub-rectangu lar s tructure. The w estern g roup o f bu i ldings c onsisted o f a c omp lex o f c urvi linear f eatures o ccupy ing a n a rea o f a t l east 3 0.0m x 2 0.0m, a nd f orm ing c ircu lar bu i ld ings w ith c ourtyards . No h earth was d iscovered on a ny p art o f t he s i te a nd d esp ite c arefu l e xcavat ion t he on ly f inds were h a lf a d ozen f l ints, n one o f which c ou ld b e r egarded a s d iagnostic. .

.

Charcoa l f rom f our parts o f t he s i te was s ubm i tted f or r ad io-carbon d ating . Two o f t he s amp les were f rom p i ts i n t he r ing-ca irn, t he t hird f rom pav ing o u ts ide o ne o f t he c ircu lar bu i ld ings o f t he w estern a rea , whi le t he f ourth c ame f rom t he f loor o f t he s ub-rectangu lar bu i lding . The pre l im inary d eterm ina t ions f or t hese a re r espect ive ly: 2 040±100 bp, 2 210±100 bp, 2 170±100 bp a nd 1 830±100 bp. These p lace t he r ing c a irn a nd w estern g roup o f bu i ld ings f irm ly i n t he l ate i ron age a nd t hus c onf irm t he po l len e v idence f or wood land c learance i n t he a rea . The f ourth d a te, f or t he s ub-rectangu lar bu i ld ing, was f rom a v ery sma l l s ample b ut i t t oo p robab ly r e lates t o t he s ame p er iod. Exam inat ion o f t he s o i l s amp les f rom Dubby S ike w i l l n o d oubt a dd f urther i nformat ion b ut i t wou ld b e unw ise t o a nt icipate t h is h ere. 3 6

O ther unexcava ted s i tes must n ow b e c onsidered t o s ee i f t here exist e xamples which m y b e presumed t o b e long t o t he l ater preh istor ic. Megaw a nd S impson ( op.c it.) have d iscussed t he e v idence f or l a te bronze a ge o ccupa t ion o f c aves. The b est known o f t hese s i tes i n t he North H eathery Burn l i es on ly a f ew m i les a way f rom Upper Teesda le i n t he n eighbour ing v a l ley o f Wearda le. J ack S car c ave h as a lready b een mentioned a s a poss ib le habi ta t ion s i te a nd a brief r eference made t o a c ave n ear M idd le Hurth. This c ave s ystem t o t he north e ast o f L angdon Beck ( NY 8 67311-869311) i s v ar ious ly known a s t he Teesda le Cave, Mawk ins a nd Mock ing Hurth. I t s eems probab le t ha t t he l a tter name, which has o n ly r ecen tly b ecome current, i s a t ranscr ipt ion o f Mawk ins which i tse lf i s a v ar iant o f ' Ma lk ins '. ' Ma lk in ' a s a s ynonym f or ' w itch ' o ccurs a s S hakespeare 's ' Greyma lkin ', wh i le t he c onnect ion i n f o lklore b etween c aves a nd w itches and f airies i s t oo wel l-known t o n eed f urther c omment. The c ave was exp lored by J . Backhouse and h is f ather during 1 878-1888 -

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and w as l ater r eported by t he f ormer ( Backhouse 1 896). Most o f t he a rea o f t he c ave wh ich has b een e xp lored by t he Backhouses was l ater d estroyed by quarry ing . I n 1 967-71 C . S ims r e-exam ined t he mater ia l which had b een r ecovered, a nd i nvest iga ted a f urther sma l l port ion o f t he c ave n ot p rev ious ly e xplored ( S ims 1 971). Backhouse 's r eport ment ions t he f ind ing o f " a vast quant ity o f mamma l ian and o ther a n ima l r ema ins " i nc lud ing " a s er ies o f c harred bones o f s heep " a nd a d ecap i tated human s ke leton t ogether w ith p ieces o f b one wh ich may o r may n o t have b een i ntended o r ( pp 4 0 4 1 ) H e c on c lud e s t h a t " i t i s used a s weapons i t use less t o e ven guess a t t he p er iod a t wh ich t he Cave Dwel lers l ived and d ied h ere but f rom t heir pos i t ions when f ound t h is p er iod must have b een e xceed ing ly r emote a nd i t i s i mposs ible i n c ontemp lat ing wha t i s l ef t t o us o f t ha t a ge, t o f orget t ha t t he d eve lopment o f t he wor ld we l ive i n must have b een t he g radua l work o f more c entur ies t han w e have a ny c oncept ion o f " ( pp 4 3-44) There c an b e n o doubt t ha t Backhouse was a n e xcept iona l ly a ble b otan ist, z oo log ist and g eo log ist a nd h is c onc lus ions a re s urpr is ing ly modern. The mater ia l f rom t he e xcavat ions was d epos i ted i n t he Yorksh ire Museum where most o f i t s t i l l r ema ins. The l i st o f a n ima l s pec ies r epresented i s a l ong o ne a nd i s g iven i n f u l l by S ims. Game-b irds, d eer a nd r odents a re t he most c ommon t hough d omest ic a n ima ls a re a lso present. W i ld p ig b ones po int t o t he f ormer p resence o f d ec iduous f orest whi le c aperca i l l ie a nd l ong-eared ow l s uggest c on iferous f orest a lso . The c ave i s l i ke ly t o have b een i n u se, by a n ima ls a t l east, over a l ong p er iod a nd s ince t here i s n o s tra t igraphy i t i s i mposs ib le t o s ay which s pec ies w ere c ontemporary. The sma l l r ema in ing s ect ion o f d eposit e xcavated by S ims p roduced a wo lf c ran ium c onta ining s i lt wh ich y ielded po l len. Th is was e xam ined by J . Turner who r egarded i t a s a t ypica l z one V III a ssemblage. S he s uggested t ha t t he l oca l env ironment i nc luded wood land w ith o ak, b irch, a lder a nd h aze l, t ogether w ith a c ons iderab le amount o f g rass land w ith s ome c erea l cu l t ivation. The c erea l po l len p resen t i nc luded t ha t o f o ats, a nd f or t ha t r eason a date i n t he i ron a ge o r l ater was p roposed . No mater ia l f rom t he c ave has b een r ad io-carbon d ated a nd n o o ther d a ting ev idence e i ther r e lative o r a bso lute i s a va i lab le. The human s keleton d iscovered by Backhouse has n o t b een f u l ly e xam ined s ince i t s d iscovery when i t w as r eported o n by P rofessor Boyd Dawk ins. Backhouse s ays " The s ku l l i s o f sma l l bu i ld a nd c onsp icuous ly n arrow

3 7

w ith c erta in l ong itud ina l g rooves r unn ing a long e ither s ide o f t he f ronta l b one t owards t he o uter e dge o f t he e ye s ockets. By P rofessor Dawk ins i t i s l ooked upon a s t he s ku l l o f a Cave Dwe l ler, p robab ly a woman, but o f t he c ause o f t he a bove m ent ioned marks t he l earned s c ient ist s eems t o b e d oubtfu l t h is a nc ient worthy 's h ead had f or . . .

s ome unaccountab le r eason b ecome s epara ted f rom t he t runk when f ound a nd was j ammed i nto a narrow f i ssure a f ew f eet away f rom t he o ther b ones " I t i s n ot c lear whether Backhouse t hought t h is s eparat ion t o b e d e l iberate o r a cc identa l . The i mportance o f t he c u lt o f t he h ead among t he C elts has b een d ea l t w ith by Ross ( 1967) who ment ions part icu lar ly t he r egu lar a ssoc iat ion o f t he human h ead w i th s pr ings a nd w el ls. I t i s p erhaps s ign if ican t t ha t a s pr ing i ssues f rom t he b ase o f t he l inestone a t t he p resent e ntrance t o t he c ave but i n t he a bsence o f a f u l l r epor t o n t he s ke leton i t wou ld b e u nw ise t o d raw a ny f irm c onc lusions. The ' bone i nstruments ' ment ioned by Backhouse c ou ld n o t b e f ound by S ims. Though t he an ima l r ema ins a re n ot t hose o f a s ing le p er iod i t s eems r easonab le t o a ssume t ha t much o f t he mater ia l d oes r epresent a p er iod o f u se a t s ome t ime p robab ly dur ing t he l ate preh istor ic. Whether i t was ever a h abitat ion s i te i s d oubtfu l a nd s ince quarry ing has r emoved t he a rea o f t he f ormer c ave mouth i t w i l l probab ly n ever b e poss ib le t o d ec ide t he quest ion. The p rox im ity o f t he s i te t o M idd le I l urth w ith t he r ema ins o f a c remat ion r ad io-carbon d ated t o t he m id-th ird c en tury b .c. makes i t p robab le t ha t t he t wo s i tes w ere c ontemporary . The on ly e nv ironmenta l ev idence a va i lab le f or M idd le Hurth r e lates t o a per iod s ome 8 00 y ears l ater a nd wh i le i t c anno t b e d irect ly c ompared w ith t hat f rom t he c ave i t i s n everthe less s ign if icant t hat i t p resents a p icture o f a n a rea w ith l i tt le wood land d om inated by h eather a nd g rass ( Dona ldson p ers.comm.). F or f urther e v idence o f l a te p reh istor ic s ett lemen t w e must t urn t o s i tes whose morpho logy a lone s uggest t ha t t hey b e long t o t h is p er iod . Wh i le t h is i s a n unsat isfactory p rocedure i t i s o ne which mus t b e a ttempted. A r ecent ly d iscovered s i te on t he e astern s pur o f Harter F e l l ( NY 9 36 2 37) p rov ides t he on ly e xample s o f ar r ecogn ised i n Upper T eesda le o f wha t i s p robab ly a pa l isaded h i l l-top s ett lement. Cha l l is a nd Hard ing ( op . c i t .) u se t he t erm ' s tockaded c amp ' f or s uch a s i te a nd s uggest a p re-f if th c entury b .c . d ate f or t hese. The Harter F e l l s i te c ons ists o f a n i rregu lar ova l s ome 2 00m l ong a nd 9 0m b road a t i t s w idest po int. I t o ccupies t he s ummits o f t wo sma l l kno l ls a nd t he s add le b etween t hem. A t t he n orthern e nd i t o ver l ies a much sma l ler b anked a nd d itched s ub-rectangu lar enc losure a bout 4 5m s quare ( F ig.5:19, F ig.23). To t he e ast i t o ver looks t he f ormer b ur ia l c a irn o f K irk Arran. F rom t he s umm its o f t he t wo kno l ls t he g round f a l ls s teep ly t o t he N .N. W. a nd S .E. a nd t hough t here i s h igher g round t o t he w est t he s i te h as a g ood d efens ive pos i t ion . Across t he s add le, a b road l ow b ank s eparates t wo ho l lows e ach w ith s evera l poss ib le house p osition. The p er imeter o f t he s i te i s marked by a s l ight d itch a nd i nward b ank a nd t hough t hese have n o t b een t ested by e xcavation i t s eems j ust if iab le t o i nterpret t he d i tch a s a pa l isade t rench. The Harter F e l l s i te i s qu ite l arge ( a lmost t wo h ectares), much l arger f or e xamp le t han S taple Howe ( Brewster 1 963) a nd much t oo l arge t o b e r egarded a s a h omestead. I t i n f act b e longs t o t he t ype wh ich may h ave b een t he p recursor o f t he h i l l f or t a nd a s s uch f i ts n eat ly i nto t he l arge g ap i n d istr ibution maps b etween t he E ast R id ing a nd Northumber land, ( Jobey 1 966). 3 8

W ithout, h owever, a t l east a t ria l e xcavat ion t o c onf irm i ts d efences, f urther s pecu lat ion on i ts r o le o r s tatus i s l ike ly t o b e m is lead ing. A s omewhat s im i lar s i te has r ecent ly b een d iscovered o n ly a f ew m i les s outh o f Harter F el l a t Briar Dykes, Ba ldersda le ( NY 9 47 1 97) where t he s umm it o f ah i l l i s enc losed by a s l ight d itch w i th i nner b ank ( Fa ir less p ers . comm.). S ince i t l i es o uts ide t he a rea o f Upper Teesda le w ith wh ich t his p aper i s c oncerned a f u l ler d iscussion i s not a ppropr iate h ere. Rect i l inear enc losures o f t he t ype f ound i n l ow land Durham a nd Nor thumber land e .g. West Brandon ( Jobey 1 962) d o not a ppear t o b e p resent i n Upper T eesda le. Most o f t he Teesda le s i tes , whether e nc losed o r not, h ave t he f oundat ions o f c ircu lar s tone-bu i lt houses. The p roblems o f a ss ign ing t hese t o a part icu lar p er iod o n t he bas is o f f i e ld s urvey a lone a re v irtua l ly i nso lub le, e spec ia l ly s ince n o t wo s i tes s eem t o p resen t t he s ame f eatures. The e xcavat ions a t Bracken R igg ( Ch.IV) a nd F orcegarth P asture ( Ch.VI) have s hown t hat c ircu lar h ouses w ith s tone f oundations w ere b e ing bu i lt f rom 1 200 b .c. t o 2 50 a .d . T echn iques o f c onstruct ion c ertain ly d iffered but s ince t hese on ly b ecome a pparent on e xcavat ion t hey c annot b e used t o d ist inguish s i tes b efore e xcavat ion . The p resence o r a bsence o f e nc losure wa l ls d oes no t a t p resent s eem t o b e s ign if ican t s o f ar a s p er iod i s c oncerned. Before t he d iscovery o f t he Dubby S ike s i te I had s uggested t he p oss ib i l ity t ha t l ate p reh istor ic s i tes m ight b e d ifferen tiated f rom Romano-Brit ish o r b ronze a ge s ett lements i f t hey p ossessed b oth c urv i l inear a nd r ectangu lar bu i ldings. This s uggest ion was made o n t he e v idence t ha t r ectangu lar bu i ldings d o o ccur i n l ate p rehistor ic t imes ( Cha l l is a nd Hard ing o p.c i t. 1 49-152) ( Megaw a nd S impson o p.c i t. 3 81) but w ere n o t p resen t on b ronze a ge o r Romano-Brit ish s i tes i n Teesda le. The Dubby S ike ev idence d oes no t s upport t h is t heory ( see Chapter V II). There a re however a pparent s im i lar it ies b etween t he t ype o f c urv i l inear ' courtyard ' bu i ld ing f ound t here a nd t he f oundat ions a t P asture F oo t ( F ig.5 :20 , F ig. 2 4). A t F orcegarth P asture North, a lso t he c entra l h ouse c omplex i s r em iniscen t o f t he s ame s ort o f a gg lomerat ion o f bu i ld ings a nd s evera l o ther s i tes have c urv i l inear bu i ld ings w ith s hared wa l ls, a f ea ture which i s qu ite c ommon i n t he uplands. F orcegarth P asture North ( F ig.5:24, F ig.28) t hough i t has a r ad io-carbon d ate wh ich p laces i t p robably i n t he f i rst c entury a .d., i s e ssent ia l ly a n i ron-age s i te. I t s eems p erm iss ible t o s uggest t ha t i n t he up lands, c urv i l inear s i tes w ith s hared wa l ls a nd s tone f oundations a re l ike ly t o b e l ate p reh istor ic. The s ett lement s ites d escr ibed a bove vary c cns iderab ly i n s ize but a l l a re l arger t han a s ing le f armstead. M i les ( 1981) s ummar ises a mode l f or s ett lemen t c hanges dur ing t he i ron a ge i n t he Thames Va l ley which c ontrasts s ett lements o f g reater t han e xtended f am i ly s ize o n t he h igher g round dur ing t he m idd le i ron a ge w ith s ing le e nc losed f armsteads o n t he g rave l t erraces i n t he l ate i ron a ge. The Thames v a l ley i s n ot t he T ees va l ley but t he c on trast b etween r e lat ive ly l arge s ett lements and i nd iv idua l f armsteads e x ists i n T eesda le, t hough l ack o f d at ing ev idence means t hat t hey c annot b e d ifferentiated i n t ime. An

e xample

o f

a s ing le

f armstead

3 9

i s

o ne

a t

t he

e ast

e nd

o f

Crossthwa ite Common ( F ig.5:23 , F ig.48). I t c ons ists o f a r ough ly c ircu lar embanked enc losure w ith a n i nterna l d iameter o f 2 0m t o which a re a ttached t he f oundat ions o f at wo-roomed bu i lding w i th an e ntrance f rom t he e nc losure. This i s a r a ther amorphous s tructure b ecause o f t umb led s tone f rom i ts t h ick wa l l ing a nd i t i s p art ly c oncea led by d ense b racken, but t he t wo r ooms a ppear t o be s ubc ircu lar a nd a bout 5 .Om i n d iameter . S omewhat s im i lar s i tes c an b e f ound a t s evera l p laces i n t he upper d a le but t he Crossthwa ite Common e xample i s i nterest ing i n t ha t i t l i es c lose t o a g roup o f ' Ce lt ic ' f i elds e xtend ing over a n a rea o f a t l east f our h ectares ( centered o n NY 9 34 2 48) o n a f a ir ly s teep n orth f ac ing s lope. Though i t s eems probab le t ha t t he f armstead i s d irect ly r e la ted t o t he f i e ld s ystem t his i s by no m eans c erta in. A lso c lose t o t he s i te i s a n i mpress ive g roup o f l arge c airns a nd i rregu lar enc losures o n Burnt S car ( F ig.5:88) t hough a d irec t r e la t ionship w i th t hese s eems l ess l ike ly. A g roup o f ' Ce lt ic ' f i e lds o f s im i lar s ize c an b e f ound a lso on a n orth f ac ing s lope t o t he north e ast o f F orcegarth Farm ( NY 8 79 2 88), a s hort d istance f rom t he Romano-Brit ish s i tes o f F orcegarth P asture North a nd S outh. Unt i l one o r more o f t hese a pparen t s ing le f armsteads has b een e xcavated t he c ompar ison w ith t he model s uggested by M i les f rom t he Thames v a l ley c annot b e c arried f urther. One s ign if ican t f act does emerge f rom a s tudy o f t he s i tes a nd f inds g iven a bove: a l l a re r e lat ive ly h igh. Va l ley Bog w ith i t s p o l len e v idence f or d ecreas ing wood land i n t he l ate i ron a ge i s a t 5 49m/2010f t; Dubby S ike i s j ust b e low t he 4 88m/1600f t c on tour; Red S ike Moss po l len s i te, t he T eesda le Cave a nd M idd le Hurth a re a l l a round t he 4 57m11500f t c ontour; Harter F e l l p a l isaded s i te, S imy F o lds a nd Car ley Green l i e a t a bout 3 80m11250f t; Pasture Foot s ett lement i s a round 3 30m/1100f t a s i s t he f i e ld s ystem o n Crossthwa ite Common, whi le W inch Bridge i s t he o n ly ' l ow land ' s ite a t a bout 2 74m/900f t. L amb ( 1981) c ons iders t ha t " i n t he P enn ines t he h ighleve l p laces which had b een o ccup ied w ith f or ts and s ett lements were a bandoned by o r dur ing t he l ast m i lenn ium b c b ecause o f " a s harp d ec l ine o f t he p reva i l ing t emperature l eve l a nd i ncreased s torm iness i t The e v idence f rom Upper Teesda le r ehearsed a bove c erta in ly d oes no t s eem t o s upport t h is c ontent ion, a nd i n f act c ontrad icts i t . . . .

. . .

I t

I t

i s

possible

h owever

t ha t

t here

was

a c hange

dur ing

t his

p er iod a nd t ha t h igher s i tes which had prev ious ly b een p ermanent ly o ccupied now r everted t o s ummer u se on ly. There i s h owever n o a rchaeo log ica l ev idence f or t h is, a nd i t i s n o t s upported by t he p o l len ev idence. Wh i le a l t itude i s a n i mpor tan t f actor i n d eterm ining s ett lement i t i s by n o m eans d ec is ive. F actors s uch a s a spected, s he lter a nd s o i l t ype a re a lso i mportan t a s a re a v ariety o f s oc ia l a nd p o l it ica l c ond i t ions which l eave n o a rchaeo log ica l t race. T eesda le Cave, M idd le Hurth, S imy F o lds a nd C ar ley Green a l l o ccupy l imestone o utcrops which wou ld b e more f ert i le t han t he s urrounding a c id s o i ls, whi le P asture F oot a nd W inch B ridge by t he r iver would b e qu ite s he ltered. The e xcavat ion t eam a t Dubby S ike n o ted t hat t hough h igh a nd e xposed, t he s i te was s he ltered f rom t he p reva i l ing 4 0

w ester l ies a nd had a pparent ly b een c hosen w ith t his i n m ind. There i s however a nother p oss ib le r eason f or t he c ont inuance o f s ett lement a t r e lat ively g rea t a l titudes i n Upper T eesda le. The a rea h as d epos i ts o f i ron which w ere c erta in ly worked i n Roman t imes a nd may wel l have b een u sed much e ar l ier . I n t he e ighteenth a nd n ineteenth c entur ies A . D., l ead m in ing a nd f arm ing c omp lemented e ach o ther a nd l ed t o f arms b eing e stab l ished a t h e ights o f up t o 5 00m/2000f t. P erhaps i ron work ing p layed a s im i lar p art i n t he l ast c enturies B C . .

This c hapter.

hypothes is

w i l l

b e

c onsidered

4 1

more

f u l ly

i n

a

l ater

CHAPTER V I The Roman P er iod . The h istor ica l ev idence f or t he i mpact o f Rome o n Brita in n eeds n o r ehearsa l, t hough t he a rchaeo log ica l ev idence f or t hat i mpact i s much more e lus ive. Roberts ( 1978) has s uggested t hat " Upper Teesda le must b e s een a s ar e lat ively r emote h i l l a rea , t he h aun t o f n ative f armers, pastora l ists a nd huntsmen, no t f ree o f t he Roman y oke bu t r are ly a ccept ing i t who l ly " ( pp 1 44-5) Wh i le i t i s t rue t hat t he upper da le c an p rov ide n o d irec t e v idence f or a Roman presence, t he ex istence o f f orts a t B inchester, Brough, Bowes, Greta Br idge and P iercebr idge means t hat t here must have b een c on tacts o f o ne s ort o r a nother b etween t he a rmy a nd t he n at ive popu lat ion. What f orm t hey t ook a nd whether t hey c an b e d etec ted i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord i s a d ifferent matter. Nor i s i t n ecessary where c hange c an b e d etected t o a scr ibe t h is a lways t o t he i nf luence o f Rome. A s w ith e ar l ier p er iods t he number o f s tray f inds wh ich c an b e a ss igned d ef in ite ly t o t he f irst f our c enturies A . D. i s sma l l. There i s f or e xample o n ly o ne g roup o f Roman c o ins, f ound n ear H igh F orce ( F ig .6 :48) i n t he n ineteenth c entury. The f i rst pub l ished no te o f t he d iscovery i s by W . R. Be l l ( 1870) who wro te " 1 844 Apr i l 1 8. A g reat quant ity o f Roman c opper c o ins o f t he Emperor Constan t ine t he Great a nd Maxim ine a nd a s pearhead s o much c orroded t hat i t c ou ld n ot b e r emoved, f ound i n t he h eap o f f a l len e arth a nd s tones l y ing a t t he b ase o f a c rag i n t he wood b elow H igh F orce I nn o pposi te a p o int i n t he n orth bank o f t he T ees a bout 4 00 paces a bove Ho lw ick Head Bridge " Backhouse ( 1896) who had d iscussed t he f ind w ith Be l l r epeated h is a ccoun t a dd ing t hat a n a rt ic le s ometh ing l ike a horseshoe " was a lso f ound a nd t hat t he f ind was " in a sma l l quarry". ( p 4 7) A br ief n o te on t he f ind was l ater pub l ished by Tay lor a nd C o l l ingwood ( 1929 ). . . .

The O .S. c ard No. NY 8 2 NE 5 r efers t o t he f ind but g ives a g r id r eference o f NY 8 87 2 83 which i s o bv ious ly i ncorrect b ecause i t d oes n ot c o inc ide w ith t he e ar l ier d escr ipt ion . I t p robab ly o ught t o r ead ' NY 8 88 2 84 ' which i s i n f act t he s i te o f a n o ld quarry. The c o ins w ere p resented t o The Bowes Museum by M iss S usan He lmer ( Mus. Nos. 1 958 :1566-1578). The e xact number f ound i s not c erta in: Be l l s a id " a g rea t quan t ity", Backhouse " a c ons iderab le number", Tay lor a nd Co l l ingwood s peak o f t welve, wh i le t he Museum a ccess ioned t h irteen. A l l but o ne o f t hese a re o f Constant ine I , t he e xcept ion b e ing a c o in o f Max imin ius I a nd a l l t herefore d a te t o t he f irst p art o f t he f ourth c entury A .D . , t hough o f c curse t he ir d ate o f d epos it ion may b e l ater t han h is. They have r ecent ly been r e-exam ined by M ichae l S eku l la o f t he Un ivers i ty o f Durham. No f urther d eta i ls o f t he f ind a re a va i lab le a nd i t i s i mposs ib le t o d ec ide whether t he h oard r epresents a n a c tua l Roman p resence i n Upper Teesda le. The o b ject ' something l ike a h orseshoe ' c annot b e p os i t ive ly i dent if ied t hough i t may poss ibly h ave b een a n a rm-purse. Unfortunate ly i t has n ot b een poss ible t o b e c erta in o f t he c ircumstances o f t he d epos it ion o f t he h oard i n The Bowes Museum. 4 2

A g roup o f c o ins was d onated i n 1 915 by t he ' s ister o f t he l ate R ev. H e lmer ' ( rector o f Roma ldk irk i n t he m id-n ineteenth c entury) a nd i t i s l i ke ly t hat t he hoard was among t hese. One o ther f ind o f meta lwork a lmost c erta in ly d ates f rom t his p er iod. Aga in i t i s f i rst men tioned by Rev . Bel l ( op.c it.) who wrote " 1 857 a n a nc ient b ronze b oss o f a s hie ld f ound a t Wh ite F orce ( F ig .6 :49). I t i s n ow p reserved i n t he museum o f t he Rev. Canon G reenwel l a t Durham, who s ays t ha t i t i s f ormed r ather r ude ly a nd i s a pparent ly a home-made c opy o f a Roman b oss t o wh ich i t i s s im i lar i n s hape I This boss i s now i n t he Brit ish Museum ( Mus. No.83.7-5.105). I t c ons ists o f a s ing le s heet o f b ronze a bout 1 .5mm t hick a t t he r im but v ery t hin a t t he a pex o f t he umbo wh ich s eems t o have b een o r igina l ly h em i-spherica l o r s l ight ly c on ica l but i s n ow damaged a nd o ut o f s hape w ith a s ect ion o f meta l m iss ing. I ts d imensions a re: o vera l l d iameter 2 00mm, d iameter o f umbo 1 10mm, h e ight 7 0mm. There a re f our r ivet h o les e ach c .5mm i n d iameter, e qu idistant f rom e ach o ther a nd p laced c entra l ly i n t he f lange. There a re a lso t wo sma l l o va l ho les, poss ibly f or na i ls, c lose t o t he i nner e dge o f t he f lange. Two sma l l c racks a re presen t i n t he r im but t he s urv iving meta l i s i n g ood c ond it ion w i thout c orros ion ( F ig.26). I t i s d iff icu lt t o s ee why Greenwel l r egarded t he boss a s a c opy a nd a s b e ing ' rather r ude ly ' f ormed, f or t he workmanship a ppears g ood. I t i s s im i lar i n s ize a nd s hape t o t he r ecent ly d iscovered s h ie ld boss f rom B inchester ( Ferr is a nd J ones f orthcom ing) t hough t he l atter, l ike most Roman bosses i s o f i ron, but unusua l ly has n o r ivet ho les. I ron-age a nd Roman b osses have b een d iscussed by Breeze ( 1976) a nd Buck land ( 1978). B reeze s uggests t ha t d omed s hie ld b osses w ere p robably a Roman i ntroduct ion a nd Buck land c ons iders t hat e xamp les w ith f our e qua l ly s paced r ivet ho les a re a lmost c erta in ly Roman. Most o f t he e xamples d iscussed by both a uthors a re o f i ron, a more p ract ica l materia l t han t he t hin s heet-bronze o f t he Wh ite F orce e xample which would a fford m in ima l protect ion a nd wou ld b e d ecorat ive r ather t han u sefu l . P ossibly i t i s t o b e c ons idered a s a n i t em o f parade a rmour. The c ircumstances o f t he f ind a t Wh ite F orce a re not r ecorded t hough i t s eems l ike ly t ha t t his was dur ing l ead m in ing o pera t ions. White F orce i s a waterfal o n a t r ibutary f low ing i nto t he T ees b e low Cronk ley Bridge. J ust d ownstream f rom t he f a l l o n t he s outh bank o f t he b eck i s ad r if t m ine a t NY 8 5 2 6 2 808 . Th is r eference i s t he s ame a s t ha t quoted by t he 0 .S . c ard f or t he f ind o f t he s h ie ld boss b ut whether t here was a ny e v idence f or t h is a ttr ibut ion o r whether i t was a n a ssumption i s n ot c lear. There i s n o o ther t race o f Roman p resence i n t he a rea a nd i t may b e t hat t he b ronze boss r epresents a n i tem o f l oot. No o ther s tray f inds o f Roman manufacture a re r ecorded f rom t he upper d a le, t hough t here a re o ne o r t wo o b jects which p robably b e long t o t he p er iod o f t he Poman o ccupat ion. I n March 1 937 t he t hen L ord Barnard p resented t o The Bowes Museum ' a d isc quern dug up a t F orcegarth c lose t o t he r iver a t t he t ime o f o pen ing quarr ies, 1 934 1. I t was g iven t he number 6 :37 . I n J une o f t he s ame y ear Lm 'd Barnard, t hrough h is a gent Mr. E .C. S urtees, d epos ited i n t he Museum ' upper a nd l ower quernstones, d isc s haped f ound i n Upper T eesda le n ear quarry worked by Mr. Hodsman i n 1 936. The l atter d a te i s e rased a nd r eplaced by 6 7 :37. No o ther d escr ipt ion o r

' 1932 '. These were g iven t he number d imens ions o f e i ther f ind was g iven. 4 3

P robab ly t he f i rst o f t hese i s t o b e i dentif ied w ith t he l ower s tone o f a d isc quern i n t he Museum t hough i t b ea rs n o number. Th is i s o f a qu ite f ine s andstone, 5 40mm i n d iameter, 8 0mm t h ick i n t he c entre a nd 7 0mm a t t he e dge. The upper, g r ind ing, s urface i s qu i te s mooth a nd l i tt le worn a nd t he s tone i s undamaged . The quarry r eferred t o i n t he a ccess ion b ook w i l l have b een a t D ineho lm, wh ich was o pened i n 1 934 a nd i s s t i l l i n o perat ion . ( F ig.6:54) Though t he exact f indspot i s unknown i t must b e qu ite c lose t o t he RIB s ett lemen t o f F orcegarth P asture S outh. No t race o f t he s econd p a ir o f s tones c an n ow b e f ound i n t he Museum a nd t here i s no r ecord o f t he ir d isposa l . Aga in t he a ccess ion b ook does no t g ive t he e xact f indspot , t hough t he O .S. r ecord c ard ( NY 8 2 NE 2 ) g ives a g r id r eference o f NY 8 769 2 899 on t he a uthor ity o f Mr. T . Wake, Curator o f The Bowes Museum a t t he t ime o f t he f ind. A r eport i n t he T eesda le M ercury o f 2 3 J une 1 937 ment ions t he f ind a nd a dds " i t i s unusua l t o f ind t he upper a nd l ower s tones t ogether. They w ere u sed t o g r ind c orn a nd c ons isted o f f l at s tones o f m i l lstone g r it a nd l ava f rom Andanach o n t he Rh ine " Whether t he l atter s tatemen t i s a g enera l isa t ion o r whether i t r e lates s pec if ica l ly t o t his f ind c anno t n ow b e d eterm ined. The quarry r eferred t o i n t his c ase i s t he n ow d isused H igh F orce Quarry, a nd i t s eems t ha t a R IB s i te h ere was l arge ly d estroyed by quarry ing ( F ig.6:55). . . .

