Understanding Contemporary Journalism: A Handbook of Principles and Practice 9956552992, 9789956552993

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- Tatah Mentan -

Langaa Research & Publishing Common Initiative Group P.O. Box 902 Mankon Bamenda North West Region Cameroon

Understanding Contemporary Journalism

TATAH MENTAN is an Independent Researcher, Member of the Political Commission for Nations and States under colonial rule, pacifist and engaged peace activist. He is a Theodore Lentz Peace and Security Studies Fellow, and Professor of Political Science.

A Handbook of Principles and Practice

Journalism is one of the most important professions today. Without it, large swaths of the world similarly might have remained “dark, impoverished, tortured,” because few people would have been aware of the nature and depth of the atrocities therein. You can’t fix what you can’t find. Indeed, we have only to look at places today where journalists must risk their lives to do their jobs—places such as Central Europe, the Philippines, Mexico, Myanmar, Russia, Turkey, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Cameroun, Afghanistan, and too many others—to appreciate anew what an incalculable difference the media make, reporting on wars, famines, genocide, and the tyrants who green-light them. But saving the world apparently is not enough. I have included a chapter on Peace Journalism because it uses conflict analysis and transformation to update the concept of balance, fairness and accuracy in reporting. This approach provides a new road map tracing the connections between journalists, their sources, the stories they cover and the consequences of their reporting–the ethics of journalistic intervention to play a role in global peace rather than fuelling conflicts.

Understanding Contemporary Journalism A Handbook of Principles and Practice - Tatah Mentan -

Understanding Contemporary Journalism:

A Handbook of Principles and Practice

Tatah Mentan

Langaa Research & Publishing CIG Mankon, Bamenda

Publisher:

Langaa RPCIG Langaa Research & Publishing Common Initiative Group P.O. Box 902 Mankon Bamenda North West Region Cameroon [email protected] www.langaa-rpcig.net

Distributed in and outside N. America by African Books Collective [email protected] www.africanbookscollective.com

ISBN-10: 9956-552-99-2 ISBN-13: 978-9956-552-99-3 © Tatah Mentan 2022

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical or electronic, including photocopying and recording, or be stored in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publisher

Dedication “Teachers.” What does that word conjure in your mind? If you are, or have been a teacher at some period in your life, you will immediately think of that time and your experiences as you led and instructed young minds in their preparation for meeting life’s challenges. If you have never been in the teaching field, you certainly were influenced by many in your lifetime. We were influenced by Mr. Sammy Chumfong who taught us journalism with a passion. I also dedicate this book to Dr. Mrs. Charity Tatah Mentan for always lovingly and insistently reminding me to share my notes of lessons in journalism with a wider audience as a living testament. I also dedicate this Compilation to my parents, the two people that gave me the tools and values necessary to be where I am standing today. My parents, who stand now on death’s triumphal steep, supported me on every step I made; but it is necessary to understand that they let me take my decisions alone to learn from my personal mistakes and as my father always said: “learn and grow from each setback”. Finally, I dedicate this book as a must-have resource for scholars and students working in journalism, media studies, and communication as well as decision makers on sensitive human issues around the globe.

Table of Contents Foreword: ......................................................................................vii Preface: .........................................................................................xi Introduction: Substance of the Communication Process ...............................................................1 Chapter 1: News and Society ........................................................13 Chapter 2: Culture of Journalism ..................................................23 Chapter 3: Becoming a Journalist .................................................31 Chapter 4: Newspapers .................................................................37 Chapter 5: Magazines ...................................................................43 Chapter 6: Television and Radio ..................................................49 Chapter 7: News Websites ............................................................55 Chapter 8: Reporters .....................................................................97 Chapter 9: Reporting.....................................................................101 Chapter 10: Writing News and Features .......................................129 Chapter 11: Style ............................................................................133 Chapter 12: Editors .......................................................................157 Chapter 13: Editing and Headline Writing ...................................165 Chapter 14: Visual Journalists .......................................................173 Chapter 15: Graphics Journalism ..................................................179 Chapter 16: Photojournalists .........................................................187 Chapter 17: Publication Design ....................................................197 Chapter 18: Broadcasters ..............................................................205

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Chapter 19: Writing for Broadcast.................................................217 Chapter 20: Beginnings of Multi-Disciplinary Journalism ........... 225 Chapter 21: Journalism in the Age of Technology ........................ 233 Chapter 22: New Realities, New Journalism ................................245 Chapter 23: 20th Century and Beyond ..........................................253 Chapter 24: Law and the Journalist ..............................................263 Chapter 25: Ethical Practices in Journalism ................................. 279 Chapter 26: Peace Journalism .......................................................289 Chapter 27: Present and Future Journalism..................................313 Appendixes: ..................................................................................323

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Foreword The field of journalism is in crisis, and that means journalism education is also in crisis. Jobs at traditional newspapers and RadioTV stations are shrinking, and wages are stagnant in many countries. The switch to digital media, while spawning new roles for journalists, has resulted in a drastic net decline in full-time jobs. Further pain is likely! Robot journalists, usually in the form of software or digital networks, are starting to produce usable stories, at least for the routine matters that make up most news. The upheaval is translating into slightly lower enrollments for undergraduates studying journalism, according to an annual survey by the University of Georgia. The survey prompted the American Journalism Review, published by the University of Maryland, to observe in July: “Declining journalism enrollments put pressure on administrators to make drastic changes in structure and curricula.” Those changes emphasize giving students a steady diet of digital skills—how to use social media to create videos and other web-first content quickly, and to report on people, places, and topics with the full range of multimedia tools. The university of Arizona State, which houses the Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication, has been in the vanguard of those reforms for some years now, emphasizing tools over knowledge, teaching students to become equally adept at print, photo, video, and multimedia “packages.” Many journalism programs are emulating that model, to varying degrees, raising the question of whether the innovative embrace of digital skills will be ultimately self-defeating because tools change rapidly and get easier to use. As that happens, they also become easier to embed in automated digital systems (think autofocus on your camera). The image of a TV anchor team alone in a studio, aided only by computer-controlled cameras, sound, graphics, and security systems, is already a reality. That digital tools can paradoxically be a good in themselves and yet set up students for failure has dawned on some perceptive educators. “Journalism schools have tended to orient themselves too much toward the profession and too little toward the university,” concluded “Educating Journalists,” a 2013 report from the Columbia Journalism School. vii

Does journalism have a future? Attempting to control and demean traditional news sources is straight out of the playbook of autocratic rulers around the world, including tyrants in other parts of the world and even Vladimir Putin in Russia. Control the message and you control the people. It’s that simple! So, we know there are autocratic presidents who lie about as often as they take a breath. Since they cannot be removed from office soon by a free and fair electoral process, it only gets worse. Americans today, for instance, are inundated with media of all kinds and thus are becoming increasingly skeptical of all sources of information, which is bad for traditional journalists who are still committed to fact checking and obtaining their information from reliable sources. Meanwhile, in America itself, the more disturbing trend is that of big media companies buying up newspapers around the country and milking them for profits. Most could care less about covering the local communities they serve. But true journalism is under siege today, attacked by fringe elements on both the right and left, by fake news sites online, and by current presidents. Reporting and commenting on news of the day is an evolving process, and especially so these days. But good journalism still matters, perhaps more so today than any time in recent memory. Those journalists who chronicle and analyze the ugly events of the day, and who sometimes dig up stories that people in authority don’t want told, are rarely going to be popular or beloved figures. But you ought to be concerned about what is being done to journalists, more than ever, by people in power, and by the violent figures who hear their messages. There have always been those who seek to silence the messengers; what is measurably different today, as the latest data from organizations such as Reporters Without Borders show, is that the people who want to kill or silence journalists are increasingly empowered by political leaders in otherwise “democratic” countries. However, journalists know that on a daily basis they are going to get more criticism than praise for what they do. It’s just the nature of the job. So, if you know a reporter or editor, regardless of the size of publication they work for, like veterans, thank them for doing their jobs to keep the public informed. What they do every day is that important. There are bright signs—countries where threats to journalists, bloggers and social-media users declined sharply in past years. These viii

were mostly countries (notably Armenia, Ethiopia, Gambia and Malaysia) where citizen protests have forced a change in leadership and a return to greater democracy. It is an enduring fact that the silencing of journalists is an attempt to silence all humanity.

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Preface Journalism is an exciting, demanding career. But journalism finds itself in deep trouble these days. It faces a profound reckoning, a hinge point of existential significance. Professional journalism places a premium on legitimate news stories based upon what people in power say and do. The appeal is clear. It removes the tinge of controversy from story selection –“Hey, the Governor said it so we had to cover it” – and it makes journalism less expensive: Simply place reporters near people in power and have them report on what is said and done. It also gives journalism a very conventional feel, as those in power have a great deal of control over what gets covered and what does not. Reporting often turns into dictation as journalists are loathe to antagonize their sources, depending upon them as they do for stories. Indeed, successful politicians learn to exploit journalists’ dependence upon official sources to maximum effect. This dependence also makes possible what the modern publicrelations industry does in its surreptitious manner. Context is often eschewed by professional journalism because it opens the door to the charge of partisanship. It is awfully difficult to contextualize a story well without showing some partisan inclinations or making some controversial value judgments. So professional journalism tends to pummel people with facts, but rarely pummels people with a nuanced appreciation of what the facts might mean. This helps explain the numerous studies that show that sustained consumption of the news on a particular subject often does not lead to a better understanding of the subject and sometimes leads to more confusion. Which means that professional news can have the ironic effect of making public life more confusing and less interesting and attractive, thereby promoting depoliticization. Depoliticization is evident in the way the American society, for instance, has increasingly become dominated by the language of extreme nationalism, racism, nativism and grotesque levels of inequality. And it is evident in the depoliticizing conditions of the social order that strip individuals of critical thought, selfdetermination and reflective agency. In the current era, politics is therefore no longer about the language of public interest, but about how to survive in a world without social provisions, support, xi

community and a faith in collective struggle. This is a language that operates in the service of violence, and marks, to quote author Bill Dixon, “a terrifying new horizon for human political experience.” This is a language that is horrifying for producing without apology what the end of politics, if not humanity itself, might look like. Under such circumstances, democracy is not merely under siege, but is close to being erased. The following represent the principles, standards and practices that the Fourth Estate aspires to in our stewardship of journalism and the public trust. Although journalism ethics and the law are closely related, they are not the same. Journalism’s ethical obligations may—and often do—exceed legal duties. In resolving any ethical problem not explicitly covered by these precepts, journalists should consider the ethical principles, society’s needs and interests, and any applicable laws. The mission of a journalist, in partnership with its member journalists, is to create a more informed public, one challenged and invigorated by a deeper understanding and appreciation of events, ideas, and culture within the United States and across the globe. To this end, a journalist reports, produces, acquires and distributes news, information and other content that meet the highest standards of public service in journalism and cultural expression. The work of journalists, whether on the air online, through podcasts, video, or in any other form, aspires to the heights of public service. We take seriously our democratic role as watchdogs, holding the powerful accountable as we hold ourselves to the core principles of honesty, integrity, independence, accuracy, contextual truth, transparency, respect and fairness for the people we serve and the people we cover. I know that truth is not possible without the active pursuit of a diversity of voices, especially those most at risk of being left out. However, with these guiding principles in mind, this handbook of principles and practice is intended not as a prescriptive list of do’s and don’ts. Rather, it is a foundation upon which students should consider these often-competing principles and exercise judgment in deciding how to best represent the core values of the profession and to serve their audiences with journalism they can trust. This is why I repeat these news values time and again in class. Journalists do not intend these as an additional legal burden on anyone working within the Fourth Estate, but rather as guidelines for all of us—consumers of journalism as well as its producers—in an xii

evolving media landscape. What follows adopts the three main categories proposed by McBride and Rosenstiel. For each, the Fourth Estate has drafted its own principles, standards and practices that they believe are most relevant to human circumstances. Truth Principle Journalists do their best to report the truth in as much complexity, diversity and clarity as possible. Inherent in that approach is accuracy, with a first allegiance to the facts as opposed to any particular point of view. Standard We report and edit with truth as our most important consideration, and correct our failures to meet that standard as quickly and as fully as possible Practice We provide detailed attribution of ideas and language not original to us. We link as thoroughly as possible to sources that we’ve used to assemble our journalism and that we believe will be useful to consumers in learning more about relevant topics. As much as we strive to be as independent as possible (with a first allegiance to truth), we bend over backwards to be transparent about our biases and/or vested interests whenever relevant. Transparency Principle We regard transparency about how we work as the best evidence of the reliability of our journalism. Transparency is a key ingredient in achieving a number of our objectives, including accuracy and accountability to the communities we serve. Standard Consumers of our journalism are able to assess its worth by evaluating its foundations. Practice Articles published on our platforms are edited by at least one person (in addition to the author). Social media posts to Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, etc. are usually published without such review. Our publishing platforms contain prominent links to a description of these guidelines, along with clear instructions on how to hold us accountable and help us correct our mistakes. Community Principle We seek to equip individuals and communities with the news and information they need to make wise decisions. xiii

This service-oriented approach includes a commitment to minimize harm, especially to vulnerable stakeholders, in the course of telling as much of the truth as possible. Standard We report the news in ways that reflect its importance to the community and the news consumers that we serve. Practice In practical terms, this means we don’t content ourselves with shining light on problems but also work hard to uncover solutions useful to the communities we serve As a solution-oriented organization and we only increase our value to our members, our communities and the news consumers that we serve. The Fourth Estate’s Core Journalism Principles, Standards and Practices is an evolving statement and by its very nature cannot be a complete articulation of all ethical obligations. These precepts are the result of an on-going dialogue between the journalism profession and society, and as such, is subject to continuous review. Ten Principles that inform Journalism Practice 1. Public interest Example: “… to serve the general welfare by informing the people and enabling them to make judgments on the issues of the time” (American Society of Newspaper Editors) 2. Truth and accuracy Example: “[The journalist] strives to ensure that information disseminated is honestly conveyed, accurate and fair” (National Union of Journalists, UK) 3. Verification Example: “Seeking out multiple witnesses, disclosing as much as possible about sources, or asking various sides for comment… [The] discipline of verification is what separates journalism from other modes of communication, such as propaganda, fiction or entertainment” (Principles of Journalism, from Project for Excellence in Journalism) 4. Fairness Example: “… our goal is to cover the news impartially and to treat readers, news sources, advertisers and all parts of our society fairly and openly, and to be seen as doing so” (New York Times Company Policy on Ethics in Journalism)

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5. Distinguishing fact and comment Example: “… whilst free to be partisan, [the press] must distinguish clearly between comment, conjecture and fact” (Editors Code of Practice, PCC, U.K.) 6. Accountability Example: “The journalist shall do the utmost to rectify any published information which is found to be harmfully inaccurate” (International Federation of Journalists, Principles on the Conduct of Journalists) 7. Independence Example: “Journalists should be free of obligation to any interest other than the public’s right to know… [and] Avoid conflicts of interest, real or perceived” (Society of Professional Journalists) 8. Transparency (regarding sources) Example: “Aim to attribute all information to its source. Where a source seeks anonymity, do not agree without first considering the source’s motives and any alternative, attributable source. Where confidences are accepted, respect them in all circumstances” (Australian Journalists Code) Restraint (around harassment and intrusion) Example: “The public has a right to know about its institutions and the people who are elected or hired to serve its interests. People also have a right to privacy and those accused of crimes have a right to a fair trial. There are inevitable. These principles are not exhaustive. However, they have guided me in my teaching of journalism in universities in Nigeria, Cameroun and Rwanda. I also used them for internships for journalists sponsored by UNESCO as well as The Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung (FES) seminars series, facilitated by Professor Francis Nyamnjoh in Cameroun in the 1990s. During these trying years, I also made students understand that as journalism students enrolled at any university, they were part of a community of scholars at an institution recognized for its journalistic research and performance. A scholar’s mission is to push forward the boundaries of knowledge; a journalist’s mission is to serve the public by seeking and reporting the facts as accurately as possible. Good journalists and scholars share a commitment to the same principle: integrity in their work. A doctor’s ethos is, “do no harm.” Ours, as journalists is: “tell the truth.”

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Many of us would benefit from frank conversations with other scholars about improper borrowing, otherwise known as plagiarism, but the topic is so hot that most professors avoid discussing it, except in warnings to their students. Unfortunately, however, the advice I give to students isn’t enough to guide scholars embarking on publication. Even more unfortunately, most scholars think, “I’m a good person; I couldn’t possibly be committing a sin as bad as plagiarism.” I always made it clear to students that nobody should claim to be reinventing the wheel in teaching journalism. We poach notes of lessons from numerous authors to the extent that quoting everybody will toll too much on space. Hence, I simply encourage students to read more and assemble more knowledge from other sources to enrich their professional practice. My experiences of genocide in Rwanda and Cameroun compelled me to include peace journalism practices in this book to offer a solution to resisting sensationalization and contextualizing information. This handbook is therefore a mere compilation of notes from numerous authors, who cannot all be cited here, else the toll on space would be unbearable. Nevertheless, all errors of commission or omission are mine.

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Introduction Substance of the Communication Process Journalists work in all sorts of media and industries. You’ll find them practicing strategic communication as they work in advertising, public relations, marketing, and in areas such as health care, politics, gaming, and entertainment. They report and write about all kinds of news and information in today’s rapidly expanding communications media. The need for communication specialists in almost every company, institution, and organization provides endless possibilities for the profession. While good relationships are a cornerstone of effective communication, conflict may not always be absent. Accuracy for effective communication can’t thus be understated. A message can easily become distorted when it passes from one person to another. The effectiveness of a system is measured in terms of its objective achievement. Therefore, the effective communication system is one which achieved its objectives. Communication is effective where there are no barriers to communication. The message should be clear and complete. The communication should always be consistent with the objectives, policies and programs of the enterprise. Communication is effective when the audience or readers or viewers are receptive to it and are able to give relevant feedback. Components of the Communication Process Communication is a process of exchanging verbal and nonverbal messages. It is a continuous process. Pre-requisite of communication is a message. This message must be conveyed through some medium to the recipient. It is essential that this message must be understood by the recipient in same terms as intended by the sender. He must respond within a time frame. Thus, communication is a two way process and is incomplete without a feedback from the recipient to the sender on how well the message is understood by him

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Chart 1-Communication Process

Source: Shannon-Weaver’s Communication Process

The main components of the communication process are as follows: 1. Context - Communication is affected by the context in which it takes place. This context may be physical, social, chronological or cultural. Every communication proceeds with context. The sender chooses the message to communicate within a context. 2. Sender / Encoder - Sender / Encoder is a person who sends the message. A sender makes use of symbols (words or graphic or visual aids) to convey the message and produce the required response. For instance - a training manager conducting training for new batch of employees. Sender may be an individual or a group or an organization. The views, background, approach, skills, competencies, and knowledge of the sender have a great impact on the message. The verbal and nonverbal symbols chosen are essential in ascertaining interpretation of the message by the recipient in the same terms as intended by the sender. 3. Message - Message is a key idea that the sender wants to communicate. It is a sign that elicits the response of recipient. Communication process begins with deciding about the message to be conveyed. It must be ensured that the main objective of the message is clear. 2

4. Medium - Medium is a means used to exchange / transmit the message. The sender must choose an appropriate medium for transmitting the message else the message might not be conveyed to the desired recipients. The choice of appropriate medium of communication is essential for making the message effective and correctly interpreted by the recipient. This choice of communication medium varies depending upon the features of communication. For instance - Written medium is chosen when a message has to be conveyed to a small group of people, while an oral medium is chosen when spontaneous feedback is required from the recipient as misunderstandings are cleared then and there. 5. Recipient / Decoder - Recipient / Decoder is a person for whom the message is intended / aimed / targeted. The degree to which the decoder understands the message is dependent upon various factors such as knowledge of recipient, their responsiveness to the message, and the reliance of encoder on decoder. 6. Feedback - Feedback is the main component of communication process as it permits the sender to analyse the efficacy of the message. It helps the sender in confirming the correct interpretation of message by the decoder. Feedback may be verbal (through words) or non-verbal (in form of smiles, sighs, etc.). It may take written form also in form of memos, reports, etc. Oral Communication - Meaning, Advantages and Limitations Oral communication implies communication through mouth. It includes individuals conversing with each other, be it direct conversation or telephonic conversation. Speeches, presentations, discussions are all forms of oral communication. Oral communication is generally recommended when the communication matter is of temporary kind or where a direct interaction is required. Face to face communication (meetings, lectures, conferences, interviews, etc.) is significant so as to build a rapport and trust. Advantages of Oral Communication • There is high level of understanding and transparency in oral communication as it is interpersonal.

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• • • • • • •

There is no element of rigidity in oral communication. There is flexibility for allowing changes in the decisions previously taken. The feedback is spontaneous in case of oral communication. Thus, decisions can be made quickly without any delay. Oral communication is not only time saving, but it also saves upon money and efforts. Oral communication is best in case of problem resolution. The conflicts, disputes and many issues/differences can be put to an end by talking them over. Oral communication is an essential for teamwork and group energy. Oral communication promotes a receptive and encouraging morale among organizational employees. Oral communication can be best used to transfer private and confidential information/matter.

Disadvantages/Limitations of Oral Communication • Relying only on oral communication may not be sufficient as business communication is formal and very organized. • Oral communication is less authentic than written communication as they are informal and not as organized as written communication. • Oral communication is time-saving as far as daily interactions are concerned, but in case of meetings, long speeches consume lot of time and are unproductive at times. • Oral communications are not easy to maintain and thus they are unsteady. • There may be misunderstandings as the information is not complete and may lack essentials. • It requires attentiveness and great receptivity on part of the receivers/audience. • Oral communication (such as speeches) is not frequently used as legal records except in investigation work.

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Written Communication – Meaning, Advantages and Disadvantages Written communication has great significance in today’s business world. It is an innovative activity of the mind. Effective written communication is essential for preparing worthy promotional materials for business development. Speech came before writing. But writing is more unique and formal than speech. Effective writing involves careful choice of words, their organization in correct order in sentences formation as well as cohesive composition of sentences. Also, writing is more valid and reliable than speech. But while speech is spontaneous, writing causes delay and takes time as feedback is not immediate. Advantages of Written Communication Written communication helps in laying down apparent principles, policies and rules for running of an organization. It is a permanent means of communication. Thus, it is useful where record maintenance is required. It assists in proper delegation of responsibilities. While in case of oral communication, it is impossible to fix and delegate responsibilities on the grounds of speech as it can be taken back by the speaker or he may refuse to acknowledge. Written communication is more precise and explicit. Effective written communication develops and enhances an organization’s image. It provides ready records and references. Legal defences can depend upon written communication as it provides valid records. Disadvantages of Written Communication Written communication does not save upon the costs. It costs huge in terms of stationery and the manpower employed in writing/typing and delivering letters. Also, if the receivers of the written message are separated by distance and if they need to clear their doubts, the response is not spontaneous. Written communication is time-consuming as the feedback is not immediate. The encoding and sending of message takes time.

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Effective written communication requires great skills and competencies in language and vocabulary use. Poor writing skills and quality have a negative impact on organization’s reputation. Too much paperwork and e-mails burden is involved. Non Verbal Communication - Actions Speak Louder than Words Scenario 1 – You are sitting in front of an interview panel with arms crossed. So far you have not been asked a single question, however, your crossed arms have spoken louder than the words. Tip 1 – Never keep your arms crossed especially during formal one-on-one meetings. It suggests you are not open to feedback and could also suggest that you are trying to dominate the situation. Scenario 2 – You are giving a presentation to a group of 20 people. You keep your gaze fixed at the centre of the class / room through the presentation – your gaze has spoken louder than your words. Tip 2 – Your gaze at one person should not be more than 4 - 5 seconds while delivering a presentation / communicating with a large group unless you are addressing an individual. Scenario 1 and 2 clearly demonstrate the importance of Non Verbal Communication. What is Non Verbal Communication ? It is communication of feelings, emotions, attitudes, and thoughts through body movements / gestures / eye contact, etc. The components of Non Verbal Communication are: Kinesics: It is the study of facial expressions, postures & gestures. Did you know that while in Argentina to raise a fist in the air with knuckles pointing outwards expresses victory, in Lebanon, raising a closed fist is considered rude? Oculesics: It is the study of the role of eye contact in nonverbal communication. Did you know that in the first 90 sec - 4 min you decide that you are interested in someone or not. Studies reveal that 50% of this first impression comes from non-verbal communication which includes oculesics. Only 7% of comes from words - that we actually say.

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Haptics: It is the study of touching. Did you know that acceptable level of touching vary from one culture to another? In Thailand, touching someone’s head may be considered as rude. Proxemics: It is the study of measurable distance between people as they interact. Did you know that the amount of personal space when having an informal conversation should vary between 18 inches - 4 feet while, the personal distance needed when speaking to a crowd of people should be around 10-12 feet? Chronemics: It is the study of use of time in nonverbal communication. Have you ever observed that while an employee will not worry about running a few minutes late to meet a colleague, a manager who has a meeting with the CEO, a late arrival will be considered as a nonverbal cue that he / she does not give adequate respect to his superior? Paralinguistics: It is the study of variations in pitch, speed, volume, and pauses to convey meaning. Interestingly, when the speaker is making a presentation and is looking for a response, he will pause. However, when no response is desired, he will talk faster with minimal pause. Physical Appearance: Your physical appearance always contributes towards how people perceive you. Neatly combed hair, ironed clothes and a lively smile will always carry more weight than words. Remember, “what we say” is less important than “how we say it” as words are only 7% of our communication. Understand and enjoy nonverbal communication as it helps forming better first impressions. Good luck! Importance of Communication in an Organization Effective Communication is significant for managers in the organizations so as to perform the basic functions of management, i.e., Planning, Organizing, Leading and Controlling. Communication helps managers to perform their jobs and responsibilities. Communication serves as a foundation for planning. All the essential information must be communicated to the managers who in-turn must communicate the plans so as to implement them. Organizing also requires effective communication with others about their job task. Similarly, leaders as managers must communicate

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effectively with their subordinates so as to achieve the team goals. Controlling is not possible without written and oral communication. Managers devote a great part of their time in communication. They generally devote approximately 6 hours per day in communicating. They spend great time on face to face or telephonic communication with their superiors, subordinates, colleagues, customers or suppliers. Managers also use Written Communication in form of letters, reports or memos wherever oral communication is not feasible. Thus, we can say that “effective communication is a building block of successful organizations”. In other words, communication acts as organizational blood. The importance of communication in an organization can be summarized as follows: 1. Communication promotes motivation by informing and clarifying the employees about the task to be done, the manner they are performing the task, and how to improve their performance if it is not up to the mark. 2. Communication is a source of information to the organizational members for decision-making process as it helps identifying and assessing alternative course of actions. 3. Communication also plays a crucial role in altering individual’s attitudes, i.e., a well-informed individual will have better attitude than a less-informed individual. Organizational magazines, journals, meetings and various other forms of oral and written communication help in moulding employee’s attitudes. 4. Communication also helps in socializing. In today’s life the only presence of another individual fosters communication. It is also said that one cannot survive without communication. 5. As discussed earlier, communication also assists in controlling process. It helps controlling organizational member’s behaviour in various ways. There are various levels of hierarchy and certain principles and guidelines that employees must follow in an organization. They must comply with organizational policies, perform their job role efficiently and communicate any work problem and grievance to their superiors. Thus, communication helps in controlling function of management. An effective and efficient communication system requires managerial proficiency in delivering and receiving messages. A 8

manager must discover various barriers to communication, analyse the reasons for their occurrence and take preventive steps to avoid those barriers. Thus, the primary responsibility of a manager is to develop and maintain an effective communication system in the organization. Communication Flows in an Organization In an organization, communication flows in 5 main directions1. Downward 2. Upward 3. Lateral 4. Diagonal 5. External 1. Downward Flow of Communication: Communication that flows from a higher level in an organization to a lower level is a downward communication. In other words, communication from superiors to subordinates in a chain of command is a downward communication. This communication flow is used by the managers to transmit work-related information to the employees at lower levels. Employees require this information for performing their jobs and for meeting the expectations of their managers. Downward communication is used by the managers for the following purposes Providing feedback on employees performance Giving job instructions Providing a complete understanding of the employees job as well as to communicate them how their job is related to other jobs in the organization. Communicating the organizations mission and vision to the employees. Highlighting the areas of attention. Organizational publications, circulars, letter to employees, group meetings etc are all examples of downward communication. In order to have effective and error-free downward communication, managers must: • Specify communication objective • Ensure that the message is accurate, specific and unambiguous.

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Utilize the best communication technique to convey the message to the receiver in right form 2. Upward Flow of Communication: Communication that flows to a higher level in an organization is called upward communication. It provides feedback on how well the organization is functioning. The subordinates use upward communication to convey their problems and performances to their superiors. The subordinates also use upward communication to tell how well they have understood the downward communication. It can also be used by the employees to share their views and ideas and to participate in the decision-making process. Upward communication leads to a more committed and loyal workforce in an organization because the employees are given a chance to raise and speak dissatisfaction issues to the higher levels. The managers get to know about the employees feelings towards their jobs, peers, supervisor and organization in general. Managers can thus accordingly take actions for improving things. Grievance Redressal System, Complaint and Suggestion Box, Job Satisfaction surveys etc all help in improving upward communication. Other examples of Upward Communication are performance reports made by low level management for reviewing by higher level management, employee attitude surveys, letters from employees, employee-manager discussions etc. 3. Lateral / Horizontal Communication: Communication that takes place at same levels of hierarchy in an organization is called lateral communication, i.e., communication between peers, between managers at same levels or between any horizontally equivalent organizational member. The advantages of horizontal communication are as follows: It is time saving. It facilitates co-ordination of the task. It facilitates co-operation among team members. It provides emotional and social assistance to the organizational members. It helps in solving various organizational problems. It is a means of information sharing It can also be used for resolving conflicts of a department with other department or conflicts within a department.

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4. Diagonal Communication: Communication that takes place between a manager and employees of other workgroups is called diagonal communication. It generally does not appear on organizational chart. For instance - To design a training module a training manager interacts with an Operations personnel to enquire about the way they perform their task. 5. External Communication: Communication that takes place between a manager and external groups such as - suppliers, vendors, banks, financial institutes etc. For instance - To raise capital the Managing director would interact with the Bank Manager.

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Chapter 1 News and Society Society, in a general sense, is the overall organization of a group of people bounded by shared cultural expectations within a region. The definition of society can have variations depending on the context. A society can be considered as a kind of social infrastructure for assisting individuals to specialize in activities that normally an individual would not be able to focus on. The scale of a society allows different levels of specializations of occupations and skills. A human society is thus a group of people involved in persistent interpersonal relationships, or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Human societies are characterized by patterns of relationships (social relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions; a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its constituent members. In the social sciences, a larger society often evinces stratification or dominance patterns in subgroups. News is important in this context for a number of reasons within a society: mainly to inform the public about events that are around them and may affect them as the nervous system is to the human body. Often news is for entertainment purposes too; to provide a distraction of information about other places people are unable to get to or have little influence over. News can make people feel connected too. News is important as a social gathering space too; hence newspapers either online or physical place an emphasis on news. Where there are a lot of people gathered there is opportunity to advertise. This advertising sometimes can cause a conflict of interest in the way news is reported. For example, the digital and physical worlds are no longer distinguishable and digital processes shape the nervous system of society. They are indispensable for the undisturbed functioning of society. Living, working, travelling, paying: we live on a digital infrastructure. Just like air, water, road and rail, the digital infrastructure must also be and remain in order. If 13

digital processes do not work properly, this can have a major impact on society. This is evident from the annual Cybersecuritybeeld Nederland (CSBN) by the National Coordinator for Security and Counterterrorism and NCTV), which was drawn up in collaboration with the National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC) to ensure that organizations have news on security threats to effective work. If organizations are unable to do their work, personal data are exposed and facilities may break down. Examples include the hack at a cheese packaging company, a data leak at an ICT service provider for car companies and an ICT malfunction at hospitals that forced people to cancel appointments. As a naturalized American for over a score of years, I have become used to the claim that America was built on the foundation and knowledge that our freedoms are endowed to us from the Creator. It is odd to think that God is one of the last places we think to look for the restoration of our freedoms. We rally and cry out to the government, “Give us our freedoms back!” We complain to our friends and family and we moan in front of the television. For over a year, Tea Parties and like groups toiled to petition the government, elect new leaders, and fight off bad bills. To date, the new leaders have betrayed the people, the government ignores them, and bills get passed silently in the night. The more people fight, the more desperate they become, yet little has changed. People are now aware of the misguided leadership betraying their country but no one knows what to do. People often, debate, or see others, doing so, whether, an elected official, is a good, or poorer choice, in terms of serving and representing, the best interests of his constituents, and the nation! Since, there are many political perspectives/ positions, and, most people, have some personal preferences, etc, this consideration, often, becomes challenging, to perform, in a meaningful way. How can anyone, truly, rate any public leader, in a way, which prioritizes, his level of service and representation, and putting the public, and the greater good, ahead of any personal/ political agenda, and/or, self interest, in a realistic manner? An understanding of how the nervous system functions to maintain balance in the human body or communication in an organization could be very instructive here. Communication Is The Nervous System of any Organization (Chart 2: The Nervous System). In biology, the nervous system is a 14

highly complex part of an animal that coordinates its actions and sensory information by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body. The nervous system detects environmental changes that impact the body, and then works in tandem with the endocrine system to respond to such events. Nervous tissue first arose in wormlike organisms about 550 to 600 million years ago. In vertebrates it consists of two main parts, the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The nervous system consists of two main parts – the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS contains the brain and spinal cord. The PNS consists mainly of nerves that connect the CNS to other parts of the body. The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. The PNS consists mainly of nerves, which are enclosed bundles of the long fibres or axons, that connect the CNS to every other part of the body. Nerves that transmit signals from the brain are called motor nerves or efferent nerves, while those nerves that transmit information from the body to the CNS are called sensory nerves or afferent. Spinal nerves are mixed nerves that serve both functions. The PNS is divided into three separate subsystems, the somatic, autonomic, and enteric nervous systems. Somatic nerves mediate voluntary movement. The autonomic nervous system is further subdivided into the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system is activated in cases of emergencies to mobilize energy, while the parasympathetic nervous system is activated when organisms are in a relaxed state. The enteric nervous system functions to control the gastrointestinal system. Both autonomic and enteric nervous systems function involuntarily. Nerves that exit from the cranium are called cranial nerves while those exiting from the spinal cord are called spinal nerves. This chapter introduces students to the concept of news, how it is produced and why it is important to every human society. The concept of the “open society” is a particularly important one in understanding why news plays a vital function in the society. This chapter discusses the importance of various types of news, including political, legal, business and sports news. We shall use the story: WHY AMERICA SLEPT: THE FAILURE TO PREVENT 9/11

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Source: Wikipedia

Study questions for students to discuss in class. Read the chapter with these questions in mind. To test understanding of news values. • What does the story of how David Mattingly-anchorcovered the events of September 11, 2001 tell you about journalism? • What is meant by an “open society”? • List the news values discussed in the chapter. What is meant by each? • List some of the reasons why news is important to society? • Journalists are supposed to serve as a “watchdogs” on government and other parts of society. What does that mean? • What are some of the pressures on journalists that the book discusses? Story: WHY AMERICA SLEPT: THE FAILURE TO PREVENT 9/11 By Gerald Posner The story of the years leading up to 9/11 is the story of what might have been, and also serves as a call to the defence of America’s future. 16

Since 9/11, one important question has persisted: What was really going on behind the scenes with intelligence services and government leaders during the time preceding the World Trade Center and Pentagon attacks? After an eighteen-month investigation that uncovered explosive new evidence through interviews and in classified documents, Gerald Posner reveals much previously undisclosed information: • • • • • • •

the identity of two countries that might have had foreknowledge that a terrorist attack was scheduled for September 11 on U.S. soil a startling account of the interrogation of a leading al Qaeda captive facts about a series of deaths that point to an ongoing conspiracy by some governments to hide the extent of their earlier relationships with al Qaeda how the U.S. government missed several chances to kill or capture bin Laden evidence that German intelligence may have protected an informant who was involved with many of the 9/11 plotters how the CIA tracked—and then lost—two of the hijackers when they entered the United States more than twenty months before the attacks the devastating consequences of the crippling rivalry between the CIA and FBI as the United States moved unwittingly toward 9/11.

In a dramatic narrative, Why America Slept exposes the frequent mistakes made by law enforcement and government agencies, and demonstrates how the failures to prevent 9/11 were tragically not an exception but typical. Along the way, by delving into terror financing, the links between far-flung terror organizations, and how the United States responded over the years to other attacks, Posner also makes a damning case that 9/11 could have been prevented. Why America Slept lays to rest two years of conjecture about what led up to the worst terror attacks in America’s history. This breakthrough book presents an infuriating review of how incompetence and misplaced priorities made America an easy target for terrorists. 17

Lesson Notes Information arrives in the newsroom minute by minute. It comes from a wide range of sources by way of press releases, phone calls, social media, meetings and research. However, a newspaper has a limited number of pages and column inches to report the day’s events. A news broadcaster has only so many minutes. Restricted by time and space, a news editor cannot report all that is of interest. So, they must be select. The secret to getting those news placements is in understanding this news values list: impact, timeliness, prominence, proximity, the bizarre, conflict, currency and human interest. The newsworthiness of a story is determined by these eight guiding principles. 1. Impact How will this affect my readers’ lives? This is the real guts of the story, and it’s typically the lede that you’ll pitch to a publication. The impact of the story quickly establishes the importance of the piece to the reader. It also inherently explains the consequences of the news itself. In our fire engine story, for example, the impact of this story was that anyone listening to the radio unlucky enough to suffer a house fire will hopefully suffer less damage because of these amazing new fire engines. It also lets people know that they should keep an eye out for some shiny new fire engines driving around town. Impact, simply put, is showing relevancy to the people affected by a story or event. The greater the number of people affected, the greater the impact. This value, like proximity, is largely determined by audience. 2. Timeliness Timeliness addresses the question: Why are you telling me this now? These shiny new fire engines were…new. What makes something ‘new’ by news standards? It doesn’t mean the story itself has to be new, but some new information has to have come to light that makes the story timely and/or relevant again. Like the time there was a ‘New Species Of Massive Dinosaur Discovered In Africa.’ Obviously, the dinosaur itself isn’t new, but the discovery is. This could likewise be the case with new analysis or new data from months or even years ago – but it’s important to emphasize what’s new.

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3. Prominence Prominence poses the question: Why are you telling me this? Any fax from the local member’s office had a pretty decent shot at making the bulletin. As the state representative for Bathurst, almost anything he did or said was newsworthy. In digital marketing, this concept is now more commonly thought of as authority. What makes you (or your client) worth quoting on news stories like these? What qualifies you to tell the story? As marketers, this is rarely going to qualify as a potential lede, but it’s important info to establish your credibility as someone qualified to tell this story. 4. Proximity Does this story matter to my audience? They had sent the fax to the right place – they knew that a Bathurst radio station would care about the new fire engines driving around town. And I doubt they would have bothered sending a press release to the radio stations at the next town because the reach of the story (its proximity) was limited. Proximity is all about understanding the impact of your news story for a given audience. 5. The Bizarre Is there anything unexpected about this story? This news value is best expressed through a great journalistic aphorism that I’m sure to mangle, but let’s give it a shot: ‘When a dog bites a man, that’s not an interesting story. It happens all the time. But if a man bites a dog, then that’s news.’ There was nothing bizarre about the fire engine story. Nor did it have any elements of conflict, currency or human interest – the final three news values were about to get to. But that’s OK – rarely will a story (or a piece of content you’re pitching) fit all these parameters. It can still be newsworthy – you just have to be aware of where your story is strong and play those strengths up. 6. Conflict What are the different sides of this issue, and what are their arguments? Think about the way political news is reported. It’s almost covered like sport, right? You’ve got two teams fighting it out at all times, and it never seems like they can agree on anything. Well, part of the reason it seems like they can never agree is because the stuff they do agree on is boring. If Americans wanted to

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see politicians agreeing with each other, they’d watch C-SPAN. Instead, they watch cable news. Humans aren’t always in the mood for good news. And that’s because most people love conflict, especially simple, two-sided conflict. It engages us emotionally, as we get to judge the merits of the arguments, judge those who are wrong and get our righteous agreement jollies by nodding vigorously along with those we agree with. To me, many content marketers could do more with conflict as a news value. But (and perhaps this explains why it’s under-explored), creating content around conflict can be tricky; you have to be thoroughly researched and accurately represent the argument(s) from both sides. 7. Currency Is this trending? Currency means that an idea’s time has come. The Ice Bucket Challenge is a perfect example of “currency.” This story generated a momentum completely of its own—and news outlets covered everything from the latest video of a celebrity dumping water on their head to the economics of the phenomenon. Note that this applies to ‘seasonal’ pieces as well as trending pieces. Right now, we’re being inundated with end-of-year lists and New Year’s resolution stories, and soon that will switch over to stories about romance, chocolate, and going to Jared as publishers do their obligatory coverage of Valentine’s Day, as those stories will have increased currency in February. 8. Human Interest Are there attractive people who are impacted by this story? When you think ‘human interest,’ you probably think of those crappy stories that your grandma loves on Sixty Minutes about some poor lady who got ripped off by her builder. These stories aren’t designed for content marketers. However, human interest can still be a very handy tool. People want to read stories about other people, so a human interest angle can be especially useful in helping you put a human face on a bigger story that needs to be personalized. News values as an assignment to students. Students should learn the concept of news values and what each value means. Look at some news stories in your local newspaper or local news web site 20

and decide what news values are present in these stories. Not every story contains all news values, but all of them are likely to have the value of timeliness. Timeliness is part of the definition of news itself. Shared experiences. News depends on the “shared experiences” of the audience. What does this mean? What are the shared experiences that the students in your class might have had? Shared experiences are different from “unique experiences” — those things that have only happened to us. Does anyone in your class have a unique experience? Open society. The concept of the open society is worth spending some time on. What does an open society mean? Students may want to talk about what part of society should be open and what should not. How freely should information be available? There are many situations where an open society might or might not be a good thing. For instance, most of us expect our income taxes to be kept confidential (and the U.S. Treasury has a very good record in that regard). But what about somebody who runs for public office? Should their tax returns remain confidential? Politics. Much of journalism is about civic life—in other words, politics. How interested in politics are the students taking this course? Many young people say that politics does not interest them. The presidential election campaign of 2004 seemed to run counter to that trend, however. It would be interesting to know how much the students in the class paid attention to that campaign and whether or not they participated in it. What everybody talks about. A sidebar in this chapter is titled, “Everybody talks about the weather.” In addition to the weather, what are some of the other things everybody talks about? One answer would be sports. If you are located close to a major college or university, you can’t help talking about sports- or hearing a lot about sports. Information or entertainment. Some commentators contend that the information function and the entertainment function of news are melding together. They point to highly publicized or televised trials, for instance, saying that such events morph quickly from news to entertainment. Talk about the most recent trial that was covered intensely by the news media. Did the coverage of that trial take it from being news to entertainment? Journalistic conspiracy? Are journalists in a conspiracy to try to persuade the public to a 21

certain point of view? The author tries to debunk that theory, but there may be those in class that still hold to it. Is there a bias—among the audience, not necessarily among the journalists? Key concepts and terms: • News is the major product of journalism; news is information that journalists believe is important or interesting for their audiences. • Open society—a society in which information is exchanged with no or relatively little interference from the government or other organizations that control the norms of society. • News values—characteristics of information that make an event or subject news; they include timeliness, conflict, impact, currency, prominence, proximity, and unusualness. • News is one of the main ways in which a society examines itself; that examination provides an important means by which the society can find solutions to its problems. • News helps individuals in society make decisions about their lives and actions. • Watchdog—the term given to the news media as an independent observer of other parts of society (government, business, educational institutions, etc.) to see that they are doing their jobs properly. • Bias – beliefs, attitudes and points of view that prevent journalists from evaluating and presenting information in a fair and accurate manner expected by the audience. • News organizations have an obligation to present information to their audiences and to keep channels of communication in society open. They also have the added burden of maintaining their own economic health in a capitalist economic system.

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Chapter 2 Culture of Journalism Journalism is traditionally practiced through news organizations such as newspapers, broadcasting stations or news web sites. These organizations have their individual modes of operations and cultural expectations, but they are part of a larger culture in which the profession is practiced. Despite its special place in legal and political arenas, journalism is still an economic enterprise. Journalistic organizations must make a profit to survive. Most do—and a very healthy profit, at that. Key to understanding the culture of journalism are the concepts of honesty, objectivity, persistence and competition. Journalists must approach their jobs with an honest frame of mind, seeing what they do as a public service rather than as a way of making money. Study questions • List some of the things that make the culture of journalism distinctive. • What are some of the characteristics a person should have to be a good journalist? • How does the description of journalists in the text differ from the way they are portrayed in movies and on television? • What is the difference between scepticism and cynicism, particularly for journalists? • What is objectivity? Why is it important? Can journalists achieve true objectivity? Why or why not? • What are the most unacceptable practices a journalists can engage in? • Why are deadlines so important to journalism? • What is civic journalism and what makes it different from traditional journalism?

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Lesson Notes Cultural norms. Journalists do not work alone. They are part of a larger culture that has its conventions and norms. It’s important to understand some of these cultural norms: • Objectivity and fairness. This is a much debated idea. Can anyone be truly objective? Probably not, but journalists still have the obligation to consider many sides of an issue and to question how people will react to their presentation of information. • Accuracy. The chief goal of the journalist is to present accurate information in an accurate context so that people will understand it as the journalist understands it. Much of the reporting, editing and production process of journalism is directed to ensuring that accurate information is the consistent product of the media. This goal, too, is an ideal. Often inaccurate information in an inaccurate context is produced by the journalist. The goal, however, never changes. • Attention to detail. Part of the accuracy mantra is attention to detail. Reporters must check the spelling of every name they use; they must be exact in the wording of direct quotations; they must often confirm what they think they know or what they have heard with other, reliable sources. Because many people will read or hear what they report, they can leave very little to chance. • Mix of individual and corporate effort. Reporters understand that while much of their effort is individual, they represent a news organization that in itself has certain values and objectives. Reporters must balance their loyalties to their employers, their profession and their personal beliefs. In most cases, there is no conflict among these, but occasionally there is. • Deadlines. Print reporters lack two things: time and space. Broadcast reporters lack time and time. In both cases, the first “time” refers to the lack of time to do a story as completely as they would like. Deadlines always intrude on a reporter’s work. In the print media, presses must roll at certain times of the day or night, and the work of the journalist must be finished for that to happen. In broadcasting, deadlines are even more arbitrary. They occur when the newscast begins, 24

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and they cannot be wished away. In both cases, reporters often have to “go with what they have” rather than taking the time to be more complete or thorough. Scepticism. Journalists attempt never to be gullible. They do not want to be taken in by those who give them false information. At the same time, they should not be cynical, disbelieving everything that is said to them. Instead, they should always be willing to question their source and check what they have against other information they might receive. Sense of “greater good.” Reporters generally believe they are in journalism for a reason other than making money or making a living or even for satisfying their personal desires. They generally hold to the belief that good information is good for society; that sharing that information helps society function.

Key Concepts by James Glen Stoval Journalism has a distinct culture with norms, conventions and expectations of behaviour from those who are part of the culture. Many of those expectations are fuelled by the public service aspects of the profession – the feeling among journalists that they are working for the public good, not just for their private benefit. • The processes of journalism are ideally governed by journalists themselves; few rules or restraints are imposed upon them from outside the profession. • Despite the fact that many inside journalism consider it a profession, no rules or barriers bar those who want to become journalists; there are no educational or professional requirements to becoming a journalist. • A basic cultural requirement of journalism is that those in the professional have a high level of skill in using the language. • News organizations—entities that gather news and disseminate it to an audience. • Accuracy—the chief goal of journalists in producing and presenting news and information. • Civic journalism—a controversial concept that says journalism should be more than just observing society; it should be devoted to finding solutions to society’s problems. 25

• •

Dishonesty and plagiarism are two of the chief unacceptable practices in journalism. Many of the practices of journalism are governed by competition; journalists want to be the first to publish or broadcast information, and they want to do it better than other journalists.

The practice of journalism therefore has developed a culture of its own. That culture has expectations of professionals and nonprofessionals who would engage in journalistic endeavours. Understanding that culture is the point of this chapter. Journalism is traditionally practiced through news organizations such as newspapers, broadcasting stations or news web sites. These organizations have their individual modes of operations and cultural expectations, but they are part of a larger culture in which the profession is practiced. Despite its special place in legal and political arenas, journalism is still an economic enterprise. Journalistic organizations must make a profit to survive. Most do—and a very healthy profit, at that. Key to understanding the culture of journalism are the concepts of honesty, objectivity, persistence and competition. Journalists must approach their jobs with an honest frame of mind, seeing what they do as a public service rather than as a way of making money. Study questions for students • List some of the things that make the culture of journalism distinctive. • What are some of the characteristics a person should have to be a good journalist? • How does the description of journalists in the text differ from the way they are portrayed in movies and on television? • What is the difference between scepticism and cynicism, particularly for journalists? • What is objectivity? Why is it important? Can journalists achieve true objectivity? Why or why not? • What are the most unacceptable practices a journalists can engage in? • Why are deadlines so important to journalism? 26

•

What is civic journalism and what makes it different from traditional journalism?

Lesson Notes Cultural norms. Journalists do not work alone. They are part of a larger culture that has its conventions and norms. It’s important to understand some of these cultural norms: • Objectivity and fairness. This is a much debated idea. Can anyone be truly objective? Probably not, but journalists still have the obligation to consider many sides of an issue and to question how people will react to their presentation of information. • Accuracy. The chief goal of the journalist is to present accurate information in an accurate context so that people will understand it as the journalist understands it. Much of the reporting, editing and production process of journalism is directed to ensuring that accurate information is the consistent product of the media. This goal, too, is an ideal. Often inaccurate information in an inaccurate context is produced by the journalist. The goal, however, never changes. • Attention to detail. Part of the accuracy mantra is attention to detail. Reporters must check the spelling of every name they use; they must be exact in the wording of direct quotations; they must often confirm what they think they know or what they have heard with other, reliable sources. Because many people will read or hear what they report, they can leave very little to chance. • Mix of individual and corporate effort. Reporters understand that while much of their effort is individual, they represent a news organization that in itself has certain values and objectives. Reporters must balance their loyalties to their employers, their profession and their personal beliefs. In most cases, there is no conflict among these, but occasionally there is. • Deadlines. Print reporters lack two things: time and space. Broadcast reporters lack time and time. In both cases, the first “time” refers to the lack of time to do a story as completely as they would like. Deadlines always intrude on a reporter’s work. In the print media, presses must roll at certain times of 27

•

•

the day or night, and the work of the journalist must be finished for that to happen. In broadcasting, deadlines are even more arbitrary. They occur when the newscast begins, and they cannot be wished away. In both cases, reporters often have to “go with what they have” rather than taking the time to be more complete or thorough. Scepticism. Journalists attempt never to be gullible. They do not want to be taken in by those who give them false information. At the same time, they should not be cynical, disbelieving everything that is said to them. Instead, they should always be willing to question their source and check what they have against other information they might receive. Sense of “greater good.” Reporters generally believe they are in journalism for a reason other than making money or making a living or even for satisfying their personal desires. They generally hold to the belief that good information is good for society; that sharing that information helps society function.

Key Concepts • Journalism has a distinct culture with norms, conventions and expectations of behaviour from those who are part of the culture. Many of those expectations are fuelled by the public service aspects of the profession – the feeling among journalists that they are working for the public good, not just for their private benefit. • The processes of journalism are ideally governed by journalists themselves; few rules or restraints are imposed upon them from outside the profession. • Despite the fact that many inside journalism consider it a profession, no rules or barriers bar those who want to become journalists; there are no educational or professional requirements to becoming a journalist. • A basic cultural requirement of journalism is that those in the professional have a high level of skill in using the language. • News organizations—entities that gather news and disseminate it to an audience. • Accuracy—the chief goal of journalists in producing and presenting news and information. 28

• • •

Civic journalism—a controversial concept that says journalism should be more than just observing society; it should be devoted to finding solutions to society’s problems. Dishonesty and plagiarism are two of the chief unacceptable practices in journalism. Many of the practices of journalism are governed by competition; journalists want to be the first to publish or broadcast information, and they want to do it better than other journalists.

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Chapter 3 Becoming a Journalist Journalism is the activity of gathering, assessing, presenting news and information. It is also the product of these activities. Journalism can be distinguished from other activities and products by certain identifiable characteristics and practices. There are some laws and ethics that journalists need to adhere to while practicing the journalism profession. The quack journalists in the media industry today have tarnished the image of the professional journalists and the profession in general. Brown envelope journalism (BEJ) is a practice whereby monetary inducement is given to journalists to make them write a positive story or kill a negative story. The name is derived from cash inducements hidden in brown envelopes and given to journalists during press briefings. Brown envelope journalism influences presenters of radio and television programs to change the synopsis of their programs just to acquire wealth. Some programs are designed to entertain the general public but the presenters switch them to either political or “Maula” (begging) programs as Nigerians put it. Even though, some among them do adhere to the journalistic law and ethics, others are just serving as virus to the profession. A qualified journalist is the one who is theoretically and practically trained by professionals not by praise singers who work at media stations. Adherence to journalistic codes and ethics is the top priority for every journalist. The field of journalism may be really competitive, but it’s also important to society. If you’ve been bitten by the journalism bug, then you definitely want to do your best so that you can be successful in your field. With a bit of hard work and a great attitude, you can be a good journalist. According to the law of journalism, for one to be called a journalist, they must have at least National Diploma in journalism or related courses. It is not all those who speak before microphone are called journalists. Being in journalism profession for a hundred years will never qualify one to be called a qualified journalist, until one returns to school and learns the requisite in journalism. 31

In America, anyone can be a journalist. The First Amendment guarantees that. Anyone can declare himself or herself a journalist and in this day of web logs, many people have done so. But getting to be a professional journalist—a person who is paid to do journalistic work—is no easy task. This chapter explains some of the steps a person should take to become a professional journalist. A journalist should have certain personal characteristics-curiosity, persistence and the willingness to work hard. He or she should have a wide-ranging knowledge of history and politics because journalists deal with so many different topics of public importance. The person who would be a journalist should take advantage of every educational opportunity. An aspiring journalist must go beyond classroom studies. The profession expects those who enter it to have as much practical experience as possible. If any such opportunities to practice journalism arise—from the high school newspaper to professional internships during college—people who want to enter the profession should take full advantage of them. Study Questions • Why is working professionally so important to entering the field of journalism? • What is an internship? How do you go about getting one? • What are some of the best ways to learn about the field? • The book says a journalist should have a wide range of knowledge. What does that mean? Why is it important? Lesson Notes Why go into journalism? Through journalism, a liberal arts education intersects with the world. Journalists have a need to discover and understand what is happening, whether it be a crime, a financial crisis, a clothing trend, or a rock concert. They deliver this information as an engaging story to an audience for whom it matters. Journalism is for people who: • Are curious and inspired • Care about accuracy • Think well on their feet and handle deadlines • Think critically • Enjoy building networks and talking to people • Care about the quality of language 32

Have an aesthetic eye Like being in the know about current events Journalism will never die as long as the world has news to report and requires someone to report it. The digital age might be hurting journalism in its traditional form, but something unequivocally better may be on the verge. For those of you who have doubts about thrusting yourself into the wild and wonderful world of journalism, look no further to end your questioning. • •

1. Curiosity didn’t kill the cat If you’re like me, you have a natural thirst for knowledge. I constantly ask “why?” in my head, but as a journalist, I get to ask those questions out loud. It takes an inquisitive yet sensitive type of person to get information out of people. If you love to gossip or coaxed your older brother into telling you where your mom hid the Christmas presents as a kid, you’ll likely be a stellar reporter. Just don’t repeatedly punch your subject in the arm to get the information out of them or else they’ll also tell mom on you. 2. Say goodbye to the cubicle Being a journalist allows you to work remotely. You don’t need to spend your days in a lab or an office filling out those TPS reports like other professions require. As a freelancer, depending on your beat, you have the freedom to write from home, coffee shops or maybe even the beaches of Brazil. If you really want to satisfy your wanderlust, write for a publication like National Geographic or Sunset—they’ll jet you off to cover stories all over the world. 3. First! If you’re a journalist, you hear about things right when they happen. In other words, you hear before everyone else...#Braggingrights. Journalists know what happened, why it happened and who caused it. If you’ve always wondered why things are the way they are or the back-story that the general public doesn’t know, journalism positions you for insider access. 4. Feed your narcissism When you see your byline or bio in print, you can’t help but feel a sense of pride. It’s exciting to know that a simple Google search will 33

prominently present your professional portfolio and even maybe push that “other” stuff down. You’ll have the opportunity to quip “just Google me” when someone asks to see your work. 5. Build a network As a journalist you talk to new sources daily and your network builds exponentially. Not only can this network offer future story ideas, but they can also help with potential job opportunities. Through the interview process, you establish a rapport with people and because they already trust you, they are more willing to help you out. 6. You speak good Prepare to crush your competition in “Words with Friends.” Journalists develop a knack for finding the perfect combination of words to get their point across, so naturally your vocabulary will grow. Discover new ways to use the English language and embrace your inner logophile. 7. Learn new things As a journalist, you learn what works, what doesn’t and why. Discoveries are around every corner. It also teaches introspection. You challenge yourself, discover your fears and desires, and learn about yourself and your role in the world. Several years ago, I had an internship editing poetry and prose written by incarcerated youth for a bi-monthly publication. Reading the words of young people who had lost everything and being able to contribute to their growth instilled mutual inspiration and reflection. 8. Tell stories for a living Besides Britney Spears and professional taste-tester, storyteller was my dream career as a kid. I told elaborate, imaginative stories and even wrote them down. I just didn’t know it was a real career until I got older. If you’re a natural born storyteller, you’re in the right place. 9. Take a walk on the wild side Journalism will introduce you to exotic foods, new bands and new places. Be prepared to embrace your inner wild child and go out of your comfort zone. I recently got the opportunity to report at a major music festival. Although covering such a massive event was nerve34

wracking, it opened my eyes to a corner of journalism that I had yet to explore. 10. Become a people person You’re given the opportunity to meet all kinds of people. You wouldn’t cross paths with these people under any other circumstances, and they can really challenge your perspective on life and teach you what it’s like to be in someone else’s shoes. You don’t just get to know the people you interview, but your audience too. You learn to understand what piques people’s interest, what makes them laugh, and what tugs at their heartstrings. You know how to entertain and even persuade the masses. Keeping up. Whether in high school or college, the student who wants to enter the field of journalism should start keeping up with the field. One of the best ways to do that is to subscribe to the Society for Professional Journalist’s daily email newsletter, PressNotes. (http://spj.org/pressNotes_list.asp) Another source of information is Jim Romonesko’s web log, which can be found at the web site for the Poynter Institute (http://www.poynter.org). Resumes. A well-designed, accurate and up-to-date resume is vital for getting a job. As part of the work with this chapter, all students should develop or update their resumes and turn them in for inspection and critiquing. A sample resume is found on page 49 of the book; it can also be accessed on this site by clicking here or on the image to the right. If you are wondering how to get started writing a resume, take a look at the Resume Tutor (http://www1.umn.edu/ohr/ecep/resume), a web site set up by the University of Minnesota. There are also many other sites on the web that can give you information about writing a resume. Journalistic organizations. The chapter lists a number of journalism organizations, and students should not be shy about joining them or at least finding out about them. The web sites for these organizations often list jobs and internships. State press associations. Another place to look for jobs and internships is at the state press association web site. Go to any good search engine and type in the name of your state and the words “press association,” and chances are that you will come up with the site. Take a close look at the job listings.

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Key Concepts • Becoming a professional journalist takes preparation and planning. • Journalism requires from its practitioners a wide range of knowledge and interests. • Potential journalists can begin their preparation by paying a lot of attention to news events and to the way they are reported in various media. • Becoming a journalist requires knowing a good bit about history. • Writing is the most important skill a potential journalist can develop. • Reading widely is the mark of a good journalist. • Internship–short-term jobs that college students get working for media organizations; traditionally, internships last for one semester, often in the summer.

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Chapter 4 Newspapers Newspapers are a critical part of the American news landscape, but they have been hit hard as more and more Americans consume news digitally. The industry’s financial fortunes and subscriber base have been in decline since the mid-2000s, but their website audience traffic has again begun to grow. This explains why there has been a lot of talk in recent years about how newspapers may be dying, and whether, in an age of declining circulation and ad revenues, it’s even possible to save them. But there’s been less discussion of what will be lost if newspapers do go the way of the dinosaurs. Why are newspapers still important? And what will be lost if they disappear? It is a tough time for print journalism. For a variety of reasons, newspapers nationwide are slashing budgets and staff, going bankrupt or even closing down entirely. The problem is this: There are many things newspapers do that simply can’t be replaced. Papers are a unique medium in the news business and can’t be easily replicated by TV, radio or online news operations. Journalism today is, in a word, dynamic. Newspaper readership has gone down significantly as online applications of journalism have become the norm. Televised journalism, while still relevant, is now spliced into videos and linked to web sites such as Youtube, social media outlets such as Facebook and Twitter and personal blogs. Many news companies now actively attempt to integrate multimedia components such as video, links or photos into almost every story. In addition to these new methods of media consumption, the ability to generate and self-publish news is now in the hands of anyone with an internet connection and a few basic tools, creating a new power dynamic between traditional news sources and citizen journalists. Radio news still lives on through programs such as National Public Radio, but now focuses less on breaking news and more on analysis and human-interest content. Nevertheless, newspapers have an enormous advantage. 1. Newspapers carry the news of the world: Newspapers are the source of news for almost all countries in the world. They carry 37

information regarding all the happenings around the world to all corners of the world. 2. Newspapers provide information and general knowledge: Newspapers contain valuable information and news that is expected to not only inform but also to build and develop knowledge database. 3. Newspapers provide news about a country’s: economic situation, sports, games, entertainment, trade and commerce. Through newspapers, we are able to tell what is happening in various industries around the world. 4. Good habit: Reading newspaper makes a good habit and it is already part of the modern life. This habit will widen your outlook and will enrich your knowledge. 5. Reading newspaper makes you well informed: It enables you to take part in every discussion pertaining to the world’s current events. By reading newspapers, you will not only improve your knowledge but you will also share your knowledge with others. 6. Boosts your self-esteem: Reading newspapers will improve your knowledge in general and it will be easy for you to relate to other people who often talks about current events and politics. You will gather the courage to share your opinion about national and international issues. 7. Wide perspective: Through newspapers, you will have a clear idea and understanding of what is happening in your country and the whole world. 8. Newspapers create employment: Newspaper industry has created valuable employment to more people than most industries across the globe. 9. Newspapers are light in weight: Newspapers are light in weight which makes them portable and easy to move around with. 10. Newspapers improve language and vocabulary: You will be able to build and improve on your language and vocabulary if you invest in reading newspapers. Despite an aging and declining readership, newspapers remain the major organizations for the practice of journalism. Newspapers control the culture of journalism and offer the most readily available jobs to those who want to enter the profession. Newspapers are highly profitable businesses, in part because most of them operate in monopolistic environments. Few cities in the early 21st century have competing daily newspapers, unlike the situation in 38

most cities at the beginning of the 20th century. Consequently, newspapers can charge premium rates to advertisers, and they can raise subscription prices without fear of being undercut by competing newspapers. Most newspapers have similar organizational structures, beginning with the publisher at the top and an editor or editor-inchief, who is the most visible member of the newspaper’s editorial staff. The managing editor is the person who has the responsibility of getting the newspaper out every day. The editorial staff of a newspaper is divided into “sections” or “desks.” Normally, these include city or metro desks, sports, business, and features or lifestyles. Supporting section are the copydesk, the graphics section and the photo desk. Take a look at the newspaper profiles (New York Times, Washington Post, etc.) found in this chapter. Assign your students to write similar (or more extensive) profiles of the newspapers in your area. The starting point for this assignment would be the latest Editor and Publisher Yearbook, which the local library is likely to have. Study questions What are some of the things that make newspapers distinctive from other news media? • What are the biggest challenges facing newspapers today? • What is meant by concentration of ownership? • How do newspapers make money? What are the two major ways newspapers have of gaining revenue? • What does a managing editor do? • Describe in general the organization of a newspaper? • Why are the editorial page and the editorial section of a newspaper so important? • What are the aspects of small-town journalism that would make people consider working in that realm?

