Ubuntu Philosophy and Disabilities in Sub-Saharan Africa [1 ed.] 9781032381411, 9781032381435

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This edited volume is much needed and valuable contribution to the growing body of work on disability outside the global North. Mutanga and contributors weave a picture of disability and impairment across sub-Saharan Africa (including focussed studies of South Africa, Lesotho, Botswana, Uganda and Ghana) that, collectively, builds our understanding of the challenges and barriers faced by disabled people living there (particularly in relation to education and social inclusion), and highlights the inclusive potential of Ubuntu philosophy, both as a new framework for future academic inquiry and as a practical tool for informing disability-related policies and strategies in the region and beyond. Sarah Dauncey Professor of Chinese Society and Disability at University of Nottingham, United Kingdom

In Ubuntu Philosophy and Disabilities in Sub-Saharan Africa, Oliver Mutanga charts a new and refreshing path that not only deconstructs Western Eurocentric perspectives, paradigms and narratives on Disability Studies, which overlook ‘the impact of colonialism and its continuing negative influence on the lives of people with disabilities in the Global South’. Mutanga’s book also centres Disabilities Studies in the African philosophy of Ubuntu. He has assembled a broad and diverse team of African scholars from Botswana, Ghana, Lesotho, Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda, and Zimbabwe, who draw on the transformative potential of the philosophy of Ubuntu to interrogate colonialist ableist ideologies, social structures, and disability-related challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa. A lot has been written, on the one hand on the philosophy of Ubuntu, and on the other hand on disability. Mutanga’s book weaves Disability Studies and the philosophy of Ubuntu into a rich tapestry that breathes fresh air into our taken-for-granted conceptions the notion of ‘disability’. The book is premised on the assumption that the philosophy of Ubuntu philosophy, which is anchored in the values and traditions of numerous sub-Saharan African societies, values and traditions, emphasises communal interdependence, collective problem-solving, kindness, generosity, compassion, benevolence, courtesy, human dignity, caring, and respect and concern for others. A brief look into some of the contributions brings out the book’s thrust. For example, drawing on these sub-Saharan African societies’ values and traditions, Chigangaidze, Mafa, Simango and Mudehwe call for political participation of people with disabilities and their inclusivity in the governance of communities. Gore advocates for interventions in disabilities to be foregrounded in Ubuntu’s values such as solidarity, caring, participation, compassion, and respect. Lephoto and Adigun boldly confront the stereotyping of people with disabilities in Lesotho and argue a case for the philosophy of Ubuntu, or Botho in Sesotho as a valuable resource for promoting positive attitudes towards students with disabilities, while also instilling the African ethic of care and support. Writing from an Open Distance Learning (ODL) context, Shandu-Phetla, Ngubane and Adigun broach an often overlooked and neglected area of students with disabilities, and the challenges such

students face when navigating the virtual space of online learning where often there are no clear guidelines and policies on the effective use of technologyenabled virtual platforms to support students. They urge ODL institutions to strategically integrate the Ubuntu philosophical values of interdependence, respect, care, and sharing into their programs for support of students with disabilities. Marovah and Mutanga situate Disability Studies and Ubuntu within the discourses of Africanisation and decolonisation. They argue a case for Ubuntu as a tool for decolonising Participatory Research (PR) in the global South with a view to addressing power imbalances and challenges inherent in the research process. They call for future research to explore the application of indigenous African philosophies and practices in decolonising participatory research in order to contribute to the diversification and enrichment of knowledge production in the global South. Ubuntu Philosophy and Disabilities in Sub-Saharan Africa is an invaluable, well timed and essential reading for higher education practitioners. It is especially relevant in this era where the world has just emerged from the ravages of the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, and is now bracing itself for major socio-economic and cultural challenges as a result of the war between Russia and Ukraine, which has the potential to evolve into World War III. Moeketsi Letseka Professor, Holder of Endowed UNESCO Chair on Open Distance Learning (University of South Africa), Member of South Africa’s National Commission for UNESCO

Ubuntu Philosophy and Disabilities in Sub-Saharan Africa employs a variety of methods, including conceptual analysis, qualitative data, participatory research, and applied ethics, to address disability as it features in a variety of African countries and mainly in the context of higher education. It demonstrates how communal values salient in indigenous Africa are a revealing lens through which to appreciate not only ways in which students with disabilities are not given their due, but also which attitudes, technologies, practices, and policies morally must change. Although the contributors believe that contextspecific values are vital, readers should not suppose their prescriptions are attractive only for African societies; instead, the world has much to learn from this book about how to bring people closer together when it comes to disability. Thaddeus Metz Professor in the Department of Philosophy at the University of Pretoria in South Africa. He is the author of A Relational Moral Theory: African Ethics in and Beyond the Continent

Ubuntu Philosophy and Disabilities in Sub-Saharan Africa

This book uses Ubuntu philosophy to illuminate the voices of people with disabilities from Sub-Saharan Africa. Disability literature is largely dominated by scholars and studies from the Global North, and these studies are largely informed by Global North theories and concepts. Although disability literature in the Global South is now fast growing, most studies continue to utilise conceptual, theoretical, and philosophical frameworks that are framed within Global North contexts. This presents two major challenges: Firstly, the voices of people with disabilities in the Global South remain on the fringes of disability discourses. Secondly, when their voices are heard, their realities are distorted. This edited book, consisting of 11 chapters, provides case studies from Botswana, Ghana, Lesotho, Uganda, and South Africa, explores disability in various fields: Inclusive education, higher education, environment, Open Distance Learning, and Technical and Vocational Education and Technical Colleges. The book contributes to the ways in which disability is understood and experienced in the Global South thereby challenging the Western hegemonic discourses on disability. This collection of contributions will be of interest to all scholars and students of disability studies, development studies, medical sociology, and African studies. Oliver Mutanga is a Critical Diversity scholar who holds a Ph.D. in Development Studies from the University of the Free State in South Africa. He is currently an Assistant Professor at the Graduate School of Education in Nazarbayev University, Kazakhstan, as well as a Research Associate at the University of South Africa’s College of Education. Oliver has gained valuable experience in various countries including Zimbabwe, Botswana, South Africa, Norway, and the UK. Before joining Nazarbayev University, he was a Lecturer at De Montfort University in the UK. Oliver has been honoured with prestigious awards such as the Marie Sklodowska Curie Postdoctoral Fellowship at the University of Oslo, Norway (2017/8), and the Global Challenges Research Fellowship at University College London’s Institute of Education (2019).

Interdisciplinary Disability Studies Series editor: Mark Sherry, The University of Toledo, USA

Disability studies has made great strides in exploring power and the body. This series extends the interdisciplinary dialogue between disability studies and other fields by asking how disability studies can influence a particular field. It will show how a deep engagement with disability studies changes our understanding of the following fields: sociology, literary studies, gender studies, bioethics, social work, law, education, or history. This groundbreaking series identifies both the practical and theoretical implications of such an interdisciplinary dialogue and challenges people in disability studies as well as other disciplinary fields to critically reflect on their professional praxis in terms of theory, practice, and methods. Understanding Disability Throughout History Interdisciplinary Perspectives in Iceland from Settlement to 1936 Edited by Hanna Björg Sigurjónsdóttir and James G. Rice Disability and Art History from Antiquity to the Twenty-First Century Edited by Ann Millett-Gallant and Elizabeth Howie Dis/ability in Media, Law and History: Intersectional, Embodied AND Socially Constructed? Edited by Micky Lee, Frank Rudy Cooper and Pat Reeve Disability and Labour in the Twentieth Century Historical and Comparative Perspectives Edited by Radu Harald Dinu and Staffan Bengtsson Rethinking Disability and Human Rights Participation, Equality and Citizenship Inger Marie Lid, Edvard Steinfeld and Michael Rembis Chronic Pain, BDSM and Crip Time Emma Sheppard Ubuntu Philosophy and Disabilities in Sub-Saharan Africa Edited by Oliver Mutanga For a full list of titles in this series, please visit: https://www​.routledge​.com​/Interdisciplinary​ -Disability​-Studies​/book​-series​/ASHSER1401

Ubuntu Philosophy and Disabilities in Sub-Saharan Africa

Edited by Oliver Mutanga

First published 2024 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2024 selection and editorial matter, Oliver Mutanga; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Oliver Mutanga to be identified as the author of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-032-38141-1 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-38143-5 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-34368-4 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003343684 Typeset in Sabon By Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India

Contents

Summaryix List of Contributors x Acknowledgementsxv 1 Ubuntu philosophy and disabilities in Sub-Saharan Africa: Successes, promises, and challenges for inclusive development

1

OLIVER MUTANGA

2 The relevance of Ubuntu in disability: A political, economic, social, technological, legal, and environmental (PESTLE) analysis

18

ROBERT K. CHIGANGAIDZE, ITAI H. MAFA, TAPIWANASHE G. SIMANGO, AND ELIA MUDEHWE

3 Disability and inclusion in South African higher education: An Ubuntu philosophical perspective

30

OLIVER T. GORE

4 A review of students with disabilities’ experiences in higher education: Implications of adopting the Ubuntu philosophy to human resource development

48

RAPHAEL P. K. ANDOH AND RITA K. NKETSIABA

5 Botho attitude towards people with disabilities: Inclusion in Lesotho Higher Education

68

MALEPHOTO NIKO RUTH LEPHOTO AND OLUFEMI TIMOTHY ADIGUN

6 Injecting Ubuntu in designing accessible virtual learning for students with disabilities THULI SHANDU-PHETLA, SINDILE A. NGUBANE, AND OLUFEMI TIMOTHY ADIGUN

88

viii Contents 7 Ubuntu philosophy: A pathway to decolonising participatory research in the Global South

109

TENDAYI MAROVAH AND OLIVER MUTANGA

8 Staff experiences with inclusive education at Technical Vocational Education and Training institutions in Botswana: A Botho philosophical lens

130

MACDELYN MOSALAGAE

9 Translating the Ubuntu philosophy into practical disability inclusive interventions: The Obuntu bulamu experience from Uganda148 FEMKE BANNINK MBAZZI

10 Ubuntu philosophy and the experiences of Deaf people in Ghana

163

STEPHEN BAFFOUR ADJEI, SARAH TARA SAM, FRANK OWUSU SEKYERE, AND PHILIP BOATENG

11 The Ubuntu philosophy: Implications and recommendations for addressing disability-related challenges

184

OLIVER MUTANGA

Index191

Summary

In Disability Studies, the prevailing discourse is largely influenced by Western scholars and research, which often leads to the marginalisation of the voices from individuals with disabilities in the Global South. This edited volume, consisting of 11 chapters, breaks from this pattern by focusing on disability in Sub-Saharan Africa and employing the indigenous Ubuntu philosophy as a theoretical and conceptual framework. Most contributors are emerging scholars from various Sub-Saharan Africa nations with extensive experiential knowledge of the Ubuntu philosophy. The book features diverse studies, including empirical, conceptual, and literature reviews, which explore disability in areas such as inclusive education, higher education, open distance learning, and technical and vocational education. Challenging hegemonic global narratives on disability, this book offers valuable insights into understanding and addressing disability issues in Sub-Saharan Africa through the lens of the Ubuntu philosophy. Each chapter emphasises the importance of Ubuntu in examining disability matters and formulating intervention strategies. Catering to a diverse audience, Ubuntu Philosophy and Disabilities in Sub-Saharan Africa will engage students, lecturers, researchers, NonGovernmental Organisations, and policymakers in Sub-Saharan Africa, post-colonial states, and ‘Global South communities within Global North countries’ confronting equity challenges e.g. indigenous communities in Australia, New Zealand, and Canada. Its content spans various disciplines, making it relevant to critical disability studies, sociology, social policy, international development, philosophy, post-colonial studies, African studies, and indigenous studies.

Contributors

Stephen Baffour Adjei is a Senior Lecturer of Psychology at the Department of Interdisciplinary Studies, Faculty of Education and Communication Sciences, Akenten Appiah-Menka University of Skills Training and Entrepreneurial Development (AAMUSTED) in Ghana. He is also a Research Fellow at the Centre for Suicide and Violence Research (CSVR), Department of Psychology, University of Ghana. He earned a Ph.D. in Psychology from Aarhus University in Denmark. Stephen has taught, conducted research, and directed programmes at universities in Africa and overseas, including Ruhr University Bochum in Germany, Aarhus University in Denmark, and the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Norway. He uses cultural psychological theories, African communitarian philosophy and theory of being/personhood, and decolonial perspectives to understand the interactional complexities between culture, context, and psychological processes. His research interests include interpersonal violence/intimate partner violence, critical African psychology, decolonising knowledge and being, psychosocial/cultural experiences of people with disabilities, and psychology of human development and learning. Olufemi Timothy Adigun is an Inclusive Education Lecturer at the National University of Lesotho. He earned his Ph.D. in Special Education from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria, in 2017. He is an Academic Associate at the University of South Africa’s College of Education. Olufemi specialises in Disability Studies research and focuses on providing quality education and sustainable, inclusive learning, and development for students with disabilities, particularly Deaf students. He applies the social model of disability lens and principles of equity and social justice to theorise the applicability and practicability of Inclusive Education and Social Inclusion. His research agenda aims to contribute to transformative changes in education for individuals with disabilities, such as restructuring the curriculum to include innovative teaching methodologies and inclusive education policies and school practices in pursuit of sustainable, quality education. Raphael P.K. Andoh is an Administrator with a Master of Arts in Governance and Sustainable Development from the University of Cape Coast in Ghana.

Contributors  xi He is currently pursuing a Master of Commerce in Human Resource Management at the same institution. With over 6 years of research experience and publications in prestigious journals, Raphael adopts both quantitative and qualitative research approaches that are appropriate for the phenomenon he investigates. His research interests are primarily focused on human resource development, with a particular emphasis on workplace learning, career development, and individuals with disabilities. As a result, he has spearheaded the establishment of the Human Capabilities Development Research Group. Philip Boateng is a Senior Lecturer at the Department of Interdisciplinary Studies, Faculty of Education and Communication Sciences, Akenten Appiah-Menka University of Skills and Entrepreneurial Development in Ghana. He holds an M.Phil degree in Educational Leadership (Curriculum Development) and is currently pursuing a Ph.D. in Curriculum and Supervision at the Centro Escolar University in the Philippines. Philip’s research interests lie in teacher professional development, teacher efficacy, inclusive education, and instructional leadership. He has authored and co-authored scholarly articles that have been published in prestigious journals. Robert K. Chigangaidze is a Lecturer of Social Work/Health and Social Care at Staffordshire University in the United Kingdom and a member of the Ubuntu Research Group, which is part of the Africa Social Work Network. He holds a Master of Science in Clinical Social Work and a Bachelor of Social Work (Honours) degrees. Robert has authored several articles on Ubuntu’s relationship with Social Work practice. His research interests include various topics such as Ubuntu, Environmental Social Work, Social Justice, Social Work in Public Health, Humanistic Social Work, and Mental Health. Oliver Tafadzwa Gore is a Researcher at the Centre for Teaching and Learning at North-West University in South Africa. His interests include promoting the well-being, inclusion, and success of diverse students in higher education, including those with disabilities. He earned his Ph.D. in Development Studies from the University of the Free State in South Africa, where he focused on student (dis)advantage in higher education and ways of promoting equal opportunities for success. Oliver has extensively published papers in local and international peer-reviewed journals and book chapters on diversity, inclusion, well-being, and success of South African higher education students. Additionally, he has presented his work at national and international conferences. Malephoto Niko Ruth Lephoto is a Lecturer, teacher-educator, and researcher in the Educational Foundations Department at the Faculty of Education, National University of Lesotho. She holds a Ph.D. in Psychology of Education from the University of the Free State, South Africa. Malephoto

xii Contributors teaches undergraduate courses in Educational Psychology, Counselling for Educators, and Inclusive Education. She supervises postgraduate students in Educational Psychology, Counselling, Inclusive Education, and Peace Education, and her research interests lie in the same areas and Indigenous Knowledge Systems. She has published journal articles on psychosocial support provision, guidance and counselling strengthening, and teacher capacitation for learner support. Itai H. Mafa is a Senior Lecturer and practitioner in Social Work Practice. She holds Bachelor’s, Master’s, and Ph.D. degrees in Social Work from the University of Fort Hare in South Africa. Her passion lies in promoting social justice and advocating for the inclusion of excluded populations within societies. Tendayi Marovah is a Research Fellow at the Open Distance Learning Research Unit, College of Education, University of South Africa (UNISA). He is also a Lecturer in the Department of Humanities, Business Development, and Arts Education at Midlands State University in Zimbabwe. His research interests include curriculum and pedagogy, higher education, social justice, human development, and theorising using the capability approach and the Ubuntu philosophy. Currently, he is working on a Decolonising Education for Peace in Africa (DEPA) project. Tendayi holds a Ph.D. in Africa Studies (History) from the Centre for Africa Studies at the University of the Free State in South Africa. He also consults for various organisations. Tendayi’s current practice is grounded in transformative pedagogies informed by the Ubuntu philosophy, which aims to develop knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes needed to create a world that is more just, peaceful, and sustainable. Femke Bannink Mbazzi is a Clinical and Educational Psychologist and Cultural Anthropologist with more than 20 years of research and clinical experience in disability inclusion in Uganda. Her passion lies in developing evidence-based and culturally appropriate health and education interventions. Her Ph.D. research focused on the significance of belonging and Ubuntu, and since then, she has incorporated these concepts into all of her research studies and interventions. Currently, Bannink is an Associate Professor at the International Centre for Evidence in Disability (ICED) at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM) in Uganda, where she leads the Disability Research Group at the MRC/UVRI & LSHTM Uganda Research Unit. The Disability Research Group comprises East African researchers with and without disabilities who design and implement African disability research. Macdelyn Mosalagae is the College Principal of Awil Film College in Gaborone, Botswana. She holds a Ph.D. in Inclusive Education from the University of Witwatersrand in South Africa and a Master’s degree in Inclusive Education, Research Policy and Practice from the University of

Contributors  xiii Glasgow in the United Kingdom. With over 13 years of experience in the education of students with disabilities in Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Scotland and Botswana. Her primary research interest is in the Botho philosophy, modern contextualised educational reforms, the Capabilities Approach, and pedagogies of teaching students with disabilities. She is a recipient of the Commonwealth Fellowship Award, the Ros Moger and Terry Furlong Scholarship, and the National Research Fund. Elia Mudehwe is a Social Worker with expertise in child safeguarding. He holds a Master of Science degree from the University of Zimbabwe and has a keen interest in social policy, child exploitation, and protection. Oliver Mutanga is a Critical Diversity scholar who holds a Ph.D. in Development Studies from the University of the Free State in South Africa. He is currently an Assistant Professor at the Graduate School of Education in Nazarbayev University, Kazakhstan, as well as a Research Associate at the University of South Africa’s College of Education. Oliver has gained valuable experience in various countries including Zimbabwe, Botswana, South Africa, Norway, and the United Kingdom. Before joining Nazarbayev University, he was a Lecturer at De Montfort University in the United Kingdom. Oliver has been honoured with prestigious awards such as the Marie Sklodowska Curie Postdoctoral Fellowship at the University of Oslo, Norway (2017/8), and the Global Challenges Research Fellowship at University College London’s Institute of Education (2019). Sindile Amina Ngubane is a Professor at the Institute for Open Distance Learning, College of Education, University of South Africa (UNISA). She holds a Ph.D. in Curriculum and Instructional Studies from UNISA. Her areas of expertise include educational technology, access, Ubuntu, and disability research in higher education. She has held various leadership positions, including leading the Institute for Open and Distance Learning, serving as Deputy Director at the Advocacy and Resource Centre for Students with Disabilities, and working as a Curriculum Transformation Specialist in the Curriculum Transformation Unit. Rita Kwakuma Nketsiaba earned a Master of Philosophy in Hospitality Management from the University of Cape Coast, Ghana in 2018. She is currently an Administrator in the Directorate of Human Resource at the University of Cape Coast and a Licentiate Member of the Chartered Institute of Administrators and Management Consultants-Ghana. Rita’s research interests are focused on examining service quality, students’ experience, and customer satisfaction, using qualitative research approaches. Sarah Tara Sam is a Lecturer at Christ Apostolic University College in Ghana where she teaches courses in educational foundations and educating children with special needs. She earned her MPhil in Childhood Studies from

xiv Contributors the Norwegian University of Science and Technology and her PhD in Sociology and Social Policy from Lingnan University in Hong Kong. At the time of publishing this edition, she is participating in a short-term project at CERMA-ESA (The East and South African Centre of Excellence in Educational Research Methodologies and Management) at the University of Oldenburg in Germany through a UNESCO Germany Volunteer programme focusing on racism and colonialism. Her research interests lie in disability and inclusive education policy in basic and higher educational levels. Frank Owusu Sekyere is a Lecturer at the Department of Interdisciplinary Studies, Faculty of Education and Communication Sciences at Akenten Appiah-Menka University of Skills Training and Entrepreneurial Development in Ghana. He holds an MPhil in Special Education from the University of Education in Ghana, and currently pursuing a Ph.D. in Special Education at the Philippines Christian University. Before joining as a lecturer, he worked for over a decade at the Ashanti School for the Deaf in Ghana, where he also served as a Sign Language interpreter. Thuli Shandu-Phetla has been teaching at the University of South Africa (UNISA) in South Africa for over two decades. Thuli holds a DLitt et Phil in English from UNISA, which provided her with insight into student support in Open and Distance Learning (ODL). She teaches various modules from undergraduate to postgraduate level in the Department of English Studies. Thuli has experience in teaching English in high school, adult basic education and training (ABET), and other higher education institutions. She also served as a Curriculum Transformation facilitator, teaching lecturers about the key pillars of curriculum transformation, which include Ubuntu, Africanisation, and inclusivity. Tapiwanashe G. Simango is a Lecturer of Social Work at Midlands State University (MSU) in Zimbabwe. She holds a Master of Science degree in Clinical Social Work from MSU and a Bachelor of Social Work Honours from the University of Zimbabwe. Tapiwa’s research interests are centred around human rights, disability, child welfare, monitoring, and evaluation. She has worked in the Southern African region and internationally to promote issues related to youths, education, and development.

Acknowledgements

Growing up in rural Zimbabwe, I encountered Indigenous knowledge specialists who were experts in human and animal medicine, agricultural systems, and meteorological sciences, among other fields. This book is dedicated to these remarkable individuals, both living and departed. I am profoundly grateful to the scholars who reviewed the drafts of this book, especially Sarah Dauncey, Oliver Gore, Moeketsi Letseka, Tendayi Marovah and Thaddeus Metz. Additionally, I would like to express my appreciation to the Faculty of Health and Life Sciences at De Montfort University in the United Kingdom, as well as the Graduate School of Education at Nazarbayev University in Kazakhstan, for granting me the time and space to focus on this project. I am also thankful to the British Academy for their financial support through the Leverhulme Small Research Grants.

1

Ubuntu philosophy and disabilities in Sub-Saharan Africa Successes, promises, and challenges for inclusive development Oliver Mutanga

Introduction Approximately 1 billion people globally have disabilities, and 80% of them live in the Global South (WHO & World Bank, 2011). Although disability literature has rapidly expanded worldwide, it remains largely influenced by Western scholars and studies (Meekosha, 2011; Katsui & Swartz, 2021). Additionally, many of these studies use frameworks that stem from Western contexts, as noted by Dauncey (2020) and Grech and Soldatic (2016). The reliance on Western viewpoints obscures the actual experiences of individuals with disabilities in the Global South, as their voices and experiences are marginalised in discussions about disability. The marginalisation of Global South perspectives in disability discourse is problematic for several reasons. The imposition of Western frameworks on disability experiences in the Global South results in misrepresentations and misunderstandings of the unique cultural, social, and economic contexts in which people with disabilities live. For example, the Western emphasis on individualism and autonomy may not translate well to Global South communitarian societies, where interdependence, human dignity, and community relations are highly valued (Mji et al., 2011). This cultural mismatch can lead to the development of policies and interventions that fail to resonate with local populations and may even exacerbate existing inequalities. The dominance of Western perspectives in Disability Studies often overlooks the impact of colonialism and its continuing negative influence on the lives of people with disabilities in the Global South. For instance, Erevelles (2011) asserts that colonialism has directly contributed to the marginalisation of individuals with disabilities in post-colonial societies by introducing ableist ideologies and social structures. Mutanga (2022) further asserts that colonialism, by way of land expropriation, disabled African populations. These communities continue to experience hardship to this day due to landlessness, given the pivotal role of land in many African societies. Looking at disability in the Tswana society in Botswana, Livingston (2006) even suggests that the concept of disability in Africa came with colonialism. By failing to acknowledge the historical and political context, Western disability

DOI: 10.4324/9781003343684-1

2  Oliver Mutanga models risk perpetuating colonial power dynamics and reinforcing unequal relationships between the West and Global South (Grech, 2015). To ensure a more inclusive and accurate understanding of disability experiences in the Global South, it is essential to amplify the voices and experiences of individuals with disabilities living in these regions and incorporate their perspectives into research, policy, and practice. One way to do this is by magnifying Southern concepts and theories. This interdisciplinary book expands on the work of scholars who promote context-specific knowledge beyond dominant Western frameworks. The book provides a thorough analysis of the Ubuntu philosophy and disability in Sub-Saharan Africa. Meekosha (2011) calls for the decolonisation of Disability Studies by incorporating perspectives from the Global South. She critiques the Western nature of Disability Studies and argues for a more inclusive, culturally sensitive, and socially just approach that considers the historical, cultural, and political contexts in which disability is experienced. Building on Meekosha’s perspective, Chilisa (2012) champions the use of indigenous research methodologies to address the unique needs and experiences of people in the Global South. She maintains that by centring indigenous knowledge systems and valuing local epistemologies, researchers can challenge Western hegemony and contribute to a more holistic and context-specific understanding of disability. In a similar vein, Tuhiwai Smith (2012) emphasises the importance of decolonising research methodologies, particularly in relation to indigenous populations. She posits that research should be driven by the needs and aspirations of the communities involved and prioritise indigenous ways of knowing. By adopting this approach, researchers can gain a better understanding of the challenges faced by people with disabilities in Sub-Saharan Africa while respecting their cultural values and traditions. Together, these scholars advocate for a departure from Western-centric approaches in Disability Studies, highlighting the necessity for context-specific knowledge that considers local cultures, histories, and epistemologies. This book aims to contribute to this growing body of work by providing a comprehensive and nuanced analysis of disability in Sub-Saharan Africa, promoting social justice and inclusivity for individuals with disabilities in the region. The main goal is to enhance the quality of life for individuals with disabilities by generating literature on social justice and supplying data to inform disability work across various fields and contexts. The book aims to achieve the following objectives:

• To examine the Ubuntu philosophy’s potential to address disability challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa;

• To demonstrate the applicability of the Ubuntu philosophy in diverse fields in Sub-Saharan;

• To highlight the successes, promises, and challenges of using Ubuntu for inclusive development; and

Ubuntu philosophy and disabilities in Sub-Saharan Africa  3

• To contribute to the growing body of literature on disability in the Global South, providing informative data to inform disability policy responses and promote social justice. Bridging the gap between Western and Global South perspectives on disabilities, this book examines the transformative power of cultural wisdom. By utilising the Ubuntu philosophy, it aims to foster a deeper understanding of disability in Sub-Saharan Africa, transcending conventional approaches. To fully comprehend the potential influence of the Ubuntu philosophy on disability in Sub-Saharan Africa, it is essential to explore its contextual foundations and historical origins. By doing so, we can reveal its distinctiveness and the ways in which it might offer scholars of other contexts inspiration to look beyond Western frameworks. The objective is not to depict the Ubuntu philosophy as inherently superior to other traditions. Instead, the focus is on recognising the valuable insights that the Ubuntu philosophy provides in addressing certain limitations in Western theories. Moreover, it is essential to acknowledge and consider other equally important Southern theories from various Global South communities, as they can also offer valuable perspectives and contributions to the broader philosophical discourse. The next section will provide a detailed exploration of this subject. Understanding the Ubuntu philosophy Probing into the historical origins and cultural importance of the Ubuntu philosophy yields a more profound comprehension of its inception and the principles it represents in various African communities. Rooted in numerous African cultures, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, the Ubuntu philosophy transcends linguistic barriers with analogous terms pervading diverse cultures, underscoring the supremacy of communal ideals and an ethos of interdependence among individuals (Makhanya, 2023). This philosophy permeates various Sub-Saharan societies and manifests under a plethora of names across distinct cultures: Unhu, Botho, Abantu, Bumuntu, Gimuntu, Umundu, Umuntu, and Vumuntu. The preponderance of Ubuntu scholarship originating from South African scholars is not merely coincidental. It underscores the unequal distribution of academic research in Africa and illustrates the impact of regional discourse on the broader comprehension of Ubuntu. Thus, it is unsurprising that many scholars associate the philosophy with the isuZulu/ isuXhosa aphorism ‘umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu’ (a person is a person through other persons), which represents merely one of many conceptualisations of Ubuntu. Metz and Gaie (2010) argue that there are two ways in which Ubuntu is distinct from Western approaches to morality. They argue that Sub-Saharan morality is essentially relational in the sense that the only way to develop one’s humanness is to relate to others in a positive way. In other words,

4  Oliver Mutanga one becomes a person solely through other persons – ‘one cannot realise one’s true self in opposition to others or even in isolation from them’ (Metz & Gaie, 2010: 275). Human interdependence and co-existence seem to be the most appropriate way in which the concept can be articulated (Letseka, 2013; Waghid, 2014). The Ubuntu philosophy is firmly anchored in the values and traditions of numerous Sub-Saharan African societies. This worldview emphasises interdependence, human dignity, respect, and collective problem-solving. It highlights the significance of nurturing human relationships and upholding core principles to enable individuals to flourish within their communities. Although there is not yet a standardised inventory of core Ubuntu values, the diversity of principles reflects the richness of the philosophy. A meticulous examination uncovers relationships among these values, leading to the realisation that respect, relationships, and inclusion are integral components of the Ubuntu philosophy. By adopting an inclusive, human-centric approach to disability issues, Ubuntu can enhance the lives of individuals with disabilities and promote greater justice and equity within society. The Ubuntu philosophy accentuates human interdependence and dignity, emphasising the consequences of individual actions on the community and the imperative of collective responsibility towards both fellow beings and the environment (Broodryk, 2002; Gyekye, 1995; Ramose, 2002). It underscores the paramountcy of collaboration for mutual benefit, recognising the intrinsic dignity and worth of every individual, irrespective of their circumstances, social standing, or abilities (Metz, 2011). Ubuntu prioritises compassionate attributes, such as empathy, understanding, and care, urging individuals to exhibit kindness and support under diverse circumstances (Mangena, 2016). This philosophy necessitates demonstrating respect for others by acknowledging their rights, liberties, opinions, beliefs, and cultural practices, in congruence with its emphasis on dignity (Metz, 2011). Moreover, Ubuntu fosters collective problem-solving, instilling a sense of communal responsibility for addressing challenges and discovering solutions through collaboration, knowledge and resource sharing, and consensus-oriented decision-making (Broodryk, 2002; Metz, 2022). These values are acquired and transmitted across generations via education and oral storytelling methods, such as fables, proverbs, myths, and riddles. Oral storytelling played a pivotal role in disseminating the tenets of the Ubuntu philosophy, serving to warn, caution, advise, praise, denounce, and guide individuals to the extent that these oral artists held sway over the lives of their patrons, they were able to influence them greatly (Ndlovu & Hove, 2015). These tenets furnished the cultural rules that formed the foundation of a community’s way of life, encapsulating the entirety of their philosophical perspective (Gelfand, 1973). The resilience of this philosophy to colonial and imperialist onslaught can be attributed to its capacity to address the evolving challenges and dynamics of human societies while preserving a sense of unity and belonging (Shutte, 2001).

Ubuntu philosophy and disabilities in Sub-Saharan Africa  5 The Ubuntu philosophy, rooted in the understanding of human vulnerability, emphasises the need for unity and collaboration to overcome complex challenges. Ubuntu fosters a spirit of collective survival and harmony. This philosophy is predicated on the notion that individuals can only thrive within a community, and that the well-being of the community is inextricably linked to the welfare of its members (Gade, 2012). This understanding emerged from the recognition of the fragility of life and the inherent vulnerability of human existence (Ramose, 2002). This is illustrated by the Shona idiom ‘Chara chimwe hachitswanyi inda’ (one finger alone cannot kill a louse), emphasising the need for interdependence and cooperation to achieve collective goals. Throughout history, the practice of Ubuntu has been deeply ingrained in the social fabric of various African societies, promoting values such as empathy, cooperation, and mutual respect (Gelfand, 1973; Mangena, 2016). In communities that embrace the Ubuntu philosophy, taking care of those who cannot provide for themselves is seen as a responsibility rather than a choice. In my view, Ubuntu contributes to Disability Studies by helping us think about disabilities differently and to enact practices that can realign institutional and transformational purposes with an idea of community in which relationships and connectedness are paramount and inform in daily practices. The historical roots and cultural significance of the Ubuntu philosophy demonstrate its enduring relevance and profound impact on the lives of those who subscribe to its principles. By fostering a sense of interdependence and solidarity, Ubuntu continues to offer valuable guidance for navigating the complexities of contemporary society while maintaining a commitment to communal well-being and social harmony (Louw, 2001). This philosophy transcends temporal and spatial boundaries, providing a framework for addressing contemporary challenges such as social inequity, environmental degradation, and conflict resolution. Consequently, Ubuntu retains its significance and influence in shaping the values and aspirations of diverse societies on the African continent and beyond. Unfortunately, much of the existing African literature on disability primarily highlights negative practices towards individuals with disabilities, which do not represent the core values of Ubuntu. Such accounts often neglect the origins of these negative views and overlook the positive practices present in African societies, making it essential to acknowledge the evolving perceptions and conceptualisations of disabilities over time, even in Western contexts. Disability in Sub-Saharan Africa Pre-colonial Africa’s multifaceted disability perceptions were intricately woven into cultural, religious, and social frameworks (Eskay, et al., 2012; Grech, 2015). Indigenous communities manifested diverse disability perspectives, moulded by their unique traditional beliefs and practices (Connors & Donnellan, 1993). For example, in some Nigerian ethnic groups, physical

6  Oliver Mutanga disability was believed to be caused by ancestral spirits or supernatural forces, leading to stigmatisation or exclusion. Conversely, in other communities, individuals with disabilities were seen as possessing special spiritual abilities or as valuable members of society (Linton, 2006). Undoubtedly, cultural dynamics are in constant flux. Colonialism profoundly impacted African disability perceptions, with significant consequences for individuals with disabilities. Livingston (2006) investigates how colonialism, industrialisation, and globalisation influenced bodily difference perceptions in Tswana society in Botswana, demonstrating the transformative effect of external forces on social and economic hierarchies. Bregain (2016) offers a complementary analysis, illustrating how French colonial practices disrupted traditional Islamic support systems for people with visual impairment in Algeria, such as Zakât, a social tax aimed at supporting the poor and those in need within the community. Post-colonial Africa continues to confront the legacies of colonialism, particularly regarding disability. Shakespeare (2013) and Connell (2007) emphasise the importance of contextualising disability within global power relations and advocate for considering resources and perspectives from colonised and post-colonial societies. This approach enables policy-makers and disability activists to develop effective strategies to address the needs and rights of people with disabilities worldwide, while dismantling detrimental colonial-era perspectives. We are witnessing an evolving discourse on disability, informed by heightened awareness of epistemic injustices across the globe. This progressive development challenges historical legacies and promotes a more inclusive approach, demonstrating that advancements are achievable despite the enduring influence of colonialism and neocolonialism. By integrating the insights of scholars such as Livingston (2006), Bregain (2016), Shakespeare (2013), and Connell (2007), we can better comprehend the complexities of disability in Sub-Saharan Africa and work towards a more equitable future for all. Ubuntu in practice and in Disability Studies Several studies have explored and applied the Ubuntu philosophy, demonstrating its potential to enhance understanding of disabilities and positively influence associated policies and practices. As early as 2003, scholars like Theresa Lorenzo began to infuse the Ubuntu philosophy into her work, particularly focusing on women with disabilities. Her research underscored the significant value of this philosophy in the field of disability and developmental work (enzo, 2003). Following a research uptick after 2010, scholars like Mji et al. (2011) and, Chataika and McKenzie (2013) have actively embedded the Ubuntu philosophy into their work. Mji et al., (2011) present Ubuntu as the organising principle of the African Network on Evidence to Action on Disability, a collaboration of researchers, activists, and other stakeholders aiming to

Ubuntu philosophy and disabilities in Sub-Saharan Africa  7 bolster disability-related research in Africa. Chataika and McKenzie (2013) explore the theory of childhood disability studies within African societies using the Ubuntu philosophy as a theoretical frame. Moreover, Eide and Ingstad (2013) explored the potential of the Ubuntu philosophy in the context of the intersectionality of disability with other socio-economic factors. They proposed that Ubuntu, with its emphasis on human relationships, interdependence, dignity, and collective responsibility, can facilitate the development of inclusive communities. These principles are particularly useful in fostering supportive environments for individuals with disabilities, especially when resources are limited. Thus, the Ubuntu philosophy could provide a robust framework for understanding and addressing disability-related issues in a holistic and inclusive manner. Recently, Chiwandire (2020), examined social inclusion of students with disabilities in South African higher education highlighting the importance of the Ubuntu philosophy in framing disability related interventions. Mutanga (2022) explores how Ubuntu can inform inclusive education frameworks. He underscores the necessity for teacher education programs that are grounded in the Unhu/Ubuntu philosophy to promote inclusivity in education. These types of studies collectively demonstrate several positive aspects of the Ubuntu philosophy in relation to disability. Firstly, Ubuntu offers a comprehensive framework for understanding disability that transcends the medical model, considering social, economic, and cultural factors (Eide & Ingstad, 2013). Secondly, Ubuntu fosters an environment that values ethical practices, inclusivity and the active participation of all community members, including those with disabilities (Mutanga, 2022). Lastly, as a culturally grounded philosophy, Ubuntu can inform the development of culturally appropriate support and interventions for people with disabilities in African contexts. The Ubuntu principles have been applied at national levels in pre- and postcolonial Sub-Saharan Africa and beyond. Pre-colonial Sub-Saharan Africa featured an extensive social protection system that transcended providing basics like food and clothing. It also facilitated the distribution of wealth and labour for agricultural tasks (Mottiar & Ngcoya, 2016). This social security infrastructure, built upon the notion of collectiveness (Bukuluki & Watson, 2014), was mirrored by various initiatives, which aimed to sustain people from lower socio-economic backgrounds during episodes of drought, famine, or food insufficiency. These practices are based on the promotion of the spirit of sharing and togetherness, as defined in the Ubuntu/hunhu, batho, and harambee principles. Zunde raMambo (chiShona)/ Isiphala seNkosi (isiNdebele) aims to ensure that communities have food reserves that can be useful in times of food insecurity or shortage, or for those who are unable to provide for themselves, e.g., orphans, elderly, and individuals with disabilities (Mararike, 2000; Patel et al., 2012). Kuronzera (chiShona)/ ukunqoma (isiXhosa)/ ukusisa (isiZulu) is also one of the indigenous social protection systems in pre-colonial SubSaharan Africa (Mottiar & Ngcoya, 2016; Ruparanganda et al., 2018). This

8  Oliver Mutanga concept is a ‘loaning arrangement’ where poor families in society are given animals, such as cattle, by others. Those who would have been given the animals will be responsible for taking care of them. They also used the cattle as draught power to enhance their agricultural production and enjoy other benefits, such as milk. If the animals give birth, the offspring belong to the borrower (Mangaliso & Mangaliso, 2007). These practices are based on the promotion of the spirit of sharing and togetherness, as defined in the concepts of Ubuntu/hunhu, batho, and harambee. These findings attest to the existence of social security systems in Africa prior to colonisation and how the Ubuntu philosophy worked in practice. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission in post-apartheid South Africa, headed by Archbishop Desmond Tutu, was based on the principles of Ubuntu. Although it may have failed to apply restorative justice principles specifically to land redistribution for black South Africans, the commission aimed to facilitate healing and reconciliation by allowing victims and perpetrators of apartheid-era abuses to share their experiences, acknowledge the truth, and seek forgiveness (Chasi, 2018; Diarra, 2018; Mukwedeya, 2022). The application of the Ubuntu principles can be observed, albeit unconsciously, in countries outside Sub-Saharan Africa as well. The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has brought to the forefront the importance of solidarity and collective action in the face of a global crisis. The restrictions that were imposed and the practice of shielding vulnerable populations, such as the elderly and those with underlying health conditions, reflect the spirit of Ubuntu. It demonstrates the commitment to ensuring the well-being of all members of society, particularly those most at risk, by curtailing the freedoms of individuals. While individuals wanted to travel and had the means to do so, community needs took precedence over individual rights. By recognising the collective responsibility to protect one another, individuals can be more inclined to adhere to public health guidelines, even when they entail personal sacrifices. The pandemic has shown that the health of the individual is intrinsically linked to the health of the community, underscoring the relevance of Ubuntu in fostering a collective response to crises. The Ubuntu philosophy holds significant potential for positively impacting disability understanding, policy, and practice. As will be shown by contributions in this book, its emphasis on relationships, interdependence, collective responsibility, and inclusivity provides a valuable framework for addressing the needs of people with disabilities in various contexts. By considering the applications of Ubuntu in different fields, such as education, governance, and social protection systems, we can better understand its implications for Disability Studies and work towards fostering a more ethical and equitable future for all. We also need to consider the impact of Western disability models on African societies. The next section examines these models and their limitations in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Ubuntu philosophy and disabilities in Sub-Saharan Africa  9 Dominant disability models It is crucial to recognise that different disability models have influenced disability interventions in Sub-Saharan Africa. Disability models significantly impact interventions in Sub-Saharan Africa, particularly the medical and social models. The medical model, rooted in Western thought, concentrates on individual impairments but often neglects the social challenges and political-economic factors affecting people with disabilities (Mitra, 2018; Mutanga, 2022). While it has led to medical advancements, it does not comprehensively address the wider barriers faced by this population. In contrast, the social model, which originates from the works of Finkelstein, Hunt, and Oliver, perceives disability as a social construct and has influenced inclusive education policies and practices (Oliver, 1996; Thomas, 2004). However, it fails to recognise the need for medical rehabilitation for certain individuals (Shakespeare, 2013). Livingston (2006) emphasises this limitation by examining the experiences of people with disabilities in Botswana, specifically those who became disabled while working in South African mines. These individuals were disabled as a result of ‘modernisation’ and needed both health-related interventions and other forms of support. The World Health Organisation’s International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF) framework aims to merge medical and social perspectives. However, it overlooks socio-cultural contexts. For instance, Ingham et al. (2022) assert that the disability measures in the New Zealand Census, which is premised on the ICF, do not consider cultural factors, leading to inaccurate assessments. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) (UN, 2006) advocates for global disability rights but grapples with challenges arising from Western-centric human rights approaches and international law limitations (Livingston, 2006). The CRPD’s worldwide implementation faces obstacles due to inherent restrictions within international law, allowing many signatory countries to violate the CRPD without consequences. Additionally, some nations may withdraw from such agreements without repercussions, exemplified by the United States’ 2001 abrogation of the Kyoto Protocol on climate change. While Western theories and concepts have contributed significantly to disability discourses, they may not entirely address the unique challenges faced by people with disabilities in Sub-Saharan Africa. They often neglect the role of Western powers in instigating conflicts in the Global South, leading to the disabling of individuals. A more comprehensive approach to disability is necessary, one that accounts for cultural contexts and the broader implications of global power dynamics. To foster accurate and relevant disability research and practice in the region, it is crucial to develop context-specific solutions that incorporate local knowledge, experiences, perspectives, and indigenous philosophies, such as Ubuntu. Additionally, adopting a decolonised

10  Oliver Mutanga intersectionality approach to disability can provide valuable insights into how neocolonialism and unresolved colonial effects intersect with disability, further complicating the challenges faced by people with disabilities in the region. By understanding and leveraging these factors, Ubuntu-based interventions can contribute to the success and sustainability of disability-related initiatives in Sub-Saharan Africa. Ultimately, this will lead to more inclusive and empowering outcomes for people with disabilities in the region. Addressing the challenges and limitations of applying the Ubuntu philosophy to disability-related issues While the Ubuntu philosophy has gained popularity in recent years, some scholars (Enslin & Horsthemke, 2004; Matilino & Kwindingwi, 2013) have reservations concerning its applicability in different contexts and the potential risks it may pose ideologically and practically. There are scholars who have articulately responded to these criticisms (Letseka, 2011; Metz, 2014; Waghid et al., 2023). But I will briefly respond to these criticisms, to clear a way for the contributions that follow in this book. Some scholars point to current challenges in Africa to discount Ubuntu. However, conflicts and challenges in Africa, or any part of the globe, reflect the absence of Ubuntu, not its endorsement. Pre-colonial negative practices should not be equated with the Ubuntu practices. Bolden (2014: 800) argues that Ubuntu ‘has done little to counteract endemic corruption and inequality.’ This critique neglects the influence of international players in perpetuating corruption and producing inequalities. Another criticism posits that the Ubuntu philosophy excessively emphasises community, neglecting individual rights and freedoms. Critics argue that Ubuntu can be used to justify oppressive practices, such as the denial of individual rights or loyalty to tribal and familial relations (Louw, 1998; Pityana, 1999). Ubuntu does not negate individualism; it recognises the limitations of individual self-sufficiency (Metz, 2022). Although the well-being of the community is paramount, Ubuntu regards individuals as having the agency to pursue what they aspire. In any society, freedoms have limitations and come with responsibilities and obligations. For instance, during the COVID-19 pandemic, restrictions limited individuals’ movement for collective benefit. While the Ubuntu philosophy has its roots in African cultures, it is important to emphasise the universal values underlying this philosophy, such as compassion, empathy, and a commitment to social justice. These values resonate across various cultural contexts and can contribute to more inclusive and equitable societies worldwide. The global application of ‘shielding’ during the COVID-19 pandemic is a practical example of how interdependence and human dignity can be promoted across cultures. By emphasising the universal aspects of the Ubuntu philosophy, we can address critiques that suggest it may be too culturally specific to be relevant or effective in addressing disability-related challenges in diverse contexts. In addition to the global

Ubuntu philosophy and disabilities in Sub-Saharan Africa  11 application of ‘shielding’ during the COVID-19 pandemic, global solidarity demonstrated during the 2023 earthquakes in Turkey and Syria highlights the universal aspects of the Ubuntu philosophy. International humanitarian responses to these disasters, driven by empathy and a commitment to social justice, echo the values of compassion, interconnectedness, and responsibility found in the Ubuntu philosophy. By emphasising these universal values, we can address critiques that suggest Ubuntu may be too culturally specific to be relevant or effective in diverse contexts. Bolden (2014) and LenkaBula (2008) argue that Ubuntu separates people from the environment and is anthropocentric. However, the Ubuntu philosophy emphasises the interdependence of humans with their environment, recognising the mutual dependence of both for survival and well-being (Chibvongonze, 2016). This holistic worldview respects the natural world and its resources, valuing sustainable practices to ensure the health and continuity of the environment for future generations. In the Shona culture, many societies observe traditional Sabbath days, known as Chisi, and hold flora and fauna in high regard, protecting them from harm. These practices are rooted in environmental consciousness and promote the conservation of natural resources. Ubuntu’s approach to environmental stewardship contrasts with Western philosophies that often prioritise economic development and exploitation of resources, leading to environmental degradation. Swartz and Davies (1997) contend that Ubuntu-based knowledge may not be transferable to other contexts. But non-African philosophies also emphasise comparable values. For instance, Confucianism, a major philosophy from East Asia, underscores the significance of achieving complete humanity. This is done through fostering relationships with others and expressing traits such as respect and benevolence (Bell & Metz, 2012), the Japanese Soka concept and Freire’s educational philosophy, emphasising interconnectedness and collectivism (Sharma, 2020; Abdi, 2021). Furthermore, other critics argue that the Ubuntu philosophy is too vague and lacks a clear definition (Matilino & Kwindingwi, 2013). It is also considered too idealistic and does not account for power and inequality in society. However, it is up to individuals within communities to transform ideals into reality. Ubuntu values, such as public deliberation, can address power relations and conflict resolution mechanisms. To foster a comprehensive understanding of Ubuntu, engaging in open and respectful dialogue that acknowledges different perspectives, addresses concerns, and identifies opportunities for collaboration, learning, and growth is crucial. By doing so, we can ensure that the Ubuntu philosophy is applied effectively to maximise its positive impact on the lives of people with disabilities and contribute to a more inclusive society. Book overview This book explores the potential of the Ubuntu philosophy in Disability Studies, focusing on promoting inclusion, social justice, and well-being for

12  Oliver Mutanga people with disabilities in Sub-Saharan Africa. By offering a unique perspective, the book contributes valuable insights into culturally sensitive approaches for addressing disability-related challenges. The subsequent chapters delve into the application of the Ubuntu philosophy in various contexts, such as higher education, research, virtual learning, and disability interventions. Each chapter highlights key themes and issues addressed, offering a comprehensive understanding of how the Ubuntu philosophy can contribute to addressing disability challenges. In Chapter 2, Chigangaidze, Mafa, Simango & Mudehwe analyse Ubuntu’s relevance in the disability sector using a PESTLE framework that considers political, economic, social, technological, legal, and environmental factors. This chapter introduces how the Ubuntu philosophy can address disability issues in different contexts, setting the stage for subsequent chapters. The next five chapters focus on higher education, exploring the role of Ubuntu in fostering inclusive education, transforming attitudes and practices, and enhancing accessibility and inclusivity for students with disabilities. They emphasise the importance of adopting the Ubuntu principles in both traditional and virtual learning environments to ensure equitable learning experiences for all students. In Chapter 3, Gore discusses the challenges faced by students with disabilities in South African higher education and the potential benefits of utilising the Ubuntu philosophy to promote inclusivity. Andoh and Nketsiaba in Chapter 4, review literature and focuses on the role of Ubuntu in fostering inclusive higher education in general, highlighting its potential to transform attitudes and practices towards students with disabilities. In Chapter 5, Lephoto and Adigun explore how Ubuntu (Botho in SeSotho) philosophy in Lesotho can improve inclusive education practices in diverse contexts, showcasing the potential of African philosophies to solve problems. ShunduPhetla, Ngubane and Adigun in Chapter 6 empirically illustrate how the Ubuntu philosophy can improve inclusivity and support for students with disabilities in higher education and virtual learning using a case study of a South African Open Distance Learning institution. In Chapter 7, Marovah and Mutanga explore Ubuntu (Unhu in chiShona) philosophy’s role in promoting ethical, equitable, and inclusive research practices in participatory research. They discuss the adoption of the Unhu/ Ubuntu philosophy in participatory research, arguing that it can cultivate more equitable and inclusive research practices. In Chapters 8, Mosalagae shows how the Botho philosophy can promote positive attitudes towards students with disabilities in in TVET institutions in Botswana. In Chapter 9, Femke Bannink Mbazzi explores the development, implementation, and evaluation of the Obuntu bulamu intervention, a peer-to-peer support disability inclusion programme based on the Ubuntu philosophy in Uganda. This chapter promotes culturally relevant and context-specific disability inclusion practices, fostering community and societal support, and emphasising the importance of co-creation and critical reflection in navigating global frameworks and indicators.