Another quern, a lmost c erta in ly Roman, was f ound i n t he s ame a rea F orcegarth F arm i n 1 946 by Mr. E . R. Bead le, t ennant a t t hat t ime. He was p lough ing o ut a f i e ld p reparatory t o r e-seed ing when t he p lough l i f ted a quern-stone a nd ' s ent i t b ow l ing d own t he h i l l l ike a h oop '. I t s eems p robab le t ha t t his f ind t oo w as o f a c omp lete quern f or t wo s tones w ere uncovered. One, i ntac t, was d ona ted t o The Bowes Museum ( Mus.No.1958 :1464) whi le t he o ther, which was b roken, was g iven t o a n a cqua intance o f Mr. Bead le and has b een l ost s ight o f . The i ntact s tone i s t he upper s tone o f a m i l lstone g r i t d isc quern 5 85mm i n d iameter , 5 0mm t h ick a t t he c entre a nd 2 0mm a t t he e dge. The c entra l ho le i s 1 25mm i n d iameter . On t he d iameter o f t he upper s urface a re t wo h o les . 2 70mm a part and 3 5mm i n d iameter. These have h e ld i ron h and les s ecured by l ead which r ema in i n p lace i n b oth whi le one r eta ins a s tump o f i ron . The f indspot o f t h is quern i s i mmed iate ly a d jacen t t o t he s i te o f F orcegarth P asture North ( F ig. 6 :56). -

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Env ironmenta l ev idence f or human a ct iv i ty i n N .E. E ng land dur ing t he p re-Roman a nd Roman p er iods h as b een d iscussed by Turner ( 1979) who c onc ludes t ha t " t he native British p opu lat ions o f t he t wo c entur ies b efore and e ar ly f i rst c en tury a f ter Chr ist c leared wood land, mainta ined p asture a nd g rew c rops on a t ota l ly d ifferent s ca le f rom t ha t o f t he ir p redecessors i n b o th t he uplands a nd l ow lands " ( p 2 89) a nd a lso t ha t t he l and s o c leared r ema ined i n u se t hroughout t he Roman p er iod. I n f arming, a s i n s o many o ther t hings, t he a rriva l o f Roman power s o i mportant h istor ica l ly d id n ot mark a ma jor c hange. There c an b e l i tt le doubt t hat t he o ut l ine p resented f or N .E. Eng land i n g enera l a ppl ies a lso t o Upper T eesda le. Rad io-carboi d ates f or po l len d iagrams f rom t he a rea s how a marked e xtens ion o f g rass land n t he l ater p reh istor ic ( Ch. V) but s ince no r ad io-carbon d eterm ina t iors h ave s o f ar b een m ade f or t he upper l ayers i t i s not poss ible t o s ay w ith a ny a ccuracy h ow l ong t he p rocess c ontinued. -

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4 4

The b est ev idence f or wha t was happen ing i n t he upper d a le a t t h is t ime i s p rov ided by e xcavat ions a t t wo s ites . F orcega rth P asture North ( Fa ir less a nd Cogg ins 1 980) a nd F orcegarth P asture S outh ( Fai r less a nd Cogg ins f orthcom ing). ( F ig.5: 2 4 a nd 2 5) The s ites l i e c lose t ogether on t he north bank o f t he Tees b etween t he f a l l o f H igh F orce a nd t he f arm o f West F orcegarth. F orcegarth P as ture North ( NY 8 7 5 285) o ccup ies a marshy ho l low b es ide t he Sm ithy S ike. A D-shaped a rea s ome 4 0m x 3 5m i s e nc losed by a bank 2 m 4 m b road a nd up t o 1 .0m h igh. W ith in t h is e nc losure a re t he s tone f oundat ions o f a house c omp lex a nd a s eparate c ircu lar bu i lding . I mmed iate ly o utside t he enc losure t o t he n orth a re t he r ema ins o f t wo more c ircu lar bu i ld ings. Excavations w ere c arr ied o ut dur ing t hree s hort s easons 1 972-74, a nd were c oncentrated o n t he c entra l house t hough t he p er imeter mound a nd e ntrance were a lso e xam ined. ( F ig. 2 7) -

The wa l ls o f t he c entra l house c omplex s urv ived up t o 0 .5m h igh and un l ike t he b ronze age s i te o f Bracken R igg were bu i lt u s ing quite r egu lar c ourses o f s tone. There were f our r ooms, t hree o f which w ere probab ly c ontemporary a nd c overed by one r oof wh i le t he f ourth s eemed t o b e a l ater a dd i tion a nd poss ib ly a s epara te dwe l l ing o r workshop. Two h earths w ere f ound, e ach i n a n a lcove n ear t he e ntrance a nd both produced e v idence o f i ron-work ing . The s eparate bu i ld ing was much l arger 7 .O m i n d iameter a s a ga inst 3 m-4m a nd no h earth was f ound i n i t . ( F ig. 2 8) -

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The p er imeter mound had p robab ly b een s urmounted by a s tockade a nd t here was a poss ible sma l l guard r oom b es ide t he n arrow entrance. F inds f rom t he s i te w ere v ery s parse: b ones, s pind le-whor ls, o ne o r t wo s herds o f c oarse pottery, a quant ity o f b irch bark p robab ly f rom a c onta iner o f s ome k ind, many whinstone ' pot bo i lers ', f ragments o f quern-stones a nd r ubbers a nd a c omplete s add le quern o f m i l lstone g r i t bu i lt i nto t he wa l l ing o f t he s eparate bu i ld ing. Charcoa l f rom t he l ater o f t he t wo h earths g ave a r ad io-carbon d ate 1 810±70 bp ( HAR 8 64). Though t h is r esu lt s uggests a p robab le date f or t he s ett lement n ear t he b eg inn ing o f t he Roman p er iod t here was n o ev idence f or Roman c ontacts a nd s ince t he d a ted mater ia l was f rom a l ater phase t he s i te was p robab ly i n o ccupat ion i n t he p re-Roman p er iod. The p resence o f a p erfect ly g ood but p resumab ly o bso lete s add le quern i n t he wa l l ing o f o ne bu i lding a lso s uggests e ar ly o ccupation e specia l ly when i t i s r eca l led t ha t t he d isc quern ment ioned a bove was p loughed o ut o n ly a f ew yards f rom t he s i te. The presence o f t wo a dd it iona l house p os i t ions o uts ide t he enc losure may b e i nd icat ive o f p opu lat ion e xpansion dur ing t he Roman p eriod ( Jobey 1 974). The s ite i s s urrounded by f i eld b oundar ies a nd c learance c a irns t hough t hese c annot be s a id w ith c erta i nty t o b e long t o i t r ather t han t o t he n e ighbouring s i te o f F orcegarth P asture S outh. F orcegarth P as ture S outh ( Fa ir less a nd Cogg ins f orthcom ing) l i es j ust o ver l OOm away t t he s outh e ast and c ons ists o f ar ough ly c ircu lar enc losure o f a bout 4 0m i nterna l d iameter o n a s outh f ac ing s lope. I n o rder t o produce a f a ir ly l eve l p latform o n t h is s lope mater ia l had b een r emoved f rom t he r ear uph i l l part o f t he e nc losure t o t he f ront, a nd on t h is t errace w ere bu i lt f ive a lmost c ircu lar 4 5

houses, e ach a bout 7 .0m i n d iameter. Their s tone f oundations m erged t o f orm a c ontinuous i rregu lar r ow. The e ntrance t o t he e nd csure was t o t he n orth, a n arrow g ap i n t he p er imeter wa l l, wh ich was a s ubstant ia l s tructure 2 .O m- 4 .O m b road p robab ly o r ig ina l ly s urmounted by a s tockade. Outs ide t he e nc losure a nd a ttached t o i t s w estern e dge was a s ub-rectangu lar f eature a bout 1 5.øm x 1 0.0m w i th wa l ls l ess t han 0 .5m b road. Abutt ing o n t o t he s outh w est wa l l ing o f t he e nc losure was a l ow c a irn a bout 3 .øm i n d iamteter s urrounded by a s ha l low d itch. Two o f t he f ive house p os it ions w ere e xcavated ( F ig.29 & 3 0). I n e ach c ase t he r ear wa l l ing o f c arefu l ly l a id c oursed s tones was s tand ing s ome 0 .5m h igh , but o n ly t races o f t he f ront wa l l r ema ined. Both s eemed t o have had c entra l posts. Beneath t he c obb led f loor o f t he s econd house was f ound t he r ing g roove o f a n e ar l ier, sma l ler t imber s tructure. Charcoa l f rom t h is f eature g ave a r ad io-carbon d ate o f 1 740±90 bp ( HAR 1 447). F inds f rom t he s i te were more p lent ifu l t han f rom t he North s i te a nd t hough i nc lud ing s im i lar pot bo i lers, quern f ragments a nd s p ind le whor ls, a lso prov ided ev idence f or Roman c ontacts i n t he s hape o f s evera l potsherds i nc luding S am ian ware. A p re l im inary s tudy o f t h is mater ia l s hows t ypes r ang ing i n d ate f rom t he l ate f irst c entury t o t he e ar ly t hird c entury A .D . ( J .Evans a nd L .J.Gidney p ers.comm.). As w ith F orcegarth North t he h earths i n b oth e xcavated h ouses had b een u sed f or i ron-work ing. S ince t he t wo s i tes a re s o c lose i t s eems l ike ly t hat t hey r epresent a s equence o f o ccupat ion , whether c ont inuous o r not c anno t b e c erta in ly d eterm ined, b eg inn ing p erhaps i n t he e ar ly d ecades A . D.and e nd ing i n t he t hird c entury. I t wou ld s eem s ens ible t o a ssume t ha t t hough t he o ccupat ion c entre c hanged, t he s ame f i eld s ystems w ere i n use dur ing t his p er iod, t hough t he amount o f l and t aken i n may we l l have i ncreased . A t l east o ne f ie ld boundary t erm inates a t t he p erimeter wa l l o f t he s outh s ite . Why was t he North s i te a bandoned i n f avour o f S outh? They a re o f s im i lar s ize w ith a s imi lar amoun t o f a ccommodat ion, a nd wh i le n either i s i n a part icu lar ly g ood d efens ive p os it ion e ach i s p rotected by a s ubstant ia l e nc losure wa l l. Both have a ccess t o t he s ame f ie lds a nd t here i s no e v idence f or a ma jor c hange i n t he e conomy. F orcegarth S outh i s c erta in ly a d r ier s i te a nd a poss ible e xp lanat ion f or t he c hange i s t ha t wood land c learance r endered t he S m ithy S ike more l i able t o f lood ing, making a move t o h igher a nd d r ier g round d esirab le. The r ema ins o f f i eld boundar ies v isib le on F orcegarth F arm a re s hown i n F igs. 3 1 a nd 3 2 . S ome o f t hese n o d oubt be long t o t he med iaeva l p recursor o f t he p resen t f arm but o thers a re r ather t o b e a ssoc iated w i th t he t wo s i tes d iscussed a bove . I t c an b e s een t ha t t hey o ccupy a l arge a rea , a t l east 5 0 ha , o f wha t m ight b e t ermed ' i nbye ' l and. As m ight have b een e xpected t hey s urv ive b est o n a reas o f l and n ot a ffected by l ater ' i mprovement '. An a rea o f l yncheted ' Celtic ' f i e lds has a lready b een ment ioned ( Ch.V) but a s w el l a s t hese t here a re l arge pastures, sma l l i rregu lar f ie lds a nd t he d oub le wa l ls o f poss ible c att le d rif ts. The map s hows t oo t he r ema ins o f o ther sma l l s ett lements, t hough whether t hese t oo a re Romano-Bri t ish c annot b e d ec ided. L itt le

c an

b e

s a id

a bout

t he

f unct ion

o f t he

f ie lds e xcept

t o

po int o ut t ha t t hough t hose o f sma l l s ize may hav3 b een a rab le p lots, 4 6

t h is i s not n ecessar i ly t he c ase. F or s ome o f t he p ract ices i nvo lved i n l i vestock r ear ing i t i s d esirab le i f n ot e ssent ia l t o have s ma l l paddocks a va i lab le. Nor c an one make d ef in ite d eductions f rom t he f act t ha t much o f t he l and o ccupied by t hese p reh istor ic f i e lds i s n ow r ough pasture. When t hey were i n u se a s m eadow o r a rab le t hey wou ld have b een much more product ive. As Smith ( 1975) has p o inted o ut , i t i s u sua l ly t he a bandonment o f f i elds which l eads t o s o i l d egradation r ather t han t he r everse. Examp les o f t h is p rocess c an b e s een a t s evera l p laces i n Upper T eesda le a t p resen t, where h igher f arms have b een a bandoned r evert ing t o r ough p asture.

a nd

t heir

f ormer

meadows

a re

No o ther Romano-Bri t ish s i te i n t he a rea has b een excava ted t hough, a s n oted a bove, a p robable o ne has b een a lmos t c omp lete ly d estroyed a t H igh F orce Quarry. This s i te was a pparent ly d iscovered by M r. T . Wake, t hen c urator o f The Bowes Museum, who r eported h is f ind t o t he T eesda le Record S oc iety i n October 1 946. No d escr iption o r p lan o f t he who le s i te s urv ives , but o ne h ouse pos it ion has e scaped d estruct ion a nd s ince t he quarry i s no l onger worked, w i l l p robab ly r ema in s afe. I t i s a ccurate ly d escr ibed o n O .S. c ard NY 8 3 NE 2 , c ons ist ing o f a n e arthen b ank over 1 .0m w ide a nd 0 .5m h igh enc los ing a c ircu lar a rea 5 .O m i n d iameter a nd s urrounded by t he r emnants o f a d itch s urv iv ing b est o n t he north e ast where i t a ppears a s 2 .0m b road a nd 0 .4m d eep. A f ew metres north e ast o f t h is house pos it ion i s a s l ight p latform a bout 3 .5m i n d iameter. No o ther ev idence o f s ett lemen t i s a pparent a nd n o f inds o ther t han t he quern ment ioned a bove have b een r eported. Wha tever t he nature and d ate o f t his s ett lement i t must ha i .e b een qu i te d ifferent i n c haracter f rom t he n eighbour ing F orcegarth ones, a nd i n part icu lar d oes no t s eem t o have b een enc losed. A t t he f oot o f B lea Beck ( F ig.5 :27), a sma l l s tream e nter ing t he Tees f rom t he s outh j ust b e low D ineho lm Quarry, i s a nother s ett lement which s omewha t r esembles t hose a t F orcegarth . I t c ons ists o f a n i rregu lar enc losure on a n orth-fac ing s lope c onta in ing a t l east f our a nd poss ibly s even c ircu lar f ounda t ions w i th i nterna l d iameters o f b etween 4 .0 a nd 5 .0m. Enc losure wa l ls a nd f oundations a re o f wh instone b ou lders. Most o f t he s i te i s c overed by a d ense g rowth o f l i ng which makes r ecogn it ion o f f eatures d iff icu lt. A port ion o f t h is h owever was burned i n 1 977 a l low ing a p re l im inary s urvey t o b e made ( F ig. 3 3). There a re n o r eported f inds. The s i te a t W inch Br idge has b een ment ioned i n t he prev ious c hapter a s b e ing poss ib ly pre-Roman but i t may w el l b e l ater t han t his. I ts f orm i s a ga in d ifferent f rom t he s ett lements d iscussed a bove, r esemb l ing r ather t he Cumbr ian s i tes s uch a s Ewe L ocks ( RCHM 1 936). The s i te o f Woo l I ng les has b een ment ioned i n Ch.V a s a p oss ib le l ate p reh istor ic s ett lement. The c ircu lar enc losure w ith t he f ounda t ions o f r ound houses r esembles h owever t he t wo F orcegarth s i tes r a ther t han t he e ar l ier unenc losed s i tes, t hough i t l i es a t a much g reater h e ight t han t hese. I f i t i s Romano-Bri t ish r a ther t han l ate p rehistor ic i t i s p erhaps b est i nterpreted a s a pastora l s ett lement o ccupied dur ing t he s ummer a nd a ssoc iated w ith t he l ower p ermanent s ett lement o f F orcegarth o r W inch Bridge.

4 7

On ly o ne o f t he s i tes d escr ibed c an b e s ecure ly d ated t o t he Roman p er iod a nd even h ere t he mater ia l e v idence f or Roman c ontacts was m inima l. Nor d o t he f inds s uggest t ha t t hese c ontacts b rought s ign if icant e conom ic c hange t o t he a rea . The g reater number o f d isc querns f ound may poss ib ly s uggest a n i ncrease i n a rab le f arm ing t hough i t i s more l ike ly t ha t t hey r epresent t he i mpor t o f n ew t echno logy. Though Mann ing ( 1975) has po inted o ut t he i mportance o f l oca l s upp l ies o f g ra in t o t he Roman a rmy , i t i s more l ike ly t hat i n Upper T eesda le p astora l p roducts wou ld b e t raded. One a spect o f Roman r u le must however have a ffected even t he most r emo te a reas: t axat ion. How t axes w ere c o l lected a nd pa id i n t he r ura l n orth we d o n ot know. Nor m ight t he i nst itut ion have b een a c omplete n ove lty . The s i te o f F orcegarth l i es w ith in a d ay 's j ourney o f t he Roman f orts o f Bowes a nd Brough w ith Whit ley Cast le t o t he w est a nd Greta Bridge t o t he e ast b eing r ather f urther away. I t s eems n o t un l ike ly t ha t t he f ragments o f S am ian pottery f ound a t F orcegarth were o bta ined f rom o ne o f t he f orts, v is ited f or t he payment o f t axes. O ther ev idence f or Roman p resence a nd f or c hanges b rought a bout by t hat p resence a re d iff icu lt t o i dentify. I t h as b een s uggested i n t he prev ious c hapter t ha t o n morpho log ica l g rounds a lone, i t i s a lmost i mposs ib le t o d ist ingu ish b etween l ate b ronze a ge a nd i ron age s ett lements. This i s s o t oo f or Roman and p re-Roman t ypes. As w el l a s t he s i tes d escr ibed a bove, o thers w ith t he f oundat ions o f c ircu lar s tone houses a re f ound a t many p laces: L ingy Ho lm ( F ig.5:10), Ca lf Ho lm ( F ig.5:28), Moor R igg ( F ig.5:29), Ho lmwath ( F ig.5:11), Keld Sm ithy ( F ig.5:14), B irk R igg ( F ig.5:20) a nd s o o n, but none c an b e s ecure ly d ated. The d iscovery o f a t imber phase o f bu i lding a t F orcegarth s hows a lso t ha t t imber bui ld ings were c erta in ly i n use dur ing t he Roman p er iod but s ince t he who le o f Upper T eesda le i s under p ermanen t g rass , t here i s n o p oss ib i l ity o f i dent ifying s uch s i tes f rom s o i l marks o r c rop m arks. Both F orcegarth s i tes s howed t hat i ron-work ing w as b e ing p ract ised a s a d omest ic i ndustry but n o e v idence s o f ar h as b een f ound f or l ead m ining o r smelt ing . I t s eems un l ike ly t ha t t he Romans wou ld have n eg lected a n i mportant s ource o f l ead, e spec ia l ly when d eposits i n t he n eighbour ing va l leys o f Wearda le a nd Swa leda le w ere b eing worked. The ' V isi tors Guide t o Raby Cast le ' ( 1857) s ays t ha t t he l ead m ines o f T eesda le i n t he v ic in i ty o f H igh F orce a ppear f rom t he d iscovery o f t oo ls a nd r e l ics t o h ave b een worked i n Roman t imes „ Wha t t hese ' t oo ls a nd r e l ics ' w ere i s n ot s ta ted a nd n o o ther i nformat ion i s g iven . The quest ion i s at anta l iz ing o ne, a nd l ike s o many o ther p rob lems, c anno t b e d ef ini te ly a nswered. Roman p resence o n t he e xtreme b oundar ies o f t he a rea i s a ttested. On t he e ast t he Roman r oad f rom S tanhope t o E gg lestone f o l lows t he g enera l c ourse o f t he p resent r oad ( Marg 'ary 1 973). On t he west i s t he p resumed s igna l s tat ion on L itt le Dun Fe l l ( F ig.5:32) ( Johnson & Dunham 1 963). S evera l a ttempts h ave b een made t o f i l l t he g ap b etween t hese. Backhouse ( 1898) r eported ' p la in i nd ica t ion ' o f a Roman r oad ' here a nd t here ' e spec ia l ly o n L angdon Head, s uggest ing t hat t h is was a c onnect ing r oad b etween B inchester and t he Maiden Way n ear A lston, p rov id ing a s hort c ut t o t he w estern s ide o f t he Wa l l. De Rance ( 1873) r eferred t o t he e xistence o f a nother p robab le s igna l s tat ion o n Be l l Beaver R igg ( F ig.5 :33)). Unfortunate ly , c arefu l s earch has r evea led n o t race o f e i ther r oad o r s ite, t hough b oth may o f c ourse e x ist. 4 8

CHAPTER V II E ar ly Med ieva l . The s ix hundred y ears which s eparate t he end ing o f t he Roman r u le f rom t he Norman c onquest have l ef t f ew i dent if iab le a rchaeo log ica l t races . There i s not a s ing le s tray f ind f rom Upper T eesda le wh ich c an b e a ttr ibuted w ith a ny c onf idence t o t h is p er iod. The a rea i s however more f ortunate t han many, i n t ha t t wo s i tes have been e xcava ted a nd have p rov ided s ome i nforma tion o n t h is i mportant but s hadowy p er iod. Before d iscuss ing t hese however i t may b e a s w el l t o l ook b r ief ly a t t he ev idence f rom po l len d iagrams. W ith o ne e xcept ion S imy Fo lds t he s i tes d iscussed i n e ar l ier c hapters c an b e o f l i tt le h e lp, f or t he upper l ayers o f t hese d iagrams h ave n ot b een -

-

r ad io-carbon dated. Turner ( 1979) has s hown t ha t i n many parts o f n orth-east Eng land t he extens ive a gr icu ltura l c learances o f t he i ate p reh istor ic a nd Roman p er iods had r everted t o wood land by t he m idd le o f t he f i rst m i l lenn ium a .d. Two po l len d iagrams however s howed a d ifferent p attern: f rom S tewart Shie ld Meadow i n Upper Wearda le a nd f rom Thorpe Bu lmer i n e ast Durham. A t t he f ormer s i te t he f orest r egenerat ion d id n o t o ccur unt i l a bout 1 100-1200 a .d. whi le a t t he l a tter t here was n o r egenerat ion, t hough a rab le f arm ing a ppeared t o g ive way t o pastora l ism a t a bout t he s ame t ime. Bart ley e t.a l. ( 1976) w r i t ing o f Thorpe Bulmer s uggest t ha t " i t i s t empt ing t o a ssoc iate t he end o f t h is ( arab le phase) w ith t he Norman d evastat ion o f t he North

I t

( p 4 66)

A d iagram f rom Moss M ire n ear Barnard Cast le ( Dona ldson unpub l ished) s hows, l ike t he ma jor ity o f t hose quoted by Turner, l a te preh istor ic o r Roman c learances r evert ing t o wood land by t he m idd le o f t he f irst m i l lenn ium. The d iagram f rom S imy F o lds h owever r esembles t hat f rom S tewart S hield w i th t he ma in a gr icu ltura l phase e nd ing i n t he post-Conquest p er iod ( Dona ldson 1 983). I t i s p oss ib le t o s uggest t hat i n Upper T eesda le a nd Upper Wearda le m ixed f arm ing c ont inued w ithout a b reak a f ter t he Roman w ithdrawa l , t hough whether t he Romano-Bri tish s ett lements r ema ined i n u se c annot b e d ec ided. The e xcavat ion o f F orcegarth P asture S outh p roduced a s ma l l quant ity o f R oman pottery which c an b e d ated t o t he l ate s econd c entury A .D . a nd t hus a grees w ith t he r ad io-carbon d ate f or t he f irst phase o f t he s i te ( 1740±90 bp = 2 10 a d ) The a bsence o f l a ter pottery c anno t b e t aken a s ev idence f or t he a bsence o f l a ter s ett lement. I n f ac t i t i s more a ppropr iate t o e xpla in t he p resence o f Roman pottery a s a t emporary f ash ion, a n a berra t ion i n a c u lture wh ich was b efore a nd a f ter t h is b rief e xperiment, a ceram ic. I t i s p oss ible t hen t ha t t he Romano-Bri t ish s i tes, wh ich o ccupy r e lat ive ly l ow l ying s i tes, r ema ined i n o ccupa tion. I n Chapter V i t was s uggested, s omewhat t entat ive ly, t ha t t he p resence o f c urv i l inear a nd r ectangu lar f oundat ions on t he s ame s i te m ight i nd icate l ate p reh istor ic s ett lement. I t i s a lso poss ible o f c ourse t ha t t hese may b e a s ign o f p ost-Roman a daptat ion o f e x isting s ett lements. The s i te a t P asture F oot f or e xample, w ith one l arge r ectangu lar bui lding a nd s evera l c ircu lar o nes, wou ld t hen r epresent a n Ang lo-Saxon r e-use .

4 9

o f a Romano-Bri t ish ham let. W ithout d at ing e v idence however , s uch s pecu lat ions must r ema in s pecu lat ions on ly. There i s however f irm ev idence f or p ost Roman s ett lement o n t he h igher s lopes e ven i f i t c annot b e c onf irmed i n t he v a l ley . The s i te a t M idd le Hurth has b een ment ioned i n e ar l ier c ontexts a s a mu l tiphase monument o f uncerta in u se, ( Cogg ins and F a ir less f orthcom ing). I n i ts l atest phase i t c ons isted o f a n e arthen b ank s ome 2 .üm b road enc los ing a r ough ly c ircu lar a rea a bout 1 5 .øm i n d iameter. The materia l f or t he b ank had b een d er ived f rom a s ha l low quarry d itch. This c ircu lar f eature over lay p art o f an e ar l ier l ong l ow i rregu lar mound wh ich a t t wo po ints h ad b een c ut t hrough by t he quarry d i tch. S ect ions a cross t he b ank s howed t ha t i n most p laces i t was c omposed s imply o f e arth w i th s ome s tones. On t he w est where t he quarry d itch h ad c ut t hrough t he e ar l ier mound, s evera l l arge f lat s labs o f l imestone l ay on t he exter ior f ace o f t he b ank. On t he n orth west t he e arthen b ank was r ep laced by a d oub le r ow o f sma l l boulders a bout 0 .2m a part . The e xcavators s uggested t hat t h is may have o r ig ina l ly h e ld upr ight s labs, a nd t ha t t he e xter ior f ace o f t he c ircu lar mound may have b een f aced w ith s im i lar s labs a s i n t he western s ect ion . S uch f lat s labs make e xcel lent ' throughs ' f or d ry s tone wa l l ing a nd wou ld have b een u sed by t he bu i lders o f t he modern f i eld wa l l wh ich r uns o n ly a f ew metres t o t he n orth. No post-ho les o f a ny s ort w ere f ound i n t he b ank i tse lf a nd o n ly a s ing le one was r evea led i n t he i nter ior , c lose t o t he s outhern e dge. The on ly o ther f ea tures were a s l igh ted c a irn p artia l ly c overed by t he s pread o f mater ia l f rom t he bank, wh ich p roved t o have c onta ined a l ate p rehistor ic c remation a nd s l ight t races o f t wo s im i lar c a irns. There w ere v ery f ew f inds, o n ly one o f which s eems l i ke ly t o have b een d irect ly a ssoc iated w ith t his phase o f t he s i te. Th is was a b roken whetstone, a pparent ly a lmost unused a nd made o f f ine s andstone. I t i s 1 67mm l ong , 5 0mm x 3 7mm i n s ect ion a t t he b roken e nd, t apering t o a b lunt po int a t t he t ip a nd p robably r epresents s l ight ly l ess t han ha lf o f t he o r ig ina l s tone. I t was f ound o n t he n orth-east p er imeter o f t he s i te l ying b es ide t he o uter o f t he d oub le r ow o f sma l l b oulders. Even t h is c anno t b e r egarded a s d ef in ite ly a ssoc iated w ith t he s i te a nd c ou ld poss ibly b e modern. A s ect ion a cross t he b ank where i t over lay t he e ar lier mound o n t he w est r evea led t races o f t he o r ig ina l g round s urface o f t he l atter a s a t hin g rey/b lack l ayer c onta in ing f ragments o f charcoa l . Two s amples o f t h is mater ia l w ere t aken: t he c harcoa l was r emoved f rom o ne a nd s ent f or r ad io-carbon d eterm ina t ion, wh i le t he o ther was s ent f or e xam inat ion t o t he b io log ica l l aboratory o f t he Archaeo logy Department a t Durham Un ivers i ty. Mrs. A . Dona ldson h as k ind ly r eported o n t he l atter s ample a s f o l lows:

5 0

I t

M idd le Hurth Edge, Upper Teesda le P o l len s ample f rom o ld t urf l ayer under mound o f c irc le Counts a s %t ota l p o l len B etu la ( birch)

1

Quercus ( oak)

1

A lnus ( a lder)

1

Cory lus ( haze l)

6

Gram ineae ( grasses)

3 2

C erea ls ? ( incomplete) Ca l luna ( heather) Compos i tae,

Tub.

2 4 9

( da isy f am i ly)

P lantago l anceo lata ( planta in)

2 4

The s ample w as f rom t he t urf l ayer which a pparent ly d eve loped i n s i tu o n t he f ormer g round s urface, b efore t he c onstruct ion o f t he c irc le. I t i s c lear f rom t h is s ample t ha t t he l oca l l andscape h ad b een e xtensive ly c leared o f t rees a nd was p robab ly under s ome f orm o f a gr icultura l u se b efore t he c onstruct ion o f t h is phase o f t he s i te. S uch h igh n on-tree p o l len l eve ls d o n ot n orma l ly a ppear i n p o l len d iagrams f rom t he da le unt i l z one G , wh ich, where C14 d ates a re a va i lab le, b eg ins a t t imes vary ing f rom a bout 1 00 b .c. t o a bout 7 40 a .d. d epend ing o n t he l oca l ity, ( Chambers 1 974, Turner e t.a l. 1 973 D ona ldson unpub l ished). The t wo d iagrams n earest t h is s i te, W ee lhead Moss a nd S imy F o lds, s how z one G b eg inn ing a bout 1 100 b .c. and a f ter a bout 5 00 b .c . r espect ive ly presumab ly d emonstrat ing t he t wo a reas d ifferent h istor ies o f s ett lement . The po l len s pectrum c anno t r ea l ly d ate t he s i te t herefore, but n everthe less i nd icates a l oca l l andscape a lmcst d enuded o f n a tura l f orest a nd under s ome f orm o f agr icu lture. J l t i s a lso i nterest ing t hat h eather d oes n o t g row i n t he i mmed iate !ca l i ty t oday . As w el l a s a bundant h ea ther po l len, c arbon ised s hoots a nd l eaves w ere a lso r ecovered, i nd ica t ing burn ing ." ( Dona ldson p ers.comm.) The c harcoa l s ample s ent f or r ad io-carbon d eterm inat ion p roved t o b e t oo sma l l f or n orma l methods a nd was t herefore t ransferred t o t he Harwel l e xper imenta l sma l l c oun ter . The r esu lt o bta ined was t ota l ly unexpected: 1 450±100 bp. S ince t he e xcavators r egarded t he s i te a s p robab ly p reh istor ic t he r ad io-carbon d eterm inat ion was n ot f e lt t o b e s at isfac tory. A sma l l e xcavat ion was t herefore undertaken w ith t he o b ject o f r etr iev ing a l arger s ample f or a s econd r ad io-carbon d a te. The r esu l t f or t h is s econd s amp le was 1 360±90 = 5 90 a .d. ( HAR 3 623). S ince t he r esu lts a re c ompat ible t here c an b e l i tt le d oubt t ha t t hey a re c orrec t a nd t ha t t his ' preh istor ic ' m onument b e longs t o t he post-Roman p er iod. I t i s d iff icu lt t o s uggest a f unct ion f or t h is c ircu lar banked enc losure. The a bsence o f postho les i n t he bank s eems t o p rec lude i t s u se f or agr icu ltura l p urposes whi le t he s ing le postho le i n t he i nter ior i s hard ly s uff ic ient 5 1

ev idence f or a bu i lding o f a ny s ort . To l abe l i t a s ' ceremon ia l ' o r ' r i tua l ' d oes n ot expla in v ery much a bout i t s poss ible uses , but i t may w el l f a l l i nto t h is c ategory. I n a l ong a nd l earned s er ies o f a rt ic les A l icrof t t raced a c onnect ion b etween p reh istor ic s tone c irc les, ' moots ', and t he c ircu lar c hurchyards o f e ar ly Chr ist ian ity, ( Al icrof t 1 928) whi le much o f t he data o n wh ich h is a rgumen ts were based has b een s uperseded a nd many o f h is c onc lusions c an n o l onger b e r egarded a s v a l id, s uff icien t r ema ins t o r etain t he l ong t hough t enuous c onnect ion. M idd le Hurth, w ith i ts a ppearance o f b eing a p reh istor ic s tone c irc le o r r ing c a irn , i s p reh istor ic o n ly i n t he s ense t ha t t here i s no documentary ev idence f or i t o r i ts purpose. The s i te was n ot f u l ly e xcavated a nd i t i s j ust p oss ib le t hat i n i ts l atest phase a s i n a n e ar l ier o ne i t may have b een a f unerary monument. S ome k ind o f c ont inu i ty i n f unct ion s eems t o b e i nd icated by t he d ec ision t o c onstruc t t he c ircu lar b anked s i te o n t op o f t he e ar l ier mound when s pace was a va i lab le t o a vo id t h is a l together. The c lose p rox im ity o f t he T eesda le Cave w ith i ts b eheaded human s ke leton i s a lso o f i nterest . The ' agr icu ltura l u se ' i nd icated by t he p o l len ev idence a nd t he p resence o f t he s i te i t se lf s uggest t ha t s ome k ind o f s ett lement s hou ld ex ist c lose by. A l i tt le t o t he n orth o f M idd le Hurth a f ragmentary a nc ient f i eld boundary r uns a long t he edge o f t he l imestone o utcrop, i nterrupted by s hake h o les. A ttached t o t h is b oundary a re t he f oundat ions o f a v ery sma l l D-shaped c ons truction which m ight p oss ib ly b e a house. To t he s outh o f t he s i te a re t he s tone f ounda tions o f a t wo-roomed r ectangu lar bu i ld ing. N e i ther o f t hese s eems t o b e d irect ly a ssoc iated w ith t he c ircu lar b anked e nc losure o r t he l ong mound. I t i s poss ible t ha t i f a s ett lement e xisted i n t he v icin ity o f M idd le Hurth t ha t i ts bu i ldings w ere o f t imber, i n which c ase t hey a re un l ike ly t o h ave l ef t a ny r ecogn isab le r ema ins. The s econd s i te, o r r ather , g roup o f s i tes, i s a t S imy F o lds. Excava t ions w ere c arr ied o ut h ere i n 1 976 , 1 979 a nd 1 981 , ( Cogg ins e t.a l. 1 983). Here, t hree f armsteads o f s im i lar s ize o ccupy a narrow l imestone/sha le t errace a t a h e ight

a nd d esign o f 3 81m o n

Ho iw ick F e l l. E ach s ite c ons ists o f a l ong narrow r ectangu lar bui ld ing a l igned e ast-west w ith a n a d jo in ing sma l ler s ub-rectangu lar bu i ld ing a l igned n orth-south. These bu i ld ings f orm t wo s ides o f a sma l l e nc losed yard. Two o f t he s i tes have , i n a dd i tion, a t hird sma l l bui ld ing a t a l i tt le d istance. A t t he t hird s i te a c omp lex o f bui ld ings has b een over la id by a l ater c ircu lar s tone wa l led e nc losure t o wh ich i s a ttached a r ectangu lar bu i ld ing . Both s i tes 1 a nd 2 p rov ided ev idence f or i ron work ing but sma l l f inds w ere a lmost c omp lete ly a bsent: a s tone s pind lewhor l, t wo f ragments o f a r otary quern, a n i ron f erru le a nd o ne o r t wo bones . As n oted i n p rev ious c hapters t here i s ev idence f or n eo l i thic, bronze age a nd l ate p reh istor ic a ct iv ity on t he s i te. Two r ad io-carbon d ates a re s o f ar a va i lab le f rom c harcoa l i n bu i ldings o f s i tes 1 a nd 2 . These a re r espect ive ly 1 210±80 = 7 40 a d ( HAR 4 034) a nd 1 180± 0 = 7 80 a d (HAR 1 898). Excavat ion s uggests t ha t e xist ing p reh istor ic f i e ld systems were r eused by e ar ly med ieva l s ett lers. I t i s unfortunate t hat t he p auc ity o f f inds means t hat l i tt le c an b e s a id o f t he e conomy o f t he s ett lement e xcept t hat i ron was b eing worked. The po l len d iagram 5 2

f rom a p ea t d epos i t c lose t o s i te 3 s hows t he e x istence o f pasture a nd a lso o f a rab le. I n t ype t he bu i ld ings c lose ly r esemb le t hose o n a s i te a t R ibblehead d ated by c o in ev idence t o a bout A .D. 8 00 ( King 1 978). S im i lar g roups o f bu i ld ings a re a lso f ound i n S cand inav ia ( Ka land p ers.comm.) a nd i t s eems l ike ly t ha t t hey may b e r epresentat ive o f up land s ett lemen t i n N . W. Europe g enera l ly r ather t han b eing s pec if ica l ly Norse o r Eng l ish. Two s im i lar s i tes a re known e lsewhere i n Upper Teesda le. One, a bout ha lf a m i le e ast o f S imy F o lds, o ccupies a t iny c ramped l oca tion i n a s add le b etween t wo wh in o utcrops a t Ho lw ick Cast les. I t i s much d isturbed a nd part ia l ly c overed by s cree but s hows t he s ame f eatures o f t wo bu i ld ings p art ly enc los ing a f armyard . The s econd o f t hese i s a t W i l ly Br ig S ike on C rossthwa i te Common where i t o ccupies a sma l l g lac ia l mound b es ide a s tream. N ei ther s i te has b een e xcava ted but i n v iew o f t he ir morpho logy i t s eems l ike ly t ha t t hey s hou ld b e a ttr ibuted t o t he s ame p er iod. The p o l len d iagram f rom S imy F o lds s hows t ha t n o i mportant f orest r egenerat ion t ook p lace a f ter t he a rea had o nce b een c leared, a p rocess which s eems t o have b egun i n t he b ronze a ge a nd was v irtua l ly c ompleted i n t he l ater p reh istor ic p er iod . Cerea l po l len f rom t he s ite i s n ot p lent ifu l a nd c onf ined t o al ayer 0 .32m 0 .40m b elow t he present s urface. Two p eat s amp les have b een r ad io-carbon d ated: one f rom a d epth o f 0 .3 0m 0 .3 1m g ave a d eterm ina tion o f 6 50±60 bp ( HAR 5 069). The o ther f rom i mmed iate ly b e low t h is a t 0 .32m 0 .35m was d ated t o 6 80±60 bp ( HAR 5 069). The f ormer i nd icates t he d isappearance o f c erea l po l len a nd p resumab ly t he e nd o f c erea l g row ing. Ca l ibra t ion o f t he d ates u sing t he t ables g iven by C lark ( 1975) s uggests t ha t t h is t ook p lace dur ing t he e ar ly 1 4th c entury A ,l The p o l len d iagram t hus r esembles t o s ome e xtent t hose f rom Thorpe Bu lmer and S tewart S h ield Meadow r eferred t o a bove. I n t he c ase o f S imy F o lds t he c hange c anno t b e a ttr ibuted t o t he pun i tive e xped i t ion o f W i l l iam I but i s more l ike ly t o b e a c onsequence o f t he i ntroduct ion o f f orest l aw a nd a lso t he g enera l r etract ion o f a gr icu lture f rom t he uplands which has b een p ostu lated by s evera l a uthors ( Roberts 1 976). Charcoa l f rom o ne o f t he i ron s lag heaps a t S imy F o lds has b een r ad io-carbon d ated t o 8 20±70 bp = 1 130 a d = AD 1 200 ( BAR 4 5)6). S ince t h is h eap o ver l ies a n e nc losure w a l l i t h e lps t o c onf irm t he d ec l ine o f a gr icu l ture a t t his t ime. -