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Lesson Notes Job definitions. Take a look at Chart 3 Newspaper Organizational below.

Newspaper circulation. A newspaper’s circulation is the number of copies it distributes on an average day. Circulation is one of the principal factors used to set advertising rates. Circulation is not always the same as copies sold, often called paid circulation, since some newspapers are distributed without cost to the reader. Readership figures are usually higher than circulation figures because of the assumption that a typical copy of the newspaper is read by more than one person. In many countries, circulations are audited by independent bodies such as the Audit Bureau of Circulations to assure advertisers that a given newspaper does indeed reach the number of people claimed by the publisher. In many developed countries, newspaper circulation is falling due to social and technological changes such as the availability of news on the internet. On the other hand, in some developing countries 40

circulation is increasing as these factors are more than cancelled out by rising incomes, population, and literacy. •

•

• •

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Key concepts and terms Newspapers are highly profitable businesses, but they are facing an uncertain future because fewer and fewer young people seem to be reading them regularly. One of the major trends for newspapers during the last half of the 20th century was concentration of ownership; that is, fewer and fewer companies are owning more and more newspapers. Newspapers get revenue from two sources: 60 to 80 percent from advertising and 20 to 40 percent from sales and circulation. Local news – this consists of news stories, photographs, charts and other material that is produced by the newspaper’s staff; most people consider local news and the production of local news the most important thing a newspaper does. Managing editor – the person who is in charge of the day-to-day production of the newspaper. In the United States today there are fewer than 1,500 daily newspapers; in 1910, there were more than 2,000. The number of regular newspaper readers and the number of newspapers in circulation have remained about the same for many years, while the population has grown. Thus, newspapers have been circulating to a declining proportion of the population.

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Chapter 5 Magazines What are Newspapers and Magazines? Newspapers and magazines are print publications issued at regular intervals over time. Historically, newspapers were usually issued daily or weekly, but sometimes semi-weekly (twice a week), bi-weekly (every two weeks), or monthly. Magazines, in contrast, were usually issued weekly, bi-weekly, monthly, or quarterly (four times a year). Both newspapers and magazines could be purchased by subscription (an arrangement whereby the reader pays in advance for a year of issues), or individually, often at news-stands, grocery stores, bookstores, train stations, and other places. There is no absolute way of distinguishing between newspapers and magazines, since they share many features. The main reason for understanding the distinctions is that in a library you will find newspapers and magazines—even digitized newspapers and magazines—in different places. In general, the purpose of a newspaper is to convey, as efficiently as possible, current information, or “news”, to a particular audience. What constitutes “news” depends in part on the intended audience. Newspapers aimed at a general audience will carry news about politics, crime, wars, and economics—just about anything that could interest a general reader. A farm newspaper, on the other hand, might carry news about developments in farming techniques, information about the progress of farm-related legislation through Congress, crop prices, information about county and state fairs, and so forth. A magazine or periodical will, in general, be written in a more elevated prose style, and will usually offer more in-depth coverage of news, if it carries news at all. If a newspaper attempts to inform, a magazine in contrast attempts to enlighten and entertain. Magazines and periodicals usually have covers, often bearing an illustration or photograph. A newspaper, in contrast, typically does not have a cover, but a nameplate running across the top of its front page, the rest of the page being filled with news-stories. Magazines are more likely than newspapers to have detailed tables of contents, whereas newspapers, if they include any table of contents at all, will 43

simply identify the principal sections (i.e., national news, local news, sports, society news, classifieds, business news, etc.). Towards the end of the nineteenth century, magazines and newspapers could increasingly be distinguished by the kind of paper they were printed on. Newspapers were printed on cheap paper, “newsprint,” that tended to degrade fairly quickly. Many newspapers are now so brittle that they crumble to pieces when touched. By the twentieth century, magazines were increasingly printed on clay coated paper. Clay coated paper has been treated with a chemical application that gives the paper a glossier appearance and which also makes them slightly more durable than newspapers. Clay coated paper is preferred over newsprint for printing photographs and other types of illustrations, especially color illustrations. In other words, a news magazine is a publication that is issued periodically, usually bound in a paper cover, and typically contains essays, stories, poems, etc., by many writers, and often photographs and drawings, frequently specializing in a particular subject or area, as hobbies, news, or sports. Magazines are an important part of the profession of journalism. They have a long and distinguished history, and they continue to make significant contributions to the news of the day. Magazines have contributed or pioneered a number of important aspects to global journalism, including: investigative reporting Photojournalism the personality profile narrative journalistic writing (in the newsmagazine style) Magazine journalism is attractive to young people who are interested in the field because they do not have to work under daily deadlines, magazine articles are long and more in-depth, the articles receive better display, magazines have more prestige than newspapers or television journalism, and magazine journalism allows for a more creative writing style. Still, the journalism for magazines is just as difficult to produce-maybe even more so-than that of newspapers. Most magazines have surprisingly small staffs. That is because most of the writing is contracted to freelance writers-people who are hired by the magazine to write a single article. Some people make their living doing freelance magazine writing, but it is very difficult to do that. A few magazines pay very well for articles, but many do not. 44

Magazines are much less stable financially than newspapers. They have to appeal to an audience that is much more narrowly defined than that of a newspaper, and the audience is generally harder to find. Many magazines go out of business after only a few issues. One estimate is that between 50 and 75 new magazines are begun each month, but most do not survive. Magazines often are harbingers of change. When large social, economic or technological shifts begin to reshape the culture, magazines frequently are the first media to move, and the structure of the industry is one reason. Unlike newspapers, most magazines are not so tied to a specific geographic area, but are instead centered on interests or niches. Writers are looking for trends. Publishers can more quickly than in other media add and subtract titles aimed at specific audience segments or interests. Advertisers, in turn, can take their dollars to hot titles of the moment aimed at particular demographics. Study questions • What makes a magazine distinctive from other news media? • Describe the general organization of a magazine staff • What are the three major elements necessary to produce a magazine? • What are some of the factors that make magazine journalism attractive to people? • Describe the way a “freelanced” article makes it into print. • What is demassification? Why is that concept important? Lesson Notes Some of the Advantages of Magazine are: 1. The cover page of magazine is often attractive. 2. The magazine has a longer life compared to newspaper. 3. Some magazines are good and attracts lots of new customers hence good for advertisement business. 4. The paper and image quality is generally good in magazine hence good for product-oriented advertisement as ads looks better in magazine. 5. More attention is paid to advertisement because of high reader involvement.

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6. Magazines are often kept for months hence it has relatively long ad life and repeated ad exposure. 7. Target market based on demographics 8. Target market based on interest 9. Wider circulation 10. Selectivity, performance, excellent reproduction quality, creative flexibility 11. Engagement: Some magazines are good and attracts lots of new customers. Some of the Disadvantages of Newspaper Magazines are: 1. Sometimes you have to book the space for the advertisement one month or one week in advance. 2. Magazines are expensive compared to newspapers. 3. Less population read magazine compared to newspaper. 4. The advertisement cost is high compared to newspaper. 5. Limited flexibility for the ads placement and the format used. 6. No timely or flexible, long lead times 7. Lack of immediacy, Clutter Photography’s golden age. Photojournalism is the act of telling stories, or reporting on people and events, visually through photographs. Like other forms of journalism, it works to convey a message about the world. But, instead of using words, photojournalists use photos to capture that message. Historically, photojournalism was important because it reflected the everyday experiences of people around the country. Before the age of television, movies, and talk radio, photos were the primary way that people learned what was going on around them. Of course, newspapers existed, but they weren’t accessible to everyone. Photojournalism is a unique and powerful form of visual storytelling originally created for print magazines and newspapers but has now morphed into multimedia and even documentary filmmaking. Through the internet, apps and the mobile device explosion, photojournalism can now reach audiences never before imagined with immediate impact, while continuing to write our visual history and form our collective memories.

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Key Concepts • Magazines are different from newspapers not just in the frequency with which they are published but also because they deliver news and information with more depth and perspective. • Writing in magazines does not conform to all of the strictures that writing in daily newspapers must observe; the requirements of accuracy and good writing are just as strict, however. • Most magazines are produced with relatively small editorial staffs. • Freelancing – writing articles for magazines on an assignment basis; freelance writers are paid for each assignment but are not part of the magazine’s permanent staff. • Magazines are created because someone (or some group) has an editorial idea and can identify an audience that would be interested in the idea and a set of advertisers that would like to sell products to that audience. • Demassification – appealing to audiences that might be widely scattered but that have a common interest.

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Chapter 6 Television and Radio With the ubiquity of digital technologies and the unrelenting demand for news around the clock, broadcast journalists have now become the quintessential multitaskers of the 21st century media. Increasing your chances of getting employed in the world of broadcast journalism requires a skill set beyond just being able to gather, collate, and deliver information using a teleprompter; it also requires sound knowledge behind the camera, like shooting, editing, and various production requirements for your particular medium—new media, print, television, podcasts, you name it. Becoming well-versed on an array of platforms gives you a larger pool of choices when deciding which avenue to pursue, as well as impressing a larger number of employers. With that in mind, here are some helpful tips on the differences between journalism in television and radio/podcasts. Broadcasting is an entirely different medium from print or the web, and its journalism is necessarily different. But broadcast journalists adhere to most of the basic tenets of journalism. Broadcasting is a 20th century phenomenon. The development of radio in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was one of the great inventions of mankind. It not only revolutionized our way of communicating, but it also sparked vast changes in the way we lived our personal, civic and economic lives. The first great news event involving radio was the sinking of the Titanic in 1912. Information about that event was sent by radio from ships close by, and people were astonished at how quickly the news was transmitted. From the 1920s, broadcasting—first radio and then television in the 1950s—has been at the forefront of coverage of every major news event. The immediacy and impact of television news has continued, but television itself has changed drastically in the last half century. Three national networks dominated television for the first three decades of its popularity, but in the 1980s that dominance was challenged by the development of cable. Specialized news channels, particularly Cable News Network, delivered news all 49

day every day, and the audience for network news has been steadily shrinking. Local television news—that produced by local stations—varies widely in quality, but it still attracts a large audience for local stations and gives those stations an identity. Unlike newspapers, most local television stations have direct competition for audience and advertisers. Study questions • Describe some of the particular challenges that broadcast journalism faces today. • What are some of the characteristics that make radio different as a news medium? • What are some of the characteristics that make television different as a news medium? • What were the three events of the 1950s and 1960s that had a major impact on the development of television news? • The chapter describes radio news as poor or nearly nonexistent. What are some of the reasons for this? Is this description accurate for where you live? • What is the major government agency that regulates broadcasting? Lesson Notes Network news sites in America. Each of the major television news networks maintains extensive news web sites. That makes it convenient to see how each is covering a news story. Select a major news story of the day and go to each of these sites to see what they have said about it. Does one site have more or different information than another. This is a good project to do when there is a big, breaking news story. CNN CBS News ABC News MSNBC FOX News

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VOA News. One of the best broadcast news sites is that of the Voice of America. VOA is operated by the U.S. government and broadcasts news around the world in more than 50 languages. VOA has a tradition of presenting the news in an unbiased way — even when the news is not favorable or is embarrassing to the government. An additional benefit of the VOA news web site is that you can hear the broadcasts in various languages as well as read the news in those languages. If you are trying to learn a language, the VOA news site might be of great help to you. RTNDA. One of the best ways to keep up with the state of broadcast news is at the Radio and Television News Directors Association web site. The foundation for the organization produces an extensive report each year on broadcast news and the public’s reaction to it. Those reports are usually in PDF forms, and they may take a while to download, but they contain some excellent information. State of radio and television. The Project for Excellence in Journalism has produced an extensive report on American news media. The report contains separate sections on network television, local television, cable television and radio, all of which are worth reading. The section on local television begins this way: In nearly every aspect of local television - from viewership to economics to ownership structure - there are mixed signals of health and challenge. The next few years may determine whether the industry ultimately heads up or down. Flow of Lesson 1. Suggested bell ringer: The teacher will raise the question: What is the most important story in the news right now? (The teacher should not specify any of the values that he will be teaching but allow the students the opportunity to share their honest feelings). 2. Sharing of the bell-ringer with shoulder partner; each pair would make the decision as to what they could present to the class as the most important news story in their opinion 3. I, as the teacher would listen and evaluate the stories, noting the merits (according to the eight news values that are relative)

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4. I would begin lecture notes included with PowerPoint presentation; students would also be expected to take notes in the accepted manner that I prefer. 5. After presentation, the teacher should refer back to each student’s news story and ask them to explore the eight values of news that were represented with their story and share them with the class. 6. In order to reinforce the knowledge and committing to memory of the eight news values, students were always requested to participate in the following activity. Alternative Activity 1. Students should be split into groups of three or four depending on the size of the class. 2. Students will be given a list of the eight news values. 3. Each group had to create a short skit that gives a VISUAL representation along with a NO MORE THAN THREE SPOKEN WORD definition of the eight news values, one value at a time. 4. Students would take turns acting out. 5. An example might often be as follows: for IMPACT one student pretends to punch the other in the stomach and says the words “HITS HARD” and then introduces the word by stating “IMPACT.” 6. When each group presents their skit to the class, the teacher would allow the students to talk about the definitions and their perspectives on the importance of the values. •

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Key Concepts Television is the news medium of impact and immediacy; when news of importance occurs, we are mostly likely to watch it on television first, and our impressions are formed by the words and pictures we see. When it was developed in the early 20th century, radio showed what impact broadcasting could have on its audience and how it had the potential to change journalism. Format – the general type of programming that a radio station uses to fill up its day. Ted Turner – the owner of an independent television station in Atlanta who pioneered the use of satellite and cable 52

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technology to expand the number of stations to which the audience had access. Broadcast news is criticized because it often does not deliver explanation or depth for complex stories. The business of broadcasting is regulated by the government, but the government and courts have been very reluctant to get involved with program content.

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Chapter 7 News Web Sites As discussed earlier, journalism today is, in a word, dynamic. Newspaper readership has gone down significantly as online applications of journalism have become the norm. Televised journalism, while still relevant, is now spliced into videos and linked to web sites such as Youtube, social media outlets such as Facebook and Twitter and personal blogs. Some top news sites to bookmark “Water cooler” news If you want a quick fix or just need the basics... Digg Deeper: We already recommend Digg further down this list as a good all-purpose source of news to share with others, but if you want to really impress your friends, use Digg Deeper to keep track of the news they’re already sharing. It only scans your Twitter feed for now, but Digg promises future integration with other social networks (meaning Facebook). The Week: The whole point of The Week is to summarize the week’s news so you don’t have to spend as much time reading it, so it makes sense that you can find lots of pre-digested news stories here. Its “Speed Reads” section is a good way to get caught up when you only have a few minutes to spare. The Daily Beast It’s like Slate, but not as rife with clickbaity headlines that have overtaken that site in the past few months. One of The Daily Beast’s best assets is its daily “Cheat Sheet,” which is similar to The Week’s “Speed Reads” but even more pared down— just 10 current stories with one-paragraph summaries. Fact Check. Unlike the other sites in this list, Fact Check isn’t focused on delivering the most current news stories. But it’s worth adding to your list because it’s a great tool for cutting through all the partisan spin that distorts most political news. Odds are you already have your favorite political sites bookmarked. Think of Fact Check as a tool to help you cut out the B.S.—and arm yourself against the latest misleading article, political ad, or official statement. 55

Next Draft. Next Draft is really a daily email of links to some of the most interesting content from the past 24 hours or so. In each issue, editor Dave Pell offers up links to current “serious” news content as well as links to weirder and/or funnier stuff. It’s a good way to dive more deeply into the day’s top stories, while also injecting a little humor into your end-of-day office doldrums. If you have some time to spare and want to dive deeper into longer content... A.V. Club For your entertainment fix, skip Entertainment Weekly and head to The Onion’s non-satirical entertainment site A.V. Club. It’s a great source of news for movie, TV, music, book, and gaming fans—so basically everybody. Quartz: This offshoot from The Atlantic is a streamlined, techsavvy news site. It’s focused mainly on business journalism and global news, but you’ll find a colorful mix of additional topics on the site each day, and almost zero “filler” content. Pro tip: subscribe to the daily Quartz newsletter for a hard news jumpstart to your day (but don’t worry, it always includes some fun news items too). FiveThirtyEight. FiveThirtyEight is the site helmed by Nate Silver, the celebrity statistician at the forefront of “data driven” journalism, and the stories here supplement traditional reporting with charts, graphs, and statistics to provide a more quantifiable take on current events. It’s an especially good source for smart sports and political reporting. Vox Vox is the site helmed by Wonkblog founder Ezra Klein, but in addition to substantive pieces about politics and the government, it produces a lot of softer general interest news. Its most compelling feature—at least if you find yourself lost about some important current event—is its Cardstacks section, where it breaks complicated issues into bite-sized explanations. “Cocktail party” news If you want a quick fix or just need the basics... FuegoNieman Journalism Lab describes their aggregation tool as a “heat-seeking Twitter bot,” which just means it gathers up and shares the news links that journalism professionals are sharing the most, so you can get a good sense of what’s trending even if you only skim the headlines. Since the list is compiled from journalist-to56

journalist chatter, the stories don’t always match up exactly to what the general public is reading—but they frequently hint at what’s about to break into the mainstream. It’s a great way to tap into the collective hive mind of all the people who actually report the news. Techdirt: Techdirt is defiantly opposed to corporate misbehavior and government overreaching, which makes it a fun, if sometimes infuriating, read. It covers things like IP law, government regulation, and the various entertainment industries. That might sound dry, but if you spend a few moments on the site you’ll almost certainly learn about an important current news story that’s not being covered accurately (or at all) by the mainstream media. Digg: If you’re old (in internet years) you may remember Digg from its heyday in the second half of the last decade, before it sputtered out as other sites stole its traffic. But it was relaunched recently as a cleaner, simpler news aggregation website, and it should be one of your daily stops on the web. Digg provides links to good articles about the current big stories, but also links to hilarious videos and oddball content. The result: you may learn something new about current events, but you’ll also be able to share fun content that most of your friends haven’t seen yet. Reddit: To a first-timer, Reddit may not seem like much; the design of the site doesn’t exactly scream cutting-edge. But then you’ll see a front-page post that piques your interest, and before you realize it a half hour will have passed and you’ll notice you’ve now got 15 Reddit tabs open in your browser. The site is more than an entertaining time waster, though. Because Redditors can and do post about every topic under the sun, you’ll often find interesting threads about current news stories. When you visit, be sure to check out some of the “Ask Me Anything” (AMA) posts, where a celebrity or other well-known person shows up and answers questions from the community. Matter: The articles on Matter, a formerly independent web magazine now published through the website Medium, range from personal essays to long form journalism. Sometimes the articles focus on current news stories, but it’s just as likely that something you read here will show up later in the week on a more old-school news site. Of all the news sites here, Vice is the only one you might need to avoid if you work in a humorless office environment, because it doesn’t mince words with headlines or stories. But they’re good 57

stories that cover everything from global politics to counterculture entertainment. And when you’re tired of reading, you can spend some time wincing at the men and women in the fashion Dos and Don’ts slideshow. Ars TechnicaYes, it’s a site that covers technology and the internet. But since those topics pervade our day-to-day lives now, the content you’ll find here—especially the articles about our legal system and government regulation—is more relevant to the general public than you might think. It’s also got a section focused solely on automotive news, if you’re into that. Pacific Standard: Pacific Standard is helmed by the former managing editor of The Atlantic, and it publishes smart and engaging articles on topics that are timely even if they don’t make it to the top of the news cycle. If you’re looking for an interesting, not-too-long read on something you hadn’t thought much about before, this is a good place to go. Nautilus. A science magazine that focuses on a broad theme for each issue—mutation, light, or fame, for example—and then explores all the ways that theme emerges throughout the world. You can find more topical science news using Google News, but Nautilus will make you smarter about how the world works in general. Monday Note This once-a-week bulletin from two veterans of the media and technology industries (one is a former Apple executive) is focused on two areas: (1) Apple and the hardware/software markets in which it operates, and (2) the disruption of journalism and the news media by the internet. The second topic is probably too insular to be of much use to outsiders, but since everyone talks about Apple these days, the tech & finance observations you’ll find here will give you an insider’s edge over the average Apple observer. ProPublica: ProPublica is an ambitious attempt to fund the kind of quality, in-depth investigative journalism that most newspapers have abandoned. Their stories and reports are as fascinating and wellresearched as you might expect, but what you really want to do is sign up for the MuckReads newsletter, their weekly roundup of the web’s best “watchdog reporting.” The World Wide Web developed as a news medium during the late 1990s and early years of the 21st century. Users recognized the information presentation qualities of the web before many newspaper or television journalists did. The web’s unique 58

combination of characteristics—capacity, flexibility, permanence, immediacy and interactivity—make it a powerful medium for the practice of journalism. The news event that demonstrated the power of the web was the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. Much like what the sinking of the Titanic did for radio in 1912, this event showed that the web could be used by people to gain far more information than what could be presented on television and with far more speed than what could be delivered by newspapers. Many questions about the web as a news medium have yet to be resolved. Those questions include what new forms of information presentation will be developed, how news organizations will make money from advertisers and users, and how users and journalists will interact. One example of the new uses of the web are web logs, journal-like web sites that present periodic entries from a writer to an audience. Web logs were originally used mostly by non-journalists, but they have been adopted by many journalists and news organizations, particularly to cover ongoing news events such as trials or political campaigns. The web is a medium of convergence; that is, it provides a place for a variety of information styles and formats. No converged form of news presentation has yet emerged, however. Journalists on the web still rely on the traditional forms, such as the inverted pyramid news story. Study questions • What are the five characteristics of the web that make it different from other news media? • Which of these characteristics is most likely to have the greatest impact on the practice of journalism? • What happens to the traditional idea of a deadline in web journalism? • What is shovelware? • What are weblogs? Why are they an important part of the debate about web journalism? • What effect did the events of September 11 have on web journalism? • The book says that the web has made news web sites out of sites that did not originally intend to be that. What is meant by that statement? What are some examples that you can cite? 59

Lesson Notes Accelerated news. The capture of Saddam Hussein (right) in December 2003. The news came early on Sunday morning, after most newspapers in America had been printed. There would not be another newspaper for 24 hours. The example shows how newspapers, bound by their printing schedules, can be far behind the news. What other examples since Saddam’s capture can you think of that leave newspapers behind? How have they responded? Shovelware or not. Shovelware is a derogatory computer jargon term that refers to software noted more for the quantity of what is included than for the quality or usefulness. The term is also used to refer to software that is ported from one computer platform or storage medium to another with little thought given to adapting it for use on the destination platform or medium, resulting in poor quality. The metaphor implies that the creators showed little care for the original software, as if the new compilation or version had been indiscriminately created with a shovel, without any care shown for the condition of the software on the newly created product. The term “shovelware” is coined with semantic analogy to phrases like shareware and freeware, which describe methods of software distribution. Crapplet is a similar term. Characteristics of the web. Make sure you understand the web’s characteristics as a news medium—capacity, flexibility, immediacy, permanence, and interactivity. They are vital to understanding how the web operates—and will operate—as a news medium. It is important to realize that the web is still under development. We do not know what the web will be like in 10 years or if it will even be recognizable to us. Keeping up. If you are interested in keeping up with the latest developments of the web as a news medium, you should subscribe to the daily email newsletter E-Media Tidbits. The newsletter is edited by Steve Outing, and you can subscribe to it at the Poynter Institute web site (http://www.poynter.org). Many new ideas about the web will occur even during the time you are reading this book. E-Media Tidbits is a great way of staying current with those ideas. Ethics and Excellence in Journalism The work of a journalist is ultimately controlled by national and international laws. Usually, in free democracies, the ethical code of journalism is stronger than the local law: not everything that is legal 60

is necessarily good practice. International law, international agreements and domestic law are thus not the only systems that regulate the work of a journalist. Journalism ethics and standards describe the principles of ethics and good practice journalists adopt in response to specific challenges. Historically and currently, journalists consider the subset of media ethics as their professional “code of ethics” or “canons of journalism”. These basic codes and canons commonly appear in statements drafted by professional journalism associations and individual print, broadcast, and online news organizations. What is ethics in journalism? According to the basic division, there are two kinds of ethics: duty-based ethics and consequentialist ethics. In the case of journalism, duty-based ethics stress the importance of truth, while consequential ethics focus on societal good. If a journalist thinks that it is most important that a story is true and that the facts are right, they follow duty-based ethics. On the other hand, a journalist may think that the effects of a cause are the most important aspect and, as a result, follow consequentialist ethics. Does the article offend someone? What kind of effects will the publication of the article have? Can the publication of a certain article do more harm than good, even if the facts used are correct? The ethical code of journalism is much the same as the ethical code of science. As in science, in journalism it is also important to be objective, critical, autonomous and progressive. Objectivity and criticality describe the relationship with knowledge. Autonomy should be achieved, at least from funders, owners and the state. The ethical code of progressivity refers to the principle that science and journalism should create new information. If the foundations of journalism ethics are tracked far enough, one finds that they are based on various international agreements and declarations, such as the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights and regulations of international law. The UNESCO declaration regarding mass media (1978) and the Paris Declaration (1983), which were backed by numerous journalist associations, define the ethical guidelines more accurately in questions related to media and journalism. They are based on the basic principles of international law, democracy and independence.

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It is easiest to handle ethics through duties and freedoms. The most important freedom that journalists use is the freedom of speech, which is also defined in legislation. To whom then is a journalist responsible? A journalist is responsible to the following parties: • Society, the general public • Customers, supporters and subscribers • Their employer, the corporation • Colleagues, the professional community • Themselves, their conscience. The mission of Excellence for Journalism Ethics is to encourage the highest standards in journalism ethics worldwide. It aims at fostering vigorous debate about ethical practices in journalism, and provide a resource for producers, consumers and students of journalism. It honors the best in ethical journalistic practices and will not hesitate to call attention to journalistic failings. What it does Journalism ethics provides an international hub for the examination of the role of professional and personal ethics in the pursuit of fair, accurate and principled journalism. It does so by: -facilitating debate and discussion intended to inform and strengthen professional ethics; -acting as a catalyst for thoughtful discussion emphasizing the importance of ethical practice in journalism at both the personal and organizational levels; and acting as a resource on ethical matters for journalists, journalism students and the public. State of online news media. Online or Digital media include photos, video and music, distributed over the Internet, which are either non-copyrighted or copyrighted materials provided either freely or for a fee. The Internet and specifically its graphic interface the World Wide Web is reaching a level of saturation and widespread adoption throughout the world. Specifically, for journalism practiced online - in the discipline of computer-assisted reporting (CAR) and a specific kind of journalism: online journalism - we can now identify and theorize about the impacts the global system of networked computers has had on journalism. This paper signals four particular journalisms online as 62

these have emerged in the ‘first generation’ of news media on the World Wide Web (1993-2001), discusses the key characteristics - cf. hypertextuality, interactivity, multimediality, which determine the ‘added value’ of these journalisms, and provides three specific strategies journalists may use to further enhance the potential of journalism online: annotative reporting, open-source journalism and hyperadaptive news sites. Let students examine this example. On 17 May 1991, the Geneva-based research institute CERN released the World Wide Web standard [1]. In May 1992 Chicago Online, the first newspaper service on America Online, was launched by the Chicago Tribune in the United States (Carlson, 2001). As of April 2001, the database of U.S.-based Editor & Publisher Interactive contained 12,878 records of online news media. These journalistic ventures are defined as: “All media with a Web presence. You will find associations, city guides, magazine, newspaper, news services and syndicates, radio and television Web sites in the new database” (E&P Media links, 2001). At the time of writing this paper early in 2001, it is fair to say we are witnessing the end of the first decade of journalism online. In these ten years not only thousands mainstream news media have started Web sites (and quite a few of them have closed these operations again), millions of individual users or special interest groups have used the Internet as an outlet for their news as well - although such sites are not archived in databases like E&P’s. Correspondingly trade and scholarly publications have focused extensively on mainstream journalism online - in particular in the second half of the decade. This has resulted in a wide ranging field of research, handbooks and theories dealing with one or more aspects of online (cf. electronic, digital, wired) news media production, especially regarding skills-development and new technologies (see overview articles for example: Deuze, 1998; Cooper, 1998; Kawamoto, 1998; Singer, 1998; Pavlik, 1999; for a good overview in book format in this respect see: Reddick and King, 2001; other books include: Callahan, 1998; McGuire et al., 2000; De Wolk, 2001). What seems to be missing, is a more or less ‘condensed’ overview of what kinds of online journalism exist, what the added value of such online journalisms can be considered to be and, finally, what the lessons learned from these examples and values suggest may be successful (new) strategies for online news media ventures. This paper aims to address these three issues. It will do so based on an 63

extensive literature review, six years of experiences in teaching, discussing and presenting papers on issues related to the Internet and online journalism in particular, findings from surveys among populations of online journalists and interviews with new media experts as reported in the professional and scholarly literature (see the bibliography section). As this paper aims to offer an overview, rather than a research report, references to specific data will be made in the context of other scholarly texts. As noted, the paper consists of three sections: first four distinct journalisms online are discussed on a continuum ranging from purely editorial content to public connectivity-based Web sites (Odlyzko, 2001). Secondly the added value of these journalisms is analyzed in terms of the defining characteristics of media production in an online environment: hypertextuality, interactivity and multimediality (Newhagen and Rafaeli, 1996). Thirdly the literature and research are set against more or less recent developments online which suggest at least three distinct ‘new’ or alternate strategies for online journalisms to further develop the types and added values mentioned: annotative reporting (Paul, 1995; Bardoel, 1996), open-source journalism (Moon, 1999; Preecs, 2000) and hyperadaptivity (Guay, 1995; Nelson, 1999). Online Journalisms Human beings, who started living in the big communes, have the birth and development of many innovations in social, political, artistic and technological aspects since they have the common mind, the ability to work together and the ability to think and invent individually. These innovations have led to the transformation of the individual and society in many respects. The internet, which is the most recent example of these innovations, has led to the transformation of everyday life in more ways and numbers than ever before although it is included human life into more than half a century ago. Online Journalism: Representatives of traditional journalism regard online journalism as a medium that has evolved from traditional journalism via technology but new generation of journalists do not regard online journalism as a continuation of traditional journalism but as a medium that brings a whole new dimension to news and dissemination. The only case where the two 64

sectors meet at the middle point is the fast news flow feature brought by online journalism. Digital Media: Various platforms where people communicate electronically. Graphic Design: Organizing the text and images in a visible plane to convey a message. It can be applied in many environments such as print, screen, moving film, animation, interior design and packaging. Its basic principles are alignment, balance, contrast, emphasis, movement, pattern, proportion, hierarchy, repetition, rhythm, and unity. New Media: All developments based on the internet and the infrastructure of internet technologies. Web Graphic Design: Unlike the design area, which starts with charcoal in classical terms, web graphic design requires the web designer to have a wide knowledge of computers and web world. In this way, it is separated from the classical concept of art and becomes a technological consumption assistant. New Communication Technologies: Communication means for the simultaneous and multi-strata interaction of the communication process based on digital coding system. Asymmetrical Composition: In general, the most successful compositions reach balance in one of two ways: symmetrical or asymmetrical. It is relatively easy to understand balance in a threedimensional object because if the balance is not ensured, the object will be overthrown. Before identifying different kinds of journalism online, one has to explicitly note that the Internet as it can be considered to be affecting journalism can be discussed here in two ways as illustrated by the article below presented entirely: the inroads it has made into newsrooms and on desktops of journalists working for all media types in terms of Computer-Assisted Reporting (CAR); and how it has created its own professional type of newswork: online journalism (Deuze, 1999). Using the Internet as a reporting tool for ‘traditional’ media - all media except the Internet - can be typified as the use and availability of searchable archives, databases and news sources on the Internet by journalists. This reporting practice is still in its infancy in many countries as compared to for example the U.S. (Verwey, 2000). Several scholars have studied the effects of CAR on journalists and newswork, concluding that beyond obvious benefits (more 65

information, more sources, more checks and balances freely available), many reporters and editors felt nervous and concerned about the ‘omnipresence’ of the Internet in their work (Singer, 1997a and 1997b). Research at the BBC in Great Britain also revealed the unrest new media technologies have created in the newsroom; journalists reported lack of time to adequately use and master the technology, feeling stressed because of the ‘immediate’ nature of the Internet (Cottle, 1999). Another aspect related to CAR which affects all journalists is how to deal with e-mail, newsgroups and Internet Relay Chat (IRC) in an environment where the verification of information is extremely difficult due to the often anonymous, fastpaced communication involved (Garrison, 2000). In this paper however, the focus is exclusively on online journalism: the ‘fourth’ kind of journalism that differs in its characteristics from traditional types of journalism. Online journalism can be functionally differentiated from other kinds of journalism by using its technological component as a determining factor in terms of (operational) definition. The online journalist has to make decisions on which media formats best tell a certain story (multimediality), has to allow room for options for the public to respond, interact or even customize certain stories (interactivity) and must consider ways to connect the story to other stories, archives, resources and so on through hyperlinks (hypertextuality). This is the ‘ideal-typical’ form of online journalism, as professed by an increasing number of professionals and academics worldwide (in the U.S. see Reddick and King, 2001; in Germany see Friedrichsen et al., 1999: pp. 139-143; in The Netherlands see Stielstra, 1999). The consensus among the online media professionals internationally, such as it is voiced at gatherings like the NetMedia Conference in Great Britain or the Editor & Publisher Interactive Conference in the U.S., is that online journalism is definitely “a breed apart” (Meek, 2000). This ‘breed’ of newspeople, who produce content primarily for the Internet (and specifically for the World Wide Web) can be seen as working for one or more of four distinct kinds of journalism online. These journalisms can be located on a continuum ranging from purely editorial content to public connectivity-based Web sites (see Model I, which is partly based on Sparks, 1999: p. 14): Closed Participatory Communication

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Model 1: Online Journalisms The content-connectivity domain intersects with (vertical axis) the participatory communication domain, where the news site indeed consists of a range of options for users and producers to interact, discuss, up- or download, to communicate in a participatory way (see the discussion on various forms of interactivity below). A brief note has to made regarding the notion of ‘content’, as - in Web designer terms - everything is content online, including banner ads, chatrooms, research papers and what not. Editorial content is defined here as texts (including written and spoken word, moving and still images), produced and/or edited by journalists. Public connectivity can be seen as what Odlyzko (2001: p. 6) calls ‘standard point-to-point’ communication, to which one might add the notion of ‘public’ communication without a formal barrier of entry (such as an editing or moderation process). The vertical axis represents the level of participatory communication offered through a news site: a site can be considered to be ‘open’ when it allows users to share comments, posts, files (i.e., content) without moderating or filtering 67

intervention. On the other end, ‘closed’ participatory communication can be defined as a site where users may participate but their communicative acts are subject to strict editorial control. Online journalism in its different types can predominantly be located within these two domains. Mainstream News sites The most widespread form of news media production online is the mainstream news site, generally offering a selection of editorial content (be it shoveled from a linked parent medium or produced originally for the Web) and a minimal, often moderated form of participatory communication (Schultz, 1999; Jankowski and Van Selm, 2000; Kenney, Gorelik and Mwangi, 2000). Examples are the much-acclaimed sites of CNN, the BBC and MSNBC. Most online newspapers fall into this category as well. Course materials, handbooks and curriculum planning of journalism schools and university departments can be considered to be largely based on this type on online journalism, combining technological skills (working with certain software, learning XML or HTML for example) with specific news writing skills for the Web (Nielsen and Morkes, 1997; McGuire et al., 2000). This type of news site cannot be said to differ - in its approach to journalistic storytelling, news values, relationships with audiences - fundamentally from journalism as it is practiced in print or broadcasting media. Index & Category sites A second type of online journalism is much less located within the mainstream media organizations, but is often attributed to certain search engines (like Altavista or Yahoo), marketing research firms (like Moreover) or agencies (Newsindex), and sometimes even enterprising individuals (Paperboy). Here online journalists offer (deep-) links to existing news sites elsewhere on the World Wide Web, which links are sometimes categorized and even annotated by editorial teams. Such sites generally do not offer much editorial content of their own, but do at times offer areas for chat or exchanging news, tips and links by the general public - for instance maintaining some kind of bulletin board system (BBS). A well-known example thereof is the option most search engines offer to ‘add a site’, which site will then be subjected to editorial scrutiny. On a side 68

note, one could argue that sites offering some editorial content and furthermore providing (annotated) links to content elsewhere on the Web such as the Australian Arts & Letters Daily, Bosnian Mario Profaca’s news site or the infamous Drudge Report by Matt Drudge fall into this category. What is sometimes labeled as ‘new online journalism’ is the phenomenon of the Weblog or ‘Blog’, an often highly personal daily diary by an individual, not in the least by a journalist, telling stories about experiences online and offering readers links with comments to content found while surfing the Web (Bunn, 2001; Lasica, 2001). These types of individual journalism (a.k.a. ‘user-generated content sites’) can be located somewhere between index- and comment sites, as they tend to offer limited participatory communication (more often it is just one person speaking his or her mind about certain issues), but provide plenty content - and comment on content. Meta & Comment sites This third category of news sites are sites about news media and media issues in general; sometimes intended as media watchdogs (Mediachannel, Freedomforum, Poynter’s Medianews, E&P’s EMedia Tidbits; see Pavlik and Powell, 2001), sometimes intended as an extended index & category site (European Journalism Center Medianews, Europemedia to name two European examples). Editorial content is often produced by a variety of journalists and basically discusses other content found elsewhere on the Internet. Such content is discussed in terms of the underlying media production processes. This ‘journalism about journalism’ or metajournalism particularly flourishes online. In this respect the Internet has contributed to the further professionalization of journalism in general, as the ability and willingness to publicly reflect on itself and be self-critical is generally seen as one of the defining characteristics of a profession (Beam, 1990; Boylan, 2000). Share & Discussion sites As noted earlier, the critical distinction made in our model is between content and connectivity. Odlyzko (2001) in particular argues, that the first and foremost reason for success of new media technologies like the Internet and the World Wide Web is the fact that people want to connect with other people - on a boundless 69

global level (see also Rushkoff, 1997). In other words: it is ‘just’ a communications infrastructure (Rushkoff, 2000). Online journalism as the fourth type of journalism online utilizes this potential of the Internet in that it primarily facilitates platforms for the exchange of ideas, stories and so on, sometimes centered around a specific theme such as world-wide anti-globalization activism (Independent Media Centers, generally known as: Indymedia) or computer news (Slashdot, featuring a tagline reading: News for Nerds, Stuff that Matters). Several sites have opted to commercially exploit this public demand for connectivity, by organizing more or less edited platforms for discussion of content elsewhere on the Net (Plastic, Nerve, Feed) [2]. This type of online journalism has also been described as ‘group weblogs’, offering personal accounts of a more or less unlimited number of individuals about their experiences on the Internet (Lasica, 2001). Characteristics The four identified types of online journalism all to some extent utilize the key characteristics (cf. Web publishing paradigms) of the networked computer environment they operate in: hypertextuality, multimediality and interactivity. Each of these three paradigms has its own types in its current status, which I will try to exemplify by looking at the online news situation. Hypertextuality The problem with hypertext is, as one of the founding fathers of hypertext Ted Nelson writes, that it creates “a delivery system for separate closed units - a system which allows only embedded links pointing outward” (Nelson, 1999). What one has to realize that texts, interconnected through links - hyperlinks - can refer internally (to other texts within the text’s domain) or externally (to texts located elsewhere on the Internet). These are two quite different types of hypertextuality, as one opens up new content, the other in fact leads to a spiraling down of content. If a site only refers to documents to be found on that site, it actually tells us that the ‘worldwide’ Web does not exist, that only the local documents on that site can and should be interconnected. If one examines how today’s news sites apply these concepts, the conclusion has to be pessimistic: few sites actually embed hyperlinks and if they do, it does not integrate their information with the Web, 70

linking more often to pages elsewhere within the branded site or even frame (Jankowski and Van Selm, 2000). But linking and integrating layers of external content - managing and opening up content - is problematic, not in the least because of ownership and copyright infringements. Multimediality Web designer Tim Guay has written as early as 1995 about the inherent pitfalls of applying multimedia content to Web sites: “if multimedia is used with no thought as to the reasons why it is being used, or it has poor lay-out or content it can result in a pointless aesthetic fiasco that needlessly hogs bandwidth” (1995: p. 5). Accepting for a moment that bandwidth and copyrights are still two structural factors that impede progress in developing innovative multimedia content, one can observe the problems media companies have to integrate their traditional newsroom with the Web editorial team, let alone reaching out and integrate content (or even ‘virtual’ newsrooms) with other content providers. This can be understood if one distinguishes multimediality in news sites as a result of convergence of media modalities (where multimedia can be seen as the sum of different media formats), or as a divergent paradigm (where all parts of the site are developed from a multimedia starting point, offering the end-user several ways into and through the site’s contents). Even though very few Web sites are in fact employing multimedia, most of the news sites that do, do so from a convergent perspective (CNN and BBC are good examples). Those who are clearly divergent are often products outside of the mainstream (such as Rockstargames). Several media critics have expressed doubts at the industry’s drive to media convergence, claiming that it could be just another way of producing more content with less newspeople (Jenkins, 2001), or that the executive producers of news embrace the new technology but not its potential ‘democratizing’ features - such as using handheld devices to record not only what the ‘traditional’ cameras and microphones would, but also sample voices from different constituencies outside the mainstream (Devyatkin, 2001). This reflects the almost ‘dual’ nature of the multimedia development: on the one hand the sheer technological (cf. hardware) advancements, on the other hand the impact of these technologies on the culture of (online) journalism. Perhaps these two strands of 71

thought should convergence before divergence becomes a viable option for news sites. Interactivity Interactive options on Web sites can be subdivided into three types or forms: navigational interactivity (through ‘Next Page’ and ‘Back to Top’ buttons or scrolling menubars), functional interactivity (through direct mailto: -links, Bulletin Board Systems (BBS) and moderated discussion lists for example), or adaptive interactivity (offering chatrooms and personal customization through ‘smart webdesign’; see Guay, 1995). Observing interactive options in news sites, several scholars have noted its sheer absence, or rather the fact that most sites do not develop interactivity beyond functional and navigational levels (Schultz, 1999; Jankowski and Van Selm, 2000; Kenney, Gorelik and Mwangi, 2000). Guay (1995) argues that the most sophisticated level of interactivity is adaptive, meaning that it allows the Web site to adapt itself (ideally in real-time) to the behavior of the visiting surfer. Recent new media consumption research by ShyamSundar (2000) reveals that the more interactive opportunities websites give to users, the more involved the users will feel about the Web site. Outing (2001) comments that this will work even when surfers do not really use all these interactive ‘bells and whistles&’. This suggests a fourth, overall level of interactivity: the perceived interactivity of a site. The next step in our analysis should show to what extent these characteristics could be seen as located throughout the four journalisms online. As this is, like model I, a largely theoretical model, it should be interpreted as to how the journalisms have developed each of these characteristics in general - allowing for exceptions of course. Mainstream news sites overall seem to operate on internal hypertextuality - offering few links pointing outwards - with mainly navigational interactivity - most news sites not even offer reporter’s e-mail addresses, let alone mailto:-links- and on rare occasions offering convergent multimedia. Index & Category sites on the other hand rely almost exclusively on external hypertextuality, as they gather, index and categorize editorial content found elsewhere on the World Wide Web. Their interactivity is also navigational, which might be explained (as in the case of mainstream news sites) by the fact that 72

they concentrate on content rather than connectivity. These sites seldom apply multimedia, unless they specifically intend to index images (as for example specialized search engines offer jpeg or mpegsearchbots with editorial annotation). Meta & Comment sites likewise are not likely to offer multimedia content, and tend to rely on external links. As these sites are generally made by one or more media critics or ‘inspired’ individuals in the case of Weblogs, these clearly use functional interactivity (Lasica, 2001). This could be seen as serving as some kind of accountability one could argue: allowing the surfer to submit feedback, tips or content directly to the people responsible for the metasite. As these sites also serve as a kind of annotated index of journalisms ‘out there’, the hypertextuality on offer is predominantly external. Model II: Characteristics on Online Journalisms Mainstream News sites

Index &

Meta &

Category

Comment

sites

sites

Share & Discussion sites

Hypertextuality

Internal

External

External

External & Internal

Interactivity

Navigational

Navigational

Functional

Adaptive

Multimediality

Convergent

[none]

[none]

Convergent/Divergent

Share & Discussion sites are generally based on written word texts exclusively; Freespeech TV being a specific exception as its based on broadcasting content not available through the established mainstream media infrastructure (cf. divergent multimedia). The sites in this category concentrate on public connectivity, where the posts, threads and submissions of surfers form the basis of the site’s content. This generally results in different levels of interactivity being employed, including adaptive interactive options in particular (see for example the options for files sections, shared agendas and chat sessions offered by free mailing list sites like Yahoogroups, Topica, Listbot). This type of sites can be typified by the fact that people use the site’s ‘brand&’ to communicate through (with each other), instead of using the brand to communicate with - as is the case with the other 73

three types of sites (see Slashdot, Plastic, Backwash, but also Indymedia, Drop, and Kuro5hin for example). Added Value Experiences in training and interviewing online journalists and studying trade magazines show that these media professionals share a single question, to which they have two distinct approaches: what is the added value of journalism online? The first approach is based on what Van Zoonen (2000) calls ‘utopian’, where that what the Internet brings is generally considered as promising a better world for all. The question in this context can be framed as: where can we find the added value of online journalism? The second approach is pragmatic or pessimistic even: here the question is based on the assumption that there is no real added value for journalism online, but everybody is going online so we might do that as well. In a different context, Singer (1997a) has coined the type of journalist embracing this approach as the ‘neutral rational realist’. Coupling model I and II, we may now venture ahead with this question of added value to see how the identified journalisms online and their characteristics can in fact be considered to add value to the news media on offer through other modalities (radio, television, print, wire). In further training courses featuring or example a ‘Writing for the Web’ class, many a journalist remarks that he or she regularly faces a discussion in the newsroom whether the news site in fact ‘cannibalizes’ the core business of the media organization - a discussion particular to print media outlets one could say. Early research into readers of online news suggests that this cannibalistic attitude - offering shovelware and publishing news before they make it into the broadcasted program or the paper format - in fact serves two distinct audiences: those who rush to work in the morning and do not have the time to pick up a paper for headlines, and people on holiday or so-called ‘ex-pats’ who are abroad and want to keep abreast of developments back home (Co-efficient, 1997; Porteman, 1999). Seen in this light, it makes perfect sense for such news sites to limit the extent of participatory communication and focus quite strictly on what Nielsen (1997) describes as ‘brief, scannable and objective’ editorial content. Editors of news sites in The Netherlands for example lament the lack or quality of feedback they receive 74

which is understandable if one considers that the surfers who want to interact (and have something to interact about), do not seem to want to do so at mainstream news sites. The cannibalizationdiscussion can be solved if the editors choose to provide added value to the audience particular to a site which offers content with internal hypertextuality and clear navigational interactivity; this is not the same audience as a print or broadcast product will have. Besides this, a recent study in the United States shows that frequent visitors of newspaper Web sites are in fact much more likely to start a subscription to the print version or buy single copies - instead of canceling a subscription because all content is offered for free online (Nicholson, 2001). Mainstream news sites that seek to combine features with (convergent) multimedia, are faced with a more difficult discussion. Sites like CNN or BBC are competing with their televised counterparts. Cottle (1999) shows that the introduction of the Internet in the BBC newsroom has caused feelings of stress and unrest among the journalists involved. All of a sudden one has to keep the online counterpart in mind, master the new technology, learn the skills and be reflexive about what it means to the values and standards in journalism - not a small task for any professional (Deuze, 1999). The added value of these more elaborate - in terms of their multimediality - mainstream news sites must be defined in terms of their characteristics (cf. editorial content, closed communication). I want to suggest that this means that the value of these sites and this kind of online journalism can be found in their sheer archival capacity: a 24-hours news channel has the specific problem in that it ‘sits on’ more content than it can broadcast within a daily scheduled program of rotating, recurring newscasts. This ‘quicksilver-like’ news can be supplemented by the seemingly endless capacity of a Web server. This effectively splits users between those who are happy with ‘just’ receiving the headlines - and the occasional talkshow perhaps and those who want to seek out all details of the story or stories, including audio, video and written text. Index & Category Sites make a living out of cannibalizing, (deep) linking to content offered by others, elsewhere on the Internet. In doing so these sites offer the best value hypertextuality has to offer: it connects people and content all over the Web and has the potential to enhance the ideals of accessibility and internationalization of 75

information online (Word Wide Web Consortium, 2001). A distinct added value in this respect can be, that an index-site uses functional interactivity (through mailto: -links for example) to have people submit hyperlinks to content generally not found or indexed elsewhere, thereby opening up information found in the margins of the Internet - outside of the mainstream. That this can be perceived to be an added value shows a recent study in the U.S.: only 14 companies appear in the 60% of time spent online (Jupiter Media Matrix, 2001). This also goes for Meta & Comment sites, which have the potential to critically address issues of media production online. The added value of this group of sites connects with sites solely focused on sharing (of information) and discussing: increased levels of interactivity. Such sites enable people to discuss and share information on a wide range of topics or on a particular issue. This added value may be an answer to what Schudson (1999) argues about as a changing definition of citizenship: from the early 20th century notion of the (broadly) informed citizen to the ‘monitorial citizen’ of today. This ‘new’ citizen can be typified as a person demanding timely, detailed and full information of high quality at any given moment on issues he or she (individually) identifies as being of danger to personal and/or public good (Schudson, 1999: p. 11). The fourth type of online journalism seems to have the potential of providing public service to this new type of citizenship, which is supported by the fact that it particularly flourishes in communities outside the mainstream (such as activist groups). Schudson has a point in concluding that monitorial citizenship in this context is more demanding to the news media than informed citizenship (ibid.). In short one could argue that each type of journalism online has a distinct added value, as compared to that what the media offer through other modalities - print, broadcast, and wire, as well as several additional ‘secondary’ added values. In terms of content this means (annotated) archival capacity, regarding connectivity this means providing (moderated) platforms for sharing and discussing content. The original ‘added value’ question therefore can be reformulated to a question of whether these different types of online journalism with their different value-adding features should ideal typically combine into a more or less ‘universal’ model of journalism online. Several authors seem to think so, whether they applaud or lament it - and note considerable changes, challenges and even 76

threats to journalism as we have come to expect it under the influence of the Internet (see for example debates in: Pavlik, 1999; Fallows, 1999; Porteman, 1999; Heinonen, 1999). In the context of this paper the assumption is, that ideal-typical online journalism cannot be simply the sum of the added values of its distinct types. In order for a newssite to become interactive in a participatory way or a discussion site to start offering quality editorial content the particular newsroom has to undergo quite a few changes and face some tough choices about values, goals and standards - let alone dealing with the problematic commercial aspects of electronic publishing routines and the impact such choices may have on management and newsroom organization. I would therefore like to conclude this overview of online journalisms, characteristics and added values by looking at a number or more or less ‘new’ strategies for online news media production, which to some extent seek to provide ways of dealing with the suggested potential of hypertext, interactivity and multimedia, as well as critically address the pitfalls inherent in the use of multiple modalities and options to explore in participatory communication between producers and consumers of content. New Strategies Three strategies have been singled out for discussion here: annotative reporting, open-source journalism and hyperadaptive news sites. These can be selected because the characteristics and added values of different types of journalism online can be addressed simultaneously with these strategies, which all to some extent start from the assumption that journalism indeed can utilize potentials online which add value to existing news media. Another reason for this selection is that the three options address three distinct elements of online publishing respectively, as well as offering ways to combine the strategies in one overall online journalism site - a point which will be argued in the discussion of this paper. Annotative Reporting As early as 1995, new media commentators realized that journalists were not the only ones providing information anymore in particular on the World Wide Web (Lapham, 1995). That is an understatement to say the least: even if one considers the latest 77

figures of the total numbers of news sites (see introduction) only accurate to one-tenth, it is still a modest number as compared to the millions of sites ‘out there’. Poynter’s Nora Paul coined the term ‘annotative journalism’ in February 1995 as a way to address this realization. Paul envisaged a model of journalism based on hyperlinks, on a vision of the audience as active users instead of passive consumers of information, requiring “a whole new category of worker in the interactive products newsroom” (Paul, 1995: p. 3). Several media critics adopted the term or slightly modified it so it could cater to the notion of a shifting power balance in the postindustrial economy, in a Western ‘glocalized’ society, between journalism and it publics. These perceived shifts do not, as often suggested by technological optimists, only decrease the need for mediation by media professionals (in another buzzword coined as ‘disintermediation’). Paradoxically as the boundaries between journalism and non-journalism crumble beyond definition, it’s the same profession of journalism that can be seen as being able to point a way through the ‘clutter of voices’ through participatory storytelling (Trench, 1997). Citizens will become more direct and active information seekers on subjects they are already familiar with needing instrumental journalism - while they will continue to favor assistance in fields they are less familiar with - opting for orientational journalism (Bardoel, 1996). Annotative reporting can be seen as a hybrid between these two options: both critical - expecting specialized expertise on the side of the audience - as well as orientational - guiding individuals to and through information on any given topic and issue. To annotate means to add explanation to information - extra ‘commentary information’ in terms of the Online Dictionary of Computing. One of the dominant trends visible in recent international journalism survey research in particularly Western democracies is an increase of the importance attributed by journalists to explanatory role perceptions (Weaver, 1998) adding comment and analysis to information as shown in what Barnhurst coined as the ‘New Long Journalism Theory’ (Barnhurst, 1999). To put it more explicitly: it used to be ‘getting the information to the public’, now added to that comes ‘analyzing and explaining complex issues&’ (see Weaver, 1998: pp. 466-467). Some media critics lament this development; who needs yet another comment and opinion? One may argue that the 78

lessons being learned from the Internet and the World Wide Web can bring about a discipline of ‘pure’ annotative reporting, meaning a model of journalism which is aimed at gathering information, describing the bits and pieces and pointing out to the involved public (whether an individual through personalized content or a certain community of people with a shared interest) where to access this information. Good examples of such early forms of annotative genres are sites like Slashdot, which allows users to create an environment in which people can both access as well as post information - or comments and discussion about information. But in the traditional media similar genres are evolving; one could think of the ‘today in the papers’ section in breakfast TV news shows or the periodical review of what the foremost opinion magazines cover in the newspaper. In this respect annotative journalism should be defined as a form of service-oriented meta-journalism; journalism about journalism. Open-Source Journalism Early October 1999 the U.S.-based magazine Jane’s Intelligence Review decided not to publish an article before allowing the mentioned Slashdot community to evaluate it; the article was criticized by Slashdot’s visitors, whereafter the editor withdrew the original piece and replaced it with one based on the critics’ comments (see Leonard, 1999). This was a pure form of open-source journalism: the use of so-called ‘open’ sources on the Internet to check facts. The term ‘open-source’ stems from the procedure to make software source codes openly available so that experts and regular users will find and correct glitches and modify the original code to their own benefit (O’Reilly, 1998). Open-source journalism applies this principle to news stories - making them available for scrutiny and corrections before final publication (Moon, 1999). As Moon summarizes: “Advocates of open-source journalism proclaim it as the new journalism, perfecting all that is wrong with traditional journalism. Others strongly oppose use of open sources, claiming the tactic will hinder the practice of traditional journalism and allow experts to wrest editorial control from journalists and the outlets for which they write”

79

The fundamental idea behind open-source journalism can be seen as an advanced form of civic, public or communitarian journalism: involving the audience in the (manufacture of) news, creating a kind of user-generated content sites as Preecs writes idealistically: “Open-source journalism would be amateur journalism, journalism produced by citizens, scholars, community activists and other troublemakers just because we love the idea of creating, organizing or deploying the information that could save our planet and our souls.”