Ubuntu philosophy and disabilities in Sub-Saharan Africa  13 In Chapter 10, Adjei, Sam, Sekyere and Boateng explore the experiences of deaf individuals in Ghana and the contradictions between the Ubuntu philosophy and the challenges faced by people with disabilities. This chapter stresses the importance of applying Ubuntu values in disability-related policies and practices by connecting theory and practice with the experiences of people with disabilities. In Chapter 11, the conclusion chapter, Mutanga weaves together key insights from the book and emphasises the role of the Ubuntu philosophy in advancing disability inclusion. It provides actionable recommendations for policy, research, and practice to overcome barriers faced by individuals with disabilities. The book’s chapters offer a comprehensive understanding of how the Ubuntu philosophy can address disability challenges and add value. The book offers practical recommendations for stakeholders in Disability Studies, including policy-makers, educators, and researchers, based on its insights and findings. Chapter 5 highlights the Botho philosophy’s role in promoting positive attitudes towards students with disabilities in Lesotho, informing inclusive education policies and programmes. Chapter 7 guides Global South researchers on using the Ubuntu philosophy to improve equity and inclusivity in participatory research. The authors stress the importance of the Ubuntu philosophy in current disability discourse, exploring its applications in education, research, and real-life experiences.

Conclusion As a forerunner of transformative change in Sub-Saharan Africa, the Ubuntu philosophy presented in this book reimagines our understanding of disability in the Global South, challenging long-held assumptions and biases. By incorporating the essence of Ubuntu, we open the door to innovative and culturally sensitive solutions that foster a sense of belonging, promote collective relationships, and facilitate the dismantling of socio-cultural, economic, and political barriers. To fully unlock the potential of Ubuntu in shaping a more equitable and inclusive future, there must be commitment to rigorous scholarship, nurturing interdisciplinary collaboration, and steadfastly pursuing social justice for individuals with disabilities, without being bound by the Western canons of knowledge production. This is the time to embrace the power of the Ubuntu philosophy, transcending the limitations of hegemonic Western paradigms, and paving the way for a more inclusive, compassionate, and socially just world. Let this work inspire the transformative potential of the Ubuntu philosophy to create a brighter, more inclusive future for individuals with disabilities in Sub-Saharan Africa and beyond. References Abdi, A. (2021). Freireian and Ubuntu philosophies of education: Ontoepistemological characteristics and pedagogical intersections. Educational

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Ubuntu philosophy and disabilities in Sub-Saharan Africa  15 Eskay, M., Onu, V. C., Igbobo, J. N., Obiyo, N., & Ugwuanyi, L. (2012). Disability within the African culture. U.S-China Education Review, B4, 473–484. https:// files​.eric​.ed​.gov​/fulltext​/ED533575​.pdf Gade, C. B. N. (2012). What is Ubuntu? Different Interpretations among South Africans of African descent. South African Journal of Philosophy, 31(3), 484–503. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​/02580136​.2012​.10751789 Gelfand, M. (1973). The Genuine Shona, survival values of an African culture. Gweru: Mambo Press. Grech, S. (2015). Disability and poverty in the global south: Renegotiating development in Guatemala. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Grech, S., & Soldatic, K. (2016). Disability in the global south: The critical handbook. Cham: Springer. Gyekye, K. (1995). An essay on African philosophical thought: The Akan conceptual scheme. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Ingham, T. R., Jones, B., Perry, M., King, P. T., Baker, G., Hickey, H., Pouwhare, R., & Nikora, L. W. (2022). The multidimensional impacts of inequities for Tāngata Whaikaha Māori (Indigenous Māori with lived experience of disability) in Aotearoa, New Zealand. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(20), 13558. https://doi​.org​/10​.3390​/ijerph192013558 Katsui, H., & Swartz, L. (2021). Research methods and practices of doing disability studies in the global south. Scandinavian Journal of Disability Research, 23(1), 204–206. https://doi​.org​/10​.16993​/sjdr​.841 LenkaBula, P. (2008). Beyond anthropocentricity – Botho/Ubuntu and the quest for economic and ecological justice in Africa. Religion and Theology, 15, 375–394. http://dx​.doi​.org​/10​.1163​/157430108X376591 Letseka, M. (2011). In defence of Ubuntu. Studies in Philosophy and Education. 31, 47–60. https://doi​.org​/10​.1007​/s11217​-011​-9267-2 Letseka, M. (2013). Educating for Ubuntu/Botho: Lessons from Basotho indigenous education. Open Journal of Philosophy, 3, 337–344. https://doi​.org​/10​.4236​/ojpp​ .2013​.32051 Linton, S. (2006). Reassigning meaning. In L. J. Davis (Ed.), The disability studies reader (pp. 161–172). New York: Routledge. Livingston, J. (2006). Insights from an African history of disability. Radical History Review, 1(94), 111–126. https://doi​.org​/10​.1215​/01636545​-2006​-94​-111 Lorenzo, T. (2003). No African renaissance without disabled women: a communal approach to human development in Cape Town South Africa, Disability & Society, 18–6, 759-778, DOI: 10.1080/0968759032000119505 Louw, D. J. (1998). Ubuntu: An African assessment of religious order. Twentieth World Congress of Philosophy, 23, 34–42. https://doi​.org​/10​.5840​/wcp20​ -paideia199823407 Louw, D. J. (2001). Ubuntu and the challenges of multiculturalism in post-apartheid South Africa. Quest: An African Journal of Philosophy, XV(1–2), 15–36. Makhanya, T. B. (2023). Foregrounding the philosophy of Ubuntu in social work education: “Umuntu Ngumuntu Ngabantu.” In B. Mayaka, C. Uwihangana, & A. D. van Breda (Eds.), The Ubuntu practitioner: Social work perspectives (pp. 56–76). Switzerland: The International Federation of Social Workers. Mangaliso, P. M., & Mangaliso, N. A. (2007). Unleashing the synergistic of Ubuntu: Observations from South Africa. In H. van den Heuwel, M. Mangaliso, & L.

16  Oliver Mutanga van de Bunt (Eds.), Prophecies and protests: Ubuntu in glocal management (pp. 121–142). Amsterdam, Pretoria: Purdue University Press. Mangena, F. (2016). Hunhu/Ubuntu in the traditional thought of Southern Africa. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://iep​.utm​.edu​/hunhu​-ubuntu​-southern​ -african​-thought/ Mararike, C. (2000). Revival of indigenous food security strategies at the village level: The human factor implications. Review of Human Factor Studies, 6(2), 93–104. https://doi​.org​/10​.4314​/zjh​.v28i1​.6758 Matolino, B., & Kwindingwi, W. (2013). The end of Ubuntu. South African Journal of Philosophy, 32(2), 197–205. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​/02580136​.2013​.817637 Meekosha, H. (2011). Decolonising disability: Thinking and acting globally. Disability & Society, 26(6), 667–682. http://dx​.doi​.org​/10​.1080​/09687599​.2011​.602860 Metz, T. (2011). Ubuntu as a moral theory and human rights in South Africa. African Human Rights Law Journal, 11(2), 532–559. https://hdl​.handle​.net​/10520​/ EJC51951 Metz, T. (2014). Just the beginning for Ubuntu: Reply to Matolino and Kwindingwi. South African Journal of Philosophy, 33(1), 65–72. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​ /02580136​.2014​.892680 Metz, T. (2022). A relational moral theory: African ethics in and beyond the continent. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Metz, T., & Gaie, J. (2010). The African ethic of Ubuntu/Botho: Implications for research on morality. Journal of Moral Education, 39, 273–290. http://dx​.doi​.org​ /10​.1080​/03057240​.2010​.497609 Mitra, S. (2018). Disability, health and human development. New York: Palgrave. Mji, G., Gcaza, S., Swartz, L., MacLachlan, M., & Hutton, B. (2011). An African way of networking around disability. Disability & Society, 26(3), 365–368. https://doi​ .org​/10​.1080​/09687599​.2011​.560419 Mottiar, S., & Ngcoya, M. (2016). Indigenous philanthropy. In T. Jung, S. D. Phillips, & J. Harrow (Eds.), The Routledge companion to philanthropy (pp. 151–160). London & New York: Routledge. Mukwedeya, J. (2022). Peace and harmony through Ubuntu in a globalized world. In N. T. Assié-Lumumba, M. Cross, K. Bedi, & S. Ekanayake (Eds.), Comparative education for global citizenship, peace and shared living through Ubuntu (pp. 221–241). Leiden: Brill. Mutanga, O. (2022). Perceptions and experiences of teachers in Zimbabwe on inclusive education and teacher training: The value of Unhu/Ubuntu philosophy. International Journal of Inclusive Education. Advance online publication. https:// doi​.org​/10​.1080​/13603116​.2022​.2048102 Ndlovu, S., & Hove, E. F. (2015). Old wine in new wineskins: Revisiting counselling in traditional Ndebele and Shona societies. IOSR Journal of Humanities And Social Science (IOSRJHSS), 20(1), 101–105. Oliver, M. (1996). Understanding Disability: From Theory to PracticeH. London: Palgrave. Patel, L., Kaseke, E., & Midgley, J. (2012). Indigenous welfare and community based social development: Lessons from Africans innovation. Journal of Community Practice, 20(1), 12–31. Pityana, B. (1999). The renewal of African moral values. In W. Makgoba (Ed.), African renaissance (pp. 137–148). Cape Town: Mafube and Tafelberg Publishers.

Ubuntu philosophy and disabilities in Sub-Saharan Africa  17 Ramose, M. B. (2002). The philosophy of Ubuntu and Ubuntu as a philosophy. In P. H. Coetzee & A. P. J. Roux (Eds.), Philosophy from Africa: A text with readings (pp. 230–238). Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Ruparanganda, L., Ruparanganda, B., & Mabvurira, V. (2018). The place of ‘traditional’ social security in modern era: Lessons from Buhera. African Journal of Social Work, 8(1), 39–46. Shakespeare, T. (2013). Disability rights and wrongs revisited. London: Routledge. Sharma, N. (2020). Value-creating global citizenship education for sustainable development: Strategies and approaches. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Shutte, A. (2001). Ubuntu: An ethic for a new South Africa. Pietermaritzburg: Cluster Publications. Tuhiwai Smith, L. (2012). Decolonizing methodologies: Research and indigenous peoples. London: Zed Books. Swartz, E., & Davies, R. (1997). Ubuntu - The spirit of African transformation management - A review. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 18(6), 290–294. https://doi​.org​/10​.1108​/01437739710176239 Thomas, C. (2004). How is disability understood? An examination of sociological approaches, Disability & Society, 19(6), 569–583. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​ /0968759042000252506 United Nations. (2006). Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities. United Nations. https://www​.un​.org​/development​/desa​/disabilities​/convention​-on​-the​ -rights​-of​-persons​-with​-disabilities​.html Waghid, Y. (2014). African philosophy of education as a response to human rights violations: Cultivating Ubuntu as a virtue in religious education. Journal for the Study of Religion, 27(1), 267–282. Waghid, Y., Terblanche, J., Shawa, L. B., Hungwe, J. P., Waghid, F., & Waghid, Z. (2023). Towards an Ubuntu university. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. World Health Organisation & World Bank. (2011). World report on disability. New York: World Health Organisation. https://www​.who​.int​/teams​/noncommunicable​ -diseases​ / sensory ​ - functions ​ - disability ​ - and ​ - rehabilitation ​ / world ​ - report ​ - on​ -disability

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The relevance of Ubuntu in disability A political, economic, social, technological, legal, and environmental (PESTLE) analysis Robert K. Chigangaidze, Itai H. Mafa, Tapiwanashe G. Simango, and Elia Mudehwe

Introduction People with disabilities face a myriad of challenges, including health issues, lack of access to essential services, discrimination, and stigma, which is where the philosophy of Ubuntu can play a significant role in enhancing their wellbeing. Almost every person will be temporarily or permanently impaired at some point in life, and those who survive to old age will experience aggravated difficulties in functioning (World Health Organisation & The World Bank, 2011). People with disabilities make up at least 15% of the global population (Kemp & Miller, 2022). Persons with disabilities have double the risk of developing conditions such as diabetes, obesity, poor oral health, depression, asthma, and stroke (World Health Organisation, 2023). Several people with disabilities do not have equal access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities and do not receive the disability-related services they require. People with disabilities are denied autonomy, for example, when they are confined to institutions. They are subject to violation of their dignity through subjection to violence, prejudice, and abuse because of their disability (World Health Organisation & The World Bank, 2011). In addition, Sen (2009) argued that disability and poverty have a reciprocal impact on each other. People with disabilities face discrimination and stigma. Considering these challenges, the philosophy of Ubuntu has been proposed to offer practices that can enhance the health and well-being of people with disabilities (Berghs, 2017). Ubuntu, a people-centred philosophy deeply rooted in African culture, is gaining traction in various disciplines and has the potential to positively impact the lives of people with disabilities (Chigangaidze, 2022). The philosophy is at the heart of the African way of life and impacts on every aspect of people’s well-being. It is perceived as the ‘soul force’ that drives almost every facet of societal life in African societies and the mould which cements relationships within communities (Lefa, 2015). Mugumbate and DOI: 10.4324/9781003343684-2

The relevance of Ubuntu in disability  19 Nyagura (2013) submit that Ubuntu brings the human face to every aspect of life. Ubuntu promotes humanness in all aspects of life: political, economic, social, technological, legal, and environmental (PESTLE). Fostering the virtues of forgiveness, solidarity, human dignity, human rights, spirituality, and compassion Ubuntu has been considered a political philosophy which promotes peace and sustainability (Strozenberg et al., 2015). Ubuntu can then be described as the capacity to express compassion, reciprocity, dignity, humanity, kindness, mutuality, and solidarity in the interest of building and maintaining communities with justice and mutual caring (Tutu, 1999). Some scholars believe that the five pillars of Ubuntu involvement include family, community, society, environment, and spirituality (Nicolaides, 2021). In applying Ubuntu to clinical practice, Chigangaidze (2022) is of the view that Ubuntu-inspired practitioners assess people from a holistic approach which includes modalities of behaviour, affection, sensations, imagery, cognition, drugs/biology, interpersonal relationships, person–environment relationship and the person–spiritual relationship. Literature from the field of sexual health has shown that Ubuntu can provide concepts for enhancing safe sexual practices among youths and curb the discrimination and stigma against people living with HIV in Africa (Tarkang et al., 2018). In nursing, Ubuntu represents an important care philosophy which can foster holistic nursing, especially when the inner driving force of the nurses is primarily to care for patients (Muhammad-Lawal et al., 2022). The relevance of Ubuntu in the field of disability has been considered through social and environmental justice (Berghs, 2017). Considering the above reflections, the impetus of this chapter is to explore PESTLE relevance of the African philosophy of Ubuntu in the field of disability studies and the lives of people with disabilities. PESTLE analysis is known in the business area but is utilised in this chapter as the lens to consider the applicability of Ubuntu in disabled persons. The chapter stimulates further debate and recommends evaluations of how African societies have utilised the philosophy of Ubuntu after colonialism and the westernisation of their lifestyle. In considering PESTLE applicability of the Ubuntu philosophy, this chapter emphasises the axiology, epistemology, and ontology of Ubuntu in exploring the philosophy’s relevance in the lives of people with disabilities. Methodology This chapter employs conceptual analysis to examine the relevance of Ubuntu in disability and its potential to guide disability interventions. It should be noted that Ubuntu is also a theory that can guide and inform social work practice (van Breda, 2019). Thus, in analysing the relevance of Ubuntu in disability, this chapter also theoretically synthesises the Ubuntu philosophy through the lens of PESTLE analysis. Unlike other frameworks such as SWOT analysis, PESTLE analysis classifies issues as political (P),

20  Chigangaidze, Mafa, Simango, and Mudehwe economic (E), social (S), technological (T), legal (L) and environmental (E) (Basu, 2004). In this conceptual analysis, researchers are well saturated with the theory of Ubuntu as they live in the communities that value and practise Ubuntu. The researchers have been part of the people who heard Ubuntu/ Hunhu stories passed from their forefathers through oral tradition. The philosophy of Ubuntu is passed from one generation to another through the use of stories, songs, idioms, and proverbs (Chasi, 2020; Chisale, 2020). The researchers for over two decades have been brought up in this context, and as part of members in a community practising Ubuntu. Thus, in terms of epistemology, the researchers also utilised reflections from their lived experiences. To emphasise objectivity, the researchers made use of already published work on the Ubuntu philosophy. As people who also read about the Ubuntu philosophy, the researchers purposely reflected on the work written by other scholars. Having explored the methodology of this research, it is essential to delve into the specific domains where Ubuntu plays a critical role in informing disability policies and interventions, starting with its political relevance. Political relevance In the political domain, Ubuntu is linked to indigenous political philosophy and locates disability within the context of human rights and sustainable development. Samkange (1980) connects Ubuntu or Hunhu to Zimbabwean indigenous political philosophy as a bedrock upon which political decisions should rest. Likewise, Ubuntu locates disability politically within the wider ecological practices of sustainability such as Sustainable Development Goals (SDGS) and the aspects of human rights (Berghs, 2017). Considering concepts such as Zunde raMambo (Chief’s Kraal) emphasises the role of political leaders in the provision of food to the marginalised and vulnerable members of the society such as persons with disabilities. Zunde raMambo is a traditional social welfare system in Zimbabwe which involves able-bodied members of the community working together to produce food for the aged, persons with disability, and orphans (Stathers et al., 2000). This practice is one of the traditional social welfare systems which are embedded in the ethos of the Ubuntu philosophy. Arranged by the Chief as the political leaders of the land, community members would gather and ensure that vulnerable members of the community have access to food. Thus, Ubuntu positions political leaders at the centre of promoting food security among the people with disabilities. This traditional social welfare system was not used by the Chiefs to gain political ground, a case which may be experienced in today’s generation. The true tenets of Ubuntu encourage political leaders to focus on the lives of the marginalised first before considering their political campaigns. Chiefs were not supposed to be driven by egoistic desires but were custodians and stewards of ancestral belongings (Samkange, 1980). It is clear from

The relevance of Ubuntu in disability  21 the traditional social welfare systems of Ubuntu that traditional political leaders have the responsibility of ensuring food security for people with disabilities and enhancing their welfare. Therefore, the Ubuntu systems and projects such as the Zunde raMambo prioritise disability within the politics of the land as these mandate political leaders to take responsibility for the welfare of people with disabilities. Additionally, Ubuntu has been included in the epilogue of the PostApartheid Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (Cornell & van Marle, 2005). Politically, human rights and dignity of all people are enshrined in the preamble of the Constitution. Enhancement of the quality of life of all citizens and nurturing the potential of all people are all enshrined in Ubuntu and are within the preamble of South Africa’s Constitution. Dalamo (2013) posits that Ubuntu has in the past been utilised by political leaders such as Julius Nyerere, Jomo Kenyata, and Kenneth Kaunda. For example, Kaunda promoted the work of giving basic needs to people with disabilities as part of Zambian humanism (Cleaver et al., 2019). Thus, Ubuntu-inspired leaders have always promoted the welfare of people with disabilities. In South Africa, Ubuntu was rekindled at the end of the apartheid by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission with the aim of promoting national healing, encouraging unity of purpose, inclusivity and anti-oppressive practices (Abdullah, 2013). The renowned anti-apartheid figure, Archbishop Desmond Tutu (1999) emphasised Ubuntu values such as forgiveness to usher in peace and national development. Ubuntu thus ultimately promotes sustainable peace and tranquillity among people (Strozenberg et al., 2015). The African worldview calls for forgiveness among political rivalries to avoid further persecution, violations of human rights, and physical torture that would directly or indirectly lead to disability. By extension, Ubuntu connects political violence to the prevalence of disability, secondary to the physical injuries sustained during political fights, hence, the need for peace. There is a close relationship between conventional humanism and Ubuntu because this philosophy advocates for inclusivity of persons with disabilities in decision-making, policy formulation, and the empowerment of the vulnerable members of society so that they can express their feelings. Dolamo (2013) identifies Ubuntu as a philosophy which promotes the working together and pulling together of talents /ideas for the enhancement of the community. Berghs (2017) in concurrence supports that the African philosophy of Ubuntu is inclusive and accepting of all members of the community, including people with disabilities. Inclusivity is an essential element in disability policing as they seek to promote the involvement of people with disabilities in political platforms such as parliamentary debates. Ubuntu values forgiveness, gentleness, kindness, solidarity, human rights, and solidarity (Chigangaidze, 2022). Thus, from the value system and the nature of Ubuntu, the section of this chapter has established the role of the African philosophy of Ubuntu from the political domain of disability. As the political

22  Chigangaidze, Mafa, Simango, and Mudehwe relevance of Ubuntu in disability has been established, let us now examine how this philosophy connects with the economic domain. Economic relevance The Ubuntu philosophy has significant implications for economic development. Ubuntu is also focused on economic development, for example, Julia Nyerere’s ujamaa is a socialist idea based on the Ubuntu philosophy which promotes an understanding that family is the building block of community development (Dolamo, 2013). One of the aims of such initiatives as ujamaa is to strengthen the economic growth of vulnerable groups of society, such as people with disabilities. The promotion of economic growth in ubuntuoriented interventions has always been promoted and recorded in literature. For example, Mugumbate (2020) articulates Jairos Jiri’s Ubuntu-informed model of social care which involved, among other issues, the promotion of enterprises (ushavi meaning workmanship) for income, job creation, and economic sustainability among the disabled people in society. Another good example includes mishandira pamwe (collective working) to advance economic growth and support people with disabilities. The hope in Ubuntu is to promote collectivism in projects such as those in agriculture to achieve sustainable development. Ubuntu is therefore structured to promote hard work thereby contributing positively to society. By doing so, people with disabilities are not looked down upon, but are seen as equal people who can also participate and contribute economically to the community through workmanship (ushavi). People with disabilities are supported in the activities that they can do. It can be submitted that Ubuntu realises the capacities of people with disabilities and promotes teamwork which helps them to explore investment opportunities between themselves. Social thought The Ubuntu philosophy also plays a crucial role in shaping social thought and attitudes towards people with disabilities. In Ubuntu theology, there is neither abled nor disabled, child nor adult, white nor black, because all human beings are made in the image of God (Chisale, 2020). The philosophy looks beyond the physical make-up of a person and acknowledges that all people are human. Ubuntu literally means humanness and advances critical issues of diversity and anti-oppressive practices. It should be noted that: Humanness would need to transcend ability and similarity in bodily features. Humanness would also need to accept multi-diversity in terms of physical traits (skin complexion, height, weight, presence or nonpresence of limbs, functional or non-functional limbs, etc.), sensory capacities (hearing, vision, etc.) and so on. Humanness, which the elders equated to Ubuntu, should about acceptance of another human being

The relevance of Ubuntu in disability  23 in all shapes and forms, affording people with disabilities the same care, dignity and teachings that will make Zulu society into abantu abaqotho [principled people with Ubuntu values]. (Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2018: 2) Thus, Ubuntu promotes social acceptance of people with disabilities and advances the need to respect their human dignity. Some of the teachings of Ubuntu are found in proverbs, idioms, songs, and stories across Africa. Chisale (2020) underscored that African folktales have always promoted the inclusion of people with disabilities and of treating them with human dignity. Proverbs across Sub-Saharan Africa for instance warn against laughing at people with disabilities. For example, a common Shona phrase, ‘seka hurema hwafa’ (laugh at disability after you are dead) is used among Zimbabweans. Similar proverbs are also used in Swahili, especially in countries such as Tanzania and Kenya (Devlieger, 1999). One of the prominent Ubuntu-inspired musicians, the late Oliver Mtukudzi (Chasi & Tagwirei, 2020; Kyker, 2016) in his song munhu cites munhu munhu chete asina kubarwa ndiani translated ‘a person is a person, who has not been born?’ latently signifies that people with disabilities are also human beings, they were born like everyone else and need to be treated with dignity. Ubuntu is also reflected in idioms such as ‘it takes a village to raise a child,’ and when applied to childhood disability, a sense of belonging can be fundamental in safeguarding against alienation and victimisation of children with disabilities (Ned et al., 2022). Nicolades and Shozi (2012) argue that if one acts unkindly towards a person with a disability, he/she automatically loses her Ubuntu, therefore, she can no longer be referred to as a person. This is because those with Ubuntu are expected to be generous, hospitable, friendly, caring, and compassionate (Tutu, 1999). In traditional African perspective, as evidenced in Ubuntuinspired thinking, disability is recognised and respected, and in some cases, disability has been viewed as possessing divine powers (Masitera, 2020). The African person is a communal being who is inseparable from others and incomplete without the community (Munyaka & Mothlabi, 2009). For example, the work of Jairos Jiri on disability in Zimbabwe has been attributed to the philosophy of Ubuntu because he believed in taking the disabled person(s) as part of his family, connecting and interacting with them in his own shelter. Mugumbate (2020) highlights that the work of Baba (meaning Father) Jairos Jiri was rooted in the Ubuntu concept of ukama ‘being related.’ Ukama in this sense is not only limited to blood ties as Baba Jairos Jiri went further to assist people beyond his blood ties. Evidently, in Ubuntu, everyone is related, and helping someone is to help a relative. The Ubuntu philosophy highlights the critical role of significant others and the broader community in supporting individuals with disabilities, regardless of their impairment or condition. Ubuntu again expresses the importance of significant others in everyone’s life, despite one’s impairment or condition

24  Chigangaidze, Mafa, Simango, and Mudehwe (Mutswanga, 2017). Moreover, Ubuntu emphasises on communitarian approaches to helping people with disabilities (Mugumbate, 2020). From an Ubuntu worldview, the idea of disability grants may not be successful if it neglects the family and focuses only on the individual (Nhlapo et al., 2006). This is because the Ubuntu philosophy focuses on holistic interventions that aim at empowering society in its totality. Disability interventions informed by Ubuntu, therefore, empower family members on how best to support people with disabilities. For Akabor and Phasha (2022), Ubuntu does not put people in cubicles. Instead, it situates them within a web of relationships. Enshrined in the axiom, ‘a person is a person because of other persons,’ Ubuntu suggests the empowerment of those who care for people with disabilities. Thus, the philosophy of Ubuntu is socially applicable in the care of people with disabilities. Technological adaptability As the importance of social relationships is emphasised by Ubuntu, this philosophy also adapts to technological advancements to further enhance the lives of people with disabilities. The integration of the Ubuntu philosophy with modern technology opens new possibilities for improving the lives of people with disabilities. With the various advancements in technology, Ubuntu has also entered the world of computers (Mugumbate & Nyanguru, 2013). Ubuntu is now applicable to the technological domain of improving the lives of people with disabilities. Tapping from cultural resources such as the support of the Ubuntu philosophy, with the sense of fostering harmonious relationships, has proven to be a good and empowering approach to assistive technologies in disability services (Mji & Edusei, 2019). It has a relational philosophy which promotes the use of technological aids that help people participate and engage in community activities. The African way of life in Ubuntu encourages inclusivity and enhancement of life and considers issues to do with affordability and accessibility of technological equipment to the general population. Mugumbate and Nyanguru (2013) add that Ubuntu is driven by the belief that software should be free and accessible to all. Accessibility is therefore a major focus when it comes to the promotion of life for people with disabilities. It is critical to note that the values of Ubuntu also appreciate that people with disabilities should have assistive technologies such as wheelchairs, hearing aids, and other equipment that should be easily accessible and affordable to people with disabilities. In addition, Ubuntu’s relevance to the education systems is overwhelming and considering the utility of assistive technologies in improving life experiences for people with disabilities in schools, colleges, and universities will be essential. Resultantly, Ubuntu is all about making life worthwhile and empathising with the other person. Fundamental to the philosophy of Ubuntu is the integration of children with disabilities into the community as they are considered part of society. Assistive technologies, from an Ubuntu perspective,

The relevance of Ubuntu in disability  25 can therefore help the reintegration of people with disabilities as they will be empowered to participate in communal activities. From the Ubuntu way of life, technology should promote a healthy well-being and avoid harm to the people it is intended for. Thus, Ubuntu also considers bioethics when utilising the use of technology in enhancing life experiences for people with disabilities. Beyond technological adaptability, the Ubuntu philosophy also has significant implications in the legal framework surrounding disability rights and policies. Legal framework Beyond technological adaptability, the Ubuntu philosophy also has significant implications in the legal framework surrounding disability rights and policies. From a legal perspective, the Ubuntu philosophy aligns with various ethical theories, advocating for the dignity and rights of people with disabilities. The philosophy advances the value of human dignity and human rights, especially through the emphasis of the axiom ‘a person is a person through other people.’ The axiom involves relationality issues and treating others as you want them to treat you thereby enhancing the concepts of human rights. Generally, Ubuntu translates to humanness and in its deeper sense, it relates to morality and personhood which are all key elements to the adherence to legal policies. Across the African region, Ubuntu encompasses a communal approach where perpetrators, victims, and the whole local population take part in the legal system. Thus, persons with disabilities are not only endline beneficiaries of the output of legislation but key actors in its formulation, interpretation and use. Critically, persons other than persons with disabilities formulating, interpreting and applying legal instruments should be intentional about being disability-centred. The African worldview of Ubuntu is structured to promote deterrence, prevention, rehabilitation, restoration, and reintegration (Mayaka & Truell, 2021). Thus, Ubuntu clearly fosters relationships that strengthen adherence to legal statutes, thereby maintaining peace and order. In addition, Ubuntu is considered by most African societies as a divinely inspired positive action that advances respect for life as this is linked to the sacredness of the Creator and ancestors. One who does not respect life is seen as someone without Ubuntu. In respecting humans as divine creatures, Ubuntu emphasises that one is expected to respect all people, including people with disabilities. This is so because people are regarded as possessing a superlative and a non-instrumental value (Nicolaides, 2021). Since Ubuntu is against the stigma and discrimination of people with disabilities, it is legally ascribed in Ubuntu-inspired hearts that the rights of the people with disabilities need to be respected. As aforementioned, Ubuntu as a way of life, prohibits any individual to laugh at any person with disabilities. It is taboo for one to abuse people with disabilities. After examining the relationship between Ubuntu and disability within the legal domain, it is important to explore the significance of the

26  Chigangaidze, Mafa, Simango, and Mudehwe Ubuntu philosophy within the environmental domain and its implications for disability. Environmental relationship From the Ubuntu perspective, the environment plays a crucial role in the well-being of individuals, including those with disabilities. The principles of Ubuntu instruct humans to be accountable to other humans in the way they relate to the environment and use resources (Etieyibo, 2017). Thus, when applied to disability, Ubuntu questions environmental pollution which predisposes people to disability. For example, it is forbidden to leave pits uncovered where children and other people pass through because this causes harm that can ultimately contribute to disability. In addition, the African philosophy of Ubuntu is embedded in the ukama/relation concept between the environment and people (Chibvongodze, 2016). There should be mutual respect and co-existence between the environment and the people thereof. Ubuntu emphasises that the environment has to be integrated into the care plans for an improvement in the well-being of people with disabilities. In agreement, Mandipa (2013) forwards that environmental accessibility should address some of the challenges faced by people with disabilities in moving around and participating in society. Thus, in disability, Ubuntu-inspired assessments and care plans should focus on how people with disabilities can access their environment and what adaptations can be made to ensure an enhanced person–environment relationship. Having explored the environmental relationship in the context of Ubuntu and disability, this chapter now concludes with a summary and implications of the findings. Conclusion This chapter concludes that the Ubuntu philosophy can be applied to care for people with disabilities across various domains. The ethics of Ubuntu have also been found to promote values of kindness, holistic care, social justice, human rights, solidarity, peace, and mutuality. Considering such an axiological base, Ubuntu is applicable in the care of people with disability from all spheres of life and promotes issues to do with sustainability, enhancement of life experiences, and a communitarian approach to interventions. Guided by songs, folktales, and the axiom of Ubuntu, this chapter considered how the African philosophy of Ubuntu condemns issues of social injustice, discrimination, and maltreatment of people with disabilities. Reflective of the idea that Ubuntu is an inclusive philosophy that promotes the participation of people with disabilities in social policy formulation, the chapter promotes the involvement of people with disabilities in all areas of life that affect them: politics, economics, social components, technological sector, legal, and environmental domains. In conclusion, embracing the

The relevance of Ubuntu in disability  27 Ubuntu philosophy fosters a human-centred, environmentally responsible, and inclusive approach that empowers people with disabilities, ultimately enhancing their quality of life. References Abdullah, S. (2013). Multicultural social work and national trauma: Lessons from South Africa International Social Work, 58(1), 43–54. https://doi​.org​/10​.1177​ /0020872812461019 Akabor, S., & Phasha, N. (2022). Where is Ubuntu in competitive South African schools? An inclusive education perspective. International Journal of Inclusive Education. Advance online publication. https://doi.org.10​.1080/13603116.2022.2127491 Basu, R. (2004). Tools for analysis-PESTLE analysis in implementing quality: A practical guide to tools and techniques. London: Thompson Learning. Berghs, M. (2017). Practices and discourses of ubuntu: Implications for an African model of disability. African Journal of Disability, 6, a292. https://doi.org/10.4102/ ajod.v6i0.292 Chasi, T. C., & Tagwirei, C. (2020). Death and ubuntu in Oliver Mtukudzi. Muziki, 17(1), 1–23. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​/18125980​.2020​.1810110 Chibvongodze, D. T. (2016). Ubuntu is not only about the Human! An analysis of the role of African philosophy and ethics in environment management. Journal of Human Ecology, 53(2), 157–166. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​/090709274​.2016​ .11906968 Chigangaidze, R. K. (2022). Utilising Ubuntu in social work practice: Ubuntu in the eyes of Multimodal approach. Journal of Social Work Practice, 36(3), 291–301. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​/02650533​.2021​.1981276 Chisale, S. S. (2020). Politics of the body, fear and ubuntu: Proposing an African women’s Theology of disability. HTS Theologiese Studies/Theological Studies, 76(3). DOI:10.4102/hts.v76i3.5871 Cleaver, S. R., Nixon, S., Bond, V., Magalhães, L., & Polatajko, H. J. (2019). Finding help: Exploring the accounts of persons with disabilities in Western Zambia to improve their situation. JHR, Clinical Research and Perspectives, 1–20. Cornell, D., & van Marle, K. (2005). Exploring ubuntu: Tentative reflections. African Human Rights Law Journal, 5(2), 195–220. Devlieger, P. J. (1999). Frames of reference in African proverbs of disability. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 46(4), 441–442. Dolamo, R. (2013). Botho/Ubuntu: The heart of African ethics. Scriptura, 112(1), 110. Etieyibo, E. (2017). Ubuntu and the environment. In A. Afolayan & T. Falola (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of African philosophy (pp. 633–657). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Kemp, J. D., & Miller, R. (2022). Disability friendly. Ascent Audio. Kyker, J. W. (2016). Oliver Mtukudzi: Living Tuku music in Zimbabwe. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Lefa, B. (2015). The African philosophy of Ubuntu in South African education. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 1(1), 15. Mandipa, E. (2013). A critical analysis of the legal and institutional frameworks for the realisation of the rights of persons with disabilities in Zimbabwe.

28  Chigangaidze, Mafa, Simango, and Mudehwe In C. Ngwenya, G. Plessis, H. Combrick, & S. D. Kamga (Eds.), African disability rights year book (pp. 73–95). Pretoria: Pretoria University Law Press. Masitera, E. (2020). Towards a humane community: The search for disability justice in higher education through African moral thinking. Transformation in Higher Education, 5, a85. http://doi​.org​/10​.4102​/the​.v5i0​.85 Mayaka, B., & Truell, R. (2021) ‘Ubuntu and its potential impact on the international social work profession’, International Social Work, 64 (5), 649–662, DOI:10.1177/00208728211022787. Mji, G., & Edusei, A. (2019). An introduction to a special issue on the role of assistive technology in social inclusion of persons with disabilities in Africa: Outcome of the fifth African network for evidence-to-action in disability conference. African Journal of Disability, 8, a681. https://doi​.org​/10​.4102​/ajod​.v8io​.681 Mugumbate, J. (2020). Baba Jairos Jiri’s Ubuntu model of charity, disability and rehabilitation. African Journal of Social Work, 10(1), 83–88. Mugumbate, J., & Nyanguru, A. (2013). Exploring African philosophy: The value of Ubuntu in social work. African Journal of Social Work, 3(1), 82–100. Munyaka, M., & Mothlabi, M. (2009). Ubuntu and its socio-moral significance. In M. F. Murove (Ed.), African ethics: An anthology of comparative and applied ethics. Pietermaritzburg: University of Kwazulu Natal Press. Mutswanga, P. (2017). The hands with eyes and nose in the palm: As effective communication alternatives for proudly deaf people in Zimbabwe. Journal of Education and Practice, 8(9), 103–114. Ned, L. Y., Dube, K., & Swartz, L. (2022). Challenges and opportunities of centring the African voice in disability research. African Journal of Disability, 11, a1089. https://doi​.org​/10​.4102​/ajod​.v11iO​.1089 Ngubane-Mokiwa, S. A. (2018). Ubuntu considered in light of exclusion of people with disabilies. African Journal of Disability, 7, a460. https://doi​.org​/10​.4102​/ ajod​.v7i0​.460 Nhlapo, C. M., Watermeyer, B., & Schneider, M. (2006). Disability and human rights: The South African Human Rights Commission. In B. Watermeyer, L. Swartz, T. Lorenzo, M. Schneider, & M. Priestly (Eds.), Disability and social change: A South African agenda (pp. 99–107). Capetown: HSRC Press. http://hdl​.handle​.net​/20​ .500​.11910​/6120 Nicolaides, A. (2021). Duty, human rights and wrongs and the notion of Ubuntu as humanist philosophy and metaphysical connection. Athens Journal of Law, 8, 1–11. Nicolaides, A., & Shozi, N. (2021). Considering the rights of the disabled persons from a sustainability, social model of disability, Christian ethics, Ubuntu, and human rights perspectives. International Journal of Development and Sustainability, 10(4), 118–136. Samkange, S. T. W. (1980). Hunhuism or ubuntuism: A Zimbabwean indigenous political philosophy. Harare: Graham Publishers. Sen, A. (2009). The Idea of Justice. India: Allen Lane & Harvard University Press. Stathers, T., Sibanda, T., & Chigariro, J. (2000). The zunde scheme, Chikomba District, Zimbabwe. Harare: Crop Post-Harvest Programme. Strozenberg, F., Filho, W. S. G., Leite, L. O. F. B., Hogemann, E. R. S., Nagib, M., de Oliveira, H. C. S., da Silva, M. N., & Antão, A. C. (2015). Ubuntu: Alterity as a perspective for peace. Sociology Study, 5(1), 53–59. https://doi​.org​/10​.17265​ /2159​-5526​/2015​.01​.006

The relevance of Ubuntu in disability  29 Tarkang, E.E., Pencille, L.B., & Komesuor, J. (2018). The Ubuntu concept, sexual behaviours and stigmatisation of persons living with HIV in Africa: A review article. J Public Health Afr, 9 (2), 677. DOI:10.4081/jphia.2018.677. Tutu, D. (1999). No future without forgiveness. New York: Random House. World Health Organisation. (2023). Disability. https://www​.who​.int​/news​-room​/fact​ -sheets​/detail​/disability​-and​-health World Health Organisation & The World Bank. (2011). World report on disability. Geneva: World Health Organisation. van Breda, A.D. (2019). Developing the notion of Ubuntu as African theory for social work pr actice’, Social Work/ Maatskaplike Werk, 55 (4), 439–450.

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Disability and inclusion in South African higher education An Ubuntu philosophical perspective Oliver T. Gore

Introduction Inclusion of students with disabilities is still a challenge in South African universities despite the far-reaching Bill of Rights in the Constitution of South Africa aimed at eliminating all forms of discrimination and inequality, including those based on disability (South Africa, 1996). This gives students with disabilities the right to access higher education institutions. However, up to 2018, there was no specific disability policy in higher education. This meant most universities struggled to address disability issues (Mutanga, 2020). The promulgation of the Strategic Policy Framework on Disability for the Post School Education and Training System (DHET, 2018) is meant to give government support and guidance to higher education institutions to implement changes and provide services that make it possible for students with disabilities to flourish in higher education. However, there are shortcomings in the implementation of the policy in universities, and students with disabilities cannot be said to be fully included in higher education (Mutanga, 2020). University administrators fail to implement the necessary interventions because of their lack of commitment, the confusion arising from conflicting policies that make it difficult to define who should be taking certain responsibilities, and certain structural barriers to inclusivity. The theories and models that guide or determine programmes and interventions on addressing disability are predominantly Western. They appear to have limitations in articulating the contextual factors affecting students with disabilities in universities. This chapter explores the implementation of some programmes and interventions aimed to address disability in higher education institutions in the interest of identifying alternative approaches that could better inform interventions. The first section gives the context of the study followed by the problem statement, the methodology that was adopted in the study and the Ubuntu philosophical values. The discussion of the findings focuses on disability and intersectional disadvantage, disability and the Ubuntu philosophy. Finally, a conclusion and recommendations are presented.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003343684-3

Disability and inclusion in South African higher education  31 Policy reforms and approaches to disability in South African higher education Although there are different understandings of disability, this chapter adopts the DHET’s (2018) definition: loss or elimination of opportunities to take part in the life of the community, equitably with others, encountered by persons having physical, sensory, psychological, developmental, learning, neurological or other impairments, which may be permanent, temporary or episodic in nature, thereby causing activity limitations and participation restriction within mainstream society. The definition was adopted because of its comprehensiveness. It acknowledges impairment, the presence of personal and social factors that constrain full participation, and the limited opportunities a person with disabilities has in society. To promote equal access, participation, and success of diverse students, South Africa instituted a series of policy reforms. Through the White Paper of 1997 (Department of Education, 1997) and the Education White Paper 6: Special Needs Education – Building an Inclusive Education and Training System (Department of Education, 2001), higher education sought to promote the inclusion of diverse students in universities. This framework was later followed by the White Paper for Post School Education and Training (DHET, 2014) which also stressed the inclusion of students with disabilities. In 2021, the government instituted a specific disability policy to the sector, Strategic Policy Framework on Disability for the Post School Education and Training System (DHET, 2018), to assist higher education to provide sufficient support to students with disabilities and give higher education a common vision of the promotion of the inclusion of students with disabilities. The policy was a response to the absence of a specific policy to address disability in higher education, which limited the higher education institutions’ capacities to implement changes that would offer more effective support for students and staff with disabilities. While helpful, the Strategic Policy Framework on Disability for the Post School Education and Training System (DHET, 2018) allows higher education institutions room to abdicate their responsibilities for a number of reasons. One is the financial cost of the alterations to adapt residences and lecture halls (Mutanga et al., 2018). It should be noted that the policy does not make provision for students and staff with disabilities to contribute their expertise (Mutanga et al., 2018). The South African government adopted a human rights approach in its attempt to address disability in Section 9(3) of Chapter 2 (the Bill of Rights) of the Constitution (South Africa, 1996). Here, the Constitution promotes

32  Oliver T. Gore equality by attempting to eliminate discrimination against individuals based on gender, race, place of origin, culture, and disability. In the same vein, the Strategic Policy Framework on Disability for the Post School Education and Training System is informed by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, and the White Paper on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. The conventions and policies specifically outline that the state must preserve the rights and freedoms of people with disabilities and of all people. Although helpful, the weakness of this human rights approach is that it appears to operate at the level of empty rhetoric as it does not specify how the freedoms and rights are met (Osler & Skarra, 2021). Alongside that weakness, the human rights approach depends on people in authority’s interpretation of law which leaves people with disabilities vulnerable (Broberg & Sano, 2018). At present, disability is placed on the periphery as most universities tend to prioritise addressing access and success issues in faculties where there are many students (Ntombela & Mahlangu, 2019). Students with disabilities are still poorly represented in universities; only 3.8% of the 5.8% of people with disabilities in the country’s population attend universities (DHET, 2021). Even after enrolment into higher education, students with disabilities face exclusion, as the interventions focusing on students with disabilities do not form part of the universities’ broad diversity and inclusion priorities, but are dealt with separately (Ntombela, 2022). What this implies is that students with disabilities, who are constrained by the structural disadvantages affecting the non-disabled students within the country’s higher education institutions, are further marginalised. Most students in higher education, including students with disabilities, are disadvantaged through intersectionality of factors including inadequate finances for education, under-preparedness for higher education, gender inequality, and unconducive housing (Gore, 2021; Gore & Botha, 2022). Together with the above policy imperatives, South African higher education adopted a social model to address disability. The social model views disability as caused mainly by the way society is organised and not individual impairments (Watermeyer et al., 2006). The social model is thus a response to the medical model that sees disability as primarily a result of individual impairments that need to be fixed so that people with disabilities can conform to society (DHET, 2018). Alongside that, is the medical model that led to the establishment of the special schools and classes that separate students with disabilities from non-disabled ones so they can flourish in an environment that offers specialised care (Nel et al., 2013). However, separating the students with disabilities in special schools tends to perpetuate stigmatisation and views students with disabilities as being unable to perform what is considered as normal ways in higher education (Mutanga, 2018). Equally important, the medical model fails to consider the socio-economic conditions and the history of the people with disabilities (Swart & Pettipher, 2011). This demonstrates the limitations of the medical model and why the South African

Disability and inclusion in South African higher education  33 government in the post-apartheid period adopted the social model in higher education. The social model emphasises the effect that society, attitudes and forms of exclusion have on people with disability and the changes and improvements that are necessary (Watermeyer et al., 2006). It advocates social and academic support to students with disabilities, including changes to physical infrastructure, flexibility in time and the format of learning materials. While it is preferable to the medical model, the social model does not take sufficient account of the way impairments affect the lives of people with disabilities (Mitra, 2018). Furthermore, it assumes that by shifting responsibility to social arrangements, the needs of the students with disabilities are automatically met when social challenges are met. Problem The South African government has instituted policies to address disability and access to higher education. However, the policies have not brought the desired changes in the lives of students with disabilities as higher education institutions are not yet offering them sufficient support (Ntombela, 2022). This is partly because of the university administrators’ failure to act, confusion caused by having many policies which leave the university administrators uncertain of whose responsibility it is to carry out certain actions, the challenges students with disability face, and the low commitment from the university staff who do not see meeting the needs of students with disabilities as part of their brief (Mutanga, 2020). Equally significant is that the policies and the subsequent interventions aimed to address disability are largely derived from the social model and human rights approaches, largely Western-based theories. The drawbacks of using the Western theories within the context of Africa is that such approaches do not fully take into account the contextual factors affecting people who stem from cultural mores and the history of the continent (Mbembe, 2016). This suggests the need to have alternative approaches that are sensitive to the context of South Africa for successful inclusion of students with disabilities. The study presented in this chapter explores the implementation of programmes and interventions aimed to address disability in higher education institutions. It addresses the following questions: What are the experiences of students with disabilities in South African universities? How can the Ubuntu philosophy better inform programmes and interventions aimed at addressing disability in South African universities? The argument presented in this chapter is that the Ubuntu philosophy that foregrounds humanness, inclusion, and well-being of other people would be better able to inform programmes and interventions to address disability (Mertz, 2014). Well-being refers to the various aspects of students with disabilities’ lives that enable them to function optimally (Robeyns, 2017). Adopting the Ubuntu philosophy would encourage universities to promote the inclusion of students with

34  Oliver T. Gore disabilities through the creation of appropriate support services for the students to flourish. Ubuntu philosophical values Ubuntu is an African philosophy which emphasises the notion that people realise themselves through the relationships they have with others. Ubuntu refers to humanness and morality in Sub-Saharan Africa (Metz, 2014). It is a ‘code of ethics,’ a philosophy or way of thinking, and a behaviour that is embedded in the African continent. Metz (2020) explains that ‘African’ is used with reference to Ubuntu to mean the important values that are common in most of the African societies throughout history but less used in other parts of the world. Underpinning the Ubuntu philosophy are notions of establishing and maintaining constructive relationships, interdependence, and advancement of goodness (Nussbaum, 2003). The Ubuntu philosophy is unique to Africa although some of the values are found across the globe (Nussbaum, 2003; Ewuoso & Hall, 2019). The Ubuntu philosophy reminds us that we ought to be conscious about how we treat other humans. People relate to each other for the common good of the community while a person is only defined in the presence of his/her community (Nussbaum, 2003). In Letseka’s (2012) view, Ubuntu’s philosophical basis originates and is unique to the African socio-economic and historical order. This positions the Ubuntu philosophy as relevant to this study considering the legacy of segregation policies of the apartheid and the absence of shared moral values that prevented socio-economic development and social cohesion in South African society. Furthermore, Ubuntu has been adopted for this study for its focus on the well-being of other people and that of the community (Waghid, 2020; Ewuoso & Hall, 2019). Ubuntu’s pillar of humanness is found in most of the Bantu languages in Sub-Saharan Africa. For example, umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu (in Nguni languages) which translates to ‘a human being is a human being because of other human beings’ (Letseka, 2012: 48). Humanness is present in the Zulu/Ndebele umuntu and Shona munhu, which means a person or human (Murove, 2014: 37). Underpinning Ubuntu are values such as ‘altruism, kindness, generosity, compassion, benevolence, courtesy, and respect and concern for others’ (Letseka, 2012: 48). Furthermore, humanness implies the attitude to another person based on courtesy, caring, kindness, and respect (Murove, 2014). The values indicate that individuals in communities ought to treat others with fairness and justice, which is critical for students with disabilities. These Ubuntu philosophical values can be helpful in exploring whether universities and lecturers are inclusive by considering if support services aimed at the well-being of the students with disabilities are adequate. Caring for others is an aspect embedded in Ubuntu, with individuals not only being empathetic to each other but trusting and taking risks for the well-being of others (Waghid, 2020). This indicates that Ubuntu focuses not

Disability and inclusion in South African higher education  35 only on the well-being of a person but also on the well-being of others and the community. Through caring for others and sharing with them, a person is defined in the presence of his/her community (Nussbaum, 2003). Although Ubuntu is more communal rather than individual, it places a person as a participating agent in the community groups (Nussbaum, 2003). Participating in the well-being of the community is pivotal as a person is expected to become compassionate to members of the community and vice versa (Ewuoso & Hall, 2019). Another thrust of Ubuntu is the interconnectedness of the person to others and the community. Ubuntu regards people as interconnected with each other (Waghid, 2020). People are therefore seen as co-belonging to the community in which each person contributes to. Thus, a person sees his achievements through others and the community. Moreover, embedded in Ubuntu is personhood that is values such as compassion, caring, sharing, and hospitality (Mojola, 2019). Such values cannot be equated to profits and personal achievement as others are more important (Tutu, 2013). This implies that humanness is expressed through the interconnectedness of a person and others, and the personhood values of caring for the other. Coupled with that is the interdependence of a person on others. Strong relationships are key to promoting interdependence, in that a person’s life is meaningful when he/she contributes to the community and other persons (Murove, 2014). However, that does not mean that Ubuntu precludes promoting oneself (Mertz, 2020). The interdependence of people and others within the community serves to improve the lives and well-being of others. Interdependence is also manifested in the friendly relationships between people and the attitude that people give to life as well as others (Murove, 2014). Therefore, the emphasis on interdependence in Ubuntu places the community at the centre, seeing it as more important than the individual, thus individualism is equated with being selfish. Some key aspects of the Ubuntu philosophy are that it focuses on the wellbeing of a person, the well-being of others, and that of the community. Wellbeing is thus achievable through the humanness, interconnectedness, and interdependence of a person with others and the community. In Letseka’s view (2012: 54) the philosophy values these principles because of their aim of a flourishing life for all members of society. Its strong emphasis on collectivity and communalism fosters inclusivity (Sibanda, 2014). Although present in other theories, the Ubuntu philosophy’s values of focusing on others to improve one’s own well-being are not strongly featured in most Western theories. Methodology The study took the form of a scoping review. I used secondary data sources from Social Sciences and Education databases, and Google Scholar. During the screening process I excluded sources that did not meet the following

36  Oliver T. Gore criteria: published between 2000 and 2022 (exclude on date), in South African higher education (exclude on context), focus on disability or Ubuntu (exclude on setting), published in English (exclude on language), and the study being informed by some form of research (exclude on research design). There were 63 sources that were not excluded by the chosen criteria. I carefully read the selected documents and extracted the text that addressed the research questions. Although I followed the above procedures, I do not claim to have included all the relevant sources as the goal was to get a picture of the implementation of programmes and interventions aimed to promote inclusion of students with disabilities in South African higher education. A thematic analysis technique was used to analyse the data. I identified common categories of data from the extracted texts before combining them to build subthemes. These subthemes were subsequently merged to form main themes. The following themes emerged from the data: programmes and interventions to address disability, intersectional disability, and the Ubuntu philosophy in addressing disability (presented in the next section). Findings The study explored the interventions implemented to promote inclusion of students with disabilities in South African higher education. The results indicate that while programmes and interventions to address disability are in place, they have not achieved the desired changes. These are improving access, participation, and the success of students with disabilities in higher education. Students with disabilities continue to experience multiple forms of disadvantage that have a cumulative effect on their lives. It seems that the values of the Ubuntu philosophy are helpful for promoting the implementation of programmes and interventions in higher education institutions including addressing intersectional disadvantage. Programmes and interventions to address disability

The review shows that disability issues in South African higher education are addressed through dedicated units called Disability Units (DUs) at most institutions. These units manage disability separately from the university’s transformation initiatives. By being managed through the faculties’ departments, and sometimes counselling services or student affairs the DUs lack autonomy and are often marginalised by the faculties which focus on supporting the many non-disabled students in the faculties (FOTIM, 2011). Furthermore, the administration of DUs through the counselling services perpetuates the pathological perspective that disability is a medical condition (LynerCleophas et al., 2014). Although they are helpful, the DU programmes separate the students with disabilities from the rest of the students, and thus encourage stereotyping and stigmatisation of students with disabilities (Bell Carl & Swart, 2016).