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There a re many o ther e xamp les o f s i tes w ith r ectang u lar b u i ld ings o f v ar ious k inds . The f ourth s i te a t S imy F o lds f or e xample h as t wo t hick-wa l led c urv i l inea r s tructures but a lso a l ong n arrow t hree-roomed r ectangu lar bu i ld ing measur ing 1 4.0m x 5 .øm o vera l l. The s outh wa l l o f t his bu i lding f orms p arts o f a f i e ld b oundary a nd t here a re t wo entrances i n t he l ong n orth wa l l ( F ig.41). P erhaps t he b est e xamp le o f a f armstead o f t h is t ype i s t ha t a t Y ear l H i l l ( F ig.5:89) which o ccup ies a sma l l s he lf o f r e la t ive ly l eve l g round b enea th a wh instone o utcrop. There a re t he f oundat ions o f a r ectangu lar bu i lding o f a bout 1 4m x 5 m w ith t hree r ooms. The s ing le e ntrance i s i n t he s outh f ac ing l ong wa l l, a nd i n f ront o f t he h ouse i s a sma l l e nc losed yard. A f ew metres away a re t he r ema ins o f t wo sma l l i rregu lar s tructures a nd a lso a c a irn ( F ig.40). L ess o bv ious ly r ectangu lar a re t he bu i ld ings a t P asture F oot, Dry Beck a nd Water Race. P asture F oo t ( N) o n t he e dge o f t he s outh b ank o f t he r iver i s a t wo-roomed r ectangu lar bu i ld ing 5 3

w ith r ounded c orners a nd t hick wa l ls measuring a bout 2 0m x 7 m o vera l l. The e ntrance i n t he e ast gab le i s s hie lded by a c urv ing p orch wa l l. There a re s l ight t races o f a sma l l enc losure t o t he s outh o f t he bu i ld ing ( F ig. 4 7). On a s l ight kno l l i n a b end o f D ry Beck a re t he r ema ins o f t wo r ectangular bu i ld ings bounded on t wo s ides by t he b eck a nd o n t he t hird by a bank a nd d itch. Both bu i ld ings have b een part ly e roded by t he b eck, o n ly a bout ha lf o f t he s outhern o ne r ema in ing. E ach i s o f one r oom on ly w ith t he e ntrance o n t he e ast g ab le a nd p robab ly measured a bout 1 5mx 6 m o vera l l. Corners a re r ounded a nd wa l ls a re o f wh in b ou lders ( F ig.42). On t he o pposi te s ide o f t he b eck s a l arge h eap o f i ron s lag a nd t wo f ragments o f p robab ly 1 1th c entury pottery w ere f ound i n t he b eck b eneath t his s lag h eap. Bui ldings a nd s lag h eap may b e c onnected but t here i s no e v idence t o p rove t his. C lose t o t he water r ace o n Crossthwa i te Common i s a g roup o f t hree l arge r ectangu lar b u i ld ings w ith t h ick wa l ls, r ounded c orners a nd hav ing e ntrances i n o ne g ab le wa l l. A s imi lar s tructure c an b e s een a t B irk R igg ( E) but h ere i t under l ies t he f e l l wa l l a nd has s uffered f rom s tone r obb ing. I t measures a bout 2 0m x 8 m overa l l a nd h as a n e ntrance i n t he s outh-west g able. A f ew metres t o t he w est o f t h is i s a s econd bui ld ing o f t he Y ear l H i l l t ype; t wo-roomed, m easur ing 1 5m x 7 m a nd hav ing i ts entrance i n t he l ong e ast wa l l ( F ig -. 43). 0 . I t s eems t hen t ha t t wo basic bu i lding t rad itions c an b e r ecogn ised i n Upper T eesda le: t he f irst i s l ong , narrow, t wo o r t hree-roomed w ith s quared c orners a nd one o r more entrances i n a l ong wa l l; t he s econd i s l ess r egu lar, u sua l ly o f one r oom o n ly, w ith r ounded c orners a nd a s ing le entrance i n o ne g able wa l l. I t i s a lso p robab ly t rue t o s ay t ha t t he wa l l ing o f t he f irst t ype i s f iner a nd more r egu lar ly c oursed t han t ha t o f t he s econd . Two e xamples o f t ype 2 have b een e xcavated a t S imy F o lds a nd d ated t o t he l ate e ighth c entury . No e xamp l ec f t he f irst t ype has b een excavated a nd n o f inds have b een made but i t s eems a ln i:st c ertain t ha t t hey r epresent a l ater, p robably medieva l bu i lding p er iod. -

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D ifferences i n f orm may however i nd icate d ifferences i n f unct ion a s we l l a s o r i nstead o f d ifferences i n d ate. The p ract ice o f bu i ld ing a n ew f arm house a nd c onvert ing t he o ld o ne i nto a byre o r barn i s s t i l l c urrent. One o f t he most i ncerest i ng g roups o f r ectangu lar bu i ld ings where b oth t ypes a re f ound t oge t her i s o n Unthank S car. This i s a v ery s teep, n orth-fac ing s lope w ith o utcrops o f wh instone a nd l arge a reas o f s cree. On t he b row o f t he s lope a nd o n t he t erraces a re e ight bu i ld ings, none o f waich has b een excavated a nd f rom which n o f inds have b een r eported ( F ig. 5 1). The c ho ice o f s uch a n un l ike ly a nd a lmost i naccess ible s ite i s d iff icu lt t o understand. The h am let i s a pproached by a n arrow ho l low-way wh ich c an b e s een v ery c lear ly t o t he e ast o f t he p resen t Unthank Bridge a nd which a ppears t o b eg in a t t he d eserted v i l lage o f Unthank a f ew hundred metres away. The r e lationsh ip b etween t he t wo s ett lements -

i f t here i s o ne

-

i s f ar f rom c lear.

Rectangu lar bu i ld ings o f both t ypes d escr ibed a bove a re f ound everywhere i n t he H igh land Z one ( e g . Ramm 1 970, 1 980) a nd unt i l more d at ing ev idence i s a vai lee 1e f or t he Teesda le e xamples i t wou ld p erhaps b e unw ise t o r e ly o n morpho logy a lone t o i nd icate t heir a ge. I f t here i s n o c erta inty 5 4

t o b e D ixon Upper t heir a bout

t he age o f t hese bu i ldings n ei ther c an w e b e s ure o f t he ir u se. ( Ramm i b id) r efers t o many o f t he e xamples i n t he Borders a s ' sh iel ings ', a c onven ient t erm wh ich has b een f o l lowed i n t he g azeteer o f t his s tudy. I ts u se d oes h owever b eg a most i mportant quest ion. There i s b oth documentary a nd p lace-name e v idence f or t he c ustom o f ' sh ie ld ing ' i n t he Borders a nd a lso i n Upper Wearda le, but t hough t he p ract ice may have e x isted i n Upper T eesda le t he e v idence f or i t d oes n ot. ' Shield ' names a re, f or e xample, c omplete ly a bsent f rom t he a rea a nd t here s eems t o b e n o d ocumentary r ecord o f t he c ustom. N ei ther p lace-names nor d ocumentary ev idence e nab le t he a rchaeo log ica l r ema ins t o b e i dentif ied more p rec ise ly i n h istor ica l t erms. I t s eems c erta in t ha t f rom t he e ighth c entury Upper Teesda le f ormed a part o f t he mu ltiple e state o f Ga inford , which was p art o f t he possess ions o f t he L ind isfarne c ommun ity, a nd t ha t p robab ly t h is e state was l ater t aken over by S cand inav ians ( Morr is 1 977). But t he e xact s ign if icance o f t he phrase ' t o t he mounta ins i n t he w est ' wh ich i s u sed t o d escr ibe t he e xtent o f t his e state, i s d ebatab le, a nd w e c annot know how f ar t he up land f r inges o f t he e state w ere i ntegrated w ith i t s more l ow land f arms a nd v i l lages. Further work o n e state a nd par ish boundar ies i n r e lat ion t o t he a rchaeo log ica l r ema ins may enab le p rogress t o b e made, but t h is i s p erhaps o utside t he s cope o f t he present work.

5 5

CHAPTER VIII Mining and Metal Working. From at least the sixteenth century until the early years of the twentieth century mining and smelting of lead ore was the chief industry of Upper Teesdale. For the second half of this period the 'dual economy' of farming and mining was the basis of dales life (Roberts 1978). How early this exploitation of a major mineral resource began is uncertain. Lead mining was certainly being carried out in Upper Tynedale in the early thirteenth century (Proctor 1976) and possibly in Teesdale also. Speculations about Roman lead mining have frequently been made: 11• • • • • • the lead mines of Teesdale in the vicinity of High Force appear, from the discovery of tools and relics, to have been worked in Roman times ...... 11• (Visitors Guide to Raby Castle, 1857) Unfortunately no source is given for this information while the 'tools and relics' are not described. The exploitation of British lead ores by the Romans began almost immediately after their arrival and there can be no doubt that the industry was well organised (Tylecote 1962). The evidence for Roman lead working in the North has recently been summarised by Fairless (work in progress) who concludes that while there can be no doubt that the ores of the Alston district were used there is little positive evidence from Weardale and none at all from Teesdale. In fact there is very little evidence for Roman presence or influence of any kind in Upper Teesdale. ( Ch.VI) For pre-Roman activity the possibilities are even more tenuous. Tylecote ( 1968) has shown that the practice of adding lead to bronze, either to improve the casting properties or as a dilutant, did not reach the north of England until very late in the bronze age, perhaps the eighth century B.C. The total quantity of lead which would be needed for this purpose during the relatively brief period before bronze was replaced by iron, would be quite small. _Mining, wherever it was carried on would not have been intensive and the chances of finding evidence for it are slight. Evidence of smelting is perhaps easier to find and radio-carbon dating of charcoal from smelting sites would provide much-needed information, though it seems improbable that it would confirm Upper Teesdale as a source of lead at this period. The remains of post-sixteenth century lead mining, in the form of hushes, drifts, shafts and water-races are to be seen everywhere in the upper dale being especially common on the north side of the valley. In addition to these a few trial drifts for iron ore are to be found: between Scarberry Bridge and Winch Bridge on the south bank of the river, near Crossthwaite Farm, at Dirt Pitt, Ettersgill and at Langdon Beck. These date from the mid-nineteenth century when for a brief period there were hopes of an iron-ore boom, similar to that in Cleveland, with proposals for the construction of a railway between Alston and Middleton. These hopes were never realised though they were briefly revived during the second world war. Recent research has shown that this nineteenth century interest in iron was not the first or only attempt to exploit a valuable resource. Field work and excavation in Upper Teesdale have recovered abundant archaeological evidence for the early mining, 56

sme lt ing a nd sm ith ing o f i ron . This i s i n c ontrast t o t he e v idence f or e ar ly l ead work ing which i s m in ima l. The m in ing a nd smelt ing o f l ead s eems a lways t o h ave b een a w el l o rgan ised a nd c ommerc ia l e nterpr ise, poss ib ly b ecause t he d emand f or l ead a nd f or s i lver wh ich was r ef ined f rom i t has t rad i tiona l ly b een f rom g overnment a nd i ndustry. I n c ontrast i ron was n eeded by every f armer i n r egu lar t hough not l arge quant it ies s o t ha t i ts p roduct ion i n e ar ly t imes was p robably i nterm ittent a nd sma l l-sca le. The 0 .S . map p reserves t he n ames o f s ome o f t hese i ron work ing s i tes ( see Appendix 3 ). There a re t wo Sm ithy S l i ces, a Sm ithy Green, Ore Carr a nd Ore P i t Ho les. Ore Carr i s a b oggy a nd r e lat ive ly f la t s tretch o f moor land o n Ho lw ick F e l l where c ond itions wou ld p robab ly have b een s u i tab le f or t he f ormat ion by l eaching under s ub-arct ic c ond it ions o f b ogiron. " Th is ( bog-iron) has a v ery h igh manganese c onten t i n Wearda le i t o ccurs under t he t urf a t a d epth o f a bout 0 .2 m i n a l ayer a bout 8 0 l OOm t hick i t ( Ty lecote 1 970 1 14) This t ype o f o re was e xtens ively u sed i n e ar ly t imes. . . .

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Ore P it Ho les, a s t he n ame i mpl ies, i s a s tr ing o f r ough ly c ircu lar b e l l p its which r uns f or a d istance o f s ome 1 .0km a long Ho lw ick F e l l t o t he s outh o f Ore Carr. The p i ts a re 5 .0 l Om i n d iameter a nd a t p resent up t o 5 .0m d eep. Their d epth when b eing worked i s unknown. The p i ts wou ld e xp lo i t t he i ronstone n odu les which a re f ound i n s ha le b eds o f t he Carbon iferous s er ies. I t s eems p robab le t hat t hese t wo s i tes w ere t he ma jor s ources o f t he o res u sed i n Upper T eesda le t hough o f c ourse both bog i ron a nd n odu les -

wou ld b e f ound e lsewhere i n t he a rea . Heaps o f i ron s lag f rom b loomer ies a re f ound a t many p laces i n Upper Teesda le ( F ig.10). The g azetteer l i sts 3 2 s ites, s ome o f wh ich h ave s evera l s lag h eaps, a nd i t i s l ikely t ha t more r ema in t o b e d iscovered. S ome f ormer s i tes have b een d estroyed a nd t he s lag used f or r oad mak ing, but t hough t he number o f t hese i s n o t known e xact ly i t i s un l ike ly t o b e h igh f or most s i tes a re s ome d istance f rom f arms o r r oads . These s lag h eaps a re qu ite sma l l, t he l argest a t S kyer B eck ( F ig.36:13 ' b e ing a n ova l a bout 7 .0m x 5 .0m a nd 1 .5m h igh. I n n o c ase has i t b een p oss ible t o r ecogn ise a ny a ssoc iated s tructure c onnected w ith t he smelting p rocess, t hough i f s imp le bow l h earths o r d omed f urnaces o f t he t ype e xcavated i n W earda le w ere u sed ( Ty leco te.op.ci t.) t here wou ld b e f ew s . .rface t races. W ith t he e xcept ion o f t hose a t Ore P it Ho les a l l s lag h eaps s o f ar r ecogn ised a re s i ted b es ide a s ource o f water . I n s ome c ases t h is i s t he r iver i tse lf , i n o thers a sma l l b eck o r s ike a nd i n y et o thers s imp ly a s pring. On ly o ne s lag h eap has b een r e l iab ly dated: t his i s as ma l l o ne o ver lying t he n orth boundary wa l l o f t he S imy F o lds s i te. S lag f rom t h is was s ubm itted t o t hermo lum ine s cent d at ing a nd c harcoa l f rom t he s ame heap t o r ad io-carbon d eterm inat ion ( Cogg ins e t.a l. 1 983). The r esu lt obta ined f rom t he c harcoa l was 8 20±70 bp ( HAR 4 506). The T .L. dat ing o f t he s lag s uggested t he p robab i l ity o f a c entra l d a te o f A . D.640 ( Wr ight 1 983). There i s t hus a l arge d iscrepancy b etween t he t wo d ates, a nd o ther ev idence f rom t he s i te s uggests t hat t he 5 7

r ad io-carbon d ate i s l ike ly t o b e t he more a ccurate o f t he t wo. I t i s h igh ly un l ike ly however t ha t a l l o f t he s lag h eaps s hown i n F ig. 3 6 w ere c ontemporary. Ty lecote ( op.c it.) c ons iders t ha t t he d emand f or i ron i s l ike ly t o have i ncreased g reat ly b etween t he Norman C onquest a nd t he m id-fourteenth c entury a nd t ha t p roduct ion i n t he n orth o f Eng land e xpanded t o meet t h is. I f t h is t heory i s c orrect t hen i t wou ld b e r easonab le t o e xpect t ha t much o f t he s lag f ound i n Upper Teesda le i s med ieva l. As w e have s een , o ne s lag h eap h as been d ated t o t his p er iod. Two potsherds r ecovered f rom t he e rod ing b ank o f Dry Beck i mmed iate ly b es ide t he s lag h eap r esemb le i n f abr ic wares f rom t he c ast le e xcavat ion a t Barnard Cast le a nd da te p robab ly t o t he e leventh / twelf th c entury . But n ot a l l t he i ron smelt ing c an b e m ed ieva l. Ev idence o f i ron work ing h as been d iscovered a t t hree e xcavat ion s i tes i n Upper T eesda le. A t S imy F o lds ( Cogg ins, e t.a l. o p.c i t.) t here was i n a dd it ion t o t he s lag h eap ment ioned a bove, a bundan t e v idence f or both s melting a nd sm ithing a ssoc iated w ith a f armstead d a ting t o t he l ate e ighth c entury A . D. I t i s p oss ib le, t hough t his c annot b e proved, t ha t s ome o f t he i ron work ing r esidues w ere c onnected w ith a n e ar l ier o ccupat ion r ad io-carbon d ated t o 1 330±100 b p ( HAR 4 035). B oth t he Romano-Bri tish s ett lement s i tes o f F orcegarth P asture North ( Fa ir less & C ogg ins 1 980) a nd F orcegarth P asture S outh ( Fa ir less & C ogg ins f orthcom ing) p roduced ev idence wh ich s howed t ha t i ron sm ith ing had t aken p lace o n a d omest ic s ca le. S ince i t i s hard ly l ike ly t ha t t h is i ron was b eing i mported s ome o f t he b loomery s i tes s hown i n F ig.10 must b e p re-med ieva l. P re-Roman working i n Bri ta in i s w el l a ttested . Ty lecote ( 1962) c onc ludes t ha t i t was i n g enera l c arr ied o ut o n a v ery s ma l l s ca le u sing sma l l b ow l h earths, a nd t ha t t he s lag was n ot u sua l ly t apped o ut but was a l lowed t o s o l id ify i n t he f urnace and f orm a f urnace b ottom. The Roman p er iod s aw t he i ntroduct ion o f n ew t echn iques i nc lud ing t he p ract ice o f t apping t he mo lten s lag t o r emove i t f rom t he f urnace a nd o perat ions w ere o n a much l arger s ca le ( Ty lecote o p c i t.). I t s eems t ha t o ccas iona l ly a t l east e ar l ier s lag was r eworked a t t h is p er iod, p oss ibly b ecause i t had b een made f rom g ood o res a nd s t i l l c onta ined a n a pprec iab le amount up t o 5 0% o f i ron. ( Ty lecote o p c it. ) .

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.

I n t heory t hen i t s hou ld b e p oss ib le t o d ate t he Upper T eesda le s lag h eaps, i f o n ly v ery a pproximate ly, by exam ina t ion o f t he s lag. I n p ract ice t his wou ld n ecess i ta te s ampl ing not o n ly t he s urface o f t he s lag h eap but t he i nter ior a lso . A lso s evera l t ypes o f s lag a re t o b e f ound i n one h eap. The e xcavat ions a t S imy Fo lds ( site 1 ) p roduced e xamples o f s ix d ifferen t t ypes o f i ron s lag i nc lud ing f urnace b ottoms, t op s lag a nd r oasted o re, f rom a s ing le o ccupa t ion s i te which y ielded t wo r ad io-carbon d ates, one i n t he l ate i ron a ge a nd t he o ther e ar ly med ieva l ( Brown i n Cogg ins e t.a i. 1 983). The p osi tion i s t hus r ather more c omp lex t han a ppears f rom t he h istor ica l s ummary g iven a bove. On ly a p rogramme o f s ystematic s amp l ing a nd r ad io-carbon d ating o f s lag h eaps i s l ike ly t o make i t p oss ible t o c hart t he p rogress o f i ron work ing i n Upper T eesda le. The d istr ibut ion map o f t he s lag h eaps s hows t hree i mmed iate ly o bservab le c haracter ist ics: t hey a re f ound o ver a w ide a rea, r ough ly t heir d istr ibution c o inc ides f air ly c lose ly w ith t he d istr ibut ion o f 5 8

e ar ly s ett lement ( F ig.5) f ound c lose t o water.

a nd

t hey

a re,

a lmost

w ithout

e xcept ion,

The c o incidence b etween e ar ly s ett lement s i tes a nd b loomer ies i s t o b e e xpected: i t has a lready b een s uggested t ha t t hough i ron work ing a ctiv ity was a t i ts h eight i n t he post-Conquest p er iod, i t h ad l ong a ntecedents . S lag h eaps a re f ound a t d istances o f up t o 4 km f rom t he t wo s i tes which have b een s uggested a s t he ma in s ources o f i ron o re Ore Carr a nd Ore P it Ho les. I t i s p oss ib le t ha t o ther d epos its o f o re, part icu lar ly o f bog i ron were a lso worked, but e ven i f t h is i s t aken i nto c ons ideration i t must b e c onc luded t ha t o re was b eing c arr ied f or s evera l k i lometres t o b e sme lted. -

The o n ly o bv ious r eason f or t h is i s t ha t s upp l ies o f f ue l were n o t e asi ly a va i lab le. Where t ranspor t u s ing pack a n ima ls i s c oncerned, bu lk i s more i mportant t han w eight " 1 6 p ounds o f c harcoa l may b e r equ ired t o p roduce o ne p ound o f i ron " ( Ty lecote 1 962), i t wou ld have b een e asier t o t ransport t he r e lat ive ly s ma l l amounts o f h eavy o re t o a p lace where f ue l was a va i lab le t han t o move l arge quant i ties o f l ight but bu lky c harcoa l a nd i nc identa l ly t o r un t he r isk o f r unn ing s hort o f f ue l dur ing a sme lt. Thus t he s i tes o f s lag h eaps p robab ly mark p laces where t here was s uff icient a rea o f s u itab le t imber t o b e t urned t o c harcoa l a nd u sed a s f ue l. There a re t wo a l ternat ives h ere: e ither a l l t imber was b ecom ing s carce o r part icu lar s pecies were f avoured f or c harcoa l p roduct ion s o t hat i t was worth t rave l l ing s ome d istance t o f ind t hem. " The e ar ly s me lter d oes n ot s eem t oo p art icu lar a bout t he c ho ice o f wood f or c harcoa l a l though o ak s eems t o have b een p referred , a t l east up t o t he t hirteenth c entury. Af ter t h is s hortages were b eg inn ing t o a ppear a nd a ny t imber a va i lab le was u sed" ( Ty lecote o p c i t.). A l ison Dona ldson has k ind ly i dent if ied s amples o f c harcoa l c o l lected f rom s lag heaps a t Dry Beck. O f t he 4 2 p ieces s ubm itted, 3 3 w ere o f .

b irch, 8 o f haze l a nd 1 o f a spen. Mrs. Dona ldson c omments t ha t b irch makes e xce l lent c harcoa l a nd s o was p robably s pec if ica l ly s e lected f or t he purpose. As n oted a bove t he s i te a t Dry Beck p robably d ates f rom t he 1 1th o r 1 2th c entury A . D. O f c ourse t he s amples c o l lected n eed n ot b e r epresentat ive o f a l l t he c harcoa l i n t he s lag h eap a nd t he s lag h eap i tse lf i s no t l ike ly t o b e r epresentat ive o f a l l t he o thers i n t he a rea . Whi le o n ly a p rogramme o f c harcoa l i dentif icat ion f rom many s i tes w i l l enable f u l l i nferences t o b e d rawn, t he r esu lts f rom Dry Beck d o s ee :n t o b ear o ut t he c onc lusions quoted by Ty lecote. B irch i s o f c ourse a c haracter ist ic s pec ies o f s econdary r a ther t han p r imary wood land s o t ha t c harcoa l made f rom i ts t imber i s l ike ly t o b elong t o a l ater c ontext. Even a r e la t ive ly sma l l sme lt wou ld r equ ire a g reat d ea l o f c harcoa l a nd t herefore a s izab le p atch o f t imber . The i ntens i ty o f e ar ly s ett lement i n Upper Teesda le has b een d emonstrated i n p rev ious c hapters a nd t here c an b e l i tt le d oubt t ha t by t he Roman p er iod ' Jmber r esources, o n t he s outh s ide o f t he va l ley a t a ny r a te, w ere much d im in ished. Though t here may have b een s ome r egeneration i n t he p ost-Roman p er iod i t s eems l ike ly t ha t by t he t ime o f t he Norman Conquest t imber was o nce aga in b ecom ing s carce . The d istr ibut ion o f i ron smelt ing s i tes may t hen r ef lect t he g radua l d isappearance o f wood land w ith t he more d istant s i tes b e ing t he l ater o nes. 5 9

Wa ites ( 1964) has s uggested t hat i n N .E. Yorkshire t he c learance o f t rees f or i ron work ing l ed t o t he u se o f h igher l and and e ventua l ly t o a popu lat ion s h if t f rom t he v a l ley f loor t o t he moors. Th is d oes n ot s eem t o b e a n a ppropriate mode l f or Upper T eesda le where i n f act t he r everse s eems l ike ly t o have b een t he c ase. The a ssoc iation o f s lag h eaps w ith water may s imp ly b e t he r esu lt o f t he a ssoc iat ion o f s e lected wood land w ith s pr ings a nd s tream banks but t here may b e a more d irect c onnect ion. One o f t he d iff icu lties o f smel ting i ron i s t he n eed t o p roduce a f orced d raught o f a ir f or s evera l hours . Whi le t his c an b e done by hand o r f oot o perated b e l lows, i t i s a l abor ious p rocess . The u se o f b el lows p owered by a waterwhee l wou ld b e b oth more e ff ic ient a nd s ave l abour. Waterwhee ls w ere c erta in ly known i n Roman t imes when b oth t he ' Norse ' t ype w ith a v ert ica l a x le a nd t he undershot whee l w ith a h or izonta l a x le w ere i n f a ir ly c ommon u se. ( Derry & W i l l iams 1 960 2 50) The more e ff icient oversho t whee l was a l ater d eve lopment r equ iring t he c onstruct ion c f qu ite e labora te d ams, p its and l eats. I n t he l ater m idd le a ges s uch whee ls w ere u sed t o p rov ide p ower f or b e l lows a nd t i lt hammers i n l arge b loomeries ( Ty lecote o p.cit.). There i s however n o e v idence o f s uch a l arge s i te a nywhere i n Upper Teesda le where a l l t he s i tes s o f ar f ound a re sma l l a nd wou ld o n ly have b een u sed o ccasiona l ly. I t i s qui te poss ible t ha t a sma l l v ert ica l a x le o r undersho t whee l m ight have b een e rected t emporar i ly f or s uch o ccas iona l u se, a nd c erta in ly t he r iver a nd s ome o f t he b ecks wou ld have p rov idec s uff ic ient p ower . There i s h owever a t p resent n o p roof o f t he u se o f s uch a d ev ice t hough e xcavat ion m ight p rov ide i t . S ome o f t he sma l ler s treams wou ld n o t have a s uff ic ient f low o f water f or even a smal l whee l , s o t hat t here i s v ery p robab ly a no ther r eason f or t he a ssoc iation o f s lag h eaps a nd water, t hough i t i s d iff icu lt t o s uggest wha t t his c an b e. I t i s probab le t hen t ha t i ron work ing i n Upper Teesda le b egan i n t he l ate p reh istor ic p er iod a nd c ont inued n termttent ly, unti l a t l east 1 200 A . D., a nd poss ibly much l onger. I t does not s eem ever t o h ave b een o f much more t han l oca l i mportance, un l ike t he i ndustry i n Wearda le which Bo ldon Book s hows t o have had a f l our ishing e xport t rade. There s eems, a t a ny r ate, t o b e n o extan t d ocumentary ev idence f or i ron p roduct ion I n Upper T eesda le. Apart f rom l ead a nd i ron ' work ing t here i s l i tt le e v idence f or a ny o ther i ndustry o r e xtract ive process. There a re e xtensive o ut-crops o f c oarse g ranu lar s andstones o n b oth s ides o f t he va l ley a nd t hese w ere a lmost c erta inly quarr ied f or mak ing querns. There a re a lso t hin s eams o f r a ther poor c oa l i n t he Carbon iferous s er ies which w ere worked i n t he e ighteen th a nd n ineteenth c entur ies. The r u ined bu i lding o f Me ldon Ha l l ( 5:83) i s t he r ema ins o f am ineshop which was u ti l ised when t he c oa l s eams w ere e xp lo ited d uring t he e ighteenth c entury a nd a paved pa ck horse t rack l eads f rom i t t owards t he v i l lage o f Knock i n t he Eden Va l ley . Coa l was however b eing u sed a t a much e ar l ier d a te: t he e xcava tions a t F orcegarth P asture North a nd S outh ( Fa ir less and C ogg ins 1 980) s howed t ha t c oa l was b eing u sed a s d omest ic f ue l cur ing t he Roman p er iod. The e xact s ource o f t h is mater ia l c annot b e d eterm ined but i t must have 6 0

b een a t l east t hree k i lometres away f rom t he s i te. I f c oa l was b eing t ransported o ver s uch a d istance i t s uggests t ha t t imber was b ecoming a r e lat ive ly s carce r esource a nd t ha t i t was worthwh i le s upp lement ing i t . I nterest ing ly n o ev idence f or t he u se o f c oa l was n oted a t t he much l ater s i te o f S imy F o lds. The e xp lo i tat ion o f t h is materia l s eems t hen t o have b een o f l i tt le s ign if icance f or t he e ar ly i nhabitants o f T eesda le.

6 1

CHAPTER I X F arm ing . I n t he p rev ious c hapter i t was s uggested t ha t f or l ong p er iods a ' dua l e conomy ' o f m in ing a nd f arm ing was c haracter ist ic o f t he e conomy o f Upper T eesda le. There c an b e l i tt le d oubt t ha t e xcept p erhaps f or a v ery b rief t ime i n t he n ineteen th c entury f arm ing was a lways t he d om inant partner a s i ndeed i t was everywhere i n Brita in unt i l t he I ndustr ia l Revo lut ion. ' Farm ing ' i n a n up land r eg ion l ike Teesda le has a lways, unti l t he a rr iva l o f t he r a i lways made c orn i mport ing e asy, mean t m ixed f arm ing. Though t here i s t oday n o a rab le l and w es t o f M idd leton t his i s o n ly a r e lat ive ly r ecent d evelopment . As l ate a s 1 872 f or e xample t he f arm o f P ark End was p roduc ing whea t, o ats, bar ley , t urn ips a nd p otatoes a s w el l a s s heep a nd c att le ( Ra ine 1 872). There a re s evera l r eferences i n t he l oca l l i tera ture o f t he 1 7th a nd 1 8th c entur ies t o t he d iff icu lt ies o f r ipen ing c orn i n a n a rea where a l titude a nd c l imate were e xtreme, a nd i t i s c lear t ha t a rab le f arm ing must a lways h ave t aken s econd p lace t o s tock r earing. P robate i nventor ies o f t he f i rst ha lf o f t he s eventeenth c entury s how c lear ly t ha t c a tt le, s heep a nd horses were t he most v a luab le possess ions o f d a lesmen a t t hat p er iod ( Roberts 1 978). The e ar l ies t d ocumentary e v idence c oncern ing f arm ing p ract ice i s t he g ran t i n 1 131 by Bernard Ba l io l o f pasture r ights f or 6 0 mares a nd t he ir f oa ls t hroughout t he F orest o f Tee sda le, t o t he monks o f R ievau lx Abbey. The g rant a lso ment ions a house ' a t t he h ead o f Kaveset n ext t o E theresg i lebec ', a s i te wh ich unfortunate ly has n ot s o f ar b een i dent if ied ( Roberts o p.ci t.1 '8). F or e ar l ier t imes w e have t o d epend o n t he ev idence p rov ided by a rchaeo logy . No macroscop ic p lant r ema ins have b een r ecovered f rom e xcavat ions i n Upper T eesda le but t he i dentif icat ion o f po l len f rom a s er ies o f s i tes p rov ides s ome i nformat ion . This o f c ourse r e lates d irect ly o n ly t o t hose parts o f t he d a le where t here a re p eat d epos i ts s u itab le f or s am hng a nd t hese a re n ot n ecessar i ly t he a reas wh ich wou ld b e e xpected t o p rov ide most i nformat ion a bout e ar ly a gr icu lture. W ith o ne e xception, t he p o l len d iagrams a va i lable f or Upper T eesda le were c onstructed f or b otan ica l r ather t han a rchaeo log ica l purposes a nt . t he l eve ls which have b een r ad io-carbon d ated a re n ot a lways t hos which wou ld h ave b een chosen t o g ive a rchaeo log ica l i nformat ion. I n p art icu lar f ew d ates a re a va i lab le f or t he upper l ayers o f t he d iagrams. F ig. 7 s hows t I Te s i tes f or wh ich po l len d iagrams a re a va i lab le, a nd F ig . 8 i s a n a ttempt t o c ompare d iagrams wh ich a re o f a rchaeo log ica l i nterest .

t he f eatures o f t hese

Ava i lab le r ad io-carbon d ates a re s hown on t he l ef t o f e ach c o lumn a nd p eat d epths o n t he r ight. Where a p art icu lar l eve l has b een d ated, t he a ppropr ate p o ints a re j o ined by a f i rm l ine. Re levant c hanges which a ppear i n t he d iagram but a re not d a ted a re s hown a t t heir c orrect l eve l, a nd a b roken l i ne i s u sed t o s how t heir p robab le p lace i n t he d ate c o lumn. These i nterca lat ions h ave b een made a ssum ing a more o r l ess c onstant c ourse o f p eat d epos ition 6 2

b etween t wo d ated l evels. Th is i s o f c ourse un l ike ly t o b e a bso lute ly c orrect a nd t he d a tes s o o bta ined c annot b e r egarded a s t ota l ly r e l iab le. Neverthe less t hey c an b e u sed t o p rov ide a mode l o f e ar ly a gr icu lture i n Upper T eesda le. The phenomenon o f t he ' e lm d ec l ine ' a ppears o n a l l f ive d iagrams a t a bout 5 000 bp a s i t d oes e lsewhere i n Br i ta in. Whatever t he prec ise c auses o f t his d ec l ine i n e lm po l len t here c an b e n o d oubt t ha t i n Bri ta in i t c o inc ides w ith t he b eg inn ing o f a gricu lture ( Penn ington 1 975). C erta in ly t he f ive d iagrams f rom Teesda le s how i ncreases i n g rass a nd h erb p o l len a t t h is p er iod s uggesting t hat wood land was b e ing c leared. These w ere h owever n ot t he f i rst c learances. Upland a nd meso l ithic c learances have b een d iscussed by S immons ( 1969 , 1 975) a nd Sm ith ( 1970), wh i le Evans ( 1975) c onc ludes t hat " t here d ist inction b etween t he meso l ith ic a nd

may have b een n o n eo l ith ic c ommun it ies

c lear

( p 1 10) The c learances a ssoc iated w ith t he e lm d ec l ine s eem t o have b een more o r l ess s ynchronous i n Upper T eesda le but t here i s a marked d ivers ity i n t he d ates o f t he a ppearance o f t he f irst c erea l p o l len. A t Va l ley Bog f or e xamp le c erea l po l len i s f ound a t 4 500 bp, wh i lst a t S imy F o lds i t f irs t o ccurs s ome t hree t housand y ears l ater. I t h as a lready b een n oted t ha t p r im it ive c erea ls p roduce l i tt le p o l len s o t hat i ts a bsence i s n ot n ecessar i ly a n i nd icat ion o f t he a bsence o f c erea ls. The p resence even t hough i n v ery sma l l quant i ties o f c erea l po l len a t Va l ley Bog a nd Wee lhead Moss i s most i nterest ing. Va l ley Bog l i es a t a h eight o f 5 49m i n wha t i s n ow b leak moor land where t he o n ly hab itat ion f or m i les i s t he N C .C. r esearch s tat ion a t Moor House. Wee lhead Moss i s n ow b eneath Cow Green r eservo ir, a ga in i n a n a rea o f r e lat ive ly barren moor land a t a h eight o f a bout 4 56m. The p resence o f c erea ls a t e i ther o f t hese t wo s i tes must i nd icate a t ime when t he c l imate was warmer a nd d r ier t han a t -

-

.

p resent. A l l f ive d iagrams s how a s er ies o f u sua l ly s hortl ived c learance phases when t he p roport ion o f g rass po l len i ncreases. Turner ( 1973) w r i t ing o f t he Cow Green a rea o n ly i s " i nc l ined t o i nterpret t hese per iods o f human i nterference a s more o r l ess s ynchronous p art ly b ecause t he f actors c ontro l l ing p opu lat ion d ensi ty a re l ike ly t o h ave b een o pera t ing t hroughout t he upper d a le a nd part ly b ecause a s im i lar s er ies has b een f ound o n d iagrams i n Upper W earda le a nd t here i s ev idence t ha t t hese w ere .