The Internet as it wires millions of individuals as potential information experts into a global communications infrastructure provides an ideal platform for improving journalism by incorporating the expertise of people ‘outside of the Rolodex’. It admittedly also blurs the boundaries of what one may see as journalism - but one can argue that this would be a top-down definition of journalism. Considering rising levels of education worldwide (especially in Western democracies) and increasing functional differentiation and developments towards further specialized ‘niche’ markets the inclusion of public (cf. ‘open’) experts seems to be not such a long shot as to providing a future for journalism in general. The potentials (and pitfalls) of open-source journalism should therefore be explored, not discarded. An early example of support for this potential came from a survey among Dutch online journalists in 1999: 69% of these new media professionals agreed to the proposition that a strong interactive relationship with the audience is an essential building block for any news site (Deuze, 2000: p. 362). Hyperadaptive News sites The key to understanding many developments in particularly new media technologies is convergence; the merger of existing technological appliances with computerized networks, predominantly enabled by the digitalization of all information formats. This facilitates open communication between all devices used in some way or another to gather, select, edit and distribute information. But the convergence paradigm can be attributed to many developments in contemporary society, of which thinking about Web design and the future of the Internet as it integrates with all our household appliances such as the VCR, the TV and the mobile 80

phone is but one aspect. Convergence takes place on many levels and can be seen as an ongoing process in society - one may think of the convergence of public and private spheres, ‘high’ and ‘low’ culture, culture and entertainment industries, modernist and postmodernist thinking and so on. Jenkins (2001) argues that one can in fact distinguish five processes of convergence: technological (cf. digitalization), economic (cf. horizontal integration of industries), social or organic (cf. multitasking), cultural (cf. user-generated storytelling) and global (cf. McLuhan’s ‘global village’) convergence. As early as 1995, Tim Guay wrote about the convergence of the existing Web publishing paradigms - multimedia, hypertextuality, interactivity - into what he predicted to become the future standard divergent paradigm: hyperadaptivity (Guay, 1995). One of the acclaimed ‘fathers’ of hypertext, Ted Nelson, later on defined this concept as ‘Xanalogical media’ - even explicitly claiming that this new paradigm was developed to prevent something like the World Wide Web to persist (Nelson, 1999). What these authors claim essentially means that what we consider to be the three separate characteristics of the Web will eventually diverge into a single paradigm of publishing. Elsewhere we have argued that windowing of content (as in the ‘report once, write twice’ rule) can be seen as a defining characteristic of online journalism (Bardoel and Deuze, 1999). The next step of journalism in a converged and networked digital environment then must be seen as creating content in an environment which interacts with its surroundings without limitations of media formats (or: windows). Guay (1995) refers to this kind of design as hyperadaptivity: the convergence of in particular hypertext, multimedia and interactivity. For journalism this means that it has to break away from two defining principles of the profession: distributing information under a single brand to get and keep a more or less faceless audience and in doing so to remain within the constraints of a single format (audio, video, text). This may not happen in online journalism, but I would like to argue that this is the realm of the media profession where we can try and experience it first-hand. Discussion I have tried to summarize the potential news strategies for the different journalisms online in Model III, which schematic leads to 81

the concluding discussion of the possible ‘road ahead’ for online news media production. Model III: Potential Strategies for Online Journalism Mainstream News sites

Annotative Reporting

Open-Source Journalism

Hyperadaptive News site

Index & Category sites

Meta & Comment sites

Share & Discussion sites

No/Perhaps

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Perhaps

Yes

No

No

No

Yes

When news sites opt for adding or increasing (external) hyperlinks, (functional/adaptive) interactivity and (convergent/ divergent) multimedia, they also opt for changes beyond adding some underlined text, an extra page with a feedback form or a link to a streaming video fragment. Such changes have also to do with editorial organization patterns, and challenges to established journalistic ways, norms and values of storytelling. As the whole of the Web site is more than the sum of its parts, adding a single part has implications for more than the whole. The suggested added values and new strategies of journalisms online cannot simply be incorporated one by one without fundamentally changing the ‘nature of the beast’ - the beast being that particular newsroom and its professionals involved. In other words: changing online journalisms may very well change what one perceives as being journalism. Model III therefore seeks to suggest which strategy fits which type of online journalism, based on a reconsideration of the characteristics of these sites as shown in Model II. Annotative reporting can be seen as an added value to all kinds of information gathering, sharing or just offering online. Anyone can signal a bit of information, but who can describe it, evaluate it and comment on it so that people are assisted with signaling relevant bits 82

of information? It is therefore remarkable that particularly the mainstream news sites have not (as of yet) fully developed this type of added value. Perhaps such sites can start to incorporate annotative storytelling formats. Several are doing so, particularly in sections about the media, such as for example the British MediaGuardian’s daily annotated ‘Top Ten’ news stories or Dutch AlgemeenDagblad’s commented rating system for external hyperlinks. Norwegian Nettavisen is also an example of a newsservice solely relying on gathering and annotating online materials. It does impact upon the journalistic ideal of being the one that tells the story, though - now that he or she will ‘just’ be the one that tells about other storytellers. The next phase, open-source journalism, takes a specific mindset and newsroom consensus to take hold (both with journalists as with publics). The only type of journalism online, for which this is not an innovation, is the Share & Discussion site, where people come together to present, discuss and sometimes even rework stories found elsewhere on the Web. Utilizing this potential for usergenerated content, for addressing the expertise of the multitude instead of the educated view of the lone academic or politician, also demarcates journalism between those feeling most comfortable with autonomous ‘top-down’ storytelling, and those who do not feel threatened by the ‘producer = consumer = producer’ rhetoric of the Internet - but indeed embrace it. It is therefore not surprising that this kind of journalism can be found exactly there, where the focus is least on content and most on connectivity - a type of online journalism farthest away from mainstream news organizations. One may wonder what open-source reporting adds to a newssite featuring largely repurposed content and update journalism. My best guess is that this kind of open storytelling works for specific niche publications (as the example of Jane’s Intelligence Review shows - see Moon, 1999), for topical or issue-based communities (such as new social movements online) - but perhaps also for regional newspapers with a Web presence, whose aim it is to play a more inclusive role in the geographical community it intends to serve (Lapham, 1995). The third option, making a newssite ‘hyperadaptive’, builds on high-end notions of interactivity, hypertextuality and - possibly multimediality. Having a site adapt itself more or less automatically to the wants and needs of individual surfers may sound conspicuously similar to the mid-1990s business models of 83

customizable ‘push’ delivery of content (remember PointCast, now Infogate?), or the concept of the ‘Daily Me’ (Negroponte, 1996), or even reminds us of Bill Gates’ comments in his The Road Ahead, that computers and software are much better at most of the tasks nowadays delegated to journalists. The difference is, that I would like to use the concept of hyperadaptivity to describe the process a newssite undergoes to adapt itself to the changing patterns of new media consumption and production. This for example means that a site should allow users to rate content and suggest or even upload content, a site could offer its own content in chunks (so that users may navigate through this content on their own), the site’s home page could adapt itself (with the use of information stored in cookies) to user’s previous site visit patterns, a site should be able to arrange its newsfeed based on specific questions consumers of news have posed earlier on - and so on. In other words: a newssite becoming hyperadaptive has to adopt a philosophy of (significantly) empowering online users. It seems clear that all the strategies offered here are dependent for their success on how the discussion between ‘traditional’ and ‘new’ ways of storytelling is resolved within the newsroom involved. This is an aspect that I feel is underestimated by online journalists, and by researchers who for example study the ‘interactiveness’ of news sites. They talk about the importance of being interactive without accepting the fact that ongoing levels of interactivity undermine the ‘we write, you read’ dogma of modern journalism, and of impacting upon certain core values and ideals along the way. Ditto for annotation to external hypertextuality, as for increasing a newssite’s adaptive capacity. A mainstream newssite without any kind of interactive option is not an example of ‘bad’ online journalism; it may be an excellent service to its constituency demanding brief, concise and updated information throughout day and night. This paper has aimed to summarize the kinds of online journalism, their characteristics and added value to other journalisms, and tried to evaluate the impact and challenges new developments in news media production online. The summary is by no means all-inclusive, and exceptions to the models suggested in this paper are no doubt found all over the Web. What I would like to suggest, is that any assessment of what’s good or bad about online journalism should start with a clear and perhaps oversimplified description of the 84

concepts one is talking about. I consider this paper as an attempt to provide such a description - hopefully leading to a sharpening of our research problems and questions, a redefinition of news media strategies, a starting point for evaluating before implementing change. Change happens - and the only way to optimize our answer to this is to critically define the challenges change brings to our way of getting things done. Notes about the author used in this chapter Mark Deuze is lecturer and research associate at the Amsterdam School of Communications Research (ASCoR), The Netherlands. The issues regarding journalists and the Internet in this paper form part of a larger research project into contemporary journalism in The Netherlands, a project that runs from 1997 to 2001. This project has four main themes: journalism in The Netherlands in terms of [1] an international comparative perspective, [2] the multicultural society, [3] infotainment, and [4] the Internet. The author received his BA in Journalism at the Tilburg School for Journalism, The Netherlands and his M.Phil in History and Communication Studies at the Rand Afrikaans University in Johannesburg, South Africa. This paper is partly based on a series of guest lectures in The Netherlands, Belgium and Portugal (between June 2000 - June 2001) and functions as a follow-up on an overview of the field, published earlier in First Monday in December 1998. Web: http://home.pscw.uva.nl/deuze E-mail: [email protected] References J.L.H. Bardoel, 1996. “Beyond journalism: A Profession between information society and civil society,” European Journal of Communication, volume 11, pp. 283-302. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0267323196011003001 J.L.H. Bardoel and M. Deuze, 1999. “‘Network Journalism’: Converging competencies of old and new media professionals,” Paper presented at the VSOM-conference ‘Horizon 1999’ of 1215 May 1999, Utrecht, The Netherlands. K. Barnhurst and D. Muntz, 1997. “American journalism and the decline in event-centered reporting,” Journal of Communication,

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M. Deuze, 1999. “Journalism and the Web: An Analysis of skills and standards in an online environment,” Gazette, volume 61, number 5, pp. 373-390. M. Deuze, 1998. “The WebCommunicators: Issues in research into online journalism and journalists,” First Monday, volume 3, number 12, at http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue3_12/deuze/, accessed 12 February 1999. D. Devyatkin, 2001. “Online journalism: Digital video stars,” Content Wire (21 May), at http://www.contentwire.com/Home/Index.cfm?ccs=86&cs=316, accessed 29 May 2001. R. De Wolk, 2001. Introduction to online journalism: Publishing news and information. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. M. van Dusseldorp, R. Scullion, and J. Bierhoff, 1999. “The Future of the printed press: Challenges in a digital world,” European Journalism Centre Publication, 2nd edition, at http://www.ejc.nl/hp/fpp/contents.html, accessed 10 November 1999. E&P Media Links, 2001. “Online media directory,” Editor & Publisher Interactive Online Media Directory, at http//www.mediainfo.com, accessed 22 May 2001. J. Fallows, 1999. “But is it Journalism?,” American Prospect, volume 11, number 1, at http://americanprospect.com/archives/V111/fallows.html, accessed 23 November 1999. M. Friedrichsen, R. Ehe, T. Janneck, and M. Wysterski, 1999. “JournalismusimNetz: zurVeraenderung der Arbeits- bzw. Selektionsprozesse von Journalistendurch das Internet,” In: W. Wirth and W. Schweiger (editors). Selektionim Internet: empirischeAnalysenzueinemSchluesselkonzept.Opladen: WestdeutscherVerlag. K. Fulton, 1996. “A Tour of our uncertain future,” Columbia Journalism Review (March/April), at http://www.cjr.org/html/9603-04-tour.html, accessed 10 December 1997. A. Gahran, 1998. “Credibility in online media: Seven voices from the news business,” Contentious Magazine, volume 1, number 3, at http://www.contentious.com/articles/1-3/qa1-3/qa1-3p.html, accessed 26 June 1998. S. Gardner, 1998. “Report from Zurich: No profit in content,” Online Journalism Review (13 November), at 87

http://olj.usc.edu/sections/news/98_stories/ojrnews_zurich2.h tm, accessed 17 November 1998. B. Garrison, 2000. “Diffusion of a new technology: On-line research in newspaper newsrooms,” Convergence, volume 6, number 1, pp. 84-105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/135485650000600109 B. Gates, 1995. The Road ahead. New York: Viking. T.Guay, 1995. “Web publishing paradigms,” Information Technology Project Group paper, at http://hoshi.cic.sfu.ca/~guay/Paradigm/Paradigm.html, accessed 5 December 2000. A. Heinonen, 1999. Journalism in the Age of the Net. Tampere: ActaUniversitatisTamperensis. N.W. Jankowski and M. Van Selm, 2000. “Traditional news media online: an examination of added values,” Communications, volume 25, number 1, pp. 85-101. H. Jenkins, 2001. “Digital Renaissance: Convergence? I diverge,” Technology Review (June), at http://www.techreview.com/magazine/jun01/jenkins.asp, accessed 15 June 2001. Jupiter Media Metrix, 2001. “Rapid media consolidation dramatically narrows number of companies controlling time spent online,” JMM Press Release (4 June), at http://www.jup.com/company/pressrelease.jsp?doc=pr010604, accessed 15 June 2001. K. Kawamoto, 1998. “Making sense of the new on-line environment in the context of traditional mass communications study,” In: D. Borden and K. Harvey (editors). The Electronic grapevine: Rumor, reputation, and reporting in the new on-line environment. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum. K. Kenney, A. Gorelik, and S. Mwangi, 2000. “Interactive features of online newspapers,” First Monday, volume 5, number 1, at http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue5_1/kenney/, accessed 6 December 2000. C. Lapham, 1995. “The Evolution of the newspaper of the future,” Computer-Mediated Communication Magazine, volume 2, number 7, at http://www.december.com/cmc/mag/1995/jul/lapham.html, accessed 16 December 1997.

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J. Lasica, 2001. “Blogging as a form of journalism,” Online Journalism Review (24 May), at http://ojr.usc.edu/content/story.cfm?request=585, accessed 29 May 2001. A. Leonard, 1999. “Open-source journalism,” Salon (8 October), at http://www.salon.com/tech/log/1999/10/08/geek_journalism /index.html, accessed 5 December 2000. T. Luege, 1999. “Usage patterns and information needs of journalists on the Internet: An Empirical study at USUS,” Insitute for Communication Sciences research report, University of Munich. F. Mann, 1998. ““New Media” Brings a New Set of Problems,” at http://www.poynter.org/research/nm/nm_mann98.htm, accessed 20 September 1999. M. McGuire, L. Stilborne, M. McAdams, and L. Hyatt, 2000. The Internet handbook for writers, researchers, and journalists. London: Guilford Press. C. Meek, 2000. “Online journalism a breed apart, say NetMedia speakers,” DotJournalism (16 August), at http://www.journalism.co.uk/ezine_plus/dotjark/story135.sht ml, accessed 20 September 2000. J. Moon, 1999. “Open-source journalism online: Fact-checking or censorship?” Freedom Forum Online (14 October), at http://www.freedomforum.org/professional/1999/10/14janesr eview.asp, accessed 20 November 2000. N. Negroponte, 1996. Being digital. New York: Vintage Books. T. Nelson, 1999. “Xanalogical media: Needed now more than ever,” ACM Computing Surveys paper, at http://www.xanadu.com/XANASTRUX/XuSum99.html, accessed 5 December 2000. J.E. Newhagen and S. Rafaeli, 1996. “Why communication researchers should study the Internet: A Dialogue,” Political Communication, volume 46, pp. 4-13. J. Nicholson, 2001. “Survey: Web sites don’t cannibalize print,” Editor & Publisher (1 May), at http://archives.mediainfo.com/ (subscription required), accessed 15 June 2001. J. Nielsen and J., Morkes, 1998. “Concise, scannable, and objective: How to write for the Web,” Sun Microsystems Paper, at

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http://www.useit.com/papers/webwriting/writing.html, accessed 3 July 1998. A. Odlyzko, 2001. “Content is not king,” First Monday, volume 6, number 2, at http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue6_2/odlyzko/, accessed 12 February 2001. T. O’Reilly, 1998. “Release 1.0: The Open-Source Revolution” (November), at http://www.edventure.com/release1/1198.html, accessed 25 November 2000. S. Outing, 2001. “Yes, interactivity is really good for your site,” E&P Online, ‘Stop The Presses!’ column (14 February), at http://www.editorandpublisher.com/ephome/news/newshtm/ stop/st021401.htm, accessed 14 February 2001. N. Paul, 1995. “Content: A Re-visioning. Production in the electronic products newsroom,” speech given to Interactive Newspapers ‘95, at http://poynter.org/research/nm/nm_revision.htm, accessed 5 December 2000. J. Pavlik, 1999. “New media and news: Implications for the future of journalism,” New Media & Society, volume 1, number 1, pp. 54-59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1461444899001001009 J. Pavlik and A. Clayton Powell III, 2001. “New media and journalism and mass communication education,” paper presented at the online conference ‘Best Practices in Journalism Education’, March 25-April 7, Pennsylvania State University, at http://courses.worldcampus.psu.edu/welcome/bestpractices/, accessed 7 April 2001. P. Porteman, 1999. “Multimedia-journalistiek: De Journalist en het Internet,” Communicatie,, volume 8, number 2, pp. 2-19. B. Preecs, 2000. “Open source journalism: An Alternate strategy for using the Internet to empower citizens and strengthen democracy,” Make Your Own Media Paper, at http://www.makeyourownmedia.org/osj.htm, accessed 22 May 2001. R. Reddick and E. King, 2001. The Online journalist: Using the Internet and other electronic resources. Third edition. Forth Worth: Harcourt Brace. D. Rushkoff, 2000. “Ten reasons to be happy after the dot.com crash,” syndicated column, at

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http://www.rushkoff.com/TenReasons.html, accessed 15 June 2001. D. Rushkoff, 1997. Children of chaos: Surviving the end of the world as we know it. London: Flamingo. M. Schudson, 1999. “Good citizens and bad history: Today’s political ideals in historical perspective,” paper presented at conference on The Transformation of Civic Life, Nashville and Murfreesboro, Tennessee, (12-13 November), at http://communication.ucsd.edu/people/f_schudson_nashville.h tml, accessed 16 June 2001. T. Schultz, 1999. “Interactive options in online journalism: A Content analysis of 100 U.S. newspapers,” Journal of ComputerMediated Communication, volume 5, number 1, at http://jcmc.huji.ac.il/vol5/issue1/schultz.html, accessed 10 February 2000. J.B. Singer, 1998. “Online journalists: Foundation for research into their changing roles,” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, volume 4, number 1, at http://jcmc.huji.ac.il/vol4/issue1/singer.html, accessed 10 November 1998. J.B. Singer, 1997a. “Changes and consistencies: Newspaper journalists contemplate online future,” Newspaper Research Journal, volume 18, pp. 2-18. J.B. Singer, 1997b. “Still guarding the gate? The Newspaper journalist’s role in an on-line world,” Convergence, volume 3, pp. 72-89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/135485659700300106 S. Sparks, 1999. “The panic over tabloid news,” In: S. Sparks and J. Tulloch (editors). Tabloid tales: Global debates over media standards. Lanham, Md.: Rowman& Littlefield, pp. 1-40. T. Stielstra, 1999. De Volkskrant Internet-gids: Schrijven, zoeken, e-mail in de praktijk. Den Haag: SduUitgevers. S. ShyamSundar, 2000. “The Internet - multimedia effects on processing and perception of online news: A Study of picture, audio, and video downloads,” Journalism Quarterly, volume 77, number 3, pp. 480-499. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/107769900007700302 B. Trench, 1997. “Interactive newspapers: From access to participation,” paper presented to Society of Newspaper Design Scandinavia, Billund, Denmark (May), at 91

http://www.dcu.ie/staff/newspaps.htm, accessed 5 December 2000. B. Vanacker, 2001. “Internetjournalistiekheet van de draad,” Thesis, at http://www.internetjournalist.com, accessed 23 May 2001. L. Van Zoonen, 2000. ““Een computer kannietknuffelen”: over de betekenissen van Internet voorcommunicatieenidentiteit,” paper presented at the conference Communicatiewetenschap: de groeistuipenvoorbij, 23-24 March 23-24, University of Twente, Enschede. P. Verwey, 2000. “CAR revisited - ontwikkelingen in digitalejournalistiek,” Cahier 22. Utrecht: School for Journalism. D.H. Weaver (editor), 1998. The Global journalist: News people around the world. Cresskill: Hampton Press. World Wide Web Consortium, 2001. “About the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C),” at http://www.w3.org/Consortium/, accessed 17 June 2001. Appendix: Links Web site

URL version

CNN

http://www.cnn.com

BBC

http://news.bbc.co.uk

MSNBC

http://www.msnbc.com

Altavista

http://www.altavista.com

Yahoo!

http://www.yahoo.com

Moreover

http://www.moreover.com

Newsindex

http://www.newsindex.com

Paperboy

http://www.thepaperboy.com

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Arts & Letters Daily Mario Profaca’s news site

http://www.aldaily.com

http://mprofaca.cro.net

Drudge Report

http://www.drudgereport.com

Mediachannel

http://www.mediachannel.org

Freedomforum

http://www.freedomforum.org

Poynter’s Medianews

http://www.poynter.org/medianews/

E-Media Tidbits

http://www.contentexchange.com/cx/weblog/weblog.htm

EJC Medianews

http://www.ejc.nl/medianews.hmx

Europemedia

http://www.europemedia.net

Indymedia

http://www.indymedia.org

Slashdot

http://www.slashdot.org

Tweakers

http://www.tweakers.net

Plastic

http://www.plastic.com

Nerve

http://www.nerve.com

Feed

http://www.feedmag.com

Rockstargames

http://www.rockstargames.com

Backwash

http://www.backwash.com

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Drop

http://www.drop.org

Kuro5hin

http://www.kuro5hin.org

Online Dictionary of Computing Jane’s Intelligence Review

http://foldoc.doc.ic.ac.uk

http://jir.janes.com/

MediaGuardian

http://www.guardianunlimited.co.uk/newslist/

AlgemeenDagblad

http://www.ad.nl

Nettavisen

http://www.nettavisen.no

PointCast (Infogate)

http://www.pointcast.com

Source: Online Journalism: Modelling the First Generation of News Media on the World Wide Web by Mark Deuze, First Monday, volume 6, number 10 (October 2001), URL: http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue6_10/deuze/index.html

I wish to emphasize that the use of the above article was restricted to university students, not during internships and refresher courses. However, key concepts of online journalisms were discussed in passing. •

•

•

Key Concepts The Web is an ideal news medium because it can handle information in most of the formats of the traditional media— text, pictures, graphs, audio and video. The Web has characteristics that allow it to go beyond traditional media in presenting information—capacity, permanence, flexibility, immediacy and interactivity. Of those characteristics listed above, interactivity is the most likely to have the most long-term effect on journalism; 94

•

• •

interactivity refers to the ways in which journalists and the medium can connect with the audience. Most news web sites today are operated as an arm of traditional news organizations—newspapers, magazines, and broadcast stations. Shovelware—content that was created for another medium and is placed on a web site with minimal or no changes. Web log—a periodically (often continuously) updated web site that posts the thoughts and observations of a single writer and often the responses to those observations.

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Chapter 8 Reporters The difference between a journalist and a reporter is a little like the difference between a police officer and a homicide detective; the second is just a specific instance of the first. While there are many different kinds of careers in journalism, a reporter’s job covers a narrower scope and requires a specific skill set. Reporters start the journalistic process by gathering information. Without them, journalism in its truest form cannot take place. In gathering information, reporters follow certain journalistic practices. They have an idea of the kind of information they need before they ever begin writing their stories. This idea comes from experience and training. They also have an idea about what sources—the people and places that have information—will be available to them and which are the best to use. Again, this idea is based on their experience and the experiences of others in the news organization. Good reporters try to develop a wide range of knowledge to use their pursuit of information and in evaluating that information. Personally, they must be curious, persistent and honest in dealing with others around them. They must understand journalism in order to develop a “nose for news” —a sense of what might develop into a good story. They must be able to sense when someone is lying or shading the truth or when the information and events they encounter simply do not add up. Good reporters try to gather accurate information. They recognize they may have points of view about the information or people they deal with, but they try to set those biases aside as much as humanly possible. They are competitive and understand that one of the standards of being good at journalism is getting information before anyone else has it. Accuracy in gathering and presenting information is their chief goal, however. Study questions • Describe the day of a newspaper reporter based on the things you have read in this chapter and elsewhere in the book. • What are the most important personal characteristics a person should have to be a good reporter? 97

• •

What are the most important jobs of a reporter? What is the most important job? How does a person become a reporter?

Lesson Notes Do reporters have more fun? This chapter emphasizes how difficult it is to be a reporter. That’s certainly true. But it’s also fun. That’s what Jack Hamilton says: . . . as much responsibility as our profession carries, we have a comparative advantage in having fun. Being a journalist is endlessly exhilarating. Most people stop taking field trips after they leave grade school. Journalism is one field trip after another. We can knock on any door and ask questions. And if they don’t let us in, we can go around to the back.

John Maxwell Hamilton was a foreign correspondent, reporting for ABC radio and the Christian Science Monitor, and also worked for the U.S. Agency for International Development and the World Bank. He is dean of the Manship School of Mass Communication at Louisiana State University and of author of several books including H old the Press: The Inside Story on Newspapers (with George A. Krimsky). Hamilton is right, and students should be reminded about how much fun they can have if they decide to become a reporter. All the President’s Men. Possibly the best book yet on the dayto-day slog of putting together a big story is All the President’s Men by Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein. These are the two reporters that broke the Watergate story, and their reporting eventually led to the resignation of Richard Nixon as president in 1974. If you are going to read one book about reporters, read this one. But there are many others. One good one is H.L. Mencken’s Newspaper Days . Reporting to fiction writing. Many newspaper reporters began their careers as newspaper reporters. They weren’t writing fiction then (we hope), but they were talking to people, listening to what they said and how they said it. They were observing how people interacted with one another and how they reacted to certain situations. It would

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be easy to produce a long string of reporters-turned-fiction writers. You could begin with Mark Twain. Get to know a reporter. One of the best reporters of the past two generations is Seymour Hersh. Working for a small news service in the 1960s, Hersh exposed the story of the My Lai massacre—a 1968 incident in Vietnam during which U.S. soldiers killed many civilians in a small village. Hersh was still going strong in 2004 when, as a writer for the New Yorker magazine, he exposed the abuses of Iraqi prisoners by U.S. forces at the Abu Ghraib prison. There have been many big stories in between those two. Find out more about Hersh. Start at the Wikipedia site. devoted to him. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seymour_Hersh) Sports reporters. Many people aspire to be sports writers simply because they enjoy watching sports. Being a sportswriter is a noble aspiration, but the very best sports writers have gone beyond the games they watch and lifted their writing—and their readers — into the realms of literature. Three of the best of the 20th century were Grantland Rice, Red Smith and Shirley Povich. Rice wrote the most famous sports lead paragraph of all time comparing the Notre Dame football backfield to the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse. Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Reporters depend not only on the First Amendment freedom to publish but also the implied First Amendment freedom to gather the news. Issues surrounding how reporters work—and the legal and quasi-legal obstacles they encounter—are covered by an organization called the Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Check out this organization’s web site (http://www.rcfp.org) on a regular basis if you want to keep up with the world of reporting. Key Concepts • The essential act of journalism is gathering information. This is done by reporters. • Deadline – the time when a story is due. • Interview – the way in which much information for journalism is gathered; reporters talk with sources (people who have information) in person, by telephone, by email or any number of other ways of communicating.

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• •

•

•

Beat – the area or subject that a reporter regularly covers and writes stories about, such as the police beat or education beat. Editors oversee and direct the activities of reporters. Few people in journalism work alone. Many people are involved in the process of gathering and disseminating information. Journalists must adhere to a personal standard of integrity; they must be able to deal honestly with their sources and they must be able to evaluate information honestly. Journalists must pay attention to details – the exact spelling of someone’s name, the exact time that something happened, etc.

Speed and accuracy A media organization will be judged on the accuracy and reliability of its journalism, which must be well-sourced, supported by strong evidence, examined and tested, clear and unambiguous. Verified facts must form the basis of all news, not rumour and speculation. Accuracy is essential if journalism is to inform the public debate. Accuracy comes ahead of speed. If you are not sure, hold fire. Being first and wrong is not a model to aim for. Being right, always reliable and measured is. We need to be totally transparent in declaring what we know and what we don’t know. Those who trust you will be prepared to wait for your version. In fact, they might use your coverage to check whether a hastily prepared item by a competitor has any truth in it. Caution is particularly needed if the topic is controversial. In such cases, too much haste can cause lasting damage to your news brand. Most major news providers require: • first-hand sources • double-checking of facts • validation of material submitted • confirmation via two reliable sources • corroboration of any claims or allegations made It is also important to have your own sources. Don’t just chase those used by others. They may not be reliable. Build your own network of trusted contacts and turn to those.

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Chapter 9 Reporting Journalism is a profession that involves collecting information about a particular subject, then reporting findings and conclusions to a wider audience through print, digital or broadcast media. Journalists report information in the form of investigative reports, news, features, columns and reviews. The practice of reporting—gathering information that can be used in the presentation of news—is one of the basic acts of journalism. How reporting takes place is of extraordinary importance to the field itself. Simply put, good reporting produces good journalism. The number one act of any reporting is to produce accurate information. Getting information is a difficult and often frustrating task. Reporters cannot make people talk to them. Instead, they rely on the voluntary cooperation of people who have information. In many cases, those people will benefit themselves by talking with reporters. In other cases, they may feel a sense of civic responsibility to be cooperative. In yet other cases, they may fear that a reporter will not be able to tell their side of the story. Whatever the case, reporters must follow certain conventions of behavior if they are to adhere to the standards of the profession. For instance, reporters should identify themselves when they are talking with potential sources so that those sources will have a choice about whether or not they want to cooperate with the news media. Reporters must deal honestly with their sources, making every attempt to be fair, accurate and complete in the information they gather. Interviewing is the formal practice of talking with people in order to obtain information from them. Reporting requires skilled interviewing, which often takes place over the phone and under deadline pressure. Reporting also requires great attention to details. Reporters must make accurate observations, and they must go to some lengths to make sure that they spell names correctly and double-check other important information. 101

Study questions • What are the five Ws and why are they important? • What are the three types of sources of information a reporter may use? • Of the three types of sources, which type is used most often by reporters? • What is a beat? • What are some of the aspects of interviewing a reporter should always practice? What is the difference between openended and close-ended questions? • Accuracy—gathering accurate information—is the chief goal of the reporter. Why? • Why is getting the same information from more than one source a good idea? Lesson Notes Context in reporting. One of the criticisms of journalism is that reporters report events as events only, rather than giving them any context. That is, they do not relate these events to other events or information that would help a reader understand them more fully. Reporters can introduce more context into their reporting using data journalism practices. What is data journalism? What potential does it have? What are its limits? Where does it come from? In this section we look at what data journalism is and what it might mean for news organizations. Leading data journalists tell us why they think it is important and what their favorite examples are. Finally, it puts journalism into its broader historical context. What Is Data Journalism? What is data journalism? I could answer, simply, that it is journalism done with data. But that doesn’t help much. Both “data” and “journalism” are troublesome terms. Some people think of “data” as any collection of numbers, most likely gathered on a spreadsheet. 20 years ago, that was pretty much the only sort of data that journalists dealt with. But we live in a digital world now, a world in which almost anything can be (and almost everything is) described with numbers. Your career history, 300,000 confidential documents, everyone in your circle of friends; these can all be (and are) described with just 102

two numbers: zeroes, and ones. Photos, video, and audio are all described with the same two numbers: zeroes and ones. Murders, disease, political votes, corruption, and lies: zeroes and ones. What makes data journalism different to the rest of journalism? Perhaps it is the new possibilities that open up when you combine the traditional “nose for news” and ability to tell a compelling story with the sheer scale and range of digital information now available. And those possibilities can come at any stage of the journalist’s process: using programming to automate the process of gathering and combining information from local government, police, and other civic sources. Data journalism can help a journalist tell a complex story through engaging infographics. Or it can help explain how a story relates to an individual, as the BBC and the Financial Times now routinely do with their budget interactives (where you can find out how the budget affects you, rather than “Joe Public”). And it can open up the newsgathering process itself, as the Guardian does so successfully in sharing data, context, and questions with their Datablog. Data can be the source of data journalism, or it can be the tool with which the story is told—or it can be both. Like any source, it should be treated with skepticism; and like any tool, we should be conscious of how it can shape and restrict the stories that are created with it. Why Should Journalists Use Data? Journalism is under siege. In the past we, as an industry, relied on being the only ones operating a technology to multiply and distribute what had happened overnight. The printing press served as a gateway. If anybody wanted to reach the people of a city or region the next morning, they would turn to newspapers. This era is over. Today, news stories are flowing in as they happen, from multiple sources, eyewitnesses, and blogs, and what has happened is filtered through a vast network of social connections, being ranked, commented on—and more often than not, ignored. This is why data journalism is so important. Gathering, filtering, and visualizing what is happening beyond what the eye can see has a growing value. The orange juice you drink in the morning, the coffee you brew: in today’s global economy, there are invisible connections between these products, other people, and you. The language of this network is data: little points of information that are often not relevant 103

in a single instance, but massively important when viewed from the right angle. Right now, a few pioneering journalists already demonstrate how data can be used to create deeper insights into what is happening around us and how it might affect us. Data analysis can reveal “a story’s shape” (Sarah Cohen), or provides us with a “new camera” (David McCandless). By using data, the job of journalists shifts its main focus from being the first ones to report to being the ones telling us what a certain development might actually mean. The range of topics can be wide. The next financial crisis that is in the making. The economics behind the products we use. The misuse of funds or political blunders could be presented in a compelling data visualization that leaves little room to argue with it. This is why journalists should see data as an opportunity. They can, for example, reveal how some abstract threat (such as unemployment) affects people based on their age, gender, or education. Using data transforms something abstract into something everyone can understand and relate to. They can create personalized calculators to help people to make decisions, be this buying a car, a house, deciding on an education or professional path in life, or doing a hard check on costs to stay out of debt. They can analyze the dynamics of a complex situation like a riot or political debate, show fallacies, and help everyone to see possible solutions to complex problems. Becoming knowledgeable in searching, cleaning, and visualizing data is transformative for the profession of information gathering, too. Journalists who master this will experience that building articles on facts and insights is a relief. Less guessing, less looking for quotes; instead, a journalist can build a strong position supported by data, and this can affect the role of journalism greatly. Additionally, getting into data journalism offers a future perspective. Today, when newsrooms downsize, most journalists hope to switch to public relations. Data journalists or data scientists, though, are already a sought-after group of employees, not only in the media. Companies and institutions around the world are looking for “sensemakers” and professionals who know how to dig through data and transform it into something tangible. 104

There is a promise in data, and this is what excites newsrooms, making them look for a new type of reporter. For freelancers, proficiency with data provides a route to new offerings and stable pay, too. Look at it this way: instead of hiring journalists to quickly fill pages and websites with low value content, the use of data could create demand for interactive packages, where spending a week on solving one question is the only way to do it. This is a welcome change in many parts of the media. There is one barrier keeping journalists from using this potential: training themselves to work with data through all the steps—from a first question to a big data-driven scoop. Working with data is like stepping into vast, unknown territory. At first look, raw data is puzzling to the eyes and to the mind. Such data is unwieldy. It is quite hard to shape it correctly for visualization. It needs experienced journalists, who have the stamina to look at often confusing or boring raw data and “see” the hidden stories in there. Interviewing. One of the skills a reporter must develop is the art of interviewing. Interviewing Principles Reporters conduct two kinds of interviews: News interview: The purpose is to gather information to explain an idea event or situation in the news. Profile: The focus is on an individual. A news peg often is used to justify the profile. For effective interviews, reporters prepare carefully, and they ask questions that induce the source to talk freely. Questions are directed at obtaining information on a theme that the reporter has in mind before beginning the interview. If a more important theme emerges, the reporter develops it. The reporter notes what is said, how it is said and what is not said. Sources are encouraged by the reporter’s gestures and facial expressions to keep talking. In the stadium locker room, the half-dressed hurdler was stuffing his warm-up suit and track shoes into a battered black bag. Seated on a bench nearby, a young man removed a pencil and a notepad from a jacket pocket.

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“I’m from the paper in town,” the young man said. “You looked sharp out there. Mind if I ask you some questions?” The athlete nodded and continued his packing. “First time you’ve been to this part of the West or this city?” the reporter asked. Another nod! This was not going to be easy, the reporter worried. The editor had told him to make sure he brought back a good story for tomorrow’s paper, the day the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics would begin its outdoor track meet at the local college. The tall, lithe young man standing in front of the bench was a world record holder in the hurdles, the editor had said, and worth a story for the sports section. The reporter tried again. “What do you think of our town?” The athlete seemed to see the reporter for the first time. “I don’t know anything about this town,” he replied. “I’m here to run. I go to the East coast, the West coast, here. They give me a ticket at school and I get on a bus or a plane and go. My business is to run.” He fell silent. Rebuffed, the reporter struggled to start the athlete talking again. In the 20-minute interview, the hurdler never really opened up. Four Principles Back in the newsroom, the reporter told the editor about his difficulties. They seemed to begin with his first question about whether the athlete had been to the town before, he said. His boss was not sympathetic. “First, you should have checked the clips and called the college for information about your man,” the editor said. “That way you could have learned something about him, his record or his school. You might have used it to break the ice. Or you could have asked him about the condition of the track, something he knows about.” Then the editor softened. He knew that interviewing is not easy for young reporters, that it can be perfected only through practice. “I think you have a good quote there about the business of running,” he told the reporter. “Did you get anything else about the places he’s been? That could make an interesting focus for the piece.” Yes, the reporter said, he had managed to draw the hurdler out about where he had been in the last few months. With the editor’s guidance, the reporter managed to turn out an acceptable story. This incident illustrates the four principles of interviewing: 106

1. Prepare carefully, familiarizing yourself with as much background as possible. 2. Establish a relationship with the source conducive to obtaining information. 3. Ask questions that are relevant to the source and that induce the source to talk. 4. Listen and watch attentively. Because much of the daily work of the journalist requires asking people for information, mastery of interviewing techniques is essential. The four principles underlie the various techniques the reporter uses. Clearly, the sportswriter’s troubles began when he failed to prepare by obtaining background about the athlete he was to interview. Lacking background, the reporter was unable to ask questions that would draw out his source. Furthermore, he had failed to establish a rapport with the hurdler, so that the session was more like dentistry than journalism, with the reporter painfully extracting bits and pieces of information from an unwilling subject. Fortunately, the reporter had listened carefully so that he managed to salvage something from the interview. If we analyze news stories, we will see they are based on information from several kinds of sources: physical sources, such as records, files and references; the direct observations of the reporter; interviews with human sources; online sources. Most stories are combinations of two or three of these sources. Glance at today’s newspaper. Listen carefully to tonight’s evening newscast. You will be hard-pressed to find a story that lacks information from an interview. A front-page story about a court decision on welfare assistance, for example, has a quotation from the governor about the consequences of the decision. A story about the city’s plan to put desk officers on the street quotes the police chief. An obituary contains an employee’s comments about the generosity of his late boss. Straight news stories seem to consist of physical sources and observations. Yet if you examine them closely, you will more often than not find information a source has supplied through an interview, brief as that interview may have been.

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Let’s examine in detail the four principles of interviewing that we mentioned following the young reporter’s frustrating interview with the hurdler. Preparation There’s a saying in newsrooms that good interviews follow the two “P’s”persistence and preparation. Persistence is necessary to persuade people to be interviewed, and it is essential in following a line of questioning that the subject may find objectionable. Preparation may consist of a few minutes spent glancing through a story in last week’s newscast before dashing out to interview a congresswoman on a flying visit to look at the local Veterans Hospital where cutbacks have affected care. It may be a prolonged examination of clippings, material from Nexis and articles that databases have turned up for a profile of the new university president. Clyde Haberman, a New York Times columnist, says “exhaustive research is the basic building block of a successful interview.” Research A.J. Liebling, a master reporter who moved from the newspaper newsroom to The New Yorker magazine, is quoted in The Most of A.J. Liebling, edited by William Cole: “The preparation is the same whether you are going to interview a diplomat, a jockey, or an ichthyologist. From the man’s past you learn what questions are likely to stimulate a response.” Research begins with the library’s clippings about the subject. If the topic has more than local importance or if the interviewee is well-known, The New York Times Index, Facts on File or a database may have a reference that can be useful. The Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature may list a magazine article about the topic or the person. Who’s Who in America and other biographical dictionaries can be consulted. Most of these reference works are on CD-ROM and are accessible online. People who know the interviewee can be asked for information. These resources provide material for three purposes: (1) They give the reporter leads to tentative themes and to specific questions. (2) They provide the reporter with a feel for the subject. (3) They provide useful background.

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Rapport This was the fifth session Claudia Dreifus was spending with Dan Rather for a profile, and she knew a mile-high barrier separated them. Finally, she told Rather, “This isn’t working.” Rather agreed and he invited Dreifus to accompany him in his pickup from Sam Houston State University in Hunstville, from which he graduated, south to Wharton, where he was born, and then over to Austin for dinner. Back home, Rather relaxed and opened up, complaining about his ill-fated pairing with Connie Chung on “The CBS Evening News” and worrying about the cost-cutting that has affected news coverage. “At CBS News, we’re down to the bone, past the bone, and we’ve been there a long time,” he told Dreifus. With experienced subjects, interviews usually go smoothly as both stand to gain from the interview: The subject will have his or her ideas and comments before the public, and the reporter will have a story. But with less-experienced sources or with those who are reluctant to speak to the questions the reporter is there to ask, there can be tension. The reporter has to find ways to reach the source. Advance Work Fred Zimmerman, a long-time reporter for The Wall Street Journal, has these suggestions about how to prepare for an interview: 1. Do research on the interview topic and the person to be interviewed, not only so you can ask the right questions and understand the answers, but also so you can demonstrate to the interviewee that you have taken the time to understand the subject and also that you cannot easily be fooled. 2, Devise a tentative theme for your story. A major purpose of the interview will be to obtain quotes, anecdotes and other evidence to support that theme. 3. List question topics in advance  as many as you can think of, even though you may not ask all of them and almost certainly will ask others that you do not list. 4. In preparing for interviews on sensitive subjects, theorize about what the person’s attitude is likely to be toward you and the subject you are asking about, What is his or her role in the event? Whose side is he or she on? What kinds of answers can you logically expect to 109

your key questions? Based on this theorizing, develop a plan of attack that you think might mesh with the person’s probable attitude and get through his or her probable defenses. Give and Take The early stage of the interview is a feeling-out period. The interviewee balances his or her gains and losses from divulging information the reporter seeks, and the reporter tries to show the source the rewards the source will receive through disclosure of the information-publicity, respect and the feeling that goes with doing a good turn. When the source concludes that the risks outweigh the possible gains and decides to provide little or no information or is misleading, the reporter has several alternatives. At one extreme, the reporter can try to cajole the source into a complete account through flattery-or by appearing surprised. At the other extreme, the reporter can demand information. If the source is a public official, such demands are legitimate because officials are responsible to the public. The reporter can tell the source that the story-and there will be some kind of story-will point out that the official refused to answer questions. Usually, the source will fall into line. A public official cannot evade a question with a plea of ignorance. A city controller, whose job it is to audit the financial records of city agencies and departments, told a reporter he had no idea whether a bureau had put excess funds in noninterest-bearing bank accounts. Told by the reporter it was his business to know that and that the story would state so, the controller supplied the information. The Interview Questions Careful preparation leads the interviewer to a few themes for the interview, and these, in turn, suggest questions to be asked. But before the specific questions are put to the interviewee, a few housekeeping details usually are attended to, vital data questions. For some interviews, these may involve age, education, jobs held, family information. For well-known people, the questions may be about their latest activities. Questions of this sort are nonthreatening and help make for a relaxed interview atmosphere. Also, they are sometimes necessary

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because of conflicting material in the files, such as discrepancies in age or education. People want to know these details. Harold Ross, the brilliant and eccentric former newspaperman who founded and edited The New Yorker, slashed exasperatedly at the pages of profiles and interviews that lacked vital data. “Who’s he?” Ross would scrawl across such manuscripts. Even the obvious questions about background can result in fascinating and revealing answers. For a personality profile, the interviewer asked Whoopi Goldberg why she adopted Goldberg as her stage name. She replied: “It was my mother’s idea. It’s a name from the family past. There are lots of names hangin’ on our family tree, Jewish, Catholic, Asian … Black folks, white folks. I’m just the all-American mutt.”

Simple question. Fascinating quotation. Direct Questions Most questions flow from what the reporter perceives to be the theme of the assignment. A fatal accident: Automatically, the reporter knows that he or she must find out who died and how and where the death occurred. The same process is used in the more complicated interview. A reporter is told to interview an actor who had been out of work for two years and is now in a hit musical. The reporter decides that the theme of the story will be the changes the actor has made in his life. He asks the actor if he has moved from his tenement walk-up, has made any large personal purchases and how his family feels about his being away most nights. These three questions induce the actor to talk at length. Another reporter is to interview a well-known entertainer. The reporter decides to ask about the singer’s experiences that led him to write songs that call attention to war, poverty, sexism and racism. “Bread,” says the singer in answer to the first question the reporter asks. “Money,” he explains. There is a good market in such songs. The reporter then quickly shifts themes and asks questions about the economics of popular music and the singer’s personal beliefs.

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Open- and Closed-Ended Questions When the sportswriter asked the hurdler, “What do you think of our town?” he was using what is known as an open-ended question, which could have been answered in general terms. The sports editor’s suggestion that the reporter ask the athlete about the condition of the track would have elicited a specific response-fast, slow, or slick-as it was a closed-ended question. The open-ended question does not require a specific answer. The closed ended question calls for a brief, pointed reply. Applied properly, both have their merits. Two months before the budget is submitted, a city hall reporter may ask the city manager what she thinks of the city’s general financial situation-an open-ended question. The reply may cover the failure of anticipated revenues to meet expectations, unusually high increases in construction costs, higher interest rates and other factors that have caused trouble for the city. Then the reporter may ask a closed-ended question, “Will we need a tax increase?” As we have seen, reporters often begin their interviews with open-ended questions, which allow the source to relax. Then the closed-ended questions are asked, which may seem threatening if asked at the outset of the interview. Television and radio interviews usually end with a closed-ended question because the interviewer wants to sum up the situation with a brief reply. The reporter who asks only open-ended questions should be aware of their possible implications. To some sources, the open-ended question is the mark of an inadequately prepared reporter who is fishing for a story. Some television reporters tend to ask open-ended questions, even when a specific one is more appropriate. A Chicago TV reporter in an interview with orphans asked a youngster, “Do you wish you had a mother and father?” The most familiar of all these open-ended questions asked by poorly prepared TV reporters is, “How do you feel about . . . ?” Good questions are the result of solid preparation, and this requires more than reading the local newspaper and chatting with authorities. Reporters who hold to these narrow confines usually operate only in a linear fashion. That is, today; s coverage is built on yesterday’s newspaper stories and the council meeting of the day 112

before. Good stories-informative journalism-are spurred by the questions that break the chain of events. Remember Copernicus. All he asked was what would happen if the sun and not the earth were the center of the universe, and centuries of linear thinking shot off onto a new plane. Tough Questions Sometimes a young reporter finds that posing the right question is difficult because the question might embarrass or offend the interviewee. There is no recourse but to ask. Oriana Fallaci, an Italian journalist famous for her interviews, says that her success may be the result of asking the world leaders she interviews questions that other reporters do not ask. “Some reporters are courageous only when they write, when they are alone with their typewriters, not when they face the person in power. They never put a question like this, ‘Sir, since you are a dictator, we all know you are corrupt. In what measure are you corrupt?” Remarkably, heads of state, kings and guerrilla leaders open up to Fallaci. One reason for this is her presumption that the public is entitled to answers and her unwillingness to be treated with indifference. When the heavyweight champion boxer Muhammad Ali belched in answer to one of her questions, she threw the microphone of her tape recorder in his face. Another reason for her effectiveness is “her talent for intimacy,” as one journalist put it. “She easily establishes an atmosphere of confidence and closeness and creates the impression that she would tell you anything. Consequently, you feel safe, or almost safe, to do the same with her,” writes Diana Loercher in The Christian Science Monitor. Kissinger the Cowboy In her interview with Henry Kissinger, the U.S. secretary of state at the time, Fallaci had him admit that his position of power made him feel like the “lone cowboy who leads the wagon train alone on his horse.” His image of himself as the Lone Ranger caused an embarrassed Kissinger to say later that granting Fallaci the interview was the “stupidest” act in his life.

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A political reporter who accompanied Sen. Don Nickles on a tour of Oklahoma towns noticed an apparent inconsistency in Nickles’ public statements. Nickles often described himself as a conservative who was tough on federal spending. Yet in Eufaula, Nickles announced “good news” from Washington, a commitment of federal funds for a new housing project. The reporter then asked if the Republican senator’s approach was consistent-condemning government spending in one place and welcoming it in another. Nickles’ answer: He would vote against federal housing funds but as long as they were available, “I will try to see that Oklahoma gets its fair share.” The quote ends the story, and the reader is left to decide whether the senator is an opportunist. Some reporters gain a reputation for asking tough questions and not wasting time on preliminaries. When Jack Anderson, the Washington columnist whose specialty is exposés, calls a congressman, the politician knows that he is unlikely to be asked for the text of a speech he is to give in Dubuque. Anderson is after meatier game. Intrusive Questions Still, there are questions that few reporters like to ask. Most of these concern the private lives of sources-the mental retardation of a couple’s son, the fatal illness of a baseball player. Some questions are necessary, some not. The guidelines for relevance and good taste are constantly shifting, and reporters may find they are increasingly being told to ask questions that they consider intrusive. This is the age of intimacy. Reporters who dislike asking these questions, preferring to spare sources anguish, are sometimes surprised by the frank replies. A reporter for Newsday was assigned to follow up on an automobile accident in which a drunken youth without a driver’s license ran a borrowed car into a tree. One of the passengers, a 15-year-old girl, was killed. In doing his follow-up story, the reporter discovered that most of the parents were willing to talk because, as one parent said, the lessons learned from the accident might save lives.

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Junk Questions Wendell Rawls Jr., a veteran newsman, describes his interviewing technique: Don’t tell people what you know. Ask questions. Then back off. Use diversion. I love to do that  talk with people about things you’re not there to talk to them about. You ask a question that may be very meaningful. Then you move away from it. I do it sometimes even if the person doesn’t get particularly fidgety, because I don’t want him to think that I think what he has told me is necessarily important to me. I’ll move to another question and say, “What is that on the wall? That’s an interesting sort of. . . .” Whatever. Anything that will divert him, and he willstart talking about that. And then maybe ask two or three questions about junk, and then come back and ask another very pointed question.

Listening, Watching “Great reporters are great listeners,” says Carl Bernstein of the Woodward-Bemstein reporting team that exposed the Watergate cover-up that led to President Nixon’s resignation. The good listener hears good quotes, revealing slips of the tongue, the dialect and diction of the source that sets him or her apart. In an interview with Luis Manuel Delgado whom Diana Griego Erwin encounters at a motor vehicle office in Santa Ana, Calif., she finds Delgado unable to tell the English-speaking clerks what he needs. Does that bother him? Erwin asks. Here is an excerpt of their conversation from The Orange County Register: “I should know how to speak English,” he said with a quiet simplicity. “This is the United States.” “My kids are very good,” he said. “They get good marks in school. They speak English. No accent. One wants to be a doctor. When they first came here I told them to study English and learn it well. Don’t let them treat you like a donkey like they treat your papa.” I asked him if it didn’t hurt, being treated “como un burro,” as he said. “No, I am not a donkey and my children know it. They know I do all this for them. “They are proud of me. Nothing anyone else says or does can make me sad when they have pride in me.

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“And they will never be donkeys.”

Sometimes, a single quote can capture the person or illuminate the situation the interview is about. In an interview with a former governor of Arkansas, Sid McMath, a single quotation told a great deal. Types of Interviews The major story on page 1 of a September issue of The Hawk Eye in Burlington, Iowa, was about a three-alarm fire that destroyed a two-story building that housed an automobile sales agency and a body repair shop. The reporter interviewed several people for information to supplement his observations. Here are the people he interviewed and a summary of their comments: The owner: 15 cars destroyed; exact loss as yet unknown. A fire department lieutenant: The building could not have been saved when firefighters arrived. They concentrated on saving the adjoining buildings. An eyewitness: “I didn’t know what it was. It just went all at once. I see it a-burning and I was scared to death.” The fire chief. The state fire marshal will investigate the cause of the fire. News Interview Although the reporter was not present when firefighters battled the fire during the early morning hours, the interviews with the lieutenant and the eyewitness give his story an on-the-scene flavor. Because these interviews help explain the news event, we describe them as news interviews. Another local front-page story also relies on a news interview. A head-on automobile crash on Iowa Route 2 near Farmington took the life of a Van Buren County woman and caused injuries to four others. The story is based on an interview with the Iowa Highway Patrol. The Interviewer’s Ground Rules Both parties in an interview have certain assumptions and expectations. Generally, the reporter expects the interviewee to tell the truth and to stand behind what he or she has told the interviewer. 116

The interviewee presumes the reporter will write the story fairly and accurately. Both agree, without saying so, that the questions and answers mean what they appear to mean-that is, that there are no hidden meanings. Having said this, we must admit to the exceptions. Sources may conceal, evade, distort and lie when they believe it is to their advantage. The reporter must be alert to the signs of a departure from truth. The rules that govern the reporter’s behavior in the interview can be detailed with some certainty. Reporters, too, conceal, mislead and, at times, lie. Few reporters justify these practices. Most agree the reporter should: 1. Identify himself or herself at the outset of the interview. 2. State the purpose of the interview. 3. Make clear to those unaccustomed to being interviewed that the material will be used. 4. Tell the source how much time the interview will take. 5. Keep the interview as short as possible. 6. Ask specific questions that the source is competent to answer. 7. Give the source ample time to reply. 8. Ask the source to clarify complex or vague answers. 9. Read back answers if requested or when in doubt about the phrasing of crucial material. 10. Insist on answers if the public has a right to know them. 11. Avoid lecturing the source, arguing or debating. 12. Abide by requests for nonattribution, background only or off-the-record should the source make this a condition of the interview or of a statement. Reporters who habitually violate these rules risk losing their sources. Few sources will talk to an incompetent or an exploitative reporter. When the source realizes that he or she is being used to enhance the reporter’s career or to further the reporter’s personal ideas or philosophy, the source will close up. Sources also risk trouble when they exploit the press. Reporters understand that their sources will float occasional trial balloons and give incomplete, even misleading, information. But constant and flagrant misuse of the press leads to retaliation by journalists. 117

Earning Trust When Sheryl James of the St. Petersburg Times was interviewing sources for her prize-winning series on abandoned infants, she realized that many of those she was interviewing were unaccustomed to talking to a reporter. “I was dealing with good but somewhat unsophisticated people,” she says, “who would have been easy to manipulate. It was a challenge to be sure they understood what I was doing and to keep promises made during the reporting process that I could have broken with impunity.” James focused on a woman who was charged with leaving her baby in a box near a dumpster. She had to develop a relationship with the woman. “I simply tried to be straightforward about what I was doing,” James said, “and get her to trust me, to know that I would keep my word to her. “Aside from that, when I finally did interview her, I felt as I do with many people I interviewI try to establish a relaxed rapport, to be human myself so that they know I’m not a media monster.” The News Interview The extended news interview can provide readers and listeners with interpretation, background and explanation. When Douglas Watson, a Washington Post reporter, was covering the extortion and tax evasion trial of a Baltimore County official, he heard the testimony of a stock manipulator who was a confessed white-collar criminal and political fixer. Watson was told that the witness was being held by the United States Marshal’s Service in a special facility while testifying for the government. Watson learned there were several of these facilities known as “safe housesand he decided to do a story about them. After the trial, he spent several hours talking to officials. “In the interviews, I learned about other interesting and unreported aspects of the organization besides ‘safe houses.’ “ Watson said. “One of the Service’s activities is giving new identities to people who had been government witnesses. This enables them to start new lives in another part of the country.” Here is how Watson’s story begins:

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“Restricted AreaU.S. Govt. Training Center,” says the sign on the barbed wire-topped fence surrounding a barracks at Ft. Holabird on the edge of Baltimore. The sign doesn’t say it, but the barracks is one of several “safe houses” that the U.S. Marshal’s Service operates for the special care and feeding of very important prisoner witnesses such as Watergate conspirator E. Howard Hunt, political saboteur Donald Segretti and stock manipulator Joel Kline. Three to five “safe houses” have been in existence around the country for about a year, usually holding about 50, mostly white collar, “principals,” as they like to call themselves. They are federal prisoners who usually were involved in organized crime and who are considered too valuable as government witnesses or too endangered by threats to be incarcerated in the usual prison . . . . Bomb Designer The news interview can emphasize an aspect of a continuing story that the reporter considers to have been overlooked or neglected. When the debate over nuclear weapons heated up, Jimmy Breslin of the Daily News interviewed I.I. Rabi, one of the nuclear physicists who built the first atomic bomb. Breslin wondered if Americans weren’t too casual about nuclear weapons. A master journalist, Breslin let Rabi speak: “You’re a Queens Catholic. Get on your knees and pray,” Breslin quoted Rabi as telling him. “Nuclear weapons are entirely beyond the people in our government today. It doesn’t take much to know that.” Rabi recalled that during the 1980 Reagan-Carter debate, Carter had talked about his daughter Amy’s concern over nuclear weapons. “The newspapers said it was stupid,” Rabi said. “I never did. It was the little girl who was going to be killed . . . .” Rabi is quoted extensively because he has something to say, has the authority to say it and says it well. Young reporters are often surprised at how eloquent the subjects of interviews can be if they are encouraged to speak. The Profile The profile should be seen as a minidrama, blending description, action and dialogue. Through the words and actions of the subject of 119

the profile, with some help from the reporter’s insertion of background and explanatory matter, the character is illuminated. Profiles should include plenty of quotations. For a retrospective piece on the 1980 championship University of Georgia football team, U.S. News & World Report interviewed the starting offense and the punter in the team’s Sugar Bowl victory over Notre Dame. The magazine found: 9 of the 12 did not graduate; none of the 6 black starters received degrees. In a series of miniprofiles, the magazine reported on the players’ careers in school and later. Herschel Walker, the star of the team, left the team after three years. “I had to worry about what was best for Herschel  and leaving school was best for Herschel,” he is quoted as saying. He was signed for a reported $5.5 million by a professional team. Not so fortunate was Walker’s gridiron blocker, Jimmy Womack. Like Walker, he did not graduate. But he had no professional career and regrets his role in Walker’s shadow. “If I had gone to Florida State, I could have been in the NFL somewhere,” he said. There were, the magazine reports, “compensations . . . in the form of wadded-up $100 bills, passed along in ‘padded handshakes’ from alumni and boosters.” Off the field, he remembered, there were “these girls that liked football players, not one at a time either.” Nat Hudson, who went on to play in the NFL for five years, says that when he goes to a Georgia game or to the athletic area, he feels “like a social outcast.” The attitude, he says, is that “we’ve exploited your talent and we’re through with you, so you go back to your business.” Racism, he says, is the source of his cool reception. Ingredients The profile consists of: The person’s background (birth, upbringing, education, occupation). Anecdotes and incidents involving the subject. Quotes by the individual relevant to his or her newsworthiness. The reporter’s observations. Comments of those who know the interviewee. A news peg, whenever possible.

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Interviewing only the source will lead to a thin, possibly misleading story. When a young New York Times reporter turned in a piece about an alcoholic nun who counsels other similarly afflicted nuns, the story did not move past Charlotte Evans, an editor. “As it stands,” Evans told the reporter, “all you have is a moderately interesting interview with Sister Doody. You sat in a chair, and she sat in a chair and you had a chat. That’s not very good, considering the story material. “Did you talk to any nuns in treatment or just out of it? “Where is the anguish, the embarrassment, the guilt? “It doesn’t sound as if you had done any real reporting, digging, pushing. Where are the people, the quotes, the color?” Reporting Is the Key Reporting makes the profile. Joseph Mitchell, whose profiles for The New Yorker are considered the standard for the form, is described by Brendan Gill in Here at The New Yorker, a history of the magazine, as having had the ability to ask “just the right questions.” The questions would open up his sources, and Mitchell would closely attend their recollections and reflections. He encouraged sources to a loquacity no one suspected they possessed. Mitchell knew that everyone has a good story and that good reporting will flush it out. In the dedication of one of his books, Calvin Trillin, a New Yorker writer, wrote, “To the New Yorker reporter who set the standard, Joseph Mitchell.” Note Trillin’s description of Mitchell as a “reporter.” Trillin, like all good writers, knows that reporting is at the heart of the journalist’s work. Quotes, Quotes As the novelist Elmore Leonard says, “When people talk, readers listen.” In interviews, the writer listens for the telling remark that illuminates the person or the situation. Leonard says he lets his characters do the work of advancing his story by talking. He gets out of the way. “Readers want to hear them, not me.” Listen to the singer Lorrie Morgan talk about her problems: After her husband, the singer Keith Whitley, died of alcohol poisoning, Morgan was only offered slow, mournful ballads by her songwriters, she said in an interview with The Tennessean of Nashville. 121

“I mean, it was all kinds of dying songs,” she said. But then she fell in love with Clint Black’s bus driver, and she decided to change her tunes. “I said, ‘I’m not going to do that. I’m not basing my career on a tragedy.’ I live the tragedy every day without it being in my music.” Her life, she said, has turned around, thanks to her new love. “He’s a wonderful, wonderful guy. This guy is very special, and I’m into him real bad.” However, not too long afterward Lorrie’s love life took a detour  her affections switched to a politician. For reasons unknown, reporters have a tendency to paraphrase rather than to quote directly. In fact, several articles have appeared in journalism publications advocating paraphrasing as an efficient way to tell a story. Efficient? Maybe. But so are telegrams. For reader interest, for enthralled reading and viewing, direct contact with the individual interviewed is best achieved by letting interviewees speak. Research shows that quotations are useful. S. ShyanSundar of Pennsylvania State University found “the credibility and quality of stories with quotations to be significantly higher than identical stories without quotations.” Actions Can Be Revealing-body language Watch the dean of students as he discusses a student disciplinary case. As he answers your questions, is he fiddling nervously with a paper clip, leaning back in his chair, looking at the papers on his desk? Is he tense, relaxed? Do the quarterback’s fellow players joke with him in the locker room, or do they avoid his company? Does the grief seem genuine or forced? Sometimes, sources reveal themselves as much, perhaps more so, in their actions as they do in their statements. The revealing profile blends background, quotations and observations. Diversity We live in an entertainment-driven period, and the media reflects this preoccupation. Look at the covers of magazines. Most of them display a popular personality. (A side comment: In order to be able to profile these stars, the magazine usually allows the personality to choose the questions that will be asked, is given approval rights over 122

the photos to be used and often is shown the piece before publication.) The journalist who wants to show the diversity of American society has a more fascinating story to tell. Listen to Linda Raisovich-Parsons, one of the first women to go into the coal mines, talk to BharatiSadasivam: I went into the mines when I was 18 years old and had just finished high school. There was not a whole lot of career opportunities for a girl back then in West Virginia. My father was a coal miner. He had multiple sclerosis and I didn’t want to burden him with the expense of a college education. . . . Initially, he didn’t like the idea because he ‘want his daughter working in that kind of environment. But when he saw that I was not just testing the waters and was determined to make a go of it, he taught me the ropes and looked out for his baby daughter. . . . There was a lot of heavy lifting and carrying to do and that was what I found the most difficult. Most of the men took the position that well, if you’re here, you’ve got to pull your weight and I was determined that no one was going to prove that I wasn’t able to do the job.

Sadasivam’s magazine article consists entirely of direct quotes. She allows Raisovich-Parsons to tell her story. After several years in the mines, the United Mine Workers union offered her a job as a mine inspector. She would have been the first female inspector. At first, it was not easy. There were some safety committees that simply couldn’t accept a woman and would bypass me and go to my male co-workers. And I often got the same reactions from the coal companies. But there were others that were more accepting of me. I found the older miners more helpful and respectful than the younger ones. Sexual harassment was a problem initially but we’ve grown with these men and I think we’re just one of the crew now. I found women on the whole more safety-conscious than men. They took all precautions, made sure that all the equipment was working properly. You find a very low accident rate among women. I’m comfortable here, but there are times when I’ve felt like a token woman. But the few women that are there are very outspoken, the type of people who get out and get involved because they’ve had 123

to be fighters and scrappers to get the job. I have a button from a women miners’ conference that says, “Just Another Mouthy Union Woman.” Sadasivam wrote the story just this way, a first-person account. Summing Up Good interviews make for good stories. They provide insights into people and events. Here is some advice from practitioners of the trade, Helen Benedict, author of a book on writing profiles, says: “People who are interviewed a lot get tired of the same old questions. You want to stand out as an interviewer and get a good story, and that depends on preparation and intelligence.” Benedict writes out her questions and takes her list with her to the interview. During the interview, she gently guides her subject after establishing his or her trust. “Don’t interrupt too much, and don’t challenge too early so the person is put on the defensive. Don’t talk too much.” She likes to interview in her subjects’ homes so she can observe their clothes, objects on walls and desks-their taste. She watches their mannerisms, how they move, sit, drink their coffee, answer the phone, speak to others. To get at the person behind the personality, good interviewers talk to the friends, associates, relatives of the subject. Samuel Johnson, the brilliant 18thcentury English writer, advised writers that “more knowledge may be gained of a man’s real character by a short conversation with one of his servants than from a formal and studied narrative, begun with his pedigree and ended with his funeral.” Some Interview Guides Fred L. Zimmerman, Wall Street Journal reporter and editor, suggests the following: 1. Almost never plunge in with tough questions at the beginning. Instead, break the ice, explain who you are, what you are doing, why you went to him or her. A touch of flattery usually helps. 2. Often the opening question should be an open-ended inquiry that sets the source off on his or her favorite subject. Get the person talking, set up a conversational atmosphere. This will provide you

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with important clues about his or her attitude toward you, the subject and the idea of being interviewed. 3. Watch and listen closely. How is he or she reacting? Does he seem open or secretive? Maybe interrupt him in the middle of an anecdote to ask a minor question about something he is leaving out, just to test his reflexes. Use the information you are obtaining in this early stage to ascertain whether your preinterview hunches about him were right. Use it also to determine what style you should adopt to match his mood. If he insists upon being formal, you may have to become more businesslike yourself. If he is relaxed and expansive, you should be too, but beware of the possibility the interview can then degenerate into a formless conversation over which you have no control. 4. Start through your questions to lead him along a trail you have picked. One question should logically follow another. Lead up to a tough question with two or three preliminaries. Sometimes it helps to create the impression that the tough question has just occurred to you because of something he is saying. 5. Listen for hints that suggest questions you had not thought of. Stay alert for the possibility that the theme you picked in advance is the wrong one, or is only a subsidiary one. Remain flexible. Through an accidental remark of his you may uncover a story that is better than the one you came for. If so, go after it right there. 6. Keep reminding yourself that when you leave, you are going to do a story. As she talks, ask yourself: What is my lead going to be? Do I understand enough to state a theme clearly and buttress it with quotes and documentation? Do I have enough information to write a coherent account of the anecdote she just told me? 7. Do not forget to ask the key question-the one your editors sent you to ask, or the one that will elicit supporting material for your theme. 8 Do not be reluctant to ask an embarrassing question. After going through all the preliminaries you can think of, the time finally arrives to ask the tough question. Just ask it. 9. Do not be afraid to ask naive questions. The subject understands that you do not know everything. Even if you have done your homework there are bound to be items you are unfamiliar with. The source usually will be glad to fill in the gaps.