Disability and inclusion in South African higher education  37 Within the DUs, the students are expected to receive specialised services for their educational well-being at the same time the DUs help to communicate students with disabilities’ needs to the departments and faculties. These support services include Braille, recordings, interpreters, sign language, flexible assessments, and assistive technology (Matshedisho, 2010). While DUs are mandated to provide these services, students with disabilities lack access to learning materials, learning facilities, libraries, and information about campus events in most universities in South Africa (Mbuvha, 2019; Zongozzi, 2022). They are also at a disadvantage when they need to seek medical attention or have check-ups since they have to use private transport as they cannot use public transport (Matshedisho, 2010). The establishment of DUs in some universities strengthens the view that students with disabilities need separate facilities because they have different learning needs from the non-disabled (Ntombela, 2022). This sees the lecturers as less qualified to support students with disabilities than the staff at the DUs who are regarded as experts. Ntombela and Mahlangu (2019) contest this. They argue that support of students with disabilities should be the responsibility of all staff members of the university including the academic staff. Although separating students with disabilities from the rest of the students through the DUs helps the university to provide specialised support, it also results in their having limited access to services which non-disabled students receive (Ntombela, 2022). In addition, despite the DUs serving the role of enhancing communication with the non-DUs academic staff, there is often a lack of communication between the two, which contributes to the lecturers’ lack of knowledge about the needs of students with disabilities (Ntombela, 2022). Although meant to assist them, the use of technology for teaching and learning excludes some students with disabilities in class. Online learning during the Covid-19 pandemic excluded some students with disabilities as they could not access learning material such as recordings of lectures, and interpreters, and were not offered flexible submission deadlines. A study by Ntombela (2022) on the situation during Covid-19 reported that students with disabilities did not have access to the support services they usually received before the pandemic. Coupled with that, the lack of opportunity to actively participate in their studies constrained disabled students from exercising their agency, which limited their epistemic access during online learning (Ndlovu, 2022). This highlights the shortcomings of having a separate support structure for students with disabilities at universities. At the time, the universities primarily focused on ensuring that teaching and learning occurred amidst the uncertainties related to the pandemic and the structural disadvantages resulting from the pandemic. It must be acknowledged, however, that online learning was advantageous for some students with disabilities who were able to work flexibly, for those who were spared the anxiety and panic attacks they experience in large and crowded classes, and for those with mobility challenges who did not have to access the lecture halls (Manase, 2021).

38  Oliver T. Gore Students with disabilities are also negatively affected by ignorance about their needs and the attitude of some of the lecturers. Some administrators exclude the students with disabilities from academic programmes such as Engineering and Natural Sciences on the grounds that those students with disabilities are unable to cope with the practical demands of some of the modules (Mayat & Amosun, 2011). Although it also seems that some lecturers are willing to support students with disabilities, most lecturers lack the knowledge and expertise to do so (Mutanga & Walker, 2017). Whereas some lecturers adjusted their teaching approaches to suit the students with disabilities, others did not employ inclusive teaching approaches such as offering tutorials and differentiation for the students with disabilities (Matshedisho, 2010; Mbuvha, 2019). A study by van Jaarsveldt and Ndeya-Ndereya (2015) indicates that some lecturers were unwilling to teach students with disabilities. Instead, they referred them to the DUs. This means that having a disability policy in place is not enough as personal commitment from lecturers is integral for inclusivity of students with disabilities. Another way in which students with disabilities are excluded is through assessment and examination methods that are inappropriate for them. For example, some students with disabilities experience high levels of anxiety because of their impairments during examinations while others struggle to participate in group assignments (Mutanga, 2018). This highlights the need for universities to make provision for more appropriate formats for individual students with disabilities, rather than having a uniform approach for all students. Although it is easy to place the responsibility squarely on the shoulders of lecturers, this ignores the responsibility that universities have. They should offer lecturers the support they need to understand diversity and to develop the necessary strategies to address the needs of the students with disabilities. Another factor the studies revealed is that the absence of an effective means of identifying students with disabilities means some students with disabilities are denied sufficient support (Bell Carl & Swart, 2016; Zongozzi, 2022). Lecturers and the DUs are unaware of which students require support and the kind of support services that they should be given (Mutanga & Walker, 2017). Bell et al. (2016) reveal that some students with hearing loss are unwilling to disclose their impairment to university staff. While the universities need to honour the non-disclosure practices of students with disabilities, they should create an environment that encourages the students to disclose their impairments so that they receive support. Unlike the Historically Advantaged Universities (HAUs), the Historically Disadvantaged Universities (HDUs) continue to have poor or inadequate infrastructure and limited financial resources to cater to the needs of the students with disabilities (Mutanga, 2020). The HDUs are the previously black universities that were poorly resourced in the apartheid era while the HAUs are former white universities that were well-resourced (Reddy, 2004). Further disparities between the HDUs and HAUs are seen in the opportunities they

Disability and inclusion in South African higher education  39 offer students with disabilities to build social networks. Social networks are essential for academic support and directly affect the level of persistence students with disabilities can muster to complete their studies (Papasotiriou & Windle, 2012). Roux and Burnett’s (2010) study of students with disabilities at the University of Johannesburg reveals that students with disabilities who participated in elite sports were able to build social networks unlike those from the rural HDUs. Although some differences were evident between the universities, structural hindrances prevented students with disabilities at the University of the Free State, a HAU, from gaining easy access to other residences and thus making friendships with their peers constrained (Mutanga, 2018). This means that HAUs also face challenges in offering opportunities for students with disabilities to create social networks. The researchers whose work is cited here worked within the medical and social models that are influenced by Western theories. The results suggest that these models do not fully serve the needs for the inclusion of students with disabilities in South African universities. Intersectional disadvantage

Although some studies have reported disadvantages among students with disabilities because of race (Le Roux, 2014), it appears that class affects students with disabilities in universities more (Mutanga, 2018). Disadvantage is manifested in the socio-economic background of the students with disabilities. Students with disabilities receive disability-related funding from the government but those who fail to achieve a particular level of performance are excluded from the funding (Mutanga, 2018). Their exclusion does not consider that some students with disabilities perform poorly because they went to poorly resourced schools where they received poor-quality schooling (Mutanga, 2018). This means that the funding policy does not take diverse socio-economic backgrounds into account when assessing students’ performance. Some students with disabilities from low-income backgrounds, therefore, experience an additional layer of exclusion because of their underpreparedness for university education. Although it appears that both female and male students with disabilities are similarly disadvantaged, some female students with disabilities experience an additional layer of exclusion through gender inequality arising from societal expectations. In his study, Mutanga (2020) reveals that some female students with disabilities have been socialised to see lower achievements as the norm. This means that gender inequality affects the choices students with disabilities make and constrains them from having equal opportunities to access certain degree programmes. Wolff et al. (2015) argue that when the different forms of exclusions intersect, they have an incremental compound effect on the well-being of individuals. The literature explored above reveals that students with disabilities face many challenges in accessing, participating, and succeeding in universities. But few studies have explored the intersectionality of these disadvantages

40  Oliver T. Gore (Mutanga, 2018, 2020; Ndlovu, 2022). Most of the studies presented in the preceding sections explain disadvantage in a monodirectional way or disadvantage as caused by two factors. What they fail to do is to disentangle the complex interaction of factors that affect students with disabilities. Students, including students with disabilities, experience multiple forms of exclusions associated with their biographies: class, schooling, gender, and geographical location intersect with university arrangements and policies (Gore, 2021). What is required for their effective inclusion in universities is an approach that takes account of the day-to-day lives of the students with disabilities, the lived experience of their biographies, and how these interact with the university arrangements in disadvantaging the students with disabilities. Ubuntu philosophy in addressing disability

The Ubuntu philosophical value of humanness that stresses improving attitude and caring of others is crucial. Lecturers’ attitudes could be improved, and their ignorance could give way to compassion and to commitment if they are given appropriate training on how to identify the needs of students with disabilities and effective ways of supporting them. The element of sufficient support is emphasised as the Ubuntu philosophy which asks us to see ourselves through others (Nussbaum, 2003; Ngomane, 2020) and act for the good of others (Metz, 2014). The philosophy challenges community perceptions and lecturers’ attitudes that exclude students with disabilities from accessing university and certain programmes. By consciously helping students with disabilities, the university is seen to be making the students with disabilities part of the university’s diversity and transformational agendas stipulated in the White Paper 3 (Department of Education, 1997). This envisages the university as prioritising the resources to adapt the lecture halls and accommodation and to provide appropriate learning resources and materials for students with disabilities. Ubuntu can emphasise the interdependence and interconnectedness of a person with others. The university’s role is to promote social relations between students so that they support each other. When they have the opportunity to interact with others and to participate in university academic and social activities, students with disabilities experience co-belonging with their peers and university staff within the university community (Waghid, 2020). A sense of belonging is central to students’ success and their retention in the system (Tinto, 2012). When Ubuntu values of respect and relations are embraced, people within the campuses relate to each other in respectful ways. Respecting one another is crucial for ensuring trust between students, teachers, and parents within educational environments (Mbigi, 1997). By encouraging people to relate to and respect each other, Ubuntu contributes to the transformation of the environment in the class into one where lecturers are approachable and students with disabilities are comfortable about

Disability and inclusion in South African higher education  41 communicating their needs to their lecturers. This enables lecturers to offer students the individualised support all students need to succeed. The value that Ubuntu accords participation means that students are regarded as active agents who can take part in the university’s activities and contribute meaningfully to decisions affecting their lives (Nussbaum, 2003). The participation aspect of Ubuntu has pedagogical implications in that it highlights the way students with disabilities can take part in the construction of knowledge and contribute to the development of the curriculum (Ewuoso & Hall, 2019). When given the opportunity to participate, students with disabilities can contribute to what should be taught for their educational well-being. The Ubuntu philosophy also requires us to assess whether the teaching approaches employed by lecturers are inclusive for students with disabilities. Again, through raising consciousness of humanness, universities encourage lecturers to employ inclusive teaching methods that promote effective learning among all the students including those with disabilities. For example, Berghs (2017) observes that much of the learning in Africa is observing and imitating others, practicing, and storytelling. By participating in games, students learn by guided participation to explore their social experiences as well as that of their communities (Berghs, 2017). What can be learnt from these learning practices is the huge potential participatory teaching approaches have to enhance learning in South African universities so that all students can succeed. Most of the assessment practices employed in universities appear not to be integral parts of the teaching and learning activities, and contribute to distant relationships between lecturers and students (Mutanga, 2020). Summative summaries can be dehumanising to students with disabilities as these do not take into consideration the lived experiences of the students with disabilities. Beets and Le Grange (2005) argue that for assessments to form part of learning, they should incorporate the Ubuntu philosophy and consider cultural factors. The authors argue that both students and teachers should understand that the purpose of assessments is to measure achievement, always considering that students have different competencies (Beets & Le Grange, 2005). Hence, the assessment process should be inclusive, respectful, and flexible to meet the needs of the students with disabilities, e.g., giving them enough time to complete the assessment. Discussion The findings have demonstrated the challenges universities face in implementing policies aimed at promoting inclusion of students with disabilities in South African higher education. They suggest that the Ubuntu philosophy is helpful in fostering ethical behaviour among the university staff and prioritising support for students with disabilities. It helps members of university administration and lecturers to regard themselves as existing through others

42  Oliver T. Gore thereby prioritising support to students with disabilities. Poor implementation of policies is attributed to some university staff’s perception that it is not their responsibility to meet the needs of students with disabilities. This can be changed if their attitudes are informed by the Ubuntu philosophy, leading to a sense of responsibility for and commitment to supporting students with disabilities. Another important finding is that interventions based on the medical and social models have done little to change the lives of students with disabilities. This can be ascribed to the shortcomings of these models. These made it difficult for universities to meet the structural challenges in the South African context. The Ubuntu philosophy, which is already known in South African society, could better inform interventions that would promote full inclusion of students with disabilities. The Ubuntu philosophy can offer students with disabilities sufficient and appropriate support through its inclusiveness principles which is when all the students are given the attention and their needs are addressed. Ntombela (2022) emphasises the importance of addressing and eliminating constraining factors in order to facilitate success for all students, including those with disabilities, thereby mitigating existing disadvantages. During online teaching and learning, students with disabilities can access learning materials and the support they need. Coupled with that, lecturers are positioned to acquire strategies and the knowledge to deal with students with disabilities. The findings also suggest that having Ubuntu values encourages open relationships between lecturers and students and the use of effective teaching approaches. Findings illustrate that students with disabilities are not always identified and find some approaches alienating. Kauffman and Di Nuovo (2015) advocate for lecturers to be attuned to the needs of students with disabilities, enabling them to adopt teaching approaches that cater not only to the general class but also accommodate the specific needs and abilities of students with disabilities. This is accompanied by differentiated support and assessments. The above findings have implications for the kind of education students receive in universities. Through entrenching values of caring for others, Ubuntu encourages the whole university community to develop a consciousness of values such as caring for others, respect, and compassion. In contrast, most Western education philosophies are predominantly individualist, so they embrace competition, autonomy, self-esteem, self-development, and individual virtues (Nussbaum, 2003). Nussbaum (2010) argues that only a few philosophers from the West focus on citizenship education that foregrounds the good of other people and the community. Likewise, the Ubuntu philosophy’s main thrust is that university management and lecturers are part of the community and should view their success through the achievements of all the students (including the students with disabilities) and their communities (Metz, 2015). Over and above all, the Ubuntu philosophy values of caring for others, respect, and compassion are outlined in the White Paper 1997 as one of the objectives of higher education in South Africa – to develop individuals who take care of their communities (Department of

Disability and inclusion in South African higher education  43 Education, 1997). The Ubuntu philosophy therefore offers a worldview that embraces equality in higher education and the removal of intersectional disadvantage among all students including the disabled (Ngomane, 2020). Its key advantage is that the Ubuntu philosophy allows us to address disadvantages through an intersectionality lens. The findings in this chapter show that students with disabilities experience multiple forms of disadvantage that have compound effects on their lives (Wolff et, al 2015; Gore 2021). This contributes to the students with disabilities’ failure to access the universities or dropping out after enrolment. The way to redress this is to introduce initiatives that could ensure greater success for students with disabilities as part of the broader universities’ interventions. These include forms of disadvantages such as inadequate finances, poor schooling, gender inequality, and language issues (Ntombela & Mahlangu, 2019). If university administrators endorse the Ubuntu values of solidarity, respect, and caring of others, they are likely to view their responsibility for addressing the multiple layers of exclusions that students with disabilities’ experience differently. The main contribution of this study is the identification of the Ubuntu philosophy that centres on the well-being of other people and the community as an all-inclusive approach to promoting the inclusion of students with disabilities in South African universities. Through Ubuntu values, the university management and teaching staff take responsibility for and commit to giving effective services to the students with disabilities that are part of their community. Conclusion The chapter has noted the current national policies to address disability and the challenges encountered during the implementation of interventions to address disability in South African higher education. It has been argued that the Ubuntu philosophy can better inform programmes aimed to promote inclusion of students with disabilities by imbuing the approach used by the university staff with values such as caring, respect, participation, and compassion. By foregrounding the Ubuntu philosophy in interventions, university administration and teaching staff can treat students with disabilities with humanness and dignity and simultaneously provide sufficient support to the students. The chapter recommends that university management ought to foreground Ubuntu values in the implementation of programmes and interventions to ensure commitment of staff. Through embedding these values in their interventions, universities can prioritise disability in their allocation of funds for changes in infrastructure so that lecture halls and accommodation become friendly to students with disabilities. It is vital that appropriate study materials and equipment should also be provided to the students with disabilities. Providing the necessary sensitisation and training to lecturers will make them aware of the needs of students with disabilities and

44  Oliver T. Gore the kind of support that they should give. Training also helps the lecturers to develop personhood values underpinning Ubuntu so that they take the responsibility to recognise, care for, and respect the students with disabilities. Equally important, lecturers should employ teaching approaches that engage students with disabilities in class and help them to learn more effectively. Individualised attention, promoting open relationships, and communication with lecturers will help students with disabilities to open up towards the lecturers. This will also enable lecturers to offer individualised support to the students with disabilities requiring help. While students with disabilities should meet the same standards as non-students with disabilities, more flexible assessment methods should be implemented for them. This includes flexible writing time, individual invigilation, providing assessment papers in appropriate and accessible formats, conducive seating arrangements, and sign language interpretation. These changes should be implemented as an integral part of the universities’ broader diversity and transformative interventions to address intersectional disadvantage. These include interventions that meet the challenges of student under-preparedness, inadequate finances, gender inequality, and difficulty in adjusting to the universities’ environment and language issues. Like other first-year students, students with disabilities require orientation to help them familiarise themselves with the university environment and to raise their awareness of the available services. References Beets, P., & Le Grange, L. (2005). ‘Africanising’ assessment practices: Does the notion of Ubuntu hold any promise? South African Journal of Higher Education, 19, 1197–1207. Bell, D., Carl, A., & Swart, E. (2016). Students with hearing impairment at a South African university: Self-identity and disclosure. African Journal of Disability, 5(1), 1–9. http://dx​.doi​.org​/10​.4102​/ajod​.v5i1​.229 Berghs, M. (2017). Practices and discourses of Ubuntu: Implications for an African model of disability? African Journal of Disability, 6, 1–8. https://doi​.org​/10​.4102​ /ajod​.v6​.292 Broberg, M., & Sano, H. O. (2018). Strengths and weaknesses in a human rights-based approach to international development – An analysis of a rights-based approach to development assistance based on practical experiences. The International Journal of Human Rights, 22(5), 664–680. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​/13642987​.2017​ .1408591 Department of Education. (1997). Education white paper 3: A programme for the transformation of higher education. Pretoria: Government Gazette. Department of Education. (2001). Education white paper 6: Special needs education— Building an inclusive education and training system.Pretoria: Department of Education. Department of Higher Education and Training. (2014). White paper for post-school education and training: Building on expanded, effective and integrated postschool. Pretoria: Higher Education and Training.

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46  Oliver T. Gore Metz, T. (2015). How the west was one: The western as individualist, the African as communitarian. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 47(11), 1175–1184. https:// doi​.org​/10​.1080​/00131857​.2014​.991502 Metz, T. (2020). African theories of meaning in life: A critical assessment. South African Journal of Philosophy, 39(2), 113–126. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​/02580136​ .2020​.1770429 Mitra, S. (2018). Disability, health and human development. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Mojola, A. O. (2019). Ubuntu in the Christian Theology and Praxis of Archbishop Desmond Tutu and its implications for global justice and human rights. In J. Ogude (Ed.), Ubuntu and the reconstitution of community (pp. 21–39). Indiana: Indiana University Press. Murove, M. F. (2014). Ubuntu. Diogenes, 59(3–4), 36–47. http://dx​.doi​.org​/10​.1177​ /0392192113493737 Mutanga, O. (2018). Inclusion of students with disabilities in South African higher education. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 65(2), 229–242. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​/1034912X​.2017​.1368460 Mutanga, O. (2020). Students with disabilities and the transition to work: A capabilities approach. London: Routledge. Mutanga, O., Manyonga, B., & Ngubane-Mokiwa, S. (2018). South Africa’s new higher education disability policy is important, but flawed. The Conversation, July 23. https://theconversation​.com​/south​-africas​-new​-higher​-education​-disability​ -policy​-is​-important​-but​-flawed​-99703 Mutanga, O., & Walker, M. (2017). Exploration of the academic lives of students with disabilities at South African universities: Lecturers’ perspectives. African Journal of Disability, 6, 1–9. https://doi​.org​/10​.4102​/ajod​.v6i0​.316 Ndlovu, S. (2022). The pedagogic domain and epistemic access in South African higher education: The challenges for students with disabilities during the Covid19 pandemic. South African Journal of Higher Education, 36(4), 205–224. https:// dx​.doi​.org​/10​.20853​/36​-4​-5194 Nel, M., Engelbrecht, P., Nel, N., & Tlale, D. (2013). South African teachers’ views of collaboration within an inclusive education system. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 18, 903–917. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​/13603116​.2013​ .858779 Ngomane, M. (2020). Everyday Ubuntu: Living better together, the African way. London: Harper Collins. Ntombela, S. (2022). Reimagining South African higher education in response to Covid-19 and ongoing exclusion of students with disabilities. Disability and Society, 37(3), 534–539. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​/09687599​.2021​.2004880 Ntombela, S., & Mahlangu, V. P. (2019). The inclusion and support of students with disabilities in the South African higher education system: Supporting students with disabilities. In R. Jeffries (Ed.), Diversity, equity, and inclusivity in contemporary higher education (pp. 195–210). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Nussbaum, B. (2003). African culture and Ubuntu reflections of a South African in America. World Business Academy Rekindling the Human Spirit in Business: Perspectives, 17(1), 1–16. Nussbaum, M. (2010). Not for profit: Why democracy needs humanities. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

Disability and inclusion in South African higher education  47 Osler, A., & Skarra, J. A. (2021). The rhetoric and reality of human rights education: Policy frameworks and teacher perspectives. Multicultural Education Review, 13(3), 191–210. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​/2005615X​.2021​.1964265 Papasotiriou, M., & Windle, J. (2012). The social experience of physically disabled Australian university students. Disability and Society, 27(7), 935–947. https://doi​ .org​/10​.1080​/09687599​.2012​.692027 Reddy, T. (2004). Higher education and social transformation South African case study. Pretoria: Council on Higher Education. Robeyns, I. (2017). Wellbeing, freedom and social justice: The capability approach re-examined. Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers. Roux, C. J., & Burnett, C. (2010). The extent to which students with disabilities are included in elite sports at Higher Education Institutions. African Journal for Physical, Health Education, Recreation and Dance, 120–131. https://hdl​.handle​ .net​/10520​/EJC19675 Sibanda, P. (2014). The dimensions of “hunhu/Ubuntu” (humanism in the African sense): The Zimbabwean conception. IOSR Journal of Engineering, 4(1), 26–29. https://doi​.org​/10​.7833​/109​-0​-126 South Africa. (1996). Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, South Africa. Swart, E., & Pettipher, R. (2011). Perspectives on inclusive education. In E. Landsberg (Ed.), Addressing barriers to learning in South Africa (pp. 1–27). Pretoria: Van Schaik. Tinto, V. (2012). Completing college: Rethinking institutional action. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Tutu, D. (2013). God is not a Christian: Speaking truth in times of crisis. London: Rider. Van Jaarsveldt, D. E., & Ndeya-Ndereya, C. N. (2015). ‘It’s not my problem’: Exploring lecturers’ distancing behaviour towards students with disabilities. Disability and Society, 30(2), 199–212. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​/09687599​.2014​ .994701 Waghid, Y. (2020). Towards an Ubuntu philosophy of higher education in Africa. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 39(3), 299–308. https://doi​.org​/10​.1007​/ s11217​-020​-09709-w Watermeyer, B., Swartz, L., Lorenzo, T., Schneider, H., Priestley, M., & Schneider, M. (2006). Disability and social change: A South African agenda. Cape Town: HSRC Press. Wolff, J., Lamb, E., & Zur-Szpiro, E. (2015). A philosophical review of poverty. London: Joseph Rowntree Foundation. Zongozzi, J. N. (2022). Accessible quality higher education for students with disabilities in a South African open distance and e-learning institution: Challenges. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 69(5), 1645– 1657. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​/1034912X​.2020​.1822518

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A review of students with disabilities’ experiences in higher education Implications of adopting the Ubuntu philosophy to human resource development Raphael P. K. Andoh and Rita K. Nketsiaba

Introduction This chapter presents the experiences of students with disabilities by reviewing global disability literature. It also discusses these experiences in relation to the Ubuntu philosophy and how adopting the Ubuntu philosophy to inform disability-related policies and strategies would benefit students with disabilities, higher education, and society. Over the years, people with disabilities have been disadvantaged in life and this has affected their financial, emotional, and psychological conditions. Depending on how it is structured or framed, education remains one of the best ways to address the inequalities for people with disabilities (Akoto et al., 2022; Fichten, 1988; Moisey, 2004; United Nations, 2019). While attending to the needs of people with disabilities has become a humanitarian and legal issue, it is vital to achieving Sustainable Development Goals 1 to 4 (i.e. poverty eradication, hunger eradication, good health and wellbeing, and quality education) (Ainscow et al., 2019). Globally, there has been a rise in the number of students with disabilities enrolled in higher education with almost all higher education institutions enrolling students with disabilities although there is still limited access making them underrepresented (Association for Higher Education Access and Disability, 2019; Fleming et al., 2017; Hu & Lin, 2017 Moswela & Mukhopadhyay, 2011; Mutanga, 2018; Tan et al., 2019). The rise in the number of students with disabilities is important as education potentially increases people’s opportunities and helps them to achieve their goals, e.g., gainful employment (Akoto et al., 2022; Kilpatrick et al., 2017; Ntombela, 2020). However, students with disabilities are unlikely to achieve success without appropriate support, e.g., accommodation. They are unlikely to obtain good grades and or complete their programmes of study because of the challenges they encounter. The benefits of higher education for people with disabilities cannot be overemphasised (Hu & Lin, 2017; Kilpatrick et al., 2017; Ntombela, 2020). These benefits are enormous and can be summed up as the vehicle for social DOI: 10.4324/9781003343684-4

A review of students with disabilities’ experiences in higher education  49 mobility and the realisation of their full potential (Grigal et al., 2021; Hu & Lin, 2017; Salmi & D’Addio, 2021). Higher education is likely to contribute to improved quality of life. Backed by various institution-specific policies, national legislation and international conventions, the population of people with disabilities in higher education institutions has increased (Ainscow et al., 2019; Hu & Lin, 2017; Kim & Kim, 2020; Lipka et al., 2020; Palmer, 2020; Young & Schaefer, 2019). Given their increased enrolment, this chapter seeks to review the experiences of higher education students with disabilities in the literature. The experiences of the students coupled with their relatively low shortterm and ultimate success indicate that in spite of the legislation on disability education, inclusivity of students with disabilities seems to border solely on increased enrolment. Thus, higher education is not yet fully beneficial to the larger group of students with disabilities. As a result of the aforementioned, most students with disabilities could be prevented from acquiring professional degrees, overall educational attainment, and labour market outcomes (Ndlovu & Walton, 2016; World Health Organization, 2011). To be fully beneficial to students with disabilities, greater inclusivity beyond their enrolment has to be ensured by addressing the challenges they encounter regularly (Martins et al., 2021; Morrison et al., 2009; Mutanga, 2017). Thus, the adoption of the Ubuntu philosophy in higher education institutions is proposed as a solution to the development of students with disabilities as human resources in the implications section. Adopting the Ubuntu philosophy would lead to increases in educational success and education completion rates contributing to improved quality of life for people with disabilities because they would be developed for the labour market. In the subsequent sections, the chapter highlights the methodology used; the relationship between disability and education; the foundations of disability education by way of policies, legislation and conventions; and the enrolment of students with disabilities in higher education institutions. The thrust of this chapter, a review of the experiences of students with disabilities is presented next. This is followed by presentations on the success and completion of students with disabilities in higher education institutions, the Ubuntu philosophy and education, and implications for Ubuntu for higher education and human resource development. The chapter ends with conclusions drawn. Methodology The study adopted a literature review design. To review the experiences of students with disabilities in higher education institutions, Google was used as the search engine to obtain the literature. Because the review was conducted across regions, the search terms used were specific to the respective countries in the different regions. An example of a search term used is ‘students with disabilities’ (target group) in ‘higher education’ (context) in ‘Malaysia.’

50  Raphael P. K. Andoh and Rita K. Nketsiaba The country (location) in the search term was replaced with other countries in Asia. This was repeated for other countries in other regions. The papers used were delimited to peer-reviewed empirical studies and doctoral dissertations that were written in English and published between 2011 and 2022. In total, 20 studies were included in this review. With the exception of one doctoral study, the studies reviewed were all empirical. Regarding the geographic regions, six of the studies reviewed were conducted in Africa, five in the Americas, three in Asia, and six in Europe. It should be mentioned that the literature on the experiences of students with disabilities in higher education presented in this chapter is not exhaustive. However, it is representative of the student’s experiences since we included literature from all the different geographical regions in the review. Disability and education Over the years, people with disabilities have been among the stigmatised, harassed, neglected, least educated, and poor members of society (PinillaRoncancio, 2015; Tudzi et al., 2017; World Health Organization, 2011; Zellweger, 2014). According to Martins et al. (2021), they are the most disadvantaged minority in the world. Proportionally, there are fewer people without disabilities living under the poverty threshold than people with disabilities (United Nations, 2019). Employers also possibly perceive them to be without the requisite skills for employment (Swartz & Schneider, 2006). This affects their financial, emotional, and psychological states. Human resource development is the process through which human expertise is developed and unleashed to improve performance (Swanson & Holton, 2001). Education is believed to be critical in developing the human resources as it empowers and increases opportunities for people to achieve their potential (Andoh et al., 2020; Kilpatrick et al., 2017; Akoto et al., 2022). For people with disabilities, education is key to overcoming the inequalities experienced in society as it develops and unleashes their expertise. Hu and Lin (2017) sum up the benefit of education to people with disabilities as a means of social mobility. Most importantly, Tan et al. (2019) are of the view that the perpetuation of social exclusion and poverty of people with disabilities is associated with their lack of access to higher education. Higher education is noted as a requirement for success in the labour market (Hu & Lin, 2017). Specifically, for people with disabilities, it improves their social, financial, psychological, and emotional conditions as it makes them competitive in the labour market and increases their employability, earning power, and ultimately, empowerment (Grigal et al., 2021; Ntombela, 2020; Wehman, 2006). With the pressures on organisations to hire people with disabilities (Suresh & Dyaram, 2022), education of people with disabilities up to higher education level has been more rewarding than ever before. Thus, attaining higher education has become significant in determining opportunities for securing sustainable higher income (Fleming et al., 2017; Grigal et al.,

A review of students with disabilities’ experiences in higher education  51 2021; Hu & Lin, 2017). Although some people with disabilities pursue higher education to improve their employability, self-esteem, dignity, independence, self-sustenance, and respect (Akoto et al., 2022; Vlachou & Papananou, 2018), few students with disabilities are able to progress to receive higher education globally, making students with disabilities under-represented in higher education institutions (Moswela & Mukhopadhyay, 2011; Mutanga, 2018). Foundations of disability education Upon the realisation of the importance of education to the lives of people with disabilities, their education has become both humanitarian and legal issues across the globe. This has transcended global organisations to educational institutions by way of conventions, frameworks, national laws, and university policies. The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs which advocated a major change in the policy direction in favour of inclusive education systems for both the Global North and South (Ainscow et al., 2019; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1994) and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities which emphasised the right of people with disabilities to education and spearheaded their accommodation (United Nations, 2006) are key examples. Also, there is the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights where a section of Article 17 talks about the right of every individual to education, and Article 18 specifically advocates catering for the needs of people with disabilities. Another is the UN Standard Rules on the Equalisation of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities which also calls for the education of people with disabilities in an accommodating manner. These are testaments to the humanitarian dimension of educating people with disabilities globally. Mostly drawing on the humanitarian dimension, several countries have legislation to ensure the education of people with disabilities and their general wellbeing in society. In addition to the general legislation, such as the Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) in the USA; the Disability  Discrimination Act (1995) and Equality Act (2010) in the UK; the Disability Discrimination Act (1992) in Australia; Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act (2016) in India; the Law on the Protection of Persons with Disabilities (1990) in China; and the Persons with Disability Act (2006) in Ghana, there are specific legislation that border on the education of people with disabilities in higher education institutions. For instance, the South Africa Department of Education (1997) developed the White Paper 3 to transform South African higher education. The White Paper included in its requirements, the accommodation of large and diverse student groups such as people with disabilities who were historically discriminated against. Björnsdóttir (2017) adds that the US Higher Education Opportunity Act has been amended to grant higher education institutions a permit and funding for college programmes for students with intellectual disabilities.

52  Raphael P. K. Andoh and Rita K. Nketsiaba Díez et al. (2015) also report that efforts have been made concerning disability policy at Spanish universities to create more inclusive learning environments. This is contained in the Organic Law 4/2007 for universities, which establishes that the principles of equal opportunity and non-discrimination must be ensured and that university environments (buildings, grounds, and facilities) must be accessible. In Australia, there is the Australian Disability Standards for Education (2005) which according to Kilpatrick et al. (2017), requires higher education institutions to ensure that students with disabilities have the same educational experience as students without disabilities. According to Zhang et al. (2018), the outline of the national medium- and long-term educational planning and development (2010–2020) and promotion plan of special education 2014–2016 and 2017–2020 are very important when it comes to regulations on the education of people with disabilities in China. Palmer (2020) adds that the revised Higher Education Law in China abhors the rejection of qualified people into higher education on the basis of their disability. In 2016, The Act on the Elimination of Disability Discrimination took effect to ensure that higher education institutions in Japan provide accommodation for students with disabilities (Young & Schaefer, 2019). The Korea Individuals with Disabilities Act which started as the Korean Special Education Promotion Act was also promulgated to allow people with disabilities to be able to access higher education (Kim & Kim, 2015). Furthermore, the 2010 Law on Persons with Disabilities in Vietnam makes it unlawful for educational institutions to refuse admission to people with disabilities (Anh, 2018). According to Martins et al. (2021), Brazil has been developing legislation to respond to the needs of students with disabilities in higher education since 2003. Moreover, in countries where specific legislation on the education of people with disabilities is non-existent, international protocols are followed to ensure that the education of this group of people is catered for in higher education institutions. Martins et al. (2021) for instance mention that Portugal has no specific legislation on people with disabilities yet, and relies on the guidelines provided by the European Union to safeguard the rights of people with disabilities to education. According to them, Portuguese higher education institutions have developed specific regulations to protect and promote the rights of students with disabilities based on the guidelines of the European Union. In Iceland, even though students with intellectual disabilities have no legally enforceable right to higher education, they are afforded opportunities for postsecondary education by some universities (Björnsdóttir, 2017; Stefánsdóttir & Björnsdóttir, 2016). Policies also exist at the universities to eliminate the challenges students with disabilities come across. For example, Díez et al. (2015) affirm that to provide inclusive environments in Spanish universities, advances have been made in disability policies. According to Disability Management Services (2011), these

A review of students with disabilities’ experiences in higher education  53 legislation play crucial roles in enhancing people with disabilities’ access to higher educational institutions. The conventions, guidelines, and policies have also made colossal contributions to the awareness of the importance of disability education. These laws and provisions have implications for the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals. This is because as can be observed from the next section, the doors of higher education have been widely opened to the most disadvantaged minorities in the world and this is a major step towards eradicating poverty and hunger, and aiding good health and well-being.

Enrolment of students with disabilities in higher education There has been a focus on the mainstreaming and inclusion of students with disabilities in higher education institutions. This has seen an increase in the number of students with disabilities who have been enrolled in higher education Africa, Europe, Asia and the Americas despite the overall students with disabilities population being low (du Toit, 2018; Hu & Lin, 2017; Moswela & Mukhopadhyay, 2011; Mutanga, 2018). For instance, between 1978 and 2016, there was an increase in the number of public higher education institutions that reported enrolling students with disabilities from 3% to 98% in the USA (Erickson & Larwin, 2016). Also, Moisey (2004) reported that at Athabasca University in Canada, students with disabilities represented 1.5% of the student population between 1998 and 2001. By 2004, the number had increased to 3.4% of the overall student population. In the UK, Hubble and Bolton (2021) reported that 17.3% of higher education students in 2019/2020 were with disabilities. This represented an increase from 10.2% in 2013/2014 reported by Richardson (2015). Similarly, the number of students in higher education institutions in Ireland has consistently increased for some time now. There has been a 62% rise in the population of students with disabilities from 2012/2013 to 2017/2018. In 2017/2018 there was an increment of 36% in the international student with disabilities population from 2016/2017 (Association for Higher Education Access and Disability, 2019). Tan et al. (2019) also state that sources from the Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education reveal an annual increment in the population of students with disabilities in public higher education institutions from 0.24% in 2011 to 0.36% in 2015. In addition, Kim and Kim (2020), Young and Schaefer (2019), and Hu and Lin (2017) report that the number of students with disabilities enrolled in Korea, Japan, and China, respectively, is on the rise. The increases in the population of students with disabilities in higher education across the globe are a testament to the drive towards the inclusion of people with disabilities in higher education and the increased potential to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals.

54  Raphael P. K. Andoh and Rita K. Nketsiaba Experiences of students with disabilities in higher education According to Morrison et al. (2009), there are inherent challenges institutions encounter when dealing with the needs of students with disabilities. With the increasing number of students with disabilities in higher education institutions these challenges could be enormous. Several studies – empirical studies and doctoral dissertations – have, as a result, been conducted regarding the experiences of students with disabilities in higher education institutions. This section of the chapter highlights some of these experiences across geographic regions, namely, Africa, Europe, Asia, and the Americas. In exploring the university experiences of graduates with visual impairments in Ghana, Odame et al. (2021) came out with the following findings: students with visual impairments had restrictions in the programmes that could be pursued, insufficient financial support affecting academic success, insufficient teaching and learning aids such as resource persons for brailing, environmental inaccessibility affecting teaching and learning experiences, and negative attitudes of lecturers. In Botswana, Moswela and Mukhopadhyay (2011) in a paper that documented the experiences of higher education students with disabilities discovered that the students encountered challenges like negative attitudes from lecturers, students without disabilities, and the university as a whole. In addition, there were inaccessible buildings and toilet facilities as well as a lack of resources (including braille, magnifier, and furniture) to enable students with disabilities to navigate their academic journey successfully. Also, the available disability policy did not fully serve the interest of the students with disabilities. In studying the factors that enabled access and participation for the educational success of women with disabilities in higher education in Tanzania, Tuomi et al. (2015) brought to the fore that support came from family and teachers from previous levels of education and their resolve to fully participate in university life through participation in peer networks and study groups and the ability to navigate the university environment irrespective of the obstacles in the infrastructure as the university support was largely insufficient. Mutanga (2018) explored the challenges of students with disabilities in higher education in South Africa. The paper revealed that funding was available to support the students but it was not sufficient and did not allow for some programmes of study to be pursued. Supportive arrangements for students with disabilities were also found to hinder social inclusion. There was difficulty in accessing teaching and learning and its associated facilities as well as unfriendliness of assessment and examination procedures. Similarly, from the lecturers’ point of view in an open distance and e-learning university in South Africa by Zongozzi (2022), the quality of higher education for students with disabilities was hampered by a lack of awareness and clear procedures to identify students with disabilities, inaccessible learning materials for students with disabilities, and lack of capacity by lecturers to support students with disabilities. Andoh et al. (2022) investigated the experiences

A review of students with disabilities’ experiences in higher education  55 and expectations of students with physical disabilities regarding their accommodation in distance education in Ghana. The conclusion made in the study was that distance education in Ghana was not accommodating to students with physical disabilities as the students found it difficult to access facilities at the study centres; given little consideration in the lecture and examination halls; encountered distant programme and activity venues; and desired institutional support as it was not forthcoming. Lipka et al. (2020) conducted a study in a public university in Israel that examined the perceptions of faculty members towards students with learning disabilities. The authors found out that although most faculty members were willing to help students with learning disabilities and exhibited positive attitudes towards them, they had limited knowledge of disability-related legislation and disability accommodation practices. Also, the faculty members knew little about the support systems available to students with learning disabilities and had almost no contact with professionals who supported students with disabilities on campus. Lastly, the faculty members had not participated in any training programme for students with disabilities. In a study of the impact of attitudes of faculty in a Spanish university, Díez et al. (2015) revealed that lecturers often enacted barriers to students because of their disabilities through a host of behaviours including distancing themselves from students’ problems, not catering for their special needs, and putting up strange behaviours. Also, students with disabilities were often left out of teaching and learning in the classroom, e.g., through the poor use of teaching aids. In addition, while curriculum adaptations were largely done, there were reported cases of non-adaptation of the curriculum. More so, the adaptation of the curriculum was done out of goodwill and not because of the rights of the students. As a result, when a lecturer refused to adapt the curriculum, they became helpless and led to learning hurdles which could make the students drop the course. Additionally, there was a lack of training and awareness of faculty on disability inclusion. In Croatia, while students with disabilities were satisfied with the support they received from family and friends, they were dissatisfied with the formal support from their university and the government as there was a minimal adaptation of buildings, toilets, lifts, classrooms, and dormitories as well as inadequate transport and finance to attend university (Babic & Dowling, 2015). In Germany, Bartz (2020) investigated the situation of students with disabilities. It was reported that in German universities, students encountered problems in their studies as a result of having disabilities. They included spatial, considerable, and comprehensible barriers. Learning materials were also not wholly accessible and there was low awareness of disability on the part of the faculty leading to poor attitudes towards students with learning disabilities. However, students with disabilities had positive interactions with students without disabilities. In a study that examined the facilitators and barriers students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder encounter in higher education in Sweden, Taneja-Johansson (2021) indicated that

56  Raphael P. K. Andoh and Rita K. Nketsiaba facilitators existed although they did not emanate from their institution of study. The facilitators were individual and family factors such as economic security and belief in their capabilities. Concerning the barriers that these students had to overcome in studying at their institution of higher learning, there were transitioning barriers and inadequate support structures available to the students concerned. Vlachou and Papananou (2018) discovered that in Greek universities, students with disabilities struggled with physical access and mobility. Included in this were unsuitable elevators, stairs, and lighting, the absence of ramps and wheelchair-accessible toilets as well as classrooms with poor acoustics. In terms of access to academic knowledge, the attitudes and behaviour of tutors were of concern as they were indifferent and lacked the knowledge concerning appropriate support. However, there were differences across universities regarding services from support centres. Whereas the experiences of some of the students were positive, others were negative. In a study that focused on lecturers and their attitudes towards students with disabilities and their inclusion in higher education in China, Zhang et al. (2018) showed that lecturers had positive attitudes towards the inclusion of students in higher education. However, the lecturers lacked the relevant knowledge, motivation, skills, and strategies to cope with students with disabilities and this had negative consequences on the experiences of the students. Mustaffa et al. (2019) explored the quality of service experienced by students with disabilities in higher education institutions in Malaysia. The experiences of these students were not satisfactory as the physical facilities were not disability-friendly. Additionally, teaching and learning procedures and resources made it difficult for students to thrive in their education and the lecturers lacked empathy towards the students and did not communicate effectively with them. The findings of Yusof et al. (2019) in a similar study showed that in Malaysian higher education institutions, facilities and scheduling of academic studies were disability unfriendly. Also, disability awareness was not much and disability policy was almost non-existent in the universities. Lopez Arriaga (2020) reviewed the inclusion of students with disabilities in Mexican universities. The findings included a high commitment to serving students with disabilities but the efforts were insufficient to accomplish the inclusion goals and in providing the necessary disability accommodation. In addition, there was inadequate faculty and staff training, a lack of clear diagnostic criteria, limited financial resources, and a lack of information on disability-accommodation best practices. The university experiences of students with learning disabilities were explored in the USA by McGregor et al. (2016). In the study, the students with learning disabilities encountered difficulty with assignments and faced obstacles on campus. They also felt that bias existed towards them and that their overall experience on campus was less satisfactory despite accommodations being received by some of them. Again, Fox et al. (2022) discovered that undergraduates with disabilities

A review of students with disabilities’ experiences in higher education  57 at four-year institutions in the United States experienced higher financial, social, and emotional costs, due to the disparate experiences of belonging, engagement, and support. Hernández and Dengo (2017) considered the forms of educational support available to students with disabilities in the university environment drawing on the experiences of students in three campuses of Universidad Nacional in Costa Rica. They found that some students received assistance individually while others did not. A significant finding according to them was that the faculty did not take into consideration the opinions on the determination and implementation of course evaluation from most of the students in the regional sites. However, this was not the case at the central site. de Oliveira et al. (2022) conducted a study of the experiences of students with disabilities in a medical school in Brazil. The results of the research demonstrated that the students encountered barriers to inclusion. These barriers included a lack of knowledge about the needs of the students by their teachers and colleagues’ underestimation of the disability needs of the students; difficulty in accessing buildings and facilitators; difficulty in disability acceptance; and absence of proactivity in adapting practical learning scenarios. de Oliveira and colleagues concluded that students with disabilities identified teacher and colleague acceptance as being important in determining their inclusion. According to them, they also expressed doubts relative to their ability to practise medicine. The experiences of students with disabilities in institutions of higher learning as highlighted in the foregoing give an indication that generally, they do not fully get the necessary institutional accommodation required for their smooth academic journey. Broadly, it is observed that the challenges that they encounter stem from both the social and physical environment of the institutions. In situations where they receive some form of accommodation, it is largely through the benevolence of individuals and not because it is mandatory to do so. The students’ personal resources such as family and their own drive are also sources of their accommodation in the respective universities. More so, the benevolent accommodation is sometimes denied them because other stakeholders most of the time are ignorant of the appropriate accommodation to provide. Success and completion of students with disabilities in higher education More and more people with disabilities are pursuing higher education to help them land fulfilling employment and sustainable incomes. Regrettably, they have to overcome many obstacles which result in their completion rates being lower than those of their counterparts without disabilities (Fleming et al., 2017). Multiple indicators are used as measures of success in higher education. These measures include grades/grade point average (GPA), retention,

58  Raphael P. K. Andoh and Rita K. Nketsiaba completion of courses, and graduation (Deka & McMurry, 2006; Richardson, 2015). In the view of Erikson and Larwin (2016), success could be either short-term or ultimate. Completion of courses and GPA for instance are short-term measures of success, whereas graduation and class of graduation are ultimate measures of success in higher education. These measures of success are applied equally to both students with and without disabilities; there is no distinction in terms of their application. Concerning short-term measures of success, students with disabilities have been observed to be not as successful as their colleagues without disabilities. Richardson et al. (2004) for example, discovered that students with hearing loss had scores that were lower than students without disabilities. Similarly, Catalano (2014) indicated that students with learning disabilities often failed to complete their courses. Again, Richardson (2015) discovered that deaf or hard-of-hearing students with other disabilities were less likely to complete their courses, pass their completed courses, and obtain good grades. Getzel (2008) also reported that analysis made showed that the completion of some college coursework of students with disabilities dropped by 4% between 1986 and 2001. Also, Bellacicco and Parisi (2021) revealed that students with learning disabilities lagged behind their colleagues without disabilities concerning first-year grade point average. The situation is not different from the ultimate success of students with disabilities as the United Nations (2019) asserted that students with disabilities have a lesser chance of completing tertiary education. This situation has persisted over a long period. In 2001 for instance, Izzo et al. averred that a large number of students who dropped out from universities in the USA were those with disabilities. Moisey (2004) also added that in Canada, students with disabilities were not as successful as their colleagues without disabilities as their overall completion rate was lower than those without disabilities. Reed and Curtis (2012) discovered, however, that students with visual impairments in Canada had higher graduation rates but they took more than the minimum number of years required for the completion of their studies as a result of the barriers they encountered. Furthermore, Chimhenga and Ndudzo (2015) mentioned that in Zimbabwe, the degree programme completion of students with disabilities in online and distance learning was low. Also, the United Nations (2019) affirmed that the highest percentage of students with disabilities who completed university education was 29% and this was in Finland. A similar trend was observed among postgraduate students with disabilities as their graduation rate was lower (Verdinelli & Kutner, 2016). Additionally, Bartz (2020) concluded that in Germany, myriad factors affect the retention of students with disabilities in higher education. The foregoing could lead to the conclusion that few people with disabilities are able to acquire professional degrees (Ndlovu & Walton, 2016). Thus, people with disabilities are disadvantaged when it comes to educational attainment and labour market outcomes (World Health Organization, 2011).