.

.

s ynchronous One

o f

.

.

.

.

.

.

"

t hese

( p 4 03) s eems,

a s

n oted

a bove,

t o

c o inc ide

w ith

e lm

d ec l ine whi le t he n ext ma jor one o ccurs a t b etween 3 000 a nd 3 500 b p. This e v idence f or b ronze a ge f arm ing i s c onf irmed by t he r ad io-carbon d ate o f 3 180±60 bp ( HAR 2 414) f rom t he e xcavat ion o f B racken R igg a nd a lso by t he e v idence o f f i e ld s ystems t o b e d iscussed l ater. A t t he s ame p er iod t here i s ev idence o f s ubstant ia l c learance o n t he magnes ian l imestones o f e ast Durham ( Bart ley e t.a l. 1 976). The e lsewhere

most e xtensive c learance phase i n Upper Teesda le a s i n N .E. Eng land b egan i n t he p re-Roman p er iod. Turner

( 1976) c ons iders t ha t i n g enera l t h is c ontinued unt i l s ixth c entury A .D. Desp ite t he a bundant e v idence

6 3

a t l east t he f rom p o l len

d iagrams f or l arge-sca le c learances dur ing t he i ron-age t here was unt i l r ecen t ly n o c omp lementary a rchaeo log ica l ev idence. E xcavat ions dur ing 1 984 a t Dubby S ike ( Ch. V) r evea led t he f irst undoubted l ate p reh istor ic s ett lement s i te t o b e r ecogn ised i n Upper T eesda le. Though t here w ere no sma l l f inds , t here c an b e n o d oubt t ha t t h is was a f arm ing s ett lement. Nor i s i t l ike ly t o have b een a n i so lated e xample. The e x istence o f f arm ing c ommun it ies a t a l t i tudes o f 4 87m11600f t t he h e ight o f Dubby S ike a nd, i f t he po l len ev idence i s t aken a s a gu ide, o f 5 33m11750f t a t Va l ley Bog, s hows t ha t l and must have b een a t a p rem ium. R eyno lds s tatement t hat t he Roman p er iod was " o ne o f e normous p ressure o n a va i lab le l and ( Reyno lds 1 981, 1 06) must a pp ly even more s trong ly t o t he p re-Roman p er iod. -

-

I n Upper Teesda le p robab le Romano-Brit ish s ett lemen t s i tes a re a bundant a nd i n g enera l t hese s i tes o ccupy t he more l ow l y ing l and a t a bout 3 06m which h ad a pparent ly b een i gnored by e ar l ier f armers. Reyno lds Op .c it.) c onsiders t oo t hat t here was a c hange i n t he bas ic e conomy f rom a rab le t o pastora l f arm ing i n t he t h ird a nd f ourth c entur ies A . D. but t h is d oes n ot s eem t o b e d emonstrab le i n Upper T eesda le. Nor d o t he d iagrams s how e v idence o f a bandonment o f a gr icu ltura l l and a nd o f f orest r egenera t ion i n t he p ost-Roman p er iod. A t Moss M ire, a s i te a t a bout 3 05m b etween Barnard Cast le a nd Egg lestone, t here i s a v ery d ifferen t p icture: t he e xtensive c learances o f t he Roman p er iod a re f o l lowed a f ter a bout 4 00 A . D. by r apid a nd c omplete f orest r egenerat ion which a ppears t o c ont inue und isturbed unt i l t he f i f teenth c entury A . D. ( Dona ldson p ers.comm.). I n f our o f t he f ive po l len d iagrams f rom t he upper d a le, c erea l p o l len, t hough n ever p lent ifu l , i s p resent unt i l a bout 1 000 A . D. o r al i tt le l ater . A t S imy F o lds t he l eve l o f t he l ast c erea l p o l len has b een r ad io-carbon d ated t o 6 50±60 bp ( HAR 5 069). On ly a t Wee lhead Moss i s t here a d ifferen t p icture a nd h ere t he l ast c erea l p o l len a t a round 2 000 bp s eems t o c o inc ide w ith t he s pread o f h eather a nd b lanket b og. As w el l a s t he ev idence f rom t he f ive po l len d iagrams, c erea l p o l len has b een r ecovered f rom a n o ld t urf l ayer b eneath a n e arthen b ank a t M idd le Hurth a t a h eight o f 4 57m. " t he po l len s pectrum i nd icates a l oca l l andscape a lmost d enuded o f natura l f orest a nd under s ome f orm o f a gr icu l ture " ( Dona ldson p ers.comm.). A r adio-carbon d a te o f 1 360±90 bp ( HAR 3 623) was o bta ined f or c harcoa l f rom t his l ayer. Th is c ontrasts s harply w ith t he ev idence f rom Moss M ire. I t was s uggested a bove t ha t l ivestock was p robably a lways more i mportant t han c erea ls i n Upper T eesda le, a nd i t i s t herefore p art icu lar ly d isappo int ing t ha t v irtua l ly n o s keleta l ev idence h as b een r ecovered t o prov ide e v idence a bout t his a spect o f f arm ing . The o n ly s i te t o p roduce a n ima l b one h as b een t he Teesda le Cave ( S ims 1 971) but t he a ssemblage h ere has o bv ious ly a ccumu la ted o ver a v ery l ong p er iod a nd i t c annot t herefore b e u sed a s a n i ndicator o f f arm ing p ract ice a t a ny s pec if ic t ime. A f ew horn s hea ths have b een f ound i n p ea t d epos i ts ( Ch.II) a nd h ave u sua l ly b een a ss igned t o t he meso l ithic. I t i s poss ible however t ha t t hese d er ived f rom d omest ic r ather t han w i ld c att le. S ince t he horns o f domest ic c att le e xh ibit a w ide r ange o f c haracter istics a nd s ince t he s pecimens

6 4

e roded f rom p ea t a re i n poor c ond it ion , t hey c annot b e a ttr ibuted w ith c erta inty t o a ny p art icu lar s pec ies. Nor c an t he l eve l o f p eat f rom which t he h orns a re d er ived b e u sed w ith c onf idence f or d at ing. The s ku l l a nd horns o f a c ow a re r e lat ive ly h eavy ; i f a n a n ima l b ecame t rapped i n d eep p ea t i t s horns wou ld t end t o s ink, a nd t hus t he l eve l f rom which t hey a re e ventua l ly r etr ieved may b ear no r e lat ion t o t he l eve l o f t he s urface where t he a n ima l b ecame b ogged ( Rackham p ers.comm.). There i s t hus n o d irect ev idence whatever f or t he l ivestock wh ich must have b een t he most i mportan t a sset o f e ar ly f armers. E xcavat ions o n Dartmoor have r evea led t he h oof p r ints o f f arm a n ima ls ( Ba laam e t.a l. 1 982) but t hese have no t s o f ar b een f ound i n T eesda le. A more i nd irec t ev idence f or f arm ing p ract ice i s t o b e f ound i n t he r ema ins o f f i eld s ystems wh ich a re c ommon i n s ome p arts o f t he d a le, F igs.9 a nd 3 2 s how t hose e ar ly f i e ld s ystems wh ich have b een mapped. The method u sed f or most o f t h is mapp ing was t o w a lk t he a rea i ntensive ly once o r p referab ly t w ice l ook ing f or f i e ld b oundar ies, a nd t hen t o wa lk i t ag a in u s ing v ert ica l a ir photographs a nd mark ing v isible f eatures o n t o t hese. F ield b oundar ies wh ich a re c erta in ly o r v ery p robab ly med ieva l o r p ost-med ieva l h ave n ot b een i nc luded. These a re n ot uncommon, but have i n g enera l a d ifferent d istr ibution, b eing part icu lar ly c ommon i n t he E ttersgi l a rea . These f ea tures h ave b een d iscussed by Bri tton ( 1974). I t h as n ot y et b een f ound poss ible t o map t he who le o f t he a rea o f Upper T eesda le i n t h is f ash ion t hough a lmost a l l o f i t has b een wa lked. B lank s paces o n t he map ( F ig.38) a re n ot n ecessar i ly b lank o n t he g round a nd unmapped f i eld s ystems e x ist , f or e xample o n C ronk ley P asture a nd a round t he s i te o f Woo l I ng les. O ther a reas wh ich a re c overed by b lanket p eat have n o r ema in ing v is ible f ea tures t o map, t hough t here c an b e l i tt le d oubt t ha t s uch f ea tures s t i l l e x ist b eneath t he p eat. I n I re land l arge a reas o f p reh istor ic l andscape have b een d iscovered b eneath b lanket p ea t ( Her i ty 1 971) a nd t his must b e a s i tuat ion c ommon t o much o f t he H igh land Z one. F ig.9 s hows a c oncentrat ion o f e ar ly f i eld s ystems o n t he s outh s ide o f t he v a l ley b etween t he 3 05m and 4 57m c ontours, w ith a f ew o ut l iers a bove a nd b e low t hese l evels. S evera l d ist inct e lements a re d ist ingu ishab le. F irst a re t he l ong c ontour ing f i e ld b oundar ies wh ich c an b e t raced f or s evera l k i lometres a long Ho iw ick F e l l a nd Harter F e l l. I n p laces t hese may b e l i tt le more t han a n i nterm ittent r ow o f s tones; i n o thers t hey a re qui te mass ive h eaps o f b ou lders up t o 2 .0m t hick. There a re t hree ma in boundaries w i th a f ourth f ragmentary o ne v is ib le i n s hort s tretches n ear t he 4 57m c ontour. The l owest o f t hese has b een much d isturbed by t he c onstruct ion o f modern water r aces . Another g roup o f s im i lar c ontour ing b oundar ies c an b e s een f urther t o t he w est a t S imy F o lds a nd may w e l l f orm p art o f t he s ame s ystem. A ttached t o t hese t reaves ' a re c urv i l inear a nd s ubrectangu lar e nc losures r ang ing i n s ize f rom a bout 0 .2 h ectares t o 3 .0 h ectares i n d iameter . On t he l ower s lopes c lose t o t he 3 05m/1000f t c ontour a re g roups o f sma l l r ectangu lar a nd s ubrectangu lar f i e lds, s ome o f t hem l yncheted. Areas o f c learance c a irns a re f ound, s ometimes a ssoc iated w ith f i e lds a nd s omet imes where t here a re n o d ist ingu ishab le e nc losures.

6 5

The f oundations o f c ircu lar a nd r ectangu lar bu i ld ings o ccur b oth e nc losed a nd unenc losed. I n c ontras t t o t he number o f c ontour ing ' r eaves ' o n ly t wo r un f or a ny a pprec iab le d istance a cross t he s lope. One o f t hese, which may n o t b e p reh istor ic, i s a t t he e ast e nd o f t he a rea whi le t he o ther r uns s outh f rom S imy Fo lds t owards Woo l I ng les. S ince t he l atter i s i nterrupted by t he b e l l p its o f Ore P it Ho les i t i s l ike ly t o b e e ar ly. Whatever t he p recise h istory o f t hese f i e ld s ystems o n Ho lw ick a nd Harter F el l t here c an b e n o d oubt t hat t hey r epresent t he r ema ins o f ah igh ly o rgan ised s ystem o f l and d iv ision. I n r ecent y ears much a ttent ion h as b een f ocussed o n r emnant up land f i e ld s ystems a nd o n t he a gr icu ltura l pract ices f or which t hey a re t he s urv iv ing ev idence s o t ha t t he l i terature o f t he s ub ject i s e xtens ive ( Bowen & F ow ler 1 978 , F ow ler 1 981). The most d eta i led s tudy was c arr ied o ut on Dartmoor . ( F lem ing 1 978, Wa inwright e t.a l. 1 979, 1 980 , Sm ith e t.a l. 1 981 , Ba laam e t.a l. 1 982) Most o f t he e lements f ound i n t he S haugh Moor a rea a nd d a ted t o t he b ronze a ge a ppear a lso on Ho lw ick F e l l but t here a re n otable e xcept ions. There s eem t o b e n o e xamples i n Upper Teesda le o f t . r ie ' s tone r ows ' o r s tone c irc les o r o f t he l ong d istance c ross-contour r eaves. The o r igina l f unct ion o r f unct ions o f t hese b ronze a ge f ields, e nc losures a nd b oundar ies i s d iff icu lt t o i nterpret a nd i t i s un l ike ly t hat i t w i l l e ver b e poss ib le t o d eterm ine t hese w ith c erta inty. I n a most i l lum inat ing paper , F ow ler ( 1981) has c ompared t he c onstructi on o f t he b ronze a ge e nc losures w ith t he h istor ica l par 1 iamenta y Enc losures o f t he l ate e ighteenth a nd e ar ly n ineteenth c en tur ies. He p o ints o ut h ow d iff icu lt i t i s f or u s t o understand t he c omp lex p rocesses by wh ich t he l atter w ere c arr ied o ut a s r ecen t ly a s t wo hundred y ears a go a nd h ow much more d iff icu lt i t i s t o d iscern t he i mportant f acts b eh ind a s eries o f e vents t hree t housand y ears e a l ier. Desp ite t he uncerta inty i nheren t i n t he rrob lem, t he quest ions must b e f aced: why a nd by whom w ere t hese y i e ld s ystems e stab l ished a nd how w ere t hey u sed? A c ompl icat ing f actcr i s t hat w e a re s ee ing t he r emnants o f a s ystem which , p resumab ly t ook many y ears t o c omplete a nd which has b een f requent ly mod if ied a nd c hanged s ince i ts i ncept ion. That t he r ema ins o f prehistor ic f ie ld s ystems o n t he Westmor land f e l ls c ou ld n ot b e t aken a t t he ir f ace v a lue a s f oss i ls o f t he a gricu ltura l s ystem o f t he bronze a ge was r ea l ised a t l east a s l ong a go a s 1 912: " f or t he anc ient British i nhab itants dwe l l ing i n sma l l c ommun i t ies bui lt t he ir v i l lage h omesteads o n h igh a nd o pen s i tes which wou ld g ive a c ommand ing v iew o f t he s urround ing c ountry a nd y et b e s he ltered f rom v io len t w inds. The s hepherds o f l ater t imes f ind ing , o n t he borders o f t he mounta in p astures, e nc losures r eady made o r e as i ly mod if ied t o s u i t t heir r equ irements a nd a ccess ib le f rom t he l ow lands, wou ld o f c ourse t ake a dvantage o f t hem " ( Hughes 1 912 3 98-9). Excavat ions a t S imy F o lds ( Cogg ins e t.a l. 1 983 ) have d emonstrated t he t ruth o f t h is. Here f armsteads o f t he l a te e ighth c entury A . D. have made u se o f a nd mod if ied p re-ex ist ing f i e ld b oundar ies a nd have t hemse lves b een i ncorporated i nto a l ater s ett lement p a ttern. I t i s i nterest ing t o n ote a lso t ha t t he modern s heepfo lds o n Ho lw ick F e l l a re a lmost a l l s i ted among t he r ema ins o f p reh istor ic s ett lement. The Shaugh Moor p ro jec t has d emonstrated t hat s ett lement i n t hat a rea was d eve loped s oon a f ter t he m idd le o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium b .c.

( Ba laam e t.a l. o p.c i t.). 6 6

Though t he f i eld s ystems on Ho lw ick F e l l have n ot y et b een da ted i t s eems j ust if iab le t o a ssume t ha t t hey t oo b e long t o t he b ronze age. I f we c an b e r easonab ly c onf ident o f t he d ate o f t hese enc losures we c an n ot b e s ure o f t he u ses t o which t hey w ere put. F ow ler (op.c it.) w rit ing o f t he r ectangu lar f ie lds o f P ar l iamentary Enc losures, po ints o ut t ha t " w e wou ld b e o n t he wrong t rack i n t ry ing t o i nfer un iform ity o f f unct ion f rom s im i lar ity o f f orm " An e nc losure o r bu i ld ing on a modern f arm may b e u sed f or a multipl ic ity o f purposes qu i te unconnected w ith t he f unct ion f or wh ich i t was o r ig ina l ly bu i lt. Enc losures have n orma l ly o ne o r more bas ic f unct ions which may b e s impl if ied a s : ( a) t o k eep a n ima ls o ut ( b) t o k eep a n ima ls i n ( c) t o d ef ine p roperty. Whi le t he a n ima ls t o b e k ept i ns ide a n enc losure a re l ike ly t o have b een d omest ica ted o nes, t hose which n eeded t o b e e xc luded m ight b e e ither w i ld o r d omest ic. I t wou ld have b een e ssen t ia l t o k eep o ut d eer , c att le, s heep, horses a nd p igs f rom f i e lds where c orn was b eing g rown f rom a t l east Apr i l t o October and f rom meadow l and b etween May a nd S eptember. I t wou ld have b een equa l ly i mportan t t o e xc lude t hem f rom p laces where g ra in, s traw a nd hay were s tored dur ing t he w inter months. S eed c orn wou ld n eed s pec ia l p rotect ion . K ing ( op.c it.) has s uggested t hat t he sma l l ' garden ' p lots c lose t o houses w ere

probab ly u sed

f or

g row ing c orn

a nd t hus

wou ld

b e under

t he

c losest s uperv is ion. As

t hey e x ist t oday t he

f i eld boundar ies on Ho iw ick

F e l l wou ld

b e qu ite u se less a s s tock barr iers. I n s ome c ases t hey a re s uff icient ly mass ive t o s uggest t hat i f t he t umbled s tone were r ep laced t he o r ig ina l wa l l may have s tood l i tt le over 1 .Om h igh. There i s no ev idence however t hat c oursed d ry s tone wa l ls were known i n t he b ronze a ge and i t i s much more l ike ly t ha t n one o f t hese boundar ies was ever more t han a heap o f dumped s tone d er ived f rom f i e ld c learance. I f t h is i s t he c ase t hen t o b e e ffect ive t hey must have b een s urmounted by s ome k ind o f s uperstructure. Th is c ou ld have b een e ither a l iv ing h edge, a p ermanent wooden f ence o r a t emporary a rrangement o f hurd les , a nd i t s s ize a nd c onstruct ion wou ld d epend on t he k ind o f a n ima l i t was d es igned f or. P resent d ay c att le a nd horses a re r e lat ive ly e asy t o c ontro l a nd a b arr ier on ly a bout 4 f eet h igh may we l l have b een s uff ic ient even f or t heir bronze a ge e qu iva lents. I t wou ld have n eeded t o b e s trong but n ot part icu lar ly c lose ly s et . S heep, p igs and d eer a re much more d iff icu lt. Modern S oay s heep, a breed which c lose ly r esemb les b ronze a ge an ima ls, w i l l e as i ly c l imb a wa l l s ix f eet h igh whi le d eer f ences a re usua l ly a bout e ight f eet i n h e ight. P igs, i f unrung, w i l l uproot h edges a nd push t heir way t hrough any sma l l g ap. The most e ffect ive p ermanen t f orm o f barr ier f or a l l t hese a n ima ls wou ld have b een a s tone r e inforced bank s urmounted by a t a l l c lose s et h edge. F or t emporary u se hurd les wou ld p robab ly b e a dequate. I n a ny c ase t he barriers s urround ing c orn a nd h ay f i e lds wou ld n eed t o b e c onstant ly watched a j ob which presumab ly f e l l t o t he c h i ldren. F ortunate ly t he f eed ing t err i tor ies o f t he a n ima ls c ons idered a bove d o not c o inc ide t hough t hey d o o ver lap. Thus i n s ummer i t i s p robab le t hat s heep wou ld b e g razing t he h igher a nd more d istant p astures whi le i n a utumn p igs wou ld b e i n t he d enser wood land a nd -

s o a t any o ne s eason t he t hrea t t o g row ing c rops wou ld b e r educed.

t o

The c onta in ing o f f arm s tock p resents s im i lar phys ica l p rob lems t hose p resented by t he ir e xc lus ion a nd t he t wo c an b e 6 7

c omp lementary; c att le which a re s ecure ly enc losed by a f ield wa l l a re o f c ourse e xc luded f rom t he c ornf ie lds a nd meadows. However t he f arm ing p ractices which make enc losure o f s tock n ecessary r ather t han mere ly u sefu l a re qu ite d ifferent. Archaeo log ists o f ten s peak o r wr ite g l ibly a bout ' pounds ' o r ' s tock enc losures ' w ithout e xp lain ing o r t hink ing a bout what t hese i mply. I n a p astora l f arm ing r eg ime s tock wou ld n eed t o b e enc losed f or s hort p er iods on ly a t i nterva ls t hroughout t he y ear, a nd f or t he r est t hey wou ld p robab ly be o n f ree-range. Two ma jor r ound-ups wou ld b e r equ ired i n t he y ear t hough i t may have b een d es irab le t o have more . I n l ate s pring l ambs a nd c a lves wou ld n eed t o b e c o l lected and marked a nd s urplus ma les c astra ted. The most i mportant r ound-up h owever wou ld be t he l ate a utumn o ne f or c ount ing, s e lect ion o f b reed ing s tock a nd cu l l ing o f s urp lus a n ima ls. These r ound-ups wou ld r equ ire a s trong ly f enced enc losure but t heir durat ion wou ld b e b rief , and f or t he r es t o f t he y ear t he e nc losure wou ld b e ava i lab le f or o ther f arm ing n eeds; w ean ing o f l ambs, m i lking ewes o r poss ibly c ows, s egrega t ing bu l ls a nd r ams a nd s o on , none o f wh ich u ses i s l ike ly t o have l eft a ny a rchaeo log ica l t race. I t s eems un l ike ly t ha t f arm a n ima ls wou ld b e i n-w intered t hough e qua l ly un l ike ly t hat t hey wou ld s urv ive w ithout s ome a dd itiona l w inter f eed. Nowadays f e l l s heep n eed h ay on ly when p ro longed s now c over r enders h eather and g rass i naccess ib le. Out-w intered c att le i n Upper Teesda le t oday r equ ire s ome 2 0 pounds o f hay p er d ay, but i f t hey have a ccess t o s crub wood land t hey c an s urv ive o n l ess. " It i s qu ite c lear t ha t f or a l ong p er iod wood land g raz ing was o f c r it ica l i mportance t o s tock r earing i n Bri ta in." ( Spray 1 981 9 8) There i s n o ev idence f or haymak ing i n t he p re-Roman p er iod but i t i s d iff icu lt t o b el ieve t hat i t d id n ot t ake p lace. O ther p lan ts were p robab ly a lso c o l lected f or w inter f odder . I vy has been u sed i n h istor ica l t imes a nd t here i s s trong ev idence f or i ts u se i n t he b ronze a ge ( S immons and Dumbleby 1 974). Ho l ly and even g orse have a lso b een u sed i n h istor ica l t imes ( Spray 1 981), a p ract ice which may w e l l d ate f rom t he preh istor ic a lso . The l arge s tand o f j un iper o f Ho lw ick F e l l i s t oday part icu lar ly v a lued by s heep f armers f or t he b rowse a nd s he lter wh ich i t p rov ides. The p lace name Ho lw ick may i n f act b e d er ived f rom t he f ormer p resence o f ho l ly t rees which c ou ld b e u sed f or w inter f odder ( Ekwa l l 1 960). A l l i n a l l Upper Teesda le wou ld have b een a n a ttract ive a rea f or e ar ly f armers. The g eo logy o f Ho lw ick F el l i n part icu lar w ith i ts s uccess ion o f bands o f l imestones a nd s andstones was part icu lar ly f avoured, p robab ly b ecause i t g ave w i thin a sma l l a rea a ccess t o d ifferent s o i l t ypes s u itab le f or d ifferen t purposes . The i mportance o f t he f orest edge z one t o e ar ly s ett lers has b een s tressed i n p rev ious c hapters, a nd i t i s i nterest ing t o note t ha t Barker and Web ley ( 1978) have p roposed a s im i lar p attern f or t he n eo l ith ic e xp lo i tation o f s outhern c entra l Eng land. The g enera l s equence o f e ar ly f arm ing a ct iv ity i n Upper T eesda le a s d educed f rom po l len d iagrams, f i e ldwork and e xcavations i s f a ir ly c lear. Though wooded t he l andscape was n ever a c losed f orest, a nd f rom a bout 5 000 bp onwards e x ist ing c learances were e xpanded by n eo l ith ic f armers a nd a l i tt le c erea l was g rown. None o f t hese c learances a ttested by t he po l len r ecord c an b e c onf ident ly 6 8

i dentif ied a rchaeo log ica l ly t hough S trands G i l l may b e s uch a s i te. Here i rregu lar e nc losures t ota l l ing a bout 6 .2 ha. a re b ounded by c learance b anks. There a re t he f oundat ions o f a c ircu lar bu i ld ing, a s ubrectangu lar o ne a nd a lso a c a irn f rom which was r ecovered a b roken po l ished a xe. S ome o f t he s tones i n t he c learance b anks a re qu i te sma l l, a nd t he enc losure i tse lf g ives t he i mpress ion o f b eing a l arge garden r a ther t han a n a rab le f i e ld. Dur ing t he b ronze a ge l arger and more o rgan ised f i e ld s ystems a ppear but t he f arm ing p attern r ema ins o n t he who le a p astora l one. I t i s d iff icu lt t o e st imate t he s ize o f t he f arms a t a ny p er iod b ecause t hough i nd iv idua l e nc losures c an b e measured, t he e xtent o f g raz ing l and whether p r ivate ly o r c ommuna l ly owned c anno t b e quant if ied. Nor c an more t han a v ery r ough e st imate o f t he number o f f arms o ccupy ing a part icu lar a rea b e made, f or t hough t he number o f p robab le h ouse f oundat ions c an b e c ounted , t here i s n o way o f t e l l ing whether o r n ot t hese w ere i n c ontemporary o ccupat ion o r whether i ndeed t hey w ere houses . A modern c ompar ison may have l i tt le va l id ity but i t i s p erhaps b etter t han noth ing. The a rea o n t he n orth bank o f t he r iver c orresponding t o Ho iw ick F e l l o n t he s outh b ank has a t presen t a bout 2 0 f arms: t here were many more i n t he n ineteenth c entury when l ead-m in ing b rought a n i ncrease o f p opu lat ion and o f sma l l-ho ld ing , but 2 0 s eems a r easonab le a ssessment f or t he c arry ing c apac i ty o f t he l and . P erhaps t hen i t i s n ot unrea l ist ic t o s uggest a f arm ing popu lat ion i n t he b ronze a ge n ot d iss im i lar t o t ha t o f t oday. There c an b e l i tt le d oubt t ha t t he n eo l ithic p opu lat ion was much sma l ler and t ha t t he i ncrease a s a g radua l one. I t i s p oss ib le t hat t he i ntensif icat ion o f f arm ing a ct iv ity c an b e t raced on t he g round: s uch a n i ntens if icat ion wou ld make t he r egu lat ion o f g raz ing v ery i mportant, a nd t h is c ou ld have b een c arr ied o ut by t he c onstruct ion o f t he l ong c ontour ing r eaves. I f t h is i nterpretation i s c orrect s ome o f t he e nc losures w i l l p re-date t he r eaves, s ome w i l l b e c ontemporary w ith t hem a nd o thers may p ost-date t hem, whi le t he r eave s ystem i tse lf may w el l b e o f more t han one p er iod. J ust a s a c lose e xam inat ion o f d ocuments c onnected w ith t he h istor ica l P ar l iamentary Enc losures s how t hese t o b e t he r esu lt o f a l ong and c omplex process , s o a t horough a rchaeo log ica l e xam inat ion o f t he b ronze a ge enc losure may s how a s im i lar c omplex ity. I t i s i nterest ing t ha t Bracken R igg s ett lement f or i nstance d oes n ot a ppear t o b e c onnected t o any r eave s ystem: o ne p oss ible e xplanat ion o ut o f many i s t ha t popu lat ion p ressure d id n ot d eve lop i n t hat a rea s uff icient ly t o make t he r egu lat ion o f p asture a n ecess ity. S pratt ( 1981) has s uggested t ha t i n t he N . York Moors a number o f s epara te t err i tor ies c an b e r ecogn ised , e ach u s ing t r ibutary s treams a s b oundar ies, c onta in ing l ow land s ett lement a s w el l a s up land a nd w ith i ts upper b oundary d ef ined by water s hed c a irns. There i s n o ev idence f or t his i n Teesda le: t he t r ibutary b ecks o n t he s outh b ank a t a ny r ate a re i n g enera l t oo sma l l t o -

make f rom

-

good boundar ies, wh i le t he m oor land which s eparates t he d a le i ts n eighbours i s p erhaps t oo e xtens ive t o make a n upper

b oundary n ecessary . The l ater p reh istor ic s i tes s o f ar o f a prob lem. On ly one Dubby S ike -

-

d iscovered p resent s omething was a d ef in i te s ett lement. I t

l ay a t a h e ight o f 4 88m/1600f t a nd n o s ign o f a ssoc iated f i e ld s ystems was noted. These may however e x ist b eneath t he d eep p eat wh ich c overs t he a rea . I t s eems un l ike ly t hat s uch s ett lements w ere t he 6 9

o n ly o nes o ccupied a t t he t ime and v irtua l ly c erta in t hat f arm ing was a lso b e ing c arr ied o n a t much l ower a lti tudes . Tha t Dubby S ike was o ccupied a t a l l dur ing t he l ate p rehistor ic a p eriod o f c l imatic d eter iorat ion must i nd icate t ha t t here was s ome p ressure o n l and r esources. -

-

By t he Romano-Bri t ish p er iod a rable f arm ing s eems t o have b ecome more ev ident and s ett lement had d ef in itely moved d ownhi l l. Excavat ions a t t he t wo n eighbour ing s i tes o f F orcegarth P asture North and S outh d ated by r ad io-carbon t o t he end o f t he s econd c entury a nd m idd le o f t he t hird c entury a .d . r espect ive ly, r evea led many f ragments o f querns i nclud ing a c omplete s add le quern . These s i tes l i e a t j ust over 3 05ml1000f t a nd o ther p robab ly Romano-Brit ish s i tes a re a t a s im i lar l eve l w ith one, W inch Bridge, b eing c ons iderab ly l ower. The f i eld s ystems o f t he F orcegarth P asture s ites a re s hown i n F ig.32 and t hough t he pa ttern i s c ompl icated by l ater med ieva l b oundar ies, l yncheted s ubrectangu lar ' Celt ic ' f ie lds c an b e d ist ingu ished. O thers c an b e f ound on Crossthwa i te Common , aga in a t o r b e low t he 3 05m c ontour, o f a t ype f am i l iar e lsewhere i n t he P enn ines e specia l ly i n t he Grassington a rea . A t W inch Br idge t here a re a lso e xamples o f l ong v ery n arrow f i elds, dated on Smearsett, Yorksh ire t o t he f ourth c entury A . D. ( King 1 978). I n t he North York Moors i t has b een d emonstrated t ha t i n s ome p laces a t l east p reh istoric f i eld boundar ies c an b e t raced d own h i l l t o t he va l ley b ottom where t hey f orm t he f oundat ions o f med ieva l a nd l ater b oundar ies ( Spratt p ers.comm.). This o bservation p robab ly a pp l ies a lso t o Upper Teesda le, but f urther work i s r equ ired b efore t his c an b e p roved. I n t he f orego ing i t has b een a ssumed t ha t e ar ly f arm ing p roduct ion i n Upper Teesda le was p r imar i ly f or home c onsumption, a nd whi le t his i s l ike ly t o b e t rue f or mos t o f t he p rehistor ic p er iod i t i s p robab le t ha t t he Roman c onquest l ed t o d emand f or c erea ls, a n ima l p roducts a nd horses ( Mann ing 1 975). Recen t excava t ions a t S tanw ick h ave p roduced quant it ies o f Roman p ottery dating f rom t he f i rst ha lf o f t he f irst c entury A . D., e ar l ier t han t he c onques t o f t he n orth ( Turnbu l l p ers.comm.). The e xcava tor s uggests t ha t a t t h is p er iod S tanw ick was an ' opp idum ' o f t he Brigantes c ontro l l ing n orth-south a nd e ast-west t rade. There i s no s ign o f a money e conomy i n t he f i rst c entury s o t ha t t he i mports o f exot ic Roman p ottery must have b een pa id f or i n k ind: c orn , woo l , l eather , horses a nd p erhaps s laves, prec ise ly t he s or t o f g oods which t he da les, i nc luding Teesda le, c ou ld p roduce i n quant ity . P erhaps t he t welf th c entury monks o f R ievau lx pastur ing t he ir horses i n Upper Teesda le w ere f o l low ing a much e ar l ier p receden t. The f arms o f t he i mmed iate post-Roman p er iod have n o t s o f ar b een i dent if ied. I t has a lready b een noted t ha t t here i s n o ev idence i n t he upper da le f or t he a bandonment o f f arms a nd f or t he f orest r egenera t ion which i s f ound e lsewhere i n t he north-east. The e igh th c entury f armers a t S imy F o lds s eem t o b e c ont inu ing i n much t he s ame way a s t heir predecessors o f t he prev ious t wo t housand y ears. The p o l len ev idence s uggests t hat t he ma jor c hange f rom m ixed f arm ing t o a pure ly pastora l e conomy t ook p lace i n t he t wo hundred

7 0

y ears a f ter 1 066, but t his must b e a n overs impl if icat ion. I t i s more l i ke ly t hat t he f arms i n t he a reas f or which po l len d iagrams a re a va i lable d id r evert t o pasture a nd t ha t i n s ome c ases t here was a c hange f rom p ermanen t o ccupat ion t o s ummer s h iel ing . The bu i ld ing a t S imy F o lds s i te 4 a nd a t Year l H i l l f or e xamp le r esemb le t hose o f m ed ieva l s h ie l ings i n Northumber land a nd Cumbr ia ( Ramm, McDowa l l a nd Meer 1 970) ( D ixon 1 980). I t i s p robab ly a t t his p eriod t hat t he p resent d ay s ett lement pa ttern c oncentra ted o n t he n orth bank o f t he r iver b ecame e stab l ished. This i s ap roblem wh ich c a l ls f or more r esearch a nd l i es o uts ide t he s cope o f t his s tudy . I n h is c ompar ison o f t he P ar l iamentary Enc losures w ith t he e nc losures o f t he b ronze a ge F ow ler ( op.c i t.) a sks " were t hey r ea l ly a l l p easants i f not, where i s t he l anded g entry o f ( p 4 6) Upper Teesda le Enc losure i n p reh istor ic Bri ta in 9 I t . . .

p rov ides n o r ea l e v idence t o a nswer t his quest ion. But wou ld i t b e p oss ible t o d educe o n a rchaeo log ica l g rounds a lone t ha t 9 9% o f t he l and o f c entred

t he o n

da le t oday i s owned by t wo e states, one o f which i s S ta indrop a nd t he o ther a dmin istered f rom G lam is,

Angus? S ome

o f

t he

houses

excavated

a t

s i tes

i n

Upper

T eesda le a re

t hose o f f a ir ly s ubstant ia l f armers but t hey a re n ot i n a ny s ense ' great ' houses. I f t here was a p reh istor ic l anded g entry, t he ir s ea ts must be s ought e lsewhere. I t i s poss ible t o make s ome t entat ive s uggest ions a bout ' gentry ' t hough c oncrete ev idence t o s upport t hese i s more d iff icu lt t o s upp ly. Many o f t he l anded g entry o f t he Enc losure movement had a cqu ired t he ir w ea lth i n t he E ast-Ind ia C ompany a n e xample o f t he ' prest ige g oods/externa l e xchange ' mode l f or t he s tructure o f s oc iety. This wea lth was t hen u sed f or t he a cquis it ion o f l and, a n a cquis it ion which c onferred o n i ts n ew o wners both power a nd s tatus. L ater i n t he n ineteen th c en tury i t -

w as t he c oa l a nd f actory owners who u sed t he ir n ewfound w ea lth t o t he s ame e nds. Row lands ( 1980) has p resented f or t he b ronze age a v ery s im i lar hypothesis f or a s oc iety based on k insh ip and e xchange r e lat ionships, i n t h is c ase l arge ly bronze t oo ls a nd weapons. I t has b een s uggested a bove t ha t S tanw ick a cted a s a n e xchange c entre i n t he e ar ly Roman p eriod where prest ige g oods l ike Roman pottery c ou ld b e o bta ined i n r eturn f or pastora l p roducts . P o l it ica l p ower t hen i s l ike ly t o h ave b een c entred i n p rehistor ic t imes a s i n Ang lo-Saxon a nd Norman t imes, i n l ower Teesda le. I t i s poss ib le h owever t hat t his i s t o m isinterpret t he e v idence. P ower a nd s ta tus d o n ot n ecessar i ly s how t hemse lves by t he d isp lay o f o stentat ious w ea lth: Gengh is Khan f or i nstance pr ided h imself upon d ress ing, e a t ing and l iv ing e xact ly l ike t he r est o f h is s ub jects . The e ar ly i nhab itants o f Upper Teesda le had o ne i mportant barga in ing c ounter i n t heir d ea l ings w ith t hose who l ived i n t he l ower d a le t hey -

c ontro l led t he r oute t o t he West v ia Ma ize Beck a nd H igh Cup N ick a nd t his may we l l have g iven t hem g reater s tatus t han a ppears i n -

t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord.