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10. Get in the habit of asking treading-water questions, such as “What do you mean?” or “Why’s that?” This is an easy way to keep the person talking. 11. Sometimes it helps to change the conversational pace, by backing off a sensitive line of inquiry, putting your notebook away, and suddenly displaying a deep interest in an irrelevancy. But be sure to return to those sensitive questions later. A sudden pause is sometimes useful. When the subject finishes a statement just stare at her maybe with a slightly ambiguous smile, for a few seconds. She often will become uneasy and blurt out something crucial. 12. Do not give up on a question because the subject says “no comment.” That is only the beginning of the fight. Act as if you misunderstood her and restate the question a little differently. If she still clams up, act as if she misunderstood you and rephrase the question again. On the third try, feign disbelief at her refusal to talk. Suggest an embarrassing conclusion from her refusal and ask if it is valid. Later, ask for “guidance” in tracking down the story elsewhere, or suggest nonattribution, or get tough  whatever you think might work. 13. Occasionally your best quote or fact comes after the subject thinks the interview is over. As you are putting away your notebook and are saying goodbye the subject often relaxes and makes a crucial but offhand remark. So, stay alert until you are out the door. (Sid Moody of the AP says that interviewing gems can come after the notebook is snapped shut. “I’ve found almost as a rule of thumb that you get more than you’ve gotten in the interview.”) These are starting points only, not absolute rules. They, and the material in the next chapter, will get you going. After a while, you will develop your own interviewing style. Zimmerman says, “Pick the techniques you think you can use and then practice them. Eventually, they’ll become so natural you won’t have to think about them.” References for reporters. Any good newsroom should have a basic set of references on its bookshelf: a good, extensive dictionary, atlas and thesaurus, a good set of encyclopedias, phone books, city directories and other directories.

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Key Concepts Who, What, When, Where, Why and How the key questions that journalists must answer when they are gathering their information and writing their stories. Stored sourcesinformation that is contained in written or electronic files. Accuracythe main goal of reporting; journalists go to great lengths to make sure their information is accurate and presented in an accurate context so that readers and viewers will have the same understanding of that information that the journalist does. Personal sourcesthe people who give journalists information; in daily journalism, personal sources are most important because they have information that is not stored yet. Almost all good journalists are good interviewers; they know how to talk with people, and they know how to listen. Observational sourcesinformation that the journalist sees in the course of reporting; stories about sports events, for instance, are written mainly with observational sources. Quotationwhat a source says; a direct quotation is the exact words that a source uses while an indirect quotation uses different words from what the source used, but those words mean the same thing.

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Chapter 10 Writing News and Features Writing for the mass media begins with learning how to write news. This chapter gives students a basic introduction to the forms and conventions of writing news and feature stories for print and the web. Journalistic writing is formal, structured and demanding. The presentation of informationaccurate information in an accurate contextis the main goal of writing, rather than the presentation and development of an individual writer’s style. All media writing attempts to present information accurately, precisely, clearly and efficiently. Meeting those goals are the main things involved in learning to write for the media. A number of important conventions must be learned about media writing. One is modestya writer attempts to stay in the background. Another is attributiontelling the reader the source of the information. Feature writing, also included in this chapter, generally emphasizes the people involved in news and of interest to the general public. The major difference between a news story and a feature story is that a news story is time-sensitive. Media outlets want to publish news stories as quickly as possible after an event occurs. Feature stories, however, are not as time-dependent and contain no urgent content. You can write one anytime after an event occurs. When you write a story, your objective is to get the right message to your target audience. If you understand what type of story you’re writing, it will improve your writing and help you reach the readers you want to connect with. There are many kinds of stories. The most common ones are a news story and a feature story. Even experienced writers often confuse the two. While both types of stories are equally important for your public relations strategy, they’re used in different circumstances. Here are three critical differences between a feature story and a news story.

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1.Timing. The major difference between a news story and a feature story is that a news story is time-sensitive. Media outlets want to publish news stories as quickly as possible after an event occurs. Feature stories, however, are not as time-dependent and contain no urgent content. You can write one anytime after an event occurs. 2.Style. The writing styles of a news story and a feature are different. In a news story, the emphasis is on content rather than form. News stories go straight to the point, using simple and effective words to deliver the facts quickly. They usually average between 300-500 words. Feature stories are often more wordy and they have a creative structure. Feature stories can be more than 2000 words. 3.Beginning and ending. A news story and a feature story have different types of beginnings and endings. News stories tell what the news is upfront and then give the most important details in the first paragraph or two. The beginningor leadof a feature story, on the other hand, doesn’t give the news straightaway. Instead, it hooks readers and keeps them reading until the end. Study questions • The book describes four characteristics that should be in all media writing — accuracy, precision, clarity and efficiency. What is meant by each? • What is attribution and why is it important in journalistic writing? • Are there good substitutes for “said” as a verb of attribution? When should they be used? • What is the inverted pyramid? What are its characteristics? • What are the requirements for a lead paragraph in a news story? • An inverted pyramid news story is not a chronological account of an event. Why not? • How does feature writing differ from news writing? How is it similar? • The book says one of the best ways to learn news writing is to “read, analyze and emulate.” What is mean by that? 130

Lesson Notes The verb “said.” In journalistic writing, there is no good substitute for the verb “said.” Still, beginning students are sometimes self-conscious about using “said” so much in their writing, and they try to find substitutes. The problem with a substitute is that they are laden with added meanings that the writer may not want to include. For instance, a writer might try to use “claimed” instead of “said.” Claimed implies doubt—as if to say, he “claimed” he did it, but we’re not sure. Be care about using verbs of attribution; they may say more than you want to say. Stick with the verb “said.” It’s simple and straightforward, and you won’t have to carry any extra baggage by adding to its meaning. There’s more on this site about verbs of attribution. Writing for the Mass Media. The author of Journalism: Who, What, When, Where, Why and H ow is also the author of a writing textbook titled Writing for the Mass Media . The book introduces students to all of the major forms of writing for the mass media: the inverted pyramid news story, the dramatic unity broadcasting story, summaries for the web, advertising copywriting, and public relations forms such as the news release and the speech and statement. Clichés. One of the most dangerous traps a writer can fall into— especially a beginning writer—is the use of clichés. Clichés are overused expressions that have lost their freshness and vitality. Chances are, if you hear a new expression more than once among your friends, it has already reached the status of a cliché—and it should be avoided like the plague. Simple words. A lot of people don’t believe this: Simple words are the most powerful and most effective words you can use. If you want to get your message across to a reader (or a listener), express yourself in the simplest way possible. Many people believe the opposite. They think the more elaborate and complex the words, the more effective the message.

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Mark Twain on writing. Mark Twain knew a lot about the writing. That’s obvious from the great works that he produced. He also wrote a good deal about writing. Here are two of his quotations that good writers should heed: With a hundred words to do it with, the literary artisan could catch that airy thought and tie it down and reduce it to a . . . cabbage, but the artist does it with twenty, and the result is a flower. Substitute damn every time you’re inclined to write very; your editor will delete it and the writing will be just as it should be. Key Concepts • The ability to use the language efficiently, effectively and with confidence is the mark of a good journalist. • The journalist must learn certain writing techniques and structures to be successful, but those requirements do not lessen the creativity of the writing process. • All journalistic writing should share four characteristics: accuracy, clarity, precision and efficiency. • Precision – the ability to use the language correctly, following commonly accepted rules of grammar, punctuation and spelling and using words for precisely what they mean. • Good journalistic writing uses the simplest words possible, and a variety of sentence structures. • Attribution – giving credit to sources for their information; this is one of the most important journalistic writing conventions. • Inverted pyramid – the major structure of news stories; the most important information (often the latest information) is at the beginning of the story, not at the end; information is presented in order of its importance. • Lead – the first paragraph in a news story; pronounced LEED. • Feature writing often centers around people and their interests rather than events, but many of the same writing conventions of news writing (particularly a concern for accuracy) are also required for feature writing. • One of the most effective ways of learning to write is to read good writing and to try to model your writing on what you have read. 132

Chapter 11 Style All professional writing is subject to some kind of style — the rules of writing for the medium in which the writing will appear. Style rules impose a consistency on the writing, and all writers need to learn and apply style rules to their writing. Style also involves an attitude that journalists should develop about their writing. Journalists should be interested in the language and how it develops. They should be willing to take special care to make sure their writing is efficient, precise and accurate. They should understand that their own opinions and attitudes are of little consequence to the reader, who simply wants the information they have to provide. Study questions • Why is style important? Make sure you know at least two reasons. • What stylebook is the most important one to journalists? • What is meant by the “impersonal reporter”? • Why is it important for a journalist to be careful in describing people? Writing in a journalistic style is not a skill all college students get to learn; however, it is definitely useful regardless of the career field one chooses. We’re so used to writing paragraph after paragraph, citing sources, formatting bibliographies, and making sure we meet the page or word count requirement. Journalism is different. The basic rules of English still must be followed, and there is a certain format and writing style used. Here are a few tips and tricks to help you understand the difference between writing an essay and an article: Do not, I repeat, DO NOT use superfluous words, phrases or information. Journalists need to understand that not every member of their audience has the same level of education, so simple language should be used. For example, you may not see the word “superfluous” in an article, but you may see “excessive” or “unnecessary.” 133

In addition, readers don’t always have the time to sit down and read every minute detail about an event, so a journalist must write the most important facts (preferably at the beginning of the story), keeping the story short and sweet, but long enough that the reader can piece together what happened and make sense of it. Paragraphs in articles are generally no longer than a couple of sentences, although in more in-depth pieces, they can be around four or five sentences long. Location, readership, political climate, and competition all contribute to rapid transformations in journalistic models and writing styles. Over time, however, certain styles—such as sensationalism— have faded or become linked with less serious publications, like tabloids, while others have developed to become prevalent in modern-day reporting. This section explores the nuanced differences among the most commonly used models of journalism. Objective versus Story-Driven Journalism In the late 1800s, a majority of publishers believed that they would sell more papers by reaching out to specific groups. As such, most major newspapers employed a partisan approach to writing, churning out political stories and using news to sway popular opinion. This all changed in 1896 when a then-failing paper, The New York Times, took a radical new approach to reporting: employing objectivity, or impartiality, to satisfy a wide range of readers. The Rise of Objective Journalism At the end of the 19th century, The New York Times found itself competing with the papers of Pulitzer and Hearst. The paper’s publishers discovered that it was nearly impossible to stay afloat without using the sensationalist headlines popularized by its competitors. Although The New York Times publishers raised prices to pay the bills, the higher charge led to declining readership, and soon the paper went bankrupt. Adolph Ochs, owner of the oncefailing Chattanooga Times, took a gamble and bought The New York Times in 1896. On August 18 of that year, Ochs made a bold move and announced that the paper would no longer follow the sensationalist style that made Pulitzer and Hearst famous, but instead would be “clean, dignified, trustworthy and impartial.” “Adolph S.

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Ochs Dead at 77; Publisher of Times Since 1896,” New York Times, April 9, 1935, http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0312. html. The Inverted Pyramid Style One commonly employed technique in modern journalism is the inverted pyramid style. This style requires objectivity and involves structuring a story so that the most important details are listed first for ease of reading. In the inverted pyramid format, the most fundamental facts of a story—typically the who, what, when, where, and why—appear at the top in the lead paragraph, with nonessential information in subsequent paragraphs. The style arose as a product of the telegraph. The inverted pyramid proved useful when telegraph connections failed in the middle of transmission; the editor still had the most important information at the beginning. Similarly, editors could quickly delete content from the bottom up to meet time and space requirements.Chip Scanlan, “Writing from the Top Down: Pros and Cons of the Inverted Pyramid,” Poynter, June 20, 2003, http://www.poynter.org/how-tos/newsgathering-storytelling/chipon-your-shoulder/12754/writing-from-the-top-down-pros-andcons-of-the-inverted-pyramid/. The reason for such writing is threefold. First, the style is helpful for writers, as this type of reporting is somewhat easier to complete in the short deadlines imposed on journalists, particularly in today’s fast-paced news business. Second, the style benefits editors who can, if necessary, quickly cut the story from the bottom without losing vital information. Finally, the style keeps in mind traditional readers, most of who skim articles or only read a few paragraphs, but they can still learn most of the important information from this quick read. Interpretive Journalism During the 1920s, objective journalism fell under critique as the world became more complex. Even though The New York Times continued to thrive, readers craved more than dry, objective stories. In 1923, Time magazine launched as the first major publication to step away from simple objectivity to try to provide readers with a more analytical interpretation of the news. As Time grew, people at some other publications took notice, and 135

slowly editors began rethinking how they might reach out to readers in an increasingly interrelated world. Figure 4.8

During the 1930s, two major events increased the desire for a new style of journalism: the Great Depression and the Nazi threat to global stability. Readers were no longer content with the who, what, where, when, and why of objective journalism. Instead, they craved analysis and a deeper explanation of the chaos surrounding them. Many papers responded with a new type of reporting that became known as interpretive journalism. 136

Interpretive journalism, following Time’s example, has grown in popularity since its inception in the 1920s and 1930s, and journalists use it to explain issues and to provide readers with a broader context for the stories that they encounter. I used this example quite often in class because of its educative nature. According to Brant Houston, the executive director of Investigative Reporters and Editors Inc., an interpretive journalist “goes beyond the basic facts of an event or topic to provide context, analysis, and possible consequences.” Brant Houston, “Interpretive Journalism,” The International Encyclopedia of Communication, 2008, http://www.blackwellreference.com/public/tocnode?id=g97 81405131995_chunk_g978140513199514_ss82-1. When this new style was first used, readers responded with great interest to the new editorial perspectives that newspapers were offering on events. But interpretive journalism posed a new problem for editors: the need to separate straight objective news from opinions and analysis. In response, many papers in the 1930s and 1940s “introduced weekend interpretations of the past week’s events … and interpretive columnists with bylines.” Stephen J. A. Ward, “Journalism Ethics,” in The Handbook of Journalism Studies, ed. Karin Wahl-Jorgensen and Thomas Hanitzsch (New York: Routledge, 2008): 298. As explained by Stephen J. A. Ward in his article, “Journalism Ethics,” the goal of these weekend features was to “supplement objective reporting with an informed interpretation of world events.” Stephen J. A. Ward, “Journalism Ethics,” in The Handbook of Journalism Studies, ed. Karin Wahl-Jorgensen and Thomas Hanitzsch (New York: Routledge, 2008): 298. Competition From Broadcasting The 1930s also saw the rise of broadcasting as radios became common in most U.S. households and as sound–picture recordings for newsreels became increasingly common. This broadcasting revolution introduced new dimensions to journalism. Scholar Michael Schudson has noted that broadcast news “reflect[ed] … a new journalistic reality. The journalist, no longer merely the relayer of documents and messages, ha[d] become the interpreter of the news.” Michael Schudson, “The Politics of Narrative Form: The Emergence of News Conventions in Print and Television,” in “Print Culture and Video Culture,” Daedalus 111, no. 4 (1982): 137

104. However, just as radio furthered the interpretive journalistic style, it also created a new problem for print journalism, particularly newspapers. Suddenly, free news from the radio offered competition to the pay news of newspapers. Scholar Robert W. McChesney has observed that, in the 1930s, “many elements of the newspaper industry opposed commercial broadcasting, often out of fear of losing ad revenues and circulation to the broadcasters.” Robert W. McChesney, “Media and Democracy: The Emergence of Commercial Broadcasting in the United States, 1927–1935,” in “Communication in History: The Key to Understanding” OAH Magazine of History 6, no. 4 (1992): 37. This fear led to a media war as papers claimed that radio was stealing their print stories. Radio outlets, however, believed they had equal right to news stories. According to Robert W. McChesney, “commercial broadcasters located their industry next to the newspaper industry as an icon of American freedom and culture.” Robert W. McChesney, “Media and Democracy: The Emergence of Commercial Broadcasting in the United States, 1927–1935,” in “Communication in History: The Key to Understanding” OAH Magazine of History 6, no. 4 (1992): 38. The debate had a major effect on interpretive journalism as radio and newspapers had to make decisions about whether to use an objective or interpretive format to remain competitive with each other. The emergence of television during the 1950s created even more competition for newspapers. In response, paper publishers increased opinion-based articles, and many added what became known as oped pages. An op-ed page—short for opposite the editorial page—features opinion-based columns typically produced by a writer or writers unaffiliated with the paper’s editorial board. As op-ed pages grew, so did interpretive journalism. Distinct from news stories, editors and columnists presented opinions on a regularly basis. By the 1960s, the interpretive style of reporting had begun to replace the older descriptive style. Thomas Patterson, “Why Is News So Negative These Days?” History News Network, 2002, http://hnn.us/articles/1134.html. Literary Journalism Stemming from the development of interpretive journalism, literary journalism began to emerge during the 1960s. 138

This style, made popular by journalists Tom Wolfe (formerly a strictly nonfiction writer) and Truman Capote, is often referred to as New Journalism and combines factual reporting with sometimes fictional narration. Literary journalism follows neither the formulaic style of reporting of objective journalism nor the opinion-based analytical style of interpretive journalism. Instead, this art form—as it is often termed—brings voice and character to historical events, focusing on the construction of the scene rather than on the retelling of the facts. Why is it that mass media outlets feature particular news stories prominently while others receive little, if any, coverage? Although every outlet is different, mass media gatekeepers have traditionally relied on some predictable values to evaluate the newsworthiness of a story. Their decision might impact how the story is covered, including how many resources are spent following the story, and how prominently the story is featured. In the present era of audience fragmentation, individual audience members increasingly choose what kind of news content they receive, yet traditional news values often still govern how deeply a news story permeates a community. In 1973, Gatlung and Ruge developed one of the first models of news values. Shoemaker et al. followed up in 1987 with a similar model. Both offer a useful framework for understanding how gatekeepers evaluate potential news stories. Gatlung and Ruge, 1973 • Relevance - How relevant is a news story to the audience in question? For example, a California earthquake is almost always more relevant to a West Coast audience than to an audience in Calcutta. • Timeliness - How recently did the event unfold? Timing is of the utmost importance in today’s 24-hour news cycle. Recent events, or events in the making, are most likely to lead the news. • Simplification - Stories that can be easily simplified or summarized are likely to be featured more prominently than stories that are convoluted or difficult to understand. • Predictability - Certain events, such as elections, major sporting events, astrological events, and legal decisions, happen on a predictable schedule. As the event draws closer, it typically gains news value. 139

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Unexpectedness - On the other hand, events like natural disasters, accidents, or crimes are completely unpredictable. These events are also likely to have significant news value. Continuity - Some events, such as war, elections, protests, and strikes, require continuing coverage. These events are likely to remain in the news for a long time, although not always as the lead story. Composition - Editors have to keep in mind the big picture—the sum of all content in their media outlet. For this reason, an editor might select soft human-interest stories to balance out other hard hitting, investigative journalism. Elite People - Certain individuals, like politicians, entertainers, and athletes, are considered, by virtue of their status, more newsworthy. If someone throws a shoe at an everyday person, it’s probably not news. If someone throws a shoe at the President of the United States, it will likely be in the news for weeks. Elite Countries - Famine, drought, and national disasters are more likely to draw attention if they are happening in “First World” countries than if they are happening in developing countries. Negativity - Generally speaking, editors deem bad news more newsworthy than good news. Shoemaimker et al., 1987 Timeliness - Shoemaker et al. also recognize timeliness as a critical news value. Proximity - Similar to Gatlung and Ruge’s “Relevance.” The closer an event takes place to the intended audience, the more important it is. This is why huge local or regional stories might not make the national news. Importance, impact, or consequence - How many people will the event impact? Issues like global warming issues have become big news in recent years precisely because environmental changes affect the entire planet. Interest - Does the story have any special human interest? For example, the inspirational story of a person overcoming large odds to reach her goal appeals to a fundamental human interest. 140

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Conflict or Controversy - Similar to Gatlung and Ruge’s “Negativity.” Editors generally deem conflict more newsworthy than peace. Sensationalism - Sensational stories tend to make the front pages more than the everyday. Prominence - Similar to Gatlung and Ruge’s “Elite People.” The actions of prominent people are much more likely to make the news than non-public figures. Novelty, oddity, or the unusual - Strange stories are likely to find their way into the news. Dog bites man—no story. Man bites dog—story.

Conclusion Every news outlet has a different protocol for selecting which stories to run, but some traditional values often determine the “newsworthiness” of a story. The more of these news values a story satisfies, the more likely you are to see it prominently featured in mass media outlets. Sources Campbell, Vincent. Information Age Journalism: Journalism in an International Context. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2006. 117-123. Fleming, Carole, et al. An Introduction to Journalism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2006. 4-26. It is worth noting that the content of newspapers and other mass media is typically the result of many different writers and editors working together. AP style provides consistent guidelines for such publications in terms of grammar, spelling, punctuation and language usage. Some guiding principles behind AP style are: • Consistency • Clarity • Accuracy • Brevity AP style also aims to avoid stereotypes and unintentionally offensive language.

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Common Style Guidelines The Associated Press Stylebook provides an A-Z guide to issues such as capitalization, abbreviation, punctuation, spelling, numerals and many other questions of language usage. What follows are summaries of some of the most common style rules. abbreviations and acronyms Some widely known abbreviations are required in certain situations, while others are acceptable but not required in some contexts. For example, Dr., Gov., Lt. Gov., Rep., the Rev. and Sen. are required before a person’s full name when they occur outside a direct quotation. Please note, that medical and political titles only need to be used on first reference when they appear outside of a direct quote. For courtesy titles, use these on second reference or when specifically requested. Other acronyms and abbreviations are acceptable but not required (i.e., FBI, CIA, GOP). The context should govern such decisions. As a general rule, though, you should avoid what the Associated Press Stylebook calls “alphabet soup.” Consult the Associated Press Stylebook for specific cases. Addresses For numbered addresses, always use figures. Abbreviate Ave., Blvd., and St. and directional cues when used with a numbered address. Always spell out other words such as alley, drive and road. If the street name or directional cue is used without a numbered address, it should be capitalized and spelled out. If a street name is a number, spell out First through Ninth and use figures for 10th and higher. Here are some examples of correctly formatted addresses: 101 N. Grant St., Northwestern Avenue, South Ninth Street, 102 S. 10th St., 605 Woodside Drive. Ages For ages, always use figures. If the age is used as an adjective or as a substitute for a noun, then it should be hyphenated. Don’t use apostrophes when describing an age range. Examples: A 21-year-old student. The student is 21 years old. The girl, 8, has a brother, 11. The contest is for 18-year-olds. He is in his 20s.

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books, periodicals, reference works, and other types of compositions Use quotation marks around the titles of books, songs, television shows, computer games, poems, lectures, speeches and works of art. Examples: Author Porter Shreve read from his new book, “When the White House Was Ours.” They sang “The Star-Spangled Banner” before the game. Do not use quotations around the names of magazine, newspapers, the Bible or books that are catalogues of reference materials. Examples: The Washington Post first reported the story. He reads the Bible every morning. Do not underline or italicize any of the above. dates, months, years, days of the week For dates and years, use figures. Do not use st, nd, rd, or th with dates, and use Arabic figures. Always capitalize months. Spell out the month unless it is used with a date. When used with a date, abbreviate only the following months: Jan., Feb., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov. and Dec. Commas are not necessary if only a year and month are given, but commas should be used to set off a year if the date, month and year are given. Use the letter s but not an apostrophe after the figures when expressing decades or centuries. Do, however, use an apostrophe before figures expressing a decade if numerals are left out. Examples: Classes begin Aug. 25. Purdue University was founded May 6, 1869. The semester begins in January. The 1800s. The ‘90s. If you refer to an event that occurred the day prior to when the article will appear, do not use the word yesterday. Instead, use the day of the week. Capitalize days of the week, but do not abbreviate. If an event occurs more than seven days before or after the current date, use the month and a figure. Datelines Newspapers use datelines when the information for a story is obtained outside the paper’s hometown or general area of service. Datelines appear at the beginning of stories and include the name of the city in all capital letters, usually followed the state or territory in which the city is located.

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Tips for Writing a Lead 1. The Five W’s and H: Before writing a lead, decide which aspect of the story – who, what, when, where, why, how – is most important. You should emphasize those aspects in your lead. Wait to explain less important aspects until the second or third sentence. 2. Conflict: Good stories have conflict. So do many good leads. 3. Specificity: Though you are essentially summarizing information in most leads, try to be specific as possible. If your lead is too broad, it won’t be informative or interesting. 4. Brevity: Readers want to know why the story matters to them and they won’t wait long for the answer. Leads are often one sentence, sometimes two. Generally, they are 25 to 30 words and should rarely be more than 40. This is somewhat arbitrary, but it’s important – especially for young journalists – to learn how to deliver information concisely. See the OWL’s page on concise writing for specific tips. The Paramedic Method is also good for writing concisely. 5. Active sentences: Strong verbs will make your lead lively and interesting. Passive constructions, on the other hand, can sound dull and leave out important information, such as the person or thing that caused the action. Incomplete reporting is often a source of passive leads. 6. Audience and context: Take into account what your reader already knows. Remember that in today’s media culture, most readers become aware of breaking news as it happens. If you’re writing for a print publication the next day, your lead should do more than merely regurgitate yesterday’s news. 7. Honesty: A lead is an implicit promise to your readers. You must be able to deliver what you promise in your lead. What to Avoid 1. Flowery language: Many beginning writers make the mistake of overusing adverbs and adjectives in their leads. Concentrate instead on using strong verbs and nouns. 2. Unnecessary words or phrases: Watch out for unintentional redundancy. For example, 2 p.m. Wednesday afternoon, or very unique. You can’t afford to waste space in

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a news story, especially in the lead. Avoid clutter and cut right to the heart of the story. 3. Formulaic leads: Because a lot of news writing is done on deadline, the temptation to write tired leads is strong. Resist it. Readers want information, but they also want to be entertained. Your lead must sound genuine, not merely mechanical. 4. It: Most editors frown on leads that begin with the word it because it is not precise and disorients the reader. Types of Leads Summary lead: This is perhaps the most traditional lead in news writing. It is often used for breaking news. A story about a city council vote might use this “just the facts” approach. Straight news leads tend to provide answers to the most important three or four of the Five W’s and H. Historically this type of lead has been used to convey who, what, when and where. But in today’s fast-paced media atmosphere, a straightforward recitation of who, what, when and where can sound stale by the time a newspaper hits the stands. Some newspapers are adjusting to this reality by posting breaking news online as it happens and filling the print edition with more evaluative and analytical stories focused on why and how. Leads should reflect this. Anecdotal lead: Sometimes, beginning a story with a quick anecdote can draw in readers. The anecdote must be interesting and must closely illustrate the article’s broader point. If you use this approach, specificity and concrete detail are essential and the broader significance of the anecdote should be explained within the first few sentences following the lead. Other types of leads: A large number of other approaches exist, and writers should not feel boxed in by formulas. That said, beginning writers can abuse certain kinds of leads. These include leads that begin with a question or direct quotation and those that make a direct appeal using the word you. While such leads might be appropriate in some circumstances, use them sparsely and cautiously. Commentary: The lead addresses the traditional who, what and when. If this information had been reported on TV or radio 145

the day before, this lead might not be a good one for the print edition of the newspaper; however, if the reporter had an exclusive or posted this information online as soon as it became available, then this lead would make sense. Note that it is brief (15 words) and uses an active sentence construction. Summary lead: Lobbyists flout disclosure rules in talks with commissioners By Tony Cook and Michael Mishak for the Las Vegas Sun, July 13, 2008 On more than 170 occasions this year, lobbyists failed to file disclosure forms when they visited Clark County commissioners, leaving the public in the dark about what issues they were pushing and on whose behalf. Commentary: This lead is more representative of the less timely, more analytical approach that some newspapers are taking in their print editions. It covers who, what and when, but also why it matters to readers. Again, it uses active verbs, it is specific (170 occasions) and it is brief (35 words). Anecdotal lead: Tri-staters tell stories of the devastating tsunami By Tony Cook for The Cincinnati Post, Jan. 8, 2005 From Dan Ralescu’s sun-warmed beach chair in Thailand, the Indian Ocean began to look, oddly, not so much like waves but bread dough. Commentary: This article is a local angle on the devastating tsunami that struck Southeast Asia in 2005. As a result of the massive death toll and worldwide impact, most readers would have been inundated with basic information about the tsunami. Given that context, this lead uses an unexpected image to capture the reader’s attention and prepare them for a new take on the tsunami. Again, it is brief (23 words). Question lead: Same lobbyist for courts, shorter term, more money By Tony Cook for the Las Vegas Sun, June 29, 2008 146

What’s increasing faster than the price of gasoline? Apparently, the cost of court lobbyists. District and Justice Court Judges want to hire lobbyist Rick Loop for $150,000 to represent the court system in Carson City through the 2009 legislative session. During the past session, Loop’s price tag was $80,000. Commentary: Question leads can be useful in grabbing attention, but they are rarely as effective as other types of leads in terms of clearly and concisely providing the main point of a story. In this case, the second paragraph must carry a lot of the weight that would normally be handled in the lead. Contributors: Christopher Arnold, Tony Cook, Dennis Koyama, Elizabeth Angeli, Joshua M. Paiz. Summary: These resources provide an overview of journalistic writing with explanations of the most important and most often used elements of journalism and the Associated Press style. This resource, revised according to The Associated Press Stylebook 2012, offers examples for the general format of AP style. For more information, please consult The Associated Press Stylebook 2012, 47th edition. Writing Press Releases An Introduction to Press Releases New and useful information are the key facets for creating effective press releases. On a daily basis, press releases are used for a number of reasons (e.g., apologizing for a product recall, announcing a new charity, recruiting plaintiffs for a class action lawsuit). Although press releases are issued every day, there is an expectation that the press release will contain some new information given or valuable information that readers will want to or need to know. While most companies and people who use press releases feel their information is newsworthy, it may be more useful to consider the target audience (i.e., the reader of the press release) when making a decision on the news worthiness of the press release. Since the press release will be judge by an editor or director of a given media outlet, it is important to understand that 147

the time and space available for such releases are limited. This means if the information in the press release is not new or useful—it will not likely be printed or aired—even if the release is well written. To better assure that your press release is given maximum consideration, you should follow a few basic requirements. Press releases: Basic requirements First, you should ask yourself, “Is there serious value in the information I want to disseminate?” If the answer is “yes!” and you know the information will impact people’s lives, you probably need to craft a press release. While press releases are not obligatory, if used properly, they can increase the coverage of your information among your target audiences. Once you have decided that you need a press release, you should draft your release to include information that is easy to comprehend for journalists who will use your material to reach your target audience. What is “easy to comprehend?” Try answering the five W’s and H questions from the complimentary perspectives of the person writing the release and the target audience. The 5 W and H questions Who? From the perspective of the people writing the press release: Who are the people that want the release? Is the whole company making the release (e.g., “Vanish Travel Company sponsors annual fund-raising marathon”), or is the release from a single division or person (e.g., “The president of Widget Keys announces new company holiday”)? From the perspective of the target audience: Who do you want to take action on the release? Who does your news affect or benefit? In the case of the marathon, it is likely to have all able runners as its target audience. For the company holiday, the company workers are likely the target audience. If the holiday is related to a local event or pays respect to people unrelated to Widget Keys, the press release may have a wider target audience outside of Widget Keys.

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TIP: Consider that there may be secondary audience members outside of your target audience, but write specifically for your target audience. What? From the perspective of the people writing the press release: What information are you trying to announce? Is the information new? (e.g., “Widget Keys announces keypad malfunction. All platinum home security systems will receive a new panic button to replace faulty button on current models.”) From the perspective of the target audience: If the information is technical, you may need graphics to help clearly convey your message. For example: What qualifies as “platinum home security?” What if there is more than one security pad in a home? What are the signs of a faulty switch? Clearly, a technical announcement such as this one may require more information than can be clearly conveyed in a short press release. In these cases, it is best to include contact information for customers to use so they can learn about replacement strategies. TIP: Always include all forms of possible contact information, such as facsimile and telephone numbers, websites, emails, postal addresses, and other services like bilingual customer support. Where? From the perspective of the people writing the press release: Where is this new information most relevant? Is the announced information needed in all geographical locations, or is the information mostly useful in confined, specific locations? From the perspective of the target audience: Where do I need to be to be affected by the press release? For example, the target audience of a price increase for services in a specific region of a country will want to know exactly which stores will have the price increase. Other people will want to know that their prices are not going to change. TIP: Some situations call for two press releases, one for the areas affected by the announcement and another for areas unaffected by the announcement.

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When? From the perspective of the people writing the press release: When is the information going to become useful, or when will the information become useless? Understanding timelines on information is important. If the information has a start date, (e.g., “Vanish Travel Company sponsors fund raising marathon”) it is necessary to have that date clearly identified on all press releases. Also, allow for maximum time for preparations. Some releases have time frames, (e.g., “Widget Keys announces complimentary upgrades on home security systems from February 2014 until September 2015.”). While the “February 2014 until September 2015” seems clear, when are the true start and end dates? A more precise date will be appreciated by the news outlet and the customer. For example a more specific time frame is: “February 01, 2014 until September 15, 2015; all dates are according to Eastern Standard time.” From the perspective of the target audience: When will I have to act on this information? Telling the target audience as much information about when something needs to happen is paramount in successful press releases. There is a huge difference in announcing a marathon’s applications are due in a week’s time, and announcing the marathon will occur in a week’s time. TIP: Be certain that not only the date is clear but also the action that needs to occur is clear. Why? From the perspective of the people writing the press release: Why is this important news? What will make the target audience care about our announcement? From the perspective of the people writing the press release: Why should the customer care about this press release? The customer may think, “This another publicity stunt,” or “Is this information truly important?” Sometimes this is hard to tell, depending on how the press release is read by reporters. For example, the recall of an automobile for safety reasons is very serious and should be taken seriously by most people without finding a reason for people to care about their own personal safety. However, it is not always clear why someone should care

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about a bake sale at a local school. This is where clarity and focus can help a writer guide the reader to the main point. TIP: Put the main idea and purpose of the press release in the beginning of the release. How? From the perspective of the people writing the press release: How did this come about? From the perspective of the target audience: One of the main uses of press releases is to explain how something occurred. Sometimes a press release is crafted in a way that places responsibility on a specific person or division of a company. Other times the release will be designed to show that the fault lies outside of a company, but the company making the release is doing all they can to improve the situation (e.g., a company apologizing for a chemical spill that occurred because of a natural disaster, and not directly because of human error). TIP: Remember to keep the information relevant to the target audience, and not to use a press release for placing blame or pointing fingers. News and media outlets will not likely use your release if there is propaganda or self-serving details included in it. Once you have answered the 5 W and 1 H questions, you should begin the rough draft of your press release. The short answers you have to answer: who, what where, when, why, and how, are useful beginnings that will need to be shaped for maximum effectiveness. Writing with brevity will catch the eye of editors as being clear and straightforward. Adding a few sentences for editorial flare might improve the sound of the press release, but it may confuse editors about the tone and voice of the press release. TIP: Preserve the integrity of your press release by including only the essential and relevant information needed by the target audience. While this sounds simple, it can be a rather tough choice between necessary information and gratuitous details. Drafting several copies of a press release is standard operating procedure for most companies. In fact, many press releases are crafted several months in advance of their release—if you don’t find the right words on the first pass keep drafting and have other people read your release to check it for clarity and brevity. 151

Press releases can be sent to media outlets well in advance of their release. These press releases are put under embargo. This allows media outlets to prepare stories that might help viewers and readers understand the content of a release before they release the information. Sometimes, media outlets will want to raise awareness of its audience by helping them become sensitive to something that will be announced soon. For example, a news outlet might spend a week broadcasting short vignettes and research reports on the importance of a local river on the ecology of a town because a press release on trash disposal reform is on embargo now but will be announced soon. TIP: Do not use embargoed press releases. Media outlets do not usually like to hold onto embargoed releases, unless there is a clear need for it. Sending an embargoed press release leaves the chance that media outlets will not use it in their news cycle. Press releases: Know your media As mentioned earlier, it is important to stay brief. Try to write no more than 50 words for your release, and try to make sure each sentence is meaningful. Make the target audience interested in the information of the release, but also consider the venue of the press release. For example, you may need to write several press releases depending on the outlet you choose for your press release. If you use an audio only format for your release, it may not be productive to announce long strings of numbers as may be the case in a product recall. You may need to consider if you require another version of your release for black and white media as compared to color media. Knowing how your target audience will receive your information is an important consideration for how you write your press release. Consider a press release that is made on television. What if the president of a company will be permitted to read the announcement? This means the announcement will have to consider pronoun usage. Whether you are promoting a book, writing about an upcoming non-profit event, or it is for a product launch, a press release is a great tool to get the desired media attention. A press release basically describes the who, what, when, why, where, and how of your project in a way to get coverage by news outlets. The most important elements of a press release are logo, headline, 152

dateline, contact information, lead paragraph, quotes, and Boilerplate. Keep in mind that a press release should be brief and to the point. It should only contain important information to attract the attention of reporters and editors. Here is an example of different pronoun usage: Non-personal: “Widget Keys continues their efforts to improve home safety for their customers.” Personal: “At Widget Keys, we continue our efforts to improve home safety for our customers.” When thinking about the target audience, remember that the diversity of knowledge amongst the target audience requires consideration. For example, what knowledge do they have about the company? Is there a need to understand jargon to understand the press release? TIP: Be sure the language used in your press release describes the relevant topics according to the target audience. Specialist and engineers may easily comprehend technical graphics included in a press release put in a field specific magazine, but this may not be the case for press releases placed in a local newspaper. The architecture of press releases: How to structure your information Basics 1) Title for attention. Give your press release a relevant and memorable title. Remember, though, press releases are not advertisements. 2) Needs improvement: Great deals and charity, too! Over 50% off antique railroad watches at Middle Town Auctions, this weekend only. Improved: Time waits for no one. This weekend only, antique railroad watchmaker partners with Middle Town Auction to raise charity for local schools. While the Needs improvement title for the charity auction does seem somewhat catchy and immediately appeals to the target audience with an announcement of “charity” right from the start, it has some very clear problems. This press release title has useless information and appears to be more of an advertisement for Middle Town Auctions than an announcement of a charity event. There are 153

also the claims of “great deals” and “50% off,” which are not predictable at an auction. For example, some auctions sell items that have a minimum bid, and others items will never seem like a “great deal” no matter how reduced the price may be. Including this sort of information might be important to Middle Town Auction, but it does not belong in the title. TIP: Put this information kind of information in the “Notes to the editors” section (see point 7, below), not in the title or lead of your press release. Conversely, the Improved version includes a catchy, relevant title, “Time waits for no one” but immediately shifts to the important information, “this weekend only” and who is selling what and for what reason. There could be more information, like a time and an address, but remember this is merely the title of the press release. Using only relevant, and useful information in your title will show media outlets you are considering the target audience’s perspective. 2) Timing of release. Consider if your release is for immediate release or embargoed? Always indicate at the top of the release if it is under embargo, or if it is, “Ready for immediate release.” Be certain to clearly indicate all relevant dates. 3) Contact information. Be sure to include contact information so a media outlet can contact the appropriate person for clarification or further questions. The media contact may, or may not, be the same person as the official contact person for the company—always include a media contact address, phone, and email. Format 4) Presentation. Press releases are easier to read when they are double-spaced. Using wide margins can help give reports space for taking notes. In short, consider how you can help facilitate the media’s use of your information. 5) Brevity. Keep paragraphing to a minimum, the longer the draft the less likely the media personnel will want to read your draft. Always try to get you point across in under a page, more than 2 pages will likely be seen as a news article and not a press release. 6) End your press release. Be sure to close your press release with the words “Ends” and do so in bold typeface. After this signal for the ending of your press release, write, “For further information,

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please contact” and list your contact details or those of person(s) responsible. 7) Extra information. If you happen to have extra information (e.g., a note indicating that you or your company has recent photos the studio could use if they need visual support), or further elaborations on your main points, put them in a section you label, “Notes to editors.” Be sure, however, to put this extra information AFTER your contact information. Key Concepts • Style in journalism is not a way of forming phrases or sentences (as in literary style) but rather refers to the rules of usage and the discipline the writer imposes on the writing. • The Associated Press Stylebook and Libel Manual is the chief arbiter of style rules in print and web journalism. • Most news organizations have a local stylebook, a publication that supplements the AP Stylebook and lays down the rules for local references. • According to the AP Stylebook, there is one and only one way to spell a word. • Adherence to style rules is one of the ways that a journalist has of maintaining the aura of the “impersonal reporter.” • Journalists should take some care to make sure their words and phrases are not disparaging or insulting to any part of their audience.

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Chapter 12 Editors The editor’s job is one of the most important in journalism. The editor takes on the responsibilities of the publication. Journalism is a collaborative effort in that it takes the efforts of many people to produce good journalism. An editor assumes the responsibility of making that collaboration work. Editors and reporters must develop a special relationship. The tenor and tone of their relationship is up to the editor. An editor must allow reporters enough leeway to do their work and to exercise their best judgments on the stories they choose and the way they write those stories. But an editor also has to impose and maintain the standards of the publication. They have the final word on how the publication works and what it produces. Getting to be an editor is not an easy task. An editor must have a mastery of the language — enough to recognize when it is not being used correctly and the courage to demand that it be changed. Editors must have a wide-ranging knowledge that allows them to put events into perspective. They must also have an innate understanding of their news organization and how it puts into practice the tenets of the profession of journalism. Editors practice quality control and negotiate among various groups in news journalism. Research papers have rarely taken this role as their focus. Editors allow for a clearer assessment of what is – and what is not – journalism. The role of editor distinguishes news journalism from other nonjournalistic, but resembling activities, such as blogs and public relations, Duffy writes. There is journalistic content happening outside traditional news media (such as well-written blogs with a public service intent), and news organizations themselves conduct many non-journalistic activities. The author sees the editorial function as key here. Editors negotiate among four groups with distinct values: the audience, the organization, journalism as practice, and society. The reason is that different interests meet, merge and are negotiated by the editor, and can be observed as they are made manifest in practice. Hence, editors are essential for the functions that construct journalism as authoritative, credible and valued in society. 157

When I’m spending hours at my computer coming up with an article topic, I’m often too tired to notice many of the minor mistakes in my writing. Because relying on spell-check software can weaken writing, this is when it helps to have an extra set of eyes to look over my work. I could just call on a friend to help me out, but there are some types of content that need something more: an editor. Just like there are different types of editing, there are many different types of editors out there, so how do you know which one to hire? When most people think of editors, they imagine someone scrutinizing a paper, their pen dripping with red ink. Some editors like to edit the old-fashioned way, but for the most part, editors are simply people who tweak, fix and enhance the content you write. Their invaluable corrections and advice can make a boring piece of content flourish. Editors today can be found in all settings, such as in the workplace of a newspaper publishing company or online through freelancing services. Not all editors get an English degree, some come from communication or journalism backgrounds. Over time, they get enough experience to become expertly skilled in grammar, spelling and story structure. Selecting the right editor for your project depends on your needs and, sometimes, your budget. You’ll want to familiarize yourself with the different roles editors can play in getting an article or a book published. 1. Beta Reader Beta readers are generally those people you let look over your writing to get their opinion. They aren’t required to have a lot of background in editing, but they have valuable advice that only a fresh pair of eyes can give. This is an ideal way to receive feedback if you are writing a book. Many authors may ask for beta readers and create a questionnaire for the readers to get early feedback on a story. You want to find beta readers if you are looking for feedback from the general public for your work. Knowing how the audience feels about your writing can help you create a more compelling version before you publish. 2. Proofreader The types of editors and their roles may vary, but proofreaders are one of the most common types. Proofreaders look over content after it has gone through other stages of editing. It is the final read through 158

before publishing. Proofreaders often only look for glaring mistakes in grammar and punctuation, and they may give little feedback as to quality or content development. You want to hire a proofreader if you are concerned about spelling, punctuation or grammar mistakes, such as in articles or resumes. It is also reassuring to have one read-through before publishing your work. Some proofreaders will mark up the content to show where the corrections were made, while others will simply catch anything they see and move on. 3. Online Editor The term “online editor” includes anyone you can find online to look over your content. These types of editors are most likely freelancers, and their skill sets may vary. Hiring online can be a helpful option if you don’t know who to turn to. If you plan on hiring an online editor, first make sure he or she is well-versed in the type of editing you are looking for. Prices may vary, so be sure to find the right level and type of editing expertise that you are looking for. 4. Critique Partner A critique partner tends to be a writer or published author who looks over a story and helps another writer or aspiring author to raise the quality of his or her work. A CP may act more as a coach than an editor. You want a critique partner when you need guidance on developing a story for publication. If you have connections with other writers, this is a great way to swap work and receive great feedback. Because your CP is also a writer, they can find specific ways to improve your writing such as developing characters, describing the setting more naturally and cutting out cliché writing. 5. Commissioning Editor Also known as an acquisition editor, a commissioning editor is the one who looks for books or articles for publication. This is the person to talk to if you’re looking to get a book published or if you’re a freelance writer and want to pitch an article or blog to a particular site or company. This type of editor searches for books and articles that will benefit the publishing house or company. They keep an eye on market trends and find authors, book proposals and potential ideas that can appeal

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to hungry readers. If you think your novel or article is extraordinary, pitch it to a commissioning editor. 6. Developmental Editor Developmental editors act as coaches for writers to get a story ready for publication. They cheer you on and help you stay on track with the tone, structure and audience. They also challenge you to improve your writing and may fight with you on how to develop your plot. When you need guidance on moving your story forward, developmental editors should be able to help. They may also spend some of their time ghostwriting. Especially for novels, this type of editor is a must-have. 7. Content Editor Content editors look at everything the writing encompasses. With books, they look over the story and make changes as necessary to the plot, characters, setting and so forth. In journalism or online publications, a content editor ensures the article’s scope is accurate for its audience and subject matter. If you’re looking for extensive editing, this type of editor is a great option. They will look at everything in your work, making sure that overall, the content is high-quality and engaging. Some content editors even consider marketing strategy and the overall effectiveness of the writing. 8. Copy Editor Copy editors, also known as line editors and sometimes as content editors, usually look at everything from facts to grammar and formatting. These editors can do it all. Copy editors specifically study punctuation and grammar. They have extensive knowledge of the English language and are familiar with writing styles. 9. Associate Editor Associate editors often work for newspapers or magazines. Another term for this position is “section editor.” An associate editor often has the same responsibilities as an acquisition editor; he or she is in charge of seeking out stories or content for publication. These types of editors read and review material that will be published. They often coordinate topics that may be interesting to readers, and they’ll do some tweaking to make the title and content engaging. They keep the overall goal of the newspaper or magazine in mind while picking and editing content. 160

10. Contributing Editor Contributing editors tend to contribute their services to a magazine or newspaper and may also be referred to as a roving editor. In the journalism industry, a contributing editor is sometimes called an editor-at-large. A contributing editor has more freedom to choose what they edit or work on and they contribute regularly. 11. Chief Editor Also known as an executive editor, the chief editor is the person overall in charge of an article, story or other content. The chief editor is the one who looks over the final product to ensure it meets company standards and approves it for release. It may take years of experience to be considered for this position. But if you’re looking for someone who knows what they’re doing, a chief editor can have the final say on your written content. 12. Editor-in-Chief So, what is an editor-in-chief? The editor-in-chief is generally the person who oversees the editing department and manages all of the other editors for the company. They distribute the work to the editing team and oversee bigger projects. The EIC is also responsible for maintaining the voice of the company and upholding its philosophy and mission. Publishing companies sometimes refer to editors-inchief as editors-at-large, which essentially means they can work on whatever project they choose to. What Editors Do The Publisher The publisher is the top boss, the person overseeing all aspects of the paper on both the editorial (news) side, as well as the business side. However, depending on the size of the paper, he or she might have little involvement in the day-to-day operations of the newsroom. The Editor-in-Chief The editor-in-chief is ultimately responsible for all aspects of the news operation. This includes the content of the paper, the play of stories on the front page, staffing, hiring, and budgets. The editor’s involvement with the day-to-day running of the newsroom varies with the size of the paper. On small papers, the editor is very involved; on big papers, slightly less so. Managing Editor

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The managing editor is the one who directly oversees day-to-day operations of the newsroom. More than anyone else, perhaps, the managing editor is the one responsible for getting the paper out every day. The managing editor is also responsible for ensuring the paper’s content is the best it can be, and that it meets that paper’s standards of journalism. Depending on the size of the paper, the managing editor might have a number of assistant managing editors. These assistants are responsible for specific sections of the paper, such as local news, sports, features, national news, and business, along with the presentation of the articles, which includes copy editing and design. Assignment Editors Assignment editors are those directly responsible for the content in a specific section of the paper, such as local, business, sports, features, or national coverage. They are the editors who deal directly with reporters. They assign stories, work with reporters on their coverage, suggest angles and ledes, and do the initial editing of reporters’ stories. Copy Editors Copy editors typically get reporters’ stories after they have been given an initial edit by assignment editors. They edit stories with a focus on the writing, looking at grammar, spelling, flow, transitions, and style. They also make sure the lede is supported by the rest of the story and the angle makes sense. Copy editors also write headlines, secondary headlines (decks), captions, called cutlines, and takeout quotes. This is collectively called display type. They also work with designers on the presentation of the story, especially on major stories and projects. At larger papers, copy editors often work only in specific sections and develop expertise on that content. Study questions • The books says the job of the editor is one of the most important, if not the most important, in journalism. Why? • What lessons about journalism can be learned from the story about Jayson Blair, Howell Raines and the New York Times that opens the chapter? • List some of the duties editors are required to perform. • What are the traits a person should have to be a good editor?

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What are some of the things an editor should do in building a relationship with a writer? How does one get to be an editor?

Lesson Notes Leadership. Journalists have been notoriously bad personnel managers. Most journalists over 40 years old (and some considerably younger) can tell you stories about the horrible editors they worked under and the abuse they suffered. The newsroom can be a tough environment in which to work. Many current editors are trying to do better than their predecessors, however. Seven deadly sins. Anne Glover, assistant managing editor for the copy desk of the St. Petersburg Times, has written an excellent piece on the seven deadly sins of a copy editor. (This was originally put together for the Poynter Institute.) Those sins are arrogance, assumptions, sloppiness, indifference, ignorance, laziness and inflexibility. Love the language. A basic requirement for any good editor is that he or she know how to use the language. But good editors go beyond just knowing how to use the language. They take an active interest in the language itself – particularly to its misuses in the news media. Key Concepts • Editor – a person who has some responsibility for the news organization and how it functions; editors are in charge of the process of journalism. • Copyeditor – a person charged with checking the writing that reporters and other editors produced; these people must have a wide range of knowledge as well as an expertise in how the language is used. • Editors should develop relationships of trust, respect and mutual purpose with reporters. A reporter should come to count on an editor’s expertise and support. • Editors, in addition to their responsibility to their news organization, have a responsibility to the audience the organization serves; they must constantly consider how the organization can best deliver information to that audience. 163

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Editors set and enforce the standards for a news organization; their sense of honesty and ethics will permeate the news organization.

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Chapter 13 Editing and Headline Writing Writing great headlines is an art. You can bang out the most interesting article ever written, but if it doesn’t have an attentiongrabbing headline, it’s likely to be passed over. Whether you’re at a newspaper, news website, or blog, a great headline (or “hed”) will always get more eyeballs scanning your copy. The challenge is to write a hed that’s as compelling, catchy and detailed as possible, using as few words as possible. Headlines, after all, have to fit the space they’re given on the page. Headline size is determined by three parameters: the width, defined by the number of columns the hed will have; the depth, meaning is the hed one line or two (known by editors as a “single deck” or a “double deck”;) and the font size. Headlines can run anywhere from something small - say 18 point - all the way up to banner front-page heds that can be 72 points or bigger. So, if your hed is designated as a 36 point three-column double decker, you know it will be in a 36-point font, running across three columns and with two lines. (Obviously there are many different kinds of fonts; Times New Roman is one of the fonts most commonly used in newspapers. But that’s something each individual paper or website decides on.) So, if you’re assigned to write a five-column, two-line, 28-point double-deck hed, you know you’re going to have a lot more room to work with than if you’re given a two-column, one-line hed in a 36point font. But whatever the length, the headline should be the best one possible within the space allotted. The headline is the text indicating the nature of the article or news story below it. It’s a brief summary of what the article is about. WHAT IS ITS PURPOSE? A headline’s purpose is to quickly and briefly draw attention to the story. Guidelines for Writing News Headlines Which is an example of an effective headline? (For examples of the good, the bad and the ugly, go to Good headlines and Problem headlines after you read these tips on “Writing Effective Headlines.”) 165

Use the active voice: Effective headlines usually involve logical sentence structure, active voice and strong present-tense verbs. They do not include “headlinese.” Be Accurate This is most important. A headline should entice readers, but it shouldn’t oversell or distort what the story is about. Always stay true to the spirit and meaning of the article. Keep It Short This seems obvious; headlines are by nature short. But when space limitations aren’t a consideration (as on a blog, for instance), writers sometimes get verbose with their heds. Shorter is better. Fill the Space If you’re writing a headline to fill a specific space in a newspaper, avoid leaving too much empty space at the end of the head. This is called “white space” and it should be minimized. Don’t Repeat the Lede The headline, like the lede, should focus on the main point of the story. However, if the hed and the lede are too similar, the lede will become redundant. Try to use different wording in the headline. Be Direct Headlines aren’t the place to be obscure; a direct, straightforward headline gets your point across more effectively than something overly creative. Use the Active Voice Remember the subject-verb-object formula for news writing? That’s also the best model for headlines. Start with your subject, write in the active voice, and your headline will convey more information using fewer words. Write in Present Tense Even if most news stories are written in the past tense, headlines should almost always use the present tense. Avoid Bad Breaks A bad break is when a hed with more than one line splits a prepositional phrase, an adjective and noun, an adverb and verb, or a proper noun. For example: Obama hosts White House dinner Obviously, “White House” should not be split between the two lines. Here’s a better way to do it: Obama hosts dinner at the White House Make Your Headline Appropriate to the Story 166

A humorous headline may work with a lighthearted story, but it most definitely wouldn’t be appropriate for an article about someone being murdered. The tone of the headline should match the tone of the story. Know Where to Capitalize Always capitalize the first word of the headline and any proper nouns. Don’t capitalize every word unless that’s the style of your particular publication. Study questions • What is the chief goal of the copyeditor? • What particular items should a copyeditor check when trying to make a piece of writing accurate? • Nora Shoptaw’s essay on “A Day in the Life of a Copy Editor” (page 225) talks about some of her experiences as an editor. What are some of the larger lessons to be learned from this essay? • What is meant by a story’s “inner logic”? • What are some of the steps an editor should take to achieve clarity in writing? • What is the difference between a direct quotation and an indirect quotation? What is another word for an indirect quotation? • What are the characteristics of a good headline? • Why are good headlines important to a publication or a web site? • Why are good headlines harder to write than good paragraphs? Lesson Notes Copyediting quizzes. A number of web sites offer some copyediting quizzes that are easy to access for those with Internet connections. Some of the links to those are below. Among them is a whole battery of quizzes put together on the American Copyeditors Society (http://www.copydesk.org), which asks about a variety of topics such as history, geography and current events. The point is that good copyeditors need to know a lot about many different topics if they

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are going to be able to spot errors and inconsistencies and if they are going to be able to judge the context of the copy they read. A key to good editing. One of the most difficult things to teach beginning editing students is, somewhat oddly, attitude. While no one should be cocky or uncivil, a good copyeditor must have the confidence not only to spot errors but also to change the copy to make it better. That is reasonably easy to do when they are dealing with technical matters – spelling, grammar, style rules, etc. – where the rules are explicit. It is much more difficult when changing copy calls upon editors to use their judgment and to have confidence in that judgment. An editor must consider any piece of copy his or her own – must “take possession” of it, in the modern phrase. A good editor does not hesitate to see what it wrong, recognize how it should be changed and then change it. Grammar, Spelling, Punctuation and Diction exam. The teacher should give a 100-question grammar, spelling, punctuation and diction exam to beginning writing students. Before you can be a good journalist, you must first be a good writer. This means you must know how to put words together so that they make sense, flow, and are correctly punctuated. Another important element of news writing is grammar and style. Grammar is the structure of the writing that takes into account the syntax and linguistics, while style is the writing’s distinctive appearance and sound. Grammar is decided according to hard and fast rules, but style is more personal and puts your mark on the piece of work. Although very different, they are both essential to quality work and will be discussed together in this section. Please note that this section is meant to refresh your basic grammar skills, and is not comprehensive.

Grammar

There are few things that will turn a reader away quicker than poor writing. Grammar is the most basic example of this: When words are misspelled, or there is a mismatch between nouns and the proper tense of verbs, or you have used punctuation incorrectly – you are going to lose your audience faster than if you wrote something that offended them on a personal level. Why? Because they’ll never get to a point where they will read the content. Poor grammar marks you as an amateur, and you won’t be long for the newsroom with that label! So, let’s conduct a crash course in grammar! 168

The basic parts of speech are nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. A noun is a person, place or thing. Examples of a person: doctor, lawyer, man, woman Examples of a place: hospital, playground, living room, outer space Examples of a thing: toy, hammer, automobile, microscope A noun can be singular or “one.” A noun can be plural or “more than one.” Examples of a singular noun: girl, house, pen, motor Examples of plural nouns: girls, houses, pens, motors A noun can be proper. That means it names something specific. They begin with capital letters. Examples of a proper noun: Tom Jones, Mississippi, Washington Monument, Big Mac Collective nouns are a group. Examples of a collective noun: government, team. If the group acts as a single entity you use a single verb. The government is in charge. If group members act individually you use a plural verb. The team members said they will lose. A pronoun takes the place of a noun. Examples of subject pronouns that come before the verb: I, you, he, she, we, they, it I am going to work. You are going to work. He is going to work. She is going to work. We are going to work. They are going to work. It is going to work. Examples of object pronouns that come after the verb: me, you, them, us, Mary followed me to school. Mary followed you to school. Mary followed them to school. Mary followed us to school. Mary followed it to school. *Know when to use its and it’s. its shows possession. Example: That is its home. Interested in learning more? Why not take an online class in Journalism? it’s is short for the words it is Example: It’s going to be a great day! 169

A verb is the action or state of being word (linking) or words in a sentence. Example of an action verb: ran, jump, think, cry, yell I ran up the hill. You jump on the chair. They think about their mother. Example of a state of being verb: is, are, was, were An adjective describes a noun. Examples of an adjective: big, small, fast, slow, yellow, That is a big balloon. That is a small balloon. That is a fast balloon. That is a slow balloon. That is a yellow balloon. An adverb modifies a verb. They often end in “ly.” Examples of an adverb: hardly, barely, sadly, simply The motor hardly works. The motor barely works. The motor sadly works. The motor simply works. Punctuation are the marks in a sentence, question, or comment that clarify its meaning. Punctuation can be likened to road signs that tell the reader when to stop, go, or slow down. Begin each sentence with a capital letter. T rains are an interesting way to travel. Use a period at the end of a statement. Trains are an interesting way to travel. Use a question mark at the end of a question. Are trains an interesting way to travel? Use an exclamation mark to indicate excitement. Trains are an interesting way to travel! A comma ( , ) is used to indicate a pause between parts of a sentence or items in a list. Joan bought apples, peaches, and bananas at the store. In the scheme of things, is it more important to reflect, or to forge head on into the future? Use a colon ( : ) at the beginning of a list or to separate a quote from the speaker. The losers were: Thomas Paine, Henry James, and Samuel Patterson. Judge Thompson said: “Don’t drink and drive again or you will go to jail.” Use a semi-colon ( ; ) to separate phrases with commas in them. • The DIY instructors are: Micah, knitting; Ralph, decoupage; and Martin, woodworking. 170

An apostrophe ( ‘) can show possession or indicate missing letters or numbers. • Jim’s shoe is untied. The ’49ers are going to go all the way this year! A hyphen ( - ) ties words together while a dash ( - ) is used for emphasis. • My mother-in-law is always calling – and it drives me crazy. Quotation marks are used to enclose the actual words of a speaker. • “Let’s keep driving till we reach the end of the road,” John said. Key Concepts • Good copyediting skills are a must for any editor. • Headlines – a few words used to describe a story or articles; they appear in larger type than the body of the story, and they are what the reader uses to decide whether or not to read the story. • Copyediting means that editors should do more than fix the technical errors (grammar, punctuation, spelling, style, etc.); instead, they should work to improve the writing. • Copyeditors should always check the math in a story and make sure the numbers add up. • Good copyediting requires that editors have a wide range of knowledge and that they be skilled in finding information efficiently. • Jargon – specialized language (words and phrases) used by a particular group but not understood by a general audience. • In the use of language, the simpler the better; simple words and phrases are more readily understandable, efficient and memorable. • Redundancy – an expression that uses more words than necessary; for example, Easter Sunday or old adage. • Headline writing takes special skill and efficiency in using the language.