A review of students with disabilities’ experiences in higher education  59 It is important to note that according to Tuomi et al. (2015), students with disabilities identify success as being fully integrated into the academic life of the university and having the fortitude and motivation to face challenges that come their way as students of higher education institutions to ultimately enable them to obtain a degree. This implies that for students with disabilities, both short-term and ultimate success have quite different measures from the ‘universally accepted’ measures of success. To them, short-term success is having the ability to face adversities that come their way and ultimate success is being able to complete and obtain a degree and not necessarily a ‘good class.’ Ubuntu philosophy and disability The Ubuntu philosophy originates from Sub-Saharan Africa and emphasises relational values such as interdependence, communalism, sharing, compassion, and humanness in how people should treat each other (Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2018). According to this philosophy, people only become humans when they are part of and concerned about the well-being of everybody in society (Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2018; Twinomurinzi et al., 2010). Due to its principle of caring for each other’s well-being and fostering mutual support (Mugumbate & Chereni, 2019; Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2018), the Ubuntu philosophy abhors discrimination and exclusion. Instead, it advocates love, solidarity, compassion, and inclusion (Chisale, 2020; Shanyanana & Waghid, 2016). Within the Ubuntu philosophy, disability is found to be part of humanity because it is treated as a form of diversity that has the possibility of a multitude of shared meanings to society (Berghs, 2017). Thus, when it comes to the Ubuntu philosophy, people with disabilities are not identified by their different abilities but are seen as equals (Chisale, 2020). Implications of Ubuntu for higher education and human resource development The fact that higher education institutions fail to recognise the difficulties students with disabilities go through most of the time amidst the legislation, conventions, and frameworks makes it imperative to use new strategies in ensuring the full inclusiveness of these students (Mutanga, 2017). Unlike the ones before, these strategies must necessarily be a way of life. This is because a way of life expressed in attitudes and philosophy is an intangible factor that has a strong influence on inclusive education (Zhang et al., 2018). The adoption of the Ubuntu philosophy which opposes exclusion, adores relational values and upholds the well-being of everyone in the society (Chisale, 2020; Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2018; Shanyanana & Waghid, 2016) becomes apparent due to its propensity to transform the entire higher education system. With the adoption of this philosophy, the culture of seeing students with disabilities as ‘outsiders’ in higher education institutions resulting in the creation of barriers could be reversed. Instead, the students would be seen as ‘insiders’

60  Raphael P. K. Andoh and Rita K. Nketsiaba and ‘bridges’ built for them to succeed because of its tenets as subsequently emphasised. Thus, with such a transformation in the higher education system, students with disabilities could see a turning point in their experiences (Andoh et al., 2022; Shanyanana & Waghid, 2016). Adopting the Ubuntu philosophy is critical to the development of the capabilities of students with disabilities because it emphasises relational values (interdependence, communalism, sharing, compassion, and humanness) in how people should treat each other (Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2018). According to this indigenous philosophy which originates from Sub-Saharan Africa, people only become humans when they are part of, and are concerned about the well-being of everybody in society (Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2018; Twinomurinzi et al., 2010). The Ubuntu philosophy abhors discrimination and exclusion and instead advocates love, solidarity, compassion, and inclusion (Chisale, 2020; Shanyanana & Waghid, 2016) due to its principle of caring for each other’s well-being and fostering mutual support (Mugumbate & Chereni, 2019; Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2018). According to Berghs (2017), the Ubuntu philosophy recognises disability as a natural aspect of human diversity, providing a wealth of shared meanings within society. Chisale (2020) states that under Ubuntu, individuals with disabilities are treated as equals and are not defined by their differences. Ngubane-Mokiwa (2018) suggests that incorporating Ubuntu into programme design ensures equal care and dignity for people with disabilities, as the philosophy embraces human heterogeneity. Chisale (2020) further explains that through collaborative efforts, society can ensure the inclusion of people with disabilities as full members, allowing their complete participation in all activities. By adopting Ubuntu in higher education, stakeholders can transform their mindset and value system towards students with disabilities, potentially reversing the unfavourable actions against them. This change would address the unfair treatment these students experience in various educational aspects (Shanyanana & Waghid, 2016). Embracing the Ubuntu philosophy in higher education can eliminate challenges, unfairness, and injustices that exclude students with disabilities. This fosters the development of their inherent expertise and capabilities, demonstrating the benefits that the Ubuntu philosophy brings to their education. The advantages of adopting the Ubuntu philosophy in higher education extend beyond the educational system, impacting life in the broader world, which is the goal of higher education. This approach would enhance both the market and non-market benefits of higher education for individuals and society, by realising the full potential of people with disabilities (Department for Business Innovation and Skills, 2013; Salmi & D’Addio, 2021). Ultimately, the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals, such as eradicating poverty and hunger, promoting good health and well-being, and ensuring quality education, would be significantly facilitated.

A review of students with disabilities’ experiences in higher education  61 Conclusion People with disabilities being the most disadvantaged minority in the world has necessitated global organisations and national governments to come up with conventions, frameworks, and legislation particularly regarding higher education so that they become ‘valuable’ members of society. While the importance of access, success, and completion of higher education for people with disabilities is undoubted, the evidence suggests that a lot more needs to be done if the quality of life of people with disabilities is to be made high. Indeed, the efforts by global organisations and national governments have yielded some results. The number of people with disabilities who have been enrolled in higher education institutions has been on the rise and is not likely to slow down anytime soon. However, from the experiences of students with disabilities in higher education coupled with their success and completion, the intended results of good quality and independent life for people with disabilities may not be realised if things stay the same. The legislation and conventions have only succeeded in increasing the enrolment rates of students with disabilities. It has not been enough in giving the students the needed accommodations. Limited attention has been on addressing environmental accessibility, participation, and retention of students with disabilities. What this portends is the inability of higher education institutions to develop and unleash the expertise embedded in students with disabilities. Firm steps are needed in designing, building, and guaranteeing higher education environments that are more inclusive to students with disabilities as the physical presence of students with disabilities in higher education does not equate to their inclusion in teaching and learning. Importantly, how students with disabilities are perceived, their encounters with positive attitudes, and adequate support are critical to positive outcomes for them. The continued exclusion of students with disabilities in higher education institutions, despite existing disability laws and their growing population, highlights the inadequacy of current disability models in addressing their needs and promoting their full inclusion. This has significant implications for their overall development as human resources. To change the narratives for students with disabilities, adopting the Ubuntu philosophy as a guiding educational framework is essential. Integrating Ubuntu into the higher education system ensures that individuals with disabilities can compete effectively in the labour market, as it fosters both short- and long-term success while developing and unleashing their unique expertise. This is due to Ubuntu’s core principles of caring for each other’s well-being, promoting mutual support, love, solidarity, compassion, and inclusion. Furthermore, the Ubuntu philosophy actively opposes discrimination and exclusion, recognising people with disabilities as equals, rather than defining them by their differences. The Ubuntu philosophy, intangible yet transformative, holds the potential to enhance inclusivity for students with disabilities in higher education which is a means to human resource development. However, embracing Ubuntu

62  Raphael P. K. Andoh and Rita K. Nketsiaba necessitates challenging and replacing deeply rooted value systems, which may result in resistance or slow adoption, as it becomes ingrained in institutional culture. To effectively incorporate Ubuntu into higher education, a multifaceted strategy is essential. This should encompass top-down, bottom-up, cross-functional, and centre-out approaches, ensuring comprehensive integration across all levels of higher education institutions. Ultimately, adopting the Ubuntu philosophy can significantly improve inclusivity for students with disabilities. As inclusive education is strongly influenced by attitudes and philosophies, fostering a more supportive and embracing environment through Ubuntu can greatly benefit all students.

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5

Botho attitude towards people with disabilities Inclusion in Lesotho Higher Education Malephoto Niko Ruth Lephoto and Olufemi Timothy Adigun

Introduction This chapter presents the African Botho philosophy as an essential resource for cultivating positive attitudes towards students with disabilities to facilitate their full inclusion in society and for the advancement of inclusive education. We consider the Ubuntu philosophy (referred to as Botho among Sotho-speaking people) as a cultural resource for developing ethical thought towards people with disabilities. While the term Botho will be used in this chapter henceforth, we further conceptualised culture as the way of life as well as the cumulative process of behaviours and belief systems, perceptions, and attitude of Sotho-speaking people which directly impact the expected social inclusion of persons living with disability. We acknowledge the importance of attitudes in determining the extent to which students with disabilities can be included or excluded in educational systems. Therefore, informed by the Botho philosophy, we explore the problem of attitudinal barriers to inclusion of students with disabilities. Our key argument is that attitudinal barriers are socially and culturally rooted, and thus require to be addressed through culturally oriented philosophies and methods. In our attempt to address the problem of attitudinal barriers through Botho, this conceptual chapter focus on negative attitudes towards students with disabilities in Lesotho and theorised Botho as positive attitudes that should be emulated by all members of the society. We reviewed the literature to establish the implication of negative attitudes and how Botho as an Afrocentric philosophy can be used to address the challenges faced by students with disabilities in Lesotho. We approach this chapter by examining the construct of disability as well as the implication of disability in education. Further, this chapter through analysis of existing literature, espouse issues of exclusion and inclusion in Lesotho. The chapter also examines the Botho philosophy vis-à-vis attitudes towards disability. Finally, we advance the place of the Botho attitudes as a resource for cultivating positive attitudes towards students with disabilities in Lesotho and beyond.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003343684-5

Botho attitude towards people with disabilities  69 The construct of disability

Disability scholars agree that there is no one definition for the concept of disability, because disability has been examined from various cultural perspectives across the world (Eskay et al., 2012). Leshota and Sefotho (2018) affirm that disability is a multifarious concept, thus requiring the distinctiveness of each of the disciplines to robustly engage its complexities, if any meaningful outcome is to be expected. Further, Murphy (1990) indicates that disability has been defined by society and was given meaning by culture, which denotes an identifiable pattern of behaviour exhibited in response to a phenomenon which in this case is inclusion of people with disabilities. Various perceptions have shaped the kind of treatment and service provided to people with disabilities. Eskay et al. (2012) claim that one’s disability and culture are central in determining the position or the status that people with disabilities are given in a society. Thus, culture determines who is likely to be accepted depending on the level of conformity to societal expectations. Despite the multifarious nature of the concept of disability, the World Health Organisation (WHO, 1990: 213) define disability as: an impairment or abnormality of psychological, physiological or anatomical structure or function; a disability is any restriction or lack (resulting from an impairment) of ability to perform an activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for a human being: a handicap is disadvantage for a given individual, resulting from an impairment or a disability, that prevents the fulfillment of a role that is considered normal (depending on age, sex, and social and cultural factors) for that individual. While impairment of bodily organ may lead to causing significant hindrance to using the part of the body for active engagements, the definition of WHO (1990) fails to acknowledge the implication of negative societal attitude as a factor that may further cause or elevate emotional and psychological trauma to those already endangered by impairment. In other words, an unwholesome attitude towards those within the categories described by WHO (1990) may further lead to an elevated traumatic experience when their academic, social, and emotional state and daily living are threatened. Thus, we adopt the description of disability as stated in the Lesotho Inclusive Education Policy which describes disability as a condition that results from an ‘interaction between persons with impairments and attitudinal and environmental barriers that hinders their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others’ (Ministry of Education and Training (MoET, 2019: 1).

70  Malephoto Niko Ruth Lephoto and Olufemi Timothy Adigun The Botho philosophy

As a philosophy, Botho is found in most African cultures to denote a form of human engagement that promotes and strives for optimal advancement of empowering human relationships. The Botho philosophy is generally considered as an African worldview and way of life that flows from African epistemology and ontology of well-being (Mahlatsi (2017). According to Sodi et al. (2021) the Botho philosophy is essentially a valid human experience that forms the bedrock of African psychology. Several other scholars show that the concept of the Botho philosophy is mostly used in the Southern region of Africa and in many other African countries though with different terminologies. For instance, in South Africa, it is known as Ubuntu/Botho, in Zimbabwe as Hunhu/Unhu, in Namibia as Umundu, in Cameroon as Bato, and among the Yoruba-speaking Nigerians, it is referred to as Iwa omoluabi. Among Sotho/Tswana-speaking countries such as Lesotho and Botswana the Botho concept is used. However, in Lesotho the Botho philosophy is used interchangeably with Ubuntu, particularly in academic writing (Mahlatsi, 2017). Rankopo and Diraditsile (2020) assert that the Botho philosophy is a key tenet of African culture, which served as a social convention of reciprocal responsibility, respect, and accountability by the members of society towards each other. The Botho philosophy espouses that a person’s identity can only find meaning within the socio-cultural context within which he/she is raised. Related to disability and positive attitudes, Mahlatsi (2017) concurs that the of the philosophy of Botho defines cultural values such as humanity, compassion, harmony, and dignity of community for the purpose of building and maintaining the well-being of both individuals and the community, including those with disabilities. As such, we consider the Botho philosophy to be the most appropriate worldview for addressing the issue of negative attitudes towards people with disabilities. Moreover, the Botho philosophy in this chapter denotes thoughts, feelings, and behaviours oriented in values of interdependence, respect, empathy, altruism, and connectedness for the sake of building communities and learning ecologies that continuously work towards inclusivity and equity for all. We argue that attainment of Botho attitudes signifies accumulated knowledge, behaviours, and skills that a person can tap into to demonstrate one’s cultural way of living with other people whom they share learning and working space with. In addition, the intention behind the revival of Botho attitudes in this work is informed by literature which shows that, ‘In African communities … the limitations and/or lack that individuals living with disabilities were always taken care of by the community through the ideas of supporting and being generous’ (Mahlatsi, 2017). Mahlatsi (2017) further points out that people’s limitations and disabilities were covered by the whole generality of the community through various forms of benevolence, which was and still is integral in African social thinking. Hence, Metz (2007: 340) contends that Botho is ‘a theory of right action.’ We argue from a point of view that

Botho attitude towards people with disabilities  71 although the agenda for inclusion of people with disabilities in society, and in particular in education originate from the Western world, it is driven by Western ontologies and epistemologies. African societies should ensure that the implementation of externally initiated agendas is guided by the theory of right action which is culturally fair and resonate with our African philosophy of Botho. The context of disability and inclusion in education The UN (1948) declaration of human rights and the proclamation that everyone has the right to education have contributed to much interest and attention paid to disability issues by policymakers, scholars, international organisations, various sectors within nations, and the public. The society is more conscious and determined than before to search for ways in which inclusion of people with disabilities in society can become a reality. In particular, education systems across the globe have made remarkable strides to respond to the agenda for inclusion of people with disabilities in education. Similar to other UN member states, Lesotho has signed and ratified the 2008 UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disability (CRPD) and 2030 agenda for ensuring equality and equity in education, observing the principle of leaving no one behind irrespective of their gender, disabilities, social, and economic background. Hence, the government of Lesotho through MoET has committed to the UN Education for All (EFA) initiative. Inclusion for all in education is also driven by Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4) where UN member states have committed to ‘ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.’ Inclusion in education denotes respecting the values of presence, participation, acceptance, and achievement. To demonstrate its commitment to this agenda, since 1987, the government of Lesotho has taken strides to improve the quality and access to its educational system (Johnstone & Khothule, 2018). Johnstone and Khothule (2018) state that the government of Lesotho has shown this commitment by enacting a number of laws pertaining to this cause.

• The Constitution of Lesotho 18(4) advocates for a society based on equality and justice for all citizens by removing any discriminatory practices;

• Building Control Act specifies that the designs of new buildings should be suitable and accessible to people and learners who experience barriers due to any disability; • The Children’s Protection and Welfare Act 7 – states that no person should treat a child with a disability in an undignified or discriminatory manner; and • Education Act 10 of 1995 – stipulates that a child who is physically and/ or mentally disabled should receive the appropriate treatment, education, and care required by this condition.

72  Malephoto Niko Ruth Lephoto and Olufemi Timothy Adigun To a certain extent, government and non-governmental initiatives have somewhat improved access to education and inclusion of students with disabilities progressively from primary, secondary, and tertiary education (Mosia, 2017). However, research evidence (Johnstone & Khothule, 2018; Matlosa & Matobo, 2007; Mosia, 2017, 2020; Sefotho, 2019) show that while there is currently an increase of students with disabilities in schools and highereducation institutions in Lesotho, students with disabilities still experience various forms of barriers that hamper their full inclusion and participation. These scholars concur that students with disabilities experience exclusion resulting from societal instituted barriers, including attitudinal and physical barriers, neglect, lack of readiness to adapt programmes (as considered to be lowering standards), restrictive learning environment, and assessment mechanisms that are not responsive to the needs of students with disabilities and poor resource allocation for the needs of students’ disabilities among others. Exclusion of students with disabilities might originate from negative attitudes which are either acted on consciously or subconsciously. Barr and Bracchitta (2015) attest that individuals with disabilities are often devalued and discredited by non-disabled people because they fail to fit the description of ‘normalcy’ construed by beauty, attractiveness, and able-bodiedness. Hunt and Hunt (2004) further claim that attitudes often go beyond the disabilities to include views of inadequate social skills and intellect even though such insufficiencies might not exist. Understandably, this may result in individuals with disabilities experiencing negative self-evaluations, feelings of feebleness, and frustration. While it is understandable that no government can realistically achieve full inclusion of people with disabilities overnight, our argument is that negative attitudes are the main barriers to the achievement of fully inclusive education. That is, if negative attitudes can be transformed many other barriers such as physical, curriculum, and pedagogical can be easily addressed. In this chapter, we have considered the Botho philosophy as a cultural resource from which we can draw in addressing the problem of negative attitudes towards people with disabilities. We also consider it to be a resource with building blocks for knowledge production essential for cultivating positive attitudes towards people with disabilities. Further, we construct the adoption of the concept of Botho attitudes as an operational concept for interrogating the issue of negative attitudes as well as suggesting the cultivation of positive attitudes as pillars for inclusive educational practices. Botho attitudes in this chapter symbolise the values of respect, compassion, kindness, selflessness, justice, and empowerment which we consider to be the cornerstones for building inclusive learning ecologies. Disability exclusion and inclusion in Lesotho Despite the development of various policies and initiatives to facilitate inclusion of students with disabilities in Lesotho educational system, it appears that

Botho attitude towards people with disabilities  73 full inclusion for these learners is still far from reach. Many barriers have been identified by research done in the country. Johnstone and Kgothule (2018) indicate that like all countries in southern Africa, Lesotho has a long history of facing and overcoming challenges of inclusion in education on both the national and local levels and the country’s modern school system faces tremendous challenges regarding learners who experience barriers to learning owing to their disabilities. Studies (Leshota & Sefotho, 2018; Mosia, 2017, 2020; Morena & Nkoane, 2021; Sefotho, 2019) concur that full inclusion of students with disabilities in Lesotho learning ecologies is still faced with challenges, including curriculum that is not accessible, pedagogical praxis that do not meet the needs and interests of learners, assessment methods that do not cater for learners with special education needs, inaccessible learning environment (Morena & Nkoane, 2021), attitudinal barriers, discriminatory attitude, bullying, and lack of support for students with disabilities (Mosia, 2017, 2020). Mosia (2017, 2020) points to access to tertiary education in Lesotho as a rare experience for persons with disabilities, arguing that despite being admitted to studies, students with disabilities struggle with meaningful participation. According to Mosia (2020), the aforementioned challenges affect students’ welfare and impact negatively on their academic participation and well-being. The Australian Volunteers International (AVI) (2015) affirms that people with disabilities in Lesotho are among the most marginalised and disadvantaged groups. They face isolation and exclusion from society and are often forced to be highly dependent on relatives or other caretakers. Furthermore, the report shows that people with disabilities in the country face various barriers, including attitudinal, organisational or systemic, architectural, communications, and technology consequently leading to poverty and isolation. The report reveals that discriminatory attitudes towards disability and a lack of national legislation to protect their human rights are contributing factors to exclusion of people with disabilities. It is also important to note that while there are many challenges there is progress in facilitating inclusion of disability in Lesotho. The AVI (2015) report shows that in 2013, for the first time, the national budget allocated funds towards the development of the Disability Equity Act. Moreover, the Disabled People’s Organisations (DPOs) have played a crucial role in advancing the rights of people with Disability in Lesotho. Their coordinated advocacy efforts, and those of other civil society actors have succeeded in bringing disability rights into the national consciousness (Mosia, 2014). Disability, Lesotho (2016) adds that in 1989 the government of Lesotho established the special Education Unit within the MoET, and since then positive steps have been taken towards the inclusion of learners with disabilities. These included the operational plan for special education in 1989, the Education Act of 2010, and the education sector’s strategic plan adopted in 2006 with specific reference to improving the education for learners with disabilities. What we have discussed above regarding Lesotho is more or less similar to what pertains to several other African countries. For example, Mutanga’s

74  Malephoto Niko Ruth Lephoto and Olufemi Timothy Adigun (2019) study on the experiences of students with disabilities in South African universities found that some practices in higher education perpetuated injustices towards students with disabilities although their intended goals are to create opportunities for all students. The study also found that regardless of these challenges students with disabilities have the capacity to aspire and they showed educational resilience. In a more or less similar study, Letseka and Matlabe (2018) address the issue of exclusion of students with disabilities in Open Distance Learning (ODL) in higher education. They found that students with disabilities in South Africa, mainly black students with disabilities, have been excluded from education, including higher learning. From the above discussion, it is clear that attitudinal barriers form part of impediments contributing to exclusion of students with disabilities. Frankie (2016) argues that negative attitudes and perceptions of individuals with disabilities are an area that needs great attention since these attitudes hamper progress in global equality. Tugli et al. (2013: 82) say that, ‘students with disabilities face formidable challenges to higher education not only in terms of gaining physical access to buildings, but also in relation to much wider issues within the institutions which include negative attitudes, lack of appropriate services, social integration, curricular barriers and progression.’ Furthermore, Mosia and Phasha (2020) state there is a clear trend that shows that students from minority groups, disadvantaged backgrounds, and the disabled are under-represented. Mosia and Phasha (2020) emphasise that as a result of inequality in society, students from non-traditional backgrounds are also disadvantaged by an institutional culture that places them as ‘other.’ A study by the Special Olympics of 4,000 middle school students from across Japan examined their beliefs and attitudes towards student peers with intellectual disabilities (Special Olympics, 2005). The study shows that overall, although regular schools were willing to include students with intellectual disabilities in their schools and classrooms but abilities of students with intellectual disabilities were underestimated. Hence the reluctance to observe admission of students with intellectual disabilities in those schools. Another complementary study of 6,000 US students was undertaken by Norins-Bardon et al. (2005) to assess variances in youth attitudes between North America and Japan, North American students were more willing to interact with peers with disabilities than their Japanese counterparts and they had better perceptions of the competencies of students with intellectual disabilities reflecting their higher exposure to students with intellectual disabilities. Transforming negative attitudes towards people with disabilities requires the understanding of disabilities as viewed and approached in society. Leshota and Sefotho (2018) argue that as much as disability is an African issue, it is also relevant to other continents. The authors emphasise that in African societies, culture offers the lenses through which disabilities are looked at, and defines the position and status that one is given within a particular society. Likewise, Eskay et al. (2012) note that the notion of disabilities has been studied from various cultural perspectives across the continent

Botho attitude towards people with disabilities  75 of Africa, and it was found that disability was perceived differently in each of the cultures. Therefore, understanding and interpretation of disability is expressed through concepts and language that are given meaning by the culture in which they are found. In addition, Leshota and Sefotho (2018: 96) argue that, regardless of ethnicity, race, gender, or religion, the impact of disability on an individual and his social environment is influenced by culture and belief systems. That is why disability as a grouping cannot be removed from the cultural variable that constitutes its normal habitus. Further, Leshota and Sefotho (2018) point out that disability as an ontological category is immersed in a cultural worldview which serves as its existential base. Thus, disability can only be properly understood within that frame of reference. Concerning the issue of language, it was also found that the way it is used can negatively or positively influence the inclusion of people with disabilities in the society (Eskay et al., 2012; Leshota & Sefotho, 2018). That is, when positive language is used to describe individuals with disabilities, these individuals end up integrating well into the society (Eskay et al. (2012). For instance, we believe that some Sesotho proverbs and idiomatic expressions such as Mo-ts’eha lefuma oa ipiletsa (if one laughs at the misfortune of others, one is calling bad luck onto oneself) and se nna o re ho moroa, moroa tooe (Never say to a bushman, you bushman) were intended to regulate the level of negativity that might be directed to people from a minority group such as people with disability who would otherwise be regarded as different from the rest of the members of the society. While these expressions do not certainly emphasise inclusion, they discourage open disregard for people from a different group, especially the one whose members do not conform to the expectations of the society. However, while the former expression is intended to serve a good purpose of protecting people with disability from being devalued, it has the connotation of disability being a misfortune and bad luck that no one would want to have, and therefore people must avoid attitudes and behaviours that would attract the same misfortune in their lives. Consequently, this can trigger subconscious fear towards disability resulting in social distancing from people with disability. Eskay et al. (2012) proclaim that there are difficulties in determining a disability definition applicable to all cultures, since culture varies over time. Thus, one’s disability and culture are central to determining the position or the status that the individual is given in a specific society (Leshota & Sefotho, 2018). Usually, social values are attached to the determined position and the social status, as well as concomitant behaviour and treatment that conform to such a socially determined status (Leshota & Sefotho, 2018). That is, culture tends to accept those who are willing to conform to given values, standards of behaviour and ethical concerns. This implies that culture imposes standards for acceptance and worthiness upon all citizens. These standards determine the level of inclusion one experiences in a society. Traditionally, people with disabilities have been wrongly understood in African societies, including Lesotho. These misunderstandings have led to

76  Malephoto Niko Ruth Lephoto and Olufemi Timothy Adigun them receiving negative perceptions and treatment. Leshota and Sefotho (2018) concur with Ekay et al. (2012) that from an African perspective, disability is generally undesirable and smacks misfortune and a bad omen. Sometimes, names used to refer to people with certain disabilities influence people negatively and detach them from the rest of the society. Sefotho (2019) states that disability in Lesotho is an oxymoron and is regarded negatively and positively from the Basotho ontology of disability. Moreover, Sefotho (2019) indicates that the negative side of disability in Lesotho leads to parents hiding their children with disabilities, denying them opportunities to go to school or even work. From the negative perspective, disability is regarded as a bad omen or a curse by the gods and ancestors. In some communities, people believe that either the parents or the person with a disability are bewitched. Sefotho (2019) traces this attitude to deep cultural roots, and verifies that in some cultures such as Sesotho culture, disability is also positively anchored on proverbs such as Sehole ho Ma-sona ha se lahloe (any child regardless of their disability is loveable and acceptable to their mothers/ parents) which depicts that disability is acceptable. The above proverb signifies Basotho ontology of disability which to a certain extent is contrary to the norms in many cultures that are negative towards disability. From his point of view, this proverb contradicts the usual heavy skew towards negativity ascribed to disability. In addition, this proverb is the positive affirmation of people with disabilities, particularly describing Basotho parents of children with disabilities as having great love for them (Sefotho, 2021). Additionally, Sefotho (2021) points out that the Basotho are known for being caring people renowned for espousing peace and love for fellow human beings. Further, the Basotho words such as ‘bo-bopuoa’ means God’s creation, which means everyone is created equally by the creator and deserves to be treated as equally human (Sefotho, 2021). In Nigerian society, for example, Eskay et al. (2012) show that people with disabilities have been incorrectly understood and this misunderstanding has led to their negative perception and treatment. The authors add that negative outlooks of children with disabilities were attributed to factors such as a curse from God for disobedience to his commandments, ancestral violation of societal norms, breaking laws and family sins, misfortune, witches and wizards, adultery, a warning from gods of the land, arguing and fighting with the elders, and many others. Attitude

Because of the complexity of the concept of attitude there is no one universally accepted definition of the term. Attitude is usually referred to as a psychological propensity to evaluate a particular object, thing, and event with some level of favour or disfavour, like or dislike (Adigun & Nzima, 2021). Attitudes are learned dispositions directing thoughts, feelings, and actions (Longoria & Marini, 2006). Longoria and Marini (2006: 540) define

Botho attitude towards people with disabilities  77 attitude as ‘any belief or opinion that includes a positive or negative evaluation of some target (an object, person, and event) and that predisposes us to act in a certain way toward the target.’ Understandably, an attitude naturally incites behaviour that is favourable or unfavourable, benevolent or malevolent, affirmative or negative towards the object or people (Allport, 2008). A consolidation of the above definitions gives out that attitude is:

• A relatively stable mental positions held toward ideas, objects, or people; • A combination of beliefs and feelings that prompt a person to behave in a particular way; and

• An impression charged with emotion which influences a person to behave in a particular way towards a particular object or class of social situations. In relation to disabilities, attitudes would refer to thoughts people have about disabilities, beliefs, and feelings towards people with disability and people’s actions towards people with disabilities. Thus attitudes are part of the framework by which people interpret disabilities. The Botho philosophy and attitudes towards disability

The Botho philosophy is ‘an old philosophy and way of life that has for many centuries sustained the African communities in Sub-Saharan Africa, in particular, and in Africa as a whole’ (Nzimakwe, 2014: 2), and it has continually been recognised as a positive driving force towards human advancement even in contemporary African society (van Breda, 2019; Theron & Phasha 2015). It is a key traditional strength of families, schools, and communities, and an important base for building resilience among the children and adults (Theron & Phasha, 2015). We accept the notion of the Botho philosophy as representing positive attitudes that are associated with the virtuous side of human beings. Our adoption of the Botho philosophy in addressing the problem of negative attitudes as barriers to inclusion of people with disabilities is premised on the assumption that attitudes are socially and culturally developed (Leshota & Sefotho, 2018, Eskay, 2012), thus requiring culture-oriented philosophies to question it and suggest ways of transforming it. As described by Sodi et al. (2021: 12), the Botho philosophy is ‘deeply rooted within a culture where a community and its interests are put ahead of those of individual members, and where members feel connected to others and see themselves in others.’ From our point of view, negative attitudes are an indication of deviation from Botho since in extreme cases it detaches one from the rest of the members of the society. We understand negative attitudes as originating from negative evaluations of people with disabilities as incapable and deficient. Hence, we consider Botho as an essential attitude for transforming prejudices and discriminatory tendencies often experienced by people with disabilities. In this study, we came up with the concept of Botho attitudes to denote an ethical thought and positive view towards disabilities based on the Botho

78  Malephoto Niko Ruth Lephoto and Olufemi Timothy Adigun philosophy, which we regard as preconditions for acceptance, participation, fair treatment, and support provision for students with disabilities. In our view, othering is a manifestation of negative attitude towards people since it negates another person’s individual humanity, and those who are ‘othered’ are usually perceived as less worthy of dignity and respect. Therefore, Botho attitudes capture the essence of ethical thinking, positive evaluations, moral conduct, and willingness to provide necessary support where required. With all these in place, learning environments are said to be supportive. The envisioned supportive learning environments resonate Mokuku’s (2017: 17) description of Botho as ‘a holistic spiritualised worldview that is concerned with a harmonious co-existence with others, nature … in terms of moral attributes that foster co-existence,’ shifting from tendencies of ignoring, rejecting, and sidelining students with disabilities. Lefa (2015) claims that the Botho philosophy lies at the heart of the African way of life and impacts on every aspect of people’s existence and well-being. Essentially, the Botho philosophy strives for cheerfulness and the pursuit of happiness and meaning in life (Kim et al., 2012). That is, it focuses on building positive attitudes and social networks for inclusion of everybody in the society. Moreover, Botho views every community as having social capital for cultivating desired survival means, thus encouraging members of any community including learning ecologies to focus on human capacity. It teaches individuals that they should embrace their assets and resources as strengths they can always depend on to build support structures for empowerment of less-empowered people. The Botho philosophy aphorism motho ke motho ka batho (I am because we are, and I am human because I belong) reflects African ontology that a person is a person through other persons which Letseka and Matlabe (2018) explain that the individual cannot exist alone, but owes her existence to other people regardless of their abilities or disabilities and/or status in the community. Hence, Botho views inclusion and empowerment of people with disabilities as largely dependent on positive relationships and interactions with other people whom they share with living, learning, and working space. Botho espouses that every person grows through the efforts of others (Mugumbate & Nyanguru, 2013), thus empowering all to reach their full potential in accord with all around them. Its application aims at creating conditions where everybody develops a sense of moral obligation to be concerned for the good of others, consequently exhibiting helpful behaviours that are in solidarity with others (Nzimakwe, 2014). Grames and Leverentz (2010) note that societal attitudes towards persons with disabilities are largely negative, thus contributing to unkind treatment and poor service. Concurring, Barr and Bracchitta (2015) state that individuals with disabilities are often devalued and discredited by typically developing people because they fail to fit the description of normalcy construed by beauty, attractiveness, and able-bodiedness. Also, Sefotho (2021) posits that socialisation can either have a positive or negative impact depending on

Botho attitude towards people with disabilities  79 how a society perceives and ascribes meaning to disabilities. Research shows that culture plays a significant role in the type of attitude developed towards people with disabilities (Leshota & Sefotho, 2018). Although it may not be easy to quickly notice the kind of attitudes that people hold until it manifests through their talk, actions, and non-actions, it is important to find ways of cultivating the positive attitude while also transforming the already existing negative one. Therefore, it is important to understand the origins of negative attitudes towards people with disabilities so the understanding serves as the basis for knowledge production for transforming it. In line with this, Livneh (2012) suggests that the understanding of the factors contributing to negative attitudes can help professionals deal more effectively with the feelings of disabled clients as well changing such attitudes of people without disability. Livneh (2012) noted that it is common for people without a disability to be cautious to form friendships and express sadness or pity towards an individual with a disability. He further argues that since most people are unfamiliar with the problems of the disabled, contact with a handicapped person may provoke anxiety, be the result of an aesthetic aversion, or pose a threat to the non-disabled person’s perceived body-image integrity (Livneh, 2012). Barr and Bracchitta (2015) argue that generally, attitude whether negative or positive is a result of thoughts and feelings usually correlated with behaviour, and the strength with which attitudes are held can be affected by many factors such as direct experience and modelling (Badura, 1977), values, situational context (Alorani & Al-labadi, 2020), and even just exposure to other people. In fact, Barr and Bracchitta (2015) posit that many of the impediments encountered by people with disabilities are generated by societal attitudes. Livneh (2012) and Alorani et al. (2020) support that sources of negative attitudes towards the handicapped include culture, values, lifestyles, religious influences, political environment, age, lack of experimental contact with people with disabilities, and lack of knowledge and information about disability. In another study, Livneh (1982) indicates that negative attitudes towards people with disability originate from socio-cultural conditioning from an early age where children are taught into thinking about normal and not groups of people and they consider those groupings as correct and accepted. Hence, Frankie (2016) states that being a member of a minority group on its own carries with it the stereotypical reactions of occupying a devalued and inferior status in the community one belongs. Moreover, Frankie (2016) found that another source of negative attitude towards people with disabilities is the consciousness of defenselessness to illness where disabilities are seen as a reminder of death. These perceptions about people with disabilities contribute to social stigmatisation, prejudice, discrimination, rejection, and exclusion in society as a whole and in teaching and learning spaces (Alorani et al., 2020; Frankie, 2016; Barr & Bracchitta, 2015). Historically, in many societies, people treated individuals with disabilities with fear and other negative emotions, under the belief that evil spirits dominated them (Alorani et al., 2020; Frankie, 2016).

80  Malephoto Niko Ruth Lephoto and Olufemi Timothy Adigun According to Alorani et al. (2020) stigma encompasses stereotypes about people with disabilities, as if they have deviated, are troublesome, emotionally inept, and powerless. Contrary to negative attitudes, positive attitudes towards people with disabilities are crucial. Positive attitudes imply a more accepting outlook towards one another, regardless of their impairment. In addition, positive attitudes are about being as considerate as possible to everyone around us, showing empathy, serenity, and positivity towards them as this may promote inclusion and participation. Barr and Bracchitta (2015) argue that positive attitudes can have important influences on individuals with disabilities such as affecting the quality and availability of services. Bacon and Schultz (1991) affirm that positive attitudes are related to successful integration of children with and without disabilities in schools and the management of all children’s needs in the classroom. In the same vein, Sefotho (2021) declares that when perceived positively, disabilities transcend stigma towards empowerment. In the case of this study, we suggest the revitalisation and adoption of the Botho philosophy as the indigenous resource for cultivating attitudes of respecting, loving, accepting, empathy, paying attention, and responding to the needs of people with disabilities through providing the required support. Our argument for the adoption of Botho as a philosophy for the cultivation of positive attitude towards students with disabilities is in line with the universally adopted Social model of disability (Barnes, 2019; Oliver, 2013) which sees disability as the result of interaction between people living with impairments and environment filled with various barriers including, attitudinal, physical, and social. The Social model is person-centred in approach and aims at nurturing positive attitudes in society since it puts the focus on the individuals’ abilities and their unique needs, not on their condition. Similar to the Social model of disability, the Botho philosophy focuses on enhancing positive views of fellow human beings and the building of positive interaction between people with impairments and those without impairments. Botho tenets of interdependence, respect, care, love solidarity, social justice, empathy, and philanthropy do not necessarily deny the reality of disability, but they promote positive and ethical thoughts towards the creation of learning ecologies where no one feels isolated. In accordance with these tenets, the Botho philosophy searches for ways to eliminate barriers caused by an individual’s social environment. It upholds that less-empowered members of the society should be empowered so that they consequently become more independent and feel a sense of belonging and freedom to participate in society. Moreover, the Botho philosophy seeks to transform negative attitudes so that people living with impairments can be supported in pursuing their aspirations. Purposeful and strategic infusion of the Botho philosophy in schools and higher learning institutions should among other things target changing of mindset, and promote the view that disabilities should not be seen to differentiate individuals with disabilities from their peers.

Botho attitude towards people with disabilities  81 Waghid and Smeyers (2012) note that because of its reliance on empathy and relational autonomy, Botho is a particular ethic of care that is persuasive. Through the Botho philosophy, it is possible to inculcate a moral thought in children and young people that would enable them to adopt a point of view of other people and develop empathetic dispositions that induce inclinations to want to be moral (Waghid & Smeyers, 2012). Thus, in learning ecologies, the spirit of the Botho philosophy epitomises the moral thoughtfulness and attitudes that everyone in principle, regardless of their disabilities or limitations, is a member who through friendly and supportive relationships can actualise their tendencies. Therefore, Botho attitudes denote both relational and distributional inclusion since they have the potential to enhance people’s sense that they are valued as much as other members of society, while also affording equal opportunities to access social and economic opportunities. Thompson et al. (2011) proclaim that attitude programmes delivered in inclusive school environments can have long-term effects, lasting beyond the school years and outside context, for all children involved. We suggest that among other such programmes teachers’ training on the Botho philosophy and its application for nurturing positive attitudes towards people with disabilities should be included. Thompson et al. (2011) highlight the following characteristics of policies and initiatives that appear to be successful in changing attitudes and overcoming prejudice towards people with disabilities:

• Supporting the participation of people with disability in the design and implementation of the overall strategy;

• Addressing all three levels of intervention – personal, organisational, and structural; and

• Recognising the diversity over a prolonged period of time to reinforce positive attitudes and replace negative attitudes. The place of Botho attitudes in cultivating positive attitudes towards students with disabilities Botho attitudes are our own contribution and proposition as a resource for transforming negative attitudes towards disability, cultivating positive ones, and strengthening the already existing subconscious positive attitudes. This is in accordance with our reflection, analysis, and reimagining of the realities relating to attitude towards students with disabilities and their inclusion in education. We draw from literature as discussed in the above sections that students with disabilities are exposed to prejudices, stereotypical attitudes, discriminatory attitudes, bullying, isolation, lack of support, and other educational injustices. However, in our reflections, we take note that parallel to existing negative attitudes there are indicators for positive attitudes towards disability as demonstrated in the way some educators and students without disability interact and support students with disabilities academically and socially. We find the latter as a strength necessary for mobilisation of Botho

82  Malephoto Niko Ruth Lephoto and Olufemi Timothy Adigun attitudes which we consider as a cultural resource for attaining the required positive attitude. Following the arguments raised by Sodi et al., (2021), we assert that the Botho philosophy is a social construct expressed within the social environment as a phenomenon that places a premium on mutual acceptance and acceptability of responsibility to the needs of the community. In other words, the needs of an individual and that of the community are all considered within the Botho philosophy. The foregoing thus implies that, in teaching and learning spaces, lecturers, educators, and students without disabilities need to enhance their consciousness of their moral obligation as Africans to contribute to the development of a common good that empowers and motivates members of learning ecologies to be responsive and participate in enabling everyone to realise their needs and achieve dignity (Maistera, 2020). Fundamentally, the Botho philosophy captures the essence of what it is to be a morally and ethically celebrated African person. It carries the essence of ‘ho ba motho’ (to be a humane person) from the undesirable state of ‘ho se be motho’ (to be a non-being person) which forms part of African’s self-concept. Therefore, we encourage all African learning ecologies to tap into the Botho attitudes as the pillar for making the full inclusion of students a reality. Through persuasion as a method of changing undesirable attitudes towards a more desirable one, Botho attitudes towards disability can be achieved. Related to this assertion, Masitera (2020) states that despite the traditional/ superstitious belief that disability is divine as a punishment from the gods, Botho, as an Afrocentric philosophy still encourages respect for human dignity irrespective of disabling conditions. In addition, Masitera (2020) posits that people with disabilities have been acclaimed for possessing extra prowess in different trades. We take this positive traditional outlook as useful indigenous knowledge to influence the contemporary view of people with disabilities as being incapable and deficient without making much effort to find out about their hidden abilities beyond what is seen as disability during day-to-day interactions. Letseka (2011) urges that the Botho philosophy should be seen as the African cultural capital that offers indigenous knowledge essential for integrating into our African notion of inclusion which promotes inclusivity, equality, social justice, and care in our education system. Its infusion suggests the formation and adoption of linkages where all stakeholders participate in the development of protective factors for the well-being of people with disabilities. According to Wang et al. (2021), nothing is more essential to the well-being of people with disabilities than acceptance and support given by the public. Harms et al. (2018) state that experiencing positive relationships can be an important determinant of whether an individual can cope with major stressors. Social support emanating from these relationships in schools can promote well-being, a sense of acceptance, inclusion, confirmation, and appreciation, while increasing selfesteem, self-confidence, and optimism (Diers, 2020). Banerjee et al. (2016)

Botho attitude towards people with disabilities  83 note that children who cope well tend to engage other people, and draw upon external support or resources in the family, school, and community. According to Olsson et al. (2003) school experiences that involve supportive peers, positive teacher influences, and opportunities for success are positively related to students’ resilience. Kern et al. (2015) add that positive relationships include feeling socially integrated, cared about and supported by others, and satisfied with one’s social connections. Fundamentally, these connections to others can give life purpose and meaning and serve as one of the best antidotes to the downs of life. The application of the Botho philosophy in these processes can create cognitive, affective, and social spaces for reflecting, analysing the current situation, and re-imagining what positive attitudes should look like and how to nurture them in line with the Botho philosophy tenets. Moreover, the use of the Botho philosophy aphorism motho ke motho ka Batho (a person is a person because of other people) has the potential to enhance diversity awareness among the members of learning ecologies. Conclusion In this chapter, we have established that although Lesotho has legal frameworks that support the inclusion of people with disabilities, there are still elements of negative attitudes in practice which hinder their inclusion and success in education. On the positive side, the Botho philosophy has much to offer in terms of interventions and guiding principles towards the realisation of full inclusion of students with disabilities not only in Lesotho but globally. We contribute and propose the concept of Botho attitudes as a principle on which the nation’s commitment to quality education that is inclusive and equitable is guided. Botho attitudes disregard all discriminatory thinking and manners and serve as a resource for inclusive creating learning ecologies. Botho attitudes are vital and pertinent in cultivating positive attitudes in communities and learning ecologies. Therefore, we have argued that in order to facilitate the full inclusion of students with disabilities, African learning ecologies should consciously adopt the Botho philosophy as a guiding framework. The agenda for quality, inclusive and equitable education will become a reality. The Botho philosophy needs to be adopted into education policies at all educational levels. Higher Education stakeholders can adopt the Botho philosophy as a cultural capital for bringing a positive change in education and society. Botho attitudes should be advocated for and disseminated as the founding principle for inclusion of students with disabilities in education, not only in Lesotho but in other education systems around the globe. References Adigun, O. T., & Nzima, D. R. (2021). The predictive influence of gender, onset of deafness and academic self-efficacy on attitude of deaf students towards biology.

84  Malephoto Niko Ruth Lephoto and Olufemi Timothy Adigun South African Journal of Education, 41(2), 1–11. https://doi​.org​/10​.15700​/saje​ .v41n2a1894 Allport, G. W. (2008). Attitudes. In C. Roberts & R. Jowell (Eds.), Attitude measurement (pp. 11–30). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Alorani, O., & Al-labadi, A. I. N. (2020). Effect of field training on the attitude of students towards persons with disabilities in special education centers. International Journal of Education and Practice, 8(2), 337–346. Australian Volunteers for International Development. (2015). “Shining a light on disability”: Supporting and promoting disability inclusion in Lesotho. Program Review. www​.aus​tral​iana​idvo​lunteers​.gov​.au Bacon, E. H., & Schultz, J. B. (1991). A survey of mainstreaming practices. Teacher Education and Special Education, 14, 144–149. https://doi​.org​/10​.1177​ /088840649101400211 Badura, J. (1977). Les attitudes de la jeunesse envers la culture. Scientific Journals of the University of Lodz, Series I, Humanities and Social Sciences odz, 1(21), 59–65. Banerjee, R., McLaughlin, C., Cotney, J., Roberts, L., & Peereboom, C. (2016). Promoting emotional health, well-being and resilience in primary schools. Public Policy Institute for Wales. https://www​.researchgate​.net​/publication​/299468922 Barnes, C. (2019). Understanding the social model of disability: Past, present and future. In N. Watson, A. Roulstone, & C. Thomas (Eds.), Routledge handbook of disability studies (2nd ed., pp. 14–31). London: Routledge. Barr, J. J., & Bracchitta, K. (2015). Attitudes toward individuals with disabilities: The effects of contact with different disability types. Current Psychology, 34(2), 223–238. https://doi​.org​/10​.1007​/s12144​-014​-9253-2 Diers, M. (2020). Strengthening resilience in school – A narrative examination of how teachers promote resilience by providing social support. International Dialogues on Education, 7(1), 128–137. https://doi​.org​/10​.53308​/ide​.v7i1.8 Disability Lesotho. (2016). Inclusive education policy on the doorstep in Lesotho. http://blogs​.sun​.ac​.za​/afrinead​/files​/2016​/03​/Disability​-Lesotho​-Feb2c​-2016​-1​.pdf Eskay, M., Onu, V. C., Igbo, J. N., Obiyo N., & Ugwuanyi, L. (2012). Disability within the African culture. US-China Education Review, 4, 473–484. Frankie, L. J. (2016). Attitudes towards individuals with disability amongst students and employees in a Higher Education Institution in the Western Cape. Masters Thesis, University of the Western Cape, South Africa. Grames, M., & Leverentz, C. (2010). Attitudes toward persons with disabilities: A comparison of Chinese and American students. UW-L Journal of Undergraduate Research, X111, 1–5. Harms, P. D., Brady, L., Wood, D., & Silard, A. (2018). Resilience and well-being. In E. Diener, S. Oishi, & L.Tay (Eds,), Handbook of well-being. Salt Lake City, UT: DEF Publishers. Hunt, C. S., & Hunt, B. (2004). Changing attitudes toward people with disabilities: Experimenting with an educational intervention. Journal of Managerial Issues, 266–280. https://www​.jstor​.org​/stable​/40604458 Johnstone, C. L., & Khothule, R. L. (2018). Inclusive education in Lesotho. In P. Engelbrecht & L. Green (Eds.), Responding to the challenges of inclusive education in Southern Africa. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers. Kern, M. L., Waters, L. E., Adler, A., & White, M. A. (2015). A multidimensional approach to measuring well-being in students: Application of the PERMA

Botho attitude towards people with disabilities  85 framework. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 10(3), 262–271. https://doi​.org​ /10​.1080​/17439760​.2014​.936962 Kim, J. H., Keck, P., Miller, D., & Gonzalez R. (2012). Introduction to positive psychology: Overview and controversies. Journal of Asia Pacific Counselling, 2(1), 4–60, http://doi​.org​/10​.18401​/2012​.2​.1.3 Lefa, B. J. (2015). The African philosophy of ubuntu in South African education. Studies in Philosophy and Education. Advance online publication. https://www​ .researchgate​.net​/publication​/274374017 Leshota, P. L., & Sefotho, M. M. (2018). Philosophy of disability: African perspectives. In M. M. Sefotho (Ed.), Philosophy in education and research (pp. 93–111). Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers. Letseka, M. (2011). In defence of ubuntu. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 31(1), 47–60. https://doi​.org​/10​.1007​/s11217​-011​-9267-2 Letseka, M. & Matlabe, S. (2018). Ubuntu’s application to the exclusion of students with disabilities. In M. M. Sefotho (Ed.), Philosophy in education and research. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers. Livneh, H. (1982). Factor analysis of the Attitudes Toward Disabled Persons Scale— Form A. Rehabilitation Psychology, 27(4), 235–243. Livneh, H. (2012). On the origins of negative attitudes toward people with disabilities. In I. Marini & Stebnicki (Eds.), The psychological and social impact of illness and disability (pp. 13–25). New York: Springer Publishing Company. Longoria, L., & Marini, I. (2006). Perceptions of children’s attitudes towards peers with a severe physical disability. Journal of Rehabilitation, 72(3), 19–25. Mahlatsi, M. (2017). Botho/Ubuntu philosophy: Education from childhood to adulthood in Africa. International Journal of Scientific & Technology Research, 6(8), 94–98. Masitera, E. (2020). Towards a humane community: The search for disability justice in higher education through African moral thinking. Transformation in Higher Education, 5, 1–10. https://doi​.org​/10​.4102​/the​.v5i0​.85 Matlosa, L., & Matobo, T. (2007). The education system in Lesotho: Social inclusion and exclusion of visually impaired and hearing impaired persons in the institutions of higher learning. ROSAS, 5(1–2), 191–211. Metz, T. (2007). Ubuntu as a moral theory: Reply to four critics. South African Journal of Philosophy, 26(4), 369–387. https://doi​.org​/10​.4314​/sajpem​.v26i4​.31495 Ministry of Education and Training. (2019). Lesotho inclusive education policy. https://planipolis​.iiep​.unesco​.org​/sites​/default​/files​/ressources​/approved​-inclusive​ -education​-policy​-2018​.pdf Mokuku, T. (2017). The connotations of Botho philosophy and its potential contribution towards environmental conservation: The case of the Tlokoeng community in Lesotho. Environmental Education Research, 23(9), 1230–1248. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​/13504622​.2016​.1160274 Morena, C., & Nkoane, M. M. (2021). Challenges of learners with special educational needs in Lesotho mainstream classrooms. International Journal of Multidisciplinary and current Educational Research (IJMCER), 3(1), 1–9. Mosia, P. A. (2014). Threats to inclusive education in Lesotho: An overview of policy and implementation challenges. Africa Education Review, 11(3), 292–310. https:// doi​.org​/10​.1080​/18146627​.2014​.934989 Mosia, P. A. (2017). Access to higher education for students with disabilities in Lesotho. Doctoral Thesis, University of South Africa, South Africa.