7 1

CHAPTER X Conc lus ion. I n h is s ummary o f t he h istory o f man i n Upper T eesda le, Roberts ( 1976) a sked whether t he p lace n ame e v idence d id n ot s uggest t ha t " man 's hand h as a lways r ested r e lat ive ly l ight ly o n t he upper d a le " ( p 1 41) The p rev ious c hapters o f t his s tudy h ave d emonstrated t ha t i n f ac t t he upper d a le was i ntens ive ly u sed by e ar ly man s o c ontrad ict ion i s c a l led f or .

t ha t

s ome

e xp lana tion

o f

t he

a pparent

The s tudy o f p lace n ames i s o f c ourse a h igh ly s pec ia l ised f ield o f know ledge but o ne which h as a lways a ttracted s pecu lat ion . The p lace n ames o f Upper T eesda le h ave b een c ons idered by Embleton ( 1887), Hu l l ( 1920) a nd S tokoe ( 1929) a nd s ome a re a lso ment ioned i n t he s tud ies o f t he p lacenames o f Durham Counth by Mawer ( 1920) a nd Watts ( 1970). This a rt icle i s n o t t he p lace f or a r econs ideration o f t his mater ia l a nd t he p resen t wri ter i s w e l l aware o f h is own l ack o f s pec ia l ist know ledge i n t h is f i e ld. As R eaney ( 1060) p o ints o ut qui te b lunt ly " more n onsense has b een wr itten on t he s ub ject o f p lacenames t han o n a ny o ther " I t i s however e ssentia l t o make a f ew o bservat ions o n t he s ub jec t a nd hope t ha t t hese a re not ' nonsense '. A s tudy o f t he s ix-inch 0 .S . maps s hows t hat R oberts ( op.c i t.) was c orrect i n h is s tatemen t t ha t t he ma jor ity o f T eesda le p lace names a re t opograph ica l r ather t han s ett lement o r p ersona l n ames. Many o f t hese t opographica l names i nc lude e lemen ts o f Norse o r ig in a s i ndeed d oes t he g enera l vocabu lary o f Upper T eesda le: ' g i l l ', ' ho lm ', ' carr ', ' beck ', ' f lat ' a nd o thers a re v ery c ommon. Hul l ( op.c i t .p 8 9) c ons idered t ha t t he p lace n ames o f Upper T eesda le c onta ined s uff ic ient C e lt ic a nd Norse e lements t o s how t ha t " i t was e v ident ly p art o f t he e astern boundary o f S trathc lyde, h e ld by t he Br i tons t i l l t hey c ame under t he sway o f t he Norsemen f rom t he I s le o f Man " Whatever may b e t he t ruth o f t h is t heory , t he a bsence o f h abi tat ion a nd p ersona l names d oes n oth ing t o c onf irm i t whi le Watts ( op.ci t.) makes i t c lear t ha t " many o f t hese ( g i l l) names p robab ly b e long t o t he M idd le Eng l ish p er iod when ' g i l l ' l ike a number o f O ld Norse t opograph ica l t erms was na tura l ised i nto t he Eng l ish d ia lects " ( p 2 61) One p lace n ame uncons idered by any o f t he a bove a uthors may poss ibly have a b ear ing o n t he p ostu lated c onnect ion b etween t he upper d a le a nd Cumbr ia . The i so lated s ett lement o f B irkda le ( NY 8 04279 ) now c ons ist ing o f one f arm on ly, i s c lose t o t he Ma ize Beck b etween Teesda le a nd t he Eden v a l ley . No e ar ly s pe l l ing o f t he name a ppears t o b e e xtant a nd i t i s u sua l ly t rea ted a s hav ing a s tra ightforward d er iva t ion a nd s ign ify ing ' b irch va l ley '. Wh i lst t his may w el l b e c orrect, i t i s d iff icu lt t o e xp la in why b irches s hou ld have b een s o p rom inen t a f eature a s t o b e c ommemora ted by a p lace n ame. The p resen t l oca l p ronunc iat ion o f t he name i s ' Birt le ' w i th t he v owe l ' i ' s carce ly s ounded. R eaney ( 1960) when c onsider ing t he Ce l tic e lemen t i n Eng l ish p lace names p o ints t o t he i mportance o f t hose which c onta in t he O ld Norse ' Breta ' ' o f t he Br i tons ' used c h ief ly o f t he Bri tons o f t he north-west and S tra thc lyde. He c i tes t he e xamples o f B irkby ' the v i l lage o f t he Br i tons ' a nd Br iscoe * the wood o f t he Bri tons '. I s i t perhaps p ossib le -

7 2

t hat B irkda le i n Upper Teesda le r epresents a p lace n ame o f t h is t ype? I ts s i tuat ion ha lfway b etween t he upper T ees a nd t he upper Eden i s one where Brit ish o r Cumbrian i nf luence m ight w el l have e x isted, a nd i t i s o n t he d irect r oute p robab ly t aken by I r ish Norse s ett lers push ing i n land f rom t he west i n t he t en th c entury. W ithout a n e ar ly s pe l l ing o f t he name n o d ef in ite c onc lus ions c an b e r eached but t he s uggest ion g iven a bove d eserves c onsiderat ion. I n s tr ik ing c ontrast w ith t he n eighbour ing v a l ley o f Wearda le, Upper Teesda le has n o e xamples o f t he M idd le Eng l ish ' sh ield ' n ames d enot ing t he p resence o f f ormer s hie l ings. The one poss ib le n ame o f t h is t ype i f we d iscount t he l ost ' Kaveset ' ( Ch.IX) i s Doras S eat ( NY 8 86330) which may i ncorpora te t he Norse ' saetr ' a s ummer p asture. The a bsence o f t h is t ype o f n ame may i nd ica te t he a bsence o f t he pract ice t o which i t r efers a nd, i f t h is i s t he c ase, a n e xp lanation f or t his a bsence i s r equired. Two o ther f eatures o f t he s ett lement pattern a lso r equ ire e xp lanat ion, t he most s tr ik ing o f wh ich i s t he a pparent d ichotomy b etween e ar ly a nd modern s ett lements. The most i mportan t env ironmenta l f actors a ffect ing s ett lement a re t hose o f c l imate a nd g eo logy which h ave b een d iscussed i n Chapter 1 . Aspect i s a lso a n i mportant c ons ideration : s outh-fac ing s lopes a re u sua l ly preferred t o n orth-fac ing ones b ecause e spec ia l ly i n h igher l at i tudes t hey r ece ive more s unshine. One wou ld e xpect t o f ind most s ett lement i n Upper Teesda le o n t he n orth bank o f t he r iver where s o i ls a nd a spect a re more f avourab le, w ith a c oncentra t ion a t l ower a lti tudes a nd a p robab le upper l im it o f a round 4 57m ( 1500ft) which i s r ough ly t he p resent t ree l ine. The p attern o f ex ist ing a nd r ecen t s ett lement s hown i n F ig.4 i s v ery much a s p red icted , t hough t here a re p erhaps more f arms n ear a nd a bove t he 4 57m c ontour t han m ight h ave b een e xpected. Most o f t hese a re t o b e c onnected w ith t he g rowth o f l ead m in ing i n t he e ighteenth a nd n ineteen th c entur ies . When one l ooks a t t he d istr ibution o f p reh istor ic a nd p re-Conquest s i tes h owever a d ifferent p attern emerges. S ett lement e xtends up t o a nd o ccas iona l ly a bove t he 4 57m c ontour but a lso d esp ite t he d isadvantages o f a n orther ly a spect, p oorer s o i l a nd t he phys ica l b arr ier p resented by t he outcrop o f t he wh ins i l l t he r ema ins o f e ar ly s ett lement a re c oncentrated t o t he s outh-east o f t he Teesda le F au lt. -

-

The s implest e xp lanat ion f or t his d ifference i s t ha t m ed ieva l a nd modern s ett lements on t he n orth bank have d estroyed a l l t races o f t he ir predecessors wh ich f ormer ly o ccup ied t he s ame s i tes whi le t hat t hose whose r ema ins s urv ive o n t he un improved l and o f t he s outh b ank were a lways marg ina l a nd a re b est r egarded a s f a i led s ett lements. Th is i s a n a ttract ive hypothes is part icu lar ly b ecause i t c annot b e e ither p roved o r d isproved a t p resent. I n t he wr iter 's o pin ion however i t i s m istaken a nd i f a dopted w ithout more ev idence t han i s y et a va i lable wou ld p resent a barr ier t o o ur understand ing o f t he t rue nature o f s ett lement i n t he upper d a le. The ev idence

f or e ar ly

s ett lemen t has

b een d iscussed i n e ar l ier

c hapters. The materia l r ema ins f rom e xcavated h abitat ion s i tes a re v ery s im i lar a nd i t wou ld probab ly b e t rue t o s ay t ha t t he l i festy le o f t he people who l ived i n t hem c hanged v ery l i tt le f rom t he n eo l ith ic o nwards: t hey w ere p rimar i ly pastora l ists who g rew a l i tt le c orn a nd f rom t he l ate p reh istor ic o nwards worked t he l oca l i ron o re d epos its. 7 3

No d oubt t he ba lance b etween p asture a nd a rab le f luctuated s omewhat w ith t he l atter b eing p erhaps o f more i mportance during t he Roman p er iod but t hese c hanges wou ld b e o f emphas is on ly, r ather t han b e ing f undamenta l . This i s o f c ourse o n ly t o b e e xpected: t he c ond it ions i mposed by c l ima te a nd g eo logy o n Upper Teesda le have a lways l ef t f ew o pt ions o pen t o f armers a t a ny p er iod, e spec ia l ly t o f armers d ependent o n t he ir own r esources. I t must have b een e ssent ia l f or t hem t o e xplo i t every p oss ib le r esource and i n o rder t o d o t his t he preferred l ocat ion f or a f arm wou ld b e a t a po int where s evera l d ifferent env ironments met. I n pract ica l t erms t h is meant t hat e ar ly s ett lements a re l ike ly t o have b een made a t t he wood land e dge, wherever t ha t happened t o b e a t any part icu lar t ime. Here a ccess wou ld have b een a va i lab le t o both f orest a nd o pen g round whi le sma l l a rab le f i e lds c ou ld b e c reated w ithout much d iff icu l ty. The c learance o f t hese p lots wou ld p rov ide s tone f or b oundary wa l ls and f or house f oundat ions whi le f rom t he f orest c ame t hat most e ssent ia l r aw mater ia l t imber . P igs c ou ld b e k ept i n t he -

d enser wood land, c att le b rowse o n t he s hrubs a nd bushes a t i ts e dge a nd s heep g raze on t he o pen f e l ls. Donk in ( 1962) w r i ting o f C isterc ian f arm ing c onc luded t ha t even a t t ha t c ompara t ive ly l a te d ate " t he c ow a ppears t o b e ma in ly a ssoc iated w i th f orest a nd up land r anges " ( p 4 2) As wood land was c leared f or bu i ld ing mater ia ls f ences and f i ring, s ett le m ent wou ld f o l low i ts r etreat ing e dge d ownhi l l. Though t he habi tat ion s ites wou ld have moved, t he f i elds t hemse lves wou ld n ot b e a bandoned and t he amoun t o f o pen g rass land wou ld s tead i ly i ncrease . A t t imes when a rab le a ssumed g reater i mportance o r when f or o ne r eason o r a nother p opu lat ion p ressure d ecreased t here wou ld b e s ome f orest r egenerat ion. I ndeed i t i s qu ite poss ible t hat when c ircumstances a l lowed i t , s uch r egenerat ion was a c t ive ly encouraged. The r e-establ ishment o f even sma l l a reas o f wood land on a bandoned up land g row ing c ou ld have l ed t o a s econdary e xp lo itation o f t hese r esources. S uch a s equence i s b road ly s upported by b oth po l len d iagrams a nd a rchaeo log ica l ev idence. I t c an hard ly b e a c o inc idence t hat a t t hree s i tes t here a re r ad io-carbon d eterm ina t ions wh ich s how b oth l ate p reh istor ic a nd post-Roman o ccupat ion . . . .

The s heer quant ity o f t he r ema ins o f e ar ly s ett lemen t on t he s outh s ide o f t he r iver, o r r ather t he s outh o f t he Teesda le F ault i s i mportant. I t s eems h ard ly l ike ly t ha t i f f i eld s ystems a s e xtensive a s t hose o n Crossthwa ite Common had e x isted on t he oppos ite bank t hey wou ld a l l have b een d estroyed by l ater f arm ing pract ice. None o f t he l and i n Upper T eesda le h as b een i ntens ive ly c ultiva ted s o t ha t who lesa le d estruct ion o f s i tes by t he p lough i s un l ike ly t o have o ccurred. The f act t hat s evera l s i tes d o s urv ive o n t he n orth bank s hows t hat s uch d estruct ion has no t t aken p lace and i t must b e c onc luded t hat t he s outh bank was t he p referred l ocation f or e ar ly s ett lement. There a re s evera l p oss ible r easons f or t his. I n t he f irst p lace i t has a lready b een s uggested t hat e ar ly f armers n eeded t o make u se o f t he var iety o f r esources wh ich w ere ava i lab le a t t he f orest edge. The f actors o f g eo logy a nd a spect which now g ive t he l and o n t he n orth s ide o f t he f au l t i ts d esirab le c haracter ist ics wou ld mean t hat i n p reh istor ic t imes i ts f orest c over wou ld b e d ense a nd t he t ree l ine wou ld b e h igher. There wou ld p robab ly b e l i tt le f orest-edge z one b e low 4 57m a h e ight a bove which t he g row ing s eason b ecomes p er i lous ly s hort. I t i s p erhaps s ign if icant t hat t he 7 4

f ew s i tes which have b een d iscovered a re a t s uch a ltitudes. Though d ense f orest wou ld p resent many p rob lems a nd f ew a dvan tages t o p rospect ive s ett lers i t was n everthe less a v i ta l r esource. P rev ious c hapters have s hown t ha t a t l east f rom t he b ronze a ge o nwards t he a va i lab le a gr icu ltura l l and was d istr ibuted i n a h igh ly o rgan ised manner. The i dea t ha t e ar ly f arm ing was a haphazard a ffa ir w ith i nd iv idua ls s ett l ing where t hey p leased a nd mov ing o n when t hey p leased i s o bv ious ly f a lse. A s oc iety which was c apab le o f a rrang ing l and d istr ibut ion o n t he k ind o f s ca le a pparen t i n Upper T eesda le ( and e lsewhere i n t he uplands) wou ld o bv ious ly n ot over look t he e ssent ia l r esources p rov ided by t he f orest o f t he va l ley f loor a nd n orth bank a nd wou ld r egu late i t s exp lo itat ion. Wha tever s oc io-po l it ica l s ystems w ere c urrent a t d ifferen t t imes, l and u se must a lways have b een c lose ly c on tro l led e i ther by a greement o r by i mpos ition. F or e xample t he e stab l ishmen t o f hun ting f orests by t he Normans i s d ocumented a nd t hough e v idence o f t his k ind c an n ever b e a va i lab le f or t he p reh istor ic p er iod t he n ew Norman l and lords may w e l l have b een mere ly r e-def in ing f or t he ir own b enef i t a s ystem wh ich had b een c urren t f or m i l lenn ia . S ett lement i n ah igh r esource a rea l ike d im ish ing f orest must i n part icu lar have a lways c a l led f or s tr ict r egu lat ion, t hough t he methods by which t h is was a ccompl ished must have v ar ied. I f t he s uggest ions made a bove a re c orrect t hen i t s hou ld b e p oss ible t o f ind s im i lar e xamples e lsewhere . There i s i n f ac t one o n ly a f ew m i les t o t he e ast. Cockf ield F e l l ( centred on NZ 1 20250) i s a n unprepossess ing a rea o f c ommon l and w ith many v isib le r ema ins o f e ar ly s ett lement ( Roberts 1 975). I t i s h igh, e xposed, and h as r e lat ive ly p oor s o i l . A lmost i mmed iate ly a d jacen t t o i t o n t he s outh a s im i lar a rea o f g ood qua l i ty f arm land has r ecent ly b een e xp lo i ted by o pen-cast c oa l m in ing . Both b efore a nd dur ing t he s tr ipp ing o f t opso i l t he s i te was c arefu l ly f i eldwa lked. No ev idence whatever f or o ccupat ion p r ior t o t he l ate med ieva l p er iod was f ound. The para l le l w ith Upper Teesda le i s qu ite c lose: e ar ly a nd modern f arming s ett lements have d ifferent d istr ibut ions a nd i t i s s uggested t hat p robab ly t he Cockf ie ld o pencast s i te was f orested unt i l t he l ate m ed ieva l p er iod. A t

s ome

t ime

t hen

t he

s ett lement

p attern

i n

Upper

Teesda le

c hanged r e lat ive ly a brupt ly: t he h igher s ett lements p r imar i ly on t he s outh bank w ere d eserted whi le s ett lemen t o n t he n orth bank i ntensif ied. When a nd why d id t h is o ccur? There a re o n ly t wo v i l lages i n t he upper d a le w est o f M idd leton; Newbigg in a nd Ho iw ick, a nd t he ma jor i ty o f s ett lement i s d ispersed. Whi le d a tes c an b e g iven f or t he e ar l iest d ocumentary ev idence f or v i l lages, i so lated f arms a re more d iff icu lt. Accord ing t o Ekwa l l ( 1960) Ho lw ick ' f irst a ppears i n 1 235 a nd Newb igg in i n 1 316 , t hough o f c ourse b oth v i l lages may have b een i n e x istence f or many y ears b efore t hese d ates. ' Newb igg in ' t he n ew bui ldings however i s a f a ir ly c ommon p lace n ame a nd -

-

a ccord ing t o Cameron ( 1961) i s post-Conquest i n d ate, s o t ha t t he v i l lage i tse lf i s l ike ly t o have b een b egun i n t he t h irteen th c en tury e xpans ion o f a gr icu lture. The d at ing c lues o ffered by po l len a na lys is have a lready b een d iscussed: a pparent ly c erea ls c eased t o b e g rown a t s evera l up land s i tes i n t he post-Conquest p er iod a nd p robab ly t he f armstead t hemse lves w ere a bandoned. H istory c an p rov ide poss ib le c ontexts f or t hese o ccurrences. 7 5

Af ter t he Chr istmas o f 1 069 W i l l iam I h av ing d evasted Yorkshire l ed a n a rmy a cross t he Tees n orthward t o t he Tyne, wes t a s f ar a s Hexham a nd r eturned poss ib ly a long t he Roman r oad o f Dere S treet. I mmed iate ly f o l low ing t h is Ma lco lm Canmore, K ing o f S cot land, i nvaded Durham and Yorkshire by way o f S ta inmore o r Teesda le and was eventua l ly c hecked a t t he b att le o f Hundredske lde, wh ich may p erhaps b e i dent if ied w ith Hunderthwa ite n ear Cotherstone. ( Symeon o f Durham e d H inde 1 .87) A t s ome da te a round 1 069 a lso Count A lan o f Br ittany was g iven t he vast honour o f R ichmond which p robab ly i nc luded Upper Teesda le s outh o f t he T ees . I n 1 093 Guy Ba l io l was g iven t he f orest o f Teesda le and Marwood, whi le s ome twenty y ears l ater h is s on b egan t he bu i lding o f ' Bernard 's Cast le '. These events must have had a t raumatic e ffec t o n t he i nhab itants o f Upper Teesda le t hough n o d ocumen tary e v idence i s f orthcom ing . Kape l le ( 1979) s tates t ha t i n h is o pin ion " i n Yorkshire ( and Durham) t he Norman Conques t d id n ot r epresent t he s imp le s ubst i tut ion o f one g roup o f l andowners f or a nother i t ( p 1 76), a nd s uggests t ha t t he Normans w ere r espons ib le f or f ar-reach ing s oc ia l a nd e conom ic c hanges. B ishop ( 1948) b e l ieved t hat one r esu lt o f t he d evastat ion o f t he North by W i l l iam I was a movement o f popu lat ion f rom t he up land d a les wh ich was n ot s pontaneous but was i n i tiated and c ontro l led by t he n ew Norman l and lords. The c reat ion o f hunt ing f orests by t he s ame l and lords wou ld prov ide both c onstra ints a nd o pportun ities f or t he r ura l popu lat ion o r what was l ef t o f i t . S o f ar a s l and lords were c oncerned i t wou ld have b een i n t hei r i nterests t o c oncen tra te t he ir t enants a nd l abourers i nstead o f hav ing t hem w ide ly s cattered over t he c ountryside. -

That t he f orests were s t i l l i n e x istence a nd t hat t hey were va luable a ssets i s s hown by r ecent f inds f rom t he e xcavat ion o f t he c ast le a t Barnard Cast le. Here t he bones o f r ed d eer f orm t he most i mportant part o f t he b one a ssemb lage a nd i t s eems t ha t v en ison and a nt ler were p robab ly e xported f rom t he s i te . Moreover t he b ones a re f rom a n ima ls o f e xcept iona l s ize i nd icat ing t hat t hey were f rom a f orest env ironment r ather t han a moor land o ne ( Bo land pers.comm.). The p rec ise e ffects o f t he Norman Conquest o n t he i nhab itants o f Upper Teesda le c anno t b e d eterm ined but t he s uggest ions o ut l ined a bove s eem t o o ffer a t l east a partia l e xp lana t ion f or t he o bserved a rchaeo log ica l f acts. They a lso s hed l ight o n t he c entra l p rob lem r a ised by p lace name s tud ies. I f t he Norman programme o f r esett lement l ed t o t he a bandonment o f many up land s ett lemen t s ites, t hen t his i n t urn may w el l have l ed t o t he d isappearance o f t he v ery names o f t he s i tes, l eav ing on ly t he t opograph ica l n ames o f s treams, h i l ls, woods a nd marshes s t i l l e xtant. I t i s un l ike ly however t hat po l it ica l events a lone p rov ided t he c ause f or t he a pparent m ed ieva l a bandonment o f i so lated up land s ett lements a nd t ha t c l imat ic c hange p layed a s ign if icant part i n t he p rocess . The p er iod f rom A . D.1250-1450 was one c haracter ised by r apid c oo l ing and i ncreased r a infa l l, w ith t he s ummers o f 1 313-1317 b e ing p art icu lar ly b ad ( Parry 1 985). This may w el l have s igna l led t he e nd o f a rab le f arm ing and p ermanent hab itat ion o n marg ina l l and.

i s

The s econd i nterest ing f ea ture o f s ett lement d istr ibut ion which o bservab le o n t he map ( F ig.5) i s t he a pparent c oncentrat ion i n 7 6

t he r eg ion o f H igh F orce. The map o f s tray f inds ( F ig.6) s hows a s im i lar c oncentra t ion . Are t hese t rue d istr ibut ions o r d o t hey m ere ly a ppear t o b e s o? The ev idence i n f avour o f t he l atter po int o f v iew i s quite s tra ightforward: t he wri ter l ived f or many y ears a t H igh F orce Hote l a nd much o f t he f i eldwork on wh ich t h is s tudy i s based was c arr ied out o n Sunday a f ternoons. Thus t he d istr ibut ion o f s ites c an be r egarded i n t erms o f s i te c atchment a na lys is f rom a base c amp w ith t he a rea w ithin one hours wa lk ing d istance b eing t he most f u l ly exp lo i ted. There i s o f c ourse s ome t ruth i n t h is way o f l ook ing a t t he problem f or i t has l ong b een r ecogn ised t ha t most d istr ibut ion maps r ecord t he d istr ibution o f f i eldworkers a s wel l a s t he o b jects o f t heir r esearches . A s a n exp lanat ion however i t d oes n ot f u l ly s at isfy t he observed f ac ts: t here c an b e n o doubt t ha t t here i s a c oncentrat ion o f s i tes w ith in a r ad ius o f a bout 2 km o f H igh F orce w aterfa l l, t he l argest f a l l i n Eng land. These a re t o b e f ound o n both s ides o f t he r iver but s ince t he f au l t l ine a t t h is a rea r uns t o t he n orth o f t he r iver , most s i tes a re s t i l l s outh o f t he f au lt l ine. There a re f ords a cross t he Tees b oth upstream a nd d ownstream o f t he f a l ls b ut t hese a re P roctor ( 1976)

n ot s uff icient ly i mportant t o e xp la in t he s ett lements. h as po inted o ut t ha t t he f a l ls o f H igh F orce f orm a n

i mpassab le barr ier f or m igratory f ish s uch a s s a lmon a nd t ha t t hese f i sh wou ld f orm a n i mportan t s ource o f f ood. This d oes n ot h owever s eem an a dequate r eason f or t he p resence o f p ermanent s ett lements. I s i t poss ib le t ha t t here was a r e l ig ious e lement i n t he c ho ice o f s i tes? The waterfa l l o f H igh F orce i s one o f t he most i mpress ive i n Br i ta in, e spec ia l ly when t he r iver i s i n f lood. The a ssoc iat ion o f water, e spec ia l ly s pr ings a nd poo ls, w ith t he num inous i s t oo wel l d ocumented t o n eed f urther c omment ( Ross 1 976). Even a s l ate a s t he m idd le o f t he t went ieth c entury t he water-goddess o r water-spr i te o f t he T ees P eg P ow ler was s t i l l r emembered. Her -

-

n ame i s l i kely t o b e c onnected w ith t he O ld Eng l ish ' po l ', We lsh ' pw l ' ' deep p lace i n a r iver ', a n e lemen t which was t he s ource o f t he f orm ' pow ' f ound i n S cott ish and Cumbr ian p lace n ames a nd mean ing -

a s low mov ing s tream ( Ekwa l l o p.c i t.). Whi le t here i s n o e v idence t hat P eg P ow ler was c onnected on ly w ith t he d eep poo l b e low H igh F orce i t s eems p ossible t ha t o rig ina l ly t h is was t he c ase. Lynch ( 1975) has s tressed t he i mportance o f a esthet ic f actors i n t he c ho ice o f s ites f or p reh istoric monuments a nd s uggested t hat i n s ome c ases t he v isua l i mpact o f mounta ins may have b een t he s ource o f t he ir mag ica l F orce.

r eputat ion . This may w e l l have b een t he c ase w ith H igh How i mpor tant s uch c ons iderat ions were i n t he s i t ing o f

s ett lements i s i mpossible t o a scerta in but t he ev idence f rom T eesda le s uggests t ha t t hey p layed a n ot i ncons iderab le part.

Upper

One more f actor r equ ires c omment. Though p reh istor ic s ett lements i n Upper Teesda le must have b een l arge ly s e lf-suff ic ient t hey c ou ld n ever have b een c omplete ly s o and o ne i mportant r aw mater ia l f l int was c omplete ly a bsen t f rom t he a rea . Though t he -

-

s ource o f t he f l int s upp ly c anno t b e d eterm ined w ith c erta inty a nd may wel l have c hanged f rom t ime t o t ime, i t s eems l ike ly t ha t i t was i mported f rom e i ther t he North Yorksh ire/South Durham c oast o r t he W est Cumbr ia c oast. I f t he l atter was u sed t hen t he R .Eden-Ma ize B eck-R. Tees r oute wou ld have b een t he o bv ious o ne f or i ts t ransport a nd s ett lement wou ld b e e xpected t o have c lustered a long t h is r oute a s i ndeed i t d oes. I f f l int was i mported r a ther f rom t he Yorkshire c oast t hen t he e as iest r oute t hrough T eesda le i s a long t he 7 7

l ine

o f

t he

whin e scarpmen t on t he

s outh b ank

where

t here

a re

n o

ma jor t r ibutar ies t o f orm barr iers. As f l int was r ep laced by meta ls t he i mportance o f t his r oute wou ld n o d oubt d ec l ine t hough i t n ever d isappeared a nd r ema ins i n u se t oday . Th is s tudy has s ummar ised t he r esu lts o f f ieldwork e xcavat ion i n Upper Teesda le and has a ttempted explanat ions s ome o f t he o bserved f acts. As i t has p rogressed t he w r iter b ecome i ncreas ing ly aware o f t he n eed f or more ev idence a nd o f

a nd f or has t he

i mportance o f t ry ing t o a ch ieve t he i mposs ible a im o f un i ting t he i nformat ion prov ided by many d ifferen t b ranches o f s tudy i nto a s ing le r eadab le t ext. As w ith most s tud ies o f t his k ind o ne o f t he ma in p roblems has b een t ha t o f c onstructing an a dequate c hrono log ica l f ramework f or t he s uccess ion o f s ett lements. The a lmost c omplete a bsence o f dateab le o b jects whether f rom e xcavat ions o r a s c hance f inds has meant t ha t r ad io-carbon d eterm inations h ave b een o f pr ime i mportance. Unfortuna te ly t here a re i nsuff ic ient d eterm ina t ions: s evera l s i tes have on ly o ne ' date ' and f or l ong p er iods o f p reh istory n o dates a re a va i lab le. A c hrono log ica l f ramework c ons ist ing o f r ad io-carbon d ates i s e as i ly m isunderstood: i t i s n ecessary c onstant ly t o r em ind onese lf t ha t t he med ian da te e ven w ith i ts qua l ify ing p lus o r m inus o f o ne s tandard d ev iation, g ives a f a lse i mpress ion o f c erta inty. I n p repar ing F igs.52 a nd 5 3 t herefore, which g ives t he r ad io-carbon d eterm inations s o f ar a va i lab le f rom e xcavat ions i n T eesda le, e ach i s c a l ibrated u s ing t he t ables g iven by C lark ( 1975) a nd e xpressed a t two s tandard d ev iations. Though t he b racket f or e ach i s w ide, t he t rue d ate a lmost c erta in ly l i es w ith in i t . I n s ome c ases i t has b een p oss ible t o r ef ine t he d ate r ange. A t Dubby S ike f or e xample i t s eems h igh ly p robab le t hat t hree o f t he f our d eterm ina t ions r efer t o c ontemporary o ccupat ion and t hough t he l im its o f t hese a re 4 70 B . C. a nd A . D.50 t he over lap

s uggests t ha t t he t rue o ccupat ion

d ate

was

b etween

2 00

B .C . a nd 1 00 B C . On ly one date i s a va i lab le f or e ach o f t he t wo s i tes a t F orcegarth P asture w ith a bracket o f A . D.60-420 . The p ottery ev idence however r estr icts t he d ate o f t he S outh s i te t o b efore A . D.200 a nd s ince i t was p receded by t he North s i te t he da te o f t he l atter i s i n t urn r estr icted t o p erhaps A . D.60-150 . F ig.53 i s o f c ourse a v ery i mperfec t a pprox imat ion but i t d oes d emonstrate .

t hat Upper T eesda le a t l east 1 500 B .C .

was

a lmost

c erta in ly o ccupied c on tinuous ly f rom

I f t he c hrono log ica l f ramework i s d ef icient, s o t oo i s t he g eograph ica l one. How d oes Upper Teesda le f i t i nto t he p a ttern o f s ett lement i n t he North g enera l ly? Though i t was s ugges ted t hat p o l i tica l a nd e conom ic power p robab ly r es ided i n t he l ower d a le i t must b e a dm itted t hat t here i s n o a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or t h is a nd no a pparent r e lat ionsh ip s o f ar a s t he phys ica l r ema ins o f s ett lement a re c oncerned. The l arge c ircu lar t imber h ouses a nd r ectangu lar enc losures o f l ow land Durham ( Hase igrove 1 982) a re a bsent f rom o r r ema in und iscovered i n t he upper d a le. Nor a re t here c lose p ara l le ls w ith t he many t ypes o f N orthumber land a nd Border s ett lement s o we l l known f rom t he magn if icen t work o f George J obey. The c urv i l inear s ett lements o f t he Cumbr ian up lands (RCHM 1 936, H igham 1 975) s eem more c lose ly r e lated. Wearda le,

t he

n e ighbour ing

v a l ley t o t he 7 8

n orth,

t hough

i t h as

y ie lded p ro l if ic f l int s i tes d oes n o t s eem t o have t he s ame c oncentrat ion o f s ett lements ( Young 1 984). I t i s w ith t he Yorksh ire d a les, e spec ia l ly Swa leda le ( Laur ie p ers.comm.) t ha t t he c losest a ff in ities a re f ound. This i s p erhaps hard ly s urpr ising : a f ter a l l most o f t he Teesda le s i tes l i e on t he s outh bank o f t he r iver i n what w as unt i l t he r eorgan isat ion o f l oca l g overnment, t he North R iding o f Y orksh ire. The e xcava t ions r eferred t o i n t he t ex t were c onceived a nd c arr ied o ut by t he wri ter a nd K .J.Fair less over a p er iod o f t en y ears; t he f i eldwork has c ont inued o ver a n e ven l onger p er iod. P erhaps when a s much more work has b een d one i t w i l l b e poss ib le t o present a n a ccount o f t he a rchaeo logy o f T eesda le which a pproximates more n ear ly t o t he t ruth t han does t h is. Apart f rom a ny i ntr insic v a lue o f t heir own, past a nd f uture e xcavat ions i n Upper Teesda le may p oss ibly have a w ider s ign if icance. P arry ( 1985) h as s tated t hat " t here i s an overr iding n eed t o understand t he p rocesses by wh ich c hanges o f c l imate may i nduce c hanges o f a n e conom ic n a ture " a nd r ecommends t hat " f arms a nd v i l lages a t t he f ront ier o f s ett lement a re t hus p erhaps a more . . .

a ppropr ia te l aboratory f or s tudy t han l ong-estab l ished l ow land s ett lement i t Upper T eesda le p rov ides j ust s uch a l aboratory.