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Chapter 14 Visual Journalists Visual storytelling is thriving. From web videos to documentaries to photojournalism, news organizations are investing resources and creating new jobs in visual content specialties. Technology is enabling us to tell visual stories with production values that rival Hollywood, and social media platforms are allowing us to share and discuss this work with audiences globally. While many people enter the profession of journalism because they like to write and consider themselves “word people,” the importance of visual presentation of information in journalism cannot be overestimated. Visual journalism takes in photojournalism, graphics journalism and publication design. Few things in our culture have more impact than the single, still photograph. Photographs have a way of grabbing our attention and telling a story that stays with the viewer long after we have stopped looking. Capturing such images is no accident. They take time and planning on the part of the photojournalist. Graphics journalism — presenting information through charts, graphs, maps and illustration — is a growing part of the profession. Publications understand that some information is more efficiently and effectively presented through these means than by the paragraph. Many publications are actively seeking people who understand graphic forms and the kind of information that is necessary for their use. No publication or web site exists without the hand of a designer, someone who understands how information should be presented visually so that the news consumer can see it and so that the news organization has a distinctive look that reflects its goals and philosophy. The best news designers know not just design but also have excellent news judgment. They understand the profession, and at many publications they end up making key decisions not just about design and layout but also about the content itself. Visual journalism is a much wider concept than photojournalism. It is essentially creating the overall visual appearance of a newspaper, magazine, TV-channel or so on. The visual appearance of a media 173

channel, newspaper or magazine is created with typography, photographs, videos, illustrations, cartoons, maps, infographics and other graphical solutions. Modern online newspapers and magazines have the technical conditions to employ multimodality in journalism. Good examples of pioneers in this field include the British newspaper The Guardian and the US-based newspaper The New York Times. These papers have experimented with the use of text, pictures, videos and infographics in the same article offering a multimedia experience that goes beyond the possibilities of any traditional media channels. So, what is visual journalism? It’s a question I get asked a lot - not just by friends and family but by many colleagues in the more traditional walks of media life. For many in the newer fields of digital journalism, it’s simply about visualising data, or using graphics such as maps or charts to explain stories - and of course it is about that. But in the BBC, it’s also about bringing together our TV designers with the teams that create the more high-end multimedia graphics online and harnessing the unprecedented creative opportunities that brings. So, we want to use our skill and creativity to engage and inform our audiences on the biggest, most significant stories, providing insightful, personal and shareable visual explanations. And I think we visual journalists are in a unique position to help the BBC meet some of the key challenges we face when we are trying to make sure our audience gets what it needs and expects from us. Firstly, in a world where many organisations are covering pretty similar stories in often pretty similar kinds of ways, visual journalism can bring a real distinctiveness to the way the BBC covers the news agenda. For example, something we have pioneered is our family of calculators which allow the online audience to put their own details in to put themselves at the heart of the story, and get a result they can share with friends and colleagues. Recently, with our colleagues in BBC Lab UK, we developed the class calculator which told you which of seven new classes you were as defined by new research. Our TV news colleagues did a report to go along with the online offer and used the calculator with members of the public. The result was nearly seven million page views and 50 social media shares for each 1,000 views. We also have

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calculators on fuel prices, inflation and - coming soon - the human age of dogs. Secondly, BBC News is an old and trusted friend and guide to many millions. But when we present them with the sort of visual journalism we are developing, we get responses like “Wow - I didn’t think the BBC did things like that” and “That’s really innovative”. It really shows the audience that we can do new things that are modern, lively and interactive. Take, for example, our use of 3D modelling interactively, designed by our TV designers for use in bulletins, that we use online and which allow the audience to interact with. We did that to explain the tragic events in the house of Paralympic star, Oscar Pistorius, and also to explore the sea floor with our science editor, David Shukman, using our virtual reality studio in New Broadcasting House, putting interactive hotspots on the video. We will keep trying to perfect and develop new techniques. And lastly, visual journalism can effectively help our audience to understand a story better. They say a picture can be worth a thousand words and that’s certainly true. A simple map or graphic can really convey a story in a visual way that can be immediately grasped whether it’s on TV or on online. Nothing catches the attention of a reader like a visual does. Monica Moses, the Star Tribune’s deputy ME/Visuals and poynter.org faculty member, said that through research “we know that 90 percent of readers enter pages through large photos, artwork, or display type (headlines, promos, etc.). Not only do visuals bring a reader into the story, but they help the reader better understand the content. “Publications understand that some information is more efficiently and effectively presented through these means [graphics] than by the paragraph,” said James Glen Stovall, author of Journalism: Who, What, Where, When, Why and How. Not only do graphics draw in readers and help them understand the content, but the attention given to graphics is far greater than that of written text. Poynter’s Eyes on the News research said that the chance of someone reading some of the text in a story increases by three times when a visual is included. Headlines are also more likely to be read if a photograph is included. The research also said that size of a picture matters, the bigger it is, the more a reader will read the cutline. 175

Study questions • What are the reasons that news publications should pay attention to the visual aspects of journalism? • What is different about photojournalism that distinguishes it from other parts of journalism? • What are the qualities of a photo that make it a good picture? • What is the “digital revolution” described in this chapter? • Describe the importance of the impact of a still image. • In general, what is it that designers do? • Why is good graphics journalism so difficult to achieve? Lesson Notes The father of visual journalism. Take a look at some of the pages of the journals of Leonardo da Vinci (Picture 1). You probably won’t be able to read them (unless you can read Italian backwards), but they are interesting to look at. Leonardo, who lived in the latter part of the 1400s, was interested in many things and studied closely what he observed. He did this by both drawing (pictures) and words (text). To him, both were necessary if he was going to understand what he was looking at. What Leonardo did 500 years ago is not so different from what many visual journalists try to do today – marry words and pictures. The life and work of Leonardo are worth close examination. Here are a few web sites to get you started: Leonardo da Vinci Museum (http://www.leonardo.net/main.html) Leonardo da Vinci—a fun web site devoted to his life and works (http://www.mos.org/leonardo/) Source: Web Museum: Leonardo da Vinci (http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/vinci/) Think about the printing press. The printing press has been hailed as the greatest invention of the millennium. No doubt, that’s 176

correct. Yet, when you look at the journals of Leonardo, you might understand that the printing press had at least one negative effect. Leonardo seemed to see no difference between words and pictures; he used them both equally well to explain what he saw. The printing press, however, separated words from pictures, elevated the importance of words and lowered the importance of pictures. Words were easier than pictures to deal with and reproduce. It is only now – more than 500 years after the invention of the printing press – that our modern computer technology and software are allowing words and pictures to get back together in the way in which Leonardo used them. Key Concepts • Visual presentation of information can be as important as words; information and ideas are sometimes more understandable of they are visually presented or if they have a visual element. • Graphics journalist – a person who uses visual forms of presentation; the information the graphics journalist gathers should be suitable for these forms. • Visual journalism includes graphics, photojournalism and layout and design. • Visual journalism developed during the latter part of the 20th century in great part because computer technology made it easier to produce. • Design – the general rules that govern the appearance of a publication; these rules include general page format, type font and size, styles for bylines, cutlines, photographs, graphs, etc. • Layout – the day-to-day use of design rules to produce the publication.

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Chapter 15 Graphics Journalism A new crop of comics artists are merging their craft with the journalistic process to create stunning works of reportage that depict everything from war torn countries to wineries. They work in ink, watercolors, and Wacom, telling stories that might not make the front page, but offer a level of nuance and meditative depth often reserved for the best investigative reporting. They are “graphic journalists,” and their work is a little-known facet of the infographic revolution that is sweeping the journalism world. What is it? Graphic journalism is an emerging form with a colorful mishmash of influences that include comix, infographics, film, and autobiography. There are multiple ways to categorize and analyze this work. From AlterNet to the Awl; The Rumpus to the Oregonian, graphic journalism offers a powerful opportunity for news organizations to reach out to new readers and experiment with new ways of storytelling without compromising journalistic integrity. Here’s a short overview of the different forms that comics journalism can take. As this is an emerging field that we’re working to define and develop, I’d love to hear your recommendations and thoughts in the comments. According to Grand View University’s website though, they describe graphic journalism in this way: “The Graphic Journalism major actively combines the skills needed to write effective communication and to design visual materials in an aesthetic and communicative manner. You’ll prepare for everexpanding career opportunities in communications firms, public relations departments, advertising firms, and on in-house publications. Coursework in the areas of computer graphics, graphic design, writing, and editing make this a unique combination. You’ll become proficient in computer software applications for graphic design and in writing ... and produce a professional portfolio of samples that combine talents from both writing and graphic design.”

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What Does a Graphic Artist Do in Journalism? If you’re interested in a career as a graphic artist but want to work in a field a bit more exciting than an advertising or marketing agency, consider a career as a graphic artist in journalism. Graphic artists working for a journalism outlet need to be able to turn around jobs quickly and on schedule, bringing insight and a new view to published stories. Skill Set First and foremost, a graphic artist working in journalism should have a keen eye and strong artistic sense. He should be familiar with the techniques used for graphic design, such as art preparation and screening, color separation tasks and layout. Graphic designers in journalism work on much tighter deadlines than those in marketing or advertising and should be able to turn out work quickly. They should have a wide-ranging knowledge of graphics arts and layout programs, such as the Adobe Creative Suite. In addition, many online journalism platforms are incorporating more video into their websites. A graphic artist looking to expand his horizons for the greatest possible amount of job opportunities should also become familiar with video editing and motion design programs. Primary Responsibilities The main job function of a graphic designer working for a journalism outlet is to provide graphics and other design elements for print and online editions. When a story or article comes in for publication, the editor assigns a graphic designer to create any graphics needed to help attract readers or viewers to the story. The designer consults with the reporters or writers of the article and works with them to help decide the angle of the graphic. Designers then begin to design the graphic, either working by hand, using stock elements such as clip art and stock photos or a combination of those methods. Once finished, the designer sends the graphic to the reporter and editor for any further modifications. After they approve the graphic, the designer outputs a final version for printing or online distribution. Secondary Tasks Secondary tasks of a graphic designer in journalism can vary depending on the size of the organization. In larger organizations, such as major newspapers or high-volume websites, graphic designers work on different graphics for one or two departments, say 180

lifestyle or news, during the course of a working day. In smaller companies, a graphic designer, in addition to his design duties, may be responsible for keeping a morgue file organized. A morgue file is a collection of all past graphics and photos used in various stories. This organization can either be physical or digital. Keeping a morgue file allows the designer to quickly see the type of graphic used on any previous stories and also offers him a starting point for any graphics on coming stories. Background Data Anyone working in journalism should at least be able to read and write at a high school level, so the entrance requirement for most positions is at least a high school diploma or GED. Some organizations may require that candidates possess at least a two-year associate or four-year bachelor’s degree in graphic design or studio art. Graphic artists face no requirement for any type of certification for working in journalism. Candidates looking to work in this field can join a professional organization, however, such as the Society of Professional Journalists or the Graphics Artists Guild to enhance their professional resume and increase their career mobility. Travelogues Since the underground comix revolution of the 1970s, comics have been used as an autobiographical medium. The late Harvey Pekar used comics to tell the stories of everyday people and everyday life in an accessible manner. Today’s travelogues are direct descendants of early diary comics. These works are often meditative explorations of a foreign landscape in which the reader unpacks their cultural baggage with the author, exploring a strange land with them. The key here is in viewer identification: The comics creator has a strong voice leading the narrative, and we trust them to impart facts and dissect stereotypes for us. Sarah Glidden’s How to Understand Israel in 60 Days or Less is a near flawless example of the travelogue. Glidden isn’t going for an objective non-fiction work here, which can seem counter-intuitive to journalists. Rather, she’s looking to use her experiences as a lens for dissecting her own cultural (mis)perceptions and takes the reader along for the ride. At Cartoon Movement, Matt Bors is publishing pages from his experiences in Afghanistan last summer. While the narrative has yet to fully unfold, so far Matt is taking a more ethnographic/ 181

documentary approach, focusing less on how the travel impacted him and more on documenting the landscape around him. Portraits The portrait style of graphic journalism is even more immersive than travelogues, though the two forms often overlap. In a portrait comic, the creator steps back and lets the facts or individuals speak for themselves. Joe Sacco, a pioneering graphic journalist, often lets his subjects tell their stories, letting their words tumble out around portraits of his subjects speaking. By focusing in on facial expressions, the reader is effectively looking over Sacco’s shoulder and engaging in a dialog with the subject. The same principles apply to an “over the shoulder” style of interviewing common in documentary films and video journalism. By removing the interviewer from the panel, Sacco is able to increase the readers identification with the subject at hand. There are many ways to increase identification via portraiture. While Sacco tends to focus on faces, Wendy MacNaughton takes a much more experimental approach in her works for The Rumpus. Through her innovative use of white/negative space, MacNaughton presents comics that are free of an overbearing narrative presence. She often pairs words with snapshots of objects and landscapes to create an experiential identification with her subjects. In MacNaughton’s work, the reader is encouraged to focus on and identify with the forms on the page, absorbing the places and things that pepper her subjects lives as a meditation. This approach encourages internal identification from the reader. Instead of presenting her subjects as an interview, she wants us to experience life through their eyes. Choosing Your Own Adventures While Susie Cagle creates great non-fiction narrative work, she also experiments with how to make infographics more interactive by introducing comics techniques. Here’s a short “choose your own adventure” comicgraphic that Susie did for the SF Public Press. When I interviewed Susie a few months ago for a separate article, she said that infographics and comics have “got a lot of the same things going for them. … [But] my problem with comics journalism is that most comics journalists come to it from an art school background

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and the writing and research isn’t there.” Infographics and expository illustrations like the image below are helping fill that gap. Merging Multimedia Dan Archer has been experimenting with integrating comics and journalism for years. As a Knight Journalism Fellow at Stanford, Dan is creating annotated comics that source back to videos, audio, and other data that supports his reporting. Readers experience journalistic stories as digital, interactive landscapes. Each click of the mouse–or swipe of the finger–allows the reader to dive further into Archer’s reported world. Archer and developer Chris DeLeonrecently released an iPhone app comic on the Honduras Coup. What’s next? This is just a short overview of a few archetypes I’ve been able to identify in the last few months of studying graphic journalism. These definitions are sure to evolve as additional organizations and journalists begin to experiment with illustrated narratives as a means for telling stories and creating experimental works of journalism. I’m looking forward to identifying new artists and connecting the dots as the field moves forward. Graphics journalism is a specialized form of journalism that uses graphic forms to present information. These forms often use words as well as illustration, so the graphics journalist must have the ability to write—especially to use words efficiently. Graphics journalism generally backs up and adds information to other reporting and writing that the publication has done. Graphics journalists usually take one part of a story—that which lends itself to graphic presentation—and do additional reporting so that a graphic can be developed for the story. Such reporting is very difficult because it must be precise and complete. And it must produce the information that can be properly used in a graphic form. The most common types of charts the journalist uses are bar charts, line charts and pie charts. These are used to present numerical data. Certain principles apply to using these different kinds of charts, and the graphics journalists must know what they are and follow those principles precisely. For instance, a pie chart can only be used to show the parts of a whole and for no other purpose.

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Maps are widely-used graphic forms for many publications, and a good map can give the reader a sense of place and location for the events being reported on. Maps are also subject to certain conventions. For instance, the top part of the map is usually the most northern point. Graphics journalists must understand and observe these conventions. Even a simple map — if it is to be informative for the reader — takes a good deal of skill to report and construct. The chief goal of the graphics journalist is to present accurate information in a form that is understandable and engaging. Study questions • What are the basic principles of design presented in this chapter? • Figure 15.1 presents six way to show essentially the same information. What are the strengths and weaknesses of each form of presentation? What information do some of these forms have that others do not? • What is meant by proportionality and depth? • What are some of the different forms that type-based graphics can take? • What are the three basic types of charts used in journalism? What kind of data does each require? • Describe the conventions of maps. For instance, which way should a map be oriented? • Describe how infographics can be developed from a typical news story. Lesson Notes Data and charts. It is very important to understand the three major kinds of charts used in graphic reporting – line, bar and pie (look at the charts in the image above) – and the information that is appropriate to each chart. Tips for beginners. Students who are learning about charts and how to produce them should remember the following: • Study charts that have been professionally produced by newspapers or news web sites. The Associated Press has a graphics department that produces many charts used by newspapers every day. Look closely at the way they are put together. 184

Don’t try to put too much data in a chart. A line chart should not have more than three lines of data. A pie chart should not have more than six or seven sections at most. • Use an explainer box to help the reader understand the chart. An explainer box is the text under the headline. • Try to keep the idea of a chart – what you are attempting to show – as simple as possible. Data is plural. The word “data” is a plural noun and should have a plural verb. The word “media” is plural also. Graphics reporting. Finding the appropriate data to build a good chart is not always easy. Graphics reporters often find that the data they need are not available or are incomplete. Try to find as much statistical information about the students at your college or school. Begin with the number of freshmen, sophomores, juniors and seniors. Who would have that information? See what you can come up with and how many different kinds of charts you can build. Building charts in Excel. Excel, the commonly used spreadsheet program developed by Microsoft has an excellent chartbuilding function called Chart Wizard. Click here for some instructions on how to use this function. Finding maps to use. If you are working for a publication – high school or college – you should not use maps created by MapQuest or some other professional service without specific permission from that service. To do so is a violation of copyright laws. Maps that are free from those restrictions are available from other sources, however. For national and state maps, try the U.S. Census Bureau (http://www.census.gov/geo/www/maps/). For local maps, look on the web sites of city and county governments. University libraries and geography departments often create maps of the areas they serve, and those can often be used without permission. Before using any map, check to make sure there are no restrictions on its use. •

Key Concepts • All journalists, even though they may not be visually oriented, should have a knowledge of visual and graphic principles and how they work in the presentation of information. • Purpose and content should be the chief considerations in the design of a graphic, not the ability of a computer program

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to design a fancy or pleasing picture; design should always give way to function. Accurate presentation of information is the chief goal of a graphic journalist. Depth – making a two-dimensional graph appear three dimensional; adding this quality to a graph may distort its meaning and should be done with care. Just as good journalistic writing often takes the simplest form possible, good graphics should also be as simple as possible. The most commonly used graphic forms in journalism are the pie chart, the bar chart, the line chart and the map; each has a set of conventions for its use that journalists must understand and observe. Journalists should look for ways to use graphic forms to present information, particularly with the regard to the location, numbers, process and content of an article.

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Chapter 16 Photojournalists Who is a Photojournalist? A photojournalist uses pictures instead of words to tell a story. This type of journalist has a skilled professional eye that is able to interpret an event or subject and communicate meaning through photographs. A photojournalist may also use words to help narrate the pictures he or she has taken. Magazines, newspapers, and books can all make use of the work of a photojournalist. Sometimes, an entire book is dedicated to the work of a particular photographer. It is also not unusual for a photojournalist to hold exhibitions of his or her work. A lot of photojournalists specialize in a particular field, such as portraits, war, celebrities, or world events. The photographs themselves should be newsworthy, as that is how the majority of photojournalists make their living. There are a large number of employment areas available to the photojournalist, including print, television, and the Internet. If one is talented enough, one can command huge fees for his or her work. Hard to get photographs, such as those taken in dangerous war zones, are much in demand. The photojournalist is usually passionate about his or her work. Photojournalism is considered by many to be an art. These photographers are highly trained and able to see a picture that the untrained or untalented eye may simply pass over. They should also have a good sense of timing and a great eye for detail. Much of the work undertaken by the photojournalist is freelance. The competition in this field is intense, so training is usually essential. Many photojournalists have some form of photography or media degree. They may move on to working in photo agencies or working as photographers for local newspapers or magazines. The technical aspects of photojournalism have changed in recent years. Digital photography has become more popular, although die hards still maintain that 35mm photography is superior. With digital photography, the picture can be taken and then sent via email to be published almost instantly. 187

Photojournalism is seen by some as very exciting career. Traveling to exotic locations in order to take the perfect picture sounds very glamorous. However, photojournalism can be extremely hard work, and the person who chooses it as career should be dedicated. There is no guarantee for the beginner that his or her work will be bought. Whether an established or trainee photojournalist, one has the chance to change the way people see the world. There is also the opportunity to show images and pictures that have never been shown before. As with many artistic careers, the rewards of photographic journalism may not all be monetary. In photojournalism written copy is subordinate to pictorial usually photographic presentation of news stories or in which a high proportion of pictorial presentation is used A photojournalist is someone who photographs, edits, and displays images in order to tell a visual story. They are journalistic professionals that are skilled at interpreting and communicating an event through a photograph (s). In simple terms, a photojournalist is someone who has a trained, artistic, and talented eye, and is able to see a ‘photographic opportunity’ that an untrained eye might easily overlook. He or she has the opportunity to change the way people view the world through their photographs, and can show people things they’ve never been shown before. Photojournalism is a field which many photography students aspire to enter. Is it right for you? And if it is, how can you get started working in it? Here is a general guide with plenty of tips to help you get started on this career path, with everything you need to know about photojournalism. What is Photojournalism? Let’s start with figuring out what is photojournalism, and what isn’t. There’s a fine line between photojournalism and documentary photography, but the distinction is important. The photojournalism definition you will find on sites like Wikipedia gives us this rigid framework: it is the practice of producing images to tell a news story, which must be honest and impartial in line with journalistic standards. The images have context relating to recent events, and should not be edited or manipulated. A photojournalist is similar to a reporter, but uses a camera rather than the written word to tell news stories. He or she will often travel 188

to places of particular note, or may live in a certain area in order to catch events as they unfold. You could be a war correspondent, or capturing events in your hometown. Wherever you are working, your job is to bear witness to events and capture them in a way which will evoke something in the viewer. You should make them feel as if they were there to witness it themselves. How to become a Photojournalist Photojournalism jobs may be getting thinner on the ground, as the modern era means that more people have smart phones and are able to capture events themselves. It’s cheaper for a publication to accept reader images than to pay a salary to a photojournalist, but that doesn’t mean that it is impossible to get hired in this field. It’s probable that photojournalism jobs will always be around. There’s a certain skill set which not everyone has–the ability to capture and frame great images under pressure, optimizing the exposure and other settings, as well as standing your ground and taking the shots even in dangerous situations. For this reason, civilians with smart phones will never replace photojournalists–it just takes a bit more tenacity to get into it. The first thing you need to do in order to start your career is to improve your skills. You can practice going to local events, like sports games, protests, or community fairs. Take images at these sites with the eye for putting them alongside news stories. You should also study papers and magazines, both in print and online, to see what kind of work is getting published. If you think you have something worth publishing, you can approach a publication to see if they will pick it up. It’s up to you whether you charge for your first image or try to get it placed for free in order to begin your portfolio of clips. After that, it’s all about continuing to pitch. The more you pitch, the more chances you have of getting paid for your work. Start going to where things are happening, and build a network of contacts with people in publishing. Get the email addresses for picture editors and learn what kind of content they publish. You can also keep an eye out for staff positions, though you will need a portfolio to demonstrate your skill if you want to win a permanent photojournalism job. These are few and far between, so

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competition will be high. You may also choose to stay freelance if this suits you better. 10 Things to Know Before Getting Into Photojournalism Here are ten things you should know if you are considering this career path: 1. Develop your eye Some people think that being a good photographer is about having a good camera. It definitely isn’t! A good camera might help the quality level of your shots, but what is important is having that photographic eye. If you don’t have this, you won’t be able to take good shots. Develop your eye by constant practice–frame and reframe the world around you. What works? What doesn’t? 2. Protect yourself Photojournalism jobs can be dangerous. You might be working in a war zone, or at a protest, or even just walking along a street where a traffic accident could randomly happen. You need to protect yourself as much as possible. Have insurance for both yourself and all of your gear, and consider using automatic Cloud uploads so that your work is backed up at all times. You don’t want to risk life and limb only to lose your images! Keep your mind on safety and try not to compromise yourself in a way that would cost your life or cause serious injury. 3. Know your stories While there’s something to be said for being on the ground at the biggest news stories of the year, this isn’t always the best tactic. Working with what you know can give you better results. For example, if you’re really involved in climate change movements, you would be better off photographing protests and other climate change events rather than chasing a serial killer or providing coverage of skirmishes in Syria. You know the key players, you know the narratives, and you have insider information on what might happen and where–it’s just good sense to use these advantages. 4. Be business-minded Photojournalists are often freelancers, and this means you will essentially be running your own business. You need to know how to manage finances, negotiate contracts, protect your rights, and so on. Even if you are hired as an employee, you should know your worth and whether you 190

are getting paid enough. Understand what to charge, how to negotiate, and how to navigate your legal rights. 5. Embrace rejection Get ready for rejection – a lot of it! You will need to pitch images in the thousands if you want to have hundreds published. Don’t send a single pitch and wait for it to come back–move onto the next one and keep going. This is the only way you’ll get enough of an income to live on. Rejections can happen for many reasons other than the quality of your work: the editor might have had another submission already, they may have a staff photographer working for them, they might not be covering the story, they might wish to show a different viewpoint. 6. Expect less photography As a photographer, you might think most of your time will be spent taking pictures. Not so! You will find the majority of your time taken up by editing, pitching, invoicing, negotiating, chasing payments, managing your archive, updating your website, marketing yourself, and so on. 7. Stay ethical There is, sadly, a lot of unethical photojournalism out there. There have been countless scandals of Photoshopped images, misrepresentation and staging, and so on. Don’t be tempted to let your own opinions, or the chase for big bucks, to lead you into these tricks. When they are discovered, they can be career-ending. Stay true to the ethics of photojournalism, which require honest observation only. Don’t interfere or try to change events as they unfold around you. 8. Don’t expect riches Think photojournalism will get you rich? Think again. While there have been those singular instances of images going viral and becoming long-term royalty earners, most of the time this doesn’t happen (and if you sold your rights, you won’t see any further profit anyway). According to a survey done in 2016 by World Press Photos, the vast majority of professional photojournalists earn less than $40,000 a year. You’ll need passion to drive you forward in this industry, not a desire to get rich. 9. Prepare for a lack of diversity There isn’t a whole lot of diversity in photojournalism – white men make up the wide majority of the professionals working in this 191

field. If you don’t fall into that category, prepare to meet some resistance. Things are starting to get a little better, with representation groups and calls for more diversity in the industry, but it will still be a struggle to make it. 10. Develop a personal style The quickest way to get noticed in this field is to develop your own personal style. It will help you to stand out from the crowd – and make your pitch the one the editor chooses out of all those in your inbox. It’s also more likely to get you assignments, where you know you’ll be paid at the end of it. Study questions • Describe some of the things a photojournalist must do to take a good picture. • What are the three types of news photos? What is the value of each? Which is generally the easiest to take? the hardest? Why? • What tools are as important to a photojournalist as the camera? • What are the characteristics of a good news photograph? • Describe the process of photo editing. What steps are usually taken to get photographs ready for publication? • What is accomplished by cropping a picture? • What formula does the book present for scaling a picture? • Scaling should always be proportional. What does that mean? • How has digital photography changed photojournalism? • What are some of the major ethical principles and practices a photojournalist and photo editor must observe? • What are the general rules for writing a cutline? Lesson Notes Three shots. The chapter discusses three types of photos based on how far away the photographer is from the subject: establishing shots, mid-range shots and close-ups. Students should know the differences among the three and should understand why each is important. The collage at the right shows an establishing shot at the top, a mid-range shot in the middle, and a close-up at the bottom. The hardest shots to take for most students are the close-ups. Beginning photographers often feel self-conscious about what they 192

are doing and believe they will irritate their subjects if they get to close. They should work to overcome those feelings. Cutlines. Cutlines are sometimes hard to construct, but they are very important. Photographers do not always have to write the cutlines for their pictures (although they should do so whenever they get the chance). They should always gather the information needed for a cutline, including the names (spelled correctly) of the people visible in their photos. Planning. The chapter emphasizes the importance of planning for photographers. They should think about what they will be doing at a news event – where they will be, what kind of shots they will be taking, who will be in the pictures, what is likely to happen. Drawing a sketch of the scene and making notes on it is a good idea. Discuss an upcoming news event at your school or college and how a photographer might plan for it. National News Photographers Association. For those interested in photojournalism, this is one of the best organizations to be affiliated with. Visit the organization’s web site (http://www.nppa.org) and find out what’s required to join. You’ll also find a lot more there. Digital manipulation. All good photojournalists want to protect the integrity of a photograph. That is, they do not want to distort or photograph or change the content so that it is not true to its subject. Unfortunately, digital photography and electronic editing make such manipulation all too easy. That is a constant worry for photojournalists. The Associated Press has issued guidelines on electronic handling of photographs that are well worth reading. Good storage is arguably the most important preservation measure for photographic prints and negatives: • A relatively dry* (30-40% relative humidity), cool** (room temperature or below), clean, and stable environment (avoid attics, basements, and other locations with high risk of leaks and environmental extremes) • Minimal exposure to all kinds of light; no exposure to direct or intense light; use duplicate slides in light projectors • Distance from radiators and vents • Minimal exposure to industrial (particularly sulfurcontaining) atmospheric pollutants • Protective enclosures within a box*** 193

* Relative humidity is the single most important factor in preserving most photographic prints. ** For contemporary color photographs and for film negatives, however, temperature is the controlling factor affecting stability. Storage at low temperatures (40°F or below) is recommended. Appropriate enclosures for cold storage are available from various vendors. *** Suitable protective enclosures for photographic prints and negatives are made of plastic or paper that meet certain specifications: • Paper enclosures must be acid-free, lignin-free, and are available in both alkaline buffered (pH 8.5) and unbuffered (neutral, pH 7) stock. Storage materials must pass the ANSI Photographic Activity Test (PAT) which is noted in supplier’s catalogs. Buffered paper enclosures are recommended for brittle prints that have been mounted onto poor quality secondary supports and for deteriorated filmbase negatives. Buffered enclosures are not recommended for contemporary color materials. Paper enclosures minimize unnecessary light exposure; are porous; easy to label with pencil; and are relatively inexpensive. • Suitable plastic enclosures are made of uncoated polyester film, uncoated cellulose triacetate, polyethylene, and polypropylene. Note: Photographic emulsions may stick to the slick plastic surfaces of these storage materials at high relative humidity (RH). Plastic enclosures must not be used for glass plate, nitrate, or acetate-based negatives. Prints of historic value should be matted with acid-free rag or museum board for protection. Adhesives should not touch the print. Matting should be done by an experienced framer or under the direction of a conservator. Store all prints and negatives (whether matted or in paper or plastic enclosures) in acid-free boxes. If possible, keep negatives separate from print materials. Store color transparencies/slides in acid-free cardstock boxes or metal boxes with a baked-on enamel finish or in polypropylene slide pages. For more information about storage of negatives, see Motion Picture Film Protect cased photographs (e.g., daguerreotypes, ambrotypes, and tintypes) in acid-free paper envelopes and store flat; keep loose 194

tintypes in polyester sleeves, or, if flaking is present, in paper enclosures. Storage of family photographs in albums is often desirable and many commercially available albums use archival-quality materials. Avoid albums with colored pages and “magnetic” or “no stick” albums. Key Concepts • Despite the ease of the technology, taking a good picture – one that is worthy of good journalism – is difficult; it takes both skill and planning. • Three types of photos dominate photojournalism – establishing shots, midrange shots and close-ups. • Pictures can be inaccurate in that they can place information in an inaccurate context; photojournalists must have the same commitment to truth and accuracy that other photojournalists have. • A pen and notebook are as important to the photojournalist as a camera. • Three of the most important elements in making a good photograph are drama, emotion and action. • Mug shot–journalistic slang for a picture of a person’s head and shoulders. • Cropping–in the photo editing process, eliminating unnecessary parts of a photograph. • Scaling–changing the size of a picture to fit into a publication or web site. • Proportionality–maintaining the relationship between the width and depth of a photograph when it is being changed in size; the opposite of proportionality is distortion. • Cutline–the words that explain what is in a photograph.

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Chapter 17 Publication Design It seems rare, these days, to encounter a conversation about the future of journalism that does not make some reference to the cluster of concepts known variously as design thinking, design practice, or human-centered design. Innovative news organizations, for example, are successfully deploying versions of this philosophy to develop journalism products with remarkably high user engagement. But there is much confusion over what design and design thinking really mean, especially in a journalistic context—never mind how the philosophy might actually be implemented with successful results. Design is an extremely important, and often highly controversial, part of journalism. Any news organization (including broadcasting) projects much of its personality and attitudes, as well as its content, through its design. People who design publications and lay them out on a day-to-day basis must be highly skilled professionals. The basic concepts of visual logic must be understood completely by a good designer. A good designer must also have some knowledge of the traditions and practices of the medium (newspapers, magazines, newsletters, web sites, etc.) in which he or she is working. For instance, a newspaper looks a certain way because the design is fulfilling a purpose for the publication. In the newspaper’s case, this purpose is the efficient use of space in presenting news and information. A good designer has a sense of these purposes. Understanding the concepts of publication design is also a requirement for an effective designer. Balance, contrast, focus and unity are the things a publication designer must keep in mind. The designer should also be able to work creatively within the confines and guidelines that a publication has established for itself. A designer should have a good sense of news and should know what his or her publication believes is a good news judgment. A design editor makes many important decisions about the presentation of news for a publication each day. Finally, a designer should know how to use the hardware and software available for producing the publication. Confidence in that knowledge allows a good designer to work creatively. 197

10 Most Important Elements of Magazine Designing There are several important elements in a magazine layout, such as headline, image, image caption, running head, byline, subhead, body copy, etc. Here, we look into the ten most crucial elements of a magazine layout. 1. Headline It is the most important element of a magazine layout design. It can be of various sizes, but should be set in a size bigger than the other text elements in the page. A headline should be interesting, meaningful and compelling enough as it increases the chances of an article to be read. 2. Introductory Paragraph Also known as “intro” “kicker”, “deck” or “stand-first”, an introductory paragraph is the main piece of content that introduces a reader to an article. It carries forward what a headline has succeeded in doing - catching the attention of a reader. It connects a reader to the main article, taking forward a reader’s journey into the midst of the article. It sets the tone of the article for a reader and sometimes, also summarizes the entire article. In terms of font size, it should be smaller than the font size of the headline of an article. But, it should be slightly bigger or at least a little bolder than the rest of the article. 3. Body / Body Text / Body Copy This is a more lengthy and detailed part of a magazine article when compared to the introductory paragraph of the heading / headline of an article. A well-written body copy keeps a reader engaged to an article for the most part, generally till the end of the article. When one begins to design the magazine layout template, they should begin with designing the body copy of an article, because that takes maximum space, running into multiple paragraphs. It is important that you set the right margins in terms of columns and rows to improve readability. A key point to note here is that you should be consistent with the length of the body copy for all the articles in the magazine. 4. Bylines It is important that you acknowledge the person and the team which has worked on an article. Usually, the author’s name is written under the headline of the article, which is also known as the byline. It can be written in the same font size as that of the body copy. 198

5. Sub-headline / Subhead These are used to break an article into various sections or compartments, indicating what the next set of paragraphs is going to talk about. It can be written in the same font in which the body copy is written, but it should stand out from the body copy at the same time. Hence, you can keep it “bold” so that it looks like a miniheading or headline. An important thing to bear in mind is that you should not place subheads below an image or a quote in an article. 6. Pull Quotes These usually provide a different dimension to an article in a magazine, making it look more interesting. Quotes aid in conveying your story to a reader, and if coupled with images, become potent. You can either have a quote verbatim from a portion of the body copy, or you could perhaps summarize a few points of the body copy in different words and have them as a quote or an excerpt. Ideally, the quotes or excerpts or blurbs should be in a font that is different from the font in which the body copy has been written. 7. Captions for Images These should be written in a way that they complement the image being used in an article. A caption should describe an image and should ideally be placed immediately below the image. The font size for image captions can be the same as that of the font in which the body copy has been written or slightly smaller than that. 8. Section Head / Running Head Every magazine article does not need a running head, but some do. These are usually placed at the top of every page of a magazine and aid readers in navigating through an article easily. A running head should be designed creatively so that it looks good, because it is present on almost all pages of the magazine and a reader sees it every now and then. So, it has to be visually attractive. 9. Folio It should be designed in such a way that you do not annoy a reader who looks into it on almost every page of a magazine. It is a way of arranging sheets of papers in your magazine, by folding them in a certain manner. You should tread with caution especially when you have many pages in your magazine containing full bleed images. A reader could be annoyed if you place folios on those pages. 10. Box Copy / Panel

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Such boxes contain important facts related to the topic of the article that a reader should know while reading a magazine article. These could be statistics or dates or anything factual in nature which is important to know and short in length. Such data is placed in a box to catch the attention of a reader. A box can have a dedicated heading as well. Defining Design Journalism “Interior design journalism is like any other [journalism], getting your facts right with some understanding of the subject,” says Susan Szenasy, editor in chief of Metropolis magazine. “You know the issues of interior design, what it does, how it works, what its purpose is.” Education is a common goal for both the trade press and consumer publications. Though geared toward different demographics, both groups’ philosophies are rooted in clarifying the interior design profession. “Our mission as journalists is to educate designers on their purpose, their jobs, introduce the issues,” says Robert Nieminen. As editor of trade magazine Interiors & Sources , his editorial focus lies more on practical aspects of design. Shelter titles (i.e., publications focuses on homes and building) seek to inform consumers about working with designers and the process of design. “Between all components—article, photos, captions, sidebars—we want to give a clear picture of design,” says Lydia Somerville, senior editor of Southern Accents . “Our job is to translate the design process to consumers.” Characteristics Of Design Journalism What is the first thing you look for when flipping through your favorite magazine” Probably the pictures. Visual elements are a key feature of design journalism. Space plans and photographs help you visualize a space, show the interaction of design features, and provide ideas for your own projects. It would be hard to have design journalism without these visuals. “Pictures are always more important,” says Somerville of Southern Accents. “The words tell you what’s not obvious, such as the people involved, the design process, and what decisions were made.” She explains how her magazine strives to tell the whole story through

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pictures with a balance of smaller photographs and a large main image. Metropolis editor Szenasy opts for a dual presentation of text and pictures. “Pictures can help support the text, help elucidate interior design,” she says. “The narrative can explain the larger idea without all the descriptive text.” A balance of photographs and text helps cover all aspects of design. Because visuals show the aesthetic element of a project, journalists can write about the technical information such as explaining the schematic concept, the process of design, and the details of decisions made. “Design journalism should not be exclusive, but illustrative,” says Somerville. “It should be inspirational and practical, giving readers something to take away from reading the story.” Design journalism is also unique in its point of view. You probably have one or two magazines you turn to again and again because they give the information you are looking for and fit your sense of style. “Certainly design journalism is allowed to take a position,” says Jennifer Busch, editor in chief of Contract. “It shows an opinion about design tastes and preferences.” This diversity is part of what helps the design media work by providing choices for the reader. What Is Design Journalism? Do you ever wonder who writes the project articles and industry news you read about each month” Are they designers who write or trained journalists who like design” Does it really matter” It does because what they write and their effectiveness has a huge impact on how the profession is viewed. When it comes to qualifications for writing about interior design, the ability to write well is most important. However, a willingness to learn and an interest in the field are also necessary. “A writer without skills might as well not write at all, but journalists aren’t going to get all the nuances of design,” says Szenasy. “The ideal is training in both professions.” This combination, however, is almost too perfect, so publications have to depend on the next best alternative. Editors agree that a background in design is a bonus, not a requirement. “A good writer can learn design,” says Busch. “But you have to know how to write.” The writer’s job is to become familiar with the subject he or she is covering. “As journalists, we absorb as much information as we can,” says Nieminen. Fundamental responsibilities 201

such as doing research, editing articles, and conducting interviews help the learning curve, he says. “We enlist experts to give us advice and back up information,” says Somerville. “We know our limitations and the right questions to ask.” A Goal of Design Journalism In 2004, the American Society of Interior Designers [ASID] completed a report on the profession and, in it, challenged the design media “to provide professionals with the means to distill this universe of information, to educate, to not only showcase the work being done by designers, but to analyze the ‘how’ and the ‘why’ that went into the creative planning process.” Opening up the design process goes a long way toward advancing the profession because it shows consumers and members of other industries what design is really about. Providing professional recognition is one of the biggest goals of design journalism. “Journalism should communicate the value of interior design, advance the profession,” says Nieminen. Licensing and registration are important steps toward professional advancement. Phyllis Moore, FASID, an interior designer from Alabama who travels around the country speaking on design legislation, says that while the trade media is not related directly to talking about legislation, they help in coverage of the profession. “They educate the public on issues we [designers] bring to the building team,” she says. “They are highlighting and promoting designer work.” Interior design has seen and will continue to undergo many changes as it seeks greater professional recognition and standardization. “The profession is still in adolescence,” says Interiors & Sources editor, Nieminen. “A lot of research is going on trying to decide what it is and what it involves.” Design journalism can play a key role in helping the profession find its place. Sure it’s fun to look at photographs and drawings of cleverly designed and beautifully decorated rooms. But design journalism has a much greater purpose than pretty pictures. It is reporting fairly and accurately on the issues and individuals involved in the profession and then writing the information in a way designers and the general public can easily understand. If journalism can accomplish this, the

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interior design profession will be one step closer to the status it strives to reach. Study questions • Describe the different levels on which a designer must think as he or she is doing the job of producing a publication. • What are some of the basic principles of visual logic? Why is it important to understand them? • What is meant by balance, contrast and focus? • What are the three basic tools of design? • Describe the different parts of type. What do typesize, leading and kerning mean? • Why is the consideration of white space important to the designer and layout editor? • What are the major considerations for good web site design? Lesson Notes SND. The Society for News Design is the leading professional organization for people interested in visual journalism in America. The society holds a variety of meetings and workshops throughout the year and offers many services. It is especially interested in having students join and in having student chapters form on college campuses. Visit the society’s web site and find out what it’s all about. Multi-tasking in your mind. Publication design requires the ability to think at many levels at the same time. To put together a good page, a layout editor has to consider the following simultaneously: • elements present on a daily basis (news stories, pictures, graphics, etc.) • where these elements can best be used and how they might fit together • the general rules of good design • the specific layout requirements of the publication. Not an easy thing to do. Dummy sheets. A dummy sheet is a sheet with a grid on it and is used to draw publication layouts, such as the one you can see on page 315 (Figure 17.4) of the text. This web site contains blank dummy sheets for tabloid and full size publications. (They are in 203

Adobe PDF files.) You may download and reproduce them if you need them for your school publication. Design terms. The figure on page 319 of the book shows the terms used for some of the elements on a newspaper front page. This web site takes that illustration further by offering definitions for those terms. Click here or on the image to the right. The figure will appear, and you will be able to click on various parts of the image to see definitions and explanations of those design elements. Finding a newspaper’s graphic personality. Select a newspaper in your area. What makes that newspaper look different from other newspapers? (Have some other newspapers on hand for comparison.) Consider what typeface are used, how pictures and graphics are handled and what uses the paper makes of white space. All of these will give you clues about the newspaper’s graphic personality. Key Concepts • Design is an important part of the journalistic process; without it, reporting and writing would have little effect. • Publication design is artificial; that is everything about design results from a decision that someone has made; nothing occurs naturally. • Four modern principles of visual design are left to right, top to bottom, big to little and dark to light. • Contrast–the relationship of the element of design. • Type is an important, and often ignored, element of design. • The three major elements of design are type, illustration and white space. • Graphic personality–the continuing elements of a publication’s or web site’s design that help distinguish it from other publications and web sites and that contribute to its content messages. • Good news judgment is necessary to execute good design in journalism. • Jump line–the line of type at the end of a column that tells the reader a story is continued on another page. • Load time–the time it takes to have a web site page appear on a computer screen; one of the goals of a designer is to have a page appear as quickly as possible. 204

Chapter 18 Broadcasters Broadcasting is an entirely different medium from print, using sight and sound to communicate with its audience. Still, broadcast journalists are fully a part of the journalistic profession and subject to all of the basic conventions and demands of presenting news and information accurately. What Is Broadcasting Journalism? Broadcast journalism is a type of news reporting presented to the public electronically or by radio instead of being published in newspapers. Media in broadcast journalism include television, radio and the Internet. Broadcast journalism is meant to be dispersed more quickly than older forms of journalism, including print media, and is meant to be more accessible. Radio and television broadcasts are designed to get the news out to a wide variety of people in language that is much less formal than traditional print media. News that is broadcast over the Internet can update people on events as soon as they happen. What Does a Broadcasting Journalism Student Learn? A degree in broadcast journalism prepares the student to update the public on all types of news. A bachelor’s degree qualifies graduates for most careers, though master’s-level programs in broadcast journalism are also available. Students in a broadcasting program learn the basic skills of proper news reporting, including the interview process and the writing of segments. They also learn how to produce the news by managing video and audio equipment. locate sources, properly conduct interviews, write scripts for TV or the radio, record sound clips and edit audio and video. An interested student also learns to work under pressure and handle deadlines. Students currently enrolled in school often opt to work at an on-campus TV or radio station; some complete an internship somewhere off-campus to gain working experience. 205

A broadcast journalism graduate can either be the person who is in front of the camera or the microphone, working as the voice of the news, or the person in the production booth. The behind-thescenes action of managing microphones and properly shooting a broadcast are as important as the accuracy and promptness of the information. The major is also for those students who want to edit or direct the news. What Are the Types of Jobs in Broadcasting Journalism? Graduates will be prepared to enter the world of reporting and producing at a news station or even in businesses such as publishing houses, advertising agencies or public relations firms. They can work as a reporter, correspondent, anchor, director, narrator (who provides voice-overs for segments), writer, research director, producer, audio engineer or production assistant. Broadcast journalists must know how to use the language in both a spoken and written form. Broadcast news stories are limited by the amount of time allotted to those stories, and often that time is very limited. Broadcasters must be good enough with the language that they can write quickly and efficiently, present information accurately and clearly. Clarity is a key to broadcast writing. Viewers and listeners do not have the opportunity to hear again what a broadcaster has said. It must be clear the first time it is spoken. Broadcast journalism is a highly competitive field. Unlike the situation for many newspapers, television stations do not have a monopoly in many areas, and news departments find themselves competing against one another. Within the profession, the normal career route is to begin in a small market and then to jump to larger markets (with higher salaries) as the opportunities arise. The competition to do this can be intense. Broadcast journalists develop and deliver news stories via television and radio in markets of all sizes. Typically, they are given an assignment which they must research and develop into a story. This might entail investigating the background of a story, following leads and conducting interviews. Broadcast journalists conduct interviews and research, travel to the scenes of news events and write concise reports before broadcasting a story over the airwaves. In your career as a broadcast 206

journalist, you might branch off into a specific medium such as radio, television, cable or the Internet. What is the meaning of broadcast journalism? Broadcast journalism is the field of news and journals which are broadcast by electronic methods instead of the older methods, such as printed newspapers and posters. It works on radio (via air, cable, and Internet), television (via air, cable, and Internet) and the World Wide Web. What skills do you need to be a journalist? The following are the most in-demand skills for journalists. • Interviewing. Interviewing continues to be one of the most vital journalism skills. • Reporting. Most U.S. adults say news organizations need more transparency. • Ethics • Writing • Digital Journalism Skills • Investigative Reporting • Mobile Journalism Skills • Social Media How to Become a Journalist 1. Earn a degree. A journalism degree may not have a mandatory educational requirement, but it can certainly increase your chances with potential employers in the field of journalism. 2. Find an internship. 3. Develop your writing skills. 4. Network. What are the disadvantages of being a journalist? • You will be away from home quite often. • Being a journalist can be stressful. • Strict deadlines are a problem. • You may get shitstorms on social media. • You may become a public figure. • Many people will just not like you. • You will see many bad things while being a journalist.

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Advocacy Journalism – In which the reporter or journalist openly declares their stance on an issue while attempting to espouse it with factual reporting. Active Proceedings–Any ongoing judicial case in which the activities of journalists may impede or subvert the proceedings, typically spanning between the arrest of a suspect and sentencing. Those who contravene reporting restrictions on active proceedings may be held in contempt of court. Actuality–Sometimes shortened to “act.” Any audio recording taken outside of the studio on location (typically referred to as a sound bite in radio; see below.) Anchor–News anchors are responsible for presenting stories oncamera, usually from a studio location though work can take place in the field. See our broadcast journalism jobs page for more info on the different professions within the field. AP Stylebook–The Associated Press Stylebook, commonly adhered to as the industry standard on formatting and word usage in news writing. A-Roll–The main portion of audio video footage in a news story. Aston–An increasingly uncommon term for the strap line, more popularly known in broadcast journalism as the lower third (see below) Attribution–The written phrase that identifies the source of a fact, opinion, or quote in a story. Back Timing–The practice of rehearsing the final segment of a news broadcast and timing it; during the live broadcast, the director may then speed up or slow down this segment to coincide with the scheduled finishing time of the program. Backgrounder–A story used to provide history and context to a current news story. Beats–The areas of expertise in which a journalist or reporter covers on a regular basis and on an in-depth level, such as politics, health, or law enforcement. Beat Checks–A list of established contacts that a beat reporter will frequently touch base to find or develop a story. These could include the local law enforcement agency, city council, hospital, or other sources. Blind Interview–More common in print than in broadcast journalism, a blind or off-the-record interview is one in which the 208

interviewee is intentionally left unaccredited (also known as a nonattributable.) Bridge–An audio track linking between two news items. Breakbumper–A short (2-10 second) indent used as filler leading into and out of commercial breaks. Often shortened to “bump,” but not to be confused with the verb of the same name (to bump a story is to place it higher or lower on the scale of priority.) B-Roll–Supplementary material to complement the A-Roll, such as establishing shots or graphical overlays. Chroma Key–Also known as green screening. See this post for further information. Chyron–The words on the screen that identify speakers, locations, or story subjects. Chryon is a trade name for a type of character generator. Citizen Journalism–Reporting which takes place outside of what is usually considered mainstream media, predominantly carried out by members of the public without formal training. Can include the work of bloggers and social media platforms. Closed-Ended Question–A direct question intended to elicit a yes-or-no answer as opposed to an open-ended question intended to encourage a lengthy answer. Cold Copy–News script not previously read by the reporter until the camera is rolling. Sometimes referred to by the slang term “rip n’ read.” Cold Open–Any type of video which rolls before the camera cuts to the anchors, usually featuring a voice over and ending on a form of cliffhanger. Correspondent–A reporter who files stories from outside the newsroom—usually someone assigned to cover events in another city, state, or country. Crawl–AKA the news ticker, a thin bar of scrolling text which informs viewers of any upcoming breaking news or weather alerts. Cutaway–A shot of something other than the main action of an action sequence. In an interview, the cutaway is usually a shot of the reporter listening as the source talks. Necessary to maintain continuity and avoid jump cuts. Dateline–The specific location where a reporter is delivering a story. Usually announced in the sign-out or sign-off.

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Donut–A produced news package with a live shot, with a live intro, and tag. Downcut–Chopping off the end of a story or sound bite. Opposite of upcut. Effort–A verb in newsrooms, as in “I am efforting that package to have it ready for tonight’s broadcast.” Feature–A non-breaking news story on people, trends, or issues. A feature story isn’t necessarily related to a current event. Feed–A satellite or microwave transmission of live or recorded material. Follow-Up–A story updating or supplying additional details about an event that’s been previously covered. Fullscreen Graphic or FS–A still or animated image, usually computer generated, that takes up the whole screen. Happy Talk–Casual, informal, and light-hearted chatter between the anchors. Can be used as a form of bumper. Hard News–The news of the day. Factual coverage of serious, timely events (crime, war, business, politics, etc.) Hit or Glitch–Any distortion or technical distraction in video or audio. Hot or Overmodulated–Either too loud (hot audio) or too bright (hot video). Engineers often say that hot video “blooms” on screen. Hot Roll–When a crew in the field doesn’t have enough time to feedback footage to the newsroom, so they must roll it live from the truck during the broadcast. Human Interest–A news story focusing on a personality or individual’s story with wide appeal to a general audience. IFB or Interrupt Feedback–The earpiece through which a director or producer instructs a correspondent in the field or anchor in the studio. The producer interrupts whatever feedback the reporter is getting in the earpiece. Join in Progress (JIP)–A direction to the control room to cut to a broadcast already in progress. Jump Cut–An edit in a news package that interrupts continuity. Example: an interviewee speaking followed immediately by another shot of the same interviewee speaking at a different time, so the image “jumps.” Avoided by using cutaways or b-roll. Kicker–A light story that ends a newscast. 210

Lead–The key information of the story, usually presented at the beginning of the segment. Not to be confused with the “lead story,” being the first presented in the broadcast and often the highest in priority (confusingly also referred to as the “lead.”) Leading Questions – Questions intended to steer an interviewee in a particular direction. Lip Flap–Video of somebody talking, with the audio portion muted. Happens when using video of people being interviewed as Broll. Avoid it. Live–Put on the air in real time, not pre-recorded or preproduced. Lower Third–The bottom third of the frame containing text information regarding the current story, the anchors’ or interviewee’s identification, and other relevant captions. Miscue–An error in which footage or audio is played before its intended time, resulting in overlapping elements in the broadcast. MOS–An acronym for “man on street” interview, in which a reporter on location gets spontaneous sound bites comprised of reactions to a story from members of the public. Also referred to as “vox populi. NATSOT or NAT Package–A type of pre-produced package that has no reporter track; the only audio is the natural sound of the video being shown. It may also use interview sound bites. Often used to convey the mood or atmosphere at a scene or an event. NAT Sound–Natural sound on video that the microphone picks up. Example: Including sound of a rally with video of a rally. News Envelope–A summary segment in which the main headlines are broadcast in brief (around a minute or less.) May have local or national sponsorship. OC or On Cam–Abbreviation for “on camera.” On Camera Bridge or OC Bridge–The reporter appearing on camera in the middle of the story. Used for transition between voiceovers or soundbites, or when there is no video to talk over. Open-Ended Question–A question phrased in a way that encourages a source to give a lengthy, in-depth answer—as opposed to a closed-ended question designed to elicit a yes/no answer. Outcue–The final three or four words of a news package, included in scripts to signal to the anchor and control room staff

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when the package is about to end so they can cue the next element in the program. Over the Shoulder Graphic or OTS or OC Box – A graphic that appears over the anchor’s shoulder. Package (sometimes Wrap) – A pre-recorded, pre-produced news story, usually by a reporter, with track, sound, B-roll, and possibly a stand-up. POV or Point-of-View Shot – B-roll shot from the perspective of the subject, illustrating what the subject sees or saw at a given moment. Production Element–Any piece of audio which is intended for use within the final mix, i.e., jingles, music, sound effects, and other station-specific audio. Promo–Promotional announcement. In effect, an advertisement for a program a station or channel is carrying. Pronouncer–Phonetic spelling of word in story, placed in copy behind correctly spelled word. PSA–Abbreviation for “Public Service Announcement.” Raw Video–Unedited video, just as it was shot. Also called field video. Reader–A script read entirely by the anchor on camera, without sound bites or video. Remote–A live shot from the field, where a satellite truck is required to transmit the image. Rundown–An electronic or paper form created by the line producer of a news broadcast. Gives specific details of every element in a newscast, including the order of stories, video, audio, and graphic elements and timing for each. ROSR–Radio On Scene Report. Audio broadcast from the scene of a breaking news story, or shortly in the wake of recent events. Rundown–An electronic or paper form created by the line producer of a news broadcast. Gives specific details of every element in a newscast, including the order of stories, video, audio and graphic elements and timing for each. Sidebar–A small story, graphic, or chart accompanying a bigger story on the same topic. Sign Off, Sig, Sig Out–Reporter giving name and dateline at the end of a package or report.

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Slate–A full-screen graphic, shown on screen before the beginning of pre-produced video which identifies the story title, the reporter’s name, and the total running time. Only for newsroom use; not meant for broadcast. Slug–The name given to a story for newsroom use. SOT or Sound Bit–”Sound on Tape.” A recorded comment, usually audio and video, from a news source other than the anchor, narration, or voiceover, played during a news story. Usually an edited portion of a larger statement. Spot–A commercial. Stacking–Lining up stories within a newscast based on their important and relationship to one another. Stagger-through–A full rehearsal of the show. Standup – A reporter speaking to camera, not covered by video. Studio (in the)–A story updating or supplying additional details about an event that has been previously covered. Still–A still image as opposed to a moving video image. Stills can be used to illustrate a story and can sometimes be displayed over track or interview clips instead of video footage. Sting–A brief piece of music, typically less than fifteen seconds, used to punctuate the end of a segment or story. The sting is often the station’s own jingle. Stop Set–The time allotted to any commercial breaks within the broadcast. Survey Week, Sweeps Week–The week in which a station’s viewership is monitored and rated. Switch–An instruction given to the control room to cut to another camera or video source. Tag–A paragraph at the end of a news story, usually delivered by the anchor, that provides additional information or sums up the item. Tease–A short description of an upcoming story designed to keep the viewer watching through commercial breaks. Tight on–A direction to the camera crew to zoom in on a subject so that they fill the shot (e.g., “Tight on anchor/guest.”) Time Code–The time signature on a camera or recording device—actual time a story is being shot on a 24-hour basis, i.e., 1300 is 1 p.m., 0900 is 9 a.m. Includes hours, minutes, seconds, and video frames.

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Toss–When an anchor or reporter turns over a portion of the show to another anchor or reporter. Track–The reporter’s written and recorded script in a news package. Tracking–The act of recording a script. TRT–”Total running time.” The length of an edited package. Two-Shot–Most often an interview guest and the back of the reporter’s head. Also used to refer to any shot including two people; two anchors at a single news desk, for instance. Upcut – Chopping off the beginning of the audio or video of a shot or video story. Opposite of downcut. Video Journalist or VJ–A reporter who shoots his or her own video and may even edit it. Also referred to as a “Multimedia Journalist.” Videographer–A name for a photographer or cameraperson. VO or Voiceover–”Voiceover” followed by “sound on tape.” A news script, usually read live, that includes video, track, and at least one sound bite. VOSOT–”Voiceover” followed by “sound on tape.” A news script, usually read live, that includes video, track, and at least one sound bite. Watermark–A semi-transparent graphic, usually the station’s logo, placed in one corner of the broadcast feed. Woodshedding–The practice of annotating a news script to denote which words should be spoken with emphasis. Study questions • What are the qualities that make a good broadcast journalist? • What are the factors involved in the selection of news for broadcasting? • Broadcasters are said to have great impact on their audiences. What does that mean? • In addition to the reporter who is on screen, who are some of the other people who help get a story ready for broadcast? • What are the basic broadcast news formats? • What are the steps one should take to become a broadcast journalist?

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Key Concepts • Broadcast journalism is governed by the concept of time. • Deadlines – the time when stories should be finished – are rigid because broadcast news shows are scheduled to air at certain times and cannot be delayed. Broadcast journalists must also be aware of how much time it takes to tell their stories. • Broadcast journalists always try to find audio or visual elements to include in their stories. • Copy– this term refers to the written form of broadcast news stories. Copy preparation is an important part of the broadcast news process. • Producer – someone who has production responsibilities either for a story or for an entire newscast; a producer is like an editor for a print publication, ensuring that stories are finished and put on the air and also maintaining the standards of journalism to which the news organization adheres. • Live shot– a broadcast news story that shows a reporter at the scene of the news presenting information or interviewing a source; these shots do not require scripts or broadcast copy but they do require preparation.

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Chapter 19 Writing for Broadcast Broadcast writing demands a special set of skills and knowledge from the journalist. Broadcast copy is written to be read out loud by a news reader rather than to be read silently by a news consumer. The words and sentences must be constructed so they are accurate and clear. They must also complement the pictures, video and audio that accompany a story. Here are some guidelines for writing for broadcast (and beyond). Focus your story by summarizing in three words. Use one theme per story, one thought per sentence. Select, don’t compress, what goes in your stories. Tell complex stories through strong characters. Note that viewers will remember what they feel longer than what they know. If there’s anything that you’ll learn when being taught journalism in our digital age, it’s that being self-sufficient is the key to your success. Journalists are now required to do their own research, interviews, recordings, editing and writing and the more allround experience you have, the more likely you are to be employed. What network wouldn’t love a low-maintenance, multi-skilled reporter that’ll cut costs? It’ll be pretty difficult to find any I assure you. Writing for Broadcast: How to Sound like A Real Person Reporting and anchoring are as much about delivery of content as they are about the content itself. Stress the wrong word and the meaning changes. Mispronounce a name and your credibility is shot. Making the transition from expository writing–or even print journalism–to broadcast can be tricky and requires journalists to think about writing from an entirely new perspective. Instead of writing for the eye (when reading words on a page) you must write for the ear. In the famous words of Yoda, “You must unlearn what you have learned.” The main idea is to WRITE THE WAY YOU SPEAK. • Think about your delivery as if you’re speaking to one person–your mom. 217

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Use contractions: it’s ok to say “doesn’t” ”it’s” or “we’ll find out” Don’t use words you wouldn’t use at other times. For example, a “robbery” is not a “heist.” And “snow” is not “the white stuff.” “However” becomes “but.” And forget about SAT vocabulary. Keep sentence structure short and put the subject at the beginning of the sentence. Viewers can’t go back and read the beginning of your sentence like in a newspaper. You only get one shot at conveying your information, so don’t lose them with complicated sentences. Write in the active voice. For example, “Students have been told to report sexual harassment” becomes “Teachers and principals have told students to report sexual harassment.” This also helps paint a vivid picture of events. Avoid hypothetical questions. Never say “Have you ever wondered…?” (the answer is no). Or “What about America’s love affair with celebrities?” (well, what about it?) Don’t overwhelm people with too many names and numbers. Similar to long sentences, the audience will get buried with stats and forget what you’re talking about. Better to use titles or graphics over your voiceover to SHOW these numbers. Know how to pronounce foreign words and unusual names. Even common names might be pronounced differently that you think. NPR host Michele Norris pronounces her name MEE-shell, for instance.

Broadcast news stories are generally shorter than news stories for print, but they are no less difficult to write. In some ways, they are more difficult, because writers have to find the shortest words that will tell the viewers and listeners the most. Reading a story out loud is the best way of telling whether or not the story is good enough for broadcasting. The story should be easy to read, conversational and understandable. It should also meet the basic journalistic requirement of accuracy of fact and context. So, what are the best things to do to improve your skills? Well, knowing how to write for different news outlets is a good start. Broadcast news is significantly different from printed news because 218

it’s multi-sensory, so the audience can see and hear the news being told to them as opposed to reading it themselves. This requires quite a few formatting considerations so follow these guidelines and you’ll be well on your way to becoming the next Barbara Walters or Anderson Cooper. Keep It Simple Stupid – KISS Regardless of whether it’s radio or television broadcasting, the fact that the audience is hearing and/or seeing their news as opposed to reading it means they need to understand it instantly. Having the news be told to them saves them having to put in much effort to obtain it so it must be concise, using as little words to get to the point as possible. Make sure you’re answering the essential top 6 questions: Who, What, When, Where, How, Why in as little time as possible. A much simpler vocabulary also works for reaching a larger audience and keeping them engaged. Short And Sweet Generally, radio and television news should not have sentences that go over 25 words – especially when it comes to the ‘lead’ of the story. Read the story out loud and if you find yourself running out of breath to finish a sentence, that sentence is too long. In broadcast copy, sentences should be able to be read in one breath so break it up into two separate ones if you must. Conversational As much as showcasing your writing style through flair and an extensive vocabulary is welcomed in print news writing, when reading it out aloud, it can sound labored and clumsy. When broadcast writing, do it so it sounds conversational and like a real speech instead of a script. If it’s not a word you’d use when talking with someone you know, then don’t use it in this case either. Use Active Voice Using an ‘active’ voice is essential when writing broadcast news copy. In an active sentence, the subject is performing the action whereas in a passive one, the main subject is either doing nothing or has something done to them. For example, an active sentence would be: “Bobby burned the house down” as opposed to the passive sentence: “The house was burned down by Bobby”. Bobby is the main subject but in the passive sentence, it becomes an inanimate

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object – the house. An active sentence should always have a subject that is actioning a verb and not the other way around. Attribution Unlike print news, attribution comes first and generally begins the news story. Example: “Police report that a man was shot dead”, instead of “A man was shot dead, police reported.” All of these guidelines apply to general broadcast news writing including radio and television. However, there are a few specific requirements for radio. These are as follows: • Keep the story about thirty seconds in length • Provide an interesting ‘tease’ that gives away enough information to engage the listener without repetition. A ‘tease’ is usually a comment related to the upcoming news ahead e.g., “Life without parole for serial killer John Cage. The details next, on 850FM news.” • If the show is not airing live, it’s also important to consider the time of day and know when your listeners are going to be tuning in to that broadcast. • Be concise, friendly but authoritative, snappy but remain eloquent. • Radio doesn’t have the luxury of visuals so you must be descriptive. Try to add words that speak of sounds, sights, aromas, and whatever else helps setting the scene. Formatting for written copy • Double space everything and use a large enough font for easy reading. • Round up all numbers. Numbers and figures are informative and are quite essential in relaying a story in print news, but in radio, it just confuses the listener. Example: 514 waterways should become “more than five hundred waterways”. The exception to this rule is if the exact number is a crucial part of the story. For instance, “Electricity prices will be raised to three dollars and forty-five cents next month…” • Spell everything out in words like numbers or symbols. For example, instead of “$318” you’d write “Three hundred and eighteen dollars” or “Over three hundred dollars”.