86  Malephoto Niko Ruth Lephoto and Olufemi Timothy Adigun Mosia, P. A. (2020). Students experience and quality of tertiary education for students with disabilities in Lesotho. Journal of Students Affairs in Africa, 89(1), 13–28. https://doi​.org​/10​.24085​/jsaa​.v8il​.3824 Mosia, P. A., & Phasha, T. N. (2020). Student experience and quality of tertiary education for students with disabilities in Lesotho. Journal of Students Affairs in Africa, 8(1), 13–28. https://doi​.org​/10​.24085​/jsa​.v8il​.3824 Mugumbate, J., & Nyanguru, A. (2013). Exploring African philosophy: The value of Ubuntu in social work. African Journal of Social Work, 3(1), 82–100. Murphy, R. (1990). The body silent: An anthropologist embarks on the most challenging journey of his life: Into the life of the disabled. New York: W.W. Norton. Mutanga, O. (2019). Students with disabilities and the transition to work: A capabilities approach. London: Routledge. Norins-Bardon, L., & Matsumoto, S. (2005). Paper US students attitudes to students with intellectual disabilities at the Global Youth Summit, Nagano, Japan, February 2005. www​.specialolympics​.org Nzimakwe, T. I. (2014). Practising Ubuntu and leadership for good governance: The South African and Continental dialogue. African Journal of Public Affairs, 7(4), 30–41. http://hdl​.handle​.net​/2263​/58143 Oliver, M. (2013). The social model of disability: Thirty years on. Disability & Society, 28(7), 1024–1026. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​/09687599​.2013​.818773 Olsson, C. A., Bond, L., Burns, J. M., Vella-Brodrick, D. A., & Sawyer, S. M. (2003). Adolescent resilience: A concept analysis. Journal of Adolescence, 26(1), 1–11. https://doi​.org​/10​.1016​/s0140​-1971(02)00118-5 Rankopo, J. M., & Diraditsile, K. (2020). The interface between Botho and social work practice in Botswana: Towards Africentric models. African Journal of Social Work, 10(1), 1–4. Sefotho, M. M. (2019). Disability, resilience, and career construction in rural Lesotho. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education. Advance online publication. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​/1034912X​.2019​.1668543 Sefotho, M. M. (2021). Basotho ontology of disability: An afrocentric ontoepistemology. Heliyon, 7(3), e06540. https://doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.heliyon​.2021​ .e06540 Sodi, T., Bopape, D., & Makgahlela, M. (2021). Botho as an essential ingredient of African 2021 on www​.ijpn​.in​.psychology: An insider perspective. South African Journal of Psychology, 51(3), 441–452. https://doi​.org​/10​.1177​ /0081246320985259 Special Olympics. (2005). Global youth summit proceedings and stories. https:// media​.specialolympics​.org​/soi​/files​/resources​/Schools​_Youth​/2005​_GYS​Proc​edin​ gsStories​_Introduction​.pdf Theron, L. C. & Phasha, N. (2015). Cultural pathways to resilience: Opportunities and obstacles as recalled by Black South African students. In L. C. Theron, L. Liebenberg, M. Ungar, L. C. Theron, L. Liebenberg, & M. Ungar (Eds.), Youth resilience and culture: Commonalities and complexities. New York: Springer Science Business Media. Thompson, V. L. S., Arnold, L. D., & Notaro, S. R. (2011). African American parents’ attitudes toward HPV vaccination. Ethnicity & disease, 21(3), 335–341. Tugli, A. K., Zungu, L. I., Goon, D. T., & Anyanwu, F. C. (2013). Perceptions of students with disabilities concerning access and support in the learning

Botho attitude towards people with disabilities  87 environment of a rural-based university. African Journal for Physical, Health Education, Recreation and Dance, 2(Suppl. 1), 356–364. United Nations (1948). Universal declaration of human rights. UN General Assembly, 302(2), 14–25. Van Breda, A. D. (2019). Developing the notion of Ubuntu as African Theory for social work practice. Social Work, 55(4), 439–450. https://doi​.org​/doi​.10​.15270​ /52​-2​-762 Waghid, Y., & Smeyers, P. (2012). Reconsidering Ubuntu: On the educational potential of a particular ethic of care. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 44(2), 6–20. https://doi​.org​/10​.1111​/j​.1469​-5812​.2011​.00792.x Wang, Z., Xu, X., Han, Q., Chen, Y., Jiang, J., & Ni, G. X. (2021). Factors associated with public attitudes towards persons with disabilities: A systematic review. BMC Public Health, 21(1), 1058. https://doi​.org​/10​.1186​/s12889​-021​-11139-3 World Health Assembly. (1990). Forty-third World Health Assembly, Geneva, 7–17 May 1990: Resolutions and decisions, annexes. World Health Organization. https://apps​.who​.int​/iris​/handle​/10665​/173422

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Injecting Ubuntu in designing accessible virtual learning for students with disabilities Thuli Shandu-Phetla, Sindile A. Ngubane, and Olufemi Timothy Adigun

Introduction Students with disabilities (SwDs) represent a group of individuals with longterm and or permanent physical or sensory impairment which is severe enough to negatively influence their ability to engage in regular teaching and learning activities without requiring external support. SwDs may include those with physical, mental, and/or sensory impairment whose learning is not only endangered by their emotional, intellectual, linguistic, and physical conditions but also by unfavourable attitudes and structural teaching and learning barriers created by factors within the learning environment. The Ubuntu philosophy is based on humanness and symmetrical interactions between all concerned stakeholders (Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2018). Studies show that many individuals with disabilities in South Africa have histories of marginalisation and perhaps unfair treatment which has been meted on them in all spheres of human endeavours (Thabethe, 2022; Tigere & Moyo, 2022). In response to the elimination of perceived inequalities being experienced by persons with disabilities in South Africa, the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (Republic of South Africa, 1996) outlaws discrimination, marginalisation, oppression, and ostracisation of persons with disabilities. The Constitution promotes respect for human rights and diverse cultures. It also places a premium on education for all in an effort to eradicate both structural and or systemic inequalities. Thus, Adigun (2021) notes that the Department of Education’s (2001), Education White Paper 6 had leveraged the injunctions of the Constitution to extend opportunities for enabling educational environments in line with the inclusive educational policy, principles, and practices. Notably, to further accommodate all learners, South African institutions of higher learning are utilising technologies to advance and promote learning engagement for all learners (Govender & Govender, 2014; Maphalala & Adigun, 2021; Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2017). In South Africa, technologies are being used to further accommodate learners including those with disabilities across the globe through Open and Distance Learning (ODL) in accordance with the principles of the Commonwealth of Learning (MacDonald, 2000) to ensure that quality education is available to all irrespective of location. As indicated by MacDonald (2000), ODL must take into consideration the DOI: 10.4324/9781003343684-6

Ubuntu in virtual learning for SwDs  89 separation of teacher and learner; institutional accreditation; use of mixedmedia courseware; two-way communication; the possibility of face-to-face meetings for tutorials and the use of industrialised processes. While academic structures have strived to make education accessible to all, many Higher Educational Institutions (HEIs) are yet to recognise that the morphological, physiological, as well as emotional characteristics of SwDs are important and should be considered when designing and developing virtual teaching and learning activities. There is sparse research evidence of the academic performances of SwDs in distance education. Some studies, for instance, Burdette et al. (2013), Mohammed (2021), Moisey (2004), and Tomaino et al. (2022) showed that institutional policies, the flexibility of the programme, learners’ characteristics, support services received, and learners’ digital skills may inform readiness for digital learning among learners with disabilities and possibly contribute to observed achievements recorded in their academics. Lagoke et al. (2010) state that disabilities have a significant impact on the scholastic outcome of SwDs who had registered for the Bachelor’s degree programme at the National Open University in Nigeria. Lagoke et al. (2010) allude that the academic performance of distance/virtual SwDs has been a source of concern to parents/funders and the students themselves. Similarly, Moisey (2004) notes that even though the enrolment rate of SwDs in open and distance education has increased since the turn of the millennium, the completion rates are not encouraging. Specifically, Moisey (2004) noted that about 54.1% of SwDs who enrolled in various programmes at the Athabasca University between 1998 and 2001 did not complete their studies while only 45.9% graduated but with much academic stress. According to Moisey (2004), SwDs at Athabasca University in 2003 had the highest rates of withdrawal from various academic programmes for which they had registered. Previous studies (Lagoke et al., 2010; Moisey, 2004; Richardson, 2001; Richardson et al., 2002) observed lower academic achievement among students with hearing as well as visual impairment while both groups of SwDs graduated with low quality results as compared to their peers without disabilities. Studies have yet to provide an accurate understanding of causative factors which may be responsible for such discrepancies in academic outcomes between SwDs and their peers without disabling conditions, or the implication of humanistic principles as a support base for participation of SwDs in ODL. The Covid-19 pandemic affected the physical running of academic programmes in various South African HEIs, exposing the lacuna in digital instructional design and development vis-à-vis the capabilities of SwDs (especially those with hearing and visual impairments) to actively engage in online learning environments (Adigun et al., 2022; Yazcayir & Gurgur, 2021). It is assumed that perhaps the above-mentioned challenges (Adigun et al., 2022; Yazcayir & Gurgur, 2021) were not because of non-availability of technological devices or virtual study materials, but principally there was a lack of humanistic considerations with empathy and clear guidelines on the usage of

90  Shandu-Phetla, Ngubane and Adigun virtual learning platforms by SwDs, also worsened by electricity outages and lack of stable connectivity. Thus, this chapter assumed that the prescript of Ubuntu as an Afrocentric philosophy may be missing in past efforts at exposing SwDs to virtual learning/ODL. Hence, this research study aimed to explore the perceived support required to enhance virtual ODL contexts for SwDs based on the principles of Ubuntu as an inclusive Afrocentric philosophy. It is expected that the findings recorded in this study will serve to guide future designers of educational technologies and virtual learning platforms for inclusivity. Researchers of this study believe that our findings will inform professional policies and practices for technologically inclined inclusive education. Ubuntu, educational technology, and virtual learning Over the past decades, some scholars (Letseka, 2012; Louw, 1998; Mbigi, 1997; Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2018; Ngubane & Makua, 2021) have extensively discussed the concept of Ubuntu. Largely, this literature emphasises that Ubuntu is an African view of the communal system of existence, humaneness, and reciprocation of care and kindness among individuals irrespective of tribe and ethnicity, abilities and inabilities, or gender and age differences. Letseka (2013) and Ngubane-Mokiwa (2018) assert that the Ubuntu philosophy is grounded in how society embraces each other and looks forward to the growth and well-being of one another. Ngubane-Mokiwa (2018) alludes that the Ubuntu philosophy is founded on the principle of Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu, that is, ‘A person (irrespective of disabling condition) is a person through other people.’ For Assié-Lumumba (2017) and Louw (1998), the Ubuntu philosophy places a premium on positive interpersonal relationships and positive social capital as well as a proper understanding of the need to have a positive mindset towards each other. Therefore, the Ubuntu philosophy is a multifaceted and complex ecosystem of interdependent processes and products between humans and nature. The Ubuntu philosophy is grounded in the principles of caring, compassion, cooperation, dignity, empathy, equality, fairness, inclusivity, kindness, respect, solidarity, sympathy, and tolerance. It has unhindered potential for the promotion and nurturing of interdependence geared towards the development of collective and individual abilities in educational settings (Letseka, 2013; Mbigi, 1997; Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2018). Even with the deployment and use of technologies in various educational programmes, SwDs still struggle with how to effectively and efficiently interact and respond to the dynamics of various virtual learning environments (Adigun, 2022; Yazcayir & Gurgur, 2021). Findings from studies by Koustriava (2022) among 41 adults with visual impairment in Greece and Shamas-ul-Zia et al. (2021) among 5 visually impaired students in Malaysia, respectively, demonstrate that many SwDs are technically unequipped for the swift digital shift experienced during the Covid-19 pandemic lockdowns. As indicated by Mahfuz, Sakib, and Husain

Ubuntu in virtual learning for SwDs  91 (2022), Koustriava (2022), and Shamas-ul-Zia et al. (2021) lack of technological capability or capacity to effectively use and navigate various interfaces of Learning Management Systems (LMS) were the main factors responsible for shortcomings in learning outcomes among SwDs in recent times. Unlike the assumption of Koustriava (2022), Mahfuz et al. (2022), and Shamas-ulZia et al. (2021), Panyukova and Sergeeva (2019) believed that web-based pedagogies lack sufficient accessibility and usability guidelines that are universally suitable for SwDs. In other words, among many established challenges such as bias towards SwDs, technical difficulties, Internet connectivity (Maphalala & Adigun, 2021; Koustriava, 2022), many SwDs find it difficult not only to navigate the web pages but to effectively accomplish online learning tasks. Fichten et al. (2009) and Shamas-ul-Zia et al. (2021) assert that with respect to degrees and type of disabilities, SwDs face barriers in accessing and utilising online learning environments due to inaccessible display formats of resource material, inadequate description of still and or moving images, and insufficient institutional support. There is no doubt about the efficacy of Assistive Technologies (ATs) in fostering academic engagement of SwDs when such students receive on-the-spot support from available institutions during face-to-face teaching. However, Denisova et al. (2020) reported less effectiveness of ATs for distance education during the lockdown in 2020. Denisova et al. (2020) noted that SwDs failed to mask their frustrations and academic challenges when they were compelled to continue their academic activities using various online learning platforms. The findings presented by Denisova et al. (2020) further reinforce the earlier Fichten et al.’s (2009) observation that various designs of LMS have failed to significantly take into consideration the specific learning needs and characteristics of SwDs. Therefore, in line with the principles of the Universal Design for Learning as espoused by Burgstahler and Moore (2009), Meyer and Rose (2000), as well as Fichten et al. (2009), Maguire et al. (2006) recommended that designers of e-learning platforms should put into consideration the needs of SwDs and how such individuals can personalise such platform for adaptive learning needs. Adigun (2021) and Maguire et al. (2006) believe that computer-based responsive pedagogical strategies can significantly stimulate learning among SwDs when there are adequate resources such as a specifically designed LMS interface, and uninterrupted internet facility among others for virtual learning engagements. Instructional designs must be flexible to accommodate the specific learning needs vis-à-vis text sizes, colour contrast, adjustable, animated images, and compatibility with assistive technologies such as hearing aids/ cochlear implants, speech input devices, and screen readers among others. This corresponds to the Ubuntu philosophy-inspired pedagogies. According to Ngubane and Gumede (2018), one defining feature of the Ubuntu philosophy-inspired pedagogy is that the humanistic approach is positioned as the core of teaching and learning processes. In other words, regardless of environmental (Home/Learning) circumstances, students’ (notwithstanding

92  Shandu-Phetla, Ngubane and Adigun learning characteristics, capabilities, or disabilities) unique abilities, backgrounds, behaviours, dexterities, experiences and prior knowledge ought to be appropriately analysed and considered by lecturers before the development and establishment of the curriculum. The above further implies that teaching based on the Ubuntu philosophy (Letseka, 2000; Ngubane & Makua, 2021; Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2018) affirms that equal partnership ought to exist between the educational institutions, designers of educational technologies, instructors, and SwDs. Hence, is it expected that using the Ubuntu philosophy would help to achieve technologically inclined inclusive pedagogy in a manner that is beneficial to SwDs in virtual knowledge sharing and management. Conversely, until now, SwDs in South Africa are immersed in the various academic challenges which involve virtual teaching and learning. Then, does it mean that various virtual learning platforms have not placed a premium on the dire digital needs of SwDs in a manner that recognised Ubuntu as an Afrocentric philosophy? Hinged on the Collective Fingers Theory (CFT) (Mbigi, 1997) which assumes that compassion, solidarity, and interdependence are core human and social values that foster social capital, cohesion, interconnectedness, development, management, and sharing of knowledge between and among individuals, this study provides an answer to the key research question: Using the prescripts of Ubuntu philosophy, what are the expected needs for support required to enhance virtual ODeL contexts for SwDs? Methodology This chapter adopted a qualitative research approach to explore the online learning experiences of SwDs at an open and distance learning institution of higher learning in South Africa. This case study design was meant to describe what it is like for SwDs to study via the virtual learning environment, with a view to developing online teaching guidelines that are informed by the Ubuntu philosophy. According to Flyvbjerg (2011), a case study is an intensive analysis of an individual unit (as a person or community) in relation to the environment. Furthermore, Crowe et al. (2011) aver that a case study is an approach that suits a research endeavour attempting to have an in-depth appreciation and understanding of an event, issue, or phenomenon of interest, in its natural real-life context. Based on the description of the case study design (Crowe et al., 2011; Flyvbjerg, 2011), this chapter explores the place of Ubuntu in virtual learning of SwDs who were participating in various online programmes through a South African Open and Distance HEI. The selected SwDs were in a natural environment due to the e-learning model. Thus, due to the characteristics of the study participants, we adopted the case study design for this study. The experiences of the participants were then analysed thematically.

Ubuntu in virtual learning for SwDs  93 Participants

This study was conducted at a South African Institution of Higher Learning which has a long history of ODeL. A total of 32 SwDs were purposively invited through electronic posters and electronic mail to participate in the Disability Research Indaba (DSI).1 The DSI was conducted virtually using Microsoft Teams. Out of the invitees, 18 people (participants) who are code named ‘P1’ to ‘P18’ were present for the virtual DSI. Participants indicated their type of disabilities as hearing impairment, visual impairment, autism, physical disabilities, and individuals with cerebral palsy. The participants were mostly student leaders from different regional hubs who not only presented their experiences but also the grievances they had received from their fellow students. The researchers opted to use virtual means for data collection because the country was on lockdown and physical meetings were prohibited. Data collection

Data were collected through Focus Group Discussions (FGD) during DSI virtual meeting. The researchers appointed a Sign Language Interpreter who interpreted for the Deaf students. The project leader welcomed the participants and informed them about the study objectives. Participants were informed about the rules guiding the virtual FGD and were also reminded that the meeting and the concomitant discussions were recorded. The facilitator then asked the participants to share their experiences of learning online. The meeting lasted for two and a half hours, and the recording was subsequently transcribed and saved in a password-protected document for further analysis. Data analysis followed Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-step thematic analysis: Familiarising yourself with your data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining, and naming themes, and finally, producing the report. We became familiar with the data by taking the time to meticulously go through the transcription of the meeting by reading and rereading the transcription and we made notes as we read to help us to note what stood out for us. The notes provided the “bedrock for the rest of the analysis” (Braun & Clarke, 2006: 17). Generation of initial codes came after a thorough reading of the transcription. Initially, there were codes that were generated by using different colours to highlight ideas that stood out. The highlighted codes led to themes that were sought by grouping together the initial codes based on their colours. These themes revealed distinctive features and accounts as relayed by the participants. The themes were then reviewed and merged, where they were similar. Ethical considerations Relevant research ethics were duly observed in the conduct of this study. When the virtual meeting began, the participants were assured of absolute

94  Shandu-Phetla, Ngubane and Adigun confidentiality and that the proceedings were part of data collection towards improving services for SwDs. They then provided their informed consent through a link on the platform. They were advised that they could withdraw from the engaged research if they so wished by leaving the platform. Those that could not access the link, expressed their consent through the chat function. Findings The findings below were arranged according to themes based on the Ubuntu philosophy. In this study, four themes are discussed: (i) interdependence, (ii) respect, (iii) care, and (iv) sharing. Interdependence

Issues of disability have no doubt placed some restrictions on individuals with disabilities. Hence, individuals with disabilities at most times depend on external support from friends, family, and Information and Communication Technology (ICT) managers of their online school in their quest to achieve certain tasks. Such support is thus needed by SwDs in their quest to acquire higher education qualifications through the ODL. Based on this study, an overview of the coded data revealed a glaring chasm of opinion between SwDs and those who are supposed to provide accessible virtual learning. Most of the divergent opinions spoke directly to interdependence, which affects the survival of the students. The lack of interdependence between SwDs and the institution led to students being disadvantaged. The participants concurred that some sectors of the institution were not responding to the needs and queries of SwDs. According to P8, the institution’s delays in responding to student queries had devastating implications for their studies. P8 share the experience of another SwDs (visually impaired): There is one of the SwDs who has been waiting since 2018 after logging a complaint over a matter using appropriate technologically-enhanced channel to be resolved and to date nothing has happened and there’s still an undertaking that needs to be resolved and he ended up losing his Bursary. The same happened to P18 who relayed how she had been told, To write a complaint about the challenges faced using the virtual learning platforms which I did, but up to today, no one has responded. This sentiment was shared by P8 who relayed an incident where she waited for a response to no avail till, Eventually, five days before my exam, I had to go to the exam centre to ask if someone could help me as I could not access the online examination from home.

Ubuntu in virtual learning for SwDs  95 The Facilitator asked P8 to further clarify. P8 stated further that: Since there was no information about the availability of screen readers such as the JAWS software used by the blinds (students with visual impairments), I had to visit the centre (Examination centre) to ask if there was anyone among the officials who could help me read questions on the screen or perhaps, I could come with someone who could do the reading of the questions for me. Due to non-response or delay in response to queries through phone calls and e-mails from e-tutors or administrators of the virtual learning spaces, SwDs who participated in this study incur enormous financial cost on logistics and travel expenses to various regional centres set up by the South African ODeL HEI. Another challenge was delays in receiving study materials, especially for students with visual impairments. This was noted by P4 who stated, Specifically for students with visual impairment: they receive their study materials two weeks before or after the exam. This is robbing us. The response given by P4 mentions that a delay in receiving study material with less than a few weeks until examination poses a danger to the learning outcomes of SwDs in general. Although they have participated in virtual learning processes, they may find it difficult to further engage in intensive reading prior to their examinations. Another participant noted the hurdles faced by SwDs in accessing study materials, as aptly captured by P18 who stated, Online study materials are sometimes not fully accessible. Meaning, if I have a document that is not in a PDF, I still need to convert it first so that my device will be able to read it. Regrettably, you find that some past sample exam questions are not accessible at all to us as students with visual impairments. Most of these past exam questions are scanned documents meaning it could be difficult for some devices to convert them into braille or difficult to read when using some assistive technological devices. In relation to examinations, P6 added that: The examination portal completely excludes students with disabilities, especially those with visual impairment. The portal has no opportunities for students with visual impairment to easily navigate the e-examination environment. Therefore, someone must be available to read questions to me most times. The response of P4 further expressed the students’ feeling of being disenfranchised. Participants felt that the university management, lecturers, and even

96  Shandu-Phetla, Ngubane and Adigun other students did not stand in solidarity with them. Another participant, P11 spoke of the difficulty he encountered when his study materials required diagrams. P11 revealed that: If you are visually impaired, it is very difficult to view study packs/materials that require students to review diagrams. During virtual classes, instructors tend to refer students to certain diagrams without detailed information of such diagrams to students with visual impairment. The differentiated view of access for students with and those without disabilities laid bare the need for solidarity with SwDs. Solidarity gaps then showed that the interconnectedness of stakeholders was lacking. This was shown in various examples ranging from those who did not know how to support SwDs, to those who audaciously flouted processes for supporting SwDs. Some participants noted gaps in conscientising the university community on how to support them, as reflected in the following excerpts. For example, P1 stated: I don’t want to believe that academics only know they have SwDs around exams. But it seems to be so. In terms of teaching and lecturing, P4 noted that: Lecturers find it difficult to teach us during virtual teachings. I have noted that many of them struggle to actively engage students with disabilities. I must say that Deaf students are the worst hit with virtual teaching because sign language interpreters will first hear what the lecturer says and interpret the same to Deaf students who are participating in virtual class. In concurrence, P15 asserted, They [Lecturers/Instructors] usually fail to take that into consideration…. Yeah, some of us are Deaf and we depend on the backend Sign Language Interpreters. While the Internet may be frustrating and a delay in feedback is experienced, lecturers/instructors will continue their lectures without any consideration of feedback delay between the lecturers, sign language interpreters, and Deaf students in virtual classes. The above statements of the study participant expose the unwelcoming attitude and perhaps negligence to the plights and needs of SwDs in the ODL programme. While many of the students (SwDs) were dependent on support from administrators and instructors, it is clear that participants were frustrated with the response and treatment they received from those who are supposed to provide immediate and necessary assistance to the SwDs in their quest to

Ubuntu in virtual learning for SwDs  97 attain educational qualification through the ODL. Imperatively, the finding further implied that the Ubuntu philosophy is yet to be displayed by those educational support systems, that is, both administrators and instructors. Respect

Issues of respect encompass acknowledgement and appreciation of individual differences and capabilities. For persons with disabilities, issues of respect depict an adequate understanding of their uniqueness and differences in relation to their disabling conditions. Hence, persons with disabilities may tend to perceive respect for their person when society treats them ‘as normal.’ In other words, when non-disabled people refrain from talking figuratively about persons with disability, they feel more appreciated and respected. Thus, another theme that came out of the data spoke about respect for SwDs. Specifically, participants expressed their concerns about the lack of respect for the behavioural and learning needs of SwDs. Because this study is set in an ODL context where teaching and learning are dependent on study materials, rather than one who physically teaches in front of a class, participants expressed that they felt disrespected by the manner in which their materials were presented. In support of this assertion, P4 exemplified this sentiment by saying: Lecturers would say there is a diagram that I have drawn to help you understand. But that is a problem for me as a blind student. P5 reiterated the issue of materials by stating that: Sometimes content is presented in an audio manner, precluding Deaf students. Most study material is presented in a way that does not cater to the needs of partially sighted students who need an increased font. We also have students with learning difficulties who will require further explanations to undertake such studies. In essence, P5 highlighted the blind spot where support for SwDs is treated as if there is one type of disability, neglecting the varied nature of disabilities. P5 continued by saying: Most virtual learning platforms are designed without full consideration of the variation existing among persons with disabilities. The (virtual learning platform) we are using does not consider some types of disabilities. In terms of the course of study, participants stated that the institution failed to recognise their passion and their interests in their courses. In support of this assertion, P7 asserts that:

98  Shandu-Phetla, Ngubane and Adigun Students with disabilities are majorly put in a similar field of study. Students with disabilities are being pushed towards one specific field ignoring the different types of disabilities, interests, and passion. The lack of being considerate and respected was not only experienced in the area of study materials but was also exhibited in the manner in which the institution compelled SwDs to enrol in similar fields of study. Caring

Issues of care and caring are something that is special to persons with disabilities. Persons with disabilities appreciate it and feel so elated when they experience superficial care and caring from members of society. Hence for SwDs, they tend to develop more positive aspirations for overall personal development. In this study, participants (SwDs) spoke earnestly about their experiences of lack of care in respect of virtual learning. Participants stated that most facilitators lacked compassion. Arguably, the most distressing sentiment about this was captured by P5 who stated that: Disabled students are left out in the cold. I was treated like a criminal by one of the invigilators at the exam centre last year in the presence of other students because I had called for the assistance of a reader who would read out the questions for me being visually impaired. P5 further added that: I sent a written complaint and to this day, no one has attended to this written grievance. P8 elaborated on the comment of P5 by stating further his experience with a colleague in the examination hall, he said: The experience was traumatic. She could not read well as shown on the computer screen and the computer had no JAWS software. So, she brought someone to read for her. The invigilators shouted at her; she was delayed in writing the exam. She was in tears because she felt embarrassed as she was publicly accused of trying to cheat the system. The inhuman treatment received by SwDs concerning virtual teaching and learning processes was further illustrated by P12 who stated how he constantly had to prove his disability. He said: I remember one time when I told the facilitator to kindly describe a diagram he was referring to while he was teaching. He first found it somewhat insulting until I had to prove that I’m visually impaired. I don’t think a normal person can just come and say I’m disabled.

Ubuntu in virtual learning for SwDs  99 In addition, P13 said: It would take the whole day to talk about some of the experiences. But some of us are still new to these things. We’re still emotionally dealing with big changes, being disabled. It's not something we grew up with. The above excerpts illustrate how the lack of understanding and compassion can lead to painful words and treatment of SwDs. What is needed, according to the participants, is thoughtfulness, caring, and empathy which are core to the Ubuntu philosophical value. Sharing

Sharing emerged as a theme in this study by referring to different aspects including sharing learning space, knowledge, and resources. At the beginning of one of the virtual gatherings, one of the participants (P2) commented: There are students who could not join in because they do not have data. The sentiment of P2 was echoed by P16 who remarked that: Most students with disabilities do not have the financial capability to purchase data. I must say that virtual learning platforms consume a lot of data, especially for persons with visual impairment like me. Findings further indicate that SwDs have at many times relied on their colleagues when they are out of data and required to be online for teaching and learning activities. For instance, P7 stated that: I have at many times depended on my colleagues to access virtual learning spaces. I must say that many of them are magnanimous in allowing me to link up with their hotspot to access the Internet. No doubt, it’s a huge sacrifice. While some students might have the required data to access virtual spaces, there might be limitations with network availability/coverage as experienced by students in remote or rural areas. P2 is one of the participants who reported struggles with a network connection. He stated that: I am struggling with the network. Although, if I wasn’t having a mobility challenge, I could have stepped out to find a possible location of Internet reception or link-up with a friend’s Internet connection through the hotspot. P7 also added that:

100  Shandu-Phetla, Ngubane and Adigun Access to the Internet is a major setback for me. I have at various times failed to participate in real-time virtual learning. P7 also said that … even when I attend real-time virtual classes, disruptions in internet facilities make me lose touch of what is being interpreted by the Sign Language Interpreter. Issues of the internet are crucial in the virtual teaching and learning process. In other words, educational programmes through the ODL consume more internet data. Although this study showed that the Internet is a major problem that negatively affects optimum participation in online learning experiences, unfortunately, it can be deduced that disability and its associated challenges have further hindered access to shared Internet connections needed for continual virtual learning participation. Discussion It is disheartening that despite the laudable legal instruments that aim to ‘include the excluded,’ such as the Constitution and the Strategic Disability framework for post-school education and training system, SwDs in South Africa are still facing challenges in universities (Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2018; Tigere & Moyo, 2022). In addition to complaints about Internet access, coverage, speed, and electricity supply among others (Maphalala & Adigun, 2021), SwDs have some negative experiences to share with digitised/virtual learning (Adigun & Nzima, 2020; Lagoke et al., 2010, Moisey, 2004; Richardson, 2001; Richardson et al., 2002). Earlier studies have affirmed that deficiencies in institutional policies, principles, and practices; programme flexibilities, digital dexterities, as well as characteristics of SwDs vis-à-vis degrees, type, and the onset of disabilities have influenced the perception of SwDs towards their commitments towards virtual learning (Burdette et al., 2013; Mohammed, 2021; Moisey, 2004; Tomaino et al., 2022) and it may inform the readiness of SwDs for virtual learning and possibly contribute to enhanced academic performance. Our study found that four Ubuntu philosophical values: Interdependence, respect, care, and caring as well as sharing are important in advancing efficient virtual learning among SwDs. With respect to humanness and collective communalism which describes Pan-Africanism, issues of respect and care for one another, as well as interdependence can never be overemphasised. Our study found that the SwDs who had participated in virtual learning faced various difficulties related to deficiencies in the design and adaptability of the virtual learning environment as well as a lack of adequate concern for individual factors and learning capabilities of SwDs; we equally note that the Ubuntu philosophy seems to be missing in the design and development e-learning platforms and pedagogical deliveries. SwDs require optimal support to be able to adequately access the virtual learning spaces. They need more than the Internet but also social support from school and ICT administrators, their virtual learning instructors, peers, and families. In other words,

Ubuntu in virtual learning for SwDs  101 SwDs tend to have high academic outcomes when they receive adequate academic and social support. This current finding is in line with the studies of Govender and Govender (2014), Maphalala and Adigun (2021), as well as Ngubane-Mokiwa (2017) who opine that students in South Africa receive some level of academic support for virtual teaching and learning. According to Kowalsky and Fresko (2002) and Troiano et al. (2010), SwDs require special (academic and social) support in order to fully integrate academically and display excellent learning outcomes. Without sufficient support and interdependency, dropout or low completion rates tend to increase (Estrada et al., 2006; Horn et al., 1999; Lagoke et al., 2010; Moisey, 2004; Richardson, 2001; Richardson et al., 2002). It is quite concerning that lack of interdependencies and adequate special (academic and social) supports have deprived SwDs of equitable access to education through the ODL initiatives or programme. Additionally, the lack of interdependence in virtual academic engagement has a significant impact on the Ubuntu philosophical values of ‘respect’ and ‘care.’ Regrettably, participants in this study expressed their dissatisfaction with the attitudes of academic institution staff members towards them in their search for active and effective responsiveness in virtual academic engagements. Participants highlighted that they were often treated with a lack of respect in their interactions with administrators and instructors, which they largely attributed to their disabilities. The lack of appreciable respect given to SwDs has had a negative impact on the degree of caring shown towards them. This finding was based on the study’s discovery that SwDs who participated in virtual teaching and learning believed that the system did not adequately accommodate their unique and collective characteristics as individuals with special learning needs. As a result, they expressed feelings of marginalisation and inadequacy of respect. Lack of appreciable respect and required care for SwDs in the provision of needed academic and social support goes beyond the inavailability of technological devices or study materials that are specific to various forms of disabilities (Adigun et al., 2022; Yazcayir & Gurgur, 2021) but such approaches that lack sufficient humanistic considerations enveloped in empathy, respect for persons, and holistic care. While this study found that SwDs who participated in this study complained about lack of respect and inadequate care for their educational needs in the ODL, it can be said that this current finding does not conform to the Ubuntu philosophy values (Letseka, 2013; Louw, 1998; Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2018). As stated by Letseka (2013) and NgubaneMokiwa (2018) the values of Ubuntu are embedded in the empathic and humanistic dealings with all regardless of state of health or disabling conditions. Ngubane-Mokiwa (2018) advances the values projected by Ubuntu as caring, respect, and dignity of all; equality, fairness, and inclusivity; as well as tolerance. More specifically, studies have shown that learners with disabilities constantly struggle with the integration of new technologies in their learning

102  Shandu-Phetla, Ngubane and Adigun activities (Adigun & Nzima, 2020; Moisey, 2004; Tomaino et al., 2022). In this regard, Koustriava (2022) and Shamas-ul-Zia et al. (2021) proffer that SwDs experience technical challenges as they interact with the interface of various virtual learning platforms. The SwDs’ challenges are highlighted even though Mahfuz et al. (2022) blamed deficiencies in technical capacities on the sudden move from face-to-face to virtual learning spaces during the COVID-19 pandemic. While this current study corresponds with Adigun (2022), Koustriava (2022), Lagoke et al. (2010), Mahfuz et al. (2022), and Richardson et al. (2002) regarding the technical difficulties faced by SwDs during digital teaching, our study also supports the findings of Panyukova and Sergeeva (2019) who asserted that such challenges are further reinforced by various unevenly accommodating institutional principles and practices which lack sufficient accessibility and usability suitable for interdependent learning and sharing of knowledge among SwDs. Our findings further support Denisova et al. (2020) and Fichten et al. (2009) who reported less effectiveness of AT during distance education. Imperatively, the design of a learning model or platform that fails to provide equal learning opportunities to all students does not conform to the principles of the Ubuntu philosophy. Implications ODL is aimed at increasing access to education for all, irrespective of location and or disabilities. In line with the Ubuntu philosophy, the idea behind the ODL is to further expand access to education and provide equal opportunity for all to benefit from postsecondary education. There is no gainsaying that ODL is enveloped by the input of technology and the Internet. Therefore, as a matter of policy development and implementation, the Ubuntu philosophy should be consciously incorporated into virtual learning, particularly for the benefit of SwDs. The application of the Ubuntu philosophical values is needed in the design and development of virtual teaching and learning engagement because such conscious effect will not only increase the participation of people with disabilities in higher education but also serve to boost their academic self-efficacies and confidence to engage in other social and employment opportunities. While actors of ODL are physically apart but connected via the virtual platforms, it is expedient that institutional ICT policies should clearly state the need for active interactive teaching and learning engagement within the virtual spaces which must be constructed and or designed in a very close manner to physical classroom interaction. The above further implies that facilitators/instructors of ODL should not only put into consideration various phenomena that make virtual learning spaces stimulating and interesting for SwDs but imbibe and practise the Ubuntu philosophical values of interdependence, respect, care, and sharing. In other words, in the practice of ODL, all actors, i.e., facilitators/instructors, and ICT administrators among others should be guided by a policy framework

Ubuntu in virtual learning for SwDs  103 for teaching SwDs across the Internet. Stakeholders in the provision of ODL for SwDs ought to be conscious of individual learning differences, capabilities, and achievement potentials. Facilitators of virtual learning, especially in South Africa, should be holistically humane and consider the students’ diversity. Put differently, facilitators should be moderate in their delivery of lectures vis-à-vis visibility, audibility, and clarity of expression. Facilitators ought to constantly be conscious that while some students may lack the physical capacities to immediately respond to prompts, questions, and queries, others may have hearing difficulties that may require them to depend on assistive listening technologies such as hearing aids, Cochlear implants and others, with visual impairment, may require bold letters with clear contrast. In accordance with the dictates of Ubuntu principles, institutions of higher learning, especially those institutions in South Africa that focus largely on ODL, need to update and improve on existing institutional ICT policies to effectively and efficiently accommodate various dimensions of human and learning abilities in accordance with the Ubuntu philosophical values of interdependence, respect, care, and sharing. This implies that institutional policies should be humane enough to recognise various forms and complexities of disabilities among students in accordance with the assumptions of the social model of disability (Masoga & Maoto, 2021) and the Strategic Disability Framework for the Post-School Education and Training System (Department of Higher Education and Training [DHET], 2018) which aims to ‘guide the improvement of access to and success in post-school education and training for people with disabilities.’ Essentially, Higher Educational Institutions, in particular those institutions that engage in ODL for SwDs should revisit the 2018 DHET Strategic Disability Framework for the Post-School Education and Training System and they should consciously infuse the framework in the discharge of virtual teaching and learning engagement for SwDs in a manner that is associated with the Ubuntu philosophical values. HEIs in South Africa ought to consciously infuse various Ubuntu philosophical values (respect, care, caring, interdependent living, and equity of knowledge sharing) in their institutional virtual/technological policies. The design and development of the LMS platforms should be universally accessible (Burgstahler & Moore, 2009) to people/persons with a wide range of abilities, disabilities, and other characteristics and can accommodate individual preferences and abilities; communicate necessary information effectively (regardless of ambient conditions or the user’s sensory abilities); and can be approached, reached, manipulated, and used regardless of disabling conditions. LMS designers and developers should have an LMS platform that can be easily accessible to all learners irrespective of their disabilities. More so, the facilitators/lecturers participating in virtual teaching should be periodically trained on models of virtual teaching which place emphasis on humanness and symmetrical interdependence, respect and care for one another. Importantly, through research that employs quantitative, qualitative, and mixed method approaches, the challenges should be periodically evaluated

104  Shandu-Phetla, Ngubane and Adigun by qualified stakeholders such as those in the academia, community leaders, researchers, policy evaluators, and community of persons with disabilities themselves to ensure appropriateness and holistic education and social inclusion for all. Conclusion The academic challenges, especially for SwDs registered for their educational programmes through the ODL mode, have been a long-standing issue in academic discourse. Unfortunately, negative societal attitudes towards the teaching and learning of SwDs who participate in virtual learning seem to place even more burdens on their potential to actively participate in virtual learning processes. Our study revealed that active participation of SwDs in ODL programmes in South Africa has been greatly impacted by the lack of full application of the Ubuntu philosophical values by non-disabled members of society, such as institutional/ICT administrators, web developers, LMS managers, and online learning facilitators responsible for facilitating virtual learning activities. This chapter concludes that the Ubuntu philosophical values of interdependence, respect, care, and sharing are lacking in knowledge sharing and management through the ODL programme for SwDs. The lack of humane consideration for the learning needs of SwDs attending virtual classes through the ODL is concerning. Inhumane behaviour that neglects the Ubuntu philosophical values may have largely contributed to uneven learning outcomes among SwDs registered for various educational programmes through the ODL. Therefore, it is vital that ODL institutions in South Africa revisit the Strategic Disability Framework for the Post-School Education and Training System (DHET, 2018) and incorporate the policy document in their ODL programmes. A conscious and strategic adoption of the Strategic Disability Framework for the Post-School Education and Training System will foster the effective and efficient inclusion of SwDs in the ODL programmes consistent with the goals of the Strategic Disability Framework for the Post-School Education and Training System (DHET, 2018) and the values of Ubuntu. ODL institutions in South Africa and beyond need to develop an online teaching guideline that meets the needs of all students, including SwDs. The online teaching guidelines must strategically incorporate all values of Ubuntu, namely interdependence, respect, care, and sharing. Staff members and relevant stakeholders in virtual teaching and learning spaces, including SwDs, must also be exposed to training and re-training that promotes those Ubuntu philosophical values. Such training will accelerate and promote institutional transformation geared towards adequate and full inclusion, equality, and epistemic justice. By incorporating the Ubuntu philosophical values of interdependence, respect, care, and sharing in the ODL programme for SwDs, we expect SwDs to be more valued, nurtured, and prepared for full inclusion in society.

Ubuntu in virtual learning for SwDs  105 Note 1 Disability Research Indaba (DSI) is a term we use for research meetings and engagements where students with disabilities, lecturers, researchers, support staff and other stakeholders meet to discuss issues related to enhancing access to learning for students with disabilities.

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Ubuntu in virtual learning for SwDs  107 Masoga, M. A., & Maoto, R. S. (2021). Students with disabilities at two higher education institutions selected from South Africa: A social model of disability. International Journal of Higher Education, 10(6), 238–244. https://doi​.org​/10​ .5430​/ijhe​.v10n6p238 Mbiga, L. (1997). Ubuntu: The African dream in management. Randburg, SA: Knowledge Resources. Meyer, A., & Rose, D. H. (2000). Universal design for individual differences. Educational Leadership, 58(3), 39–43. https://doi​.org​/10​.1007​/s11423​-007​ -9056-3 Mohammed Ali, A. (2021). E-learning for students with disabilities during COVID19: Faculty attitude and perception. SAGE Open, 11(4). https://doi​.org​/10​.1177​ /21582440211054494 Moisey, S. D. (2004). Students with disabilities in distance education: Characteristics, course enrollment and completion, and support services. Journal of Distance Education, 19(1), 73–91. Ngubane, N. I., & Gumede, M. (2018). The use of Ubuntu pedagogy to facilitate academic support in a higher education classroom. Indilinga African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems, 17(2), 245–258. https://hdl​.handle​.net​/10520​/ EJC​-13957f7e32 Ngubane, N., & Makua, M. (2021). Ubuntu pedagogy–transforming educational practices in South Africa through an African philosophy: From theory to practice. Inkanyiso: Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 13(1), 1–12. https://doi​.org​ /10​.4102​/the​.v6i0​.113 Ngubane-Mokiwa, S. A. (2017). Implications of the University of South Africa’s (UNISA) shift to open distance e-learning on teacher education. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 42(9), 111–124. http://dx​.doi​.org​/10​.14221​/ajte​ .2017v42n9​.7. Ngubane-Mokiwa, S. A. (2018). Ubuntu considered in light of exclusion of people with disabilities. African Journal of Disability, 7, a460. https://doi​.org​/10​.4102​/ ajod​.v7i0​.460 Panyukova, S. V., & Sergeeva, V. S. (2019). Organizational and methodological support of distance learning for students with disabilities. PsychologicalEducational Studies, 11(3), 72–83. https://doi​.org​/10​.17759​/psyedu​.2019110306 Republic of South Africa. (1996). The constitution act no. 108 of 1996. Pretoria: Government Printer. Richardson, J. T., Roy, A. W., Richardson, J. T. E., & Roy, A. W. N. (2002). The representation and attainment of students with a visual impairment in higher education. British Journal of Visual Impairment, 20(1), 37–48. https://doi​.org​/10​ .1177​/026461960202000107 Richardson, J. T. E. (2001). The representation and attainment of students with a hearing loss in higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 26, 184–204. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​/03075070120052107 Shamas-ul-Zia, K., Khalid, L., & Malik, S. (2021). Challenges facing students with visual impairments in online learning at higher education level. VFAST Transactions on Education and Social Sciences, 9(4), 9–15. Thabethe, N. (2022). ‘We have no power over perceptions’: The lived experiences of women with disabilities in a rural South African community. Disability & Society, 37(2), 345–350. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​/09687599​.2021​.1976109

108  Shandu-Phetla, Ngubane and Adigun Tigere, B., & Moyo, T. (2022). Disability-inclusive community development: A case of a community garden in Limpopo province in South Africa. African Journal of Disability (Online), 11, 1–11. https://doi​.org​/10​.4102​/ajod​.v11i0​.850 Tomaino, M. A. E., Greenberg, A. L., Kagawa-Purohit, S. A., Doering, S. A., & Miguel, E. S. (2022). An assessment of the feasibility and effectiveness of distance learning for students with severe developmental disabilities and high behavioral needs. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 15(1), 243–259. https://doi​.org​/10​.1007​/ s40617​-020​-00549-1 Troiano, P. F., Liefeld, J. A., & Trachtenberg, J. V. (2010). Academic support and college success for postsecondary students with learning disabilities. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 40(2), 35–44. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​/10790195​ .2010​.10850329 Yazcayir, G., & Gurgur, H. (2021). Students with special needs in digital classrooms during the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey. Pedagogical Research, 6(1), em0088. https://doi​.org​/10​.29333​/pr​/9356

7

Ubuntu philosophy A pathway to decolonising participatory research in the Global South Tendayi Marovah and Oliver Mutanga

Introduction Participatory research (PR) is widely adopted in the field of social sciences as a means of involving communities in the research process. This approach aims to increase validity and reliability while promoting equity and empowerment (Carr & Kemmis, 1986). However, despite its decolonial appearance, PR can sometimes retain practices and traditions from the broader social sciences field that undermine its core principles. PR has faced criticism in post-colonial states for replicating colonial power relations by prioritising researchers’ perspectives and experiences over those of the communities being studied (Tuhiwai Smith, 1999). Consequently, the concept of ‘decolonising research’ has emerged, with the goal of creating more equitable and respectful relationships between researchers and communities and producing knowledge that is both relevant and meaningful to the communities themselves (Tuhiwai Smith, 1999). This chapter explores the potential of the Ubuntu philosophy as a tool for decolonising PR in the Global South and explores the broad research question, ‘What is the potential of the Ubuntu philosophy as a tool for decolonising PR in the Global South?’ We argue that the African Ubuntu philosophy is essential for promoting authentic PR, particularly in the Global South, as it addresses power imbalances and other challenges inherent in PR. Drawing on the work of scholars in decolonisation in Africa and other post-colonial states (HapanyengwiChemhuru & Makuvaza, 2014; Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2018), decolonising research (Lambert, 2014; Kean et al., 2017; Tuhiwai Smith, 1999; Tripura, 2023), and those who have applied the Ubuntu philosophy in their work on decolonising research (Mkabela, 2005; Seehawer, 2018; Schabort et al., 2018), this chapter contributes to ongoing debates on decolonising research by offering a clearer understanding of the connection between the Ubuntu philosophy and PR. The chapter is organised into five sections. The first section outlines the methodology that informed this study. The second section delves into the history, conceptualisation, and types of PR. The third section identifies the challenges in PR and discusses how they relate to decision-making, power dynamics, and research processes. The fourth section elaborates on the DOI: 10.4324/9781003343684-7

110  Tendayi Marovah and Oliver Mutanga Ubuntu philosophy and its principles, offering concrete examples of what a decolonised form of PR might look like when adopting Ubuntu-based guidelines. The final section explores the benefits of PR grounded in the Ubuntu philosophy when addressing challenges related to power dynamics. By foregrounding the Ubuntu philosophy in PR, we aim to promote social change, stimulate discussions on political and social issues, and contribute to social justice in the long run. This approach not only challenges the assumption that Western knowledge is universal and the sole measure of civility and scientific rigour, but also emphasises the value of local knowledge and traditions in the research process. In doing so, we pave the way for more democratic and participatory knowledge platforms that recognise and empower marginalised communities in the Global South. Decolonising research In this section, we review the literature on decolonising research, focusing on the conceptualisation of decolonisation, decolonising education, indigenous methodologies and the Ubuntu philosophy, and addressing power dynamics in research. We acknowledge that decolonisation is a contested concept interpreted differently by scholars. Drawing from decoloniality scholars (Akel, 2020; Mignolo, 2009; Shay, 2016; Tuhiwai Smith, 1999), we conceptualise decolonisation as the process of removing practices and traditions within PR that fail to acknowledge and incorporate local knowledge, traditions, and culture. This failure hinders full participation in research, particularly for diverse groups of people in the Global South. Colonial-related practices and traditions occur before, during, and after PR data-gathering initiatives, such as deciding and acting upon ethical issues. Shay (2016) highlights concerns regarding curriculum content in postcolonial states, which often privileges white, male, western, capitalist, heterosexual, and European worldviews. Consequently, curriculum content under-represents and undervalues the perspectives, experiences, and epistemologies of those outside these mainstream categories. Akel (2020) argues that decolonising education involves rethinking, reframing, and reconstructing curricula and research, moving away from the Europe-centred colonial lens. Decolonisation goes further than diversification, challenging institutional hierarchy and monopoly on knowledge, and moving beyond a Western framework (Race et al., 2022). Numerous scholars have worked on decolonisation in Africa (Hapanyengwi-Chemhuru & Makuvaza, 2014; Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2018), decolonising research (Lambert, 2014; Kean et al., 2017; Tuhiwai Smith, 1999; Tripura, 2023), and the application of the Ubuntu philosophy in decolonising research (Mkabela, 2005; Seehawer, 2018; Schabort et al., 2018). Tripura (2023) explores the decolonisation of ethnographic research among Indian tribes, employing indigenous methodologies.