7 9

APPENDIX 1 GAZETTEER OF S ITES

( see F ig .5)

Name

Archer R igg S ike

NGR

NY 8 72302

No. 6 8

S & M No. He ight

4 27m

1 400f t

P er iod C14 d ate Type

P robab ly S tackstands

F inds

S urface f ind o f s ing le worked f l int(no.22)

Excavat ion Pub l icat ion APs Descr ipt ion

On t he n orth bank o f t he s ike a re t wo s tructures, o ne c ircu lar a nd t he o ther s ub-rectangu lar a nd t he f i e ld s urface.

b oth r a ised Whi le t hey

s l ight ly a bove a re p robab ly

s tackstands t he ir p os i t ion a nd s uggest poss ib le e ar l ier o r ig ins.

Name

Barney Byre

NG R

NY 8 9052805

a ppearance

No. 8 7

S & M No. Height

3 05m

P er iod

Uncerta in

1 000f t

C14 d ate Type

Barrow?

F inds Excavat ion Pub l icat ion APs

Durham Un ivers i ty 1 769/221A,222A 9 25/026 , 0 27

Descr ipt ion

I mmed iate ly s outh o f t he f e l l wa l l, w est o f Barney Byre a nd a t t he f oo t o f a s teep s lope i s a l arge ova l h i l lock m easur ing s ome l Om x 7 m and a bove 2 m h igh. Whi le t h is may b e n a tura l i t i s n ot e asy t o a ccoun t f or i ts p resence a t t h is po int. Nor i s i t a s i tuat ion where o ne m ight expec t a b arrow t o h ave b een bu i lt, t hough i t a ppears t o b e a rt if ic ia l.

8 0

Name

Bei lbeaver R igg

NGR

NY863357

No. 3 3

S & M No. He ight

6 20m

2 035f t

P er iod

Roman?

C14 date Type F inds Excavat ion P ub l icat ion

De Rance 1 873. ' On t he s urface g eo logy o f t he n eighbourhood o f Cross F el l i n Cumber land '. Geo log ica l Magazine CX. August ' 73, 3 39

APs Descript ion

t he t op o f t he h i l l i s s a id once t o have b een a Roman c amp ' . F ie ld i nspect ion o f t he a rea s hows n o ev idence f or t his t hough i t i s j ust poss ible t ha t a ir photography m ight d o s o .

Name

B irkda le

NGR

NY 8 04279

No.3

S & M No. He ight

4 57m

1 500f t

P er iod

Meso l ith ic?

C14 date Type

F l int s i te, poss ib le c amp s i te

F inds

F l ints

Excavat ion P ub l icat ion APs

The Bowes Museum AP.6

Descript ion

On

t he

n orth t o

e ast

o f t he

B irkda le

among

t he

s ide f ord

f arm

o f

Cock lake

which i s

s ha l low

S ike

i mmed iate ly

c rosses t he s ike a d jacent

a l imestone e rod ing

o utcrop.

s o i l

On t h is

s evera l

i nc lud ing m icro l i ths h ave b een f ound 1 953-72.

8 1

f l ints

Name

B irk R igg ( E)

No. 3 0

NGR

NY 8 65279

F ig. 4 3

S& M No.

NY 82 NE 22

Height

3 66m

P er iod

P reh istor ic

1 200ft

C14 d ate Type

S ett lement

F inds

F ragment o f s tone a xe ( No. 4 4)

Excavat ion Pub l icat ion APs Descr ipt ion

A c omplex o f c ircu lar a nd s ubrectangu lar f oundat ions b etween t he Green Trod, F el l Dyke a nd F el l Dyke Syke. Dense bracken makes r ecogn i tion d iff icu lt. C lose t o t he f e l l dyke i s a r ectangu lar f oundat ion c . 1 2m x 4 m i nterna l ly a l l igned N-S c ons ist ing o f o ne l arge and o ne sma l l r oom. Under ly ing t he dyke t o t he e ast o f t h is i s a nother, c . 1 7m x 4 m which i s much l ess c lear ly d ef ined.

Name

B irk R igg ( W)

NGR

NY 8 59281

No. 3 1

S & M No. Height

3 81m

1 2

P er iod

P reh istor ic

5 0 f

C14 date Type

Hut c irc le?/ca irn?

F inds Excavat ion Publ icat ion APs Descr ipt ion

A s ing le c ircular f oundat ion o f c .3m i nter ior d iameter o n t he n orth s ide o f t he G reen T rod. The s outh wa l l o ver l ies t he p ath by a bout 1 .0m. There i s n o a pparen t e ntrance.

8 2

Name

B lack H i l l ( 1)

NGR

NY 8 17284

No. 4 0

S & M No. H eight

4 27m

1 400f t

P er iod

P reh istor ic

C14 date Type

S ett lement / Camp s i te

F inds E xcavation P ub l icat ion APs D escript ion

On t he s outh s ide o f t he Tees a long t he e dge o f t he b luff l y ing e ast o f t he j unct ion o f Ma ize Beck a nd t he r iver a re t hree c ircu lar f oundat ions, d iameters o f 4 .0m, 4 .0m a nd 3 .üm w i th one o va l one 8 .O m x 6 O m i n al ine on ly a f ew metres f rom t he r iver. The wa l ls o f t hese c irc les a re s ing le l ines o f s tones. There a re t races o f a n i rregu lar a nd i l d ef ined enc losure i nc lud ing t hese f oundat ions. .

Name

B lack H i l l ( 2)

NGR

NY 8 18282

No. 7 8

S & M No. He ight

4 27m

1 400f t

P er iod C 14 date Type

S h iel ing?

F inds Excavat ion P ub l icat ion APs D escript ion

On t he e dge o f a b luff o n t he west b ank o f t he T ees i s a sma l l r ectangu lar f oundation e nc losed by a f ragmentary b oundary wa l l b oth e nds o f which m eet t he r iver.

8 3

Name

B lack H i l l S heepfo ld

NGR

NY 8 18279

N o. 7 9

S & M No. Height

4 27m

1 400f t

P er iod C14 d ate Type

S hiel ing?

F inds

F l ints e tc.

( see f inds g azetteer)

Excavat ion Publ ica t ion APs

The Bowes Museum APi , 2 , 3

Descr ipt ion

The

modern

s heepfo ld

part ly

over l ies

e ar l ier

r ectangu lar s tructures.

Name

B leabeck F oo t

No. 2 7

NGR

NY 8 75280

F ig. 3 3

S& M No.

NY 82 NE 29

Height

3 12m

P er iod

R .B.?

1 075f t

C14 d a te Type

Enc losed s ett lement

F inds Excavat ion Pub l ica t ion APs

The Bowes Museum AP64 , 6 5 , 6 6

Descript ion

On t he e ast b ank o f B leabeck j ust s outh o f i t s c onf luence w ith t he T ees i s a n enc losure s ome 3 0.0m i n d iameter w i th 3 -6 c ircu lar f oundations e ach 4 .0 5 .üm i n d iameter. A l l wa l ls a re 1 .5 2 .0m t h ick o f l arge wh in b ou lders. Most o f t he s i te i s c overed by t a l l h eather t hough t his was part ia l ly burned i n 1 977 a l low ing a r ough s urvey t o b e made. A t rackway f rom t he r iver bank a ppears t o g ive a ccess t o t he s i te a nd -

-

c ont inues up t he h i l l.

8 4

N ame

B leabeck Washfo ld

No. 1 2

NGR

NY 8 73274

S& M No.

NY 82 NE 24

H e ight

4 11m

P er iod

P ost med ieva l a nd a lso p robab ly b ronze age

1 350f t

C 14 date Type

S ett lement

F inds Excavation P ubl icat ion APs D escript ion

Ad jo in ing t he s t i l l e xtan t washfo ld o n t he west bank o f B leabeck a nd n orth o f t he a ccess r oad i s a c omplex o f r ather f a int f oundat ions i nc lud ing one l arge c ircu lar s tructure c .9.0m i n d iameter.

Name

Bracken R igg

No.9

NGR

NY 8 666282

F igs.21 & 2 2

S& M No.

NY 82 NE 23

H e ight

3 81m

P er iod

E ar ly/m idd le b ronze age

C 14 date

3 180±60 bp ( HAR 2 414)

Type

F armstead

F inds

F l ints e spec ia l ly s crapers a nd i nc lud ing 1 l eaf-shaped a rrowhead, s herds o f c oarse pottery

1 250f t

f rom 3 -6 v esse ls i nc lud ing one bucket u rn. E xcavat ion

1 977 D . Cogg ins & K .J.Fa ir less

P ub l icat ion

D .U. Arch. Reports ( summary) D . Cogg ins & K .J.Fair less 1 984 Durham Arch.J 1 , 5 -22

APs

Durham Un ivers i ty 9 25/045-048 1 769/230-235

D escript ion

A

l arge

i rregu lar

e nc losure

( 0.7ha)

o ccupy ing

t he c rest a nd s outh s lope o f a mora in ic r idge o n t he s outh s ide o f t he r iver Tees a bout 1 .5km d ownstream f rom Cronk ley Br idge. The enc losure wa l ls a re o f whin b ou lders. There i s a s ing le l arge c ircu lar h ouse f oundat ion ( c. 8 .5m d iameter) o n t he s umm it o f t he r idge.

8 5

Name

Bridge House

NGR

NY 8 92285

No. 5 2

S & M No. He ight

2 9 0

9 50f t

P er iod

Uncerta in, p oss ibly med ieva l

C14 d ate Type

S hiel ing?

F inds Excavat ion Publ icat ion APs Descr ipt ion

I n t he f i e ld, i mmed iate ly s outh o f Br idge House a nd o n ly s ome 5 0m f rom i t i s a s ing le sma l l r ectangu lar f ounda t ion o f t wo r ooms.

Name

Buck R iggs

NGR

NY 9 21245

S& M No.

NY 92 SW 5

Height

4 11m

P er iod

P reh istor ic / bronze age

-

No. 1 7 9 16247

1 350f t

C14 d ate Type

S ett lement

F inds Excavat ion Publ icat ion APs

The Bowes Museum AP47, 4 8

Descr ipt ion

An o utcrop o f s ands tone f orms a s hort s teep s cree a long t he 1 350 c ontour f or s ome 3 00m. A t t he f oo t o f t h is ( north) i s a t errace wh ich i s o ccupied by s ub-rectangu lar a nd c urv i linear e nc losures w ith t he f oundat ions o f l arge c ircu lar bu i ld ings.

8 6

Name

Burn t S car S heepfo ld

NGR

NY 9 32249

No. 8 8

S & M No. He ight P er iod

P reh istor ic

C 14 date Type

S ett lement / funerary

F inds Excavat ion P ub l icat ion APs D escr iption

To t he s outh a nd west o f t he s heepfo ld i s a r e lat ive ly l eve l a rea w ith a t l east e ight t urf c overed c a irns, t hree o f which a re qu i te l arge. To t he n orth a re a v ar iety o f enc losures o ccupy ing t he c rest and s lopes o f t he h i l ls ide. Bracken a nd s cree make r ecogn i tion d iff icu lt. This r ecent ly n ot iced s i te i s l ike ly t o b e a n i mportan t one r equ ir ing d eta i led s urvey a nd excavat ion.

Name

Car ley Green

NGR

NY 9 27247

No. 2 2

S & M No. He ight

3 66m

1 200f t

P er iod

P reh istor ic

C14 date Type

S ett lement

F inds Excavation P ub l icat ion APs Descr ipt ion

I mmed iate ly t o t he west o f t he modern a l lotment wa l l i s a c omp lex o f f oundat ions, s ome c urv i l inear a nd s ome p oss ib ly r ectangu lar . They have b een much r obbed f or wa l l bui ld ing a nd a re c onsequent ly f ragmentary a nd i nd istinct. The s ett lement i s a pparent ly a ttached t o ar eave s ystem.

8 7

Name

Ca lf Ho lm

No. 2 8

NGR

NY 8 65284

S& M No.

NY 82 NE 1

Height

3 51m

P er iod

P reh istoric a nd post medieva l

1 150f t

C14 d a te Type

F armstead(s)

F inds Excavat ion Pub l ica t ion APs

Durham Un ivers i ty 9 25/043 , 0 44

Descr ipt ion

D-shaped enc losure p ro ject ing f rom t he f oo t o f a p rec ipitous wh instone c l iff o n t he n orth bank o f t he Tees o ppos i te Bracken R igg a nd c onta in ing a t l east one c ircu lar house f oundat ion. The who le o f t he ' ho lm ' i n t he bend o f t he r iver i s t h ick ly c overed by j un iper a nd b racken which h ide o ther e nc losures c urv i linear a nd r ectangu lar. H .L.Bead le ( pers.comm. 1 977) s ays t ha t h is mother t o ld h im t hat a s a c h i ld s he r emembers one ' Goa t J ohnny ' l iv ing i n Ca lf Ho lm ( perhaps c .1890?).

Name

Car ley Green ( West)

NGR

NY 9 24248

No. 5 7

S & M No. Height

3 58m

1 175f t

P er iod

Uncerta in / preh istor ic

C14 d a te Type

S hie l ing and hut c irc le

F inds Excavat ion Pub l ica tion APs Descr ipt ion

Apparent ly i nserted i nto a n o ffset o pen ing i n a l ong c ontour ing f i e ld b oundary i s a r ectangu lar s tructure measur ing c , 1 0m x 3 m i nterna l ly w ith a n entrance i n t he e nd g ab le. A s hort d istance t o t he west i s a s ing le c ircu lar c .8.0m i n d iameter a ttached t o t he b oundary.

8 8

f oundat ion s ame f i e ld

Name

Carr Crags

No.5

NGR

NY 9 19319

F ig. 1 7

S & M No. He ig h t

G lUm

2 000f t

P er iod

Neo l i th ic/ear ly b ronze a ge?

C 14 d ate Type

Ceremon ia l

Excavat ion P ub l ica tion APs D escription

An o utcrop a pprox imate ly

o f a long

m i l lstone f rom NY

g ri t 9 19319

-

r unn ing 9 24312,

t he 2 000f t c ontour o n Newbigg in Common. Th is has b een e xtens ive ly worked dur ing t he 1 8 th/19th c entury f or m i l lstones . A t t he e xtreme north w est end o f t h is o utcrop i s a g roup o f r ocks b earing l arge h em ispher ica l bas ins . These f orm a k eyho le s hape a round a huge r ecumbent b lock. There a re t wo g roups o f o ut ly ing r ocks a lso w ith bas ins. I n t he ma in g roup which measured c . 8 0m x 3 0m t here a re 2 1 r ocks w ith a t ota l o f over 3 00 b as ins.

Name

Cetry Bank ( opposite)

NGR

NY 8 43298

No. 8 1

S & M No. Height

3 81m

1 250f t

P er iod C14 Type

S h iel ing?

F inds

One f l int f lake ( no.32)

Excavat ion Pub l ica t ion APs Descr iption

Oppos ite Cetry Bank o n t he s outh s ide o f t he Tees i s a l arge f l at ' ho lm '. On t he e dge o f t he r iver i s a s ubrec tangu lar b ui ld ing w ith a sma l l y ard.

8 9

Name

Chester S ike Wes t

NGR

NY 8 74309

No. 6 6

S & M No. Height

4 57m

P er iod

Uncerta in

1 500f t

F inds Excavat ion Pub l icat ion APs Descr ipt ion

I n t he a l lotment t o t he n orth o f t he s ike a re t wo c ont iguous c ircu lar b anked s tructures c . 1 0m i n d iameter which a re marked o n t he OS map a s ' O ld s haf ts '. They a re n ot s haf ts t hough t hey may b e s tackstands o r p oss ib ly r ing c a irns.

Name

Chester S ike E ast

NGR

NY 8 82302

No. 6 7

5 & M No. Height

3 81m

1 250f t

P er iod

P oss ibly p reh istor ic

C IA da te Type

Hut c irc le?

F inds Excavation Pub l icat ion APs Descr ipt ion

On a l eve l a rea t o t he n orth o f t he s ike a nd c lose t o t he E ttersg i l l r oad i s a s l ight c ircu lar e arthen b ank a bout 9 .0m i n d iameter which i s r em in iscen t o f t hose a t Bracken R igg b efore e xcavat ion.

9 0

Name

Cronk ley Green

NGR

NY 8 60295

No. 4 8

S & M No. H eight

3 66m

P er iod

Uncerta in

1 200f t

F inds Excavation P ub l icat ion APs Descr ipt ion

A t t he w estern end o f t he ' i s land ' Green i s a n a rea o f sma l l i rregu lar i nc luding t he s tone f oundat ions o f bu i ld ing on ly a bout 3 .O m s quare. l oca l t rad ition t hat Cronk ley Green bur ia l s i te ( Mr. W .A l l inson, B irk i s j ust poss ib le t ha t t he s i te Chr ist ian one.

Name

Crooks o 'Green F el l

NGR

NY 9 03247

o f Cronk ley d isturbances a v ery sma l l There i s a was a n e ar ly R igg) a nd i t i s a n e ar ly

No. 5 6

S & M No. Height

4 88m

1 600f t

P er iod C14 date Type

Enc losure

F inds Excavation Pub l icat ion APs D escript ion

On a f a ir ly s teep s lope on t he s ide o f a gu l ly a re t he f ragmentary wa l ls o f a c ircu lar e nc losure. Apparen t ly a ssoc iated w ith t h is a re a s hort s tretch o f f i e ld b oundary a nd s evera l c learance c a irns.

9 1

Name

Crossthwa i te Common S E

No. 2 3

NGR

NY 9 34247

F ig .4 8

S& M No.

NY 92 SW 6

Height

3 20m

P er iod

L ate preh istor ic?

1

1 0 f

C14 da te Type

F armstead

F inds Excavat ion Pub licat ion APs

The Bowes Museum AP45, 4 6

Descr iption

A r ough ly c ircu lar embanked e nc losure c .2 0m i n d iameter c onta in ing t he f oundat ions o f a bu i lding w ith t wo s ubc ircu lar r ooms. There a re c learance c a irns, f i e ld b oundar ies i n t he i mmed iate v ic in ity.

Name

Crossthwa ite Common S heepfo ld

NGR

NY 9 23251

a nd l ynchets

No. 1 6

S & M No. Height

3 20m

i lOOf t

P er iod

P reh istor ic, p robab ly e ar ly b ronze age

C14 date Type

F armstead

F inds Excavation Pub l icat ion APs Descr ipt ion

Runn ing a lmost para l le l

w ith t he water r ace a nd

s l ight ly s outh o f i t a re t he r ema ins o f a f i e ld b oundary. Appended t o t he n orth s ide o f t h is a nd t ak ing i n a smal l kno l l a nd t he s heepfo ld i s a s ubrectangu lar e nc losure c . 1 00m s quare w ith in which l i e t he f oundat ions o f a c icu lar b u i ld ing c .9 .Om i nterna l d iameter.

9 2

Name

D ineho im S car

NGR

NY 8 68283

No. 4 7

S & M No . H e ight

3 81m

P er iod

Uncerta in

1 250f t

C 14 date Type

S hie l ing?

F inds Excavation P ub l ication APs D escr iption

I n a narrow gu l ly a t t he t op o f D ineho lm S car i s a sma l l p enannu lar s tructure c .4.Om i nterna l d iameter b ack ing on to a whin s i l l o utcrop.

Name

Dry Beck

No.42

NGR

NY 8 67278

F ig.42

S & M No. He ight

3 60m

1 175f t

P er iod

Uncerta in / poss ib ly e ar ly med ieva l?

C14 date Type

F armstead/Sh ie l ing?

F inds Excavation P ub l ication APs Descr ipt ion

On t he e ast bank o f Dry Beck a nd part ly e roded by i t a re t wo s ubrectangu lar f oundat ions w ith in t he r ema ins o f a n enc losure b ank a nd d itch which c ut o ff a b end i n t he b eck. I nter ior d imensions o f t he more c omp lete o ne a re c .8.Om x 3 . Om.

The o ther was probab ly s l ight ly l arger.

9 3

Name

Dubby S ike

NGR

NY 7 95311

No. 9 0

S & M No . Height

4 88m

1 600f t

P er iod

L ate preh istor ic ( i ron a ge

C14 d a te ( s)

2 110±90 ( HAR 6 551) 2 040±100 ( n /a)

p i ts i n r ing c a irn

2 170±100 ( HAR 6 552)circu lar house 1 830±100 ( n /a

)

boat s haped house

Type

S ett lemen t a nd r i tua l

F inds

A f ew non-d iagnost ic f l ints

Excavat ion

S eptember 1 984 D .Cogg ins

Pub l icat ion

Un ivers it ies o f Newcast le a nd Durham ' Archaeo log ica l r eports f or 1 984 ' Durham 1 985

&

L .J .Gidney

APs Descr ipt ion

On t he e ast bank o f t he Dubby S ike b e low t he h igh water mark o f t he Cow Green r eservo ir a re t wo g roups o f s tone f oundations. The w estern g roup i s a c omplex o f c urv i linear s tructures w ith c ourtyards a nd a t l eas t o ne c ircu lar h ouse. The e astern g roup c ons ists o f a r ing c a irn a nd a sma l l boat-shaped bu i ld ing.

Name

E aster Beck

NGR

NY 9 04255

S

&

No. 5 9

M No.

He ight

4 11m

P er iod

P reh istor ic

1 350f t

C14 d ate Type

F armstead

F inds Excavation Pub l ica tion APs Descr ipt ion

A l arge c urv i l inear e nc losure o ccupies t he s pace b etween t he s outh b ank o f E aster B eck a nd a r ock o utcrop. W ithin t h is a nd a ttached t o t he s outh wal l i s a sma l ler e nc losure c .30m s quare a nd w ith in t h is aga in a probab le c ircu lar house f oundat ion. S ome 2 00m n orth o f t he e nc losure a re t wo c ircu lar f oundat ions c . 1 0m i n d iameter.

9 4

Name

E clbeck R igg S heepfo ld

NGR

NY 8 54265

No. 4 5

S & M No. He ight

4 42m

1 450f t

P er iod

Uncerta in

C14 d ate Type

S ett lement

F inds Excavat ion P ub l ication APs D escr iption

To t he s outh o f t he s heepfo ld i s a c omplex o f r ectangu lar f oundat ions. These a re a t t he e astern end o f a f i e ld s ystem wh ich ex tends t o Woo l I ng les.

Name

E lphatory A l lotment

NOR

NY 9 50291

No. 6 1

S & M No. He ight

3 66m

1 200f t

P er iod

Uncerta in

C14 date Type

S hie l ing?

F inds Excavation P ub l ication Descr ipt ion

Near

t he

north-east

c orner

o f

t he

a l lotment,

c lose t o t he boundary wal l a nd s outh o f t he r oad i s a r ectangu lar f oundat ion among t h ick b racken . There a re a lso t races o f e nc losure wa l l.

9 5

Name

F a iry Del l

NG R

NY 9 12262

No. 6 4

S & M No. Height

3 28m

1 075f t

P er iod

P robab ly preh istor ic

C14 d ate Type

Hut c irc le

F inds Excavat ion Pub l icat ion

-

APs Descr ipt ion

To t he w est o f M i l l Beck o n a sma l l p lateau a bout ha lfway up t he s teep s lope o f t he s car c ircu lar f oundat ion a bout 6 .0m i n d iameter .

Name

F e l l Dyke S ike

NGR

NY 8 56283 ( centred o n)

i s

a

No. 5 0

S & M No. He ight

3 96m

P er iod

Uncerta in

1 300f t

C14 d ate Type

Uncerta in

F inds Excavat ion Pub l ica t ion APs Descr ipt ion

A c omp lex o f modern a nd e ar ly e nc losures a nd f ounda t ions n ear t he s pr ing a t t he h ead o f t he s ike ( see a lso meta lwork ing g azetteer). There a re a lso t wo c a irns wh ich may b e a ssoc iated a nd which s eem un l ike ly t o b e s imply c learance c a irns.

9 6

Name

F orcegarth P asture ( North)

NGR

NY 8 75284

S& M No .

NY 82 NE 26

H e ight

3 20n

P er iod

Romano-Bri t ish w ith poss ibly e ar l ier o r ig ins

C 14 date

1 810±70 bp ( HAR 8 64)

Type

Enc losed f armstead / sett lemen t

F inds

Spind le whor l , quern f ragments ( sadd le r otary), f l ints, e v idence o f i ron sm ith ing

Excavation

1 972-74 K J F a ir less a nd D Cogg ins

P ub l icat ion

K J F a ir less a nd D Cogg ins 1 980

APs

Durham Un ivers i ty Arch.Dept. 9 25/031-035

F ig. 2 7 & 2 8

1 10 o f t

.

.

No. 2 4

.

&

.

.

.

The Bowes Museum AP12-19 D escr ipt ion

A D-shaped enc losure on t he n orth b ank o f t he Sm ithy S ike w ith wa l ls o f wh in b ou lders; t he entrance t o t he e ast i s o bscured by a modern f ield wa l l. W ithin t he e nc losure i s a house c omplex w ith t hree c ircu lar c omponents, a s ing le c ircu lar f oundat ion a ttached t o t h is a nd an i ndependent c ircu lar bu i ld ing . Outs ide t he enc losure t o t he N a nd o bscured by l ater s tone t ipping a re t wo f urther c ircu lar f oundations. There i s a n e xtensive f i eld s ystem.

Name

F orcegarth P asture ( South)

NGR

NY 8 76283

S & M No .

NY 8 3 NE 2 7

H e ight

3 20m

P er iod

Romano-Bri t ish

C 14 date

1 740±90 bp ( HAR 1 447) ( ear l ier phase)

Type

Enc losed s ett lement

F inds

Spind le whor ls, f l ints, ev idence ( m c l . Roman)

E xcavation

1 974-5 K .J.Fa ir less & D .Cogg ins

P ub l icat ion

F orthcoming

APs

Durham Un ivers ity 9 25/031-035 Bowes Museum AP11,12, 1 3,14 , 1 5 B . Roberts, Geography Dept. ‚ Durham Un ivers ity

D escript ion

No. 2 5 F ig. 2 9 & 3 0

i lOOf t

querns ( sadd le & f or i ron s m ithing,

r otary), pottery

A c ircu lar e nc losure c . 4 0m d iameter s et i nto a s outh-east f ac ing s lope a nd c onta in ing 5 -7 house pos i tions. I t i s on ly c . 1 50m f rom t he s i te o f F orcegarth P asture North a nd i s t o b e 9 7

c ons idered a s a probab le s uccessor t o t h is s i te. The houses, t wo o f which were excavated a re s l ight ly ovo id c 7 m i n d iameter a nd s et i n a n i rregu lar t errace . I n o ne c ase a t l east t he s tone f oundat ions had r ep laced an e ar l ier r ing-groove s tructure f rom which t he r adio-carbon d ate was d er ived. .

Name

Gra in Beck ( oppos i te)

NGR

NY 8 03275

N o. 7 6

S & M No. Height

4 57m

P er iod

Uncerta in

1 500f t

C14 d a te Type

S hiel ing

F inds Excavat ion Pub l icat ion APs Descr ipt ion

On t he s outh bank o f t he Tees o ppos i te t he po int where Gra in Beck e n ters t he r iver a re t he f oundat ions o f a sma l l r ectangu lar bui ld ing .

Name

Gra in Beck 2

NGR

NY 8 00277

N o. 7 7

S & M No. He ight

4 88m

P er iod

Uncerta in

1 600f t

C14 d ate Type

S h iel ing?

F inds Excavat ion Pub l icat ion APs Descr ipt ion

A s hor t l eng th o f wa l l ing c an b e s een o n b oth s ides o f t he b eck a t a s ma l l w aterfa l l . A t e ach e nd t he wa l l ing a ppears t o r un under p eat. I n a s he ltered c ave b e low s ubc ircu lar f oundat ion .

9 8

t he

f a l l

i s

a

sma l l

Name NGR S

&

Green Hill

No.82

NY 846 294

M No.

Height Period C14 date

396m 1350ft Uncertain

Type Finds

Uncertain

Excavation Publication APs Description

The modern sheepfold a ppears to overlie earlier curvilinear structures.

Name NGR

Grey Folds NY 893326

S

&

No.69

M No.

Height

549m

Period

Uncertain

C 14 date Type

Uncertain

1800ft

Finds Excavation Publication APs Description

The modern sheepfold at Grey Folds seems possibly to overlie an earlier structure of a different · type. The name of the hill to the north west i s Doras Seat which may indicate the former presenoe of a saeter or shieling.

99

Name

Hard Hill

NGR

NY 727331

No. 85

S & M No. Height

762m

Period

Mesolithic

2500ft

C14 date Type

Hunting camp

Finds

Two cattle horn sheaths and 7 flints. The horns are of the narrowly tapering sharply pointed type with circular cross section and are possibly 'bos primigenius'. The flints comprise 2 microliths and 5 flakes.

Excavation Publication

G.A.L.Johnson & K.C.Dunham 'The Geology of Moor House 1963' 155-7

APs Description

Finds made on bare surface of eroded peat.

Name

Harter Fell (East)

No.19

NGR

NY 936237

Fig. 23

S & M No. 1300ft

Height

396 m

Period

Early /late prehistoric

C14 date ·Type Finds

Stockaded camp Barbed and tanged arrowhead (no.22 )

Excavation Publication APs Description

An irregular oval some 200m x 90m occupying the summits of two small knolls and the saddle between them. It appears on the ground as a continuous slight depression with a very low inner bank. At the northern end it overlies a much smaller banked and ditched enclosure about 45m square. In the saddle between the knolls there are probable house positions.

100

Name

Harwood Beck

NGR S & M No.

NY 855301

Height

381m

Period

Uncertain

No. 73

1250ft

C 14 date Type Excavation Publication

Farmstead?

APs Description

The narrow foundations of a rectangular structure with an enclosing yard are visible on an island in the beck.

Name

High Force Quarry NY 880290

NGR S & M No. Height Period

No. 26

NY 82 NE 32 1200ft 366m Romano-British

C 14 date Type Finds Excavation

Settlement (single house only surviving) Disc quern (no.56)

Publication APs Description

A single circular house foundation c. 5. Orn internal diameter enclosed by the remnants of a bank and ditch. It occupies a site on a south-west facing slope immediately adjacent to the east face of the now derelict quarry. A few metres north-west is a small (c. 5m diameter) roughly circular platform. There is no trace of field systems. Other buildings in the settlement were destroyed by quarrying in the 1930s.

,.

101

Name

H igh Hag

NCR

NY 8 84289

No. 6 2

S & M No. He ight

3 35m

1 180f t

P er iod

Uncerta in, poss ib ly prehistor ic

C14 d ate Type

P oss ibly f armstead

F inds Excavation Pub l ica t ion APs Descr ipt ion

A t t he e ast e nd o f t he H igh Hag p asture a re t he f ragmentary r ema ins o f enc losure w a l ls a nd s ub r ectangu lar bui ld ings.

Name

H ind Gate

NGR

NY 9 02269

No. 4 4

S & M No. He ight

3 51m

P er iod

P reh istor ic

1 150f t

C14 d ate Type

Hut c irc le

F inds Excavat ion Pub l icat ion APs Descr ipt ion

I n a c orr ie a t t he t op o f a p rec ipitous t rack u p Ho lw ick S car i s a f oundat ion o f a s ing le c ircu lar bui ld ing c .8.üm i n d iameter.

1 02

Name

Ho lmwath

NGR

NY 8 33291

No. 1 1

S & M No . H eight

4 27m

1 400f 1

P er iod

P reh istor ic

C14 date Type

F armstead / sett lement

F inds

One unworked f l int f lake f rom mo leh i l l

Excavation P ub l ication APs Descript ion

About l OOm s outh ( upstream) o f W iddybank o ld s heepfo lds i s a s ma l l mora in ic mound para l le l t o t he r iver a nd o ver look ing t he f lat g round o f Ho lmwath. On t op o f t his mound a re t he s tone f oundat ions o f t wo c ircu lar bu i ld ings o f c .6.Om i nter ior d iameter . There a re a lso i rregu lar enc losures. W iddybank o ld f o ld o ver l ies o ther i rregu lar enc losures which may w el l b e c onnected w ith t h is s i te.

Name

Ho lw ick Cast les

No. 3 8

NGR

NY 8 99271

F ig. 3 9

S & M No. He ight

3 20m

i lOOf t

P er iod

E ar ly med ieva l

C14 date Type

F armstead

F inds Excavat ion P ub l ication APs D escription

The s i te o ccupies a t iny s add le b etween t wo whin o utcrops known a s ' the Cast les ' a nd i mmed iate ly s outh o f t he P enn ine Way f oo tpath. I t c ons ists o f t wo s ubrectangu lar bu i ld ings a t r ight a ng les t o e ach o ther a nd e nc los ing a s ma l l y ard ( cf . S imy F o lds). I t i s much c overed by s cree a nd d iff icu lt t o d ec ipher . S pace i s v ery l im ited: t he g round f a l ls away v ery s teep ly t o t he s outh a nd o n t he north a nd w est a re whinstone c l iffs.

1 03

Name

Ho iw ick Head

No. 4 3

NG R

NY 8 91282

F ig. 4 6

S & M No. Height

2 90m

P er iod

Uncerta in

9 50f t

C14 d ate Type

F armstead/sh iel ing

F inds Excava t ion Pub l ica t ion APs Description

I n a meadow t o t he e as t o f Ho lw ick Head Br idge and s ome l OOm f rom t he r iver i s a sma l l D-shaped bui ld ing w ith in a n i rregu lar e nc losure a nd o ccupying a r a ised b ank ( poss ib ly a n e ar l ier r iver b ank). I ts i nterna l d imens ions a re c .7.Om x 4 .Om

Name

Ke ld Sm ithy

NGR

NY 8 89268

No. 1 4 ( see I ndustr ia l Gazetteer a lso)

S & M No. Height

4 11m

1 350f t

P er iod

P reh istor ic

C14 d ate Type

F armstead / sett lemen t

F inds Excava t ion Pub l ica t ion APs

Durham Un ivers ity 1 769/227

Descr ipt ion

A c omplex o f f ragmentary e nc losure wa l ls, c learance c a irns a nd a t l east t wo c ircular f oundat ions o n t he e ast b ank o f S car Beck. S ince t he s i te o ccup ies a s andstone o utcrop i t i s n ot e asy t o d ifferent iate n atura l f eatures f rom a rchaeo log ica l o nes.

1 04

Name

K irk Arran

No.7

NGR

NY 9 39238

S& M No.