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Abbreviations and acronyms are a no-no. Spell out words in full like “versus” or “United States” as opposed to “vs” or “U.S.” Underline any words that require a special emphasis. But use this sparingly, only for occasions where important clarifications need to be made. Example: “The legal age to buy alcohol is now twenty-one, not twenty-four.” Spell out pronunciations of difficult or long words. Example: “Prime Minister Izatoote (ee-za-TOO-tee) landed at LAX airport this morning.” Don’t use semicolons. Use dashes for long pauses Broadcast news has always opened up the reach of its audiences to amazing new heights from its humble beginnings in print – not to mention the multiplication of this with the advent of new media. This is why simplicity is so crucial when writing for broadcast media because the audience needs to understand it regardless of their educational or cultural background. So along with basic vocabulary and concise sentences, make sure your writing is also objective, unbiased and politically correct. It needs to be inclusive and prioritize the need to strictly inform without subjectivity. With this in mind and using the guidelines shown above, you’ll conquer the field in writing for broadcast journalism in no time. In fact, develop an understanding of research processes, writing segments, and producing live newscasts

Study questions • What are the characteristics of writing that distinguish broadcast news writing from writing for print or the web? • Why is writing for broadcast different from writing for print? • Dramatic unity is the major story structure for writing broadcast news. What are its three parts? • Why are regional accents not useful in broadcast journalism? • What are sibilants? What do they have to do with broadcast writing? • What are the important factors involved with putting together a newscast? 221

Lesson Notes Broadcast writing examples. The book has a number of examples of broadcast news writing. Follow this link for more. Consider the questions at the end of each story. Could Shakespeare make it? Would William Shakespeare survive a college writing class today—particularly a class in broadcast writing? The emphasis of broadcasting is writing short, saying it quickly. That’s not what the Bard is noted for. Still, our intrepid author, a college professor, considers the question and comes to his own conclusions. Breaking in. Want to get into broadcasting? Here’s how it starts: Dig hard, write well, and maybe even sweep a few floors. Broadcast professionals say that’s what young journalists should do if they’re serious about pursuing a career in the competitive field of news broadcasting. Television and radio students who want to stand out from the crowd must become enterprising and information-sniffing archaeologists. Broadcast writing tips. If you learned to write for print first (and most of us did), you may have a bit of trouble switching to writing in broadcast style. Laurie Lattimore has compiled a list of tips for making the switch. Key Concepts • Broadcast writing requires a different style of writing from print because both the medium and the expectations of the audience are different. • The commitment of broadcast writers to accuracy is just as strong as that of print journalists. • Broadcast writing is more conversational than print because it is written to be heard rather than read, but the writing has to be just as disciplined and precise. • Broadcast news stories emphasize the immediate and the most up to date information. • Broadcast news stories have to fit into a certain time period and cannot vary more than a few seconds.

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Dramatic unity – the story structure used by most broadcast news writers; it consists of three parts, climax, cause and effect. United Press International Stylebook – the major source of style information for broadcast writing. Broadcast writers attempt to simplify whenever possible, but simplification should not produce inaccuracy.

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Chapter 20 Beginnings of Multi-Disciplinary Journalism Journalism has been around for centuries, but multimedia journalism is a relatively new—and still developing—career path. It grew out of a mushrooming of digital platforms and social media channels, and a shift in people’s preference for how they consume the news. Increasingly affordable and accessible technology has only added momentum to the trend. “What is multimedia journalism” is not merely an academic question, the answer to this question will to a great extent shape the multimedia journalism programs that are being started at many universities. Multimedia journalism is the practice of contemporary journalism that distributes news content either using two or more media formats via the Internet, or disseminating news report via multiple media platforms. Multimedia journalists are storytellers who work across many dimensions. They embrace the traditional tenets of journalism: objectivity, accuracy, credible sourcing and strong writing. But they tell their stories through some combination of text, images, sound, video and graphics. All these factors put a premium on conceptualizing, producing and packaging content. What is multimedia journalism: Multimedia presentation of journalism, or multimedia presentation of data? Posted on February 14, 2009 by Mu Lin While going through sample multimedia journalism works recommended at various sites, from time to time I looked at a particular project and wondered “is this multimedia journalism?” A case in point is the “History of Las Vegas“ presented by the Las Vegas Sun and recommended by Poynter Online as “Multimedia Projects You May Have Missed in 2008,” amid some other ”multimedia journalism” works. Granted, “History of Las Vegas” is an excellent multimedia project on the history of Las Vegas incorporating interactive map, timeline, videos, etc. However, this is a very good multimedia DATA project, not a JOURNALISTIC project; as a matter of fact, the News tab at the top of this site brings visitors to a separate page containing 225

a collection of articles published by the newspaper, without much of savvy multimedia elements. This is a very interesting presentation of the historic data of Las Vegas, it’s just not a multimedia journalism project. Then, what, in my view, can be considered as “multimedia journalism?” As an instance, Washington Post had an article on the maintenance and repair problems in the public schools in Washington, D.C. due to budge cut. Other than the articles and the interactive maps showing schools in D.C., what I like about this multimedia project is the audio interview clips of eight teachers, each clip also comes with a photo slideshow of that teacher. This type of confusion pops up from time to time as I see people use “multimedia journalism” or “online journalism” to interchangeably refer to two different types of project: multimedia presentation of data and multimedia presentation of journalism. In a multimedia journalism project, the data should play a supplemental role to support or enhance the journalistic story; when the data itself takes on a central role, then it may not be called “journalism,” at least not so in the truest sense of “journalism.” And this brings us, college educators, back to a basic question: do we want our students to be more of a journalist, or more of a multimedia specialist? To create projects like “History of Las Vegas,” our students need to be more of a multimedia specialist; to create projects like the D.C. school stories, our students need to be more of a journalist. Mastering Multimedia Journalism On one hand, multimedia journalism provides almost infinite ways to tell a story. On the other hand, journalists also have so many more choices to make about how, when and where to tell that story. You could use animation, embed tweets, add music or create an interactive graphic. Even deciding on a platform can complicate things—the options range from websites to podcasts, TV, social networks, radio, newspapers and magazines. More than likely you’ll need to adapt the content to a combination of those. So how do you choose the appropriate platform? Consider: • What elements do you need to include to grab and hold the audience’s attention? • What media will be the most accurate and accessible? 226

What is the ideal length of your story? How much is too much? These can be tricky questions, with no clear answer. Fortunately, as the field grows, experts are emerging. More colleges and universities are incorporating multimedia studies into their journalism programs or channeling those concepts into a separate major. Elmhurst University launched a multimedia journalism major in the fall of 2019. Students should expect to engage with the multiple formats used today to report the news. Courses for aspiring multimedia journalists include journalism stalwarts such as media writing and news reporting but also digital storytelling and web design. •

What Does a Multimedia Journalist Do? You’ll dive into video editing, art software, web design, film production and audio engineering. That’s because the demands on multimedia journalists are many: In addition to exercising solid news judgment and working under sometimes rigid time constraints, they have to flex their creative muscles and carefully determine what the end product should look and sound like. “The journalist today needs to have more than reporting and editing skills,” says Ron Wiginton, professor of journalism and English at Elmhurst University. “From blogs to video production, the media landscape demands that journalists be prepared to present stories in print and cyberspace.” That means that when you’re in the newsroom or out covering a story, you’ll need to assess not just what makes for a must-read story but also a compelling video or audio presentation. So, it pays to know the basics of recording, editing and producing—the techniques taught in a multimedia journalism program. How Much do Multimedia Journalists Make? If you’re curious, you can check out the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics’ overview of media and communication occupations. For example, the median salary for reporters, correspondents and broadcast news analysts in 2018 was just shy of $44,000, as was the median salary for broadcast and sound engineering technicians.

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Other careers to explore in the category include editor, camera operator and photographer. Still more opportunities—such as a career as a public relations specialist—exist in the field of digital marketing communication, where employers look for the same types of skills. But keep this in mind: Incomes vary widely in the profession, and most who choose to enter it won’t be solely motivated by money. Why is Multimedia Journalism Important? Though journalism as a whole has been shedding jobs for more than a decade, multimedia journalism has emerged as a beacon of hope for the future. New outlets, such as podcast networks, streaming services and web startups, mean new job opportunities and new audiences. “With the amount of digital content being produced each year, and with no sign of it slowing down, the demand for individuals with these skills will only continue to increase,” says Kristyn Jo Benedyk, digital media program director at Elmhurst University. Opportunities for growth are everywhere. There are always more skills to be mastered. You will work with similarly creative, driven folks. You will meet and learn about people from all walks of life. You’ll feel the rush of chasing down a story and sharing it with the public. The history of journalism is tied to the history of the development of human society. Both individuals and societies have needed information to form communities. That information must be timely and relevant, and journalism — in some form or another —has the job of providing that information. The modern profession of journalism is a story of the development of journalistic information and the means of gathering that information, the technological means of producing and distributing that information in some medium, and the development of audience expectations for that information. Journalism is particularly tied to technology, and changes in the technology of information usually mean changes in the profession of journalism. The most profound technological change in the last 1,000 years was the printing press. Its development allowed the efficient duplication of information in a form that could be easily distributed. The development of the printing press occurred in a larger 228

environment of profound change in the 1400s and 1500s. A part of that change was the increasing value given to individual thought and analysis and the increasing rate of literacy among the populations of western Europe. The development of journalism followed these changes. In America in the 1700s, news and information became a tool used by those who wanted to break away from the English empire. Their interpretation of the events of the day, such as the Stamp Act, allowed them to make the argument for change, and the printing technology allowed them to disseminate those arguments to great effect. Gathering information involves learning the following skills: • how to interview effectively • how to take notes • how to organize notes • how to use the web • how to use the phonebook and phone effectively • how to determine the credibility of the interviewee • how to determine the worth of secondary sources Analyzing the information involves learning the following skills: • how to distinguish fact from opinion • how to distinguish what is important • how to place what is important first • how to organize large amounts of seemingly unrelated data Writing up the information involves learning to write in the following journalistic styles: • news • editorial/opinion • reviews • features • columns Learning to work together effectively involves learning: • to accept and appreciate differences • to be a leader and a team player • to negotiate effectively • to have good communication skills • to be patient • to respect and work with different learning styles Learning desktop publishing involves the following: 229

learning PageMaker or Quark Express learning graphics programs such as Adobe Illustrator learning photo programs such as Adobe Photoshop learning how to use a digital camera and transfer images to web • learning how to design ads • learning how to design an attractive page • learning how to use both a PC and a Mac Learning how to work effectively with the community involves: • learning the needs of a business and why they would want to advertise • learning the economics of the newspaper world • learning to behave in ways that are appropriate in the adult business world • learning how to sell a product or advertising • learning how to maintain an account • learning how to speak convincingly Learning how to publish a newspaper involves learning the following: • learning the role of a newspaper in a democracy • learning about the power of the press in a real-life situation • seeing how influential the press can be • learning about the ethics of journalism • learning about the laws governing freedom of the press • learning about the actual process of running the presses • • • •

Study questions • What was the importance of news to ancient civilizations? • What was the daily newspaper of the Roman Empire? Although copies of it do not exist, what do we know about it? • What was the impact of the printing press in the century after it was invented? • When did daily newspapers as we know them today first appear? Who paid for them? • What was the role of women in journalism in the 1600s and 1700s?

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What was the first daily newspaper in America to survive for more than one issue? What contributions did Benjamin Franklin make to journalism? How did newspapers contribute to the debate that led to the Revolutionary War? Explain some of the aspects of the partisanship that characterized newspapers in the first years of the American republic?

Key Concepts • Individuals and groups have always needed to communicate new information, the latest news, to each other; consequently, journalism is a part of any society, ancient or modern. • Journalism in any age depends on the technology available to gather and disseminate information. • Writing makes information easier to convey than simply speaking; writing also creates a permanent record, something that establishes a history and a basis for a society. • ActaDiurna–a daily publication of political and society news begun during the reign of Julius Caesar in 59 B.C. • Moveable type–individual pieces of type that can be reused for different printing jobs. The concept of moveable type was the key to the invention of the printing press around 1450. • Printing was only one of the factors that brought Western civilization out of the Dark Ages. Other factors included an increase in literacy and easier means of dissemination (such as the development of safer travel routes). • Censorship–prevention by governmental or religious authorities of dissemination of information they believed threatening to their position. • Benjamin Franklin was the great journalistic innovator of the 18th century; he pioneered the development of newspapers throughout the American colonies by investing in start-up papers, creating news services among newspapers, and promoting a light and entertaining style of writing. • Modern journalism, with its emphasis on fair and accurate presentation of information, did not exist during the 1790s, 231

the first decade of the American Constitutional republic. Instead, it was the age of partisanship when newspapers presented political points of view rather than information.

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Chapter 21 Journalism in the Age of Technology The 19th century was the time when modern journalism took shape. The system of communication we had in America was revolutionized during that century by speed and pictures. Human beings developed the technological means of sending and receiving information faster than anyone in previous centuries had conceived. Along with the technology, we developed a greater sense of the necessity for immediate news. James Gordon Bennett, publisher of the New York Herald, sensed this and made special efforts to get news into the Herald before any other newspaper could do so. Modern photography was developed in the 1830s, and its popularization transformed our vision of the world. Photography produced images of people and places that had never been seen before. It produced them quickly (compared to previous methods). Most photography was black and white, so the images were stark and highly informational. Photography was also highly believable. Once photography became widely available, we never looked at the world in the same way again. The greatest debate of the 19th century — slavery and abolition — culminated in 1861 with the century’s greatest news story — the Civil War. The war transformed America in many ways. One was in the increasing demand for news. The war affected many people personally, and citizens on both sides of the war were starved for information. Newspapers and magazines did their best to keep up with those demands, and in doing so, they changed the operation of journalism. Multimedia Journalism: The Age of New Technology and New Opportunities Technology and social media have always affected journalism and news. With the advancement of technology, journalism has been distrusted but has survived because it has provided something unique to a culture. Multimedia journalism — which often includes a print or online story supplemented by some other form of media that is more interactive than just text — is becoming a prevalent way to ‘do’ 233

journalism. New technologies will solidify this trend. Multimedia stories require additional skills from journalists, but provide readers with more choices to interact and be informed. If they choose to do so, readers can only read the article; however, they can also watch the supplemental video and be ‘on-the-scene’ with the reporter, or listen to sound clips taken at the scene. The stories become more enjoyable and may help some readers better understand an issue if they are aural learners, for example. In addition, readers may save time by watching a two-minute video clip instead of taking five minutes to read an article. Multimedia journalism, enabled by new technologies, has provided readers and journalists alike with new opportunities, as well as transformed how they interact with each other. Changing relationships Multimedia journalism holds great promise in helping journalists do their job more effectively and in engaging readers. This potential partly lies in multimedia journalism’s ability to generate more direct interaction, discussion, exploration and analysis of issues among journalists and readers. According to the ‘Future of Newspapers’ (2006, p. 5), ‘Today, more and more online newspapers are offering distinctive features that are not — and could not be — published in print editions.’ The same source reported that newspapers sites usually include interactive features that ‘allow readers to comment on issues from the serious to the mundane and — unlike letters to the editor — to participate in ongoing dialogues with other readers, and perhaps reporters and editors as well’ (2006, p. 5) This is a highly significant development, highlighting the fact that online journalism is not simply a more timely supplement to print, but offers independent value to readers in its ability to present content that cannot be conveyed in print. Online interactions based on articles published on the Internet have become instant, paving the way for a changing relationship between journalists and readers, and offering opportunities for readers to be more engaged with what they are reading. Print journalists used to have very little interaction with readers. Journalists would write the story, and readers would read it and then move on to another article, as did the journalists. If a reader had something to

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say, she would write a ‘letter to the editor’ and hope to get her comment published. Today many reporters have their contact information at the end of online articles, opening up the lines of communication. It is no longer just a one-way conversation, but a dialogue. The ability to more easily communicate with editors and reporters is important to online users, according to Online Public Attitudes (2006) — 47 percent said it’s ‘very important for news sites to provide readers with e-mail addresses to contact the site’s editorial staff,’ (2006, p. 1) an increase from 36 percent in 2002. Readers don’t want to feel like they’re being ‘force fed’ information, but they want to give their input and share ideas. They also like the feeling of instant gratification, or rather, feeling good about doing something on the spot, knowing their voices will be heard. Informing versus Marketing The newspaper industry’s need to stabilize the decline in print and grow online readership has intensified the focus on readership behavior and preferences, changing the relationship between reporters and newspapers. The transition to multimedia journalism, like most significant transformations, poses its share of potential problems. For example, unresolved tension exists between those journalists who think they should be the gatekeeper of information and arbiters of what is ‘newsworthy,’ and those journalists who think readers should to a large extent define what is to be reported, while staying true to immutable journalistic principles of integrity, accuracy and fairness. According to an unpublished research paper written by Shera Balgobin, a Medill graduate student, journalists differ in how they think this tension should be resolved and fall into three general groups. The first group of journalists is called ‘critical skeptics.’ These include the journalists who think focusing on marketing newspapers to increase revenue has lowered the quality of journalism and has not improved newspapers. They also believe that ‘journalism should lead public opinion rather than follow it’ (2007, p. 3). The second group, which consists of ‘resigned pragmatists,’ believes that some sort of change in the news industry is necessary, but ‘are wary of marketing’s impact on good journalism’ (2007, p. 3). 235

Despite this, they ‘actively solicit reader feedback,’ (2007, p. 3) although they are cautious when reviewing the results. The last group, the ‘change agents,’ is completely behind the idea of marketing newspapers and allowing it to ‘inform’ content to better serve newspapers’ readers. This is one of the ways in which multimedia journalism has presented challenges as well as opportunities. Journalists must now find the balance between keeping up with the changing industry while maintaining journalistic values and enhancing journalism through multimedia. Stories are now being written differently, perhaps using a ‘feature style’ or being written shorter, and the journalists and designers need to work together to find a way to report the news while making it interesting. Multimedia journalism poses another challenge for journalists. Diana Day, who created the blogs BeTwinned and inSierra Madre, wrote in an email interview about the challenges and the ways in which multimedia journalism can be counterproductive: ‘The worst quality of multimedia journalism is when the multimedia aspect is trivial or is done just to fit a trend or just to ‘go multimedia’ for its own sake. When the story is primary and when the storytelling medium chosen fits the story that is being told, that’s when multimedia is at its best,’ Day wrote. New Technology Blogs Blogs have been around for about ten years and become more popular over time, becoming almost an expected presence in many newspapers. Blogs present another opportunity for increased reader engagement and satisfaction, giving reporters another outlet for reporting the news or expressing their informed opinion on a topic, while allowing readers to comment and read others’ comments. Most online newspapers have ‘official’ blogs, but blogs can be created by anyone who has Internet access. In The New York Times, blogs range from ‘The Caucus,’ in which the Times’ politics staff covers the latest news in the presidential election, to ‘The Pour,’ in which Eric Asimov discusses ‘the pleasure, culture and business of wine, beer and spirits.’ The following 2007 Bivings Report graph shows the percentage of newspapers that have various online features, including reporter blogs and reporter blog 236

Monitoring blogs There are difficult issues though regarding the most effective way to monitor blogs. The opportunities offered by blogs are severely limited by the bookend problems of too much or inappropriate censorship, on the one end, and senseless ranting, on the other end. Even with blogs on news sites there is usually some sort of comment filtering system to avoid people breaking out into fights and to maintain a level of civility. When dealing with blogs, newspapers are facing three main problems: 1) how to make sure the most opinionated people commenting aren’t turning off more moderately opinionated people; 2) how to most effectively filter comments; and 3) whether comments should be filtered at all. The major problem, according to Mark Glaser in the article ‘Traditional Media Ready to Elevate the Conversation Online — with Moderation’ (2008), is: ‘How do you harness the audience’s knowledge and participation without the forums devolving into a messy online brawl that requires time-intensive moderation?’ Currently there is no set or uniform way in which newspapers are dealing with this issue, although some have come up with various techniques. The New York Times, for example, has a feature in 237

which readers can recommend other readers’ comments. There are also ‘Editor’s Selections,’ which allow editors to choose which comments they think are ‘worthy’ of being profiled in some way. By doing this, the New York Times is letting readers decide what they think are the ‘best’ comments. If readers are skeptical about allowing other readers decide what is ‘good,’ they can also look at ‘Editor’s Selections’ or just look through all the comments themselves. In the same article, Jonathan Landman, deputy managing editor for digital journalism at the New York Times, said positive and negative reinforcement is the way to make blog-commenting successful. This suggestion makes much sense, as it is human nature for people to want to feel ‘special’ or feel that they may be more knowledgeable about certain subjects than another person. People — and in this case it becomes especially true for readers — like to be rewarded for their hard work and the time they took to comment. ‘Blog comments should absolutely be monitored using technological tools and also human intervention. Trash (i.e., slander, hatred, etc.) should not be published,’ Day wrote. ‘For my blogs, I generally do not allow comments to run until I have moderated them. Obviously I do not edit comments. They either run or they don’t.’ Newspapers need to work towards having comments of quality. Although newspapers are seeking high-quality comments, who has the right to decide which comments are appropriate or ‘of high quality’? The ‘who’ usually consists of editors or readers who provide rating feedback. However, when deciding what is ‘high quality,’ there is always the risk of too much censorship. Readers may rate others’ comments poorly because they disagree with others’ views, or the readers themselves don’t understand the issue and thus can’t ‘grade’ appropriately. On the other hand, the potential for inappropriate censorship existed even with print. Readers never knew how many comments may have been submitted but not published. Chances are that if a comment shows understanding of the issue at hand and is written in a logical, balanced and convincing manner, then it will be viewed that way by other readers. If a standard is set, then a majority of those who comment will match that standard. If someone doesn’t adhere to the standards, readers will be able to notice them right away. Also, readers have to have some faith in editors’ ability to view the comments in a balanced way (or objectively) and that any comments they’re filtering are probably best 238

for the reader, either because the comment is illogical, the person doesn’t understand the issue, or there is unnecessary profanity. An example of ‘high quality commenting’ is seen with the blog IndyMoms, which targets moms in Indiana. According to the article ‘IndyMoms Draws Busy Parents with Discussion, Niche Content’ by Rich Gordon, 10 ‘discussion leaders’ were hired, or rather, moms who were paid $25 a week to ‘initiate and participate in discussions on the site’ (p. 2). In the article, Jennifer Gombach, a brand manager in the Indianapolis Star’s marketing department, was quoted on the role of these discussion leaders: ‘They often start discussions that are at a higher sophistication level than some other posters. They kind of set the tone from the get-go.’ In addition, Elpha Riche, who was hired by the Star, was quoted in the article saying that knowing which topics are heated or controversial helps beforehand. She said in the article: ‘Sometimes I’ll go in and say, OK, everyone, let’s take a breather. Step away from the computer and think before you type.’ If it’s not something you would say to a room full of people you just met, you should twice about posting it to our forum.’ This mindset needs to become the norm among bloggers. By having this mindset, readers can present more logical comments that don’t yell out ‘you have to believe what I believe, and I’m going to keep arguing until you do.’ However, some blogs are not worth monitoring. Cher Coen, who was Readership Editor at The Bakersfield Californian and whose job was to make the newspaper more reader-friendly, wrote in an email interview about unofficial blogs: ‘Now, blogs are another story. As a journalist, I cringe when I hear about people accepting things like blogs and unofficial stories as news,’ she wrote. ‘One big difference is you know you’re getting some form of professionalism with print as opposed to sites that aren’t part of the mainstream media.’ Videos Videos have become an important storytelling tool of multimedia journalism and have potential for growing readership. They are visually stimulating and bring people in a story to life. Use of news videos has grown significantly over the past 12 to 18 months, 239

according to the American Journalism Review (2008). In addition, video consumers — which can include those who visit sites like YouTube — generally tend to be younger than the overall population. According to ‘The Video Explosion’ (2008) in the American Journalism Review, the audiences attracted to videos ‘have higher incomes and more education’ (2008, p. 5). The article reported that the Nielsen Co. reported that 129 million Americans have access to broadband, and that a report made by the Pew Internet and American Life Project in July shows that 57 percent of all online viewers watch or download videos. The number increases to 74 percent for broadband users. Based on these numbers, it seems that having videos accompanying articles is bound to attract more readers, especially the younger generation, which is crucial in contributing to increased newspaper readership. In the same article, an author named Gene Weingarten (Washington Post) wrote a story about Joshua Bell, ‘one of the world’s most esteemed classical violinists’ (2008), impersonating a street performer, whom the public ignored. The article ran in the print version of the paper with photos, but video clips were added to the online version of the story. Weingarten was quoted in the article saying that his story was more effective online with the video, although this isn’t necessarily always the case. His definition of effective seemed to stem from the fact that the story reached more people than it would have without the video, including those in Beijing. Frame grabs are also a new part of journalism and have arisen from video. Frame grabs are still shots taken from a video camera, able to be put on print as seen with the San Jose Mercury News or the Detroit Free Press, or online. They serve as a new, creative way to display information and add to multimedia journalism. David Leeson, who was interviewed in ‘The Video Explosion’ (2008), started shooting video for the Dallas Morning News in 2000, and said in the article that he believes a journalist will soon win a Pulitzer Prize in photography from frame grabs. Videos play an important role in journalism, in particular online journalism, and are becoming a form of interactivity that is continually gaining popularity.

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Other interactive features Although videos are one of the most prominent forms of multimedia, others include sound clips, timelines, maps, and whatever else newspapers can create. Interactive features like maps are another way to attract readers to a story — while having readers read the actual story is ideal, as researched in my first two papers, they often don’t have the time. Interactive features accompanying articles allow the reader to get quick information about what happened and help grab their attention. A good example of an interactive map was seen in the New York Times regarding the Virginia Tech tragedy; the map had 16 slides that showed different areas of campus and the killer’s path, as well as descriptions of different scenes and facts. Journalists’ Changing Role These new ways of storytelling are pushing journalists beyond reporting the story in the conventional way. They now must add whatever supplemental material they can gather, as well as present the story in such a way that all the multimedia aspects of the story mesh together well. Also, stories do not have to be just an article anymore — they can be things like graphics or slideshows that stand alone. Integration of multimedia features requires tighter integration and smoother transition from text to multimedia features to sidebars to pull-out boxes, and more. This is all very taxing on the people who have to layout and design the online page, as well as gather the information, and journalists have to coordinate more closely to enable this. Multimedia journalism has created opportunity for journalists, but it requires them, no matter what age, to learn new skills. ‘Not everyone is adept with all the new storytelling tools, so sending reporters out into the field with videocameras [sic], for example, may or may not be helpful if the reporter is not a visual person,’ Day wrote in an email interview. ‘Reporters have to want to use new tools and have to understand how these many new tools can add to a story. It’s challenging to use multimedia tools in an additive fashion rather than in a subtractive fashion. It takes practice to shoot good video, to record compelling sound.’ If you asked a journalist ten years ago what their job was, they could respond with ‘I’m a print journalist’ or ‘I do broadcast.’ Today, 241

though, a journalist has to be multi-skilled to keep up with the changing world. They need to know how to write the story and also supplement it and perhaps take video or record sound clips. Not only that, but once the story has been uploaded or printed, they now have a responsibility to lead discussion and to actively engage in it. Journalists can no longer sit idly after reporting a story, expecting readers to read it and then move on. Readers want to talk about what they read and engage with people all over the world. Journalists need to embrace this new movement and serve as leaders and role models. Key Concepts • The 19th century was a time of enormous change in the lives of Americans. One element of that change was the speed at which they were able to communicate. Another element was the development of photography, which opened up a visual world that humans had never known. • Journalism changed its very nature during the 19th century. Newspapers went from being organs of opinion to organs of information, and their audiences expanded to include more Americans than ever. • Journalism of the 19th century is often defined by the personalities that dominated the field – people such as James Gordon Bennett and Horace Greeley, and later in the century Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst. • Penny press – inexpensive newspapers (which often sold for a penny) that first appeared in the 1830s and that appealed to a large audience with stories of crime, human interest and sports. • Abolition – the term used for the movement to abolish slavery; the fight over abolition was the great political issue of the first part of the 19th century affecting everything in political life, including journalism. • By the middle of the century, magazines had found their form and audience. • Photography was invented in 1839, and although it would be many years before photographs could be easily mass produced, photography began to change the way journalism was practiced by mid-century.

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The Civil War, 1861-1865, demonstrated profoundly the value of news to American news organizations and to their audiences.

Works Cited Balgobin, Shera. (2007). Marketing in the Newsroom. (Unpublished research paper). Glaser, Mark. (2008). Traditional Media Ready to Elevate the Conversation Online — with Moderation. Media Shift. Retrieved February 7, 2008. Gordon, Rich. IndyMoms Draws Busy Parents with Discussion, Niche Content. Growing Audience: A Toolkit for Change. Retrieved February 7, 2008. Layton, Charles. (2008). The Video Explosion. American Journalism Review. Retrieved February 7, 2008. Lenhart, Amanda and Macgill Alexandra Rankin and Madden, Mary and Smith, Aaron. (2007). Teens and Social Media: The use of social media gains a greater foothold in teen life as they embrace the conversational nature of interactive online media. Pew Internet and American Life Project. Retrieved January 7, 2008. Macgill, Alexandra Rankin. (2008). Parent and Teen Internet Use. Pew Internet and American Life Project. Retrieved January 7, 2008. Madden, Mary. (2007). Online Video: 57% of internet users have watched videos online and most of them share what they find with others. Pew Internet and American Life Project. Retrieved January 7, 2008. Stepp, Carl Sessions. (2007). Transforming the Architecture. American Journalism Review. Retrieved February 7, 2008. Teeling, Erin. (2007). American Newspapers and the Internet: Threat or Opportunity? The Bivings Report. Retrieved February 7, 2008. 2008. Innovations in Online Storytelling. Poynter Online. Retrieved February 7, 2008. 2006. Online Public Attitudes — 2006 Annual Report: Young Americans and their Attitudes Toward the Web. Project for Excellence in Journalism. Retrieved September 10, 200.

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2006. Online Public Attitudes — 2006 Annual Report: Trust in the Internet. Project for Excellence in Journalism. Retrieved September 10, 2007.

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Chapter 22 New Realities, New Journalism During the latter half of the 19th century, news organizations completed their journey from being politically dependent and oriented organizations to independent economic entities of great power and wealth. That journey had begun in the 1820s and 1830s with the development of the penny press (see chapter 21). By the end of the century, news organizations might still be identified with political parties, but they were far from dependent on them. Technological developments continued to have a profound effect on journalism. Newspaper printing presses could run faster and faster, increasing the number of copies of the paper that could be sold. Innovations such as electric lights and power and the telephone brought changes in the way news and information were gathered. Advertising popularized products and created national markets for them. Despite the rise of advertising and the increasing amount of income that it produced for newspapers, many papers engaged in circulation wars that grew in intensity during the 1890s. Those wars culminated in the fight between the New York World and the New York Herald that produced the Yellow Journalism era. Journalism Then and Now Journalism has changed in recent decades, as technological advancements continue to influence consumers’ media consumption habits. While there may be new characteristics to the field, many basic tenets of journalism remain. Print journalism has been a source for current events, information, and political news for centuries. In the last 20 to 30 years, though, this field has experienced remarkable changes in content and format with the advent of the internet and digital technology, causing uncertainty about the role of traditional journalism in a modern world. This section aims to provide a contrast between the form, function and resources used by media in the past (i.e., mid 1900s) and in the modern era. This comparison will especially focus on how the news industry has been affected thus far by transitions to new formats such as television, radio, and most importantly digital media. 245

Search for the Truth Journalism sprang into existence out of the public’s need to know and understand their world around them. In the United States, the value of allowing news outlets to operate independently of the government was seen as so overwhelmingly important, it was specifically noted in the First Amendment to the Constitution. Citizens of free, democratic nations the world over have depended on journalists to provide information about their governments and the world without the interference of political officials who would prefer to keep the public in the dark. Maintaining Ethical Standards Journalism is built on the pillars of truth and reliability, which is why the profession has maintained a strict code of ethics. This is to ensure that people can trust the information provided by news outlets and the journalists who work for them. Industry organizations such as the Society of Professional Journalists strive to guarantee that members understand and follow a core set of ethical standards that protect the integrity of journalism. Some standards put forth by SPJ specify that members are responsible for the accuracy of their work and that journalists clearly identify information sources whenever possible. News Is Always Breaking One characteristic of journalism in the modern era is that news is consumed 24 hours a day, thanks in large part to the Internet and cable news channels. Life is always happening, and media consumers want to know about major events as they occur. Major media outlets have 24-hour operations to meet this demand, while smaller outlets may partner with larger organizations or have a smaller late-night staff to monitor local and global events. Technology Meets Journalism For centuries, journalism was confined to the pages of local newspapers, but all of that changed with the Internet. With the Internet came a wealth of platforms in which consumers can obtain their news. Websites, blogs, social media and other content-driven platforms provide different mediums to access news. Content must now not only be Web compatible, but also able to fit devices such as 246

laptops, smartphones and tablets. Breaking news can even be sent to a person’s smartphone via an application housed on a mobile device. What is the New Journalism in the 21st Century? When celebrated media and communication theorist Dennis McQuailproposed in 1992 that news was a selective, socially manufactured product with the power to determine and define events, he hadn’t heard of social media. Not every occurrence is necessarily news, he wrote. His argument was based on the notion that the “gatekeepers” (who are mostly journalists and editors) decide what is news and how it should be reported and disseminated. McQuail would be the first to admit that’s no longer the case. From Malawi to Myanmar, Chad to China, social media’s growing influence has become a potent symbol of citizen empowerment across the globe. That’s because in several parts of the world, social networks such as Twitter and Facebook have become the norm for day-to-day communication, inadvertently replacing mainstream media as a source of news. In so doing, it is not only redefining the ways news and content can be shared but it’s also forcing us to rethink the meaning and significance of “news” itself. When citizen journalists, digital activists or any other nonprofessionals produce and share news on Twitter, who is going to stop them, who is going to deny them the opportunity to produce news? With the news industry changing at such a dizzying speed, it would seem as if the time has come for us to accept citizen journalists as active players in the news business. Indeed, teaching a student how to gather, write and edit stories isn’t enough anymore. Students need to know their main competitor isn’t just a journalist from the crosstown rival newspaper but also anyone owning a smartphone. The audience, who for several generations have largely been sleeping partners in the news production business, have suddenly become more active. In the past, they only purchased news content. And if they were angry after reading biased or inaccurate stories, drafting a “letter to the editor” was their only possible way of showing concern. Today they have direct access to the editor via Twitter, they directly comment on stories anonymously and instantly, and as 247

alternative players they produce content and share it online. They have also become a legitimate source of information for conventional journalists. Changing values But can the blogosphere be considered a reliable and vital part of ethical news production? Most professional journalists I talk to would say no. But while not everything they are producing is reliable, you just cannot exclude social media content from a 21st-century journalism degree course. It’s impossible to remove the unrelenting digital enthusiasts from the news matrix. Study questions • The chapter starts with a continuation of the story about the man who lived through the 19th century. What lessons about what happened in journalism can we draw from the man’s life? • Why are William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer significant to the journalism of this era? • Photography and the telegraph were discussed in the previous chapter. What are the most important technological changes that changed journalism during this period? • Why did many newspapers become such large and profitable businesses? • The idea of the press as the “watchdog” for society developed during this time. What factors went into that development? • Read the sidebar on page 404 about the “most famous” editorial in history. What is so appealing about that editorial? • How did reporting and reporters change during this period? • What is yellow journalism? How did it develop? • What is stunt journalism? Lesson Notes Beyond stunt journalism. Nellie Bly made important contributions to journalism and for women’s journalism in the 19th century, but there were other female journalists who took a different route in their careers. One was Jane Cunningham Croly, known to most of America by her pen name “Jennie June.” Croley was 248

probably the nation’s first female syndicated columnist (a person whose regular writings appeared in newspapers across the country). She began her writing career in New York in the 1850s and for about 10 years was the women’s editor for the New York World. She was associated with many other publications. She was instrumental in establishing women’s clubs around the nation. Many of these groups started local libraries in their towns. She also fought consistently for a greater role for women in public life. In 1892 she was named a journalism professor at Rutgers University. Find out more about her life at the following links: Encyclopedia Britannica (http://search.eb.com/women/articles/Croly_Ja ne_Cunningham.html) Loretta Cody’s Women’s Rights Page (http://home.att.net/~womensrights/croly_bio.htm) •

Newspaper humorists. The humorists are all made famous by their writing for newspapers. Some achieved great fame and are now counted among the greats of American literature. While most people have read some of the works of Mark Twain, the other writers may not be as familiar to modern readers. Their works are still worth some attention, however. Here are a few links to some of their biographies and writings: •

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Petroleum V. Nasby (David Ross Locke) (http://www.geocities.com/CollegePark/Quad/646 0/doct/Nasby/inst0.html) Finley Peter Dunn (http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/authors/f/fin ley_peter_dunne.html) Ambrose Bierce (http://www.donswaim.com/) George Peck (http://www.who2.com/georgewilburpeck.html) Edgar Wilson (Bill) Nye (http://www.bartleby.com/65/ny/Nye-Edga.html)

Advertising in the 19th century. Advertising products nationally was one of the great developments associated with 249

19th century journalism. National advertising enabled newspapers to grow, and it also provided products to people who had never known about them or had access to them. The advertising was unregulated, however, and claims were made about many products that were simply untrue. The era was one of caveat emptor, or “let the buyer beware.” The American Memory section of the Library of Congress has an excellent online exhibit of late 19th century advertising. You can get a good idea of the kinds of products that were sold and the claims made about them. Key Concepts • The Civil War began the consolidation of America into one nation – a consolidation that continued with the industrialization that followed in the decades after the war. Journalism played a vital role in this consolidation and changed because of it. • During this period, the major mass medium, newspapers, grew into corporate giants with high profitability. • Joseph Pulitzer–owner of the New York World, a newspaper known for its crusades and lively writing. • William Randolph Hearst–owner of the New York Herald; Hearst was a flamboyant personality who used the news columns of his newspapers to push his own issues, including war with Spain over Cuba. • Frank Leslie–published Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, which during the Civil War printed thousands of illustrations and drawings about news events of the day; when Frank Leslie died in 1880, his wife took over the publication (and changed her name to “Frank Leslie”) and ran it successfully for more than 20 years. • Mergenthaler —a typesetting machine that greatly speeded up the process of producing newspapers and magazines; named for Ottmar Mergenthaler, its developer. • Brand names–names given to products that were distributed nationally; newspapers offered an advertising venue that helped vault products from local to national sales and distribution.

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Yellow journalism–a type of journalism that emphasizes sensationalism and distorts the accuracy and meaning of subjects and events that are covered; the major period of yellow journalism was the late 1890s and its chief practitioners were Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst. (A Public Broadcasting American Experience program titled “Murder of the Century“ shows how this kind of journalism worked.) Watchdog press–the concept that journalism should be an independent observer of society, particularly government, and should point out its ills.

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Chapter 23 20th Century Journalism and Beyond Broadcasting was the most profound development for 20th century journalism. The century began with newspapers and magazines firmly entrenched as sources of news and information, but the taming of electromagnetic waves was well underway. Within a decade, radio had advanced far enough so that many people could see its possibilities. When the Titanic sank in 1912, radio helped spread the news faster than it had ever been sent from a remote area. The world was never the same. Just as radio burst onto the scene, newspapers began a long, slow decline. The leviathan newspaper companies of the late 19th century found that they had outgrown their markets, and after the 1920s many died or were consolidated. That trend continued into the 1970s. Competing with newspapers for the attention of news consumers were not only radio but the newly invented newsmagazine. Time, with its weekly publication schedule, gave readers a different perspective on the news and entertained them with a lively and distinct writing style. Beginning in 1936, Life magazine showed readers the world in pictures as they had never seen it before. When the world exploded into war in 1939, these new media were ready to bring consumers information in ways they had never received it before. After the war, television entered American homes with visual versions of all of the formats that radio had pioneered — news, game shows, dramas, comedies, variety shows, etc. Television news took over as the nation’s chief source of news and information, and by the end of the century, it had not relinquished that position. But by the end of the century, television had a challenger on the horizon. The World Wide Web was developing as a new and, in some ways, completely different news medium. It gave users more control and offered them more choices than any medium had ever done. Its potency for journalism in the 21st century was apparent, and in the first decade of the new century, it is being realized. After the 1970s, the concept of ‘cultural/media imperialism’ by British scholar J. Oliver Boyd Barrett emerged. He believed that the globalization of communication had been driven entirely by Western 253

technological advances and as such constituted a form of rule by the West over other countries, something that may have seemed appropriate in the last decade of 20th century. However, things have changed now. Journalism is no longer just collecting, writing, and publishing articles in newspapers and magazines or broadcasting them on the radio and television. What is the meaning of a “journalist” in the 21st century? One of the key reasons cited for this transformation of journalism is the changing nature of technology, which impacts directly upon the practice of journalism and access to the profession. Just a couple of decades ago technology for journalists was limited, with only heavy, impractical cameras to take photographs or record events. On top of that there was no such thing as a ‘Smartphone’, there was not even the internet. A journalist had to have professional qualifications plus a union or association membership. He or she also had to be paid to work in recognised institutions and was subject to various laws. Today everything has become more transparent and accessible with the internet and social media, meaning anyone and everyone can become a journalist. Some scholars and academics do not consider these “citizen journalists” to be real journalists, something that I do not agree with it. When Twitter was first started in 2006, even its founders probably could not foresee how their social media tool would affect the role of journalism. If anyone has an ability to create news today, then I think journalism should be divided into two categories, “professional” vs. “citizen”. In my opinion this change in news creation can be considered as both positive and negative. Turning away from traditional journalism Professional journalists mostly share (or at least should share) common elements such as accuracy, impartiality, objectivity and accountability which creates trust for their audience. According to a poll by YouGov in 2003, a journalist’s respectability and prestige depends on who he/she works for. Unfortunately, many are now turning away from traditional news because their trust in journalists who work for mainstream media is declining. It is argued that in many countries journalists are under governmental pressure to defend certain policies or ignore certain stories in order not to lose their jobs. 254

Plus if a journalist is working for a newspaper or channel, he or she often gives that news from a particular political standing. But how can we trust news when anyone can make and share it? Taylor Mahoney in The Huffington Post says that the idea of citizen journalism is nice, but it only works best when people understand journalistic ethics, which I totally agree with. There is no barrier to entering into ‘citizen journalism’ so a 140-character tweet can get retweeted and treated seriously even though 15 minutes of research could prove the claim as false. However, to generalize all tweets or statuses of citizen journalists as false would be another failure. Get this narrative from a journalist: I remember when last year on June 30, some people started tweeting about a bulldozer entering Taksim Gezi Park to cut down the trees. People who were walking around began to resist by sitting in front of that bulldozer. Images popped up instantly in my Twitter feed. These people who were tweeting became the main journalists in the first days of the Gezi Park events. Just like the “Arab Spring” (the “Twitter Revolution”, as it’s sometimes referred) Gezi events turned into anti-government demonstrations driven by citizen journalists that went on to become widespread around the country. What does this mean for young journalists? As a young journalist in today’s age of “citizen journalism”, there are some difficulties that we are facing. As the flow of information becomes faster, reporters have to be faster too, with pressure on us to submit stories as soon they break. In the past breaking news was a big deal because the reporter had to go to the crisis zone to get information before heading back to the newsroom to write down what had happened. In today’s world any person can “tweet” from a crisis zone. However, as getting information becomes quicker, it becomes harder to balance with accuracy. Once you see a picture you have to verify if that photo is true or not – often a trap for young journalists. There is no exact answer to the question “What is a journalist in the 21st century?”. Today we are divided into the two categories “professional” and “citizen”. We need to remain aware of both their advantages and disadvantages and learn to approach news with relative scepticism and critique.

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Indeed, journalism through the 20th century has evolved and shaped the way the world perceives and has influenced everyday life. From the 1900s to the present day, the press has developed into the people’s source for news. At the beginning of the century in the 1900s, everything was practically new. Newspapers had been invented in 1690, more than 200 years prior. The radio, having been invented in 1895, was just picking up speed. Journalists and “media personalities” like Joseph Pulitzer (the Pulitzer Prize for literature), Ida Tarbell, R.F. Outcault, and the famous Nellie Bly pioneered journalism in the new century, influencing journalism today with their outspoken personality on air. The 1920s is known as the Roaring Twenties, with popularity around flappers, jazz, and nightclubs. This was constantly reflected in tabloid journalism, which focused on celebrities, movies, radio, and other pop culture issues. Still today we have tabloid journalism, and you may know of some magazines called People or US. Like tabloid journalism, “Yellow Journalism” had the same bad ethics and completely ignored the traditional structure of writing, with genuine research and coverage. It focused on the same content as the tabloids. More violence and sin. Both of these “fake journalism” outlets have a negative connotation because they focus on gossip and ingenuine news. World War II was raging during the 1940s, and journalism was too. Men were off to war while the women took over their jobs, so many women were covering for men in journalism, off to the front lines to correspond. This gave many females the chance to broadcast their abilities to a wider audience, in an otherwise patriarchal world. The 60s were somewhat extraordinary, with JFK becoming president, along with his assassination. He consumed a majority of the press content while in office. Major event coverage and reporting were discovered to have been influenced by major men in power, resulting in scandal. News releases, press conferences, and official statements were almost always made by men in power and position. The 70s were tainted with scandal. The Pentagon Papers caused quite the fuss. Watergate was also a national obsession. Watergate is the name given to the scandal where a group broke into the national Democratic Headquarters, stealing classified information about the government. Richard Nixon was discovered to have approved this break-in, resulting in his impeachment. 256

The 80s brought TV, FOX, and CNN into the spotlight, representing journalism on the screen. Though with the 90s, more coverage about the Iraq War and other wars were being added to the silver screen. The 2000s marked a new century full of excitement. When the Twin Towers were destroyed in 2001 the press was overwhelmed. Journalism became more digital with the creation of the iPhone and the WWW, producing a chance for journalists to spread their ideas to more people, faster, and more efficiently. Present-day journalism is extremely controversial. Jamal Khashoggi was killed in the Saudi consulate because he was outspoken about political issues, and the government didn’t feel comfortable with contradiction. The presidential election of 2016 was a substantial topic, along with the Mueller probe and Russia’s involvement in the election. Though journalists are spreading news through writing, you can spread what you know through words and beliefs. The free press are writing to provide you with reliable information on worldwide events. And it’s especially important that they’re doing so right now. Today, news can be accessed at the touch of a button, and it’s sometimes difficult to imagine an age when the newspaper was king. But that’s exactly how it was in the late 19th century. (This post is a companion piece to Melina Druga’s WWI Trilogy, Angel of Mercy, Those Left Behind and Adjustment Year, available wherever eBooks are sold.) Several newspaper editions were usually published daily, and most communities, no matter the size, had multiple papers competing against each other. Editions were sold at newsstands and on corners by newsboys who, as the name implies, were children. Society pages were filled with the latest news of the wealthy and famous, including colorful descriptions of their clothing and events. By the turn of the 20th century, newspapers had begun to print photos and comic strips began appearing in color. Yellow Journalism As newspapers competed against each other, they sensationalized the news, exaggerating events and focusing on scandals. This tactic is called yellow journalism. Modern yellow journalism is attributed to Joseph Pulitzer who used sensational headlines to sell copies of his 257

New York City crime newspaper The World. By doing so, Pulitzer turned news into entertainment, and it paid off. The Sunday edition of The World passed the 250,000-copies-sold mark in 1889. William Randolph Hearst purchased the New York Journal in 1895 and decided to take on Pulitzer. He hired many of Pulitzer’s employees, but Pulitzer hired a new editor. The two newspapers began their battle, writing ever more sensationalized headlines and embellished stories. Eventually, the newspapers were no longer trusted as creditable sources and went back to reporting in a more objective matter. Some historians say yellow journalism may have been responsible for the United States going to war with Spain in 1898 as newspaper reports of Cuban atrocities were greatly exaggerated. Investigative Journalism Whereas yellow journalism tainted the industry, the birth of investigative journalism showed the power the media has to change lives. Referred to as muckraking in the early 1900s, a term coined by Teddy Roosevelt, investigative journalists spent a significant period of time researching one story. These journalists brought to the public’s attention such things as political corruption and the effects of poverty with the aim of bringing about social change. McClure’s Magazine published an article in October 1902 that is considered the first article labeled as investigative journalism. However, articles that we would today consider investigative journalism appeared as early as the 1870s. Some examples includes photojournalist Jacob Riis’s How the Other Half Lives, Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle and Nellie Bly’s exposé on New York insane asylums. Politically Biased Newspapers Decades before MSNBC and FOX News, there were politically leaning newspapers, and almost all newspapers leaned one way or another. These publications would side with one political party, reporting on news with a political slant, often stooping to name calling to prove their point. By World War I, the public had another form of media – the newsreel – that it could rely on for current events. The heyday of

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the newspaper was over. Soon newspapers also would compete against radio. The velocity and volume of news has increased, then we as a society transform from true news-seekers to a news-waiters. By examining sensationalism in this perspective and also with an eye cast towards the future, it is possible to better understand the news and why it flows the way it does. A great example of a sensational story that many of my fellow classmates have cited over the course of the semester has been the impact of O.J. Simpson’s murder trial–as cited here, here, and here. Another good example of sensationalism in the modern era could be cited as the Bill Clinton sex scandal in 1998. Harken back to the 1996 Olympics, what happened there? If the word bomb came to your mind before the story of a certain red-haired gymnast, well there is a reason for that. Murder, sex, violence, all these stories share a common element: sensationalism. As technology has progressed, we have instinctively become bored with news once it stops becoming breaking news. Therefore, we always search for the next best thing to focus on. On July 23, Kerri Strug’s awe-inspiring vault for the ages was done-in four days later when a bomb exploded in Centennial Olympic Park. We had already been pounded hour after hour with interviews and analysis and inspiring montages of what had transpired on July 23, that by the time July 27th hit, America was ready for the next juicy story. This is a great example of how technology helps to bring about sensationalism; or more accurately, how “better” technology brings about poorer journalistic quality. If a TV station has the resources and technology to report on stories that are poorly put together but bring about ratings, they will do so. This continues to this day, and as Stephens says in his book, technology may be great for journalism, but at what cost? Well, that cost is, according to Stephens, our communities, our local news, and above all, quality of reporting. All the while the world is at war, facing a huge economic crisis, is in environmental despair, suffers from ridiculous unemployment, but the only news we talk about is trite. Now this may not apply to all, but with the theme of looking forward in journalism as our guidance, I implore you to ask yourself one question: when you wake up in the morning what is the first news-piece you search out? Even more 259

concerning, do you search out the news still? The point I am trying to make here is that technology, experience, and good training can all lead to good reporting. But when not used in conjunction with one another we are left with sub-standard news. Study questions • What was the most important development in journalism in the 20th century? • Why did newspapers decline? • The chapter discusses the development of the audience “as an important consideration in the practice and economics of journalism.” What is meant by that? • What were some of the problems that had to be overcome in the development of radio? • What were the three events of the 1960s that were important in the development of television news? • How is the development of the World Wide Web as a news medium likely to change journalism? Key Concepts • The most profound change in journalism in the 20th century came with the development of broadcasting, first radio and then television. • At the end of the 20th century, a new medium – the web – promised to render more profound changes to the profession. • Radio brought news events to its audience immediately, often as they were happening; consequently, audiences were able to share a single experience. • The 20th century was the era of the Big News Event – from the Scopes Monkey Trial in 1925 in Dayton, Tennessee, to World War II. • Muckrakers – journalists who looked deeply into the ills of society, such as the abuses of child labor and governmental corruption, and wrote long exposés; the term was coined by Theodore Roosevelt. • Radio Act of 1927 – established that the U.S. government owned the airwaves and had an interest in controlling how they were used. 260

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Newsmagazine – a type of publication pioneered by Henry Luce and Brittan Hadden, founders of Time, that summarized and wrote entertainingly about the events of the week. Edward R. Murrow – the chief European correspondent for CBS radio during World War II; Murrow set the standard for broadcast news. Television came of age as a news medium in the 1960s with its coverage of three major stories: the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the Civil Rights Movement and the war in Vietnam. Watergate – the name given to the scandals of the Nixon administration in the 1970s that eventually resulted in the resignation of Richard Nixon in 1974; Watergate was a watershed in American journalism because it was a story pursued by two young reporters for the Washington Post, Robert Woodward and Carl Bernstein.

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Chapter 24 Law and the Journalist The Role of the Law in Journalism The legal rules, as they apply to journalists and media, are a complex and fluid series of decisions that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior. In other words, the law is always changing. New laws are being made, old laws are being overturned. Generally, the law may have the intent of offering clear guidance, but this is usually hammered out in test case, after test case. Realizing that there are experts who spend decades toiling specifically in the field of the legalities of journalism, it is apparent that only a cursory introduction can be offered in this article. However, a crash course in journalism and the law is an excellent starting point for the beginning journalist. Be aware that it is a subject you will need to continue to educate yourself in. The court system of the United States is labyrinthine. There are federal, state, and local courts, a military court system, and separate courts for territories of the United States and Washington D.C. Each system has trial, intermediate appellate, and supreme courts, with the trial courts making initial decisions about a matter, and the appellate and supreme courts reviewing this information, if challenged. Finally, there is the U.S. Supreme Court, which addresses issues with the greatest scope – nationally, internationally, and interstate. One state cannot impose their decision on the courts of another state, and the U.S. Supreme Court has jurisdiction overall. Trial courts are the gateway into the legal system, and the only courts that use juries. The higher courts use panels of judges, ranging from three to nine. Lawsuits are either civil matters or criminal cases. A civil suit is an action brought by a plaintiff against a defendant, asking the latter to be held monetarily responsible for some type of wrong. A criminal suit is one in which a defendant is accused of violating a criminal statute that requires jail time and/or fines. There are a variety of legal issues that encompass journalism, but the most frequent questions are on matters of First Amendment rights, libel, privacy, emotional distress, news gathering, intellectual property, regulation of the media – electronically and in print — and 263

where a reporter’s privilege begins and ends. It behooves the budding journalist to have a working knowledge of these subjects, as they begin their career.

First Amendment

People tend to spout off about their First Amendment rights without having any idea of the exact wording of it. Take a moment and read through the First Amendment from the United States Constitution. Amendment I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. To the lay reader it seems clear that the government is not permitted to interfere with the exercise of free speech in any situation. However, in lawsuit after lawsuit, the U.S. Supreme Court has claimed that this amendment also doesn’t preclude the government from regulating either the press or “free speech.” Moreover, the majority of decisions that have been handed down from the Supreme Court also do not recognize any distinct rights of the press (or media), but view the amendment as a simple composite ruling on freedom of expression, in general. The issue of government censorship dates back to the 1500s. This is when the first instances of government regulation of the press can be found. Such famous philosophers of the time, including Milton, Locke, and Rousseau, were the first to argue against government control of the press as a form of “thought police.” Rather, the government’s responsibility to their way of thinking was simply to protect the natural rights of humans! Over 400 years later, the argument about freedom of the press continues to rage. That is not to say that some progress on the issue hasn’t been made since then! As the American colonies settled in and began thinking for themselves, they rejected the notion that truthful criticism of the government was subject to punishment. Their desire to be separated from Britain helped to shape the “freedom of speech and press” amendment. Even so, it has been challenged regularly in the United States, since freedom from Britain was won. Often at issue is the matter of prior restraint. This is official review of information by a government official prior to dissemination, with censorship intervention 264

permitted. The Supreme Court has ruled on this issue more than once, reversing itself in the process. When matters of free speech reach the U.S. Supreme Court, the boundaries of each argument are usually limited and well-defined, and the justices are placed in a position of considering competing arguments about which category of speech is more important to the case. Interested in learning more? Why not take an online class in Journalism? Never has there been a broader set of issues regarding First Amendment rights than in today’s environment of technology, which has proliferated the sources of news, and avenues for free expression. The Internet, Twitter, Facebook and traditional news media outlets are tending to blur, making it more difficult for courts to find appropriate responses to questions of free speech. One of the most controversial areas protected by the First Amendment is political speech. This area of speech, perhaps more than any other, causes the Supreme Court to tread lightly and apply the letter of the law more strictly. It behooves the prospective journalist to educate him or herself more completely, as there are simply dozens of statutes on this subject of speech alone.

Libel

Libel is a false statement written and published about another individual that damages their reputation, or is personally offensive. Interestingly enough, even when an individual brings a lawsuit against the media or journalist for purported false statements there are acceptable defenses that may cause the plaintiff to lose the case. The plaintiff must be able to demonstrate that the information was published and identifies that person, defamation is evident, and the defendant is the perpetrator. However, most complex is whether the facts of the case can prove malice, negligence, and whether it involves public or private officials or figures. Today, with the plethora of media outlets and the almost ubiquitous nature of the printed word, the courts are now faced with trying to delineate the source of libel action. Journalists who are just starting out should seek the legal counsel of attorneys that work for the media outlet where they are employed to ensure their stories fall within legally acceptable parameters.

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The Issue of Privacy

Never before has a single issue been the source of greater debate than privacy in this 21st century of pervasive recording devices. Privacy has always been a jealously guarded personal right. But cell phone and other security cameras have changed all this — sometimes for the better, and sometimes not. Perhaps the most interesting point to be made in this section is that the U.S. Constitution does not in any way guarantee the right to privacy. Since the creation of the Constitution, the U.S. Supreme Court has imposed privacy regarding reproductive and sexual issues, and nothing more. At the same time, Congress has passed certain privacy laws, but these often relate to freedom of information; and since the September 11, 2001 attack on the United States, privacy is being contested on every level. The question is, where does the individual’s right to privacy end, and the public’s right to safety begin? Or where does the government’s right to view personal documents start? The Supreme Court has made several interesting rulings on this very subject recently. In 2010, government employees were informed that employers may view any messages sent on government-issued equipment. But the attachment of a GPS tracker to a private vehicle is a violation of 4th Amendment rights. Legal issues of privacy currently address intrusion, “false light,” private facts, and appropriation. All seem fairly sensible. Intrusion is the deliberate intrusion into an individual’s seclusion or solitude. False light is publicizing false information about another that is offensive. Private facts is the publication of embarrassing information and appropriation is taking the name and likeness of another individual without permission. All of these have implications for journalists, particularly as it regards the publication of private facts. Here again, the rights of the individual come face to face with the public’s right to know. Journalists are advised to seek legal counsel before publishing anything that seems inflammatory or crosses the line.

Emotional Distress

Emotional distress is one of the most challenging areas of law for the journalist and lawyer alike. The trajectory of a lawsuit usually appears in the following manner. The plaintiff claims negligent infliction of emotional stress. The defendant is liable because he or 266

she had a “duty of due care” and breached the responsibility. As a result, the plaintiff suffered emotional injury that can be traced back to the defendant. The plaintiff must be able to demonstrate that the act was deliberate, outrageous, and reckless. When public figures are the plaintiffs, they have the additional responsibility of demonstrating malice. If emotional distress or malice are determined, there is simply no defense on the part of the accused. If ever there is a call to ethics for the journalist it is in the case of issues of privacy and emotional distress.

The Parameters of Gathering the News

What journalist starting out doesn’t secretly dream of their own Woodward and Bernstein fame? These were the two very famous reporters who uncovered the Nixon Watergate scandal in the 1970s, and changed the game of investigative journalism forever. However, the beginning journalist must realize that there are parameters to the news-gathering process, and to breach them may not only be unethical – it may be illegal as well. Just because you are a member of the press, does not give you more rights to break laws to get the information you are looking for. For example, it is illegal to trespass or go onto another individual’s private property to look for news. The property owner must give personal consent for a journalist to be on their property. Other behaviors that are as illegal for journalists, as for the average citizen, include harassment, misrepresentation, and outright fraud. An example of a subject that is unresolved, or differs from state to state, is the right of the journalist to surreptitiously record the conversations without permission. As well, military operations are subject to specific limitations for journalists. One remedy is the Freedom of Information Act that many journalists avail themselves of. Although collecting information of a government nature may take longer using these channels, it does not put the journalist in a position where they can be sued or arrested.

Violence, Indecency, and Obscenity

Many journalists might mistakenly believe that this area of the law is the most obvious, and it is easiest to avoid legal run-ins. But that is not necessarily true, because of the differences in the legal definitions of each. In fact, every state has its own definition of obscenity, and it 267

is usually long enough, and complex enough, that it requires the intervention of a legal expert to fully understand its parameters. The term indecency only applies to broadcast media and continues to be modified, as the historical boundaries are continually pushed. The term pornography does not appear as often in legal terms, except as it pertains to child pornography – and for which there are definite legal remedies through the courts. Pornography is regulated through a complex network of laws. Violence in the media continues to befuddle the courts, because it cannot be labeled as pornographic, obscene or indecent. There are regulations, nonetheless, although limited in nature. These are not the usual domains of journalists, except for informative reporting.