Ubuntu philosophy  111 Mkabela (2005) suggests implementing an Afrocentric method for researching indigenous African cultures, using African indigenous culture as a foundation for qualitative research methods. Seehawer (2018) develops an Ubuntu research ethics, agenda, and methodology, informed by lessons learned from participatory action research with South African science teachers. While much has been written about decolonising research, indigenous research methods, and Ubuntu-informed research, concrete examples of Ubuntu application and key areas for Ubuntu-informed interventions within PR are often absent. Furthermore, discussions around power dynamics between researchers and communities; their impact on research agendas, data collection, and analysis; and strategies for addressing potential imbalances are limited. In this chapter, we aim to address these issues and contribute to the ongoing debate on decolonising research methods and practices. Methodology This conceptual chapter explores the potential contributions of the Ubuntu philosophy to decolonising PR by conducting a rapid literature review on decolonising research and the use of indigenous research methods, with a specific focus on the Ubuntu philosophy in PR. The literature review primarily draws from peer-reviewed sources to examine the application of the Ubuntu philosophy in research, both broadly and specifically within PR. We explored mainstream databases and repositories like ERIC, Social Science Databases, Social Sciences Citation Index, International Bibliography of the Social Sciences, African Journals Online, Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa, African Education Research Database, Higher Education Research and Advocacy Network in Africa and Google Scholar. Additionally, this review consults social research literature to understand various research process phases. Through these efforts, we aim to identify key themes and best practices for incorporating the Ubuntu philosophy in PR projects. To complement the literature review, we also engage in selfcritical reflection and dialogue concerning our research experiences and our roles as insider researchers within societies whose worldviews are shaped by the Ubuntu philosophy. The data generated from the literature review and dialogues are analysed thematically to identify patterns and themes related to the potential contributions of the Ubuntu philosophy to decolonising PR. These findings inform the development of a guiding framework for integrating the Ubuntu philosophy into PR practice, focusing on addressing the existing challenges within PR. Overall, this methodology builds upon existing knowledge to propose guidelines anchored in the Ubuntu philosophy, promoting ethical and respectful PR practices.

112  Tendayi Marovah and Oliver Mutanga Participatory research Cornwall and Jewkes (1997: 1668) asked, ‘If all research involves participation, what makes research participatory?’ This question warrants critical examination and is at the core of decolonising research discussions. In this section, we offer a brief synopsis of what PR is, its historical development, its strengths, and associated challenges, and provide practical guidance for implementing PR effectively. PR has its roots in various social movements and academic fields, including anthropology, sociology, community development, and environmental planning (Herlihy & Knapp, 2003). The core idea behind PR is to involve the community or stakeholders in the research process, giving them a voice and empowering them to define and execute their development agenda (Aldridge, 2015). PR emerged as a response to traditional research methods that were seen as exploitative and imposed from above, lacking meaningful involvement of the people affected by the research (Caldwell et al., 2005). Some key events that influenced the development of PR include the civil rights movements, the rise of feminist movements, and the growth of community-based development initiatives (Selener, 1997). In Latin America, PR has its roots in the 1960s and 1970s, when social movements and indigenous organisations began to challenge the dominant model of development and the traditional research methods used to study and represent marginalised communities (Aldridge, 2015). In response to these demands, several researchers and practitioners started to experiment with new ways of conducting research that were more participatory and empowering for communities. For instance, Lewin (1946) challenged the boundaries between research theory, and action in psychology and is seen as the founder of action research (Chevalier & Buckles, 2019). In education, PR ideas were reinforced by Freire (1972), who was critical of mainstream education. Freire’s critical pedagogy postulates that education must be used to liberate the oppressed from subjugation (Boyd, 2014). Freire (1972) emphasised the importance of critical consciousness and participatory approaches in the process of social change. His ideas have been widely adopted and adapted in various post-colonial states and have had a significant impact on the development of PR in the region. This resulted in the development of Participatory Action Research (PAR), which emphasises the active involvement of communities and stakeholders in the research process (Abma et al., 2019). Disability researchers and activists have been influential in calling for inclusive research with people with disabilities in disability research for it to be meaningful and valid (Walmsley & Johnson, 2003). In development studies, Robert Chambers (1997) was vocal about participatory ideas in his book, Whose Reality Counts? Habermas (2003) advocated for a conducive environment for knowledge generation where there is shared acknowledgment, mutual viewpoint taking, and collective preparedness to reflect on one’s individual circumstances from the standpoint of the outsider, simultaneously learning from others.

Ubuntu philosophy  113 PR has been endorsed on the basis that it stimulates collaboration and gives individuals and communities a voice in research through equalising and rearranging participant–researcher relationships (Chevalier & Buckles, 2019). While conventional research tends to generate ‘knowledge for its own sake,’ independent of its use, most PR focuses on ‘knowledge for action’ (Rahman & Fals-Borda, 1991). It is envisioned to be located within the community, spearheaded by the community, and create knowledge that brings positive change (Kindon et al., 2007). However, despite its prominence, many PR initiatives claiming inclusivity and participant involvement fail to meet the rigorous standards they purport to achieve. Although certain individuals or groups participate in PR projects, the undesired status quo often remains undisrupted due to the nature of the processes within PR (Cooke & Kothari, 2001). The knowledge and insights generated through these pseudoparticipatory processes remain alien to the individuals and communities, as they have limited relevance to their context (Nagar, 2015). To address these challenges and ensure the effectiveness of PR, practical Ubuntu-informed guidance is suggested later in this chapter. Types of participatory research A myriad of participatory, collaborative, or inclusive research approaches fall under the umbrella of PR (Aldridge, 2015). These approaches include Community-Based Participatory Action Research (CBPAR), CommunityBased Research (CBR), Participatory Action Research (PAR), Participatory Learning and Action (PLA), and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) (Chevalier & Buckles, 2019). PR has been applied across various fields, such as education, geography, agriculture, and development studies, in diverse traditions and cultures (Cochran et al., 2008). Our chapter primarily draws on Coughlin and Smith’s (2017) conceptualisation of Community-Based Participatory Research (CBPR), which describes it as a collaborative research approach driven by equitable partnerships involving researchers, the public, and other stakeholders. Equitable partnerships are more likely to materialise if local knowledge and traditions are embedded in the projects. Indigenous knowledge and traditions play a crucial role in the decolonisation of knowledge production through indigenous research methods and concepts. One key strategy is the development of alternative forms of knowledge production that challenge the dominant narratives and epistemologies of the coloniser. Indigenous research methods are based on principles such as respecting and valuing the knowledge and experiences of indigenous peoples, recognising their right to self-determination, and ensuring that their perspectives are at the centre of any research process (Chilisa, 2012). This ethos aligns with the Ubuntu philosophy. Some scholars contend that PR approaches exist along a continuum, with stakeholders involved in various aspects of the research process to different

114  Tendayi Marovah and Oliver Mutanga degrees (Aldridge, 2015; Biggs, 1989; Cornwall & Jewkes, 1997; Farrington & Bebbington, 1993; Louie, 2016). Cornwall and Jewkes (1997) differentiate between ‘shallow’ and ‘deep’ participation. ‘Shallow participation’ occurs when researchers control all research processes, while ‘deep participation’ involves transferring ownership and control of the research processes to community members. Shallow participation resembles ‘fake participation,’ which transpires when participants are not genuinely involved in the research process or when their involvement in most research stages is superficial (Louie, 2016). In contrast, deep participation aligns with Biggs’s (1989) ‘collegiate participation,’ characterised by genuine consultation and inclusivity, with an emphasis on mutuality in planning, managing, and owning the research project. Farrington and Bebbington (1993) offer additional typologies of participation: ‘narrow participation,’ when few community participants are involved, and ‘wide participation,’ when the community is involved in a research project. It is evident from these various participatory typologies that even projects claiming to belong to the PR family may not be truly participatory (Hart, 1992). Although PR provides these opportunities, questions still arise regarding the extent of community participation in PR approaches and their ability to address challenges associated with conventional research approaches. In light of this, we briefly discuss challenges associated with PR and how they may compromise the inclusivity and level of participation of individuals and institutions involved. Challenges within participatory research In this discussion, we focus on the challenges and contradictions of ‘participation’ within PR in practice. Our intention is not to undermine the importance of PR, but rather to enhance how it is approached. We will address the following issues: Power dynamics within PR, limitations in stakeholder involvement, and the importance of integrating local values and philosophies. There has been a growing debate on the contribution of collaborations and participatory methods to broaden stakeholder participation in community-based PR as a means to address epistemic injustice and hierarchical power dynamics (Chasi, 2020; Marovah & Mkwananzi, 2020; Winterbauer et al., 2016). We argue that genuine development can be fostered through PR processes that align more closely with the local values and philosophies of specific contexts. Power dynamics within participatory research

Ideally, PR engages communities in all research processes (Nagar, 2015). However, this is not always the case. Power differences persist between researchers, communities, and other stakeholders. The previous history of community member exploitation by researchers, particularly in the Global

Ubuntu philosophy  115 South where participants are fatigued by numerous studies conducted every year with little or no positive impact on their lives, cannot be denied. Often, participants are only involved in data gathering (Caretta, 2018). During the analysis stage, which frequently occurs without participant involvement, there is a problematic tendency to select views expressed by vocal participants or those that align with predetermined theories (often chosen at the proposal stage without participant input). This approach risks treating participants as identical (Goldblatt et al., 2011), obscuring potential differences among them and perpetuating the exclusion of marginalised voices in research (MacKenzie, 2015). Again, research participants do not always agree with each other or with researchers during research. Researchers often do not want to acknowledge this limitation, as this amounts to admitting the failure of fully bringing participation to fruition (Janes, 2015). In the following sections, we discuss different types of power dynamics that may limit people’s opportunities through PR, using a series of questions to guide our exploration. Who decides the research processes?

The idea of protecting research communities has been central to research guiding principles, primarily since 1947 when the Nuremberg Code was approved in response to the consequences of Nazi unethical experiments (Weindling, 2001). While informed consent has been emphasised, the consenting process expected by Research Ethics Boards (REBs) does not always align with PR principles. Often, consent given by participants at the onset of research is assumed to be sufficient throughout the life of the project. However, PR entails ongoing practice, and participants should be asked for permission regarding various issues at different stages of the research (Balakrishnan & Cornforth, 2013). In some cases, obtaining family or community consent may be necessary, as in indigenous communities where research studies require approval from local leaders (Lambert, 2014). Ethically, many PR researchers are requested to anonymise their findings. However, an unwavering focus on anonymity may not always be ethical, as some community members may wish to be identified in research outputs. In any case, guaranteeing participants’ anonymity and privacy is challenging in contexts where participants know one another. Researchers should be prepared to balance the need for anonymity with the participants’ preferences, engaging in open dialogue with communities about their concerns. There may be assumptions about PR data collection methods, such as the belief that using these methods automatically enables participation or that data collection methods are equivalent to PR. The key message from the literature discussed earlier is that genuine participation stems from research design and relationships rather than data collection methods. Photovoice is a participatory method in which people use cameras to document their realities and communicate with policymakers using images, text, and voice. As with

116  Tendayi Marovah and Oliver Mutanga other data collection methods involving sensitive data, ethical implications arise due to the potential for invasion of privacy. Furthermore, photographic images alone do not indicate that a research project was participatory (Waller & Bitou, 2011). Researchers should take care to ensure that their choice of data collection methods aligns with the goals of genuine participation, rather than relying on any single method as inherently participatory. Typically, PR projects are time-consuming, presenting challenges for academics – particularly those pressured to publish quickly to secure tenured positions (Balcazar et al., 1998). As a result, PR is highly problematic for early-career academics, researchers, and participants, leading to few researchers embracing PR approaches. Time constraints may also be a hindrance factor for communities accepting PR projects, as people often seek prompt solutions to their challenges, and prolonged engagements might not be well received. Researchers and institutions should recognise the value of PR in fostering long-term, meaningful relationships with communities and consider adjusting their expectations and evaluation criteria to accommodate the unique demands of PR projects. How do researchers decide the research problem(s)?

Some researchers predetermine data collection methods or research designs before seeking to understand the problems communities encounter in their daily lives. Despite efforts to treat participants as equal partners, guidelines to protect participants, as insisted upon by education or research institutions to meet ‘academic standards,’ can weaken the independence and influence of certain groups of people. In a feminist Participatory Action Research (PAR) project by Gustafson and Brunger (2014), members of a community-based organisation for people with disabilities perceived university partners as ‘overreaching their authority’ after making a proposal based on an assumption from recommendations by the REB. The assumption was that people with disabilities are ‘vulnerable’ and need safeguarding from mistreatment. However, participants did not view themselves as ‘vulnerable’ but rather as independent and empowered (Gustafson & Brunger, 2014: 998). This example illustrates how research practices can mask people’s agency, which is a central critique of conventional research methods that led to the development of PR. Classifying all people with disabilities as ‘vulnerable’ erroneously presumes that they are all uniformly situated and thus need protection based on a single marker – disability. The starting point for most research studies, including those claiming to embrace PR approaches, involves establishing research gaps by reviewing previously published research away from the researched communities. Based on our experience as researchers, the common institutional requirement is that research can only commence when institutional ethics approval is granted. This is what academia, through REBs, privileges as ‘academic standards’ in their guidelines. Researchers only engage with communities after

Ubuntu philosophy  117 being certified that they have identified research problems in their proposals. However, this tradition does not align well with PR approaches, as initial engagement with participants to set a research agenda is a vital component of the process. Moreover, the challenge of establishing research problems based on peer-reviewed work in post-colonial states in Africa is that most research articles and books are written in colonial languages – English, Portuguese, or French. Consequently, researchers using only English will exclude literature written in other languages in their review to establish research gaps. Thus, the methods used to determine research problems warrant careful scrutiny. Very few research communities decide on the research aims, questions, design, data collection methods, or how data will be analysed. In Gustafson and Brunger’s (2014) study cited earlier, the project was introduced by a graduate student who was a member of that community. As with many programmes at various universities, the student was required to have a clearly defined research problem upon admission. Due to tight deadlines, this research proposal, like many others, was developed without the input of participants. Whose ideas count in PR?

Decolonising research and prioritising full community participation are central to the ethos of PR approaches. Tuhiwai Smith (1999) notes that the fields of knowledge informing academic practices are often organised according to Global North ‘ways of knowing,’ which can be culturally insensitive and distort reality when applied in the Global South. Additionally, researchers sometimes prioritise methodologies and academic practices over meaningful community engagement. Research outputs are often validated by academic peers through reviews, conferences, and journal publications, potentially sidelining the perspectives of the research communities themselves. In some cases, guidelines for intervention studies emphasise quantitative metrics, such as the number of people affected by a particular issue, rather than focusing on the forms of injustice experienced by the community. This emphasis on quantitative measures may not align with the goals of PR, which seek to address injustices regardless of the number of people affected. PAR also advocates that researchers are answerable to the participants and communities they work with, but researchers still often have the final say in data analysis and dissemination (Janes, 2015). Meekosha (2011) and Ndlovu-Gatsheni (2018) recognise the dominance of Global North literature in academia, which contributes to the marginalisation of Global South experiences. They call for more representation of scholars and literature from the Global South. While this is an important step, it may not be sufficient to address the issue. In an attempt to attract students and meet ‘international’ standards which are often Western standards, some Global South institutions create academic elites, often educated in Western institutions, who perpetuate exclusionary practices by adhering to guidelines

118  Tendayi Marovah and Oliver Mutanga more applicable to Western contexts. Consequently, Global South researchers may become extensions of Global North epistemologies. To address these concerns, researchers should prioritise community engagement, decolonise their approaches, and recognise the value of diverse perspectives. Academic institutions should also critically examine their guidelines and expectations to ensure they are inclusive and sensitive to different cultural contexts. By doing so, PR approaches can more effectively promote social justice and empower marginalised communities. As will be shown later, the Ubuntu philosophy can play an important role in this regard. How are the results expressed?

The question of how research findings are documented and disseminated is critical, as it carries as much significance as the ideas and findings themselves. PR researchers should strive to avoid causing harm to participants and their communities. However, some well-intentioned research projects may inadvertently cause distress within the researched communities. PR aims to foster inclusion and collaboration between researchers and communities (Aldridge, 2015; Barnes & Cotterell, 2011), but challenges arise in determining the practical implications of inclusion and collaboration (Mannay, 2015). One risk involves paying too much attention to participants who are more actively engaged in the research process (Bussu et al., 2021), which may unintentionally exclude some voices (Alvstad & Alexandra, 2015). Again, when data are translated from a local language to English, the potential for producing inaccurate findings increases, as some local concepts may not have direct English equivalents. While ‘non-participatory’ research is criticised for neglecting local concerns, PR approaches that fail to address language issues risk perpetuating the same shortcomings as the ‘non-participatory’ research they seek to replace. Although interviews may be conducted in local languages, findings often undergo translation and extraction using various tools, software, and theories. This process can result in the loss of important data, inadvertently causing injustice. The Ubuntu philosophy We briefly discuss the Ubuntu philosophy without dwelling much on it, as it has been articulated in depth by other scholars (see Hapanyengwi-Chemhuru & Makuvaza, 2014; Hoffman & Metz, 2017; Makuvaza, 2008; Marovah, 2020). Originating from various societies in Sub-Saharan Africa, the Ubuntu philosophy offers an alternative approach to PR that can help decolonise the research process. Ubuntu emphasises the interconnectedness of humans, their interdependence, and the importance of community and relationships in shaping personhood (Mbiti, 1969). It is thus often described as a philosophy

Ubuntu philosophy  119 of humanism, emphasising the value and dignity of all people, regardless of their socio-economic status (Metz, 2010). The Ubuntu philosophy is rich and multifaceted, with different scholars defining and conceptualising it in various ways. Some scholars view Ubuntu as a moral theory, emphasising the importance of interpersonal relationships, social harmony, and human interconnectedness (Hailey, 2008). According to this view, the Ubuntu philosophy underscores the importance of social cooperation and communal responsibility, which are essential for the wellbeing of individuals and society as a whole. It is also seen as a human rights philosophy, emphasising the dignity and worth of every human being and the need for social justice and equality. Other scholars view the Ubuntu philosophy as a political philosophy, highlighting the importance of deliberation, social justice, and human rights (Hoffman & Metz, 2017; Marovah, 2020; Seehawer, 2018). According to this interpretation, the Ubuntu philosophy underscores the importance of social and political institutions that promote human development and the common good while also respecting individual autonomy and freedom. In our understanding, the Ubuntu philosophy does not make a priority list of specific principles or emphasise particular values. Instead, it is so rich and extensive that people can choose the values that are applicable to the issues they are confronted with. It is with this understanding that we have chosen relationships, communitarianism, respect, public deliberation, and inclusivity as principles that speak clearly to the challenges we have raised in this chapter. We now turn to how the Ubuntu philosophy helps in addressing some of the challenges highlighted earlier. Incorporating Ubuntu principles into PR can provide valuable insights and guidance for researchers seeking to create more inclusive, equitable, and culturally sensitive research practices. By emphasising relationships, communitarianism, respect, public deliberation, and inclusivity, researchers can work towards addressing the power imbalances and methodological challenges often present in PR projects. By doing so, they can contribute to a more decolonised research process that genuinely respects and values the knowledge, experiences, and perspectives of diverse communities. Ubuntu philosophy informed PR Applying the Ubuntu philosophy to research is necessary in order to bring clarity and rigour to PR approaches. Swanson (2007) advances a philosophical contribution to understand the significance of indigenous epistemology and worldviews in methodological engagement within qualitative research. She asserts that the Ubuntu philosophy provides optimism and opportunities by contributing to more democratic and just processes of knowledge creation, particularly in the African context (Swanson, 2007). In this chapter, we use the Ubuntu philosophy to offer ‘legitimizing spaces for the transcendence of injustice and a more democratic, egalitarian, and ethical engagement of

120  Tendayi Marovah and Oliver Mutanga human beings in relationships with each other in PR’ (Swanson, 2007: 53). We base our arguments on the following values and principles of Ubuntu: Communitarianism, mutual respect, inclusivity, and public deliberation, which are interconnected and mutually reinforcing. Communitarianism

As highlighted earlier, traditional research often prioritises the researcher’s agenda and goals, sidelining the interests and needs of the community being studied. The Ubuntu philosophy places value on community and interdependence, knowing that the well-being of an individual is dependent on the happiness and safety of the whole community (Mbigi & Maree, 1995; Msila, 2008; Mutanga, 2022). By embracing communitarianism, PR practices can be designed to prioritise community interests and ensure the projects benefit the community as a whole. For example, researchers can involve community members in identifying research questions, selecting appropriate methods, and implementing interventions, ensuring that the research process is grounded in local knowledge and addresses pressing community issues. Mutual respect

Swanson (2007: 54), states that Ubuntu: is rooted in wisdom and lived experience, respect and honour, a philosophy of becoming human, where one gains one’s human dignity in the manner in which one respects ‘the other’ and in how one views one’s place in the larger collective of humanity. PR design ought to strive for mutual respect between researchers and participants. Research partnerships between these groups should be based on mutual respect. Researchers may inadvertently exert power and authority over participants in some research projects, which may lead to unequal relationships and potential exploitation. In PR, this principle can be applied by ensuring that communities exercise agency and have control over the research process, and that their contributions to the production of knowledge are valued and integrated into the projects. Inspiring and enabling all stakeholders to participate meaningfully in decision-making and other aspects of the research process according to skills and interest is key to PR. Incorporating the Ubuntu value of mutual respect can help establish equitable relationships between researchers and participants. Researchers can actively acknowledge and appreciate the knowledge, expertise, and contributions of the community members throughout the research process, fostering a sense of dignity and mutual respect. Inclusivity

The philosophy recognises that individuals are shaped by their relationships with others, and that the well-being of the individual is connected to the

Ubuntu philosophy  121 well-being of the community (Msila, 2008; Mutanga, 2022). In PR, this principle can be applied by valuing and prioritising the relationships between researchers, communities, and other stakeholders, and by recognising the importance of building relationships that are based on trust and mutual respect in order to undertake and produce meaningful and relevant research projects. As pointed out by Hapanyengwi-Chemhuru and Makuvaza (2014: 12) the Ubuntu philosophy is ‘important because it leads to the cultivation of sensitivity towards others as well as caring for how they feel as human beings.’ Emphasising inclusivity as an Ubuntu value can help researchers ensure that the research process and outcomes are representative of the diversity within the community. This can be achieved by actively engaging underrepresented groups, such as women, ethnic minorities, and people with disabilities, in the research process and making efforts to accommodate their needs and preferences. Public deliberation

By incorporating public deliberation as an Ubuntu value, researchers can promote open discussions with the community and other stakeholders about the research process, findings, and implications. This may involve organising community forums, workshops, or other participatory events where community members can actively engage with the research, express their views, and contribute to the interpretation and application of findings. Nashon et al. (2007: 5) provide an account of how the Ubuntu philosophy was employed as a ‘guiding principle for engagement in fieldwork and the structuring of a qualitative research methodology,’ where it locates deliberations and interactions in search of shared goals. PR should encourage public deliberations as a way of establishing connection with the research community and engaging with ‘sensitivity and insight into issues of power, subjectivity, context, ideology, ethics, and lived experience’ (Nashon et al., 2007: 5). In this sense, public deliberation is used to address the collective needs of the intended beneficiaries – researched communities and researchers alike. In fact, for any PR to be relevant, it must both be a product of and a response to the people’s collective concrete existential circumstances. Such research should evolve from and be guided by the people’s philosophy of life designed to highlight the need for practices that go beyond Western ways of viewing the world and making sense of it (Chilisa, 2012; Tuhiwai Smith, 1999). As underlined by Sen (1999), the lack of inclusive public reasoning as the space for discussion will prevent people from being or doing what they reasonably value. To this end, the significance of public deliberations cannot be underestimated in the quest to decolonise PR. In conclusion, applying the Ubuntu philosophy to PR creates a framework that embraces communitarianism, mutual respect, inclusivity, and public deliberation. By incorporating these values, researchers can work towards decolonising research practices and fostering relationships that effectively

122  Tendayi Marovah and Oliver Mutanga nurture community connectedness, reflexivity, and reciprocity. Grounding PR in the Ubuntu philosophy enables the development of research practices and processes that are inclusive, respectful, and sensitive to diverse cultural perspectives, ultimately leading to more democratic and just knowledge production. Ways forward: Addressing challenges in research through the Ubuntu philosophy In this section, we return to the four challenges highlighted earlier and offer possible practical guidance on how an Ubuntu-informed PR approach might resolve those challenges. Power dynamics

Understanding and appreciating the ecologies of knowledge and cultures around us is one way of achieving genuine PR. Acknowledging the value of, and exposure to, indigenous ways of knowing leads researchers and participants to decolonise not only data collection methods but also ensure that research addresses problems identified by the community. Both participants and researchers gain from this undertaking, contributing to enriching genuine development for Global South research communities. In many African societies, elders hold significant wisdom and are seen as the custodians of culture and knowledge. Involving elders in PR can provide valuable insights and ensure that local knowledge is respected and integrated into the research process. In Botswana, Zimbabwe, and South Africa, citizen engagement platforms, such as Kgotla/Dare – these traditional community gathering platforms can be utilised during PR research processes to address difficult questions regarding research topics, participant selection, and decision-making in PR research. Researchers can learn from indigenous conflict resolution mechanisms, such as Kgotla/Dare, to manage disagreements and promote collaboration among research participants. A continuous relationship with local communities helps research organisations, including higher education institutions, maintain an inventory of research priority areas. Deliberations also enable researchers to reassess and adapt their research approach continually, ensuring it remains inclusive and collaborative. This may involve refining research questions, methods, or strategies based on ongoing feedback from community members. Deciding on what to research

The role of institutional ethics approval in shaping PR projects has significant implications for community engagement. To better align the ethics approval process with PR principles, institutions should consider revising their guidelines to accommodate the dynamic nature of PR projects. For instance, ethics

Ubuntu philosophy  123 committees could work closely with researchers and communities to understand the unique ethical considerations of each project, allowing for more flexible and context-specific ethical guidelines. This approach would enable researchers to develop projects in line with PR principles while still adhering to ethical requirements. REBs ought to encourage researchers to examine existing literature, interventions proposed by other scholars to address challenges they intend to solve, and determine what has been done since those studies were conducted. This approach will eliminate the challenge of regurgitating studies or ‘creating problems’ that have already been solved or are not a priority for the communities concerned. Researchers can also make use of local research collaborators or community advisors who can help bridge cultural and linguistic gaps. These individuals can facilitate communication, improve the accuracy of translations, and contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the community’s perspectives on the issues needing research. Whose ideas count?

There is an African Shona proverb which says, Chara chimwe hachitswanyi inda, which translates to, ‘A single finger is incapable of killing a lice.’ This means that we succeed more by working with others as a team than as individuals. As such, any research problem can only be solved through collaborative action among all stakeholders. Everyone’s ideas count. At every stage of the PR process, all parties should work together. In some African societies there is an indigenous community cohesion-building practice that is based on the Ubuntu philosophy called nhimbe (Zimbabwe)/ harambee (Kenya/ Tanzania) or chilimba (Zambia). It is a collaborative work system where community members work together towards a common goal on a task. During this exercise, community members work together, build relationships, share experiences, eat and drink, and develop a sense of community. These are some concepts and platforms that PR practitioners ought to use so that all community members can participate and be part of PR projects. Who decides the research process?

A research problem requiring empirical investigation should arise from university–community initiatives, such as community engagement. This approach ensures that all parties are aware of the community’s challenges and needs, which demand scientific research. By establishing a repository of research areas, students and researchers can draw ideas and collaborate with communities to find solutions. Additionally, this approach addresses ethical issues through community involvement, moving away from the dominant paradigm where REBs are the research ethics’ sole decision-makers. To facilitate genuinely collaborative research, academic researchers and stakeholders, including REBs, may need to relinquish their grip on the expert

124  Tendayi Marovah and Oliver Mutanga role. REBs should encourage researchers to co-design their projects with research participants and support community-based research that actively involves communities in the research process. This engagement could occur before what is typically referred to as the ‘pilot’ stage. To better align the research problem-determination process with PR principles, researchers should consider alternative strategies and best practices. These may include co-creating research agendas with community members, incorporating local knowledge, and prioritising community-driven research questions. By involving community members in identifying research problems, PR projects can more effectively address local needs and priorities, thus resolving power dynamics in some ways. Dissemination of the results

In many African cultures and traditions, knowledge is transmitted from one generation to another through oral instructions, demonstrations by elders, and social solidarity activities. Similarly, PR approaches should embrace social solidarity activities not only during data collection periods. Findings should be disseminated through both traditional academic channels and formats accessible to the community. This can include using local languages, employing visuals or storytelling – these have been used to pass down knowledge, wisdom, and history in Africa. By incorporating storytelling, researchers can engage local communities in sharing their experiences and insights, fostering collaboration and mutual learning. Furthermore, education institutions can also establish and promote journals that publish in local languages. Applying the Ubuntu philosophy in PR presents challenges and limitations, including reconciling the Ubuntu principles with existing research norms and expectations within Western-oriented academic institutions. Strategies to address these challenges may include creating platforms for dialogue (public deliberation) and knowledge exchange between researchers and community members, as well as promoting reflexivity among researchers to question their own assumptions and biases (through curriculum changes). By incorporating indigenous practices and traditions related to Ubuntu highlighted in this chapter, researchers can create a more inclusive, respectful, and collaborative research process that honours the knowledge, values, and contributions of the communities they work with. Conclusion In conclusion, the Ubuntu philosophy has the potential to significantly contribute to the decolonisation of PR by emphasising the values of communitarianism, mutual respect, inclusivity, and public deliberation throughout the research process. However, it is crucial to acknowledge that decolonising PR is a complex and challenging task. Implementing Ubuntu-informed PR may require considerable time investment from researchers, as well as

Ubuntu philosophy  125 a strong commitment to ethical considerations. As a result, decolonising approaches may encounter resistance within academic institutions where Western epistemologies continue to dominate knowledge production processes. Overcoming such resistance necessitates fostering an environment that supports and encourages alternative paradigms. By incorporating the Ubuntu philosophy principles in addressing research questions, researchers can strive to establish more equitable and respectful relationships with communities, ultimately producing knowledge that is relevant, meaningful, and valuable to the communities themselves. Nevertheless, further research is essential for exploring the practical application of the Ubuntu philosophy in empirical PR and evaluating its effectiveness in promoting decolonisation within the research process. We contend that adopting a PR framework guided by the Ubuntu philosophy can serve as a promising approach to address some of the power dynamic challenges in the Global South highlighted in this chapter, paving the way for more inclusive, responsive, and transformative research practices. Declaration This chapter is a reproduction of the paper ‘Decolonising participatory research: can Ubuntu philosophy contribute something?,’ published in the International Journal of Social Research Methodology. Permission was sought from and granted by Taylor and Francis https://www.tandfonline.com/. References Abma, T. A., Banks, S., Cook, T., Dias, S. Madson W., Springett, J., & Wright, M. (2019). Participatory research for health and social well-being. Springer Nature. Akel, S. (2020). What decolonising the curriculum really means. https://eachother​.org​ .uk​/decolonising​-the​-curriculum​-what​-it​-really​-means Aldridge, J. (2015). Participatory research: Working with vulnerable groups in research and practice. Bristol: Policy Press. Alvstad, C., & Alexandra, A. R. (2015). Voice in retranslation. International Journal of Translation Studies, 27(1), 3–24. https://doi​.org​/10​.1075​/target​.27​.1​ .00edi Balakrishnan, V., & Cornforth, S. (2013). Using working agreements in participatory action research: Working through moral problems with Malaysian students. Educational Action Research, 21(4), 582–602. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​/09650792​ .2013​.832347 Balcazar, F., Keys, C., Kaplan, D., & Suarez-Balcazar, Y. (1998). Participatory action research and people with disabilities: Principles and challenges. Canadian Journal of Rehabilitation, 12, 105–112. Barnes, M., & Cotterell, P. (2011). Critical perspectives on user involvement. Bristol: Policy Press. Bell, D. M., & Pahl, K. (2018). Co-production: Towards a utopian approach. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 21(1), 105–117. https:// doi​.org​/10​.1080​/13645579​.2017​.1348581

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Ubuntu philosophy  129 Selener, D. (1997). Participatory action research and social change. New York: Cornell University. Sen, A. (1999). Development as freedom. Oxford University Press. Shay, M. (2016). Seeking new paradigms in Aboriginal education research: Methodological opportunities, challenges and aspirations. Social and Education History, 5(3), 273–296. https://doi​.org​/10​.17583​/hse​.2016​.2299 Swanson, D. M. (2007). Ubuntu: An African contribution to (re)search for/with a ‘humble’ togetherness. Journal of Contemporary Issues in Education, 2(2), 53–67. https://doi​.org​/10​.20355​/C5PP4X Tripura, B. (2023). Decolonizing ethnography and Tribes in India: Toward an alternative methodology. Frontiers in Political Science, 5, 1047276. https://doi​.org​ /10​.3389​/fpos​.2023​.1047276 Tuhiwai Smith, L. (1999). Decolonizing methodologies: Research and indigenous peoples. London: Zed Books. Waller, T., & Bitou, A., (2011). Research with children: Three challenges for participatory research in early childhood. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 19(1), 5–20. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​/1350293X​.2011​.548964 Walmsley, J., & Johnson, K. (2003). Inclusive research with people with learning disabilities: Past, present and futures. London: Jessica Kingsley. Weindling, P. (2001). The origins of informed consent: The international scientific commission on medical war crimes, and the Nuremberg code. Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 75(1), 37–71. https://doi​.org​/10​.1353​/bhm​.2001​.0049 Winterbauer, N. L., Bekemeier, B., Van Raemdonck, L., & Hoover, A. G. (2016). Applying community-based participatory research partnership principles to public health practice-based research networks. Sage Open, 6(4), 1–13. https://doi​.org​/10​ .1177​/2158244016679211

8

Staff experiences with inclusive education at Technical Vocational Education and Training institutions in Botswana A Botho philosophical lens Macdelyn Mosalagae

Introduction Generally, in Africa, especially Sub-Saharan Africa, how people show a relationship is modelled around the idea of how individuals treat each other. The guiding philosophy behind this treatment is known as Ubuntu, Unhu, or Botho, depending on the language and culture. In Botswana, this philosophy is known as Botho, a Sotho-Tswana philosophy which guides how people should relate to each other. The notion is also one of the five guiding principles of the country along with democracy, development, self-reliance, and kagisano (harmony). Botho implies Setho. According to the Tswana language grouping of sounds /Mo/ as in –motho – (human being), the first sound is followed by the fifth sound /Se/ as in Setho (human behaviours). Botho as a moral behaviour is expected among people as they interact. It implies the ethical code of conduct of one human being with another guided by one’s ethnic culture, religion, age, etc. In this chapter, Botho will be used as a framework to examine how TVET institutions treat students with disabilities and how staff experiences inclusive education. Botswana’s conceptualisation of Botho is not different from how it is conceived in other African contexts. In South Africa, Ubuntu is a moral theory (Letseka, 2000; Metz, 2014) and as ethics of care (Waghid & Smeyers, 2012). The chapter is divided into three sections. The first section is a brief review of the literature on the concept of Botho in order to draw a conclusion on how different authors dissect the philosophy. In this section, I will summarise the literature as the chapter’s intention is not to expansively discuss the concept but rather to comprehensively talk about its application and implementation in education. The second section discusses the contributions of the Botho philosophy in relation to general education and also on inclusion in education in Botswana. In the final section I present the findings from the empirical study. In this section I will also discuss the key Botho values in relation to students with disabilities in Botswana.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003343684-8

Inclusive education at TVET institutions  131 Botho philosophy Some African scholars have argued about the localisation of African concepts that can be understood by local people (Letseka, 2013; Menkiti, 1984; Phasha, 2016; Phasha et al., 2017). But a closer look at the literature points to the fact that there seems to be certain African languages that subdue others in understanding some African concepts. One of these concepts is Botho, which is mostly known in literature as Ubuntu. It appears that even though the concept is said to be cutting across African countries, especially Sub-Saharan Africa (Chataika, 2010; Ngomane, 2020), it is popularised as Ubuntu, to the detriment of how it is known in other African languages. In fact, African scholars tend to write about the same concept in a South African Zulu language as if it originated in South Africa. Then again, one cannot deny that international scholars relate better to a word in Zulu than any other African language. This could be attributed to its overuse (Peterson, 2019) or to the fact that it was made popular in South Africa by academics and popular figures, e.g., the late Bishop Desmond Tutu. Nonetheless, I want to accentuate the context of this chapter and divert from the norm. Thus, in the context of this chapter, Botho will be discussed not as a synonym for Ubuntu but rather as a stand-alone Sotho-Tswana word that has the same weight and philosophy as Ubuntu. However, it will be discussed as a linguistic difference and rendition of Botswana’s culture unless in a verbatim quotation. Few scholars have written about Botho. This could be because Botho is a Tswana concept from the Tswana communities found in Botswana and the North-West province of South Africa which was historically Bophuthatswana. One would expect that scholars from these regions would write the concept as Botho, but they still discuss the concept as Ubuntu. For example, Mhlauli and Bulawa (2021) interrogated the concept of Ubuntu as understood within both the African and Botswana contexts and argued that it is a philosophical thought system valued for its contribution to judgement and decisions, particularly when addressing the modernisation paradigm. Recently, Gareegope (2020) discussed the concept of Botho/Ubuntu in Botswana and argued that it is a way of life rather than simply an ideology to be infused in the legal jurisprudence of Botswana. Nonetheless, few scholars in Botswana have addressed the concept as Botho from different fields. For instance, Rankopo and Diraditsile (2020) looked at the interface between Botho and social work practice in Botswana, and how it can be applied towards Afrocentric models of social work education. In the same field of social work, KhuduPetersen and Mamvuto (2016) investigated the implementation of a holistic approach based on the Botho philosophy to empower marginalised youth in Botswana’s Kweneng District. From the architectural field, Steyn (2012) surveyed how Botho has influenced the social space in Botswana since independence, exploring how the male and female spatiality has reacted to the

132  Macdelyn Mosalagae changes in rural versus urban settings. Gaie and Mmolai (2007) considered the theological perspective of Botho as a concept and its implication of HIV/ AIDS vis-à-vis the implication of HIV/AIDS for Botho. They contended that Botho and the Christian concept of love are the same in dealing with socioeconomies and inequalities related to HIV/AIDS. In education, Morapedi (2018) examined how the concept of Botho has enhanced problem-solving to come up with a mitigation strategy of forming a study group project in a village to alleviate the challenges of school dropouts. In the same field, Chilisa and Preece (2005) examined how Botho can be used as a research method for adult educators in Africa. They advocated for its inclusion as a theoretical framework in research. Botho has not been examined in the field of vocational education. The use of Botho in this chapter adds to the literature on the pure use of the philosophy without reference to Ubuntu. More importantly, its use as a theoretical lens in educational pedagogies and the field of inclusive education perspective for the first time in Botswana is highlighted. The Botho philosophy cannot be pinned down to have originated at a particular point in time in human history, as observed by Murove (2014). In fact, Dolamo (2013) noted that Botho has been part of African history and ethics from time immemorial and that it is as old as human experience. It follows then that Botho cannot be separated from the life of humanity as it is embedded within African people. Hence, Faris (2005) says that Botho is difficult to define. Needless to say, Mmualefhe (2007) (in Gaie & Mmolai, 2007: 1) says, ‘Botho answers to the question what is authentic humanity.’ This view means true humanness rests upon a certain way of doing things, qualifying the assertion that what makes personhood is the Botho in the individual. It is something that is distinctive and separates us from other living things. Given that it is a way of doing things, it supports why the different Nguni language groups react to the concepts differently despite it meaning the same thing. For instance, Ewuoso and Hall (2019) are of the view that it was widely held in South Africa as a result of their qualitative experience of the apartheid era; the apartheid era seems not to have recognised that, whether black or white, all persons are human. Peterson (2019) maintains that the concept was used where there were instances of injustice due to some groups of people not being seen as equal to other races. Peterson (2019) also observes that the Ubuntu philosophy was also popular during South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission in 1996. Equally noticeable in Botswana, the concept is said to have originated from culture (Gareegope, 2020) and it became prevalent as a cultural construct reacting to post-colonial and socioeconomic realities (Mapadimeng, 2009). This was to promote the culture of togetherness and desist from egoistic tendencies that were prevalent in colonial times. In other words, the concept was to epitomise the value of togetherness to curb socio-economic disparities. Hence, Botho became one of the principles of the country and enshrined in the country’s 2016 vision (Gareegope, 2020).

Inclusive education at TVET institutions  133 If one looks at Botswana and South Africa, one concludes that while the philosophy is common in African countries, its roots and use are derived from the perspective of each specific country. Without giving much attention to the diverse conceptual meaning and understanding of what the concept is, most African scholars agree on what Botho exemplifies; firstly, Botho connotes personhood (Hountondji, 1983; Letseka, 2013; Ngomane, 2020; Peterson, 2019) which is achieved in the space of a community (Gaie, 2007; Hountondji, 1983; Mbiti, 1970; Menkiti, 1984; Ngomane, 2020; Peterson, 2019; Phasha & Condy, 2016). Emphasis on the community as a space is a qualifier in which one is considered a person. The condition in which one is seen in the light of personhood is derived from seeing oneself in others. It is based on the notion of the ‘I am because you are’ its essence is in ‘the power of the many’ (Ngomane, 2020: 359). Secondly, Botho is a moral conduct (Ngomane, 2020; Peterson, 2019; Waghid, 2020). As a moral conduct it dictates the ‘rubric’ of how one should behave around other human beings. Basically, it asks the question whether one exudes negative or positive behaviours in which one’s humanity is acknowledged. This includes tenets of empathy, respect, hospitability, and forgiveness, to mention just a few. In a nutshell, it all comes down to what Waghid (2020) observes as a person being the bearer of norms. Third and last, Botho is an ethical principle, although Matolini and Kwindingwi (2013) argue that it’s time as an ethical theory has been surpassed by time – an argument I will not dwell on now. Nonetheless, one needs to differentiate between Botho as a moral conduct and an ethical principle. Ethics, unlike moral conduct, is geared towards integrity and conscience rather than behaviours. Of course, ethics begets behaviours, but ethics is the law of relationships. Thus, in ethics one needs to have a certain ‘spirit’ or soul to have good codes; what drives one human being to act towards another human being, for example, is having the spirit of forgiveness. Arguably, in principle, these are the understandings of Botho as dissected by different African scholars. Although these are common understandings, there is a need to look at the concept from the perspective of the framework of the country the chapter is discussing. Methodology The research design for this study was an interpretive phenomenological analysis within qualitative methods. This chapter is founded on qualitative face-to-face interview data conducted in the Southern and Northern districts of Botswana in 2017. I chose a sample of participants who were appropriate for the study and who would give relevant information as they were experts on the experiences of the phenomenon investigated. The initiative was to address issues of rigour to get rich data. For instance, the 20 lecturers sampled had been engaged with students from 2012 (for institution one) and 2015 (for institution two).

134  Macdelyn Mosalagae An interpretivist paradigm was employed to look at the Sotho-Tswana meaning of inclusion for students with disabilities in an African context. The question addressed has been restated as follows: How do staff at TVET institutions in Botswana use the Botho philosophy in their implementation of inclusive practices? To address this question, I went beyond the surface of the interpretation extracted from participants which is necessary when one uses the latent analysis level. The analysis was made in conjunction with Botho literature review. The study was analysed thematically. Botho philosophy and the Tswana culture Botho is suggested to be centred on an African life. In most cases, Africans see themselves as a collective, hence they use the plural in reference to themselves. This is seen in the aphorism ‘motho ke motho ka batho ba bangwe,’ batho is plural of motho (singular). Thus, one’s personhood is achieved through relating harmoniously with other people. This understanding brings the idea that a person is a community-centred individual. There is a clear sign that there is an organic relationship with the community. The root of Botho is a collective consciousness. While there is a space for individualism within communalism, the former may not flourish without the latter (Murove, 2014). Important to Sotho-Tswana culture, and Africa in general, is the appreciation of another person because of the value attached to caring for each other. For a community to fail to recognise one another is not to value Botho. In Botswana there is a concept known as mafisa, similar to the South African tradition of ukusiza (this is where you lend a low socio-economic family a cow to herd and later, when the numbers increase, you take your cow back). This is a community initiative to restore the dignity of struggling families, as well as show the spirit of togetherness and care. If one were an individual without the community, this would not be possible. From this discussion it has become clear that the Botho philosophy is centred on some prominent concepts, among them collectivism and humanism. For example, relatedness (seen between the individual and their community); communalism (the sense of belonging); spirituality (the spirit which guides one’s behaviour towards another); holism (i.e. individualism connotes no sense of communality). These concepts advance the arguments of this chapter and are explored further. Key Botho values related to education Relatedness

Botho is one of Botswana’s five national guiding principles. It complements as well as emphasises the principle of kagisano (harmony) which has contributed to the peace and democracy in the country. Most traditional African societies live in communal clusters or units. In Botswana, these clusters are commonly known as kgotla (wards). This promotes relation not by blood but by clan and totem. Once one shares the same totem, they automatically become a relative of another. As a result, the essence of living as extended

Inclusive education at TVET institutions  135 families curbs individualism and promotes relatedness. Relatedness in this chapter means interdependence within a community. So, interdependence is viewed as Botho because relationships between individuals are valued. This confirms the view that Botho is an ethics of care as observed by Gaie (2007) and Waghid and Smeyers (2012). The law of care means that one is concerned about the welfare of another, interacts with another, and sees others as equal partners in each other’s existence in such a way that it qualifies the other (Ngomane, 2020; Nussbaum, 2003). At the heart of an individual relating with others is the supposition that a human being is a relational being (Gaie, 2007; Letseka, 2013; Murove, 2014; Waghid, 2014). When this is brought to an educational setting, it implies a relationship among and between education administrators, parents/guardians, and teachers and students. In terms of general learning, this helps in times of peer tutoring and group work or dyads. The co-existence of one another in class brings about a community of practice. In a community of practice, content knowledge and community experiences from one’s culture are shared equally. In relation to an inclusive setting, the co-existence of relationship means that ability grouping or mixed ability grouping as well as integration or mainstreaming rather than segregation is realised. It is important to note that from a Botho perspective, inclusion is not only for the sake of rallying behind the inclusive agenda without actually looking at the value of it. In a Botho inclusive learning environment, relatedness means acknowledging the personhood of the individual before their intellectual ability. Thus, for the philosophy of relating to be actualised, one’s contribution to a group should be appreciated according to the ability of the contributor. By doing so it promotes humanness. The implication for TVET regarding students with disabilities is to form a relationship with the collegiate community, all the stakeholders involved (teaching and non-teaching staff). This promotes social inclusion as students interact interchangeably with students of the same college. Relatedness here is seen as respecting, acknowledging, and affirming the individual. This will help students to boost each other where there is a shortcoming, for instance, a student who is unable to read the menu may enlist the help of one who is a reader to read it out. At the end of the day, the impairment of one who was unable to read is circumvented and the learning outcome is achieved. A teacher who is in loco parentis of their students should know the class composition. That is to say, the Botho philosophy would mean the teacher appreciates the different disabilities and knows how to help each student according to their educational needs. When relatedness is achieved it makes way for communalism. Communalism

Relating does not happen in a vacuum. It needs a reciprocal space, that is, with whom does one relate? It then follows that one relates with a community because the community confirms an individual as they are (Nussbaum,

136  Macdelyn Mosalagae 2003). That is to say, an individual ceases to be one within a community, they become one with, and bear the mark of, the community. In some African cultures, for instance in Nigeria, a Yoruba is seen by their tribal marks or a Masai from Kenya with their tall height or, if they are ladies, their decorative extended mouths. This makes them identifiable without necessarily hearing them speak to know where they come from. Thus, from a Botho perspective, communalism entails revealing that which makes one common with where they belong. In Botswana, there are cultural initiation schools bogwera (for men) and bojale (for women) where individuals are taught the traditional ways and lives of their community. The virtues one possesses would show which tribe one is from. Besides the community affirming an individual, it also has the function of solidarity which is the epitome of communalism. A practical example of such solidarity in Botswana is how the University of Botswana was built. It was built through a unified act based on a national pride known as motho le motho kgomo (one man, one beast). This meant that each family contributed a beast or anything they could afford for the construction of the university, knowing that at some stage one person from their lineage would attend the university. It is for this reason that one of the historical marks at the University of Botswana is a statue of a cow with a man behind to symbolise the people’s contributions. As such it is a constant reminder of how the country used its source of income – the cattle industry – to build an educational institution. Without solidarity such an initiative would not have even begun. From a general education perspective, the element of communalism can be understood in seeing colleges and schools as educational communities where the expectation is that students and teachers work together for one purpose. Each school is identified by its mark: Their particular uniforms, mottos, visions, and missions. As in vocational education, students are known by the uniforms of their trade, for example, students from the hospitality department studying culinary arts would be identified by their chefs’ uniforms. In the same way, those from carpentry and joinery would be identified by their overalls and tool boxes. This understanding, appreciated from a Botho lens, means that each department, faculty, or school has a common goal. For instance, all the departments in a vocational institution have the goal of producing skilled graduates ready for the market and this should be seen from their outcome-based programmes. Therefore, behind communalism is a shared goal. Failure of the body of the community to achieve such a goal is failure of the system. In an inclusive setting this means that for the goal to be achieved there is the need for equal and fair distribution of resources which will help achieve the shared goal. From a Botho perspective, an inclusive environment is not discriminative. Students with disabilities are to share resources with other students without being labelled negatively. The collectiveness of a shared community needs to be seen in the way the community treats their own.