NY 92 SW 8

He ight

3 81m

P er iod

Bronze age/iron a ge

1 250f t

C 14 date Type

Funerary

F inds

Urn ( now l ost)

Excavat ion P ub l icat ion APs D escript ion

A c lump o f c on ifers o n ap rom inent kno l l a t t he e astern end o f Harter F el l marks t he s i te o f a l arge t umu lus d estroyed i n 1 804 f or s tone t o bui ld e nc losure wa l ls. I nside t he c a irn was a c ist c onta in ing a n urn w ith p robab ly a c remation bur ia l. The u rn was t aken t o S treat lam Cast le but has b een l ost f or o ver a c entury. There i s n o c ontemporary a ccount o f t he d estruct ion but W .R.Be l l s poke t o eyew itnesses a nd wrote a l etter t o The Teesda le Mercury i n 1 867 o n t he s ub ject. A s l ight ly d ifferen t a ccount a ppears i n Wh ittakers ' " R ichmond s hire".

Name

L ingy Ho lm

NGR

NY 8 20281

No. 1 0

S & M No. He ight

4 27m

1 400f t

P er iod

P reh istor ic ( bronze a ge)

C14 date Type

S ett lement

F inds Excavat ion P ubl icat ion APs

The Bowes Museum AP2,3,7 ( shows a rea o n ly)

D escript ion

On t he n orth b ank o f t he Tees b e low Cau ldron Snout, i n t he n arrow ho lm b etween t he r iver a nd F a lcon C l ints a re t he b ou lder f oundat ions o f t hree c ircu lar s tructures w ith a d iameter o f c .7.0m. They a re poor ly d ef ined a nd d iff icult t o r ecogn ise among t he h eather a nd b ou lders. Between t he f oundat ions and t he r iver t he b ank s eems t o h ave b een a rt if ic ia l ly r a ised t o p rov ide one s ide o f a n enc losure. 1 05

Name

L itt le Dun F e l l

NCR

NY 7 04332

S & M No.

8 38m

P er iod

Roman?

No. 3 2

2 750f t

C14 d ate Type

S igna l s tation ( probab le)

F inds Excavat ion Pub l icat ion

G. A. L. Johnson & K . C. Dunham ' The Geo logy o f Moor House ' 1 963,161

APs Descr ipt ion

An A .P. c ropmark s ite. A p lay ing c ard s haped enc losure a t t he n orth e nd o f t he c rest o f L itt le Dun F e l l. The s i te c ommands a v ery e x tens ive v iew ( in c lear weather) o f t he Eden Va l ley t o t he S & W a nd n orth t o t he w a l l.

Name

Me ldon Ha l l

NGR

NY 7 77289

No. 8 3

S & M No. He ight

7 32m

P er iod

Uncerta in

2 40Of t

C14 d ate Type

Hut c irc le?

F inds Excavat ion Pub l ica t ion APs Descr ipt ion

C lose t o t he r emains o f Me ldon Ha l l ( an 1 8 th c entury m ine s hope) i s a c ircular f oundat ion which whi le i t may b e c onnected w ith c oa l m in ing may poss ibly b e p rehistor ic.

1 06

Name

Merryg i l l Ho lm

NGR

NY 8 31284

S& M No .

NY 82 NW 2

H e ight

4 00m

P er iod

Meso l ith ic

No. 2

1 320f t

C14 date Type

F l int s ite, p robab ly c amp s i te

F inds

F l int a nd c her t f lakes and h ammerstone ( F ig. 1 3)

Excavat ion P ubl icat ion APs Descript ion

On t he s outh bank o f t he T ees a sma l l i n let c .5.0m x 1 .5m had b een e roded f rom a n a l luv ia l f lat r evea l ing a s andy s ub-so i l. Artefacts were f ound i n t h is a t var ious d ates i n t he l ate 1 960s. None h as b een f ound s ince t he c onstruct ion o f Cow Green r eservo ir which h as l arge ly p revented f lood e ros ion.

Name

M idd le F arm

NGR

NY 9 06270

No. 9 1

S & M No. He ight

2 50m

8 50f t

P er iod

P robab ly preh istor ic

C14 date Type F inds

Hut c irc le -

Excavat ion P ub l icat ion APs

Durham Un ivers ity Neg. n o.925016

Descript ion

I n t he pasture n orth o f M idd le F arm a nd i mmed iate ly west o f t he f ootpath t o Newb igg in i s a c omplex o f e arth a nd s tone b anks i nc lud ing a c ircu lar s tructure c .8m i n d iameter.

1 07

Name

Method ist Chape l

No. 5 1

NGR

NY 8 71295

S& M No.

NY 82 NE 34

Height

3 66m

P er iod

Uncerta in, poss ib ly p erh istor ic

1 200f t

C14 d ate Type

Uncerta in

F inds Excavat ion Pub l ica t ion APs Descr ipt ion

I n t he f i eld i mmed iate ly west o f t he c hape l a re t wo c ircu lar f eatures , o ne o n e ither s ide o f t he t rack. Though t hey may b e s tacks tands t hey may b e hut c irc les o r c a irns.

Name

M idd le Hurth

No.8

NGR

NY 8 67308

F ig. 3 4

S& M No.

NY 83 SE 13

Height

4 57m

P er iod

Mu lt iper iod

C14 d ate ( s)

2 210±80 bp ( HAR 2 918) 1 450±110 bp ( HAR 4 456) 1 360±90 bp ( HAR 3 623)

Type

Ceremon ia l/ funerary

F inds

F l ints i nc lud ing m icro l i ths, b roken s tone p ebb lehammer, b roken whetstone

Excavat ion

1 978,

Pub l icat ion

Durham Un ivers ity Arch. Reports Ful l pub l icat ion i n p reparat ion

APs Descript ion

1 500f t

( cremat ion bur ia l) ( turf b e low b ank) ( turf b elow b ank)

p erforated

1 979 D . Cogg ins & K .J.Fa ir less

The s i te o ccupies a l eve l a rea o f l imestone j ust b e low t he Teesda le Cave ( No.18). I t c ons ists o f a l ong ( 60m x 8 m) l ow i rregu lar mound o ver la in by a s ubc ircu lar b ank c . 1 5m i nter ior d iameter. The b ank i s c .2 m b road a nd whi le much o f i t i s o f e arth i n parts t here i s a doub le r ow o f s tones. I t s eems p robab le t hat t here was o r ig ina l ly a s tone c irc le s urmount ing t he b ank. A t one po int t he b ank over l ies a s l ighted c a irn which y ie lded a f ew r emnants o f a c remat ion bur ia l . F l ints ( c.200) f rom t he l ong mount a re b e ing s tud ied by R .Young. An o ld t urf l i ne b eneath t he b ank g ave s uff ic ient p lan t r ema ins f or t he C14 d ates a bove.

1 08

Name

M idd le Hurth ( east)

NGR

NY 8 68308

No. 6 5

S & M No. H eight

4 57m

1 500f t

P er iod

Uncerta in

C14 date Type

Hut c irc le / sh ie l ing

F inds Excavation P ub l icat ion APs Descr ipt ion

Runn ing north

e ast-west

o f t he

a cross

pasture

i mmed iate ly

s i te o f M idd le Hurth ( no. 8 ) a nd t o

t he s outh o f a l ine o f s take ho les i s a f i e ld b oundary. An i rregu lar s ubrectangu lar f oundat ion s ome l Om s quare i s a ttached t o t h is. Name

M i l l Beck

NGR

NY 9 12263

No. 6 3

S & M No . He ight

3 05m

1 000f t

P er iod

P robab ly med ieva l

C14 date Type

F armstead

F inds

Ha lf o f t he l ower s tone o f a r o tary quern was f ound o n t op o f t he modern f i e ld wa l l by L .J.Gidney, 1 982

E xcavation P ub l ication APs

Durham Un ivers i ty 9 25/990,012,013

Descr ipt ion

A sma l l g roup o f r ectangu lar b ui ld ings a ssoc iated w ith f i e ld c learance b oundar ies l i es i n t he s outh c orner o f a pasture b etween t he f e l l dyke a nd t he b eck.

1 09

Name

Moor R iggs

No. 2 9

NGR

Centred on NY 8 78295

S& M No .

NY 82 NE 1O

He ight

3 96m

P er iod

P reh istor ic

1 300f t

C14 d ate Type

S ett lement

F inds Excavat ion Pub l icat ion APs Descr ipt ion

I n t he f i eld i mmed iate ly north o f M idd le Moor R iggs i s a c omplex o f f i eld b oundar ies a nd probab le c ircu lar f oundations. These a re a l l much e roded a nd r a ther i ndistinct.

Name

Mount P leasan t

NGR

NY 8 56303

No. 7 2

S & M No . Height

3 81m

P er iod

Uncerta in

1 2

5 0 f

C14 d ate Type

Uncerta in

F inds Excavat ion Pub l icat ion APs

Durham Un ivers i ty 9 25/039,040

Descr ipt ion

Two s ubrectangu lar s tack s tands.

1 10

f eatures

which

a re p oss ib ly

Name

New House

NGR

NY 859305

S

&

No. 74

M No.

Height

381m

Period

Uncertain

1250ft

Cl4 date Type

Cropmarks

Finds Excavation Publication APs

Durham University

Description

In rough pasture between New House and the Youth Hostel a large subrectangular cropmark appears on the AP. This field is very wet and the marks may be a natural feature but may also represent ditched or moated site.

Name

Park End

NGR

NY. 927255

No.86

S & M No. Height

267m

Period

Uncertain

875ft

C14 date Type

Farmstead

Finds Excavation Publication APs

Durham University 925/001-004

Description

In the field to the east of Park End Farm and close to the Halwick road a small knoll of whinstone outcrop is occupied by a complex of subrectangular enclosures.

111

Name

P asture F oo t

No.20

NGR

NY 8 72280

F ig. 2 4

S & M No. He ight

3 13m

1 075f t

P er iod

L ate prehistor ic?

C14 d ate Type

S ett lement

F inds Excavation Pub l icat ion APs

The Bowes Museum AP64 , 6 5,

6 8

Descr ipt ion

On t he s outh s ide o f t he Tees o ppos i te D ineho im quarry i s a ' ho lm ' o f f lat h eather c overed g round e xtend ing f rom B leabeck t o Dry Beck a nd b ounded on t he s outh by Whiteho lm Bank S car . A sma l l s ike t raverses t h is a rea a nd t o t he n orth o f t his i s a c omplex o f l arge a nd sma l l c ircu lar f oundat ions, f ragmentary enc losure wa l l a nd o ne l arge r ectangu lar bui ld ing. The s i te e x tends f or over l OOm a nd b ecause i t i s t hick ly s trewn w ith wh instone bou lders i s d iff icu l t t o i nterpret.

Name

P asture F oo t ( north)

No. 3 9

NGR

NY 8 70281

F ig. 4 7

S& M No.

NY 82 NE 25

He ight

3 12m

P er iod

Uncerta in

1 075f t

C14 d ate Type

S hie l ing?

F inds Excavat ion Pub l ica t ion APs

The Bowes Museum AP68

Descr ipt ion

The s i te, marked ' o ld f o ld ' o n t he 6 " map i s a r ectangu lar f oundat ion o n t he s outh b ank o f t he T ees o ppos ite D ineho lm quarry and o n ly c . 1 0m f rom t he r iver. A c ross parti t ion d iv ides i t i nto t wo r ooms; t he western ( 6.0m x 4 .5m i nter ior) i s b etter bui lt w ith wa l ls o f whin b ou lders c .1.0m t h ick. The e astern r oom ( 7.0m x 4 .5m) i s l ess wel l d ef ined. There i s a n e n trance i n t he e ast g ab le p rotec ted by a doorway on t he n orth s ide. Corners, i nterna l a nd externa l s eem t o b e r ounded. There s eems t o b e n o a ssoc iated f i eld s ystem but s ome e v idence f or c learance. 1 12

Name

P inshot Currack

NGR

NY 8 79265

No. 4 6

S & M No . H eight

4 50m

P er iod

Uncerta in

1 475f t

C 14 date Type

S hie l ing?

F inds Excavat ion P ub l icat ion APs D escr ipt ion

A s ing le t o t he

v ery sma l l r ectangu lar f oundat ion c lose water r ace.

Name

Rough R iggs

NGR

NY 9 11250 ( centred on)

No. 5 8

S & M No . Height

3 96m

1 300ft

P er iod

P reh istor ic

C14 date Type

Enc losure a nd poss ibly f armstead

F inds Excavation P ub l ication APs Descript ion

A l arge enc losure c . 1 00m s quare. I n t he i nter ior a ttached t o t he s outh b oundary wa l l a re t wo l arge c ircular f oundat ions.

1 13

Name

Rough R igg ( west)

NGR

NY 9 13254

No. 5 63

S & M No. He ight

3 66m

1 200f t

P er iod

Uncerta in, poss ib ly e ar ly med ieva l

C14 d ate Type

S ett lement

F inds Excavat ion Pub l icat ion APs Descr ipt ion

A g roup o f f our l arge r ectangu lar f oundations l i es c lose t o a s pr ing . The wa l ls o f t he bui ld ings a re v ery t h ick. The s ett lement i s unenc losed but l i es w ithin a f i eld s ystem w ith c learance c a irns.

Name

S and S ike

NGR

c . NY 8 30308

No. 7 5

S & M No . Height

4 57m

P er iod

Uncerta in

1 500f t

C14 d ate Type

S ett lement

F inds Excavat ion Pub l icat ion APs Descr ipt ion

S evera l smal l r ectangu lar n orth b ank o f t he s ike.

1 14

f oundat ions

o n

t he

Name

S i l l R iggs

NGR

NY 8 59307

No. 7 1

S & M No . H e ight

3 81m

1 250f t

P er iod

Uncerta in

C 14 date Type

Uncerta in

F inds E xcavation P ub l icat ion APs

Durham Un ivers i ty 9 25/038,041

D escr ipt ion

A sma l l c ircu lar f oundation a t t he n orth w est e nd o f t he f ield.

Name

S imy F o lds 1

No. 3 4

NGR

NY 8 89276

F ig. 3 5 & 3 8

S& M No .

NY 82 NE 32

H eight

3 66m

P er iod

Ear ly med ieva l o ver ly ing p reh istor ic ( probab ly b ronze a ge)

C14 date

1 200f t

1 210±80 bp ( HAR 4 034) 2 330±

bp ( HAR 4 034)

Type

F armstead / sm ithy

F inds

1 979 & 1 981 D .Cogg ins, K .J.Fa ir less & C .Batey

P ub l ication

D Cogg ins, K .J .Fa irless, . C. Batey Med . Arch. 2 7, 1 983 . I nter im r eports i n Durham Un ivers ity excavat ions r eports f or 1 979 a nd 1 981

APs

Durham Un ivers i ty 9 25/025,028,029 ,030,049-056

D escr iption

Most e aster ly o f f our s i tes o ccupy ing a l imestone/sha le t errace i n t he a rea o f Ho iw ick F e l l known a s ' The Bands '. S pace s evere ly l im ited by s teep s lopes t o N , E & S . One r ectangu lar, a nd o ne s ubrectangu lar b u i ld ing a t r ight a ng les t o e ach o ther a nd f orm ing t wo s ides o f a smal l y ard. Sm ith ing h earth i n r ectangu lar b u i ld ing.

.

1 15

Name

S imy F o lds 2

No. 3 5

NGR

NY 8 88277

F igs. 3 5 & 3 6

S& M No.

NY 82 NE 32

Height

3 66m

P er iod

E ar ly med ieva l

C14 d ate

1 170±70

Type

F armstead

F inds

S pind le whor l, i ron s pear f erru le

Excavat ion

1 976,

Pub l icat ion

D .Cogg ins e t.a l.

APs

As S imy F o lds 1 , a lso The Bowes Museum AP23, 2 4, 6 1, 6 2

Descr ipt ion

One narrow r ectangu lar bui ld ing w ith a s econd smal ler s ubrectangu lar bu i ld ing a t r ight ang les t o i t , f orm ing t wo s ides o f a yard. A t h ird sma l ler bu i lding l i es p ara l le l t o t he s econd a f ew metres away.

Name

S imy F o lds 3

No. 3 6

NGR

NY 8 87277

F igs.35 & 3 7

S& M No.

NY 82 NE 32

He ight

2 66m

P er iod

E ar ly med ieva l/med ieva l?

1 200f t

( HAR 1 898)

1 981 Med.Arch. 2 7 1 983

1 200f t

C14 d ate Type

F armstead

F inds Excava t ion

1 981 ( south annexe on ly)

Publ icat ion

D .Cogg ins e t.a l

APs

As S imy F o lds 1 & 2 and The Bowes Museum 2 0, 2 1, 2 2, 2 5

Descr ipt ion

The l argest o f t he f our s i tes a nd t he o ne g iven t he name S imy F o lds o n t he OS map. L ike s ite 2 i t c ons ists o f t hree b ui ld ings and a y ard but h ere a rranged more s pac ious ly. I t i s o ver la id by t umbled s tone wa l ls p oss ib ly o f al ater s heepfo ld. To t he s outh a nd n orth o f t h is enc losure a re a nnexes which a ppear o n t he s urface a s c ircu lar. Excavat ion o f t he s outhern o ne s howed i t t o b e r ectangu lar w ith mass ive w a l ls.

1 16

Med.Arch

2 7,

1 983

Name

S imy F o lds 4

No. 3 7

NGR

NY 8 84278

F igs. 3 5 &4 1

S& M No.

NY 82 NE 32

He ight

3 66m

P er iod

P reh istor ic / med ieva l?

1 200f t

C14 date Type

F armstead/sh iel ing

F inds

L ate preh istor ic pottery a nd f l ints f rom f i e ldwa lk ing .

Excavation Pub l icat ion APs Descr ipt ion

The on ly

most wester ly o f t he f our s i tes, r evea led a f ter heather burn ing 1 976. Cons ists o f a

s ect ion o f mass ive f i eld boundary, o ne s ubrectangu lar f oundat ion c . 1 0mm x 5 m a nd o ne p oss ib ly c ircu lar one. There i s a lso a l ong n arrow r ectangu lar bu i ld ing c . 1 3m x 4 m s ub-d iv ided i nto t hree r ooms.

Name

S kue Trods

NGR

NY 8 4902905

No. 8 0

S & M No . He ight

4 11m

P er iod

Uncerta in

1 350f t

C14 date Type

F armstead

F inds Excavat ion Pub l icat ion APs Descr iption

A c urv i l inear enc losure a nd e ast s ide o f S kue Trods s ike.

1 17

hut

c irc le

o n

t he

Name

S kyer Beck

No. 8 4

NGR

NY 8 67291

F ig. 4 5

S & M No. Height

3 35m

1 10 O f t

P er iod

P reh istor ic

C14 da te Type

S ett lement

F inds Excavat ion Pub l ica t ion APs Descr ipt ion

Between S kyer Beck, t he Tees and t he e ast e nd o f Bracken R igg i s a c omplex o f f i e ld boundar ies, c learance c a irns and c ircu lar f oundations. J un iper s crub makes r ecogn ition d iff icu lt. One f eature i s an a lmost c ircu lar s tructure o f whin b ou l ders 7 m x 6 m w ith a n i nterna l d iameter o f 3 .0m a nd wa l l ing s tand ing 1 .0m h igh. There i s n o a pparent e ntrance. A ttached t o t his i s a s l ighter s ubrectangu lar s tructure c . l Om x 6 m w ith a porch a t t he o ppos ite end.

Name

S tap le Crag

No.1

NCR

NY 9 03278

F ig . 11

S& M No.

NY 92 NW 16

Height

2 59m

P er iod

P robab ly e ar ly meso l i th ic

8 50f t

C14 da te Type

F l int s i te, p robab ly s ett lement

F inds

c .200 p lus f l int a nd c hert f lakes ( worked a nd unworked, c ores, e tc)

Excava t ion Pub l ica t ion

I n p erparat ion ( D.Cogg ins and R . Young)

APs Descript ion

On t he south s ide o f t he r iver Tees a bout 2 00m d ownstream f rom Wynch Br idge an o utcrop o f wh in p ro jects i nto t he r iver. I mmed iate ly d ownstream o f t h is t he b ank h as b een e roded b y f loods, r abb it burrows a nd by p icn ickers f orm ing a n edge c .14m l ong a nd 1 .5m h igh ( max imum). The s ect ion r evea ls a l luv ium over ly ing s tone a nd g rave l. Beneath t h is i s a l ayer o f s and w ith f l ecks o f c harcoa l. The a rea b etween t h is b ank a nd

t he r iver h as p roduced many f l ints i nc lud ing

m icro l iths. I t i s n o t c lear f rom which l ayer t hese a re d er ived but i t i s l ike ly t hat t hey a re f rom t he g rave l. 1 18

Name

S tone Houses S heepfo ld

NGR

Centred on NY 9 08253

No. 1 5

S &A l No. He ight

4 11m

1 350f t

P er iod

P reh istor ic?

C14 d ate Type

S ett lement

F inds Excavation P ub l icat ion APs Descr iption

The Bowes Museum AP52 The

modern

s heepfo ld

i s

t he

f oca l

po int

o f

a

c omplex o f c urv i l inear e nc losures w ith D-shaped s ubrectangu lar and c ircular f oundat ions e xtend ing over a n a rea o f s ome 3 00 x 2 00m. Name

S trands G i l l

No.4

NGR

NY 9 02267

F ig. 1 5

S & M No.

NY 9 2 NW 2 5 ( f ind n o.)

He ight

3 58m

P er iod

Neo l ithic?

1 175f t

C14 date Type

F armstead

F inds

Broken s tone a xe

Excavation

P art ia l e xcavat ion 1 955 by D . Cogg ins d iscont inued b ecause o f i nterference

P ub l icat ion

F orthcom ing ( axe o n ly) S . Clews

APs

Un ivers ity o f Durham Arch. Dept. 4 /3,4,7

Descr iption

A c omplex s i te o n t op o f Ho iw ick S cars b es ide B lackmea Crag S ike. I t c ons ists o f o ne l arge ( about 8 5m x 4 0m) f i eld a nd t wo v ery sma l l o nes e nc losed by c learance b anks. The p r inc ipa l f ea tures a re a l arge c a irn w ith a p art ia l k erb, a bout 8 .0m i n d iameter, a s ubrectangu lar f oundat ion f oundat ion

a bout 7 .0m

8 .0m x 4 .0m a nd a s ubc ircu lar x 5 .0m. A modern s heepfo ld

c overs a nother p robab ly e ar ly f eature. The s i te was p lanned i n 1 955 but i s now s een t o b e much more e xtens ive c ont inu ing f or s ome d istance t o t he s outh.

1 19

Name

Tarn R igg F o ld

NGR

NY 8 51290

No. 4 9

S & M No. Height

4 11m

1 350f t

P er iod

P robab ly p reh istor ic

C14 d ate Type

F armstead

F inds Excava t ion Pub l icat ion APs Descr ipt ion

C lose t o t he s heepfo ld o n t op o f Tarn R igg a re s evera l i ndist inct f oundat ions i nc lud ing o ne l arge c irc le.

Name

Teesda le Cave ( Ma lkins Cave)

NGR

NY 8 67311-869311

S& M No.

NY 83 SE 11

Height

4 88m

P er iod

P reh istor ic ( poss.iron a ge)

No. 1 8

1 600f t -

modern

C14 d ate Type

Cave s i te

F inds

An ima l bones a nd o ne human s ku l l ( in Yorksh ire Museum)

Excavat ion

1 878-85, 1 967-71

Pub l icat ion

J . Backhouse 1 898 .

C .Sims 1 971

APs Descr ipt ion

An extens ive L imestone, t he

c ave s ystem i n e ntrance parts o f

t he Grea t wh ich have

b een d estroyed by q uarry ing. F inds e ar l ier e xcavat ion w ere r e-exam ined

f rom t he by S ims

who g ives a c omplete l i st o f s pec ies . These p robably a ccumulated over a l ong p er iod b ut i nc lude w i ld p ig, wo lf , b ear , d eer, g ame b irds a nd d omest ic s pec ies. A wo lf c ran ium e xcavated by S ims c ontained s i lt which y ie lded po l len which w as e xam ined by Dr.Turner who r eported i t a s ' a t ypica l Z one V III a ssemb lage ' a nd t herefore p robab ly p ost 1 200 BC. Because o f t he presence o f o ats s he c ons idered i t w as p robab ly l ater t han t h is.

1 20

Name

Unthank S cars

No. 4 1

NGR

C entred o n NY919259

F ig. 5 1

S & M No. H e ight

2 9 0

P er iod

Uncerta in

1 000f t

C14 date Type

S ett lement?

F inds Excavat ion P ub l icat ion APs D escription

About 2 00m s outhwest f rom Unthank b r idge o n t he c rest a nd s lope o f a v ery s teep s cree-covered h i l ls ide i s a g roup o f l ong n arrow r ectangu lar f oundat ions a nd o ne o va l o ne. A t rack g iv ing a ccess t o t hem i s v ery p rom inent i mmediate ly s outh o f t he br idge.

Name

Water Race

NGR

NY 9 11258 ( cen tred o n)

No. 6 0

S & M No. He ight

3 51m

1 15 O f t

P er iod

P reh istor ic?

C 14 d ate Type

Enc losure

Excavat ion P ubl icat ion APs D escr ipt ion

A v ery l arge enc losure c .0.6km x 0 .4km s ubd iv ided i nto s evera l f i e lds. The n orthern boundary wa l l h as probab ly b een d estroyed by t he water r ace. I t h as c learance c a irns, r ectangu lar bu i ld ings ( no.53) a nd s ma l l e nc losure w ith c ircu lar f oundat ions.

1 21

Name

Whi te E arth

No.6

NGR

NY 9 06263-909260

F ig. 4 4

S & M No. Height

3 60m

P er iod

Uncerta in

1 175f t

C14 d a te Type

S ett lement

F inds

One s herd o f p robab ly b eaker p ottery

Excavat ion

One sma l l r ectangu lar hut e xcavated D .Cogg ins c .1960

Pub l icat ion APs

Durham Un ivers ity 9 25/057,058

Descr ipt ion

A

c omplex

o f

l arge

a nd

sma l l

s ubrectangu lar

f oundat ions c ontour ing f i eld b oundar ies, a nd c learance c a irns e xtend ing a long a b ench b etween E e l Beck a nd Rowton Beck w ith o ne f oundat ion t o t he w est o f t he l atter.

Name

W i l ly Br ig S ike

NGR

NY 9 16254

No, 5 4

S & M No. Height

3 51m

1 15 O f t

P er iod

P robab ly e ar ly med ieva l

C14 d ate Type F inds

F armstead -

Excava t ion P ub l icat ion APs Descr ipt ion

On a kno l l a t t he j unct ion o f t wo s ikes i n a sma l l f armstead o f t he S imy F o lds t ype i .e. w ith t wo r ectangu lar b u i ld ings a t r ight a ng les t o e ach o ther a nd e nc los ing a s ma l l y ard.

1 22

Name

W i l ly Brig S ike ( south)

NCR

NY 9 16254

No. 5 5

S & M No. He ight

3 51m

P er iod

Uncerta in

1

1 5 0 f

C14 date Type

S hie l ing

F inds Excavation P ub l icat ion APs Descr iption

C lose t o t he p rev ious s i te ( no. 5 4) s outh s ide o f t he s ike i s a s ing le f oundat ion .

but o n t he r ectangu lar

Name

W inch Br idge

No. 2 1

NGR

NY 9 01279

No. 2 5

S& M No. He ight

2 66m

8 75f t

P er iod

L ate preh istor ic I Romano Br it ish

C14 date Type

Enc losed s ett lement

F inds Excavation P ub l ication APs

Un ivers ity o f Durham 9 25/017,024; 4 /1, 2 ; 1 769/218, 2 19, 1 13A

D escription

On t he s outh b ank o f t he T ees a bout 0 .4km west o f W inch Br idge i s a c omplex s i te c ons ist ing O f one r ectangu lar a nd s evera l l ong narrow i rregu lar o nes a nd a l arge c urv i l inear e nc losure c on ta in ing a t l eas t t hree c ircu lar bu i ld ings a ttached t o t he wal ls. There i s a lso o ne i ndependen t c ircu lar f oundat ion w ith a r ectangu lar a nnexe . The a rea a round t he s i te c onta ins s evera l f i eld c learance c a irns w ith many whin o utcrops, s ome o f which a re i ncorporated i nto t he e nc losure wa l ls. I t a lso e xtends e astward i nto meadow land.

1 23

Name

Woo l I ng les

No. 1 3

NGR

NY 8 82271

S& M No.

NY 82 NE 3O

He ight

4 27m

P er iod

P reh istor ic?

1 400f t ( poss ib ly Romano-Br itish)

C14 d a te Type

S ett lement

F inds Excavation Pub l icat ion APs

Durham Un ivers i ty 4 /5, 6 , 8 ; 1 769/225; 1 71/23,31-33

Descr ipt ion

A l arge s i te w ith c o l lapsed wa l ls o f g rey s andstone. I t c ons ists o f a c ircu lar e nclosure c .40m i n d iameter a ttached t o a l arge s ubrectangu lar one w i th s ides o f c . l OOm. I nside t he c ircu lar enc losure a re t he f oundat ions o f a t l east t hree c ircu lar bu i ld ings. There i s a n entrance t o t he NE a pproached by a s hort f unne l . The e ast a nd s outh wa l ls o f t he s ubrectangu lar enc losure a re o n t he c rest o f a s hor t but v ery s teep s lope a nd c ou ld c once ivably b e d efens ive. Recogn i t ion o f f eatures i s made d iff icu lt by t he o utcropping s andstone.

Name

Woo lpitts H i l l

NGR

NY 8 75306

No. 7 0

S & M No . Height

4 56m

P er iod

Uncerta in

1 500f t

C14 d ate Type

Uncerta in

F inds Excavation Pub l ica tion APs Descr iption

I n t he f i e ld t o t he w es t o f t he f armhouse i s t he f oundat ion o f a c ircu lar s tructure c .10m i n d iameter which t hough i t may b e a p ost-med ieva l s tackstand i s poss ib ly much e ar l ier.

( See

Archer

S ike e ast)

1 24

R igg

S ike

a nd

Chester

Name

Year l H i l l

No. 8 9

NGR

NY 8 72289

F ig. 4 0

S & M No. He ight P er iod

P robab ly med ieva l

C14 date Type

F armstead

F inds Excavat ion P ub l icat ion APs Descript ion

On a sma l l s helf s hel tered by a wh instone o utcrop on t he n orthern edge o f t he Knotts i s a sma l l f armstead. I t c ons ists o f a r ectangu lar bui lding a bout 1 4m x 5 m w ith t wo r ooms a nd a porch. The s ing le e ntrance i s i n t he s outh f ac ing l ong wa l l a nd i n f ron t o f t he h ouse i s a sma l l e nc losed yard. A f ew metres away a re t he r ema ins o f t wo smal l i rregu lar bu i ld ings a nd a c a irn.

1 25

APPENDIX 2 GAZETTEER OF STRAY F INDS. F indspo t

Archer R igg S ike

No. 2 2

NGR

NY 8 72302

Ob ject: F l int f lake

Date/F inder

c .1970 D . Cogg ins

L oca t ion :

Mus. No. P ub l ica t ion Further d eta i ls

F ig.

-

The Bowes Museum

1 4 . 1 3,17

-

A

f lake

o f g rey

brown f l int s tackstand.

f l int a nd

f ound

o n

t he

a r ough

a rrowhead o f

s urface

o f a poss ib le

F indspot

Barney Byre

No. 2 5

NGR

NY 8 905 2 805

Ob ject: F l ints

Date/F inder

1 979 D .Cogg ins

L ocat ion:

Mus. No. P ubl icat ion

The Bowes Museum

F ig. 1 4.9,10

-

-

F urther d eta i ls

One c ore o f b lue g rey f l int a nd c ream/white f l int f ound i n mo lehi l ls.

F indspo t

B irk R igg

No. 2 8

NC R

NY 8 65279

Date/F inder

1 977 D . Cogg ins

Ob ject: F lake f rom po l ished a xe L ocat ion : The Bowes Museum

Mus. No. Pub l icat ion

o ne

po int

o f

-

-

Further d eta i ls

A t h in f lake o f g rey s tone c . 5 0m x 3 5mm f ound i n a r abb it burrow. One s urface i s p o l ished a nd s l ight ly c onvex. I t i s p robab ly f rom a g roup V I ( Langda le) a xe.

F indspo t

B lack H i l l S heepfo ld

No. 1 5

NGR

NY 8 18279

Ob ject: Two f l akes o f f l in t

Date/F inder

c .1975

L oca t ion: The Bowes Museum

Mus.No. Pub l icat ion F urther d eta i ls

-

-

Two f l akes o f f l int, o ne worked, f ound waste mater ia l f rom a r abb it b urrow.

1 26

i n

t he

F indspot

Bowes C lose

No. 3 5

NGR

NY 8 34324

Ob ject: F l int a xe

Date/F inder

c .1950

L ocat ion : The Bowes Museum

Mus. No.

1 958 .1802

F ig.16 .3

P ub l ica tion

C lews ( forthcom ing)

Further d eta i ls

Grey-wh ite f l int 9 3mm x 4 5mm. On ly t he e dge i s po l ished . I t was f ound by Raby E state workers b eneath t he f loor o f t he house o f Bowes C lose.

F indspot

Bow lees

No. 5 1

NGR

NY 9 085 2 893

Ob ject : S tone a xe

Date / F inder

1 956

L ocat ion : The Bowes Museum

Mus. No.

1 958 .1890

F ig. 1 6.2

P ub l ication

C lews ( forthcom ing)

F urther d eta i ls

The a xe was f ound i n August 1 956 by Mr.J. Hutch inson a Raby E state f orester i n t he r oots o f a n overb lown t ree . ' Br id l ington t ype r ound i n s ect ion w ith p o inted butt. 1 50mm l ong x 4 5mm broad. Group 1 ( Corn ish) s tone.

F indspot

Brockho lm

No.59

NGR

NY 8 48296

Ob ject : F l int n odu le

Date / F inder

2 6. 4 .5 9

L ocat ion : Co l lect ion o f f inder, Dr.G. A.L. J ohnson,Geo logy Dept. Durham Univers ity.

Mus No. .

P ub l ication Further d eta i ls

F ound i n r iver.

F indspot

Cau ldron Snout

No. 3 3

NCR

8 140 2 875

Ob ject: ( jade i te) a xe

Date / F inder

1 910

L ocat ion: Wh itby Museum

Mus. No. P ub l ication

Woo ler ( 1910)

F urther d eta i ls

F ound o n 9 May 1 910 a bout 2 00 y ards a bove where t he f a l ls s tar t o ut o f t he Wee ! o n N .bank embedded i n d ark c o loured c lay 5 ' -6 ' b e low t he s urface. " The a xe h as b een po l ished a nd measures 6 -" l ong x 2 7 /8" b road a t o ne e nd t aper ing t o t he o ther. I ts t hickness i n t he m idd le i s 1 3 /8", s harp a t t he e dges a l l r ound a nd weighs 1 22 o zs."

1 27

F indspo t

C etry Bank ( oppos i te)

No. 3 1

NGR

NY 8 43298

Ob ject: F l int b lade

Date / F inder

c . 1 965 D . Cogg ins

L ocation: The Bowes Museum

Mus. No. Pub l ica t ion

F ig.

-

1 4.11

-

Further d eta i ls

A b roken b lade o f mott led c ream f l int f ound i n t he s outh b ank o f t he T ees b es ide a n e nc losure.

F indspot

Co ldberry End

No.3

NGR

NY 8 29357

Ob ject : Horn

Date / F inder Mus No.

L ocat ion: Durham Univ.