Reporter Privilege

One of the most controversial areas of journalism continues to be the question of reporter privilege. In other words, the reporter is thought to have the right to guarantee a news source their identity will remain private to better assure honesty and forthrightness. This is especially important when a story deals with corrupt officials, or criminal elements that would be likely to strike back if they knew that their actions were under investigation, or about to be exposed. Journalists invoke their right to offer a condition of confidentiality to their news sources. However, the U.S. Supreme Court does not see this the same way. They support this stance only under limited and specific conditions. They do not allow it in the case of grand jury testimony, for example, where the reporter is compelled to divulge information or risk prison. There are some states that have “shield” laws to protect lawyers, but this is by no means universal, and journalists continue to lobby for universal confidentiality laws to protect sources and writers whose goal is to keep the public informed about some of the more unsavory aspects of the American way of life and business, without subjecting themselves to threat of harm or death. Of course, there is the other side of the coin as well, where a journalist makes a promise of confidentiality that is later broken. This is a confounding situation, as well, and one that the journalist should turn to proper legal advice before proceeding. Journalists should be aware that their place of employ is not exempt from search warrants.

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Intellectual Property

Intellectual property is “property” created from original thought. It comes in the form of patents, copyrights, and trademarks. There is a vast body of law on the subject of copyright, and its parameters are very specific. The idea is to protect the individual or company from which the original idea was generated. Journalists must be very careful with regard to avoiding copyright or intellectual property infringement. For example, using the words of a song to enhance a story is unacceptable without the express permission of the songwriter. This is true of trademarks and all copyrighted material.

Electronic Media

The creation of electronic media has complicated journalism 100fold. While there are similarities in the way that issues of reporter’s privilege, libel, and more in print and non-print formats are treated from a legal standpoint, there are plenty of differences, as well. In fact, broadcast media are subject to much more limited 1st Amendment rights than their print cohorts. Generally speaking, broadcast media must adhere to the expectations of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), unlike the print media. Add to this the complexities of the Internet, ISPs, cable modems, the exchange of video files, and more, and it is evident that the world of electronic media will continue to pose special challenges to the legal system for years to come. Journalists from all fields are advised to stay abreast of legal matters that relate to their profession. Seven laws journalists now need to know–from database rights to hate speech When you start publishing online you move from the wellthumbed areas of defamation and libel, contempt of court and privilege and privacy to a whole new world of laws and licenses. This is a place where laws you never knew existed can be applied to your work–while other ones can come in surprisingly useful. Here are the key ones: 1. Copyright and ‘public domain’ You may already know your own rights regarding copyright – but what about the rights surrounding images and other content shared by other users across the web?

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Even experienced sub editors have shown themselves to be ignorant of the difference between material that is ‘in the public domain’ and that which is ‘public domain’ content. Read more about the differences in Finding images and multimedia for your news project (without breaking copyright laws). 2. Creative Commons and open data rights The same post also covers the more positive aspect of Creative Commons licensing, which allows you to find and use content quickly and with confidence. Images, audio, video, text and other media with Creative Commons licenses allow you to establish whether you can use that media, and how. What’s more, the Creative Commons site’s own search facility allows you to find such material across a range of websites. Creative Commons isn’t just a legal issue when finding content too – it can be an important factor in distributing it. Adding a Creative Commons license to your own content can help introduce it to new audiences and facilitate collaboration and the creation of new material. Media organisations including broadcasters, magazines, and newspapers have all used this approach successfully, as have independent and freelance operators, and investigative outfits. The ebook The Power of Open has more detail on how some individuals have used Creative Commons – and it’s published under a CC license too, naturally. On another front, open data licenses provide the same facility for establishing rights surrounding data. In the UK, for example, the Open Government License – based on Creative Commons – makes the re-use of government data simpler and clearer than had been the case with Crown Copyright. For other countries, the Open Knowledge Foundation offers a guide to open data licensing, plus a series of licenses you can use with any data you might publish. 3. Database rights The ugly cousin of copyright is Database Rights – the rights held by an organisation or individual who has invested significant resources in compiling data. New information-gathering techniques such as scraping require an understanding of those rights: the scraping itself isn’t a problem – but 270

if you are planning to publish all the data scraped then the rightsholder may have a case against you. A good analogy is a telephone directory: you can publish a phone number without infringing on the database rights of the person which compiled them. And you can use dozens of phone numbers to pursue a story without any problems. But if you want to publish all the numbers then you need to think about whether someone is likely to successfully pursue you for breaking the database rights. 4. Discrimination and hate speech laws As we become increasingly not just journalists but publishers – of content by other people as well as ourselves – we also become responsible for the content published by those people on our sites. Broadly speaking the guidance is that you are only liable for third party content once you are made aware of it – but once a legally problematic comment is brought to your attention you still need to know how to act. This isn’t just about defamation. Of new relevance here in the UK are a number of laws forbidding expression of ‘hate speech’ online: • The Public Order Act 1986 covers comments which stir up hatred based on nationality, colour, and ethnic origins; • The Crime and Disorder Act 1998 covers incitement to ethnic or racial hatred. • The Racial and Religious Hatred Act 2006 relates to stirring up religious hatred; • The Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008 deals with inciting hatred on the basis of sexual orientation. • And the Communications Act 2003, specifically Section 127 – covers “grossly offensive” messages, a term broad enough to include a worrying range of discussion for publishers. Then there are laws on ”encouraging or assisting a crime” under the Serious Crime Act 2007. In addition, if someone claims that they are being harassed on your website, and that harassment is sexual in nature or based on gender, sexuality, disability, age, pregnancy, race or religion, you will need to know about the Equality Act 2010. Where material published on your site that comes under any of these categories is brought to your attention, knowing about these laws at least helps you make a decision about them. If that decision 271

is removal, this will also help you inform the contributor of the legal basis behind the decision. 5. Data protection Another law that becomes relevant in the transformation from journalist to publisher and in the context of new information gathering techniques is the Data Protection Act 1998. This is likely to cover information gathered on users who register on your site, but not those who complete online surveys (there is an exemption for information gathered for journalistic purposes). I write about this in the chapter on law in the Online Journalism Handbook – here are the key points: “The Act requires that you use information only for the purposes for which it is gathered, and only for as long as it is needed … “In practical terms this means that when you gather information you should be clear about what it is to be used for and how the user can gain access to information held about them.” Even if you don’t collect data on individuals yourself, the Data Protection Act is also a great tool if you or a source want to get hold of data held about yourself. Here Heather Brooke talks to me about using the act as a journalist: 6. Harassment and stalking “Defences to a charge of harassment include if you were undertaking actions for the purpose of preventing or detecting crime, or that your conduct was “reasonable” in the particular circumstances. The fewer the incidents, and the more spaced out the instances of those, the weaker the case. If you have complied with an internal code of conduct with regard to privacy and fairness this will also help you.” Laws on stalking have also been used in a similar way 7. Freedom of Information Too much teaching of media law focuses on what you can’t do. But if there’s one law you should read up on, it’s your country’s Freedom of Information act (if it has one). This sets out what rights you – and your site’s users – have to access information held by public bodies such as councils, police authorities, health bodies and national government departments. Don’t just read about the law itself – read up on the judgements (“decision notices“) by the Information Commissioner’s Office and mention those in your requests where relevant. 272

Heather Brooke’s Your Right To Know is an essential reference on using FOI, while the more recent FOIA without the Lawyer from Montague Amin of FOI specialists Request Initiative adds some great tips on how to improve your chances of a successful request. From journalist to publisher to host – what next? These are just 7 areas where journalists’ involvement in hosting, gathering, and requesting content has opened up new areas of law – while other laws are being used in new ways to prevent journalists pursuing a story. I’ve no doubt missed other laws–if you know of other examples please let me know. The First Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees the nation “freedom of the press,” but what does that mean? Most of us have at least a vague notion of freedom of the press, but even after 200 years of the republic, we still have not nailed it down definitively. This chapter explores some of the history and precedents that have helped us arrive where we are today in our ideas of a free press. One of the major ideas on which America operates is that the nation is an “open society.” That is, we expect information to flow freely within the society, and we expect it to be available to us. The freedoms named in the First Amendment (the practice of religion, speech, press, assembly and petitioning the government) reflect this idea of openness. So do our education, social and economic systems. But the idea has its limits. Not everything is openly known or available. Journalism, however, assumes this open environment, and many of the practices of journalism are based on the idea that information will (or should) be available. Another basic idea is that in America we are not restrained from speaking (or printing or posting on a web site) whatever we like. No government entity checks presses, broadcast outlets or web servers before information is disseminated. It is only after information is disseminated (in most cases) that legal consequences of that dissemination can be brought to bear. Those consequences may include libel, copyright and trademark infringement, privacy violations, national security concerns and other torts. Generally, journalists understand the limits of these consequences and, for the most part, do not feel hindered by them. Still, society often entertains many proposals that would limit the free 273

speech, free press and openness that we enjoy, and journalists should remain diligent in opposing these limits and should also work actively to make sure that society remains as open as possible. Study questions • What are the five specific freedoms covered by the First Amendment? • What are the legal lessons to be learned from the story of the Cherry sisters? the Saturday Press in Minneapolis? • What is the significance of a legal precedent? • What is defamation? What must be proven in a defamation case? What are the defenses against defamation? • What is actual malice and how did the concept develop? • What is “fair use” in terms of copyright law? • How much does the concept of privacy mean to journalists legally? • What is a shield law? Lesson Notes Shield laws. Most states have laws that protect reporters, under certain circumstances, from having to reveal their confidential sources to courts or law enforcement officials. (No such law exists at the federal level.) These laws do not offer absolute protection, however, and reporters live in fear that they will be subpoenaed and asked to name their sources. The first years of this century have been perilous for reporters in this regard. The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press has put together a report about journalists being subpoenaed. Here’s how it starts: In 2001, freelance book author Vanessa Leggett broke a record she never aspired to challenge. Serving what would turn out to be a 168-day prison term, she became the longest-jailed journalist in U.S. history held for refusing to disclose a confidential source. Leggett chose to go to prison rather than comply with a subpoena from a federal grand jury. She had claimed that a reporter’s privilege protected her from having to disclose her confidential sources for a book she was writing about a murder case in Texas. After a U.S. District Court judge and an appeals court ordered her to disclose her interviews or go to jail, Leggett stood her ground and turned herself in to prison officials. 274

“I just feel like I’m doing what I have to do to protect my First Amendment right to freedom of the press,” Leggett told an Associated Press reporter on her way to jail. “I feel like what they are doing is wrong.” After her release almost six months later, Leggett said she would be more than willing to go back to jail if she were subpoenaed again. (More) http://www.rcfp.org/agents/intro.html Open records, open government. Many governmental bodies – particularly on the local level – like to operate in secret. That is, bodies such as school boards and zoning authorities find it easier to make decisions when they are not under public scrutiny. Sometimes these decisions are questionable, and those serving on these boards would rather not be questioned. Such an attitude, however, runs counter to how Americans view their government and in fact limits the First Amendment right to petition the government. The National Freedom of Information Center (http://www.nfoic.org/) is an organization set up to fight secrecy in government. Check out NFOIC’s web site, and see if there is a Freedom of Information center in your state. Student Press Law Center. The Student Press Law Center is one of the most valuable legal resources in the field of journalism. The center keeps up with the many challenges to student press freedom throughout the country. It also offers advice to those who might be facing such a challenge. The web site has many resources for students, plus a good list of links (http://splc.org/links.asp) to other organizations with the same interests. State of the First Amendment. A sidebar on page 452 of the book talks about public opinion toward the First Amendment. The survey cited there, conducted by the First Amendment Center (http://www.firstamendmentcenter.org/), has been updated. The following is the introduction to the report on that survey: In 2004, Americans’ support for their First Amendment freedoms — deeply shaken by the terrorist attacks of Sept. 11, 2001 — continues to rebound and is back at pre-9/11 levels, according to the annual State of the First Amendment survey, conducted by the First Amendment Center in collaboration with American Journalism Review magazine. “The 2004 survey found that just 30 percent of those surveyed agreed with the statement, ‘The First Amendment goes too far in the 275

rights it guarantees,’ with 65 percent disagreeing. The nation was split evenly, 49 percent to 49 percent, on that same question two years ago, in the survey following the ‘9/11’ attacks,” said Gene Policinski, acting director of the First Amendment Center. The entire report is available on this site as a PDF file. Need to know more about copyright and fair use? Chances are, you do (even if you have read the section on fair use on page 457). If so, you can take the University of Texas’ crash course in copyright online. Another good web site concerning copyright and fair use is the Stanford University Center for Copyright and Fair Use . Make sure you understand the concepts of copyright and fair use before you use something that you did not create yourself. Being involved with an educational institution does not mean that you can use anything you want to use. James Madison. The author of the First Amendment was James Madison, one of the brightest and most politically astute of the Founding Fathers. Madison studied and thought deeply about many of the political issues confronting the young republic. Here are a couple of the things he wrote about the value of the press in a free society: Whatever facilitates a general intercourse of sentiments, as good roads, domestic commerce, a free press, and particularly a circulation of newspapers through the entire body of the people ... is favorable to liberty. – National Gazette, 1791 It is to the press mankind are indebted for having dispelled the clouds which long encompassed religion, for disclosing her genuine lustre, and disseminating her salutary doctrines. – Speech in the Virginia Assembly, 1799 Key Concepts • The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution guarantees the nation a right to free speech and to a free press; it is the central legal element that allows journalism to operate and develop in this country. • Prior restraint–the power of the government to stop dissemination of information that the news media has acquired; except in a few rare instances, prior restraint does not occur in the United States. 276

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American society generally operates as an open society; that is, we expect information to be available and we assume the right to distribute information. One of the major legal restraints on news organizations is libel, the damage done to a person’s reputation by the publication of false information. New York Times v. Sullivan–this 1964 decision by the Supreme Court gave the news media an extra measure of protection from being sued for libel by public officials. Actual malice–the standard of proof that was established by the New York Times v. Sullivan decision; a public official or public figure has to prove that a news organization showed “reckless disregard” for the truth to win a libel case. Copyrights and trademarks protect “intellectual property” from unauthorized use. The right of privacy is not guaranteed by the U.S. Constitution, but most courts recognize this right, and news organizations have to consider the right of privacy for individuals in making some editorial decisions. News coverage of trials presents a problem for the news media and the legal system because of the feeling that too much publicity may prevent someone from getting a fair trial.

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Chapter 25 Ethical Practices in Journalism Ethics in journalism are based on professional conduct, morality and the truth. Not adhering to these fundamental principles leads to misrepresenting or misleading members of the public, and in some cases jeopardizing their lives. How do journalists decide what news to write each day? How do they convey the science of a politicized issue like climate change? How do they decide when to print national secrets? The answers to all of these questions are informed by journalistic ethics, which guide reporters and editors to seek out the truth and act with integrity. Media ethics is the best division of applied ethics dealing with the specific ethical principles and standards of media, including broadcast media, film, theatre, the arts, print media and the internet. The field covers many varied and highly controversial topics, ranging from war journalism to Benetton ad campaigns. But what Are Ethics in Journalism? Journalistic ethics are the common values that guide reporters. They lay out both the aspirations and obligations that journalists, editors, and others working in the field should follow to execute their work responsibly. Journalism ethics have evolved over time. Most news organizations have their own written codes of ethics, as do professional membership bodies. If a professional journalist or news organization transgresses these ethical standards, they will lose credibility. How do journalists decide what news to write each day? How do they convey the science of a politicized issue like climate change? How do they decide when to print national secrets? The answers to all of these questions are informed by journalistic ethics, which guide reporters and editors to seek out the truth and act with integrity.

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Journalism ethics and standards are principles of good practice. • Professional journalism associations, individual news organizations, and journalists themselves often have their own “code of ethics”; however, most share these basic principles: truthfulness, accuracy, objectivity, impartiality, fairness, and public accountability. • Many journalists also abide by the principle of “limitation of harm” which means that they have a responsibility to not harm others while reporting a story. This is one major difference between professional journalists reporting for “reputable” news organizations as opposed to fringe news sources and fake news creators. • When evaluating a news organization, read its statement or code of ethics. What does it tell you if the organization does not publish its’ ethics for all to access? What Are Ethics in Journalism? Journalistic ethics are the common values that guide reporters. They lay out both the aspirations and obligations that journalists, editors, and others working in the field should follow to execute their work responsibly. Journalism ethics have evolved over time. Most news organizations have their own written codes of ethics, as do professional membership bodies. If a professional journalist or news organization transgresses these ethical standards, they will lose credibility. What Are Some Different Codes of Ethics that Exist for Journalists? Media outlets and journalism associations publish their own ethics codes that apply to their employees or members. These often offer more specific guidance on top of the standard principles. Some examples are: • The Society of Professional Journalists’ Code of Ethics. The oldest journalism association in the United States, the SPJ aims to promote the First Amendment guarantees of freedom of speech and freedom of the press, partly by

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encouraging reporters to practice the high standards in its ethics code. • The Radio Television Digital News Association’s Code of Ethics. This U.S. membership body is specific to digital media. Its ethics code references common issues in internet publishing, such as how to respond to viral news and how to treat sponsored content. • The New York Times Ethical Journalism Guidebook. The New York Times has built its reputation on reporting the news “without fear or favor.” It prioritizes more contextualized news coverage and thorough fact-checking and publishes a comprehensive ethics code to support this. What Are the Standard Ethical Principles for Journalists? There are several key ethical standards that appear across global news organizations. At the highest level, they call on journalists to seek the truth, act in the public interest, and minimize harm. • Honesty. Journalists have an obligation to seek out the truth and report it as accurately as possible. This requires diligence: this means making every effort to seek out all the facts relevant to a story. Journalists should also corroborate any information with multiple sources. • Independence. Journalists should avoid taking political sides and should not act on behalf of special interest groups. Any political affiliations or financial investments that might constitute a conflict of interest with the subject they are writing about should be declared to editors and readers. Some organizations characterize this principle as “objectivity,” while others, especially non-profit civic journalism projects, reject this term, as they position themselves explicitly on the side of public interest. • Fairness. In addition to being independent, journalists should show impartiality and balance in their reporting. Most news stories have more than one side, and journalists should capture this. That said, they should not place two different perspectives on equal footing where one is unsupported by evidence. The exception to the impartiality rule is opinion writing, as well as “gonzo” journalism and creative nonfiction.

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Public accountability. News organizations should listen to their audience. To enable the public to hold them accountable, journalists should write under their own bylines and accept responsibility for their words. When news outlets publish factual errors, they need to issue a correction. Harm minimization. Not every fact that can be published should be published. If the amount of harm that could come to private individuals—particularly children—as a result of disclosure exceeds the public good that would come of it, then news outlets might choose not to publish the story. This is less of a consideration when it comes to public figures. It is huge, however, in matters of national security, where lives could be on the line. Avoiding libel. This is a legal as well as a moral imperative for journalists. Journalists cannot print false statements that damage a person’s reputation. In most jurisdictions, true statements cannot be libelous, so journalists can protect themselves by rigorously checking facts. Proper attribution. Journalists must never plagiarise. If they use information from another media outlet or journalist, they need to attribute it to them.

What Does Ethical Journalism Look Like in Practice? It is easy to agree on the principles of ethical journalism, but applying them in real life is harder. Because the goal to reveal the truth can sometimes clash with the duty to limit harm, it is up to journalists and editors to choose how to act. For example, journalist Bob Woodward, famous for breaking the Watergate scandal in the 1970s, goes to great lengths to demonstrate he has no political affiliations. He does not even show partiality towards news networks, giving interviews to news media on both ends of the political spectrum. He doesn’t vote in presidential elections in order to send the message that he is “in the middle of the road.” How Did Journalism Ethics Come Into Play During the Pentagon Papers? The Pentagon Papers, a major investigative story The New York Times and The Washington Post, is a great example of the need for journalism ethics. The stories were published in 1971 and based on 282

classified documents leaked by military whistleblower Daniel Ellsberg. The documents showed that the U.S. government had escalated the Vietnam War and kept information about its true aims and actions hidden from the public. On one hand, journalists had a duty to reveal the truth, as it was in the public interest. On the other hand, they also had a duty to protect the people named in the classified documents. Such papers can contain the names of secret operatives or reveal military plans— information that can cost lives and arguably weaken the nation if made public. In this case, the two newspapers were guided by public interest. They decided Americans’ need to know about the government’s deceit outweighed the risks of revealing certain information. The U.S. government tried to suppress further publication of the documents, but the Supreme Court ruled that the newspapers had a right to make their own decision under the First Amendment. In sum, there are four ethical standards outlined in the SPJ code: • Seek Truth and Report It: Ethical journalism should be accurate and fair. Journalists should be honest and courageous in gathering, reporting and interpreting information. • Minimize Harm :Ethical journalism treats sources, subjects, colleagues and members of the public as human beings deserving of respect. • Act Independently: The highest and primary obligation of ethical journalism is to serve the public. • Be Accountable and Transparent: Ethical journalism means taking responsibility for one’s work and explaining one’s decisions to the public. Be Truthful and Give Credit Credit Where Credit is Due • The International Federation of Journalists states that the first duty of a journalist is to have “respect for truth and for the right of the public to truth”. • Never, ever plagiarize! Give credit to the sources of information you have employed, whether you are paraphrasing or using a direct quote. If you are just beginning your journalism degree and are still unclear about what

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plagiarism exactly entails – do not be embarrassed – consult professors or veteran journalists for guidance. Do not fabricate sources (or quotes from actual sources), events, information, statistics, experiences or scenes. Do not distort photographs or videos (this could lead to a misrepresentation of the truth). The Society of Professional Journalists states, “Image enhancement for technical clarity is always permissible”. Credit photographers/videographers and make sure you are not infringing on any copyright rules (i.e., ask for permission before using photos/videos). Strive to uncover the truth to the best of your abilities in order to avoid misrepresentation and oversimplification for subjective means. Seek to cover all angles and thoroughly research multiple, reputable sources. That being said, unofficial sources can also be credible.

Journalists Respect Human Rights • In some cases, the identity of your sources may need to be anonymous for their own personal and professional safety. Respect this and acknowledge them as a source chosen to be unnamed. The Society of Professional Journalists adds that you should question why a person wishes to be anonymous and to establish clear conditions with your source from the beginning. • When a source asks for sections of an interview to be “off the record,” respect this request. • Respect the privacy of those dealing with tragedy and avoid providing potentially harmful information (such as the name of a minor, a victim of a sex crime or the address of a lottery winner). • Do not engage in slanderous or stereotypical/discriminatory communication. For example, be wary of naming suspects before they have been formally charged. • You’re encouraged to illustrate the diversity of human experiences and views, no matter how unpopular they may be. • As a photojournalist, be conscious of your behavior. There is a fine line between taking photos to accurately represent a

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breaking news story/opinion piece and infringing on privacy or even risking the safety of your subjects. Objectivity • Distinguish between writing factual-news stories and opinion/advocacy pieces and label them accordingly. The former should be written as objectively as possible. • You should not purposefully hide or omit information in order to further support your own personal agenda. • Stay clear of any potential conflicts of interest. • Avoid showing preferential treatment to corporate, political or public groups. Every entity should be reported on equally. Do not accept gifts/bribes in exchange for covering stories in a certain way. Accept Responsibility • If you’ve realized you’ve made mistakes accurately presenting to the truth, accept responsibility and supply the corrections to the public via your media source. • Invite the public to ask questions/seek clarification on the stories you’ve covered and with the media at large. • Hold yourself and others accountable to journalism ethics. Five Core Principles of Journalism Truth and Accuracy Journalists cannot always guarantee ‘truth’, but getting the facts right is the cardinal principle of journalism. We should always strive for accuracy, give all the relevant facts we have and ensure that they have been checked. When we cannot corroborate information we should say so. Independence Journalists must be independent voices; we should not act, formally or informally, on behalf of special interests whether political, corporate or cultural. We should declare to our editors – or the audience – any of our political affiliations, financial arrangements or other personal information that might constitute a conflict of interest.

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Fairness and Impartiality Most stories have at least two sides. While there is no obligation to present every side in every piece, stories should be balanced and add context. Objectivity is not always possible, and may not always be desirable (in the face for example of brutality or inhumanity), but impartial reporting builds trust and confidence. Humanity Journalists should do no harm. What we publish or broadcast may be hurtful, but we should be aware of the impact of our words and images on the lives of others. Accountability A sure sign of professionalism and responsible journalism is the ability to hold ourselves accountable. When we commit errors we must correct them and our expressions of regret must be sincere not cynical. We listen to the concerns of our audience. We may not change what readers write or say but we will always provide remedies when we are unfair. EJN supporters do not believe that we need to add new rules to regulate journalists and their work in addition to the responsibilities outlined above, but we do support the creation of a legal and social framework, that encourages journalists to respect and follow the established values of their craft. In doing so, journalists and traditional media, will put themselves in a position to be provide leadership about what constitutes ethical freedom of expression. What is good for journalism is also good for others who use the Internet or online media for public communications. As professionals, journalists are expected to live up to certain standards of behavior. Basic honesty — both to oneself and to others — lies at the heart of ethical behavior. A journalist who is not honest violates the trust that a news organization, the audience and the journalist’s colleagues place in him or her. Even with this basic honesty and a determination to “do right,” journalists encounter situations that are ambiguous and challenge their ability to apply moral certainties. One means of resolving these situations is for journalists to develop an understanding of the loyalties they are expected to have. Those loyalties include the ones they have to their news organizations, their colleagues, the news

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consumers who depend on them for information and themselves and their own moral principles. Certain practices are not tolerated by the profession. One is falsification — making things up. Another is plagiarism — copying the work of others without giving proper credit. Journalists are also expected to work for one news organization, and before they do work for another (while still being compensated by the first), they need to get the approval of the editors of that organization. They are also expected to reveal any connections they have with people or organizations in the news that might call into question their fairness and objectivity. Study questions • What are the basic ethical considerations of the profession of journalism? • What is the job of the journalist? • What are the major ethical violations that journalists are likely to commit? • Who was Billy Sipple, and what does his case tell us about journalistic ethics? • The chapter suggests approaching ethical dilemmas, and their solutions, in terms of loyalties. What does that mean? Key Concepts • As in most other professions, journalists find that there are few, if any, moral absolutes; even “tell the truth” is not something that can be strictly observed when telling the truth would do more harm than good. • Honesty is at the heart of the journalistic process; journalists should be honest not only about the information they present but also about their motivations. • Journalists should treat their audiences with respect. • The basic job of the journalist is to gather important and interesting information, put that information in a form acceptable to the medium for which the journalist works, and disseminate that information to an audience. • One approach to journalistic ethics is to examine the loyalties that journalists have – to their news organizations, their audiences, their professional colleagues and themselves. 287

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Plagiarism – using the work of another person and presenting it as your own without giving any credit. Conflict of interest – a situation in which a journalist may have divided loyalties, a loyalty to the profession and a loyalty outside the profession; this conflict might prevent the journalist from presenting information honestly.

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Chapter 26 Peace Journalism What is Peace Journalism? Peace Journalism is when editors and reporters make choices that improve the prospects for peace. These choices, including how to frame stories and carefully choosing which words are used, create an atmosphere conducive to peace and supportive of peace initiatives and peacemakers, without compromising the basic principles of good journalism. (Adapted from Lynch/McGoldrick, Peace Journalism). Peace Journalism gives peacemakers a voice while making peace initiatives and non-violent solutions more visible and viable. The Peace Journalist is dedicated to disseminating news and information for and about teachers, students, and practitioners of peace and conflict sensitive journalism. Submissions are welcome from all. We are seeking shorter submissions (300500 words) detailing peace journalism projects, classes, proposals, etc. We also welcome longer submissions (800-1200 words) about peace or conflict sensitive journalism projects or programs, as well as academic works from the field. What is peace? Any overview of peace journalism must begin with a quick examination of the concept of peace itself. Peace has traditionally been defined simply as the lack of conflict or violence. However, one of the fathers of peace studies (and peace journalism), Norwegian academic Dr. Johan Galtung, has written extensively about positive and negative peace. In this construct, Galtung says negative peace is simply the absence of conflict, whereas positive peace consists of conditions where justice, equity, harmony, and so on can flourish. For the purposes of peace journalism, Galtung’s notion of positive peace is particularly applicable, since peace journalists strive to spotlight individuals and initiatives that seek these harmonious conditions, and to lead constructive public dialogues about issues that pertain to justice and equity.

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Defining Peace Journalism There are several valid definitions of peace journalism. Dr. Jake Lynch and Annabel McGoldrick, in their groundbreaking book Peace Journalism define it as, “when editors and reporters make choices - of what to report, and how to report it - that create opportunities for society at large to consider and value non-violent responses to conflict.” Their definition goes on to say that PJ ”uses the insights of conflict analysis and transformation to update the concepts of balance, fairness and accuracy in reporting. It also provides a new road map tracing the connections between journalists, their sources, the stories they cover and the consequences of their journalism, and builds an awareness of nonviolence and creativity into the practical job of everyday editing and reporting.” The Center for Global Peace Journalism at Park University in Parkville, Missouri, adapts and expands on the Lynch/McGoldrick definition. The center says that PJ is a practice in which “editors and reporters make choices that improve the prospects for peace. These choices, including how to frame stories and carefully choosing which words are used, create an atmosphere conducive to peace and supportive of peace initiatives and peacemakers, without compromising the basic principles of good journalism. Peace Journalism gives peacemakers a voice while making peace initiatives and non-violent solutions more visible and viable.” Just as important is a consideration of what peace journalism is not. It is not, according to the Center for Global Peace Journalism and Lynch, open advocacy for peace. Instead, PJ is about, in Lynch’s words, “giving peace a chance.” Lynch and McGoldrick lay out a number of principles of peace journalism, including a widely distributed chart comparing peace journalism to “war and violence journalism” and a 17-point checklist of “what a peace journalist would try to do.” In the chart, war and violence journalism is reporting characterized by us vs. them narratives that demonize them, the spreading of propaganda, reporting that is victory-oriented, reactive and elite oriented that focuses only on visible effects of violence. Peace journalism is the opposite. It’s reporting that is proactive,

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humanizes the other side, gives voice to everyday people, and discusses solutions. Four items from Lynch/McGoldrick’s 17-point plan for peace journalism focus on the importance of language, and particularly in avoiding language that victimizes (devastated, destitute, defenseless”), is imprecise and emotive (“tragedy,” “massacre,” “systematic”), demonizes (“vicious,” “cruel,” “barbaric”), and imprecisely labels (“terrorist,” “extremist,” “fanatic,” “fundamentalist”). Other key points include avoiding reporting about conflict as if it is a zero-sum game (one winner, one loser); reporting about common ground shared by parties involved in the conflict; avoiding reporting only the violent acts and “the horror”; and not reporting claims as though they are facts. This text, as well as other early writings on the subject of peace journalism, were largely focused specifically on war reporting— reporting that occurs both before and during violent conflict. However, during the 10 years since Peace Journalism, theorists and practitioners (including the Center for Global Peace Journalism, among others) have expanded this original war reporting orientation into other fields of journalistic endeavor, discovering along the way the utility of PJ principles to inform and improve practices in reporting politics and elections, terrorism, crime, and human right. In fact, the peace journalism approach can be used to guide reporting about any type of conflict (politics, ethnic, resource disputes, civil unrest, religious), and not just those that involve violence or war. Keeping in mind peace journalism’s applicability across these many domains, the Center for Global Peace Journalism, using the Lynch/McGoldrick 17 points as a foundation, has devised a 10-point list that describes the elements of peace journalism. In sum, peace journalism can be described as journalism that offers a more balanced perspective of war and conflict than that provided by the dominant mainstream media. For instance, peace journalism aims to construct realities from all sides, and to reveal less visible causes and effects of war and violence, such as their cost in terms of the dead and disabled, and of the destruction of social order and institutions, while refraining from dehumanizing the enemy. Rather than emphasizing what divides opposed parties, as is common in mainstream media war coverage, peace journalism seeks to uncover any possible areas of agreement between them. It offers 291

analysis of what caused the conflict and tries to suggest how it may be resolved or transformed in cases where resolution is impossible or too difficult. As such, it may include peace advocacy journalism, which shares many of its characteristics but with an explicitly articulated point of view that aims above all to persuade. While scholars have long studied how media report war, attention given to peace journalism in the academy is relatively recent, dating from the 1970s and flourishing in the 1990s and beyond. Peace Journalism Elements 1. PJ is proactive, examining the causes of conflict, and leading discussions about solutions. 2. PJ looks to unite parties, rather than divide them, and eschews oversimplified “us vs. them” and “good guy vs. bad guy” reporting. 3. Peace reporters reject official propaganda, and instead seek facts from all sources. 4. PJ is balanced, covering issues/suffering/peace proposals from all sides of a conflict. 5. PJ gives voice to the voiceless, instead of just reporting for and about elites and those in power. 6. Peace journalists provide depth and context, rather than just superficial and sensational “blow by blow” accounts of violence and conflict. 7. Peace journalists consider the consequences of their reporting. 8. Peace journalists carefully choose and analyze the words they use, understanding that carelessly selected words are often inflammatory. 9. Peace journalists thoughtfully select the images they use, understanding that they can misrepresent an event, exacerbate an already dire situation, and re-victimize those who have suffered. 10. Peace Journalists offer counter-narratives that debunk media created or perpetuated stereotypes, myths, and misperceptions. The 10 PJ principles, and those laid out by Lynch and McGoldrick, were created in response to sensational, irresponsible reporting that ignores or devalues peaceful responses while exacerbating already tense, contentious, difficult situations. This irresponsible reporting underscores the need for peace journalism.

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Pursuing a journalism of truth and peace around the world The term “fake news” continues to receive a great deal of attention. Even Pope Francis fell victim to the phenomenon a few years back when some Facebook headlines claimed he endorsed Donald Trump for president. He didn’t, of course, because popes don’t endorse political candidates. Thankfully, many Catholic and mainstream media clarified the erroneous report. In many ways, the attempt to use media to peddle falsehoods and disinformation isn’t anything new. It’s always been a favorite tool of dictators and propagandists. But the potential reach and impact of fake news has grown because of the pervasiveness of social media and because a large segment of the public seemingly lacks the media literacy skills to know the difference between fake news and accurate, well-sourced reporting. Ultimately, fake news erodes trust in reputable journalism and the free press. It’s bad for society and the church — even dangerous. Pope Francis recognizes this, and that’s why he focused his 2018 World Communications Day message on the theme, “‘The truth will set you free’ (John 8:32): Fake news and journalism for peace.” The purveyors of fake news use “snake tactics” to perpetuate untruths and dishonesty, just as the devil in the Book of Genesis did with Adam and Eve, the pope said. The only defense is truth. This includes freedom from falsehoods, but it also means communication that encourages listening and dialoguing with others. It means fostering community and promoting responsibility and goodness for the benefit of the common good. Journalists, Pope Francis said, are the “protectors of news.” Our work isn’t just a job, it’s a mission — one that puts the dignity of the human person at the center of everything we do. Good journalists, including good Catholic journalists, must ensure the accuracy of sources, build trust and serve all people, especially the poor, the vulnerable and those who otherwise would have no voice. A “journalism for peace” is one committed to hope, mercy and dialogue, eschewing “shouting matches and verbal violence.” About 280 people from 26 countries attended the International St. Francis de Sales Days Jan. 24-26 in Lourdes, France. (Photo by Dianne Towalski / The Visitor) The pope’s message dovetailed with the theme of the International St. Francis de Sales Days conference in Lourdes, 293

France, a gathering I recently attended in my role as president of the Catholic Press Association of the United States and Canada. The three-day meeting began Jan. 24 — the day Pope Francis released his Communications Day message and the feast day of St. Francis de Sales, patron of journalists. The conference focused on the “Media and Truth” and included representatives from 26 countries. It was sponsored by France’s Federation of Catholic Media and the Vatican’s Secretariat for Communication. Panel presenters addressed the topic of truth from various philosophical, theological and journalistic perspectives. Speakers included Msgr. Dario Edoardo Vigano, head of the Vatican communication secretariat; Natasa Govekar, director of the secretariat’s theological-pastoral department and keynoter for this year’s Catholic Media Conference in Green Bay; and Helen Osman, president of SIGNIS, the World Catholic Association for Communications. During her panel presentation, Osman addressed the importance of training and hiring good local journalists—those who listen, as Pope Francis asks, to the needs and hopes of the people on the street and in the pews. This is what builds trust between journalists and the public, making people less vulnerable to the purveyors of fake news. Also, during the conference, Cardinal Pietro Parolin, the Vatican secretary of state, presented the Father Jacques Hamel Prize to honor the legacy of the late French priest who was killed during a Mass in 2016 by two men claiming allegiance to the Islamic State. The winner was a French reporter who published a story about how two brothers —one Catholic, one a convert to Islam—and their families have worked to navigate their religious differences, especially after the Paris terrorist attacks in November 2015. The story didn’t gloss over hard realities. But it exemplified the positive impact a story has when it’s based in truth, a sense of hope and a commitment to shedding light on important issues instead of only stoking fires, which seems to be the focus of so much 24/7 reporting today. The International St. Francis de Sales Days were a powerful reminder of the responsibility we are given in our work here at The Visitor. It re-emphasized for me the importance—no matter what part of the world we are from—of supporting fellow Catholic communicators in our mission of searching for and communicating 294

the truth, which is ultimately rooted in the Good News of Jesus Christ. There are too many misleading and unhealthy messages competing for people’s attention for us not to be learning from one another and working together whenever possible. This month, which is Catholic Press Month, is a good time to reflect on Pope’s Francis’ Communications Day message and its importance for Catholic journalists around the world as they strive to report the truth and combat fake news in all of its forms. Communications Day prayer Pope Francis included the following prayer at the end of his 2018 World Communications Day message: Lord, make us instruments of your peace. Help us to recognize the evil latent in a communication that does not build communion. Help us to remove the venom from our judgments. Help us to speak about others as our brothers and sisters. You are faithful and trustworthy; may our words be seeds of goodness for the world: where there is shouting, let us practice listening; where there is confusion, let us inspire harmony; where there is ambiguity, let us bring clarity; where there is exclusion, let us offer solidarity; where there is sensationalism, let us use sobriety; where there is superficiality, let us raise real questions; where there is prejudice, let us awaken trust; where there is hostility, let us bring respect; where there is falsehood, let us bring truth. Amen. NB: The author Joe Towalski, is the editor for The Central Minnesota Catholic Magazine. The idea of peace journalism has attracted its share of critiques and controversies, but as Vanessa Bassil argues, it still offers a much needed and practical, peace-oriented perspective from which media can be analysed and produced (See Peace Journalism: A Needed, Desirable And Practicable Reform by Vanessa Bassil, Published in the Peace and Conflict Monitor, University for Peace, Costa Rica, 02 July, 2014).

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Journalism is not just about “reporting facts”. It is about “what” to report and “how” to report, which implies selection and responsibility and hence, high standards of ethics and principles, especially when reporting on conflicts. However, to have a good understanding of conflicts in general, humanity had to wait until the twentieth century for the new emerging field of peace and conflict studies to present evaluative criteria, tools, and approaches to analyze conflicts for the sake of knowing how better to deal with them. The concept of peace journalism has taken advantage of what this new field of research is offering about understanding conflicts and securing world peace, by using conflict analysis and transformation to update the concepts of balance, fairness and accuracy in the traditional news reporting[1]. In fact, the term “peace journalism” has been coined by the father of peace studies, the Norwegian scholar Johan Galtung who put forward a model of peace reporting during Taplow Court summer school in the UK in August 1997, organized by the former BBC journalist Jake Lynch,[2] who, since then, has pioneered the path of peace journalism[3]. So, what is peace journalism? “Peace Journalism is defined “when editors and reporters make choices of what to report, and how to report it that create opportunities for society at large to consider and value non-violent responses to conflict”[4]. It presents a “road map that traces the connections between journalists, their sources and the consequences of their reporting”[5]. It is a “remedial strategy”, and an “attempt to supplement the news conventions to give peace a chance”[6]. Peace Journalism is characterized by five main principles: 1) exploration of the backgrounds and contexts of conflict formation of all the sides involved in the conflict, not just two sides as the mainstream media usually portrays, 2) giving voice to the views of all rival parties from all levels, 3) offering creative ideas for conflict resolution, development, peacemaking and peacekeeping, exposing lies, covering-up attempts and culprits on all sides, and revealing excesses committed by, and suffering inflicted on peoples of all parties, and 5) paying attention to peace stories and post-war developments[7]. The peace journalism model differentiates between what is violence-war/victory journalism and what is conflict-sensitive or 296

peace journalism. What is called war journalism is oriented towards violence in reporting, propaganda, elite and victory. On the other side, peace journalism is conflict, truth, people and solution-oriented journalism[8]. Since its emerging in the mid-1990s, peace journalism has attracted practitioners and scholars from all over the world as well as others who are interested in the relation between media, peace and conflict. Peace journalism has now become a “globally distributed reform movement of reporters, academics and activists”[9]. However, although the field of peace journalism is a growing field that is being spread in all continents, it keeps attracting critiques. The controversy is still on-going whether the concept is needed first and can be practiced second. Just as any new concept that seeks to correct a conventional reality, peace journalism is unwelcomed by some practitioners, particularly the ones who refuse the idea of problematising mainstream media reporting that they belong togenerally speaking- as “war reporting”.[10] The starting point of this paper is thus the debate that peace journalism has provoked regarding its necessity, desirability and feasibility. I will present the concept of peace journalism as a reform necessary to the improvement of the overall journalism quality, by proving first its need in light of the reality of media today that I will showcase through examples from the field. Also, far from assuming that objectivity is an absolute value, yet, important as an essential journalistic principle, I will examine the desirability of the reformative concept of peace journalism from the very principle of objectivity, and point particularly at “framing” as one of the news features that peace journalism reinforces. Finally, I will attempt to demonstrate how peace journalism can be practiced on the organizational, professional and procedural levels. I- The need of Peace Journalism “Agreement is seldom reported. Bad news is good news”[11]. That’s the problem of the news reporting practice that leads to misrepresentation of the reality, especially in conflict times, in addition to the big reliance on official sources that cannot be enough, neither accurate to portray the full image to the public. The need of peace journalism is born out of this problem of news coverage. Galtung and Ruge tried to find out since 1965 “what events make the news?”[12], when the world was highly tensed in light of the 297

division between two blocs, one leaded by the United States of America, and the other one by the former Soviet Union. This does not imply that the world tension is less today with the new world order, however, the question of what makes the news is still a relevant one, trying to be answered by many researchers. In their paper, Galtung and Ruge came up with twelve factors that determine the foreign news selection of local journalists in Norway: frequency, threshold, unambiguity, meaningfulness, consonance, unexpectedness, continuity, composition, reference to elite nations, reference to elite people, reference to persons, and reference to something negative.[13] For long time, this publication was considered as the “most influential explanation” of news values[14], before other studies came out as revisit and reconsideration of this list,[15] or even suggested another one[16]. The Norwegians researchers have found out that some of these factors, especially the ones that refer to official sources produce patterns of inclusion in conflict reporting, and make news content dominated by representational conventions[17]. Peace Journalism derives from this very insight, and criticizes the patterns that emphasize official sources over people sources, event over process and violence over peace. Conflicts are represented thus as a zero-sum game and the parties involved are reduced into only two that are fighting over one particular goal[18]. For that, “news needs remedial measures to ‘give peace a chance’, because these conventions predispose it to a form of war journalism, which is neither fair nor accurate”[19]. In relation to its orientation towards official sources, war journalism relies highly on propaganda that can be defined as an attempt to “shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions and direct behavior”[20]. There are many examples on conflict reporting that reflect how media can be prey to propaganda and thus create willingly or not a manipulated audience. The international coverage of the war in Iraq is a clear indication of media control by political sources narratives. By not making sure if the information are accurate or not, western media did not hesitate to cover prominently the statements of the Bush administration about the “weapons of mass destruction” that turned out to be false.[21] The problem of inaccuracy, unfairness and unbalance in the mainstream media is acknowledged by the practitioners themselves. 298

The BBC journalist David Lyon writes in a conclusion after a long critique of peace journalism: This is not to say that everything in journalism is fine. In a world where Fox News, with its ridiculously partisan comic-book view of foreign news, can try to patent the notion of being “Fair and Balanced”, and where most British newspapers take a strong “line” one way or another on conflicts, there are problems. Seeing the “Sun” trying to find good news from Iraq has had a sort of black humor in recent months. The affair of Iraq’s missing weapons of mass destruction raised searching questions in newsrooms on both sides of the Atlantic as it should have. Research findings showing that most of the British television audience believe it is the Palestinians who are “occupying” territory, not Israelis, should set alarm bells ringing.[22]

Because peace journalism stresses on many principles that already exist in the field, it might lead to the thinking that all what it does is reinventing the wheel[23]. However, there are some elements in news reporting that the concept of peace journalism highly emphasizes on: framing[24]. Although framing is an essential news feature,[25] peace journalism uses from an approach that takes seriously into consideration the effects that this frame has on public. From previous journalism studies as the ones undertaken by McQuail for example, we know already that media play a big role in constructing social reality[26]. The frames chosen by journalists, either intentionally or unintentionally, dictate the way this reality is constructed, and therefore, the understanding of the public of it. According to Gitlin, frames, “largely unspoken, unacknowledged, organize the world both for journalists who report it and, in some important degree, for us who rely on their reports”.[27] The media coverage of the wars in Eastern Europe, is an obvious example of how propaganda and manipulation manifest through a political representation of the conflict, framed in a way that serve the interests of media controllers. Ruigrok states: During the war in Kosovo, the media contributed to an atmosphere in which the international community was making up for earlier mistakes. With the inaction still in mind with respect to the Bosnian war, western governments were eager to react in Kosovo. […]The use of the term ‘ethnic cleansing’ by the media and governmental officials is an example of this […]. The Serbs became the ‘issue owner’ of the term,

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portrayed over and over as the main perpetrators of ethnic cleansing and other war crimes against the Muslim population. Having framed the conflict in Bosnia in such a way, it was a small step to continue this type of coverage during Kosovo. Western newspapers for example framed the air strikes as humanitarian aid to the Albanians to stop the ‘ethnic cleansing’ initiated by the Serbs.[28]

The Rwandan genocide did not make any exception neither for the inaccuracy of media coverage and its rely on non-African sources while covering an African war, and representing it in a frame that fits the formula us [westerns] vs them [African tribals].[29] Whether we study frames from the media side, (media frames), or from the public side (individual frames), as dependent or independent variables (the factors that push the journalists to choose certain frames and the effects they produce, and the factors that influence the way the public understands issues based on the way they receive news from the media)[30], the credit goes for peace journalism to raise the frame feature of news as an essential element of consideration in the journalistic work. The idea of a critical and forward-looking press implies that the media are also capable of questioning certain generally accepted beliefs and assumptions,[31] and the frames that peace journalism offers to the journalists facilitate this task. Some critics reproach peace journalism about not presenting anything new[32]. However, having an expectation of “invention” from a social science discipline, whether is related to communication or peace and conflict fields, is simply unrealistic as social sciences do not aim to invent anything but actually look at what it exists already but from different approaches, perspectives and levels, and this is what peace journalism does to the already existing journalism field. Furthermore, both communication and peace and conflict are multidisciplinary fields, which reflects their complexities, and any concept that derives from them, such as peace journalism, aims to understand or illustrate the complexity that characterizes them. II) The desirability of Peace Journalism Peace journalism has provoked a serious debate on the role of journalists in society generally and conflicts particularly and how this role would affect the principle of objectivity in news reporting. The mass media are known to perform the function of sustaining the existing world view rather being an agent of change.[33] One 300

would argue that being an agent of change is not the job of a journalist, as “reporters need to preserve their position as observers not players”.[34] However, journalists are players in the society, and even very important ones, otherwise why would the media be called the Forth Power in democratic regimes? They do not play a role in the news as such, but they do have a role in the way they report the news and how they report it. In this sense, they are not simple observers but actors, in respect of the responsibility that they carry in their work, not out of engagement, in the political sense of the word. It is this responsibility that peace journalism stresses on, and from the journalistic responsibility ethics, it calls on the awareness to consider the consequences of the reporting on the audience and sometimes the news developments themselves. In contrary of what its opponents think, peace journalism does not present itself as the rescuer of the world problems, and is clearly not an advocacy journalism and none of its pioneers or advocates calls for advocacy in reporting. Neither the ten points of Galtung in “What I would like to see in a peace-oriented newspaper”[35] nor the “17-point plan for practical Peace Journalism” presented by Lynch and McGoldrick contains elements of advocacy. “Give a voice to both or all parties in the conflict”, “make explicit the intellectual frame of reference”, emphasizing less “elite nations, elite persons, personification and negative events”, “not underestimating the public”, “portraying more clearly the benefits of peace”, looking at the problems of development not only political[36] ”avoid only reporting the violent acts and describing “the horror” [… ], instead show how people have been blocked and frustrated or deprived in everyday life as a way of explaining how the conditions for violence are being produced” [37] etc. Advocating for peace journalism does not mean making journalism an advocacy. Also, by calling on an active and responsible role in reporting complex issues by providing contexts rather than a passive and superficial one, peace journalism shouldn’t be confused with journalism of attachment, a term that appeared upon the war in Bosnia, where some reporters took the side of the Bosnian government against the Serbs.[38] Former BBC correspondent Martin Bell defines journalism of attachment as a journalism that 301

“will not stand neutrally between good and evil, right and wrong, the victim and the oppressor”.[39] Peace journalists do have distance from the matter they report on, and since they aim to report on all sides of the conflict by providing necessary contexts, they are not thus engaged personally in one of the sides of the conflict. Therefore, the kind of journalism they are doing is not a journalism of activism or one of its forms “journalism of attachment” that makes them loose their neutrality. [40] This is said, peace journalism does not conflict with the sacred principle in journalism which is objectivity. However, it is important to note that this principle is debatable even before the concept of peace journalism saw the light, and it is still controversial in both academia and media regardless peace journalism. Therefore, it would be more useful to try to find answers to the controversy about objectivity and subjectivity in the nature of human being in general, before bringing it to peace journalism discussion or even journalism field. It would be also important to take into consideration the social and economic changes in the era of globalization that are shifting the nature of journalism from “public service and objectivity to one of consumerism and commercialism”.[41] On the other hand, the following question would be worth asking: If peace journalism isn’t an objective journalism, than what would war journalism be considered then? Also, if researchers and media practitioners found out finally that objectivity do not exist, then, when this happens, peace journalism would claim to be bias towards peace instead of war. In all cases, peace journalism is a preferable journalism, as it provides a more accurate representation of the conflict through providing backgrounds, contexts and underlying processes that traditional media usually do not provide them to the audience.[42] ”It does not promote particular accounts and perspectives, but where they are unjustly excluded, it should enable them to be seen and heard”.[43] III) The practicability of Peace Journalism The journalistic practice is continuously faced by many challenges. It is attached to political determinants, economic imperatives, newsroom structures and working routines. It is thus not only shaped by political influences, but also by economic, organizational and institutional ones.[44] 302

According to the widely-known levels-of-influences on the media content defined by Shoemaker and Reese, the individual influence comes first, in addition to the media routines, the organization, the extramedia level and the ideological one.[45] Based on a survey conducted in 2010 with 1700 journalists from 17 countries to study what they consider to be sources of influence on their work, the findings have revealed six domains of influences: political (influence from political context, government officials and politicians), economic (journalists’ profits expectations from their news organizations, advertisers and the market), procedural (limited resources in terms of space and time, and standards and routines of news work), organizational (supervisors, higher editors, managers and owners of the news organization), professional (policies, conventions, laws) and reference groups (colleagues, competing news organizations, audiences, family and friends)[46]. In contrary to the general assumption about the big influence of economic and political factors, the hierarchy of influence that the journalists precise in this study revealed that these two factors are actually overestimated, as the most influential forces on their work comes actually from the organizational domain first, professional second, and procedural third.[47] A continuation of this study has revealed later that the influences are relative and may differ from one country to another, according to national contexts[48]. By comparison with the differences between countries from developing and developed countries “the differences between countries on perceived political and economic influences are obviously larger than the differences on perceived organizational, professional, and procedural influences and reference groups.”[49] ”Political influences are indeed perceived to be more powerful in less democratic countries, as well as in nations with lower levels of press freedom and higher levels of political parallelism”.[50] Although according to these studies, journalists do not perceive political factor as the most influential factor in their work, in contrary to what media and communication research highlights on, this does not mean that political influence does not exist.[51] However, since the journalists are the ones that, at the end of the day who are going or not to practice peace journalism, it would be thus useful and effective to find answers to what they think it is challenging for the practice of their work. 303

Therefore, I am going to bring the potential of the practicability of peace journalism to the findings of the above-mentioned research, taking into consideration that “influence” doesn’t necessarily have to be negative and assuming that changes will occur on the three above most influential levels, only if peace journalism has been introduced to the processes that the journalistic work engage in as an editorial decision based on an editorial will. 1. Organizational influence: In reference to the categorization of the survey of the organizational influence between: “within the newsroom”, and “within the media organization”, in respect to editorial and managerial decisionmakers, peace journalism once included in the editorial and managerial line of the news organization, it would affect all working journalists in the organization. Since organizational influence means in other terms people in leadership positions drawing the road work of the employees, the influence that peace journalism can have on their decisions would affect the organizational structure as a whole, as by changing people, the structure would change. 2. Professional influence: In contrary to religious books, policies and conventions of a profession can and should change. Journalism field is not an exception. If a conflictsensitive approach to media coverage was never or not enough considered before the emergence of peace and conflict studies, then it is time now to include it in the conventions of the journalism profession. Some media organizations are already indirectly adopting the principles of peace journalism without calling it this way. This is said, the ethical framework that peace journalism offers in respect of the media coverage of conflicts can be adopted by more media outlets which care about high standards of professionalism and ethics[52], at least by theory. This fact lead then to influencing professionally all the editors who work within the organization. 3. Procedural influence: Procedure is a very practical factor. And just as any profession in the world, journalism has its own. It is determined by many standards and routines already established, and whatever type of media they work in, 304

journalists will found themselves limited by space and time. However, this shouldn’t be an excuse to not present a quality media content. Principles such as accuracy, fairness and balance in reporting are essential standards, and peace journalism stresses a lot on them and goes further by suggesting itself as a concept that updates those principles through the usage of conflict analysis and transformation techniques.[53] Conclusion Peace journalism is a constructive response to the problem of news reporting in today’s world that rely heavily on elites sources, violent acts, inflammatory elements and ignorant biases. The greatest problem is the implications of these practices that lead to the misrepresentation of the reality and inaccurate framing of the facts. Peace journalism is thus born out of a need of a good quality of reporting and is able to make a change on the personal, professional and structural levels. The essential objective is to tell the audience what is really happening by providing them as much contexts and backgrounds as possible and presenting them the sides of all parties involved. At the end, the audience is the one that is going to evaluate “non-violent responses to conflict”, if it chooses not, then the work of journalists would have ended here. However, it is the responsibility of media to know what to select as information and how to present it to its public, considering the consequences that it might have on them. Still questioning if the concept of peace journalism is needed or not is simply a waste of time, as examples of bad reporting are enough to be undeniable, and both practice and research have already confirmed this fact. Addressing the problem of media content in order to bring solutions to it is the discussion that should be engaged in academia, newsrooms and civil society. Criticizing the term or the desirability of “peace journalism” would not help in improving the quality of reporting and in overall the performance of media. Therefore, it is time to move from the debate of “why we need change?” to “how can we make it happen”? Assuming that everyone agrees that there is something going wrong in the performance of the media while reporting conflicts. Peace journalism is one answer, as it represents a reform to the proven problem in news coverage, and obviously a new paradigm in media, communication and journalism 305

researches. It is thus not only a “better application of known methods” but also a new toolkit of new techniques borrowed from peace and conflict field. If the ones who are involved in media whether by practice or theory, consider peace journalism “good to have but hard to apply”, then it would be helpful to think, experiment and research ways through which it can it more spread, feasible and convincing to people who have hard time to accept it, understand it and/or apply it. If peace journalism is not a good answer, then the efforts of criticizing it or debating it for the sake of doing so would be more efficient if they are invested on attempts to search for alternatives to fix “war journalism”. Last but not least, the minimum that peace journalism offers to practitioners is an ethical framework for the production of their reports and stories. Also, not to take for granted the hope and positivity that peace journalism brings to the communities in conflict zones, where media is as polarized as the reality they live in. It is also a hope for the journalists themselves, who many of them struggle to keep the principles of journalism profession away from political and commercial agendas, and keep therefore their integrity without risking their jobs. Peace journalism reminds them that they are doing a “good” work, and thus playing a positive role in their societies, by being ethical, responsible and unbiased. Editors/journalists/reporters and their managers, or in other terms the producers of news, as individuals, deserve in fact a more in-depth analysis that both journalism and peace and conflict field should further undertake, in order to improve the role of media in societies, and thus, improve societies as such. Bibliography: Bell, M. (1998) ‘The Truth is our Currency’, The Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 3(1). Dente R. (2007). Peace Journalism: constructive Media in a Global Community. Global Media Journal. Mediterranean Edition, 2(2) Jowett & O’Donnell (1999), cited in Lynch, J. & McGoldrick, A. (2010). “A global standard for reporting conflict and peace”, in Keeble R, Tulloch J, Zollmann F. (2010), Peace Journalism, War and Conflict Resolution, New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Galtung, J. (1986). On the Role of the Media for Worldwide Security and Peace. In Tapio Varis (ed). Communication and Peace. San Jose: Universidad para la Paz. 306

Galtung, J. & Ruge, M. (1965) “The structure of foreign news: the presentation of the Congo, Cuba and Cyprus crises in four Norwegian newspapers”, Journal of International Peace Research (1). Gitlin T. (1980), The whole world is watching: mass media in the making and unmaking of the new left, Berkeley: University of California Press. Hackett, R. (2006). Is Peace Journalism Possible? Three Frameworks for Assessing Structure and Agency in News Media. Conflict & Communication online, 5(2). Hanitzsch, T., & Mellado, C. (2011). What Shapes the News around the World? How Journalists in Eighteen Countries Perceive Influences on Their Work. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 16(3). Hanitzsch, T. (2007). Situating peace journalism in Journalism Studies: A critical appraisal. Conflict & Communication online, 6(2). Hanitzsch T, Anikina M, Berganza R, Cangoz I, Coman M, Hamada B, Hanusch F, et al. (2010). “Modeling Perceived Influences on Journalism: Evidence from a Cross-National Survey of Journalists.” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly. Harcup, T., & O’Neill, D. (2001). What Is News? Galtung and Ruge revisited. Journalism Studies, 2(2). Loyn, D. (2007). Good journalism or peace journalism? Conflict & Communication online, 6(2). Lynch J. (2014), A Global Standard for Reporting Conflict, Routledge, New York and London. Lynch, J. & McGoldrick, A. (2010). ‘A global standard for reporting conflict and peace’, in Peace Journalism, War and Conflict Resolution ed. by Johan Tulloch, Richard Lance Keeble and Florian Zollmann (New York: Peter Lang Publishing 2010). Lynch, J. & McGoldrick, A. (2005), Peace Journalism, Stroud, UK: Hawthorn Press. McQuail D, (1994), Mass Communication Theory, An Introduction, (ed 3), Sage Publications. Myers, G., Klak, T., & Koehl, T. (1996). The inscription of difference: news coverage of the conflicts in Rwanda and Bosnia. Political Geography, 15(1).

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Richard Folk R. (2008) Foreword, in Lynch J. Debates in Peace Journalism, ix, University of Sydney, Australia: Sydney University Press. Scheufele, D. A. (1999). Framing as a Theory of Media Effects. Journal of Communication (Winter 1999). Ruigrok, N. (2010). From Journalism of Activism towards Journalism of Accountability. International Communication Gazette, 72(1). Shoemaker, Pamela J., and Stephen D. Reese. 1996. Mediating the Message: Theories of Influence on Mass Media Content. White Plains, NY: Longman. Tuchman G. (1978), Making news: A study in the construction of reality, New York: Free Press. Transcend media: https://www.transcend.org/tms/about-peacejournalism/1-what-is-peace-journalism/ Peace Journalism: www.Peacejournalism.org BBC Editorial Guidelines: http://www.bbc.co.uk/guidelines/editorialguideline s/guidelines/ The Los Angeles Times Ethics Guidelines: http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/readers/2011/02/l a-times-ethics-guidelines.html [1] Lynch, J. & McGoldrick, A. (2005), Peace Journalism, Hawthorn Press, Stroud, UK. [2] Lynch J. (2014), A Global Standard for Reporting Conflict, Routledge, New York and London, p. 36 [3] Richard Falk R. (2008) Foreword, in Lynch J. Debates in Peace Journalism, ix, Sydney University Press, University of Sydney, Australia [4] Lynch, J. & McGoldrick, A. (2005), p6. [5] Ibid. [6] Lynch, J. “What is peace journalism?”(1) in Transcend Media: https://www.transcend.org/tms/about-peace-journalism/1what-is-peace-journalism/ [7] Ibid [8] Lynch J. (2014), p 41. [9] Peace Journalism: A growing Global Debate in www.peacejournalism.org 308

[10] Lynch J. (2008), Debates in Peace Journalism, xi-xii [11] Galtung & Ruge (1965) and Harcup & O’Neill (2001) in Lynch J. (2014), p. 35. [12] Galtung, J. & Ruge, M. (1965) “The structure of foreign news: the presentation of the Congo, Cuba and Cyprus crises in four Norwegian newspapers”, Journal of International Peace Research 1, pp. 64–91. [13] Ibid. [14] McQuail D, (1994), Mass Communication Theory, An Introduction, Sage Publications, p. 270. [15] Harcup, T., & O’Neill, D. (2001). What Is News? Galtung and Ruge revisited. Journalism Studies, 2(2), pp. 264- 267. [16] Ibid, 267-280. [17] Galtung, J. & Ruge, M. (1965). [18] Lynch, J. & McGoldrick, A. (2005), p8. [19] Lynch, J. & McGoldrick, A. (2010). A global standard for reporting conflict and peace. In R.L. Keeble, J. Tulloch & F. Zollmann (eds.). Peace Journalism, War and Conflict Resolution. Peter Lang: New York, p.91 [20] Jowett and O’Donnell (1999), cited in Lynch, J. & McGoldrick, A. (2010). A global standard for reporting conflict and peace, p.91. [21] Ruigrok, N. (2010). From Journalism of Activism towards Journalism of Accountability. International Communication Gazette, 72(1), p89. [22] Lyon D. (2007), Good journalism or peace journalism? p, 9 [23] Hanitzsch, T. (2007), Situating Peace Journalism in Journalism Studies: A critical appraisal. Conflict & Communication online, 6(2), pp. 1 [24] Lynch, J. & McGoldrick, A. (2005). [25] Tuchman G. (1978), Cited in Scheufele (1999). [26] McQuail D. (1994), Cited in Scheufele (1999). [27] Gitlin T. (1980), Cited in Scheufele (1999). [28] Ibid, p87. [29] Myers, G., Klak, T., & Koehl, T. (1996). The inscription of difference: news coverage of the conflicts in Rwanda and Bosnia. Political Geography, 15(1), pp. 22. [30] Scheufele (1999).