Inclusive education at TVET institutions  137 Sharing of resources means that the institution’s learning resources belong to the students for their use to realise the mission of the institution. Fairness and justice in education are seen as democratic and any institution that fails to render that is undemocratic and hence has no spirit of Botho. In a nutshell, communalism emphasises wholeness, which will be discussed next. Holism

One relates because they are in a community and a community becomes united because all the pieces that link the individual and the community are woven together. Relationships bring interconnectedness, and interconnectedness makes a whole of all the pieces. Holism in this chapter means the totality of a person. That is, one’s whole being rather than just the self cannot be complete unless they are integrated into the community. Botho in holism involves the humanity of a person seen as complete by the community (Ngomane, 2020; Waghid, 2020). The word ‘complete’ signifies becoming a full member with full participation in community activities. Therefore, at the heart of holism is the realisation that the community cannot function without the members. For instance, in Tswana culture, there is a practice of giving each individual a platform to contribute their opinions and be listened to because it is believed that ‘Mmualebe abo a bua la gagwe’ (no one’s opinion is useless). From a Botho philosophical lens this means that one who hinders another from participating fully lacks Botho, and disadvantages the community because the community would not function to its full potential. The understanding of such holism is akin to parts of the body where all parts are necessary for the body to function. Therefore, this means that to be whole or complete, we all need each other in the community. With the above understanding of what holism entails, one can say in a general education scenario that belonging in a school setting does not take the form of religion, colour, or ethnicity. For instance, there has never been any educational setting that belongs to a sole ethnic group. One can argue that there are schools that admit only girls or boys, or schools owned by different religious communities. For example, a Catholic school emphasises a Catholic ethos but which is not forced on an individual. What is seen from this understanding is that in a Botho philosophical ethos, our differences do not qualify us to belong, but the uniqueness should be seen as the beauty of the community, and thus recognising diversity (Ngomane, 2020). In line with inclusivism in education, holism means that no separate schools or institutions according to disabilities are to exist. An all-inclusive school shows the Botho philosophical elements by accepting and tolerating the differences in make-up and abilities. In Botswana there is a Tswana proverb that says, ‘se tshwarwa ke ntswa pedi ga se thata’ (literally meaning you need a team to make a difference). This means an individual’s impact is not greater than the team’s efforts. With the eye of the Botho philosophy, the

138  Macdelyn Mosalagae being is recognised as there is a holistic equilibrium between the community and the self (Ngomane, 2020). It is noteworthy that wholeness between people is cemented by some form of spirit which is a contributory factor to being whole. This spirit is considered below. Spirituality

The relationship that binds people to become one and live communally, which ultimately qualifies them to become whole as individuals, is glued by a form of natural disposition which is the spirit. Spirit in this chapter should not be misunderstood as a religious spirit but from a lens within which is the soul. The soul then is not seen as air or wind but a behavioural attitude towards self and other beings. It is from this understanding that such kind of positive attitudes in people are recognised as Botho. The Botho spirit then makes one’s personality recognise the link between the individual, community, and environment. In Sotho-Tswana culture, to have the spirit of Botho means an individual is able to see the self in others. In such a scenario, the elements of caring, respect for each other, tolerance, and appreciation are epitomised. In relation to education and inclusive settings, Botho spirit entails that at the apex is the acknowledgement and admiration of differences. This kind of Botho spirit helps learners and all stakeholders appreciate other learners’ learning styles and level of disabilities. When one is appreciated from this context, affirmation and empathy towards others is the goal of the day and equates to cherishing diversity. It is this spirit that helps colleges or schools afford students with disabilities access to education in a meaningful way in which they are allowed to participate in the college as a community. In a nutshell, the spirit of Botho brings about cooperation, communication, and collaboration because individuals are bonded by a common goal. Findings This section presents the findings which emanated from a thematic analysis of the views of the 20 lecturers and the 2 officers at 2 TVET institutions in Botswana. The findings are based on the interpretations of what Botho is in the context of Botswana, and how the lecturers and curriculum developers implement inclusion with regard to the type of disabilities experienced by individuals enrolled at their institutions. The sections present participants’ verbatim quotes to convey their interpretation. Meaning of Botho

The meaning of Botho was associated with being, human consciousness, and personhood as principles of living. Almost all lecturers and officers are of the view that each individual is more important than any education you can

Inclusive education at TVET institutions  139 render to an individual. Some lecturers offered the meaning of Botho from humanistic perspectives, as exemplified by the following accounts.

Botho is when we are relating in a way that you feel as a person, you are relating to me in a way that is not demeaning in any way. Respondent 1

Botho means who you are and how you relate with other people, how you take yourself in front of other students in everyday places. Respondent 7

The above quotes speak to what has been evident from the literature review that rationality is at the root of being a person. This speaks to Murove’s (2014: 44) argument that, ‘personhood is thus relationally constituted to such an extent that there cannot be personhood outside Ukama with others,’ that is, relating not only with people but beyond the spectrum of the environment. In fact, Mtenyana (1986) concludes that, ‘Ubuntu is the quality of being human. It is the quality, or behaviour of “ntu” or society that is sharing, charitableness, and cooperation. It is a spirit of participatory humanism.’ One of the themes that emerged was the Botho philosophy as a moral conduct. Here participants associated Botho with how one reacts and interacts with others. Basically, how one displays different attitudes towards others: A positive attitude which shows one to be ‘motho yo o naleng botho’ (one having Botho) and a negative attitude being the inverse. Waghid (2016) attests that when you want to give high praise to someone you say, ‘Yu, u Nobuntu’; he or she has Botho. The same has been observed by Ngomane (2020) and Murove (2014). The respondents’ quotes mentioned below share the same sentiments.

I would say it’s a general word that defines a lot of things. It would define your behaviour to other people, showing compassion is Botho, humility is Botho, helping another person is Botho, it’s widespread and it can mean a lot of things. Respondent 15

140  Macdelyn Mosalagae Botho is very important because it’s how you handle yourself when you work with other people, being able to take the differences that each and every one has to present at the workplace. It’s a very good concept if you keep to it; it doesn’t only develop you or add to your personal value but as well as somebody who can be respected because it is earned. Respondent 20

The above examples stress the hallmark of Botho, as observed by Nussbaum (2003), who says that because of its emphasis on our common humanity and the ethical call to embody our communal responsiveness in the world, the Botho philosophy offers an alternative way to re-create a world that works for all. Simply put, as alluded to by Nussbaum (2003), people, businesses, and countries would re-learn how to live together with respect, compassion, dignity, and justice and to reorganise resources accordingly. The concept of Botho and its relevance to people with disabilities

Individuals who are disabled have feelings like us; there is no difference between us and them, we are people, we have the same needs, the same wants and whatever. Respondent 12

Botho, I would say, is accepting everyone for who they are. Respondent 9

The above quotes are an affirmation of what Botho stands for, which is seeing diversity among ourselves not only as different in terms of race but even within a mono culture. With respect to disability, Botho was summarised as accepting the difference in others, their uniqueness and knowing that all have been born or made from the same image. As beautifully said by Nussbaum (2003: 3): ‘The African view of personhood denies that a person can be described solely in terms of the physical and psychological properties.’ This inclusiveness would acknowledge that disability is part of humanity. Therefore, negative attitudes are tendencies and practices of ableism.

Inclusive education at TVET institutions  141 From the three themes discussed above on understanding the Botho – whether it is its meaning, as a moral conduct, or how it relates to disability – there is one thing that connects the three and this can be defined as elements. From the respondents, this, knit together, is what represents fundamental dimensions. One can safely conclude that the Botho philosophy is synonymous with people’s skills which are expressed in words such as care, loving, and respect. Such traits are translated into people’s well-being which is the epitome of the Botho philosophy. Well-being experiences dictate that people are given the liberty to be themselves, the space around them is made safe, individuals participate and are given the functioning to realise and reach their potential. By so doing, they are actualising, an observation made by Nussbaum (2003: 1) that ‘the underlying values of this extraordinary philosophy seek to honour the dignity of each person and are concerned with the development and maintenance of mutually affirming and enhancing relationships.’ What arises from these four themes, in terms of an educational perspective, is that it is important that the society, especially schools, promote inclusive settings. It is worth noting that while segregation in schools has some educational benefits, it takes away individuals from inclusiveness. The world does not have mainstream or segregation settings demarcated for specific individuals; so the same students we would want to segregate are the same students whom we would bring back to this non-partitioned world or society. It is then paramount to have inclusive schools. What do the Botho philosophy-inspired curriculum, pedagogies, and assessments look like?

The TVET system worldwide is known as a vehicle for poverty eradication through the outcome-based programmes they offer. If this is the claim, then it would be right to look for suitable curricula, pedagogies, and philosophies to facilitate that goal. Sharing the same sentiments is Waghid (2020), who proposes an Ubuntu philosophy for higher education for the whole continent as guidance for its practices. To make this assertion practical, Botswana’s TVET needs to be a culturally responsive curriculum and pedagogies that will also fit in with the Botswana’s conceptualisation of the Botho philosophy. This curriculum and pedagogies that resonate with the culture and the spirit of Botho takes into consideration the humanness of the individual. In this section, I discuss how participants have used the Botho philosophy in their facilitation of teaching and learning of students with disabilities. a) Curriculum and learning

Throughout the Botho philosophy discussion, an important and strong aspect is communal membership characterised by a sense of belonging, which enables one to participate fully in the society and life of the community. In the context of this chapter, the Botho philosophy inspired curriculum would

142  Macdelyn Mosalagae involve non-prejudiced approaches which enable learners to participate in their learning. It would be a curriculum that promotes a kin relationship for one to socially participate by accessing learning that will equip one with competencies to be part of the community and worthily recognised. Inclusive education, with its goal of promoting a school culture where each person’s contribution matters, is a good reflection of a Botho philosophy. Findings from the data indicate that the TVET curriculum for students with special needs is flexible to meet the needs of the learner. In this context, flexibility means that if it has been planned and does not suit the students’ diverse conditions, it is modified to accommodate the learner. The whole idea of the TVET system is to produce a self-reliant graduate. This comes from teaching and learning that allows the freedom to experiment, explore, and express one’s humanness. From a communal perspective, individuals are allowed the opportunity to contribute to learning. One respondent emphasised this by saying: As lecturers it is not that we can always know all. I allow students to contribute to what they can do in class as long as students give reasons. I give them a chance to explore and learn and that encourages them to learn and come up with ideas. Respondent 17 What the participants have said resonates with what has been captured by Waghid (2020: 2) that, ‘in an Ubuntu notion of co-belonging, teachers and students become co-investigators.’ This means that a Botho curriculum supports human centredness rather than looking at the conditions that learners bring with them to learning. The collegiate community needs to understand that if they are to promote the Botho philosophy, students with disabilities should be seen as bona fide students of the college first before they can be categorised in their departments or course of study. This then calls for pedagogies that are appropriate for co-belonging, which will now be discussed. b) Pedagogies

One of the key findings from this study confirms studies done by others (Menkiti, 1984; Nussbaum, 2003; Ramose, 1999; Waghid, 2016). This is an emphasis on community, that is, a group or society that one can identify with. From an educational point of view, communities are in the form of classmates or schoolmates, and in the case of TVET it becomes course mates (e.g., culinary arts students, carpentry, and joinery). Once one has identified with a group, it forms an association which helps one to have a sense of belonging. A Botho curriculum would emphasise plural association where

Inclusive education at TVET institutions  143 learners are either grouped in mixed abilities, in dyads, or triads, never to work alone. Such an act emphasises the plurality of motho to batho and hence motho ke motho ka ba bagwe. It may be argued that in TVET, because of the different certificate levels, it may be seen as discrimination when students with disabilities are segregated instead of integrated. However, it should be noted that such an arrangement is the best possible way for students with disabilities to access the curriculum. Nonetheless, relatedness may be shown through team tasking. For example, students studying hospitality operations under the food preparation unit may meet the objective of the day through mixed ability grouping when tasked to do a meal of the day. The essence of working together is emphasised by the Botho philosophy in which individuals are connected through self-giving by means of the virtues of sensitivity to each other’s needs, hospitality, and caring (Waghid, 2020). The data indicated that lecturers used collaborative or integrative teaching, where the special educators and vocational lecturers share the teaching in a session. It helps learners to participate in learning as the student-centred approach is utilised. The student-centred approach entails students learning on their own and that is when they cooperate and identify with others. Therefore, the use of social constructivism is an ideal pedagogy as it resonates with the Botho philosophy of education as it promotes heterogeneity where students engage in cooperative learning in which they use their environments. In the context of this chapter, Botho informed teaching and learning would mean that lecturers acknowledge that all students – regardless of their backgrounds – have something to offer in the classroom. One of the participants had this to say: I always try to be flexible depending on what they tell me and how I see it going to work. For example, when I come up with activities sometimes I engage them to say, ‘How best can we do this guys?’ because I know they are not empty, they can come up with very good ideas. So I give them choices in that manner. Respondent 13 This kind of pedagogy acknowledges that individuals are respected and treated with dignity in knowing that they can contribute to learning from their qualitative experiences. The fact that staff alluded to this in the above quote indicates that they value students despite any disabilities they may have because their humanity as individuals supersedes people’s inabilities. Therefore, the ‘being’ of an individual rests within the welfare of others, given that all are interconnected with the community. But, how do lecturers gauge whether their pedagogical choice has yielded any fruit in terms of their learning objective?

144  Macdelyn Mosalagae c) Assessments

Data findings have shown that participants associated inclusion in education with what they termed human consciousness and personhood. They pointed out that the humanistic spirit is important in how people deal with each other and is very important in acknowledging one’s humanity above all other things. Thus, in their teaching, participants reported that first they needed to acknowledge that they are teaching a unique set of students who must be treated with civility and respect. For example, one of the participants said: My interpretation of Botho in education is that everybody must have access to education and ensuring that each and every person at the level or with whatever challenges that they may have, are catered for in one way or the other. Respondent 20 Such a stance enabled lecturers to make individualised plans for each student and remediation plans according to the individuals’ needs. By doing so, the lecturers acknowledged the strengths and weaknesses of each student without necessarily wanting them to compete with others. More importantly, everyone should have the competency of whatever learning objective is needed to be achieved without the pressure of going at the pace of others in class. From a Botho philosophy, such acts taken by lecturers resonate with Waghid’s (2020) assertion that Ubuntu calls for engaging others without being deterred by the competences of others. Therefore, a Botho philosophy based assessment respects each person’s potential and how it can be maximised without being the same as each other. Teaching and learning from a Botho philosophy entail learner support assistance in which one-on-one support in the classroom is encouraged. For TVET, as an outcome-based programme, it necessitates that each student is given an opportunity to participate in the end product. In TVET education, specifically for students with disabilities, learners are assessed on three criteria: Either they have achieved independently, achieved with support, or not achieved. Thus, students are not graded, as outcome-based means either you have done it or not. For example, for a student doing culinary arts, making dough is not a question of whether the dough has been done with an A or B grade, it’s a question of whether a student knows how to make a proper dough. The Botho philosophy therefore makes this kind of assessment possible by acknowledging that one would produce bread at their pace whether independently or with support. Consequently, from a Botho perspective, individuals are given the space to be themselves and allowed to take risks and explore their potential. For such an environment to exist there is a need for policies to integrate that. I argue that classroom guidelines and implementations start from good policy formulation. Botho therefore starts from policies to make educational systems culturally and contextually aligned to African philosophies.

Inclusive education at TVET institutions  145 Conclusion The chapter has discussed the Botho philosophy in the context of Botswana’s TVET institutions. I have shown the value of the Botho philosophy in Botswana’s TVET education system as it relates to inclusive education, especially for students with disabilities. Most importantly, I have maintained that Botho as a philosophy with a humanistic nature is relevant to disability issues as it looks beyond the physical being of the individual and rather sees the individual from a different perspective. The chapter has drawn attention to the Botho philosophical values that can address a contextualised pedagogy of teaching and learning from a cultural perspective. The findings have revealed that staff understand Botho as a moral conduct that defines what it means to be human in Botswana and what that humanness entails in their daily teaching experiences. Such an understanding has shown that if Botswana’s education system can adopt the Botho philosophy as a framework that guides their teaching methods, and assessments, curricula inclusivity in education would be achieved. More importantly, Botswana’s vision 2036 of an educated and informed nation would be realised. If this stance is taken, it would reform or reshape the curricula that are aligned with the culture of Botswana. The results of the research have also shown that the Botho philosophy has similar values to inclusive education, e.g., the values of care, communalism, and relatedness which staff have capitalised on to form communities of learning and promote personhood. The staff interpretation of Botho was instrumental in how they apply the curricula. The chapter has shown that curriculum and learning, pedagogies and assessments were centred on the recognition of promoting diversity, respect for each other, and integrated approaches to teaching. All these values pointed to recognition of being human. The chapter has presented how staff have embedded the Botho philosophy in their curriculum and pedagogies. For instance, they have promoted students’ social wellbeing by employing teaching methods that promote social interaction, respect for different learning styles and methods that promote human potential. Important was the staff awareness of the different abilities and achievements in terms of their assessment system. Using the Botho philosophy showed up a practical example of a desired inclusion in education that is authentic and grounded on culture. I have also argued that if TVET wants to realise its goals of maximising an individual’s potential and being a vehicle for poverty reduction, then it should create teaching and learning environments that promote humanness and consciousness to the sensitivity of other persons.

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Translating the Ubuntu philosophy into practical disability inclusive interventions The Obuntu bulamu experience from Uganda Femke Bannink Mbazzi

Introduction Disability studies have been dominated by scholars from the Global North and predominantly use the disability language of ‘international’ normative frameworks such as the Convention of the Rights for Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) (United Nations, 2006), and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) (United Nations, 2015). Existing theoretical frameworks and interventions for persons with disabilities in the Global South are based mostly on these ‘international’ conventions and funded and implemented by private not-for-profit agencies (Bannink Mbazzi et al., 2020; Bannink Mbazzi et al., 2020). Several frameworks include reference to the vicious cycle of poverty and disability, as well as stigma, and include persons with disabilities as one of the ‘most vulnerable’ groups in poverty alleviation in need of ‘empowering’ interventions (Baffoe, 2013; Banks et al., 2017; Filmer, 2008; Hoogeveen, 2005; Loeb et al., 2008; Palmer, 2011; Susman, 1994). The interventions often start from a theoretical framework of human rights, stigma, exclusion, and discrimination and aim to improve the medical, rehabilitative, and socio-economic situation of persons with disabilities. Whilst there is a general consensus that these conventions are designed to benefit persons with disabilities, several researchers have questioned whether theoretical disability models are transferrable across cultures (Grech, 2011; Haang’andu, 2018; Meekosha, 2011; Miles, 2003; Soldatic & Grech, 2014). Without questioning the dominance of theories and power from the Global North in the disability field, generalised and simplified descriptions of disability experiences are created (Grech, 2011; Haang’andu, 2018; Ingstad & Whyte, 1995; Meekosha, 2011). Disability scholars have argued for valuing diverse understandings and a different discourse when studying disability in the Global South and have highlighted the importance of exploring the intersectionality of disability with race, gender, discrimination, post-colonialism, culture, and poverty (Goodley, 2016; Grech, 2009; Ingstad & Whyte, 1995; Meekosha, 2011; Munthali, 2023; Seligman & Darling, 2009). Phasha et al. (2017) emphasise DOI: 10.4324/9781003343684-9

Ubuntu and inclusive education in Uganda  149 the need to acknowledge social difference, identity, power, and culture when studying inclusion and inclusive schooling, and to look at difference as a strength. They argue that there is a need to look at the example of African indigenous education, which is about inclusion and embracing cultural knowledge. African scholars have suggested looking at family, poverty, cultural conceptions of disability, and the notion of Ubuntu (‘I am because we are’) as an alternative disability discourse (Berghs, 2017; Chataika & McKenzie, 2013). Ubuntu in Disability Studies Whilst the word Ubuntu originally comes from South African Zulu and Xhosa languages, the same philosophy and concept of humanness are found in various East and South African countries, with each language having its own specific version and meaning of the concept (Hailey, 2008), e.g., Obuntu bulamu in Uganda (Bannink Mbazzi et al., 2020). Ubuntu, translated to ‘I am because we are’ or ‘humanity to others,’ has been embraced, and carefully criticised as African humanism (Chataika & McKenzie, 2013; Hailey, 2008; Matolino & Kwindingwi, 2013; Mugumbate & Nyanguru, 2013). Treating others with dignity and respect is a central element of the Ubuntu philosophy, as are the willingness to negotiate in good faith, the provision of opportunities for self-expression, understanding the beliefs and practices, honouring seniority, promoting equity, and being flexible and accommodative (Berghs, forthcoming; Hailey, 2008; Mahaye, 2018). In the Ubuntu philosophy, social interrelations and responsibilities are a precondition for existence. The individual only has meaning in relationship to an experience of community (Msengana, 2006). The Ubuntu philosophy’s value of communalism ‘promotes the cultivation of reciprocal relationships or friendships regardless of one’s social status’ (Chiwandire, 2021: 361). This chapter describes the development and implementation of the ‘Obuntu bulamu’ inclusive education intervention based on and named after this indigenous philosophy. Ubuntu and inclusive education In most African countries with a colonial history, the provision of specialised education for learners with disabilities was initiated by charitable and religious organisations (Chiwaya et al., 2020). After the publication of the Salamanca Statement countries from the Global South started adopting inclusive education in contexts of ‘underdevelopment’ with ‘colonial legacies.’ Special, and later, inclusive education in the Global South was developed from a Global North education system, which provided quality basic education for all and was supported by technical, legislative, and financial resources to shift from special to inclusive education (Walton, 2018). Local,

150  Femke Bannink Mbazzi indigenous, and culturally relevant knowledge in education were minimised (Phasha et al., 2017; Walton, 2018). Watson (2018) considers the uncritical acceptance of diagnostic categories and inclusive education concepts from the Global North as coloniality of knowledge, and argues that instead of decolonising inclusive education, we could look at inclusive education to resist coloniality (Watson, 2018). Various other authors have suggested renovating African culture and rewriting education curricula and practices using indigenous knowledge (Mahaye, 2018; Oviawe, 2016). Kisanji (1995) and Phasha et al., (2017) suggested that inclusive education is closely related to indigenous practices of Ubuntu and attitudes of people in Sub-Saharan Africa and encouraged examining African history and cultural traditions. Oviawe (2016) argues that embracing the Ubuntu philosophy in education can create educational systems that are culturally and intellectually relevant, bridging the classroom and community, hence ameliorating the long-standing effects of colonial legacy of the education system in Africa. Mahayi (2018) suggests seeing schools as a community, not a collection of individuals and argues that applying the core values of the Ubuntu philosophy develops the humane character of students. Obuntu bulamu conceptual framework In Uganda Obuntu bulamu is described as an accepted and consistent behaviour that signifies a shared set of values that promote well-being, togetherness, and unity (Karlström, 1996; Otiso, 2006). Elsewhere we described the concepts ‘missing parts,’ ‘the ability to manage,’ belonging, and ‘being given a chance’ as key concepts in disability inclusion for children (and adults) with disabilities in Uganda, and proposed the Obuntu bulamu framework with belonging at its core to give a more culturally embedded and relevant starting point for disability inclusion interventions (Bannink et al., 2019). We proposed this framework because inclusion of children with disabilities in communities, especially schools, is still lacking in Uganda despite the implementation of various (imported) inclusion programmes and policies (Altinyelken, 2010; DANIDA, 2005; Ministry of Education and Sports, 2019; UNICEF, 2014). The Obuntu bulamu framework starts with recognition and belonging. The emphasis is upon the importance of belonging (the attachment to people and places in a person’s life) before being (who the person is) and becoming (things the person does through life) can take place (F. Bannink et al., 2019; Brown, 2003; Woodill et al., 1994). Belonging, in this framework, is closely tied to recognition of the child by his or her family and community, whilst being is about interdependency between the child, family, school, and community members enabling the child to ‘become’ (Bannink, 2017). Belonging to a family and clan has social and financial implications for the mother of the child and the support the child receives (Roscoe, 1965). For example, in the patrilineal system

Ubuntu and inclusive education in Uganda  151 among the Baganda in Central Uganda, the father’s clan is expected to give the child a clan name. Once the child is given that name, the father’s family must ‘provide’ food, shelter, and school fees. If the father does not recognise the child, these ‘provisions’ mentioned above are not made, and the mother must fend for the child herself (F. Bannink, 2017). Being is closely attached to one’s role and the mutual obligations in the family and community (Asiimwe, 2002). In East Africa the decision to regard a child as disabled is often related to the child’s inability to carry out age-appropriate chores and tasks (F. Bannink et al., 2019; Mutua & Swadener, 2011). The emphasis on ‘being able to manage’ – including the ability to carry out chores and tasks and participate in social events – has a deeper meaning than participation and is again linked to being ‘because we are.’ For example, a child who has hearing difficulties is considered ‘disabled’ as (s)/he has a ‘missing part’ (the ears ‘do not work’), and the child can carry out some age-appropriate chores and tasks but not all, as a number of these tasks in the community involve verbal communication. Despite being unable to carry out an ageappropriate task using verbal communication, the child can still be given ‘a chance.’ This ‘chance’ suggests a sense of reciprocity and duty, to all present at home, at school, and in communities, valuing mutual obligations between family members and community members to include children with disabilities (Bannink et al., 2019). The Obuntu bulamu intervention The Obuntu bulamu intervention is a co-created peer-to-peer support intervention to improve disability inclusion in primary schools in Uganda, based on the Obuntu bulamu theoretical framework. The assumption underpinning the intervention is that in Obuntu bulamu everyone has a responsibility in caring for the other, and that all are interlinked. ‘Peer-to-peer’ support consists of dyadic support between two persons as well as interlinkages with small groups of people around the child who support belonging in the community, e.g., parents, siblings, neighbours, teachers, and religious and community leaders. By nurturing a community support system the child ‘is given a chance’ to participate and is included in daily activities at home, school, and the community. The intervention consists of three training days and peer-to-peer follow-up activities for children, parents (in the wider, Ugandan meaning of the word), and teachers over the period of one school year. The three training days are spread out over a period of three to four months, in the first and second terms of the school year. The training consists of participatory learning methods around the following themes: Value of Obuntu bulamu, the meaning of disability and impairment in the Ugandan setting, peer-to-peer support activities which promote Obuntu bulamu, and development and support of home, school, and community-based activities which include children with disabilities. Culturally appropriate activities such as storytelling, singing, games for

152  Femke Bannink Mbazzi children, and singing, enactment and group discussions for adults are part of the training methods. Each subgroup receives tailored training addressing the themes above in a meaningful way to enable translation into daily life activities. Training is delivered concurrently at the school on weekends for all participants from that particular community. At the end of each training day, the three subgroups came together to share what they have learned and jointly discuss next steps of peer-support activities in their schools and communities. The training is facilitated by parents and teachers from the communities who were trained by the Obuntu bulamu intervention development team using a facilitators’ and participant training manual and various locally developed, designed, printed, and sourced training materials for display and activities. The peer-to-peer support activities which follow the training days are developed by and implemented by children, parents, and teachers themselves. Each child, parent, and teacher is matched with a ‘peer’ and engages in a reciprocal supportive relationship. Alongside the peer pair support, regular encounters take place with the respective child, parent, and teacher and their peers to create a community of support. Follow-up peer-to-peer support activities, in between and after the training days, include home and school visits by peer parents and teachers, community discussions, and use of creative methods with children including art, photos, and video in which they shared their stories and discussed the value of friendships, support, and inclusion in their daily lives. Depending on the school and community, different activities are initiated. For example, some of the children’s peer-support activities include practical classroom support such as ensuring a child using a wheelchair has a peer for mobility support, children with difficulties in information processing, hearing, or handwriting having peer note takers, and parents and teachers bringing local materials to school to make sports activities and learning materials inclusive. Other schools organise exchange visits to learn from each other and create a wider disability inclusive community in their area. Others lobby with local community leaders and district education offices for support and funding for the provision of learning materials or infrastructural changes. Parents often share their stories and discuss the importance of shared responsibility in church, the mosque, or other community-related events. Some develop songs, drama sketches which they perform in their communities. Referral systems to health facilities are set up and communicated during the training, and ‘focal’ parents and teachers are appointed as contact persons for information about the same. By creating ‘communities of care and belonging’ the Obuntu bulamu intervention aims to create sustainable changes in the social fabric of communities and plant seeds in reviving the value of the Ubuntu philosophy and facilitate the link to disability inclusion. Developing the Obuntu bulamu intervention

The intervention was developed by a research team consisting of Ugandan representatives of families with children with disabilities, adults with

Ubuntu and inclusive education in Uganda  153 disabilities, children with disabilities, parents’ support groups, rehabilitation workers, policymakers, and Ugandan (based) academics. It started out as a group of persons who had met each other at different disability-related research and development cooperation events over a period of more than ten years. They had been involved in other disability inclusion interventions, mostly interventions adapted from the Global North, and felt that these did not sufficiently address disability and inclusion in accordance with Ugandan culture and the education system. For example, only 9% of children with disabilities in Uganda go to school (UNICEF, 2014) despite years of investment in special needs education and inclusion by international agencies (DANIDA, 2005; Ministry of Education and Sports, 2019). The group met at least every quarter over a period of three years during the development and testing of the intervention (2017–2019). The team members also held smaller group consultations with different sets of team members to provide inputs on developed intervention drafts during the process. Testing of the Obuntu bulamu intervention

The intervention was tested in 10 communities in Wakiso district in Central Uganda in which children aged 8 to 14 years with different impairments, enrolled in primary schools between 2017 and 2019, were purposefully selected with different levels of household income and familial support, with on average three children with disabilities per community. Participants were selected by the Obuntu bulamu team in collaboration with teachers,’ parents’ and district education office representatives. Culturally adapted ‘international (Mkabela, 2005) standards and tools,’ also described as Adaptive Evaluation Approach by Carden and Alkin (2012) and Chilisa et al. (2016), as well as more qualitative and ‘Afrocentric’ methods were piloted to evaluate the intervention. In the testing phase between 2017 and 2019 baseline, midline, and endline interview and focus group discussion data were collected from 64 parents and 33 teachers who participated in the testing of the intervention. Interview and focus group discussions focused on the perception and evaluation of the intervention. Observational data from the home and school setting, as well as visual narrative data, including drawings and photo narratives, were collected with the 32 children with different disabilities and 32 peers. Two ‘participatory action research meetings’ with all participants to co-create, test, and evaluate the Obuntu bulamu intervention were held. The research team consisted of community members, participants, researchers, and decision-makers. Team members tried to collect data consistent with the value of Obuntu bulamu, emphasising oneness. Rather than keeping a scientific distance, the research team immersed themselves culturally and socially with the children, parents, and teachers who were part of the project, something which has previously been described as culturally adapted ‘international (Mkabela, 2005) standards and tools,’ also described as Adaptive Evaluation Approaches by Carden and Alkin (2012) and Chilisa

154  Femke Bannink Mbazzi et al. (2016), as well as more qualitative and ‘Afrocentric’ methods, were piloted to evaluate the intervention. Data collection was conducted by persons from the research team who participants felt closer to, in terms of educational and social background (including masters’ students with disabilities and parents of children with disabilities). The team members frequently met with participants at home, in community meetings, and were in touch with each other on the phone. Some research team members were already or became part of the peer-support group that the Obuntu bulamu intervention promotes and are still in touch with the participants. This closeness allowed for sharing of personal and sensitive information whilst observing research ethics. It also ensured involvement of participants in all stages of research, e.g., case studies and findings were co-written and checked with the research team and study participants for validation. In addition study participants, including children, participated in the dissemination of findings in their communities. Evaluating the Obuntu bulamu peer-to-peer support intervention

The feasibility testing phase and evaluation showed that the Obuntu bulamu intervention has the potential to offer a culturally relevant alternative to imported disability inclusion interventions, and can improve ‘participation’ and ‘inclusion’ (Bannink Mbazzi, 2020). Children with disabilities and their peers described the Obuntu bulamu intervention as an intervention in which people are kind to each other, as an intervention of friendship, sharing, and working together, and receiving support from teachers and parents when needed. Parents and teachers mostly emphasised that the Obuntu bulamu intervention stressed the need to love all and give all students a chance and allow them to participate in mainstream education. Children with disabilities mostly found the intervention fun, as it involved peers from their schools and communities, which helped initiate and strengthen existing friendships and support. The children with disabilities and their peers felt that inviting them together to the training sessions and planning activities helped support each other and share more. The child peerto-peer support was also valued highly by parents and teachers. Parents of peers mentioned the inclusion of their children and themselves as parents in all training sessions and activities were the most important aspect of the intervention, as this created relationships between the children and parents which otherwise would not exist. Overall, parents and children felt the training was sufficient and follow-up support and activities were tailored to their needs. All appreciated the approach of involving peers and having focal persons to speak to in case of any concerns. Parents appreciated the follow-up by peer parents at home too and explained this helped them share any concerns they might have not been able to share or show the peer during the group training sessions and meetings, they felt supported.

Ubuntu and inclusive education in Uganda  155 Parents said the training sessions were very practical and had low-cost solutions on how to care for and parent their children. Teachers felt that the training sessions had been useful as they were given by fellow Ugandan teachers who were conversant with the education system and able to practically think of solutions to the challenges they face when including all students in class. Teachers said the support of other teachers in their schools was one of the most important components of the intervention when describing positive aspects. Teachers also appreciated the exchange visits and the involvement of (focal) parents in school to help them to take care of children with disabilities together. The intervention was presented and well received by the Ugandan Ministry of Education and Sports, and intervention guidelines were published in 2022. In 2020, a 4-year study in 20 communities involving over 600 children, parents, and teachers in two districts in Central Uganda commenced to further evaluate if the Obuntu bulamu intervention can be scaled up as a nation-wide approach. The COVID-19 outbreak and related school closure of 2 years disrupted the trial which has recently restarted. Interestingly, the communities which were followed up during the COVID-19 outbreak from the feasibility testing phase, continued to phone each other and the Obuntu bulamu team to support each other, and during lockdown, organised food and medicine distributions. Next steps In this chapter we described the development and testing of the Obuntu bulamu intervention, which is based on the Obuntu bulamu alternative disability framework to ‘improve disability inclusion.’ According to our knowledge it is one of the few interventions which aims to translate the Ubuntu’ philosophy into practical disability inclusive education actions that have been written about in academic literature. Earlier Collins-Warfield (2008) described how in her fieldwork she found Xhosa teachers in South Africa feel the responsibility to teach about the Ubuntu philosophy, because of its erosion due to globalisation, and teach students about the Ubuntu philosophy by modelling it in everyday actions and behaviour. She described teacher–student support as well as teacher– teacher support in terms of food, clothing, social, and moral support. She narrated the importance of being part of a school community and showing care, kindness, and support towards each other. Masondo (2017) described a case study in which principals in South Africa form a support team, which includes community members, parents, and local leaders to draw on the Ubuntu philosophy to implement inclusive education. Through the different actors, awareness raising, and support is organised to improve inclusion in the school and community at large. Lorenzo (2003) recommended using storytelling to build emotional resourcefulness, nurturing families and children through disability issues,

156  Femke Bannink Mbazzi and renewing spirituality and Ubuntu in disability development with a focus on interdependence. Through the stories, children and adults learn more about the Ubuntu philosophical values and practices and display behaviour which is supportive of one another. An important point here is the focus on interdependence rather than independence, which also formed part of the Obuntu bulamu intervention. The Obuntu bulamu intervention development process was distinctive as it was a co-creative process that emerged over a fairly long period of time and built on experiences of persons with disabilities, families of children with disabilities, and academics and rehabilitation workers from the Ugandan disability field. It started from and proved that indigenous concepts can provide alternative frameworks for disability inclusion. Since the development of the Obuntu bulamu intervention several other African scholars have made suggestions on how the Ubuntu philosophy can be practically translated in education. Chiwandire (2021) has called for a shift from ‘academic’ to ‘social’ inclusion to achieve inclusive education. Musengi (2021) too has emphasised the importance of the social aspects of learning and activities outside the classroom and suggests dedicated activities and time to foster this. Chiwandire (2021) argued for more ‘hospitality,’ which will eventually improve physical access, as one would want to include all members of the community in sports, and make sure they access buildings in which the community learns, lives, and celebrates. In Obuntu bulamu we create peer-to-peer support networks to create a sense of belonging, which in turn facilitates inclusive education in the classroom, at home, and the wider school community. Chiwaya et al., (2020) also stresses the need for belonging and the need to mutually take responsibility for the children. Shared responsibility through family and community involvement is key in the Obuntu bulamu intervention. Earlier and more recently, other authors have highlighted the importance of family and community involvement to reclaim indigenous practices and values and implement the Ubuntu philosophy-inspired inclusive education (Chiwandire, 2021; Masondo, 2017; Musengi, 2021). Muzata et al., (2021) has argued that the extended family should be included to ensure inclusive education is successful. He suggests a mixed method approach in which current inclusive education methods, such as the development of an individual education plan, include relatives (not only parents), emphasises home education on disability for the family and communities, and builds on traditional learning methods and roles within the family (e.g., grandparents as counsellors). In Uganda, Ejuu and Opiyo (2022) developed the IHELP model for inclusive home-based early childhood education. This model adopts the five layers from the European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education but contextualises the layers to the outcome within the Ubuntu philosophy of care and reciprocity. Within an IHELP project in Kenya, Uganda and Zimbabwe, 24 home-based care units were started and managed by families

Ubuntu and inclusive education in Uganda  157 of the same community. Parents enrol their children in the centre and contribute by conducting lessons, preparing meals, and maintaining the centre. They teach children cultural values, play and language activities, and include children with disabilities. The model is designed to ensure a community response to childcare, and provide education and cultural enrichment true to the Ubuntu philosophy (Ejuu & Opiyoo, 2022). Odari (2020) has emphasised the importance of educators as agents of change and has argued that the Ubuntu philosophy should be compulsory in teachers’ education to build a more humanistic and inclusive society. As students spend the majority of their time with their teachers, the teachers, Odari (2020: 65) argues, need to be able to actualise the principles of Ubuntu as ‘agents of change.’ In Chiwaya et al.,’s (2020: 136) study in Malawi, teachers expressed the importance of the Ubuntu philosophy in teaching: ‘If a teacher lacks umunthu, love, and care, it does not work.’ This too, was described by teachers in the Obuntu bulamu intervention. The Obuntu bulamu intervention emphasises the need to include the Ubuntu philosophy in teachers’ training, but also sees education as something beyond the school, which needs to include family members and neighbours. This participation and community engagement goes beyond school-based training. Ohajunwa (2022) reviewed inclusive education policies in South Africa, Ghana, and Uganda and found that local knowledge is insufficiently included in national policies. He argues to promote and treat local knowledge as a community resource for policy implementation and suggests community engagement from the policy formation through implementation (Ohajunwa, 2022). Lephoto (2021) described how in Lesotho, the Ubuntu philosophical principles of participation, solidarity, interdependence, and connectedness can provide valuable inputs to facilitate inclusive education. She gives an example of having teacher counsellors work collaboratively and in solidarity with school administrations, parents, and learners to develop necessary inclusive education policies and practices. Chiwaya et al., (2020) argued for involvement of teachers in developing and implementing inclusive education policy to ensure indigenous values are considered. Similarly, Bannink Mbazzi and Kawesa (2022) have argued the voice of children and parents needs to be included to ensure policy and curricula reforms are relevant to the cultural context and daily reality of children with disabilities in Sub-Saharan Africa. Mutanga (2022) suggested curriculum reform to follow the principles of the Ubuntu philosophy and guide curriculum design, its content, and evaluation of inclusive education. He described the lack of inclusive education as a ‘lack of care,’ which ‘undermines teachers’ ability to get educated and educate students’ (Mutanga, 2022: 14). He narrates how the curriculum, pedagogy, and physical location and preparedness of teachers are key in determining inclusive education. Earlier Mahayi (2018) described how a multicultural curriculum needs to be ‘well-conceived, sensitive, thorough, and include the histories, experiences, traditions, and cultures of students in the classroom’ (Mahayi, 2018: 22). Whilst Odari (2020) and Walton (2018) have suggested

158  Femke Bannink Mbazzi to include African textbooks in the curriculum, Mahaye (2018) agrees that culturally responsive classrooms can include writing assignments, but should also look outside the classroom and include family members in assignments and weave family stories and traditions into teaching. In addition, Odari (2020) suggests changing exam-driven curricula to person-driven curricula, in which character building and core values such as empathy, respect, compassion, and justice are educational goals. In summary, Ubuntu-informed inclusive education interventions involve children, families, teachers, school administrators, neighbours, and religious and community leaders. The interventions are focused on teaching about the Ubuntu philosophy and African values, and utilise indigenous knowledge, stories, games, materials, and literature. This teaching can take place at teachers’ training colleges, on the job, and in communities. They are not limited to teachers only, but involve all different community actors, and create a network of interdependence and support for children and adults with disabilities. Interventions are informed by policies which should be developed with communities, based on Ubuntu values and practices. Conclusion Many traditional ways of caring for persons with disabilities in communities were destroyed when colonial humanitarian models were introduced (Ingstad, 1999; Miles, 2003). In our study we noticed how easily participants accepted and participated in an intervention that was based on an indigenous philosophy and appreciated how the research team members too became part of their lives, rather than staying as the distant investigator. The Ubuntu philosophy can be translated into practical interventions which make our schools and communities more inclusive. More research is needed by various African scholars from different African countries to further develop and test interventions and evaluation methods based on the Ubuntu philosophy to create African inclusive education interventions. Ethical approval Ethical approval for the Obuntu bulamu intervention study was obtained from the Uganda Virus Research Institute, Research Ethics Committee (GC/127/18/02/633). Research clearance was received from Uganda National Council for Science and Technology (HS SS4557). Declaration Parts of this chapter are a reproduction of the paper ‘Obuntu Bulamu’ – Development and Testing of an Indigenous Intervention for Disability Inclusion in Uganda,’ (https://doi​.org​/10​.16993​/sjdr​.697) with permission from the Scandinavian Journal for Disability Research.

Ubuntu and inclusive education in Uganda  159 Acknowledgements I would like to thank the Obuntu staff and partners organisations, study participants, MRC/UVRI & LSHTM staff for their support in making the Obuntu bulamu intervention what it is today. Special thanks go to the Obuntu study team: Elizabeth Kawesa, Claire Nimusiima, Jane Nassamba, Ruth Nalugya, Esther Nassanga, Prof Geert van Hove and Prof Janet Seeley. Funding The Obuntu bulamu study was funded by the VLIR-UOS University Development Cooperation through Ghent University under grant UG2018SIN235A103, NORAD/Atlas Alliance through the International Federation for Spina Bifida and Hydrocephalus and RHF, and Research Foundation – Flanders (FWO) under grant 12V7120N.