-

-

Pub l ica t ion

J ohnson & Dunham ( 1963)

Further d eta i ls

A

s ing le

wel l

preserved

horn

was

f ound

i n

t he

s ide o f a n e rod ing mound o f p ea t a bout 4 f eet b elow t he s urface. I t i s ova l i n c ross-sect ion, h e l ica l ly s pira l, f lat s ided a nd r ather b lun t ly po inted . I ts l eng th ( outside curva ture) i s 5 00mm. The hor izon i n wh ich i t was f ound i s p robably po l len z one V IIb. F indspot

Cow Green

No.13

NGR

NY 8 13294

Ob ject: F l int f lakes

Date / F inder

c . 1 969

L ocat ion: The B owes Museum

Mus. No.

-

Pub l icat ion Further d eta i ls

F ive sma l l f ragmen ts o f wh i te pat ina ted f l int f ound amon t p ea t o n t he n orth b ank o f t he Wee l. The s i te i s n ow s ubmerged by Cow Green r eservo ir.

F indspot

Cronk ley S ca r

No. 1 4

NGR

p robab ly c .NY 8 40295

Ob ject: F lint a rrowhead

Date / F inder

1 923 Mr.Nev ison, Barnard Cast le

L ocat ion: The Bowes Museum

Mus. No.

1 958 .1811

F ig. 2 0.3

Pub l icat ion Further d eta i ls

-

A b arbed and t anged a rrowhead f ound a t t he f oo t o f t he S car.

1 28

o f

g rey

f l int

F indspot

D ineho im Quarry

No. 4 5

NGR

NY 8 72282

Ob ject: Bronze f langed a xe

Date / F inder

c .1945

L ocat ion: The Bowes Museum

Mus No.

1 958 . 1 839

P ub l icat ion

J ones ( 1978)

F urther d eta i ls

A f langed a xe f ound i n t he overburden a t D ineho im Quarry by Mr. T . N ixon . 1 42mm l ong x 4 9mm w ide. Corroded a nd worn. Has b een broken ( in r ecen t t imes) a nd r epa ired.

F indspot

D ineho lm Quarry

No. 5 4

NGR

NY 8 72282

Ob ject : D isc quern

Date / F inder

1 934

L ocat ion: Uncerta in

Mus. No.

2 .6.37

.

P ub l icat ion F urther d eta i ls

Donated t o The Bowes Museum by L ord Barnard i n 1 937 . No d imens ions w ere g iven a nd i t c annot n ow b e t raced t hough i t may b e i dent if ied w i th a n un labe l led s tone i n t he c o l lect ion . 5 40mm d iameter x 8 0mm t h ick.

F indspot

F a iry Del l

No. 2 3

NGR

n ear NY 9 13262

Ob ject : F l int s craper

Date / F inder

1 932

L ocat ion: The Bowes Museum

Mus. No.

1 958.1813

F ig.

1 4.18

P ub l ication F urther d eta i ls

A l arge d isco ida l ' scraper ' o f g rey mott led f l in t was f ound on a mo le-heap by Mr. Wm.Lee o f Newbigg in who g ave i t t o t he Museum. Though c ata logued a s a ' scraper i t i s n o t o ne, most c lose ly r esembl ing a sma l l p ebb le t oo l o f l ower p a laeo l i thic t ype t hough i t i s more l i ke ly t o b e a c ore. I t has a c arefu l ly p repared s tr ik ing p latform but t he f lakes which h ave b een d etached a re i rregu lar . There i s s ome ev idence o f po l ish on one e dge which i s s harp a nd r obust .

1 29

F indspot

F a iry Del l

No. 5 0

NGR

NY 9 13264

Ob ject : Quernstone

Date/F inder

J u ly 1 982

L ocat ion: The Bowes Museum

Mus.No. Pub l icat ion Further d eta i ls

Ha lf o f t he bottom s tone o f a m i l lstone g r it r otary quern was f ound u sed a s a c op ing s tone on t he f e l l wa l l a t F a iry De l l by L .J . Gidney whi le f i eld wa lking.

F indspot

F endri th H i l l

No.4

NGR

NY 8 78338

Ob ject : Horn a nd f l ints

Date/F inder Mus.No.

L ocat ion : Unknown -

Pub l ica t ion

S tevens ( 1970)

Further d eta i ls

I t b os horn a nd f l int i mplements f ound " I t has n ot s o f ar b een p oss ible t o f ind f urther i nformat ion .

F indspot

F orcegarth F arm

No. 5 6

NGR

c . NY 8 75286

Ob ject : Quern

Date/F inder

1 946

L ocation: The Bowes Museum

Mus.No.

1 958.1464

Pub l icat ion Further d eta i ls

F indspot

F ound by Mr.E. R. B ead le when p lough ing t he f i eld i mmed iate ly NW o f t he s i te o f F orecegarth North. D iameter 5 85mm t hickness 5 0mm. Reta ins t he r emnants o f i ron h and les . A broken s tone f ound a t t he s ame t ime was g iven t o af r iend o f Mr. Bead le 's a nd c anno t n ow b e t race.

F indspot

Grea t Dun F el l

No.8

NGR

NY 7 23320

Ob ject : F l int f lakes

Date/F inder

L ocat ion: Geo logy Dpt., Durham Un iv.

Mus. No. Pub l ica t ion

J ohnson and Dunham ( 1963)

Fur ther d eta i ls

A s ing le worked f lake o f f l int, p robab ly n ot i n s i tu. I t i s t h ick a nd i rregu lar i n f orm, g rey-buff mott led w ith t races o f whi te p a tinat ion a t one e nd. One s ide o f t he t ip s hows s igns o f u se.

1 30

F indspot

Hagworm H i l l

No. 5 8

NGR

c . NY 8 64246

Ob ject : Quern

Date/F inder

c .1954

L ocat ion : Unknown

Mus. No. P ub l ica tion

-

-

F urther d eta i ls

The t op s tone o f a bun quern was f ound c . 1 954 by a g eo logy s tudent i n a p ea t bog. I t was s een by t he wr iter a t t he t ime o f d iscovery but n o o ther i nformat ion i s known.

F indspot

Hard H i l l

No.1

NGR

c . NY 7 28332

Ob ject: Horn L oca t ion : Durham Un iv.

Date/F inder Mus. No. Publ ica t ion

J ohnson a nd Dunham ( 1963)

F urther d eta i ls

A s ing le hornshea th was f ound o n b are p ea t n ear t he t op o f t he north s lope o f Hard H i l l. I t i s sma l l, o btuse ly t aper ing , b lunt p o inted, f lat s ided and has a s ubc ircu lar c ross s ect ion.

F indspot

Harter F el l

No. 2 1

NGR

uncerta in c .9224

Ob ject: Arrowhead

Date/F inder

1 877

L ocat ion : The Bowes Museum

Mus. No.

1 958.1810

F ig. 1 7.5

P ubl icat ion

-

F urther d eta i ls

A l arge wel l-made b arbed a nd t anged a rrowhead which was g iven t o t he Museum by Mr. Tarn o f S tep Ends F arm c .1850 , hav ing b een f ound many y ears p rev ious ly i n a mo le h eap. I t i s p inkish-grey i n c o lour a nd i s n ot f l int.

F indspot

Harter F el l

No.43

NGR

NY 9 37237

Ob ject: Barbed a nd t anged a rrowhead

Date/F inder

1 982

L ocat ion: The Bowes Museum

Mus. No. P ub l icat ion F urther d eta i ls

F ig.17.1

-

-

A smal l b arbed a nd t anged a rrowhead o f white p at ina ted f l int was f ound o n a mo le h eap w ith in a d efens ive b anked a nd d itched e nc losure o n Har ter F e l l.

1 31

F indspo t

H igh F orce

No. 1 7

NGR

NY 8 8402915

Ob ject: F l int s craper

Date/F inder

c . 1 965 D . Cogg ins

L oca t ion : The Bowes Museum

Mus. No . Publ icat ion

-

-

Further d eta i ls

An end s craper w i th v ery s teep r etouch on a t h ick f lake o f d ark g rey mott led f l int was f ound when a pasture was p loughed.

F indspo t

H igh F orce

No. 1 8

NGR

Uncerta in

Ob ject: F l int s craper

Date/F inder

Uncerta in

L ocat ion: The Bowes Museum

Mus. No.

1 958 .508

F ig. 1 4 .12

Publ icat ion

-

Further d eta i ls

A b lade o f mott led g rey f l int was f ound ' near H igh F orce ' by Mr. Ra ine o f Egg leston, who donated i t t o The Bowes Museum. Traces o f c ortex c an b e s een a t o ne end w ith a bu lb o f p ercuss ion a t t he o ther end. The e dges a re s harp and t here i s no s ign o f r e-touch.

F indspot

H igh F orce

No. 1 9

NGR

NY 8 87287

Ob ject: F l int

Date/F inder

c . 1 875 and 1 977 D .Cogg ins

L ocat ion : The Bowes Museum F ig.

Mus. No.

f l akes

1 4 .8

Pub l icat ion F urther d eta i ls

Two s truck f lakes,

one a mott led g rey b lade,

t he

o ther white pa t inated, w ere f ound i n mo le h eaps a t t he s ame l oca t ion . On ly t he f irst i s i l lustrated. F indspo t

H igh F orce

No.

NGR

p rob.NY 8 88286

Ob ject: Bronze c o ins

Date/F inder

4 8

L ocat ion: The Bowes Museum

-

Mus.No.

1 958/1566-1578

Pub l icat ion

Be l l ( 1870) Backhouse ( 1896) Tay lor a nd Co l l ingwood ( 1929)

Further d eta i ls

Hoard o f 1 3 b rass c o ins most ly Constant ine I f ound i n a sma l l quarry b e low H igh F orce. A s pearhead a nd ' horseshoe ' ( since l ost) w ere a lso f ound.

1 32

F indspot

H igh F orce Quarry

No.55

NGR

NY 8 79289

Ob ject : Quern s tones

Date/F inder

1 932

L ocat ion: Unknown

Mus. No.

6 7.37

P ub l ica tion

-

F urther d eta i ls

A pa ir o f quern s tones poss ib ly o f l ava was p resented t o The Bowes Museum i n 1 937 by L ord Barnard. No d imens ions were g iven. They c an n ot n ow b e t raced.

F indspot

H igh Tees

No. 1 2

NGR

7 68337

Ob ject: F l int f lake

Date / F inder

c .1970

L ocat ion: The Bowes Museum

Mus. No. Pub l ication

-

-

F ig. 1 4.6

-

-

Further d eta i ls

A s in g l e b lade o f buff c o loured f l int was f ound i n t wo p ieces among g rave l on t he n orth bank o f t he Tees.

F indspot

Ho lme F ield

No. 2 6

NCR

NY 8 87284

Ob ject : F l int f lakes

Date / F inder

c . 1 970

L oca tion: The Bowes Museum

Mus. No. P ub l ica tion

F ig.14 .14,15,16 -

Further d eta i ls

Three s truck f lakes, t wo o f g rey f l int, o ne o f b lack c hert f ound a t v ar ious t imes a nd p laces a f ter p lough ing.

F indspot

' Ho lw ick '

No. 4 2

NCR

Unknown

Ob ject: J et b eads

Date / F inder

1 867

L ocat ion : Br it ish Museum

Mus. No.

1 879:1720 & 1 721

F ig. 1 8

Pub l icat ion Further d eta i ls

-

' f ound w ith many o thers f orm ing a n eck lace i n a b arrow '. Two f lat t rapeze s haped j e t s pacer b eads e ach p ierced by t hree t ransverse h o les a nd d ecorated w ith a l ozenge p attern o f p erfora t ions.

1 33

F indspo t

' Ho iw ick '

No. 6 0

NGR

p rob.about NY 9 05270

Ob ject: S tone s p ind le whor l

Date / F inder

1 955

L ocat ion: The B owes Museum

Mus.No. Pub l icat ion

1 958.1663

F ig. 1 9

-

Further d eta i ls

No d eta i ls o f t he f ind a re known. The s p ind le whor l i s o f g rey s latey s tone, 4 5mm d iameter x 4mm t h ick. One s ide i s d ecorated w ith i nc ised r ad ia l l ines a nd d ots. I t was p resented t o t he Museum by Mr. J . Brown, a gen t t o t he Ear l o f S tra thmore.

F indspo t

Ho lw ick

No. 6 1

NGR

c .NY 9 04271

Ob ject: S tone w ith p erforat ion

Date / F inder

c .1978

L ocat ion: The Bowes Museum

Mus.No. Pub l ication

-

-

Further d eta i ls

F ound by Mr. A . Mason when a d i tch w as b eing dug a cross a f i eld. I t i s a sma l l b ou lder o f m i l lstone g r i t measur ing 2 00mm x 1 60mm x 1 400mm. I n o ne f ace i s a p ecked ho le 5 0mm i n d iameter x 1 00mm d eep. I ts u se i s unknown: i t d oes n o t s eem t o have b een u sed a s t he s ocket f or a d oorpost.

F indspot

Hudeshope Beck

No. 4 4

NGR

Uncerta in

Ob ject: Bronze f langed axe

Date / F inder

1 927 E C.Surtees

L ocat ion: The Bowes Museum

Mus. No.

1 958.1838

Pub l icat ion

Cowan ( 1936) J ones ( 1978)

Further d eta i ls

F langed a xe f ound l ong, 6 3mm b road c ond i tion.

1 34

i n Hudeshope Beck. 1 75mm a t c utt ing edge. I n g ood

F indspot

J ack S car Cave

No.46

NGR

NY 9 48275

Ob ject : Bronze s pearhead

Da te / F inder

1 968

L ocat ion: The Bowes Museum

Mus. No.

L /2/2

P ub l icat ion

J ones ( 1978)

F urther d eta i ls

P la in s ocketed p egged L . B. A. s pearhead 3 00mm l ong, 5 0mm s ide. I n g ood c ond ition w ith part o f wooden s haf t s t i l l i n p lace. F ound by a s choo lboy e xp lor ing t he c ave.

F indspot

Keedho lme S car

No. 2 7

NGR

c .NY 8 84284

Ob ject: F l int

Date / F inder

1 980

L ocat ion: Co l lect ion o f f inder, Mr.S. Hodgson, Barnard Cast le.

Mus. No. Pub l icat ion

b lade

-

-

Further d eta i ls

A sma l l b lade o f t rans lucent b rown f l int f ound o n t he f ootpa th b etween Ho iw ick Head a nd H igh F orce.

F indspot

L oppys ide M ine

No.9

NGR

NY 7 21323

Ob ject : M icro l ith

Date / F inder Mus. No.

L ocat ion: Geo logy Dept., Durham Un ivers i ty -

Pub l icat ion

J ohnson & Dunham ( 1963 . )

Further d eta i ls

A s ing le f ragmentary m icro l ith o f b lue g rey o pa l ine f l int was f ound o ut o f p lace i n a sma l l water c hannel .

F indspot

Bog H i l l

No. 1 0

NGR

NY 7 66328

Ob ject: M icro l ith

Date/F inder

Mus. No.

L ocat ion : Geo logy Dept., Durham Univers i ty -

-

P ub l icat ion

J ohnson & Dunham ( 1963)

Further d eta i ls

A s ing le m icro l ith was f ound, n ot i n s i tu. I t i s o f g rey buff mott led f l int w ithout p at ina t ion a nd b roken a t one e nd. I t i s a sma l l s ca lene t r iang le o f C lark 's ( 1956) t ype 4 6 w ith much f ine work ing o n t wo s ides a nd s l ight work ing o n t he t h ird.

1 35

F indspot

M ick le F el l

No. 2 0

NGR

Uncerta in

Ob ject : F l int a rrowhead

Date/F inder

L ocat ion: The Bowes Museum

Mus. No.

1 958 .1812

Pub l icat ion

F ig. 1 7.2

-

Further d eta i ls

A

b arbed

and

t anged

a rrowhead

o f

g rey

f l int

was f ound a t s ome unrecorded p lace o n e rod ing p ea t on M ick le F e l l. F indspot

M idd le End Moor

No.7

NGR

poss ibly NY 9 85305 e xact f indspot unknown

Ob ject: Horn

Date/F inder

c .1960

L ocation: Unknown

Mus.No. Publ icat ion Further d eta i ls

-

-

The base o f a mass ive h ornsheath was f ound i n a p ea t bog on M idd le End Moor by a b eater. I t b ore t races o f c harr ing a nd c utt ing. I t was s en t f or i dentif ica t ion t o Durham Un ivers ity a nd f rom t here was d epos ited c annot n ow b e f ound.

F indspot

M idd leton(no exac t s pot)

NGR Date/F inder

i n

S under land

Museum.

I t

No.38 Ob ject : Whinstone axe

c .1960

L ocation: The Bowes Museum

Mus.No.

F ig. 1 6 .5

Pub l icat ion

C lews ( forthcom ing)

Further d eta i ls

F ound by Mr. F . Nev ison o f Barnard Cast le whi le f i sh ing i n t he T ees n ear M idd leton. ' Scand inav ian ' t ype, r ectangu lar i n s ect ion w ith f lat e dges and c onvex f aces . 1 27mm l ong x 5 4mm b road x 2 8mm t hick. H igh ly po l ished and i n e xce l len t c ond ition.

1 36

F indspot

Netherhearth F lats

No.2

NGR

NY 7 46314

Ob ject : Horn

Date / F inder

L ocat ion : Durham Un iv.

Mus. No. Pub l ication

J ohnson & Dunham ( 1963)

F urther d eta i ls

' A s ing le hornshea th washed o ut o f d eep p eat a nd much e roded. I ts n arrow ly t aper ing s hape a nd s harp ly po inted t ip s uggest t ha t i t may b e Bos P rim igen ius. P o l len a na lys is o f t he p ea t s uggests t ha t t he h orn b e longs t o t he z one V I/ VIIa t rans i tion '

F indspot

Uncerta in p oss ib ly Newb igg in

Ob ject: Quern

NGR Da te/F inder

No.57

p robab ly 1 930s

L ocation: ' Fa iry De l l V iew ', Newbigg in

Mus. No. Pub l ication Further d eta i ls

F ound by Mr. W .Lee but n o r ecord o f f indspot. D iameter 3 40mm, h e ight 1 15mm, ' Hopper ' d iameter 1 30mm, t wo s ide h o les a t r ight a ng les f or h and les.

F indspot

Ore Carr

No.40

NGR

a bout NY 8 84276

Ob ject: D isco ida l s craper

Date/F inder

c .1980

L ocat ion Dar l ing ton Museum

Mus. No. Pub l icat ion Further d eta i ls

F ig.

-

1 4 .19

-

A l arge v ery f ine d isco ida l s craper o f mott led g rey f l int f ound by a wa lker b es ide t he P enn ine Way f ootpath.

F indspot

P ark End

No. 2 4

NGR

Uncerta in but c .NY 9 30260

Ob ject: Arrowhead

Date/F inder

1 867

L ocat ion: The Bowes Museum

Mus.No.

1 958.1803

F ig. 1 7.4

P ub l icat ion

B el l ( 1896)

F urther d eta i ls

A b arbed a nd t anged a rrowhead o f white p at inated f l int was f ound ' i n a f i eld b y t he s ide o f t he T ees by a po tato g atherer '.

1 37

F indspot

P eghorn L odge

No. 3 4

NGR

NY 8 27313

Ob ject : F lin t a xe

Date / F inder

1 919

L ocat ion: I n t he posse ss ion o f Mr.H.L. Bead le, The Avenue, R ichmond.

Mus. No.

-

Pub l icat ion

-

Further d eta i ls

A

sma l l

a xe

o f

whi te

f l int,

3 i nches

l ong

x 1

i nches b road dug up f rom a d epth o f 2 '-3 ' by J . W. Ta l lent ire when mak ing f oundat ions f or a py lon f or a er ia l r opeway f rom Cow Green M ine. I nformat ion f rom Mr. H .L. Bead le. F indspot

P ikestone Brow

No. 2 8

NGR

NY 9 45295

Ob ject: F lint s craper

1 977

L ocation: The Bowes

Date / F inder

D Cogg ins

Museum

.

Mus. No.

-

Pub l icat ion

-

Further d eta i ls

A

l arge

r ough ly

t r iangu lar

f lake

o f

wh ite

pat inated i ron-sta ined f l int w ith s teep r etouch o n o ne e dge was f ound i n a mo le h eap. F indspot

P ikestone Brow

No. 2 9

NGR

NY 9 46293

Ob ject : F l in t f l ake

Date/F inder

1 976 D . Cogg ins

L ocat ion: The Bowes Museum

Mus No. .

Pub l icat ion

-

Further d eta i ls

A s ing le f l ake o f c ream-grey wr iter i n a mo le h eap.

f l int

f ound

by t he

F indspot

S air H i l l

No. 3 6

NGR

NY 8 56304

Ob ject : Whinstone a xe

Date / F inder

c . 1 960?

L ocat ion: Geo logy Dept., Durham Un ivers i ty

Mus. No. Pub l ica t ion Further d eta i ls

F ig. 1 6 .4

-

-

An a xe o f c oarse g ranu lar i ron-sta ined whinstone was

f ound

by

J ohn

N ewr ick

( then

Agr icu ltu r a l

Adv isory Off icer) n ear S air H i l l a nd g ive t o Dr. G . A.L.Johnson . I t i s 1 00mm l ong, 5 5mm w ide a t t he b lade a nd 3 5mm t hick. I t i s b lunt e dged a nd h as a r ounded b utt.

1 38

F indspo t

S imy F o lds 1

No. 4 7

NGR

NY 8 89276

Ob ject: 2 f ragments o f s ha le

Date/F inder

L ocat ion: The Bowes Museum

Mus. No. P ub l icat ion F urther d eta i ls

Cogg ins e t.a l.

1 983

Two f ragments o f t urned

s ha le

were f ound i n s o i l

f rom a r abbi t burrow probab ly d er iv ing f rom l arge s temmed v esse l o f t he l ate p reh istor ic. F indspot

S imy F o lds

No. 3 2

NGR

c entred on NY 8 88277

Ob ject : F l ints

Date/F inder

1 976-81

L oca t ion: The Bowes

a

Museum Mus. No.

F ig. 1 4 .20-39

P ub l icat ion

R .Young & D .Cogg ins e t.a l.

1 983

F urther d eta i ls

2 6 s tray f inds w ere made i n t he a rea : 2c ores, 1 s craper, 1 borer , 6 b lades a nd 1 6 waste f lakes. They c ou ld d ate f rom any p er iod f rom meso l ith ic onwards.

F indspot

S trands G i l l

No.37

NGR

NY 9 025 2 670

Ob ject : S tone a xe

Date/F inder

1 958

L ocat ion : The Bowes Museum

Mus. No. P ub l icat ion F urther d eta i ls:

F ig. 1 6.1 C lews ( forthcom ing) The butt end o f a b roken s tone a xe was f ound by t he writer i n a part ia l ly e xcavated s ect ioned by P rofessor Dunham '.

.

c a irn. I t was . a s er ic it ised

f e ls ite o f i gneous o r ig in. . .t hough t ough i t wou ld hard ly b e poss ib le t o produce a s harp e dge o n i t . - p oss ib ly o bta ined f rom l oca l g lac ia l mora ine '. F indspot

Teeshead

No.5

NGR

NY 7 01340

Ob ject: Horn

Date/F inder

L oca t ion : Durham Un iv.

Mus. No. P ub l ication

J ohnson & Dunham ( 1963)

F urther d eta i ls

A

s ing le

horn

s hea th

was

f ound i n

s i tu i n p eat.

I t was f ragmentary a nd e xfo l iat ing but o f c ircu lar c ross s ect ion, h e l ica l ly s p ira l , n arrow ly t aper ing and s harp ly po inted. I ts l eng th a long t he o uts ide c urvature was a t l east 4 00mm. P o l len a na lys is o f p eat bo th i ns ide a nd o uts ide b e longs t o po l len z one V Ila.

1 39

s uggests

t hat

i t

F indspot

Teeshead

No.6

NGR

NY 6 99340

Ob ject : F lints a nd horn

Date/F inder

L ocation : Durham Un iv.

Mus. No. Pub l ica t ion

J ohnson & Dunham ( 1963)

Further d eta i ls

Three

s truck

f lakes

o f

g rey

buff

f l int,

one

o f

which ( no .3) has ' consp icuous f ine f l ak ing o n both s ides '. They w ere f ound i n a ssoc iat ion w ith t he f ragmentary r ema ins o f a hornsheath. F indspot

Thist le Green

No. 1 6

NGR

NY 8 45285

Ob ject: F l int a rrowhead

Date / F inder

L ocation: I n t he c o l lect ion o f f inder: Mr. J .C. More land, J ubi lee Mount, Br ighouse, W .Yorks.

Mus. No. Pub l icat ion

-

Further d eta i ls

A sma l l h eav i ly pat inated b arbed a rrowhead f ound i n a mo le h eap.

F indspot

Upper Moss F lats

No. 1 1

NGR

NY 7 56313

Ob ject: Worked f lakes o f b anded chert

Da te / F inder

a nd

t anged

L ocat ion : Durham Un iv.

Mus. No. Pub l ica t ion

J ohnson & Dunham ( 1963)

Further d eta i ls

F ive f lakes o f b anded h ert ( one b roken i n w ere f ound on a n e rod ing p ea t s urface.

F indspot

Whi te E arth

No. 4 1

NGR

NY 9 04262

Ob ject : P otsherd

Date / F inder

c .1960 D . Cogg ins

L ccation: The Bowes Museum

Mus. No. Pub l ica tion Further d eta i ls

t wo)

F ig. 1 9.1 -

A sma l l s herd o f c oarse po ttery was f ound i n a mo le h eap. The i nter ior s urface i s b lack, t he e xter ior p ink/red w ith t races o f i mpressed c ord d ecorat ion f orm ing s quares. P oss ib ly b eaker?

1 40

F indspot

Whi te F orce

No. 4 9

NGR

NY 8 52280

Ob ject: Bronze s h ie ld boss

Date / F inder

1 857

L ocat ion : The Bowes Museum

Mus . No. P ub l icat ion

8 3 .7-5.105

F ig. 2 6

Bel l ( 1870) Backhouse ( 1898)

F urther d eta i ls

There

a re

no d eta i ls o f t he f ind ing o f t his o b ject.

I t was a t one t ime i n t he c o l lect ion o f Canon Greenwel l. D imens ions: overa l l d iameter 2 00mm h eight 7 0mm, d iameter o f umbo 1 10mm. Though damaged i t i s i n qu i te g ood c ond i tion.

1 41

APPENDIX 3 . GAZETTEER OF METALWORKING S ITES. Name

B ink S car S ike

No. 2 5

NGR

NY 8 81282

Height: 3 43m/1125f t

Descr ipt ion

A sma l l h eap o f s lag i n ac lear ing i n j un iper s crub.

Name

B irk R igg ( west)

No.8

NGR

NY 8 58282

Height: 3 96m11300ft

Descr ipt ion

A l arge h eap o f i ron s lag o n l evel g round b etween t he P enn ine Way f ootpath a nd F e l l Dyke S ike.

Name

B irk R igg ( east)

No. 1 0

NGR

NY 8 64280

Height: 3 66m11200ft

Descr ipt ion

A l arge h eap o f i ron s lag o n l evel g round b etween t he P enn ine Way f ootpath a nd F e l l Dyke S ike.

Name

B leabeck F orce

No.16

NGR

NY 8 75278

Height: 3 51m/1150f t

Descr ipt ion

A h eap o f i ron s lag on a v ery s teep s lope o n t he e ast bank o f B leabeck.

Name

B leabeck F ord

No.17

NGR

NY 8 76275

Height: 3 96m/1300ft

Descr ipt ion

A h eap o f i ron s lag on l eve l g round on t he e ast b ank o f B leabeck .

Name

Bracken R igg

No.9

NGR

NY 8 62282

Height: 3 81m/1250f t

Descr ipt ion

A l ead smelt ing s i te on t he c rest o f t he b ronze s i te, much o f t he s o i l h as b een e roded , a f ragments o f l ead a nd s lag h ave b een r ecorded.

Name

Br idge House P asture

No. 3 1

NGR

NY 8 89284

Height: 3 05m/1000ft

Descript ion

A h eap o f i ron s lag i mmed iate ly north o f t he M idd leton-A lston r oad. Approached by a t rackway f rom t he r iver.

Name

Causeway

NGR

NY 9 04292

Descr ipt ion

Extens ive r ema ins o f l ead s melting o n t he n orth

S ike

a ge f ew

No.34 Height: 3 66m/1200f t

o f Causeway S ike.

1 42

bank

Name

Comb Green

No.22

NGR

NY 8 87259

Height: 4 72m/1550ft

D escript ion

A s ma l l h eap o f i ron s lag n ear t he Mease s ike.

Name

Crooks o 'Green F el l

No. 2 3

NCR

NY 8 98255

Height: 4 72m11550f t

D escr ipt ion

A s ma l l b eck.

Name

Currakk Wood S heepfo ld

No. 1 4

NGR

NY867286

Height: 3 35m/1100f t

D escript ion

h eap

o f

i ron

s ource o f Sw inket

s lag n ear t he s ource o f E aster

A h eap o f i ron s lag on l eve l g round o n t he e ast bank o f t he Tees.

Name

Dry Beck

No.12

NGR

NY 8 67278

Height: 3 51m/1150ft

D escript ion

A l arge h eap Dry Beck.

Name

E e lbeck Dubs

No. 2 4

NGR

NY 8 95263

Height:

D escription

A l arge h eap o f i ron E e lbeck n ear a f i eld.

Name

F el l Dyke S ike ( west)

No.6

NGR

NY 8 55283

Height: 4 11m/1350f t

D escript ion

Two h eaps o f i ron s lag a bout 5 0m s pr ings a t t he s ource o f t he s ike.

Name

F e l l Dyke S ike ( east)

No.7

NGR

NY 8 56283

Height: 4 11m/1350ft

D escr iption

A h eap o f i ron s lag o n t he n orth bank o f t he s ike.

Name

Green H i l l

No.3

NGR

NY 8 47293

Height: 4 11m/1350f t

D escript ion

Two h eaps o f i ron s lag n ear a o ver l ies p robab ly e ar ly f oundat ions.

Name

Hag S ike

No. 2 9

NGR

NY 8 77290

Height: 3 43m/1125f t

D escription

A

s ma l l

h eap

o f

o f

i ron

i ron

s ike. 1 43

s lag on t he n orthwest b ank

s lag

s lag

on

t he

on t he

o f

3 96m/1300f t s outh

a part

b ank

n ear

s heepfo ld

s outh

b ank

o f

t he

wh ich

o f t he

N : i ine

Ho lme P lant ing

No. 3 2

N R

NY 8 89284

Height: 2 90m1950f t

Description

A h eap o f i ron smelt ing

s lag i n

t he p lanting s outh o f

t he M idd le t on -A ls t on r oad a nd c lose t o t he f i e ld wa l l. N : ime

Ho iw ick Head

No. 3 3

NGR

NY 8 90282

Height: 2 97m/975f t

D escr ipt ion

A

s cattered

h eap

o f

i ron

s lag

o n

a

n orth-south

l ynchet i n t he f i eld t o t he e ast o f t he house. Name

Keld Sm ithing

No. 1 9

NGR

NY 9 90269

Height: 3 96m/1300f t

D escr ipt ion

A l arge h eap c lose t o a s ett lement s i te and b es ide t he s ource o f t he S car b eck.

Name

L ow Hag

No. 3 0

NGR

NY 8 81288

Height: 3 35m/1100f t

Descr ipt ion

Rema ins o f a t l east o ne h eap o f i ron s lag o n t he n orth bank o f t he Hag s ike.

Name

Noon H i l l S pr ing

No. 1 1

NGR

NY 8 63277

Height: 3 96m/1300f t

D escr ipt ion

A sma l l h eap o f i ron b es ide a s ma l l s pr ing.

Name

Ore P it Ho les

No. 1 8

NGR

C entred

Height: 4 11m/1350f t

Descr ipt ion

There a re s evera l h eaps o f t he l i ne o f b e l l p its.

Name

P asture F oo t

No. 1 5

NGR

NY 8 73280

Height: 3 30m/1075f t

Descript ion

A much e roded heap o f i ron s lag i mmed iate ly o n t he s outh bank o f t he r iver o pposi te D ineho lm Quarry .

Name

P enc i l M i l l

No.4

NCR

NY 8 48296

Height: 3 66m/1200f t

Descr ipt ion

A much e roded h eap o f i ron s lag i mmed iate ly o n t he s outh b ank o f t he r iver j ust upstream o f t he P enc i l M i l l.

o n NY 8 78273

1 44

s lag

o n

a v ery

o f i ron

s teep

s lope

s lag a long t he edge

Name

S imy F o lds West

No. 2 0

NGR

NY 8 87277

Height: 3 81m!1250f t

D escript ion

A h eap o f i ron s lag b es ide s hoo ting butts w est o f s i te 3 .

Name

S imy F o lds North

No. 2 1

NGR

NY 8 87278

Height: 3 81m/1250f t

D escript ion

A sma l l h eap o f i ron s lag over ly ing t he b oundary wa l l o f t he S imy F o lds s ett lement.

Name

S kyer Beck

No. 1 3

NGR

NY 8 68281

Height: 3 35m/1100f t

D escr ipt ion

A v ery l arge h eap o f i ron s lag on t he n orth-west b ank o f S kyer Beck c lose t o i ts j unct ion w ith t he r iver. The P enn ine Way f ootpath c rosses over t he

a s pr ing

c lose

t o

t he

n orth

e dge o f t h is h eap. Name

S late

Quarry S ike

No. 2

NGR

NY 8 43297

D escr ipt ion

A h eap o f i ron s lag o n t he n orth a bout l OOm away f rom t he r iver.

Name

Sm i thy S ike

No. 2 8

NGR

NY 8 76285

Height: 3 55m/1100f t

D escr ipt ion

An

Height: 3 81m/125of t

i rregu lar

but

r ough ly

bank

r ectangu lar

o f

t he

ho l low

s ike

w i th

' wa l ls ' o f i ron s lag on t he s outh b ank o f t he a d jacent t o t he s ett lement o f F orce g arth North.

s ike

Name

S un Wood ( a)

No. 2 6

NGR

NY 8 78284

Height: 3 35m/1100f t

D escript ion

A s aucer-shaped d epress ion on t he west b ank o f t he Sm i thy S ike j ust s outh o f t he a ccess r oad f or D ineho lm Quarry , f ragments o f l ead a nd l ead sme lt ing s lag have b een r ecovered f rom t his s urface.

Name

S un Wood ( b)

No. 2 7

NGR

NY 8 78284

Height:

D escript ion

A l arge h eap o f i ron s lag i mmediate ly a d jacent t o 2 6,

3 35m/1100f t

c .4 .0m i n d iameter . Name

Whey S ike

No.5

NGR

NY 8 57297

Height: 3 66m/1200f t

D escr ipt ion

A h eap

o f

i ron

s lag

o n

e ast o f Whey S ike h ouse. 1 45

t he

b ank o f t he

s ike

t o t he

Name

W iddybank ( oppos i te)

No.1

NCR

NY 8 38297

Height: 3 81m/1250f t

Descr ipt ion

A h eap o f i ron s lag o n t he s outh b ank o f t he r iver o ppos ite W iddybank F arm.

1 46

F ig.1

Upper T eesda le 1 47

l ocat ion map.

F ig.2

Upper Teesda le :g eo logy.

1 48

F ig.3

Upper Teesda le : t opography.

1 49

F ig.4

Upper Teesda le :modern s ett lement.

1 50

F ig.5

Upper Teesda le :e ar ly s ett lement.

1 51

F ig.6

Upper T eesda le

1 52

s tray f inds.

a

F ig.7

Upper Teesda le f ive s i tes f or which po l len d iagrams have b een c onstructed.

1 53

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