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[31] Galtung, J. (1986). On the Role of the Media for Worldwide Security and Peace. In Tapio Varis (ed). Communication and Peace. San Jose: Universidad para la Paz, p. 245. [32] Hanitzsch, T. (2007). [33] Ibid. [34] Lyon D. (2007), p. 3. [35] Ibid, pp. 249- 264. [36] Id, Galtung J. & Ruge M. (1965). [37] Id, Lynch J. (2005). [38] Id, Ruigrok, N. (2010), p. 87. [39] Bell, M. (1998) ‘The Truth is our Currency’, The Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 3(1): p.273 [40] Ruigrok, N. (2010), p 87 [41] Hackett, R. (2006). Is Peace Journalism Possible? Three Frameworks for Assessing Structure and Agency in News Media. Conflict & Communication online, 5(2), p 10 [42] Peace Journalism: A growing Global Debate in www.peacejournalism.org [43] Lynch, J. (2014), p.33. [44] Hanitzsch, T., & Mellado, C. (2011). What Shapes the News around the World? How Journalists in Eighteen Countries Perceive Influences on Their Work. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 16(3), pp. 405 [45] Shoemaker, Pamela J., and Stephen D. Reese. 1996. Mediating the Message: Theories of Influence on Mass Media Content. White Plains, NY: Longman. [46] Hanitzsch, Thomas, Maria Anikina, Rosa Berganza, Incilay Cangoz, Mihai Coman, Basyoun Hamada, Folker Hanusch, et al. 2010. “Modeling Perceived Influences on Journalism: Evidence from a Cross-National Survey of Journalists.” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 87(1): 7–24. [47] Ibid. [48] Hanitzsch, T., & Mellado, C. (2011). pp. 404-426 [49] Hanitzsch, T., & Mellado, C. (2011), p. 414 [50] Ibid, P 418 [51] Ibid, P. 419-420 [52] Check BBC Editorial Guidelines at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/guidelines/editorialguidelines/guidelines / and The Los Angeles Times Ethics Guidelines 310

at: http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/readers/2011/02/la-timesethics-guidelines.html [53] Lynch J. (2005). (Source: http://www.monitor.upeace.org/innerpg.cfm?id_article =1052)

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Chapter 27 Present and Future Journalism One of the most honorable things about journalism is its willingness to question itself openly and to discuss issues surrounding its practice and its results. People within the profession have many points of view about the issues of journalism, so that referring to “the media” or “the news media” as a solid bloc of people and organizations is misleading and often betrays a misunderstanding on the part of those who use those terms. The profession of journalism has been affected by the rapid development of new communications technologies especially after the 2000s, along with the whole media sector. In today’s world, where everyone can become an amateur journalist or a producer of information through the social media, the position of the journalist has been opened for discussion once again. Newspapers and journalism, which was traditionally considered as the carrier of truth, has become an anonymous value that can be produced and consumed by anyone with the use of mobile devices. It has become important to think about journalism not only by its current state within the press industry, but together with the contents of the journalism education. With this aim, semi-structured interviews were conducted with nine journalism students and graduates. The main focus of these interviews is the current state of the journalism education and the future of both the journalism education and the journalism profession in this context. The outcome of the study has revealed that the journalism education is inadequate when it comes to keeping up with the new communication technologies. This chapter outlines some of the concerns that journalism faces and how some people see those concerns as affecting journalism’s future. What journalism will be like five, ten or twenty years from now is impossible to say. What is safest to predict is that journalism — especially with the continued development of the web — will change. Another safe prediction is that the profession will continue to need people who are well educated, widely read, facile with the language, and able to analyze and distill information with confidence and accuracy. Those people will make the best journalists of the future. 313

Study questions • What, if anything, does the story of Jessica Lynch tell us about the state of journalism? • What is mean by journalism being an “open profession”? • In general, what the financial state of news media organizations? • In what ways is bias a problem for journalists? • How is the audience for the news media changing? • What are the recruitment problems that the field of journalism faces? Key Concepts • Journalism is a profession where even the most basic questions – such as the nature of news and the process of gathering and disseminating it – are being examined and debated continuously. • Journalism is an open profession; anyone can be a journalist without undergoing any training and gaining any credentials. • Media organizations are generally in good financial health. • One of the things that makes the future uncertain for journalism is the presence of the World Wide Web; no one can see clearly how it might change the practice or nature of journalism. • Journalists today struggle with the question of how to remain relevant to their audiences. • Attracting bright, thoughtful young people into journalism is one of the great challenges of today’s profession. Bibliography Allan, Stuart (ed.). 2005. Journalism: Critical Issues. New York: Open University Press. Amerika.nu, Boston Riots and the Tragic Death of Victoria Snelgrove, 23 October, 2004, (Snelgrove Front Page Image) (8 August 2006) Ballinger, Nicki (ed.), The Reporters’ Committee for Freedom of the Press Photographers’ Guide to Privacy, 1999, http://www.rcfp.org/photoguide/intro.html (8 August 2006) Chapnick, Howard. 1994. Truth Needs No Ally. Columbia, Missouri: The University of Missouri Press. 314

Colen, B.D. 2001. There Are No Diabetics: Thoughts and Images For A New Beginning. New York: Novo Nordisk. Coles, Robert. 1997. Witness In Our Time. New York: Oxford University Press. Dictionary.com, Fourth Estate - Definitions from Dictionary.com,

(8 August 2006) Dictionary.com, journalism - Definitions from Dictionary.com, 2003, (8 August 2006). Dunleavy, Dennis, Camera Phones Prevail: Citizen Shutterbugs and the London Bombings, 9 July, 2005, http://www.digitaljournalist.org/issue0507/dunleavy.html (8 August 2006) Faas, Horst et. al. (ed.). Requiem: By The Photographers Who Died In Vietnam And Indochina. London: Jonathan Cape. Fernandes, Y.M. An email from SportsShooter.com viewer: Y.M. Fernandes. 22 October, 2004, personal email (8 August 2006). Ford, Nancy L., Photojournalism vs. Journalism, 1998, (8 August 2006) Greenspun, Philip, History of Photography Timeline, (8 August 2006) Howe, Peter, Amateur Hour, June 2004, (8 August 2006) Hoy, Anne H. 2005. National Geographic History of Photography. Washington D.C.: The National Geographic Society. IMDb, Spider-Man (2002), (8 August 2006). Irby, Kenny, Digital Camera Scores Big Points With Newspapers, 1 February, 2000, (8 August 2006) Irby, Kenny, L.A. Times Photographer Fired Over Altered Image, 2 April, 2003, (8 August 2006) IT Managers Journal, 9 March, 2005, Sony iPod Attack Dents Apple Share Price, 315

(8 August 2006) Iwo Jima, Inc., Iwo Jima - The Picture, 2005, (8 August 2006) Jurkowitz, Mark, Herald Apologizes For Graphic Photos, The Boston Globe, 23 October, 2004, (8 August 2006) Kennedy, Dan, A Tabloid’s New Low, 22 October, 2004, The Boston Phoenix, http://www.bostonphoenix.com/medialog/2004/10/tabloidsnew-low.asp (8 August 2006) Kobré, Kenneth. 2004. Photojournalism, the Professionals’ Approach. Burlington, MA: Focal Press. Kobré, Kenneth, Positive/Negative: The Long Tradition of Doctoring Photos, 1995, (8 August 2006) Kolodzy, Janet, Pack Journalism: Seen From Two Sides, Darkly, 9 November, 2004, The Christian Science Monitor,

(8 August 2006) Lester, Paul Martin, Faking Images in Photojournalism, 1988, in Media Development, (8 August 2006) Lester, Paul Martin. 1991. Photojournalism: An Ethical Approach. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Lidor, Danit, The Future of Photojournalism, 3 October, 2005, (8 August 2006) Light, Ken. 2000. Witness In Our Time: Working Lives of Documentary Photographers. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. Long, John, Ethics in the Age of Digital Photography, September, 1999, (8 August 2006). 316

Macrumors, Video iPod Fake, 26 February, 2006, (8 August 2006) Macshrine.com, First “real” iPod Video Shots?,23 February, 2006, (8 August 2006) The Media History Project, 20th Century: Last Decade, (8 August 2006) Mensel, Robert, ‘Kodakers Lying in Wait’: Amateur Photography and the Right of Privacy in New York, 1885-1915, in American Quarterly 43:1 (1991): 24-45. The Merriam-Webster Online Thesaurus, Ethics, (8 August 2006) Meyer, Pedro, The LA Times Fires a Photographer,

(8 August 2006) Miller, James P. Newspaper Circulation Falling Faster. Chicago Tribune, 9 May, 2006. Mobiledia.com, Camera Phones Outsold Digital Cameras By 4-To-1 In 2004, 15 April, 2005, (8 August 2006) Morris, John G. 1998. Get The Picture: A Personal History of Photojournalism. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Morrison, Lorraine. Front Page Boston Herald 10/22/04. 22 October, 2004, personal email (8 August 2006). Morse, Samuel F. B., Probable Effects. . .The Discovery of Daguerre, from M. A. Root, The Camera and The Pencil: or the Heliographic Art (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1864): 390-392.

Moyes, Norman B. 2001. American Combat Photography - From the Civil War to the Gulf War. New York: MetroBooks. The National Press Photographers Association, NPA: Bylaws, 2005, (8 August 2006)

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The National Press Photographers Association, NPPA: Bylaws, 2005, (8 August 2006) The National Press Photographers Association, NPPA Code of Ethics, (8 August 2006). Newhall, Beaumont. 1982. The History of Photography. New York: Bulfinch. New York Times, Feb. 25, 1945 Page 1 via ProQuest Online Database. New York Times, July 4, 1909 Page 1 via ProQuest Online Database. New York Times, July 4, 1918 Page 1 via ProQuest Online Database. New York Times, July 29, 1885 Page 1 via ProQuest Online Database. The New York Times June 9, 1972 Page 1 via ProQuest Online Database. The New York Times Company, New York Times: Guidelines On Our Integrity, 25 September, 2003, (8 August 2006) The New York Times Company, New York Times Timeline 18811910, 2006, (8 August 2006) Noguchi, Yuki, Camera Phones Lend Immediacy To Images of Disaster, 8 July, 2005, (8 August 2006) Nye, David, The Electrifying Future, in Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990) (CD) PBS.org, Composograph of Alice Rhinelander, (8 August 2006)

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Peterson, Moose, D2X New Features User Report, 2005, (8 August 2006) Photo District News, PDN 20th Anniversary Timeline, (8 August 2006) The Project for Excellence in Journalism and Edmonds, Rick, The State of the News Media 2006: Newspapers: Audience, 2006, (8 August 2006) The Pulitzer Board, 1996 Pulitzer Prizes-SPOT NEWS PHOTOGRAPHY, Works, 1996, (8 August 2006) Sipa Press, Sipa Press: A Window on the World, 2005, (8 August 2006) Slack, Donovan and Smalley, Suzanne, In Snelgrove Files, Officers Recount Night of Chaos, The Boston Globe, 21 September, 2005, (8 August 2006) Slater, Don, Photography and Modern Vision: The Spectacle of ‘natural Magic’, in Chris Jenks, ed., Visual Culture (New York: London, 1995): 218-237 Snopes.com, Urban Legends Reference Pages: John Kerry, 1 March, 2004, (8 August 2006) Sontag, Susan. 2001. On Photography. New York: Picador. Sontag, Susan. 2004. Regarding The Pain of Others. New York: Picador. Sontag, Susan. 23 May, 2004. Regarding The Torture of Others. New York Times Magazine. Spiegel Online, US Torture Debate: Is America Above The Geneva Conventions?,10 November, 2005, (8 August, 2006) Story, Louise, Witnesses Post Instant Photos on the Web, 8 July, 2005, The New York Times, (8 August 2006) Tompkins, Al, The Accidental Photojournalist, 11 May, 2004, (8 August 2006) Trachtenberg, Alan, Prologue, Reading American Photographs: Images as History, Matthew Brady to Walker Evans (New York: Hill and Wang, 1989): 3-20 University of Minnesota, Duluth, Bigfoot, Mapinguari (the Amazon), Sasquatch, or Yeti (Asia), http://www.d.umn.edu/cla/faculty/troufs/anth1602/pcbigft.ht ml (8 August 2006) Van Riper, Frank, Manipulating Truth, Losing Credibility, The Washington Post, (8 August 2006) Wikipedia.org, 7 July 2005 London Bombings, 6 August, 2006, (8 August 2006) Wikipedia.org, Oklahoma City bombing, 8 August 2006, (8 August 2006). Xtec.es, Kim Phuc, 2006, (8 August 2006) Further Reading Benedict, Helen. Portraits in Print: The Art of Writing Profiles. New York: Columbia University Press, 1990. Capote, Truman. In Cold Blood. New York: New American Library, 1971. Fallaci, Oriana. Interview with History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976. Garrett, Annette. Interviewing: Its Principles and Methods. New York: Family Association of America, 1982. Kadushin, Alfred. The Social Work Interview. New York: Columbia University Press, 1983. Mitchell, Joseph. Up in the Old Hotel. New York: Vintage Books, 1993. 320

Note: The books by Garrett and Kadushin, which are used in schools of social work, are excellent guides for journalists.

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Appendixes Appendix A War vs. Peace Journalism By M.A. Blackmur Jake Lynch and Johan Galtung, in their book Reporting Conflict: New Directions in Peace Journalism, present quite a bit of thought-provoking information about how conflict is currently reported on and the possibilities of how this style of reporting could be improved to include peace journalism. I feel it is important to mention at this point that I am an American. Hence, my views on reporting and journalism are deeply rooted in the First Amendment. The First Amendment in the American Constitution states that citizens have the right to freedom of speech without interference from the government except in the case of clear and present danger and in cases of “extreme national security”.[1] However, as Lynch and Galtung point out, conflict reporting can be influenced by a government’s agenda, which frequently is not as clear as the binary good guy vs bad guy affair that is presented to the public. Lynch and Galtung provide some feasible solutions to move away from the traditional, government influenced, binary view of conflict. In the case of most governments involved in war there is an agenda, most likely one that involves economics. This, of course, wouldn’t be seen by most citizens as a good reason to go to war. American’s would not tolerate having their sons and daughters’ lives being put in peril for purely economic reasons. However, if something is presented as a threat to freedom and democracy, the American way of life, we are all in. For example, during the War on Iraq campaign, the U.S Government provided the media with all the vital information that Reporting Conflict states that war journalism is comprised of. This style of reporting focuses on violence and victories, and it views the conflict much like a sports game (5). The American government was the good guy and Saddam Hussein, and his Weapons of Mass Destruction, was the bad guy. That is what the mainstream media in the U.S. reported; that is what I believed. I cannot help but wonder how my perspective would have changed in regards to the War on Iraq if the reporting style shifted from war to peace journalism.

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Peace journalism is Lynch and Galtung’s proposed solution to deconstructing the binary of war journalism. Peace journalism reporting demands that the reporter exercise the hermeneutics of citizenship, a concept introduced by Atalia Omer in her book When Peace is Not Enough. War consists of more than the direct violence of a military campaign; there is ultimately structural and cultural violence occurring simultaneously. It is important for the media to include reports of structural and cultural violence when covering the war so that all aspects of the conflict are exposed. It is through this multifaceted approach of peace journalism that the larger picture of the war, beyond the military campaign, can be seen and deconstructed. There is a shift away from the binary perception of war when peace journalism reports cultural and structural violence providing a glimpse of the reality beyond direct violence and how it is impacting the communities in the war zone. Reporting Conflict also suggests reporting on organizations and individuals that are working towards peaceful solutions, and towards conflict transformation, will facilitate a shift in how the war is viewed. I believe it reminds us, the viewers and readers, that there are real human beings involved in the conflict, not just a military strategy. When the war “becomes routine, terrible but repetitive, monotonous, plainly boring” (18) war journalism reports and hypes up direct violence to ignite interest. What if instead, when the direct violence thing gets stale, they shifted to even one story framed in the concepts of peace journalism? Peace journalism provides an opportunity for reporters to delve deeper into the conflict and provide the public with the big picture, beyond the direct violence. Journalists could use this opportunity to expose the cultural and structural violence that occurs, while also reporting on how local organizations and others are providing solutions to these issues and working towards conflict transformation. The reporter is only one part of peace journalism becoming a normative method of reporting. Another part is the responsibility of each of us to practice our hermeneutics of citizenship and deconstruct the normative method of war journalism. The road to more peace journalism begins with us. [1] http://www.ushistory.org/gov/10b.asp Quotations and references are taken from Jake Lynch and Johan Galtung’s Reporting Conflict: New Directions in Peace Journalism. 324

“The task of good journalism is not only to mirror the world but to make the world transparent. The task of a good journalist is not only to locate the smoking gun but to make transparent why it was fired.” (3) I was very excited when I read Lynch and Galtung‘s analysis of conflict reporting. Their class-based dissection of low road journalism struck a chord with me. Throughout this term, I have been inspired by the call to use one’s imagination in order to find solutions. Papers in Dr. Moore’s class have presented many reports of people, in unimaginably difficult situations, finding new and useful ways to try to initiate and support conflict transformation. The writers concur that “… conflict is … a clear opportunity for human progress, using the conflict to find new ways, being imaginative, creative, transforming the conflict so that the opportunities take the upper hand. Without violence. Winning is not the thing. Creativity is; put in sufficient creativity and you produce peace” (2). Reporting Conflict offers a concise rebuttal of the single story. Most news articles one reads in the western world clearly identify a villain. Many pieces regarding ISIS fighters, for example, lack any sort of deeper discussion of motivation (other than the ubiquitous and unhelpful implication that the influence of a broken and destructive religion is to blame). This other-ing offers no room to move. By reporting on more complex causal chains, we are more clearly able to see what actions might be taken to initiate or foster conflict transformation (9). Instances of private but direct violence are also discussed in such binary terms. Recently, Harvey Weinstein’s conduct towards women has been the subject of multiple exposes and articles. Many articles fail to discuss the cultural and structural violence that allowed such injustices to be perpetuated (and covered up) for so long. The blame is clearly fixed on one side (16), which means that helpful discussions about how to avoid such situations in the future are stifled. Interestingly, the culprit’s own response, in which he insists he is a product of his generation and environment, has created a more helpful conversation about that culture that surrounds and legitimizes these sorts of behaviors. For me, the revelation that, “unlike marketplace gossip and word of mouth, media cost money. So, media reflected, or did not seriously contradict, the world visions of nation and class elites, also in their propaganda and elite-orientation”, was an important one (15). It is 325

such a simple notion, but it is also not something that you might necessarily be aware of. And awareness of the motivations of the media is a crucial step towards understanding what you are reading, whether it be high or low road journalism, propaganda, advocacy or something else entirely (perhaps ‘fake news’). Not all journalism attempts to make the world more transparent (22). As we have seen, time and time again over history, the media can make the world infinitely more opaque and block out even the most horrific offenses by supplying ready-made single stories that clearly identify ‘the other’ as the readers’ mortal enemy. Access to the Internet has revolutionized the way we consume news by providing us with the opportunity to fact check our information. A consumer of today’s news surely has a better chance of detecting and rejecting propaganda than someone glued to their radio in 1939. There is no doubt that in many modern circumstances transparent reporting which draws attention to hidden systemic injustices has created conflict transformation and positive change. Here, one of the most obvious examples is the journalism associated with the pedophilia scandal within the Catholic Church. Drawing attention to the horrors perpetuated by people in positions of power has helped the victims seek compensation and closure, and it has helped the general public to understand how problematic such systems and situations can be. It follows then that offensive statements made by the alt-right, and Donald Trump, should be brought into the fore and reported on. This should allow people to make informed judgments about these peoples’ characters and motivations. Recently, however, we have seen a different outcome. The 24-hour news cycle has provided a platform for these people to further spread their messages of hate and violence. When Trevor Noah invited Tomi Lauren on his show to ‘debate’, she was hardly a worldwide sensation. Their conversation was entertaining but could not be described as fruitful. While Noah tried to engage with Lauren, she remained insistent and evasive. After the segment aired, outrage sparked across the Internet, and Lauren’s platform exploded. The New York Times wrote an article about her (which it has since followed up with several others). It seems the story of the fiery, attractive, American blonde confronting (or confronted by) the attractive, well spoken, African news host was too tantalizing to resist. But their dialogue provided no deep insights or new ideas, 326

and certainly no suggestions for change. In providing a fair and transparent report of someone’s character, how do we ensure we are not providing excuses for their actions? While in the past, drawing attention to injustices or shaming members of the public for bad behavior constituted a positive step, recently, such reporting has provided a free platform for those who are meant to be shamed to spread violent hate speech and misinformation. Free speech is a vital and important element of our culture. However, the binary nature of journalism and the media’s natural impulse to feed on ‘news’ (18) must be analyzed and rethought. It is not only enough to create a transparent and clear picture of some events. New methods of reporting for the digital age must be developed in order to foster helpful and thoughtful dialogue. Galtung and Lynch write “Nothing should be concealed, nothing but the truth should be reported” (3). It is worth noting that, if we reported in the way that they suggest, focusing not only on the explosive outbreak of direct violence but also on the processes and permanents that surround such events, perhaps we would have more to report on than a constant stream of Donald Trump’s offensive missteps. If we were to move away from the relic of war journalism and encourage more peace journalism, the real villains would become clear to readers on their own. There would be little need to report on every hateful or offensive thing Trump uttered, because a well-rounded reporting of American life would offer those types of sentiments in other more productive contexts. Instead of sound bites that improve the platforms of a few but the lives of none, well-rounded journalistic efforts could provide balanced depictions of injustices and also clarify possible steps towards transformation. The media’s obsession with the four-factors of news must be contextualized if journalists wish to effectively report on the realities of the world today. All quotations and references are taken from Jake Lynch and Johan Galtung’s Reporting Conflict: New Directions in Peace Journalism. Donatella Felice is Head of Editorial at HESP. These essays were written for Dr, Moore’s Class: Religion, Conflict, and Peace in Contemporary Global Affairs. Edited by M.A. Blackmur

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Appendix B NPPA Code of Ethics Preamble The National Press Photographers Association, a professional society that promotes the highest standards in photojournalism, acknowledges concern for every person’s need both to be fully informed about public events and to be recognized as part of the world in which we live. Photojournalists operate as trustees of the public. Our primary role is to report visually on the significant events and on the varied viewpoints in our common world. Our primary goal is the faithful and comprehensive depiction of the subject at hand. As photojournalists, we have the responsibility to document society and to preserve its history through images. Photographic and video images can reveal great truths, expose wrongdoing and neglect, inspire hope and understanding and connect people around the globe through the language of visual understanding. Photographs can also cause great harm if they are callously intrusive or are manipulated. This code is intended to promote the highest quality in all forms of photojournalism and to strengthen public confidence in the profession. It is also meant to serve as an educational tool both for those who practice and for those who appreciate photojournalism. To that end, The National Press Photographers Association sets forth the following Code of Ethics: Code of Ethics Photojournalists and those who manage visual news productions are accountable for upholding the following standards in their daily work: 1. Be accurate and comprehensive in the representation of subjects. 2. Resist being manipulated by staged photo opportunities. 3. Be complete and provide context when photographing or recording subjects. Avoid stereotyping individuals and groups. Recognize and work to avoid presenting one’s own biases in the work. 4. Treat all subjects with respect and dignity. Give special consideration to vulnerable subjects and compassion to victims of

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crime or tragedy. Intrude on private moments of grief only when the public has an overriding and justifiable need to see. 5. While photographing subjects do not intentionally contribute to, alter, or seek to alter or influence events. 6. Editing should maintain the integrity of the photographic images’ content and context. Do not manipulate images or add or alter sound in any way that can mislead viewers or misrepresent subjects. 7. Do not pay sources or subjects or reward them materially for information or participation. 8. Do not accept gifts, favors, or compensation from those who might seek to influence coverage. 9. Do not intentionally sabotage the efforts of other journalists. Ideally, photojournalists should: 1. Strive to ensure that the public’s business is conducted in public. Defend the rights of access for all journalists. 2. Think proactively, as a student of psychology, sociology, politics and art to develop a unique vision and presentation. Work with a voracious appetite for current events and contemporary visual media. 3. Strive for total and unrestricted access to subjects, recommend alternatives to shallow or rushed opportunities, seek a diversity of viewpoints, and work to show unpopular or unnoticed points of view. 4. Avoid political, civic and business involvements or other employment that compromise or give the appearance of compromising one’s own journalistic independence. 5. Strive to be unobtrusive and humble in dealing with subjects. 6. Respect the integrity of the photographic moment. 7. Strive by example and influence to maintain the spirit and high standards expressed in this code. When confronted with situations in which the proper action is not clear, seek the counsel of those who exhibit the highest standards of the profession. Photojournalists should continuously study their craft and the ethics that guide it.

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Appendix C Journalism Ethics Research Paper View sample journalism research paper on journalism ethics. Browse journalism research paper topics for more inspiration. If you need a thorough research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers for help. This is how your paper can get an A! Feel free to contact our writing service for professional assistance. We offer high-quality assignments for reasonable rates. Journalism ethics is a dynamic and growing field. Ethical issues in news have been debated since the 1890s, but by the 21st century, journalism ethics had become a major enterprise. Textbooks, workshops for media professionals, research, university courses, professors who specialize in ethics are now commonplace. Advertising and public relations ethics, and entertainment ethics are taken seriously too, but journalism ethics is especially strong. In 1980, following decades of slow advance, journalism ethics received a major boost from two sources that catapulted the field into the new century. In the United States, the Hastings-Carnegie studies of professional ethics in American higher education were completed that year (Hastings Center, 2000). Journalism was included within the domain called professional ethics, along with highstatus occupations such as medicine, law, business, and engineering. It established for media ethics, the baseline statistical measures and many of the issues that we continue to use in research today. It gave to journalism ethics the status of philosophy. Journalism is included in the academic organization that resulted, The Association for Applied and Professional Ethics. The Journal of Mass Media Ethics, which began publication in 1985, contributes to professional ethics as a whole, not just narrowly to the ethics of reporting. Many Voices, One World also appeared in 1980. Sean MacBride, the UN delegate from Ireland, spearheaded a study for the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) of international media policies and professional practices. It emphasized the developing world as an equal partner with industrial nations, insisting on the rights of the South to speak

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for itself in its own terms. Mass communication ethics passed the international watershed and has been global of necessity ever since. Since journalism ethics has become a large and complicated field of study, it is divided somewhat differently by various authors and thinkers. But generally, four important ethical issues dominate the agenda for 21st-century communication: truth, technology, social philosophy, and universals. The health and vitality of journalism ethics for the future depends on the sophistication with which these complicated issues are handled. Truth The press’s obligation to truth is of paramount concern at present. Truth telling is the generally accepted standard of the media professions. Communicators are to be specialists in truth in the way politicians ought to specialize in justice and business leaders in stewardship. Credible language, in fact, is pivotal to journalism’s very existence. But living up to the truth ideal is nearly impossible these days. Budget constraints, deadlines, self-serving sources, and the frenetic pace all complicate the production of truth in newswriting. Our impressive technology generates almost unlimited news copy and requires difficult choices without the opportunity to sift through the intricacies of telling the truth. The prevailing view of truth as accurate information is too narrow for today’s social and political complexities, though objectivity remains entrenched in ordinary practices of news production and dissemination. With this historic scheme under duress, some heavy thinking by both practitioners and academics is critical for transforming the concept of truth intellectually. A more sophisticated concept of truth is disclosure, getting to the heart of the matter. Already in 1947, the famous Hutchins Commission Report, A Free and Responsible Press, had called for this alternative. It advocated a deeper definition of the press’s mission as “a truthful, comprehensive and intelligent account of the day’s events in a context which gives them meaning.” Dietrich Bonhoeffer contends correctly in his Ethics (1995, chap. 5) that a truthful account includes the context, motives, and presuppositions involved. Truth as authentic disclosure means, in other words, to strike gold, to get at the core issue, the heart of the matter, to see the essence of things

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(Pippert, 1989). When the truth is told, the response is “You’re right. Now I get it.” The best journalists understand from the inside the attitudes, culture, and language of the persons and events on their news beat. In the process of weaving a tapestry of truth, reporters’ disclosures will be credible and realistic to those being covered. Rather than reducing social issues to the financial and administrative problems that politicians define, the truth principle requires that the news media disclose the depth and nuance that enable readers and viewers to identify the fundamental issues themselves. During a formative period for the media in the 1920s to 1950s, a dichotomy between facts and values dominated Western thinking. Genuine knowledge was identified with the physical sciences, and the objectivity of physics and mathematics set the standard for all forms of knowing. Journalistic morality became equivalent to unbiased reporting of neutral data. Presenting unvarnished facts was heralded as the standard of good performance. The best news mirrored reality. Objective reporting was not merely a technique, but withholding value judgments was considered a moral imperative. With scientific naturalism being the ruling paradigm in the academy, universities institutionalized the convention of objective reporting in journalism curricula. Objectivity has become increasingly controversial as the working press’s professional standard. Rather than surrendering the idea of objectivity altogether and defining journalism ethics without it or alongside it, Stephen Ward (2004) argues for transforming it into pragmatic objectivity. This is another alternative instead of defining truth as authentic disclosure. It is an idea that warrants ongoing discussion, analysis, and application. Pragmatic objectivity is a “modest conception of truth that is closest to common sense” (p. 267). It understands “truth as the slow process of coming to know more and more things about our empirical world and to grasp them in a more accurate and comprehensive manner” (p. 271). Ward correctly challenges professionals to participate in its definition and implementation. Technology Ethics has its roots and longest history in print journalism. But the field is challenged in the 21st century by the revolution in media 332

technology. The communication technologies that produce and distribute information today have become an economic paradise. Clusters of high-tech communication firms are remapping the planet. Previous geographical alignments organized by political power are being reordered in terms of electronic megasystems. The revolution is not taking place in abstraction outside of everyday affairs. The menagerie of fiber optics, supercomputer data, and satellite technology, though inescapably global, is local and personal as well. Television, CDs, and DVDs, online databases, iPod, Facebook, MySpace, video games, cellular telephones, and virtual reality—the electronic highway has become the everyday world of advanced industrial societies. Mass media technologies are converging into digital formats, Internet chat rooms, multiuser domains (MUD), Web-based publications, and hyperlink— together they are producing new forms of human interaction. Public life in the 21st century is being altered in complex ways through ubiquitous multimedia technologies, and ethics is essential for coming to grips with them. Language is indispensable to our humanness and the social order; therefore, when our communication capacity is mediated in fundamentally different ways than before, the impact is substantial and far-reaching. Accounting for the social influence of media technologies is a historical and empirical task but clearly the domain of journalism ethics as well. And its grounding in print technology means that the field needs to be updated and transformed. Historically, communication ethics arose in conjunction with concerns related to the print media, so that it requires substantial work to extend the original developments to the more prominent digital technologies. Print news and the ethical standards for newspaper reporters were the first concerns of anything that could be called communication ethics. The harm that an unregulated press could do to society was first explicitly linked to ethical principles in North America and Europe during the 1890s, when critics began assessing journalism philosophically. These initial forays blossomed into the first systematic work in communication ethics during the 1920s in the United States. Four major books emerged from America’s heartland during that decade, their authors among a Who’s Who of journalism luminaries: Nelson Crawford’s Ethics of Journalism (1924), Leon Flint’s The Conscience of the Newspaper (1925), William 333

Gibbon’s Newspaper Ethics (1926), and Albert Henning’s Ethics and Practices in Journalism (1932). These authors understood ethics as a scholarly enterprise and left a permanent legacy. In Europe also, several ethical issues emerged in the early 20th century. Sensationalism was considered contrary to the public service role of the newspaper. Freebies and junkets, scourged by media critics already in the 19th century, were treated more systematically in the context of rising business competition. Together, they carved out much of the structure that dominates journalism ethics across Europe and North America in the early 21st century and, with some nuances, in various regions around the world. But those intellectual roots of press ethics were formed when print technology was the exclusive option. Most of the heavyweights in communication ethics in industrialized democracies have shown a predilection for news, and news in its literary rather than electronic broadcast form. Many of the perpetual issues in media ethics— invasion of privacy, conflict of interest, sensationalism, confidentiality of sources, and stereotyping—get their sharpest focus in a print context. Meanwhile, newspapers outside the mainstream have scarcely been considered, making exceptions such as Patrick Washburn’s book The African American Newspaper (2007) an important one for ethics. The media situation changed in the late 20th century. Television became the primary source of news for most people, and information radio, such as National Public Radio, became vital. Research emphasized the news function, tackled cases and problems from broadcasting, the wire service agencies, and documentaries, in addition to everyday reporting. And beyond news, the electronic media’s role in persuasion and entertainment became pervasive, socially significant, and ethically charged. The result was burgeoning research in the ethics of public relations, organizations, face-to-face encounters, the music business and cinema, libraries, book publishing, confidentiality in computer storage, fiction, new media technologies, the mass-mediated sports industry, and more. The dark side of ethical research into this expansive field of all media functions has been faddishness and fragmentation. However, the widening spectrum did open new insights and fresh approaches to issues that lie beneath the surface. Deception and economic temptation were seen as common in all mass-mediated 334

communication. Sexism and racism are deep-seated everywhere. Reporters often failed to recognize sensationalism in the news until they confronted the difference between gratuitous violence and realism in the entertainment media. Invasion of privacy, easily excused in news, becomes an insufferable evil when government agencies access confidential information from data banks without permission. The challenge for journalism ethics yet today is to demonstrate how ongoing ethical quandaries ought to be examined across a diverse range of media technologies and functions—not only in print and broadcast media but also with digital technologies primarily. In outlining an agenda for communication ethics in terms of the entire spectrum of media technologies rather than print journalism alone, several issues emerge as primary. Each can profit from the past, though several are new or have such dramatic intensity at present that thinking rooted in the communication ethics of the 20th century is no longer directly relevant. Meanwhile, the electronic media have achieved some important successes. The Internet makes it possible for people who disagree with government policies to unite and protest against them. The Landmine Ban Treaty among the world’s nations, for example, could not have happened without new media technologies. Television was the stimulus for humanitarian intervention in Somalia and prison reform in the U.S. military. Strengthening the media’s role in democracy is important for journalism ethics while identifying the negative dimensions that are already obvious. Violence in television and in films has been a major ethical issue for decades. Internet technology has complicated the problem with hate speech and terrorism. In the United States, for example, studies have shown that by high school graduation, the average 17-year-old will have seen 18,000 murders in movies and on television. From the horrific shootings at Columbine High School in 1999 to similar tragedies in other states and countries before and since, teenagers who slaughter their classmates and teachers, and then kill themselves, are linked by debate or research to the culture of violence in which they live. While the United States leads the world in the amount of violence on television, television programming in all parts of the globe contains a great deal of violence, including a high percentage of guns as weapons and the terrible consequences only hinted at or 335

not even depicted at all. Gunrelated deaths in the United States have reached the level of a public health epidemic. Violence is a serious ethical issue because it violates the personsas-ends principle. The 19th-century ethicist Immanuel Kant made a standard formulation still used today—people must treat all other rational beings as ends in themselves and never as means only. The gratuitous cheapening of human life to expand ratings is a reprehensible mistreatment of human beings. From the personsasends perspective, there is a special concern about the sexual violence so common in music video, horror movies (especially slasher films), and video games. Sadistic, bloodthirsty torture in pornography is a particularly offensive form of dehumanization. A new dimension of violence has emerged with hate speech on the Internet. In 1995, the former Ku Klux Klan (KKK) leader Don Black established Stormfront, the first white supremacist Web site. As access to the Internet became less expensive and creating Web pages much simpler, the number of Web sites and people visiting them grew exponentially. Mirroring this growth, Web sites promoting various kinds of bigotry have multiplied dramatically, now numbering in the thousands. In the past, hate was promoted through crude graffiti and low-quality pamphlets. Bulk mailings to even a few hundred people were difficult. But with the Internet, slick Web sites devoted to hate are available to a potential audience of millions. Though late in the 20th century the KKK was fragmented more than at any time since World War II, its factions are now using the Internet to revitalize the organization as the so-called “Klan without robes.” The KKK sites maintain and defend the superiority of the white race and warn against interracial marriage. Jews are vilified as Satan’s people, and immigration is condemned as an uncontrolled plague. Numerous neo-Nazi Web sites promote the anti-Semitic racism of Adolf Hitler, with the National Alliance being the most prominent Hitlerian organization in the United States thanks to the Internet. Jews are blamed for inflation, media brainwashing, and government corruption, with blacks depicted as criminals and rioters. A host of Web sites are devoted to Holocaust revisionism, denying the murder of Jews in World War II. Web sites of hate groups that claim religious legitimacy are flourishing as well. The Christian Identity site is virulently racist and anti-Semitic. The World Church of the Creator calls nonwhites physiologically subhuman. The site for White Aryan 336

Resistance rails against the nonwhite birthrate. Other sites are antiCatholic and anti-Muslim or militantly anti-abortion. This is one example of how digital technology challenges journalism ethics in a new way. In dealing with the various moral problems in the media, some ethical theories are more appropriate than others, and different theories do not always give the same answer. But hate speech on the Internet is contradicted by all major theories without exception. This across-the-board condemnation suggests that all personal, educational, and policy efforts to combat Internet hate speech are permissible, even mandatory, but obviously without the revenge and aggressiveness that contradict good ends. The worldwide reach of high-speed electronic technologies has made communication systems and institutions of global scope possible. Dealing with these new entities requires a technologically sophisticated, crosscultural ethics commensurate with the worldwide reach of the media. In the process of identifying and responding to specific issues, communication and media ethics must make the questions raised by technology a central focus for the 21st century. As true of professional ethics generally, journalism ethics ought to become international in character. In place of its largely Western, gender-biased, and monocultural traditions, media ethics of the future must be ecumenical, gender inclusive, and multicultural. A diversified, transnational ethics, with a level playing field rooted in equal respect for all cultures, is by no means unproblematic and involves an act of faith. The claim that all cultures have something important to say to all human beings is a hypothesis that cannot be validated concretely. Yet it serves as an open horizon for moving transnational study forward. Of the various types of applied and professional ethics, journalism ethics has its roots most deeply in language, culture, and human dialogue. In that sense, a multicultural style is required for its own identity. Here is a way to summarize and clarify technology as today’s challenge for journalism ethics. Over the history of journalism ethics, decisive changes have occurred in media technology from print to electronic. In the 21st century, another major shift is under way to digital. When journalism ethics entered its major phase in the 1980s, broadcast technology dominated our media systems; presently, the important ethical concerns focus on digital technology instead.

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Journalism ethics, as it took hold with MacBride and the HastingsCarnegie studies, was rooted in print technology. In the digital era now, ethics must establish its agenda in terms of the distinctive properties of this new technological system. An early version of this task was the special issue of the Journal of Mass Media Ethics in 1998 devoted to new media technologies. A double issue of the Journal of Mass Media Ethics in 2003, “Virtual Reality and Communication Ethics,” developed the idea that the virtual world as the innovative edge of online technologies is the most advanced context at present for coming to grips with ethics. David Gunkel’s Thinking Otherwise: Philosophy, Communication, Technology (2007) centers on ethics throughout, philosophical ethics and media ethics both. He develops a model of moral responsibility within the context of the newest innovations in information technology. Michael Bugeja’s Living Ethics Across Media Platforms (2007) identifies moral issues that are similar across the various media technologies. Based on this scholarship to date, the ethics agenda needs to be developed in full for the digital world of search engines, online networking, and computer databases. Some issues are new, some amplify or transform the ethics of the past, and others create new levels of complexity heretofore unknown. Regarding the latter, cyberwarfare and cyberterrorism have been given special urgency since September 11, 2001. Long-standing issues have taken on a new complexity or orientation, such as Web-based surveillance and theft of private information. The ethics of representation now has a different orientation with gender, race, and religion debated in anonymous cyberspace. Equitable allocation of information technologies is one moral problem of justice, confronting as it does the injustice of the digital divide between the information rich and poor. Other problems are rooted in computer technology itself, such as the ethics of blogging and online journalism. Blogging is only possible in an age of sophisticated technology. As a digital revolution at home and at work, it requires special emphasis in developing ethical principles that are appropriate. A code of blogging ethics developed by Martin Kuhn and the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication focuses on the struggle to build human relationships and communities in cyberspace. The quality of interaction by the participants is considered the core duty 338

that a code of ethics must address. Together these dramatic technological changes offer an obvious challenge for developing ethical guidelines that are appropriate to them. Social Philosophy The emphasis in journalism ethics throughout the 20th century was on professional morality, on the character of news, and on the values and structures of news organizations. The classroom and research focused on the insider: reporters and sources, problems of daily newsgathering, the economic temptations to put circulation and audience above the best possible reporting, the press’s invasion of privacy, and so forth. Case studies were typically recommended for teaching since they deal with concrete issues and actions. For the bulk of its history to date, the agenda of journalism ethics has been set by the profession, its struggles and problems as understood from the inside out and the bottom up. The challenge for the 21st century is grounding journalism ethics first of all in the general morality. The rationale for a practitioner orientation to date is obvious. The complexity of the field and its changing dynamics require ongoing concern for professional morality. However, rather than developing rules for experts, media ethics needs to be preoccupied now with the moral dimension of everyday life. The venerable issues of social ethics should determine the agenda (e.g., justice, human dignity, truth telling, no harm to the innocent), and journalistic practice should be understood in that larger context. How the moral order works itself out in community formation must be the focus, not what practitioners consider virtuous. Rather than refining journalism codes of ethics, the ultimate standard for media professionals is the moral life as a whole. With this broader orientation, reporters and management would operate in the same arena as their readers, viewers, and clients. The compelling need for this century is a citizen’s ethics rather than a professionbased ethics per se. To develop journalism ethics in these larger terms, democracy as a political system ought to be the framework for understanding the media. The important book The Press, edited by Geneva Overholser and Kathleen Hall Jamieson (2005), gives us the right perspective here. Democracy in this volume is the context in which the structure and function of the news media are understood. The health of 339

journalism by itself is not the main concern of The Press but the vitality of democratic politics. As the authors put it, journalism is the means, and the end is democracy. Rather than provide audiences and readers with information, the press’s aim is citizens who are literate about democracy. In that sense, ethical journalism is the foundation of genuine democracy. Journalism ethics is not only concerned with the flourishing of democratic practice, but it also has a stake in democratic theory as well. For the 21st century, thinking on democracy is moving beyond individual rights and government policy to cosmopolitanism. Political theorists are seeking to make democracy more global, more responsive to and more viable in a world where political participation extends beyond traditional nation-states and requires forms of democracy not bound by geography. David Held (1995), among others, focuses on what he understands to be a new and pressing need for a global democratic order stronger than the United Nations, without discounting the importance of the local, regional, and national. Cosmopolitanism sets the highest and most accurate standard at present as the democratic context for understanding the ethics of news—particularly Appiah’s (2006) version, which deeply engages diversity. In fact, diversity is one of the central issues in journalism ethics and society at present. Indigenous languages and ethnicity have come into their own. Ethnicity has replaced Marxist class struggle as the most powerful force of the 21st century. Sects and religious fundamentalists insist on recognition. One’s culture is more salient at present than one’s nationality. Muslim immigrants are the fastestgrowing segment of the population in France, and they are not interested in full assimilation into French language and politics. A total of 30,000 Navajos live in Los Angeles, isolated from their native nation and culture. The nomadic Fulani, searching for good pasture throughout sub-Saharan West Africa, are held together by clan fidelity, but their political future hangs in the balance. In contrast to the melting pot of the previous century, immigrants to the United States in the 21st century insist on maintaining their own cultures, religions, and languages. The majority of European origin is under siege in North America. In the United States, for example, 1.5 million people from across the globe become new citizens every year, but debates over immigration policy are acrimonious and irresolute. 340

More than 50% of the schoolchildren in New York State belong to non-Caucasian ethnic groups. In cultural terms, southcentral Los Angeles is a continent away from residential Hollywood. A subculture of Chaldean Christians with Iraqi roots owns 1,500 small stores in Detroit, Michigan. Amish farmers in Pennsylvania and the Amana Colonies in Iowa struggle to maintain their identity. Consensus under the melting-pot thesis holds little salience. On a global scale, according to anthropologists, nearly 20,000 culture groups are locked away from the social mainstream. For the most part, these hidden peoples exist without recognition or adequate representation. Urduspeaking Muslims are aliens in the state of Punjab in India. Since winning independence in 1989, the Belorussians have had little success in creating a sovereign state; for 70 years, their history and language had not been taught. Their identity crisis reaches even to the parliament in Minsk. Only the remnants of Mayan culture survive in the Yucatan peninsula of Mexico, obscured under the government’s official commitment to the Spanish language and to nationalism. Anthony Cortese (1990) documents how deeply moral commitments are embedded in social relations— his cross-cultural evidence including among others an Israeli kibbutz, Kenyan village leaders, Tibetan monks, and folk societies in Papua New Guinea and India. Ethnic identity is now considered essential to cultural vitality. As a result, social institutions such as the mass media are challenged to develop a healthy cultural pluralism in their thinking, organizational structure, and reporting practices. If the task of ethical journalism is to enable local communities to speak in their own language and to participate actively in public life, what glue is left to hold us together? With cultural identity coming into its own from Miami, Florida, to East Asia, is ethnic conflict inevitable? The Hutu and Tutsi massacres in Rwanda, Russian soldiers shooting people in the streets of a Chechen village, and brutal warfare in Bosnia are not stories about tribal disputes only but also about ethnic cleansing. Is anarchy likely? Therefore, the question is whether in a democratic view of public life and the press, we are referring to local cultures only. Without a commitment to the common human good, we will not avoid tribalism. The issue for ethical journalism is not communal values per

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se but universal ones—not the common good understood as the community’s good but common in its richest universal meaning. To make ethnic, racial, and cultural diversity come true in the 21st century, media programming and policies should move away from melting-pot homogeneity and replace it with the politics of recognition. Obviously, news cannot be ethical unless the challenge of cultural diversity is met, and this requires a fundamental shift from homogeneity to recognition. The basic issue is whether democracies discriminate against their citizens in an unethical manner when major institutions fail to account for the identity of their members. In what sense should the specific cultural and social features of African Americans, Asian Americans, Native Americans, Buddhists, Jews, the physically disabled, or children publicly matter? Should not public institutions ensure that democratic citizens share an equal right to political liberties and due process without regard to race, gender, or religion? The Canadian philosopher Charles Taylor considers the issue of recognizing multicultural groups politically as among the most urgent and vexing on the democratic agenda. Beneath the rhetoric is a fundamental philosophical dispute about the ethics of recognition. As Taylor (1994) puts it, “Nonrecognition or miscrecognition can inflict harm, imprisoning someone in a false, distorted and reduced mode of being. Due recognition is not just a courtesy we owe people. It is a vital human need” (p. 26). Guaranteeing that people have their own voice, define their own identity, and are respected as equals on their own terms is a foundational issue for democracy and for the news media, which constitute the public arena where ethnic identity is represented and understood. News professionals are generally committed to the flourishing of particular cultures, religions, and ethnic groups, but this commitment needs to be applied more aggressively. Paul Lester and Susan Ross’s Images That Injure (2003) has become a staple of instruction for students and practitioners toward that goal. Downing and Husband (2005) help fulfill this agenda also with their literature review of three decades of racial stereotyping as background for proposing a new “multi-ethnic public sphere” model for representing race. And Robert Entman and Andrew Rojecki (2000) illustrate a deep application of cultural pluralism to race. Race in the United States remains a preeminent issue, and their research indicates a broad array 342

of white racial sentiments toward African Americans as a group. They emphasize not the minority of outright racists but the perplexed majority. On a continuum from comity (acceptance) to ambivalence to animosity and finally racism, a complex ambivalence most frequently characterizes the majority. Whites bring combinations of misinformation, emotional needs, assumptions, and experiences to their thinking about race. They may believe, for example, that blacks face discrimination but argue against welfare spending out of a suspicion of government programs. Correcting white ignorance and dealing with ambiguities hold the most promise for the media. There is little evidence that the media, in either news or entertainment, focus on ambivalence and pull their viewers and readers toward comity. In Entman and Rojecki’s study, the media did little to enhance racial understanding among the ambivalent majority most open to it. The challenge for the media is to provide the news and programming that this important swing group needs to move policy and institutions toward cultural pluralism. For journalism ethics, ethnic identity cannot be a halfhearted pursuit. We are fully human agents through language. Language makes community possible; it is the public agent through which our identity is realized. The lingual dimension forms humans and their relationships into meaningful units, and its vitality or oppression inevitably conditions our well-being. In that sense, the media as our primary form of public communication are a crucial arena through which ethnic pluralism comes into its own. Universals It is imperative that ethics in the 21st century be broad and strong enough to match the media’s international scope. Fortunately for the field’s long-term vitality, theoretical models of the universal are being developed for media ethics, as they are by academics in philosophy and the social sciences. Thomas Cooper’s Communication Ethics and Global Change (1989) was the first comprehensive survey of journalism ethics across cultures by an international network of media professionals and teachers from 13 countries. The quest for truth, desire for responsibility, and call for free expression were identified as three major areas of worldwide concern. Another research strategy he developed for understanding our universal humanity is learning from indigenous groups (Cooper, 1998), noting 343

in particular their sophisticated understanding of truth and their integration of heart and mind. The Christians and Traber (1997) study of ethical principles in 13 countries on four continents affirms the sacredness of life as a universal principle. Hamelink (2000) appeals to international human rights for moral guidance vis-à-vis cyberspace technology. Stephen Ward’s (2005) global thinking revolves around a modified version of social contract theory. Shakuntala Rao and Herman Wasserman (2007) use postcolonial theory as their framework. Lee Wilkins (2008) has established neuroscience as a theoretical framework for moral universals. None of them promotes transcendental metaphysical abstractions, but they recognize diversity across cultures by keeping ethics rooted in everyday experience. Individual rights are the axis around which most journalism ethics has revolved—individuals making decisions as professionals and then being held accountable for them. While this focus on personal responsibility covers a large amount of everyday experience, the global society taking shape in the 21st century needs a broader and more comprehensive framework than individualism. The most radical alternative to individual rights is universal human solidarity. The beginning point of universals in ethical theory is global oneness. Starting at this end of the spectrum does not ignore individual decisions but comes to them from the larger perspective of the transnational and the needs of human beings as a whole. What could this possibly mean? What is human solidarity? What are some universal principles on which we could all agree? Are there common goods in spite of the splendid variety of human ingenuity? If we are to foster good journalism on the local level, we need a vocabulary of master norms and of universal values, not lame appeal to community standards only. In its theorizing and everyday practice, journalism must advocate principles that hold true universally. Rather than either universals or communities, they need to feed from one another. If adjudicating among individual rights is often impossible, we confront the same issue among competing communities: Which one is legitimate, and which ones are not? Universal values provide a framework for bringing our communities into perspective and under judgment as necessary. Obviously, not every community ought to be celebrated. Humans tend to make their local situations supreme and in the process 344

overlook racism, sexism, and injustice within. Universal values are a way of keeping our common human solidarity as the ultimate and of restricting particular conventions on the local level to secondary status. Cultures need norms beyond their own heroes and ideals to be self-critical. An outsider lets us know that we are limited. In fact, without norms that are more than contingent, dehumanization cannot finally be condemned except on the grounds of personal preference or emotional appeal. Without a commitment to common principles, history is but a contest of arbitrary power. Universal principles in the past have proved to be oppressive. They typically have been designed from a certain perspective— Western, male, and abstract, for example— and then imposed on others in a patronizing manner. The universals that are legitimate in the 21st century are not rigid, formal, and domineering but respect the diversity of the human race even while seeking commonness among peoples everywhere. One such master principle is human dignity, most widely known as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, established in 1948 by UNESCO:  Recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice, and peace in the world. (Preamble)  All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. (Article 1)  Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set for in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. (Article 2) Every child, woman, and man has sacred status without exception. Inspired in large part by the atrocities of World War II, the Preamble refers to “barbarous acts which . . . outraged the conscience of mankind.” The Declaration is generally considered the most universal expression of the moral aspirations of the civilized world. Humans are a unique species. No society has open hunting season on people: “In October you can shoot three as long as you have a license.” On the principle of our unassailable dignity as human beings without exception, we begin to articulate notions of justice and public 345

policy. Periodically, there are brief attempts to make human rights across the board the centerpiece of government action, and this is the master norm of human dignity at work. When journalists are serious about diversity and gender equality without stereotyping, they are acting on the principle of human dignity. Human rights, as worked out among the world’s peoples in the United Nations, is one basis for the cross-cultural ethical principle of human dignity. Another strategy for establishing human dignity as a common good across cultures is rooted in the sacredness of human life. The German philosopher Hans Jonas (1984) argued that when giving birth to others, we do not begin with a neutral calculus trying to decide whether to take responsibility for this new human being. Rather our primal instinct is toward preserving life, protecting it, and giving unquestioned commitment to it. Parental duty to children is an archetype of responsibility among the human species—that is, irrevocable and without negotiating the terms every time some new person appears. Out of this notion of the sacredness of life emerge ethical theories about not harming the innocent as an obligation that is cosmic, primordial, and irrespective of our roles or contracts. Human dignity illustrates the manner in which certain norms have a broad, taken-for-granted character. Given the oneness of the human species, its universal solidarity is the basic principle of ethics and the basis of all human communication. Our common humanness we share intersubjectively as a moral demand across cultural, racial, and historical boundaries. Instead of constructing a purely rational foundation for morality, our mutual human existence is the touchstone of ethics. In this view, ethics is as old as human beings and a primordial force in human existence. Given the social nature of communication, the community’s life story is the home of ethics. Society is inconceivable without an overriding commitment to each other’s dignity. As an agent of our common life, the public press has no choice but to honor this master norm as well. It does not merely mean that we expand international reporting, though thinking globally is a necessary condition of adequately understanding the common good. A commitment to universals does not eliminate all differences in what we think and believe. Journalism ethics grounded in universals is complex, and in an era of global communications, it inevitably involves pluralism. The issue is whether a community’s values affirm 346

human dignity. As our ideologies, philosophies of life, and beliefs are debated within the public sphere, some agreements will emerge that form a common good. While there are differences in nuance and application, the issue is whether at the deepest level we honor human dignity. Communities tend to be hidebound and turned inward. To better shape journalism ethics by universal criteria, more experiments are needed that come to grips with community life in global terms. Some glimmers of that consciousness are emerging over the environment; overusing our share of the world’s resources has now taken on moral resonance. Rather than local communities focusing on themselves in isolation, journalism can initiate public debate on issues such as this one. The news media as agents of community formation stitch the issues into a universal norm, engrafting ordinary questions about community life into our human oneness. As a result, cultural diversity does not become selfcentered tribalism in the extreme but an opportunity for helping communities work constructively from their own backyard and from the bottom up. In the process, local groups still make decisions for themselves, while resonating in principle with other human beings across the globe who are struggling with human values of a similar sort. Universal solidarity and our home territories are all rooted in the same human spirit and revolve around the same axis. At least it is possible to escape the excesses of individual rights and to avoid tribalism, but only if the common good is understood correctly and implemented. Conclusion After a history of steady work for three-fourths of a century, journalism ethics was established by 1980 as a legitimate enterprise and reasonably well-known in both the academy and the profession. With the dramatic growth in the field since then, journalism ethics has a wealth of resources at present for meeting the challenges of the 21st century. Textbooks and specialized courses in ethics are abundant; the codes of ethics for news are up-to-date and reasonably sophisticated; and increasingly, reporters with a specialty in ethics are writing about moral issues with clarity and relevance. All these dimensions of journalism ethics need ongoing attention to keep the field fresh and influential. But the four areas emphasized 347

in this review are of particular importance and warrant the most attention. Truth is a difficult concept to advocate or even understand in this postmodern age where reason and facts are no longer considered legitimate. The concepts of truth proposed here for journalism ethics take account of today’s epistemology and can be defended even in an environment of skepticism about truth. But given these complexities, truth deserves extra effort in journalism ethics. And this review takes the same general approach regarding technology. It is highlighted in this overview because the world is now fundamentally different technologically than before. The media have radically shifted from print and broadcast forms to the dominance of digital technologies. Since our work to date in ethics has been oriented to earlier technologies, the field needs to be rethought in terms of online cyberspace. While journalism ethics has always had a social dimension, the complicated demands of multiculturalism and diversity are more accented than ever and make it necessary to give specific emphasis to ethnicity and gender today. And the fourth area accented in this overview also has a new urgency—developing universal principles that are equal to the global media, and to shifts in international politics from a Western axis to the developing world instead. It is hoped that with that demanding agenda, journalism ethics can attract the best minds in both academia and the profession. Bibliography Appiah, K. A. (2006). Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a world of strangers. New York: W. W. Norton. Bonhoeffer, D. (1995). Ethics (N. H. Smith, Trans.). New York: Macmillan. Borden, S. (2007). Journalism as practice: MacIntyre, virtue ethics and the press. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate. Bugeja, M. (2007). Living ethics across media platforms. New York: Oxford University Press. Christians, C. (2000). An intellectual history of media ethics. In B. Pattyn (Ed.), Media ethics: Opening social dialogue (pp. 15–58). Leuven, Belgium: Peeters.

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Christians, C., Fackler, M., McKee, K., Kreshel, P., & Woods, R. (2008). Media ethics: Cases and moral reasoning (8th ed.). New York: Allyn & Bacon. Christians, C., & Traber, M. (Eds.). (1997). Communication ethics and universal values. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Commission on Freedom of the Press. (1947). A free and responsible press. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Cooper, T. W. (1989). Communication ethics and global change. White Plains, NY: Longman. Cooper, T. W. (1998). A time before deception: Truth in communication, culture and ethics. Santa Fe, NM: Clear Light. Cortese, A. J. (1990). Ethnic ethics: The restructuring of moral theory. Albany: State University of New York Press. Crawford, N. (1924). The ethics of journalism. NewYork: Knopf. DeFrancisco, V. P., & Palczewski, C. H. (2007). Communicating gender diversity: A critical approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Downing, J., & Husband, C. (2005). Representing “race”: Racisms, ethnicities and the media. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Entman, R., & Rojecki, A. (2000). The black image in the white mind: Media and race in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Flint, L. N. (1925). The conscience of a newspaper. New York: Appleton Century. Gibbon, W. (1926). Newspaper ethics. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. Gunaratne, S. A. (2005). The Dao of the press: A humanocentric theory. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press. Gunkel, D. (2007). Thinking otherwise: Philosophy, communication, technology. Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press. Hamelink, C. J. (1988). Communication and human rights: The international dimension. Media Development, 35(4), 6–8. Hamelink, C. J. (2000). The ethics of cyberspace. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hastings Center. (2000). The teaching of ethics in higher education. Hastings-on-Hudson, NY: Institute of Society, Ethics, and the Life Sciences. Held, D. (1995). Democracy and the global order: From the modern state to cosmopolitan governance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Henning, A. (1932). Ethics and practices in journalism. New York: Ray Long & Richard. 349

Jonas, H. (1984). The imperative of responsibility: In search of an ethics for the technological age. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Lester, P. M., & Ross, S. D. (Eds.). (2003). Images that injure: Pictorial stereotypes in the media (2nd ed.). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Lyon, D. (2001). Surveillance society: Monitoring everyday life. Philadelphia: Open University Press. MacDonald, B., & Petheram, M. (1998). Key guide to information sources on media ethics. London: Cassell. Mitchell, J. (2007). Media violence and Christian ethics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Overholser, G., & Jamieson, K. H. (Eds.). (2005). The press. New York: Oxford University Press. Patterson, P., & Wilkins, L. (2008). Media ethics: Issues and cases (6th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill. Pippert, W. (1989). An ethics of news: A reporter’s search for truth. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. Rao, S., & Wasserman, H. (2007,April). Global journalism ethics revisited: A postcolonial critique. Global Media and Communication, 3, 29–50. Taylor, C. K.,Appiah,A., Habermas, J., Rockefeller, S. C., Walzer, M., & Wolf, S. (1994). Multiculturalism: Examining the politics of recognition. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (1948). Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Paris: Author. Ward, S. (2004). The invention of journalism ethics: The path to objectivity and beyond. Montreal, Quebec, Canada: McGillQueen’s University Press. Ward, S. (2005). Philosophical foundations for global journalism ethics. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 20(1), 3–21. Washburn, P. S. (2007). The African American newspaper: Voice of freedom. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press. Wasserman, H., & Ward, S. (Eds.). (2008). Media ethics beyond borders: A global perspective. Cape Town, South Africa: Heinemann. Wilkins, L. (2008). Connecting care and duty: How neuroscience and feminist ethics can contribute to understanding professional moral development. In H. Wasserman & S. J. A. Ward (Eds.), Media ethics beyond borders: A global perspective (chap. 2). Cape Town, South Africa: Heinemann.

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- Tatah Mentan -

Langaa Research & Publishing Common Initiative Group P.O. Box 902 Mankon Bamenda North West Region Cameroon

Understanding Contemporary Journalism

TATAH MENTAN is an Independent Researcher, Member of the Political Commission for Nations and States under colonial rule, pacifist and engaged peace activist. He is a Theodore Lentz Peace and Security Studies Fellow, and Professor of Political Science.

A Handbook of Principles and Practice

Journalism is one of the most important professions today. Without it, large swaths of the world similarly might have remained “dark, impoverished, tortured,” because few people would have been aware of the nature and depth of the atrocities therein. You can’t fix what you can’t find. Indeed, we have only to look at places today where journalists must risk their lives to do their jobs—places such as Central Europe, the Philippines, Mexico, Myanmar, Russia, Turkey, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Cameroun, Afghanistan, and too many others—to appreciate anew what an incalculable difference the media make, reporting on wars, famines, genocide, and the tyrants who green-light them. But saving the world apparently is not enough. I have included a chapter on Peace Journalism because it uses conflict analysis and transformation to update the concept of balance, fairness and accuracy in reporting. This approach provides a new road map tracing the connections between journalists, their sources, the stories they cover and the consequences of their reporting–the ethics of journalistic intervention to play a role in global peace rather than fuelling conflicts.

Understanding Contemporary Journalism A Handbook of Principles and Practice - Tatah Mentan -