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10 Ubuntu philosophy and the experiences of Deaf people in Ghana Stephen Baffour Adjei, Sarah Tara Sam, Frank Owusu Sekyere, and Philip Boateng Introduction The first ever World Report on disability, produced jointly by the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the World Bank in 2011, estimates that more than a billion people in the world are living with disabilities and 80% of this population live in the Global South (WHO & World Bank, 2011). This global disability figure represents about 15% of the world’s population, with about 190 million (3.8%) of them aged 15 years and older experiencing significant difficulties in functioning that often require health care services (WHO, 2021). In Ghana, it is estimated that Persons With Disabilities (PWDs) constitute 3% of Ghana’s population (Ghana Statistical Service, 2012). Globally, PWDs have poorer health outcomes, lower educational achievements, less economic participation, and higher rates of poverty compared to their counterparts without disabilities, partly because of the many barriers PWDs experience in accessing social and economic services. The term disability is complex, dynamic, and multidimensional, and has been variously defined and contested in the literature. Despite the various conceptualisations and contestations, there is an increasing emphasis on environmental and social factors as defining disability in most societies of the world. For instance, disability has been understood as an umbrella term for impairments, activity limitations and participation restrictions, which involves the interaction between an individual with a health condition or impairment and the contextual factors (environmental and personal factors) of that individual (Leonardi et al., 2006). This understanding moves the conception of disability beyond the traditional medical model to a more structural and social perspective in which people are viewed as being disabled by society rather than by their bodies (Leonardi et al., 2006; Oliver, 1990). The WHO’s (2001) International Classification of Functioning (ICF) and the United Nations’ (2003) Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), adopted in 2006, both underscore the fact that disability is not an attribute of a person but rather, it involves a person–environment interaction in which there is a constant interaction between persons with impairments and attitudinal and environmental barriers that hinder such persons’ full, effective, and equal participation in society. DOI: 10.4324/9781003343684-10

164  Adjei, Sam, Sekyere, and Boateng The growing emphasis on the sociality of disability practically means that a community- or socially-oriented indigenous philosophy such as Ubuntu, which emphasises the social ethics of common and collective humanity and fellow feeling, could better serve as an ontological and epistemological framework for understanding disability and PWDs. Despite the social and humanitarian orientations of the African Ubuntu philosophy, the experiences of PWDs in Africa is nothing to write home about. As is the case in many places in Africa, PWDs constantly face marginalisation, stigmatisation, discrimination, and social exclusion in all spheres of the Ghanaian social and public life regardless of the Ghanaian belief in the philosophy of ‘wo yɔnko da ne wo da’ (an Akan1/Ghanaian conceptual equivalent of the Ubuntu philosophy which expresses the idea that what affects one in the community affects all). The social, cultural, political, and economic oppression faced by PWDs in Ghana further exacerbates the personal pain of impairment that many PWDs go through in their mundane lives. Another challenge in Ghana is a failure to acknowledge that disability is part of the human condition and that PWDs are humans like everybody else who should be allowed to participate in all the social, economic, political, and religious activities of society. In this chapter, we provide important reflective insights for understanding the challenges of PWDs in the midst of the Ghanaian (African) claim to the theory and practice of Ubuntu or its conceptual Ghanaian equivalence ‘wo yɔnko da ne wo da.’ We first discuss the theory and practice of Ubuntu in Africa, and the experiences of PWDs in Ghana to provide the relevant context for this chapter. Subsequently, we draw empirical insights from a Sign Language-mediated qualitative interview we conducted with Deaf participants2 in Ghana to illustrate the apparent conflict between the Ubuntu philosophy and the lived experiences of PWDs. Next, we examine the implications of the Ubuntu philosophy for understanding and addressing disability challenges, as well as dealing with diversity in Ghana. We finally offer some concluding remarks. Understanding Ubuntu philosophy in Africa The Ubuntu philosophy is at the heart of the existential and cultural experiences of most African communities. The Ubuntu philosophy describes a collection of values and practices that most African communities consider as making people authentic human beings. The Ubuntu philosophy is peoplecentred and it encourages people to affirm their own humanity by first recognising the humanity of others by showing compassion, kindness, friendliness, and consideration. Ubuntu is a South African linguistic term for the indigenous African philosophy which emphasises the relational nature of personhood and humanity towards others – knowing one’s fellow human beings and taking a keen interest in their wellbeing (Adjei, 2019; Mugumbate & Chereni, 2020). There are various terminologies of Ubuntu in many Sub-Saharan African communities. Mugumbate and Chereni (2020) have traced how Ubuntu is known in different African communities. For example, in Angola,

Ubuntu philosophy and the experiences of Deaf people in Ghana  165 Ubuntu is known as Gimuntu; in Botswana, Muthu; in Cameroon, Bato; in Congo, bantu; and in the Democratic Republic of Congo, it is expressed as bomoto or bantu. Also, the people of Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, the Gambia, Liberia, and Sierra Leone all refer to Ubuntu as Maaya, while Kenyans express it as Utu/Munto/Mond. The Malawians refer to it as Umunthu, Mali (Maaya/Hadama de ya), Mozambique (Vumuntu), Namibia (Omundu), Nigeria (Mutunchi/Iwa/Agwa), Rwanda (Bantu), South Africa (Ubuntu/Botho), Tanzania (Utu/Obuntu/Bumuntu), Uganda (Obuntu), Zambia (Umunthu/Ubuntu), and Zimbabwe (Hunhu/Unhu/Ubuntu). The Akans of Ghana express Ubuntu as biakoyɛ (unity is strength) or wo yɔnko da ne wo da (i.e., what affects one affects all). Despite the linguistic spread, conceptual equivalences and the nuances in the values and practices of the Ubuntu philosophy across different ethnic groups in Africa, they all converge and espouse an authentic individual human being who is inextricably and dialogically part of a larger and more significant relational, communal, societal, environmental, and spiritual world. For example, the core value of wo yɔnko da ne wo da, the Ghanaian/Akan linguistic equivalent of the Ubuntu philosophy, is universal vulnerability and collective responsibility, which espouses the understanding that vulnerability is a universal human condition, and thus rejects the labelling of a particular group of individuals as vulnerable. In other words, the ‘wo yɔnko da ne wo da’ aphorism reflects the African communitarian ethos which expresses the idea that ‘I exist because my neighbours (others) exist’ and therefore, the vulnerability of my neighbour (what affects my neighbour) becomes my vulnerability as well (affects me too), and thus, becomes the collective responsibility of the whole community (affects all). The ‘wo yɔnko da ne wo da’ view, as part of the Ubuntu philosophy, articulates the understanding that human beings are ontologically, historically, and materially interdependent and interconnected, to the extent that one’s misfortune or fortune is inherently and relationally connected to others in a community of embedded interdependence and shared responsibility. Fundamentally, the Ubuntu philosophy is a bedrock of a specific lifestyle or culture in Africa which expresses a deeply shared experience of social, communal, and emotional bonding, as well as a common sense of humanity. It is a ‘deeply moving yet intangible African soul force’ (Nussbaum, 2003: 1) that powerfully captures and demonstrates all of African ways and aspirations about how to live life well, together (Ngomane, 2020). Given the understanding that disability is located within the environment and not the person with a disability, the attitude and social perceptions of people in each community towards disability and PWDs are very crucial in addressing the discrimination, stigmatisation, and social exclusions suffered by disabled persons in Africa. Thus, the Ubuntu philosophy offers conceptual insights and opportunities for understanding and responding to disability and PWDs in Africa because of its focus ‘on the inclusivity of everyone within a community, their responsibility to others and to the wellbeing of the environment to ensure success for their own and future generations’ (Mayaka

166  Adjei, Sam, Sekyere, and Boateng & Truell, 2021: 3). For this reason, a faithful and practical adherence to the core tenets and values of the Ubuntu philosophy, such as community and fellow feeling, being humane, and showing compassion towards others, has the potential to foster human-centred treatment (experience) of PWDs, discourage the binaries that promote ability–disability difference and enhance positive health outcomes of PWDs. Thus, to be human, every human being – across all genders, ability, and race – needs other people because, according to the Ubuntu philosophy, every person is part of a whole, integrated into a comprehensive network of mutual dependencies (Graness, 2019). Disability and the experiences of PWDs in Ghana People with disabilities in Ghana, as elsewhere, continue to face disadvantages and social oppression mainly due to harmful attitudes, myths, prejudices, and stereotypes regarding disabilities, which further reinforces and perpetuates exclusion (Kassah, 2008; Ocran, 2019; Picton, 2011). The everyday experiences of PWDs in Ghana are characterised by determination, resilience, discrimination, support, and the lack of support (Kassah, 2008), and further marked by superstitious and traditional beliefs which result in stigmatisation, ostracism, and other unfavourable and less-desirable consequences (Opoku, 2021). There are a number of dehumanisation practices that are perpetrated against PWDs in Ghana, including the enactment of local laws to forbid marriages among PWDs in order to avoid Deaf children. For example, based on the belief that a marriage between two Deaf people will produce Deaf children, the people of Adamorobe, a village in Southern Ghana, introduced a law in 1975 that proscribed ‘deaf–deaf marriage’ to reduce the number of Deaf people in that community (Kuster, 2012). Also, in some parts of Northern Ghana, there have been reports of discrimination and stigmatisation against PWDs because of the belief that people with disabilities are not human (Salifu, 2007). According to Salifu (2007), the Dagombas of Northern Ghana classify disability and human-ness according to three categories: Nandamba, nammo, and binan. While the ‘nandamba’ category of people with disabilities, which include the blind and the deaf, are regarded by the Dagombas as full members of the community, the ‘nammo,’ which include those who have mobility challenges and those with disfigured facial features, and the ‘binan,’ which include dwarfs and other persons with developmental challenges, are regarded as not fully human in Dagbon by the Dagombas (Salifu, 2007). The exclusion of PWDs is so endemic that it has led to competent people with disabilities being excluded from decision-making and leadership positions in many communities in Ghana, including being barred or prevented from holding traditional leadership (i.e., chieftaincy) positions. Among the Akans of Ghana, for instance, one cannot ascend a chieftaincy throne on account of disabilities, even though the person may be the rightful heir to the throne. Despite the indication that Ghana’s democratic standards have

Ubuntu philosophy and the experiences of Deaf people in Ghana  167 deepened, PWDs are still placed on the fringes of national political positions. For example, when Dr. Henry Seidu Danaa, a visually impaired lawyer, was nominated for a government position as Minister for the Ministry for Chieftaincy and Religious Affairs in Ghana, some local chiefs protested his appointment, due to his disability (Sackey, 2015), with some of them citing an age-old tradition that suggests that chiefs are not supposed to see the visually impaired let alone shake hands with them. A recent media report indicates that, in the Central Region of Ghana, a 2-year-old autistic boy was buried alive by his 70-year-old grandfather with the support of the parents because the grandfather considered the boy as nsuo ba (spirit child) due to his autistic condition (Myjoyonline, 2022). Despite the several legal and constitutional provisions put in place to protect socially disadvantaged people in Ghana, as well as the many international conventions ratified by Ghana (e.g., UN Convention on the Rights of People with Disabilities), the country’s commitment to protecting the rights of people with disabilities and empowering them for full social participation remain low. Prior to and even after the enactment of Ghana’s Disability Act (2006), several provisions are yet to be fully implemented for the inclusion of PWDs (Ocran, 2019). For example, most public buildings, including governmental ones, are yet to be made inclusive by the integration of ramps, and elevators, among others, with the same situation persisting in the transportation system (Gyimah, 2010; Naami, 2019). A significant percentage of PWDs find themselves segregated from the regular education system or completely outside the formal education system due to the belief that they are defective and/or that their education will be of little or no use. Parents and families of PWDs are often overburdened with their care with no institutionalised framework to support them while being avoided like the plague (Opoku et al., 2020). PWDs in Ghana are often treated with a charity model in mind whereby they are considered as persons to be pitied or to be beneficiaries of the benevolence of the wider society (Sam, 2013). The significant discrimination and social exclusion faced by PWDs in Ghana are reflected in national data gathering and planning exercises. For example, until 2010, national data collection exercises in Ghana did not seem to regard disability and PWDs as a development priority. The Population and Housing Census (PHC) conducted every 10 years in Ghana is expected to capture all persons for national development planning purposes, yet a module/question on disability was included in Ghana’s PHC for the first time in 2010. This means that until the 2010 PHC, there was no reliable data on disability to help Ghana and other national data users (such as NGOs and International Stakeholders) prioritise and plan for the inclusion of PWDs in national and community development. The Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) conducts a nationally representative cross-sectional survey – the Ghana Living Standards Survey (GLSS) – that collects information on demographic characteristics, education, employment, health status, and healthcare utilisation of sampled households as well as their consumption expenditures on

168  Adjei, Sam, Sekyere, and Boateng both food and non-food items as well as owned assets. Out of the seven rounds of the GLSS conducted so far (1987, 1988, 1991/1992, 1998/1999, 2005/2006, 2012/2013, and 2016/2017), only the last two (i.e., 2012/2013 and 2016/2017) included questions on the disability status of respondents (Asuman, et al., 2021). The institutionalised interpretations of disability and the deleterious stereotypes and experiences that PWDs in Ghana face run contrary to the core values of the Ubuntu philosophy which emphasises inclusivity, compassion, respect for all, interconnectedness, and fellow and community feeling. In the section that follows, we draw empirical insights from our study with Deaf participants during the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana to underscore how the pandemic further exposed the contradictions between the professed claim to the Ubuntu philosophy and practice and the mundane experiences of PWDs. The lived experiences of Deaf people during the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana As is the case of PWDs generally, the challenges and barriers faced by Deaf people in a hearing world are many. Research consistently shows that access to communication, information, education, and primary health services remains a significant problem for Deaf people in many societies (Emond et al., 2015; Kuenburg et al., 2016). The debilitating effects of inequitable access to primary healthcare on the health of Deaf people, the challenges in communication with health providers and gaps in global health knowledge for Deaf people are well documented (Emond et al., 2015; Kuenburg et al., 2016). The outbreak of the novel coronavirus disease in 2019 (COVID-19) and the ravaging effects imposed by the pandemic have exacerbated the vulnerabilities of Deaf people in many areas of their lives. For example, the inequitable sharing of information on the pandemic and the danger it poses to Deaf people compelled the Deaf community in the United States of America to seek redress at the law courts (NAD, 2020). The situation in Ghana was not different. Generally, Deaf people in Ghana are dreaded, avoided, and rejected (Melander, 2008), and face social exclusion by the hearing community because of the belief that deafness is a disease, a curse, and contagious (Melander, 2008; Sarkodie, 1983) or a ‘negative condition’ with a spiritual origin, which requires to be cured, rejected, or hidden from the rest of society (Melander, 2008). When hearing people make references to or call Deaf people, they usually focus on their disability rather than their real names (Kuster, 2012; Melander, 2008). It is not uncommon for a hearing person in Ghana to disparagingly refer to Deaf people as mumu or mum (in the Akan language), or tokunor (in Ewe) to offensively signify that they are dumb (Oteng, 1988). Given the attention placed on their disabilities, it is often the case that the real names of Deaf persons in Ghana are unknown, even in their immediate communities, but rather their disabilities (Adjei et al., 2022). Deaf people

Ubuntu philosophy and the experiences of Deaf people in Ghana  169 continue to struggle to find their place in the hearing majority in Ghanaian society as they face several economic, social, and psychological challenges that impair their optimal daily functioning. They are often not factored into information and dissemination activities exemplified by the fact that very few television networks and public events concurrently translate their programmes and news items into Sign Language. The lack of mainstreaming and standardisation of Sign Language results in the alienation of Deaf people as they are unable to communicate with most community members and thus become linguistically excluded from mainstream life. The failure to include Sign Language in the educational curriculum implies that most Ghanaians are unable to sign to facilitate effective communication with the Deaf. Given the widespread socio-economic and communication challenges of Deaf people in pre-pandemic Ghana, it is obvious that the ravaging effects of the COVID-19 pandemic will have profound psychosocial implications for the Deaf community that rely on Sign Language for communication. Drawing insights from Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), we explored the lived experiences of Deaf people during the peak of COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana. The goal was to understand how the COVID-19 pandemic further exposed the vulnerabilities of the Deaf community and betrayed the Ghanaian professed belief in Ubuntu core values of common humanity, social justice, inclusion, and interdependence. Methodology We employed a qualitative approach and an interpretative phenomenological design to explore the lived experiences of Deaf people in Ghana during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study was part of our larger COVID-19 pandemic project that explored the lived experiences of children and young people, including PWDs, in Ghana during the COVID-19 pandemic. In this chapter, we report findings from the semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions conducted with eight Deaf participants (i.e., high school and university students; n = 8; aged = 19–25 years; 5 males, 3 females) through a Sign Language interpreter. Except for one post-lingual Deaf participant, all the participants were pre-lingual Deaf. The details of data collection procedures, ethical considerations, and methodological reflections have been reported elsewhere (Adjei et al., 2022; Gwenzi et al., 2020). We analysed the data based on insights drawn from Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) (Smith et al., 2022). The aim of using IPA was to explore, in-depth, how participants make sense of their personal and social world and the meanings they ascribe to their specific experiences, events, and situations during the COVID-19 pandemic (Silverman, 2006). The IPA allowed the emerging themes from the interview and their connection to theory and concepts to be developed (Smith & Osborn, 2003). We analysed the data concurrently with data collection. During the data collection, we engaged in reflexive journaling and recorded collaborative discussions. This

170  Adjei, Sam, Sekyere, and Boateng afforded us the opportunity to gain immediate familiarity with and interpretative context of the data. After the data collection, we independently listened to all recordings and read all the transcripts, paying attention to the frequency with which the themes occurred in terms of both the number of interviews and within interviews. The transcripts were read back and forth for purposes of coding the data thematically (Braun & Clarke, 2006). We first engaged in open coding in which we generated code categories inductively from the data and regularly met in-person to compare our categories from which broader themes were developed. The analysis then became focused based on the meanings participants made of their personal and social world relative to their lived experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. We then made meanings out of the participants’ meanings – double hermeneutics (Smith & Osborn, 2003) – and the resultant specific themes as well as theoretical and conceptual generalisations are presented in the next section as findings. To minimise our own preconceived notions in order to ensure that participants’ experiences and how they ascribe meanings to their everyday experiences are represented throughout the analysis, we used reflexivity at all the stages of analysis. For example, throughout the process of analysis, the first author reflexively discussed emerging themes with the second, third, and fourth authors, inviting feedback and engaging in collaborative discussions and shared sense making on how participants understood and represented their unique personal experiences, and how these experiences shaped their mundane activities. Findings For the purpose of this chapter, we present three major themes that emerged from the analysis: (1) inequitable access to COVID-19 pandemic information, (2) isolation in public spaces, and (3) lockdown-induced loneliness and fear. These key findings are presented below with illustrative empirical quotes to substantiate them and help make conceptual and theoretical implications. Inequitable access to COVID-19 pandemic information

The spread of both accurate and inaccurate information about the COVID19 pandemic was so rapid and far-reaching that it became known as infodemic (Pulido et al., 2020). In the midst of this information epidemic during the COVID-19 pandemic, the Deaf people in our study complained about a COVID-19 knowledge gap and the challenge of accessing basic information that would make their lives better in the distressing moments of the pandemic. At the onset and peak of the first wave of the pandemic, there were periodic updates from the President of Ghana and other government officials and agencies, which often featured a Sign Language interpreter standing beside the speaker and translating the information. This brought to the fore the realisation that besides the national television (TV) station

Ubuntu philosophy and the experiences of Deaf people in Ghana  171 (i.e., Ghana Broadcasting Corporation), which translated their news bulletin into Sign Language, most other TV broadcasting houses did not integrate a Sign Language translation in their news bulletin in order to include the deaf community. Our participants revealed that they received COVID-19 related information very late, and mostly relied on the periodic presidential updates on the pandemic on TV where they were sure of a (supposedly) qualified Sign Language interpretation. For example, most of our respondents indicated that they first received information about the pandemic several months after the outbreak, and the information they received was more about the origin of the virus rather than its symptoms and preventive measures. In one such interview, a female respondent said: I got to know about it [the Covid-19] in March [2020], long after the outbreak in China … Then to Italy. We saw the police [on TV] conveying those who had died to the morgue. (Female 1, personal interview) Also, the respondents bemoaned the inequitable access to COVID-19 information due to unequal allocation of TV space for hearing newscasters and Sign Language interpreters during presidential and other COVID-19 briefings. Their informational needs appear to be at the fringes of agencies, exemplified by how Sign Language interpreters for news items are often sited at the small bottom edge of the TV screens, which they said could lead to omissions and loss of meaningful information, resulting in their reduced ability to access specialised concepts and information on COVID-19. They thus expressed their desire for full-screen communication by Sign Language interpreters or, at worse, an equitable or equal share of TV screens during news bulletins. As one participant suggested: If the government wants to give full information to the Deaf, on GTV for instance they have a weekly review to recap all the weekly news, so why won’t they use such a time to convey the information to them on a large screen? If they can get an interpreter on a particular day on a full screen that will be better. (Female 2, personal interview) Due to the challenges in accessing relevant information about the pandemic, our participants expressed their belief in and expectations of God for care. For example, one of the participants in an interview indicated: It is difficult for us to get information. For instance, this lady [points to another participant in the study] has limitations in Sign Language and therefore cannot make adequate meaning out of the limited information that is given on TV through Sign Language, but there is a saying

172  Adjei, Sam, Sekyere, and Boateng that ‘aboa a onni dua no, nyame na ɔpra no ho’ [For the animal that does not have a tail, it is God who helps sweep or waft its body]. (Male 1, personal interview) Apparently, the ‘aboa a onni dua’ (an animal without a tail) analogy invoked by the participant captures the condition of the Deaf community in two important ways. First, it presents the reality that the Deaf community is vulnerable (i.e., that they are without a tail) in times of the pandemic, and secondly, that God is their helper in times of this unprecedented vulnerability. While the ‘aboa a onni dua’ metaphor demonstrates how the Deaf community in Ghana draws spiritual inspiration from God to show resilience and cope with their helpless circumstances, it also illustrates the sad neglect of Deaf people by the Ghanaian society and therefore, their consequent belief in God as an adaptive preference. That is, their hope that even when someone is impoverished, he is not completely rejected because God cares for everybody. In a focus group interview, some of the respondents complained about both inadequate information and misinformation about the pandemic. In one instance, a female respondent indicated that: Yes, I’ve been following discussions on the virus through Sign Language interpreters on TV. Though it [Covid-19 related information] is not sufficient, I think we will take it like that. It’s better than no information at all. (Female 1, FGD) Another male respondent also said: ‘My best source of information about the virus is TV, for example TV3, GTV. Sometimes I also get information from WhatsApp platforms.’ (Male 2, FGD) On the quality of the information they receive, one participant said: Some of the information is missing when interpreters sign [on TV] but we get useful information. Sign Language interpretation goes with facial expressions and gestures so the nose mask hampers that. The government is trying. (Female 1, FGD) The misinformation problem was corroborated by another respondent in a personal interview: I rely on facial expressions. They [the Sign Language interpreters on TV] should wear a face shield. I get the text online and download it … for some interpretations we miss a lot of vital information. I see a vast difference between what I copied [downloaded] and what is translated [on TV]. Translators are unable to tell speakers to slow down because they are big men. I try to summarise and convey the president’s

Ubuntu philosophy and the experiences of Deaf people in Ghana  173 information to my colleagues on our platform. I won’t say that we have been 100% neglected. Most of the translators are not good at it. (Male 1, personal interview) As evident in the quotes, the participant questions the quality and accuracy of the information conveyed to them during TV broadcasts through Sign Language interpreters. The quote also provides evidence that during presidential and other COVID-19-related broadcasts, the speakers, including the president of Ghana, speak too fast without being mindful of the Sign Language interpreter. It further shows the helplessness of the Sign Language interpreters to draw the attention of speakers because of the ‘big man’ syndrome in Ghana. This suggests that, despite the presence of a Sign Language interpreter on rare occasions to signify a semblance of inclusive information dissemination, COVID-19 information provided via TVs had the hearing majority exclusively in mind. Despite the complaint of neglect of the Deaf community by state actors regarding equitable and accurate COVID-19 information dissemination, the participant also suggests that the Deaf community ‘have not been 100% neglected.’ Though this may seem contradictory, it emphasises how our Deaf participants drew upon their adaptive preferences to cope with their challenges. The Deaf people in the study appeared to maintain a sense of autonomy, security, and feeling of satisfaction with the status quo during the COVID-19 pandemic because they felt that the actual desired preventive measures, events, and information they require were beyond their control. The adaptive preference of the Deaf in the study therefore results when, in the light of their daily experiences during the pandemic, they appeared to bend their aspirations or realities towards expectations. They seem to be satisfied with and come to want what they think is within their grasp, rather than hope for their aspirations or the ideal situation. The fact about life is that people develop goals, pursuits, and expectations in life within a context of their functional limitations (Barnes, 2016) and people’s preferences are sometimes formed as a result of the individual’s options or, more precisely, the person’s beliefs about his/her options (Bruckner, 2013). Clearly, the informational challenges and COVID-19 pandemic knowledge gap of the deaf community in Ghana make mockery of the lip-service that state and non-state actors pay to the concept of inclusion on COVID-19 pandemicrelated issues and go contrary to the philosophy and practice of ‘wo yɔnko da ne wo da’ (Ubuntu). Isolation in public spaces

Many in the hearing Ghanaian community have little to no knowledge of Sign Language which results in their inability to engage or communicate meaningfully with the Deaf. For some of the participants in our study, isolation was a big problem because of the difficulty in getting other people to

174  Adjei, Sam, Sekyere, and Boateng understand their (sign) language and to communicate with them, especially on issues regarding COVID-19 public preventive etiquette. The communication barrier between the Deaf and other members of the community made our participants feel neglected and alienated in public spaces. For example, one participant said: When you go to places such as the bank, you sometimes feel left out because people cannot talk to you nor understand you when you try to sign. The officers at the bank are unable to tell you exactly what you may have to do regarding covid rules … sometimes people move away from you when you begin to sign to indicate that you are deaf. (Male 4, FGD) Rather than putting in place structures that welcome and properly integrate PWDs in society, especially in times of crisis such as the COVID-19 pandemic, institutional structures and public spaces in Ghana are designed with the ‘abled-bodied’ majority exclusively in mind, thereby persistently and socially excluding PWDs. As shown in the extract above, the lack of professional knowledge of banking professionals and other public service professionals, particularly regarding how to interact with PWDs who try to access their facilities, makes people with disability, such as Deaf people, ‘feel left out’ and unaccepted in such public places. It is apparent that the conversations about the pandemic in Ghana, as it is the case in many other places, particularly in terms of official policies around healthcare, education, and access to information, demonstrated that disabled people were essentially deemed a low priority for life-saving COVID-19 resources. The participants in the study further indicated that sometimes when they go out to public spaces or board public transport (e.g., trotro), people have trouble in communicating with them and thus subsequently leave them to their fate. As one participant indicated: On trotro [common public transport in Ghana], people do not observe social distance but it’s difficult to tell them … So I try to wear long sleeved clothes and a nose mask but others with short sleeved clothes [on board] try to get close so the government should do something about it. (Male 3, FGD) Clearly, when people break the social-distancing protocol on public spaces, Deaf people experience huge challenges in making those hearing people aware that they have come too close to them. In such a situation, some of the participants indicated that they would rather move away to safety, or even interrupt their journey by getting off the bus. In an interview, a female participant shared her experience:

Ubuntu philosophy and the experiences of Deaf people in Ghana  175 I beckon people or gesture or move away from others to enforce the social-distancing rule. In the trotro, I wear a mask. If it gets worse, I’ll get off. (Female 2, personal interview) Unfortunately, there was no public education for the citizenry in terms of how they should look after the welfare of the Deaf during the pandemic. The Deaf community, like other PWDs, was left to fend for themselves in public spaces in unprecedented and unpredictable times like the COVID19 pandemic. The lack of understanding, negative attitudes, and the general discriminatory behaviours of people obviously have an adverse effect on PWDs, which may lead to negative psychological consequences such as low self-esteem and reduced participation in social and economic activities. When people feel harassed in public spaces because of their disabilities, they may resort to avoiding going to such places, changing their routines, or even moving from their homes (Capability Scotland and Disability Rights Commission, 2004). The COVID-19 pandemic that hit only one community in China but quickly spread throughout the world should have reminded us of our common humanity and interdependence. It should have energised the common resolve of individuals and the Government of Ghana to take appropriate steps guided by and reflected in Ubuntu core values of humanity, compassion, caring, and social responsibility among the citizenry to protect all lives. However, the pandemic further exacerbated the challenges of Deaf people in Ghana as COVID-19-related preventive measures and protocols were significantly skewed in favour of the hearing community and the ‘able-bodied’ people to the marginalisation of PWDs. Lockdown-induced loneliness and fear

Social support is greatly beneficial to everyone, especially during such times as the pandemic. PWDs, like the general populace, faced the anxiety, loneliness, and fear that characterised the pandemic-triggered lockdowns. In Ghana, the imposition of pandemic-induced lockdowns, social-distancing protocols, and the avoidance of hand-shaking disrupted people’s sense of being and caused the citizenry serious psychological and social pain (Adjei, 2020). Given the everyday pre-pandemic communication challenges of Deaf people and the associated psychological problems such as depression and stress, lockdowns meant that they were limited and confined in spaces with little to do and limited mode of communication. To stay connected, our participants resorted to the use of social media and TV for social support. As indicated, ‘[I was] virtually watching TV, washing etc … [and] communicated through WhatsApp’ (Female 3, personal interview). The social integration and the social lives of the Deaf which were already negatively affected by inhibiting cultural beliefs in their everyday

176  Adjei, Sam, Sekyere, and Boateng pre-pandemic lives became further exacerbated by the pandemic-induced lockdowns in Ghana. Our participants expressed their anxiety and fear during the peak of the pandemic in Ghana. As one participant said: ‘I felt sad during the lockdown [due to the lockdown-induced loneliness]’ (Female 1, personal interview). One female participant also said: ‘When the announcement came, I was afraid … my mind moved from COVID to Jesus’ coming. I was lonely. Sometimes I miss my family and friends’ (Male 5, personal interview). Another participant also shared her experience about how she felt during the lockdown: ‘I was afraid and sad’ (Female 3, FGD). Another male participant revealed his anxiety: ‘I feel scared and don’t want to get it and die. I want to live’ (Male 2, FGD). The fear experienced during the lockdowns could be twofold: first, the fear of contracting the dreadful coronavirus disease, and second, the fear of catching the virus and needing medical care that might not be available to PWDs, partly due to communication challenges and the non-availability of Sign Language interpreters. Our participants also complained about the government’s neglect of Deaf students during the pandemic. During the pandemic, as it was the case globally, the Government of Ghana suspended in-person teaching and learning in all schools. However, to respond to the emergency brought upon the educational system by the pandemic, the Government of Ghana, through the Ministry of Education, took pragmatic steps to ensure that students were engaged during the pandemic-motivated school closure. These steps included the use of remote-learning media such as TV stations and radio stations, devoted for the teaching of students in the basic and senior high schools. Universities also quickly adjusted their academic calendar and mode of teaching and turned to exclusive online methods of teaching. Unfortunately, these emergency support systems for education on TV, radio, and online did not include Deaf students from the early stage. As one participant lamented: ‘I just watch TV for pleasure [but not for learning]. It makes me feel sad. My sister has been teaching me but it’s not enough’ (Male 2, personal interview). Another participant also corroborated this view: ‘Government should make learning provision for all. The government doesn’t pay a lot of attention to the deaf’ (Female 2, personal interview). The lack of government support for Deaf students during the peak of the pandemic and the sudden transition from in-person to online teaching and learning environment resulted in negative psychological symptoms of neglect, anxiety, loneliness, and sadness to the Deaf. Despite the theoretical promises of the African indigenous Ubuntu philosophy, whose core tenets require the social integration of all members of society, the Deaf, like all PWDs in Ghana, suffered the stress of marginalisation, stigmatisation, discrimination, and social exclusion in all spheres of their social and public life during the COVID-19 pandemic. Their informational, educational, and psychosocial needs were not prioritised, further pushing them to the margins of society. The negative treatment suffered by

Ubuntu philosophy and the experiences of Deaf people in Ghana  177 the Deaf community during the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana clearly goes contrary to the spirit and letter of the Ubuntu philosophy and all the associated theoretical relational and human-centred blessings that are expected to occur for the benefit of all community members. As observed by Mertz (2010), only some Africans adhere to the philosophy and practice of Ubuntu, and they do so sometimes. Implications of adopting the Ubuntu philosophy for understanding disability and attending to diversity challenges in Ghana For far too long, the lived experiences of PWDs in the Global South continue to be on the fringes of disability discourses because of the dominance of disability studies that mainly utilise conceptual, theoretical, and philosophical frameworks of the Global North. However, there is no doubt that, given the central role of contextual barriers and social relationships to the understanding of disability, the Ubuntu philosophy presents a unique opportunity for Africans to foster inclusive society and celebrate diversity. The Ubuntu philosophy is culturally valuable for improving the lots of PWDs in Africa. This is true because the predominant view of the philosophy is that each person, regardless of status, class, religious or political persuasion, ability or disability, has the right to participate in the social and economic activities of society on their own terms with all others as equal citizens of the world. Thus, Ubuntu embodies and offers a stronger social support buffering to lessen the stigmatisation, discrimination, and the general social exclusion that constantly plague PWDs in many societies. The sense that one is cared for and valued by close others, irrespective of one’s ability or disability, as envisaged in the Ubuntu philosophy, should be the most promising and relevant safeguard for PWDs. Though the Ubuntu philosophy articulates an identification with and compassion for others in society – showing care and love to others in the community – these are often not the first attributes and attitudes that come to mind when we reflect on how people, the ‘abled’ in most African societies, relate to and deal with PWDs. Contrary to the Ubuntu philosophy, which promotes or is expected to promote a shared and collective humanity, disability and PWDs in Ghana continue to be understood in old Western individualistic models (such as charity and medical models), or the traditional/religious models, in which disability is viewed as either a tragedy or a curse, or as a medical problem requiring medical or rehabilitation attention in order to ‘fix’ or ‘cure’ individuals. From the Western charity perspective of understanding disability, PWDs are regarded as helpless members of society who constantly need to be pitied and helped by ‘able-bodied’ members of society. The medical perspective of disability also sees PWDs as having medical conditions that separate them from the rest of society, or as ‘broken’ or ‘sick’ individuals that require to be made ‘normal,’ in order to participate in society (United Nations Division for Social Policy Development, 2016). The charity and the

178  Adjei, Sam, Sekyere, and Boateng medical models of disability significantly inform policy and practice, and are used by non-disabled people to define and explain disability in Ghana. For example, the unwelcome attitude of traditional leaders such as the chiefs towards PWDs, as reported earlier in this chapter, may be influenced by both the Western charity and medical view of disability, in which PWDs are seen as ‘sick’ or ‘abnormal individuals’ who need to be ‘fixed,’ ‘cured,’ or made ‘normal’ to be able to participate in traditional and political leadership positions. One of the negative implications of the medical model-oriented understanding and practice of disability is that PWDs often report feeling excluded, undervalued, and pressured to fit a questionable societal norm that regards a person with disability as globally incapacitated (Goering, 2015). Informed by the charity view of disability in everyday practices, it is commonplace in Ghana to see PWDs being lined-up at religious establishments such as the mosque and the church, and by the roadside of major traffic-prone areas begging alms or being used for fundraising activities. Also, in terms of promotion and employment-related policies, section 10(2) of Ghana’s Person’s with Disability Act of 2006 provides that the ‘Government [of Ghana] shall grant special incentives to persons with disability engaged in business and also to business organizations that employ persons with disability.’ While the ‘special incentives’ provision in the law is commendable in many ways (if it was implemented), it is informed by and reinforces Western charity model of disability in which PWDs are understood as needing care and pity because they might not be able to walk, hear, think, or decide for themselves. These tragedy-sympathy-oriented models (i.e., medical and charity) of disability may create a culture of ‘care’ for PWDs, and further become dis-enabling to them. It may also lead to a great deal of discrimination and poorer self-esteem among PWDs when they consider themselves to be charitable recipients. Though the concern and care expressed in Ghana’s Person with Disability Act may be acceptable, it still leaves PWDs at risk of being seen by employers as individuals with medical tragedies that merit sympathy and care. This may further create a situation in which employers may come to believe that giving special incentives and making charity contributions satisfies social and economic needs of PWDs rather than addressing the fundamental problems of building a socially inclusive workplace that is suitable to the employment of individuals with disabilities. When disability and PWDs in Africa is interpreted and located within the imaginaries of Western academics, and within the ontologies and epistemologies of the Global North, the many opportunities and promises of indigenous African values of shared humanity, respect for diversity and mutual care that are embedded in the Ubuntu philosophy cannot be adequately harnessed for the general good of humanity. The embodied language of relationality, common humanity, and diversity in the Ubuntu philosophy are urgently and presently required to revise and redefine disability and PWDs to capture its social and communal ontology embedded in the social interdependence of the African people.

Ubuntu philosophy and the experiences of Deaf people in Ghana  179 From the ontological and epistemological standpoint of the Ubuntu philosophy, disability should be redefined to emphasise its relationality, and thus be seen as a societal or communal problem that requires the collective members of the community to fix it. In the Ubuntu philosophy, the demarcation between disability and ability is unnoticeable as it is part of human diversity. Every member of the community, regardless of status, gender, religion, class, political persuasion, disability, or ability, should be fully integrated within the community because an individual’s existence and resilience, particularly in the face of calamity (such as COVID-19 pandemic), depend on the existence and resilience of all the members of the community (Nderitu & Kamaara, 2020). This is succinctly captured by the popular phrase: ‘I am because we are, and since we are, therefore I am.’ This points to a social contract of mutual respect, responsibility, and accountability by members of the community towards each other. Though some have argued that the most significant contributory factor to the continuous marginalisation of PWDS in Ghana is the weakness in aspects of the legal and regulatory structures (Ocran, 2019), we believe that the single most important indigenous human-centred value that is required to potentially truncate the promotion of disability–ability dichotomy, minimise the socio-economic, cultural, and religious oppression of PWDS and promote human flourishing in an all-inclusive society is in the tenets and promises of the theory and practice of ‘wo yɔnko da ne wo da,’ an equivalent of the Ubuntu philosophical value. The abiding faith in Ubuntu will and should encourage positive social and spatial connections among members of society in order to achieve positive human flourishing in Africa and the world. This is the opportunity that the Ubuntu philosophy offers. Conclusion The social, economic, political, and religious challenges of PWDs continue to abound in Ghana despite the many opportunities that the Ubuntu philosophical values, including its conceptual Akan (Ghanaian) value: ‘wo yɔnko da ne wo da’ offer to people to reject and desist from the binaries that promote difference of ability–disability. Given the sociality of disability and the emphasis on society (rather than the individual with a disability) as the locus of the problem, and thus locating disability within the environment and not the person, the Ubuntu philosophy provides considerable opportunities for eschewing all forms of discrimination against PWDs and for becoming empowered by empowering others in order to achieve social harmony and promote social justice for all, inclusiveness and human flourishing in Ghana. A comprehensive national reorientation and psychoeducation intervention programme that leverages the immense opportunities and stronger social support network system of the Ubuntu philosophy to promote a more positive relationship between ‘able-bodied’ persons and PWDs is needed. During crisis and adversities, such as the realities of COVID-19 pandemic,

180  Adjei, Sam, Sekyere, and Boateng the Ubuntu philosophy offers the world the opportunity to look outside ourselves to reach out to our fellow men and women, to embrace our differences and join in our diversity to overcome the binary of men and women, abled and disabled, black and white. It is thus important to accentuate the emancipatory and pluralistic values and opportunities of the Ubuntu philosophy to ensure that the actions and inactions of individuals, groups, or governments towards PWDs are those that seek to include, rather than exclude, accommodate, rather than alienate. The African indigenous Ubuntu philosophy offers the world and its people the opportunity to live lives of courage in unity, and connected by compassion. Notes 1 The Akans are the largest ethnic group in Ghana, constituting over 47% of Ghana’s population (Ghana Statistical Service 2012). 2 Though we do recognise that the term ‘Deaf’ or ‘Deaf People’ may connote different meanings to different people in different contexts, depending on their philosophy and orientations, we use such terms as ‘Deaf,’ ‘Deaf people,’ ‘Deaf persons,’ or ‘Deaf participants’ in this chapter cautiously, in a non-derogatory sense, to refer to persons or individuals with total hearing loss that rely mainly on Sign Language and/or Sign Language interpreters to communicate with their environment.

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Ubuntu philosophy and the experiences of Deaf people in Ghana  183 Smith, J. A., Flowers, P., & Larkin, M. (2022). Interpretative phenomenological analysis: Theory, method and research (2nd ed.). London: Sage Publications. Smith, J. A., & Osborn, M. (2003). Interpretative phenomenological analysis. In J. A. Smith (Ed.), Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research methods (pp. 51–80). London: Sage Publications. United Nations. (2003). Standard rules on the equalisation of opportunities of persons with disabilities. New York: United Nations. United Nations Division for Social Policy Development. (2016). Toolkit on disability for Africa: Introducing the United Nations convention on the rights of persons with disabilities. https://www​.un​.org​/esa​/socdev​/documents​/disability​/Toolkit​/ Intro​-UN​-CRPD​.pdf World Health Organisation. (2001). The international classification of functioning. disability and health. Geneva: World Health Organisation. World Health Organisation. (2021). Disability and health. Geneva: World Health Organisation. https://www​.who​.int​/news​-room​/fact​-sheets​/detail​/disability​-and​ -health World Health Organization & World Bank. (2011). World report on disability. Geneva: World Health Organization. https://apps​.who​.int​/iris​/handle​/10665​ /44575

11 The Ubuntu philosophy Implications and recommendations for addressing disability-related challenges Oliver Mutanga

Introduction This chapter re-emphasises the practical and transformative applications of the Ubuntu philosophy for addressing barriers faced by people with disabilities in Sub-Saharan Africa. It summarises the book’s key findings and contributions, highlighting the recommendations and implications of using Ubuntu to address these challenges. The chapter examines how the Ubuntu philosophy and disabilities intersect in Sub-Saharan Africa and beyond. It demonstrates how the Ubuntu philosophy can address the unique needs and experiences of people with disabilities through theoretical, methodological, and empirical analyses. The following sections will discuss how the Ubuntu philosophy can transform the barriers faced by people with disabilities in the Global South for research, policy, and practice. Key insights and contributions of the chapters The book demonstrates how adopting Ubuntu-based principles can lead to positive changes and enhancements in various fields, including promoting social inclusion, dignity, and human rights for people with disabilities in SubSaharan Africa and beyond. Additionally, the book aims to contribute to the literature on disability in the Global South by providing data to inform disability policies and promote social justice. Our case is supported by contributions from Sub-Saharan African countries. The book demonstrates the potential of the Ubuntu philosophy to address disability-related challenges in Sub-Saharan African countries, particularly in higher education. The Ubuntu philosophy encompasses theoretical foundations, practical applications, and implications for research, policy, and practice, across diverse fields such as higher education, virtual learning, research, disability interventions, and human development. The contributions from each chapter provide valuable insights into the transformative potential of the Ubuntu philosophy to promote more equitable and inclusive practices towards people with disabilities. The book makes a compelling case for the value of Ubuntu in promoting inclusive education, equitable research practices, and culturally sensitive policies and interventions DOI: 10.4324/9781003343684-11

The Ubuntu philosophy  185 through evidence from diverse settings such as Botswana, Ghana, Lesotho, South Africa, and Uganda. Collectively, the chapters demonstrate how the Ubuntu philosophy can be applied in diverse contexts, including higher education, virtual learning, research, disability interventions, and human development. The overarching theme of the chapters emphasises Ubuntu’s ability to address disability-related challenges and provide recommendations based on the principles and applications of the Ubuntu philosophy. This book offers valuable insights and contributions to the understanding of the Ubuntu philosophy and its potential to address disability-related challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa. By examining the key insights and contributions of each chapter, we can appreciate the collective impact of these diverse perspectives on our understanding of the Ubuntu philosophy and its implications for teaching, research, policy, and practice. The transformative potential of the Ubuntu philosophy is evident in its ability to foster social inclusion, dignity, and human rights for people with disabilities not only in Sub-Saharan Africa but also beyond its borders. Implications and recommendations for teaching, research, policy, and practice In exploring how the Ubuntu philosophy can be applied to practice, research, and policy, this section aims to provide concrete recommendations for stakeholders interested in improving disability-related challenges. By examining how the Ubuntu philosophy can be applied in these three domains, this section aims to build on the theoretical and empirical foundations established in the previous chapters of the book and provide concrete recommendations for stakeholders working to address disability-related challenges. The section will highlight the potential of the Ubuntu philosophy in each of these areas and demonstrate its transformative potential for promoting social justice, inclusion, and human flourishing. The section will also emphasise the importance of cultural sensitivity and inclusivity in these contexts and highlight the significance of Fraser’s (2009) three core social justice concepts: redistribution, recognition, and representation. The following sections discuss the potential of the Ubuntu philosophy in each of these areas and demonstrate its transformative potential for promoting social justice, inclusion, and human flourishing. Practice

Incorporating the Ubuntu philosophy into practice can be achieved at various levels. Community leaders can promote empathy and cooperation by engaging in activities that foster teamwork and mutual support, such as collaborative projects. The book primarily focuses on education, and Femke Bannink Mbazzi highlighted how practical classroom support can facilitate inclusive learning solutions in Chapter 9. This includes assigning peer notetakers to children who have difficulty with information processing, hearing,

186  Oliver Mutanga or handwriting, arranging assistance for children who use wheelchairs, and encouraging parents and teachers to bring in local materials to facilitate inclusive sports activities and learning. Indeed, implementing interventions informed by the Ubuntu philosophy is feasible. In Rwanda, the traditional practice of Umuganda emphasises working together to address social and economic issues for mutual benefit, taking place once every month throughout the country (Li et al., 2022). Historically, Umuganda activities involved supporting those who need it, such as farming for individuals with disabilities or constructing houses for the impoverished, and offering transportation to medical facilities for those requiring assistance. Today, people do community work once every month. The Ubuntu philosophy stresses the interconnectedness of people, promotes supportive relationships, and emphasises the value of every member of society. But, it would not be unexpected to discover that numerous pupils in former British colonies in Sub-Saharan Africa have knowledge of Queen Elizabeth from Great Britain, yet lack awareness of African leaders such as Queen Nzinga and Empress Taytu Betul. Integrating culturally pertinent material, including local history, stories, proverbs, and idiomatic expressions, into language instruction is vital in fostering a profound appreciation for students’ heritage and community. Education institutions can also integrate the Ubuntu philosophy to create an environment where everyone is valued, respected, and given an opportunity to develop their full potential, ultimately promoting social justice and human flourishing. This contributes to a society where everyone has access to education, employment opportunities, and a good quality of life, leading to social justice and human flourishing. Adopting multilingual education models respects linguistic diversity, promotes cultural understanding, and allows students to learn in their mother tongue and other popular languages. Additionally, cooperative learning strategies encourage collaboration, interdependence, and shared responsibility among students, enabling them to learn from one another and develop problem-solving skills. Involving the community in the learning process helps students apply Ubuntu values in real-life situations and develop a strong sense of connection to their communities. Strategies such as inviting experts from the community or organising field trips can go a long way in promoting community involvement, ultimately leading to social justice and human flourishing. The Ubuntu philosophy can also be applied in assessment methods. Formative assessments can monitor student progress and provide constructive feedback, aligning with the principle of continuous growth and development. Encouraging students to provide feedback on their work and to their peers promotes a culture of mutual support, reflection, and shared responsibility. Ultimately, incorporating the Ubuntu philosophy into education practice can address disability-related challenges, promote social justice and human flourishing, and help build a more inclusive society.

The Ubuntu philosophy  187 In the Global South, addressing challenges of limited resources and infrastructure in schools can be achieved by promoting a sense of shared responsibility and cooperation between schools and communities, optimising available resources to create a more inclusive and equitable educational environment (Mutanga, 2022). By integrating these principles into various aspects of education practice, stakeholders can address disability-related challenges and promote social justice and human flourishing. Research

The Ubuntu philosophy, with its emphasis on collaboration and mutual respect, has the potential to significantly enhance research endeavours in Sub-Saharan Africa and the Global South. In this section, I discuss the implications of the Ubuntu philosophy for research practice, drawing on examples from the book. In Chapter 7, Marovah and Mutanga propose collaborative development of research agendas alongside community members, incorporating local wisdom and prioritising research questions driven by the community. By engaging community members in the identification of research challenges, participatory research projects can better respond to local needs and priorities, thereby to some extent addressing power imbalances. Ubuntu values help ensure that data collection and analysis methods are culturally sensitive and inclusive. For example, Femke Bannink Mbazzi’s (Chapter 9) action research project in Uganda embedded in the Ubuntu philosophy engaged participants in identifying their problems, devising solutions, and evaluating outcomes. Prioritising participants’ well-being and autonomy is crucial in research practice. As shown in Chapter 7, the Ubuntu philosophy can help to ensure ethical considerations are taken into account. In a Global South context, disseminating information in participants’ native languages to facilitate communication is crucial for establishing an equitable research environment. Policy

In policy, integrating the Ubuntu philosophy involves developing policies that prioritise social justice, human rights, and the dignity of all people, especially marginalised groups. The Ubuntu philosophy can be incorporated into policy development through public deliberation initiatives aimed at redressing historical and contemporary injustices. For instance, land reform policies that recognise historical injustices and promote more equitable access to land and resources for indigenous and marginalised communities, are imperative in most post colonial states. Dealing with land issues and other policy areas require revisions of the governing laws. Applying the Ubuntu philosophy in legal contexts

188  Oliver Mutanga can be enhanced by adopting a multifaceted approach. This could include encouraging interdisciplinary collaboration between various experts to devise innovative legal solutions based on the Ubuntu philosophical values, and raising public awareness through education campaigns to create a supportive environment for Ubuntu-informed laws. Furthermore, the Ubuntu philosophy informed mechanisms for the systematic monitoring and evaluation of policies to assess their impact, effectiveness, and challenges can be effected to promote continuous learning and adaptation in policy and legal processes. By implementing these strategies in a cohesive manner, Sub-Saharan African countries can work towards creating policy and legal systems that challenge the dominance of Western-derived laws and international law, promote Ubuntu values, and better serve the needs and interests of their citizens. While incorporating the Ubuntu philosophy into policy development has the potential to promote social justice and human rights, it is important to recognise the challenges policymakers may face. These challenges could include resistance from entrenched interests, resource constraints, and other practical obstacles. However, these can be resolved if all stakeholders frankly engage in public deliberations with critical and reflexive attitudes aimed at collective benefit of communities. The implications of adopting the Ubuntu philosophy are well aligned with Fraser’s three core social justice concepts: Redistribution, recognition, and representation (Fraser, 2009). Redistributive policies address economic disparities and ensure a fair allocation of resources among people with disabilities. Recognition emphasises the importance of acknowledging and respecting the diverse identities and experiences of different social groups. Representation demands that all social groups can participate in shaping policy and governance. The Ubuntu philosophy can play a significant role in policy formulation in Sub-Saharan African countries. Combining Ubuntu values with strategies such as interdisciplinary collaboration, public deliberations, and systematic monitoring and evaluation can help to promote social justice, human rights, and dignity for all individuals, especially people with disabilities in SubSaharan Africa. Concluding remarks The contributions in this book offer valuable insights into the transformative potential of the Ubuntu philosophy and demonstrate its applicability across various fields in Sub-Saharan Africa. By providing concrete policy, practice and research recommendations, the book presents actionable steps that can improve equitable and inclusive practices for people with disabilities. Ultimately, the book highlights the power of the Ubuntu philosophy to enhance the lives of individuals with disabilities and promote social justice across the globe.

The Ubuntu philosophy  189 Disability policies and interventions based on Western traditions may fail to resonate with local populations and could potentially exacerbate existing inequalities by misrepresenting the realities of people with disabilities. For instance, without an understanding of the wordviews of societies regarding personhood and diseases, it will be difficult to implement relevant policies. Fortunately, the Ubuntu philosophy offers an alternative policy guidance framework. The Ubuntu philosophy serves as a transformative framework for addressing disability-related challenges beyond Sub-Saharan Africa. Its emphasis on interconnectedness, compassion, and human dignity embodies values that can foster social cohesion, collective well-being, and inclusive development. However, the wider applicability of the Ubuntu philosophy in addressing disability-related challenges beyond Sub-Saharan Africa is not without its potential challenges or limitations. These may include differences in power structures and political systems that could impact the interpretation and implementation of the philosophy. To address these challenges, it is crucial that we engage with people with disabilities in applying the Ubuntu philosophy. Moreover, specific actions and strategies need to be developed to implement the Ubuntu philosophy in diverse contexts. This could involve engaging in interdisciplinary collaborations, developing policy frameworks informed by the Ubuntu principles, and promoting education and advocacy initiatives based on the Ubuntu philosophy. Through these efforts, we can work towards creating a more inclusive and culturally sensitive approach to Disability Studies. By fostering greater collaboration between policymakers, educators, researchers, and practitioners, we can realise our vision of a more equitable and inclusive future for all. Future research could explore the application of the Ubuntu philosophy in other domains or geographical regions outside Sub-Saharan Africa to ascertain its broader applicability and potential. A comparative analysis of the Ubuntu philosophy across different societies and languages can also enhance our understanding of its manifestations and relevance. The Pacific concept of Manaakitanga with its focus on hospitality and kindness shares similarities with the Ubuntu philosophy in emphasising the importance of caring for others and building relationships. The Chinese Qi theory views the world as an interconnected web of energy and life, reflecting the Ubuntu philosophy of interconnectedness. Similarly, the Andean concept of Buen Vivir (living well) shares a strong resemblance to the Ubuntu philosophy in its emphasis on collective well-being, social responsibility, and the interconnectedness of people, nature, and the environment (see, Mutanga & Marovah (eds), forthcoming). These facts again dispute another criticism that the Ubuntu philosophy might not be applicable in other contexts outside Sub-Saharan Africa. Again, these examples demonstrate that the Ubuntu philosophy is just one of many indigenous traditions and philosophies with the potential to address disabilityrelated challenges.

190  Oliver Mutanga In conclusion, the Ubuntu philosophy serves as a transformative framework for addressing disability-related challenges beyond Sub-Saharan Africa. However, this requires a concerted effort to engage with and learn from the experiences and perspectives of diverse communities. By upholding the values of interconnectedness, compassion, and human dignity embodied by the Ubuntu philosophy, we can create a world in which people with disabilities can fully participate in society and achieve their full potential. References Fraser, N. (2009). Scales of justice: Reimagining political space in a globalizing world. New York: Columbia University Press. Li, J., Batamuliza, M., & Karangwa, E. (2022). Heroines who are rebuilding their country: State–society circumstances and coping strategies of female leaders in post-genocide Rwanda. Chinese Journal of Sociology, 8(4), 534–561. https://doi​ .org​/10​.1177​/2057150X221123622 Livingston, J. (2006). Insights from an African history of disability. Radical History Review, 1(94), 111–126. https://doi​.org​/10​.1215​/01636545​-2006​-94​-111 Mutanga, O. (2022) Perceptions and experiences of teachers in Zimbabwe on inclusive education and teacher training: The value of Unhu/Ubuntu philosophy. International Journal of Inclusive Education. Advance online publication. https:// doi​.org​/10​.1080​/13603116​.2022​.2048102 Mutanga, O. & Marovah, T. (eds). (2024). Southern Theories: Contemporary and Future Challenges. London: Routledge.

Index

2030 agenda 71 acceptance of people with disabilities 23 access to COVID-19 information, for Deaf people in Ghana 170–173 accessibility: challenges to virtual learning 100–104; technology 24 accommodations for, students with disabilities in higher education 57 Act on the Elimination of Disability Discrimination, Japan 52 African Charter on Human and People’s Rights 51 African indigenous education 149 Afrocentric method 111 Akans of Ghana 165–167 assessments 186; Botho-inspired 144 assistive technologies 24–25 Assistive Technologies (AT) 91 attitude 76–77; Botho attitudes 81–83; negative attitudes 79–80; toward disability 77–81 attitudinal barriers to inclusion 68, 72–76 Australian Disability Standards for Education (2005) 52 autism, Ghana 167 belonging, Obuntu bulamu 150–151 biakoye (unity is strength) 165 bo-bopuoa (God’s creation) 76 Botho attitudes 77–78, 81–83 Botho philosophy 68, 70–71, 130–133, 145; attitudes toward disability 77–81; communalism 135–137; curriculum 141–142; ethics 133; holism 137–138; inclusion 135; meaning of 138–140; moral conduct 133; relatedness 134–135; relevance to people with disabilities 140–141; spirituality 138; Tswana culture 134; see also Ubuntu philosophy

Botswana: Botho philosophy 130–133; communalism 136; cultural initiation schools 136; students with disabilities in higher education 54; Tswana society 6 Building Control Act, Lesotho 71 caring 98–99 challenges: of applying Ubuntu philosophy to disability-related issues 10–11; within participatory research (PR) 114–118; to virtual learning 100–104 Chara chimwe hachitswanyi inda (one finger alone cannot kill a louse) 5, 123 Children’s Protection and Welfare Act 7, Lesotho 71 chilimba (Zambia) 123 China: faculty perceptions of students with disabilities 56; Higher Education Law 52 Chisi (Sabbath days) 11 citizen engagement platforms 122 code of ethics 34 Collective Fingers Theory (CFT) 92 collegiate participation 114 colonialism 1, 6 communalism 135–137 communication barriers for Deaf people in Ghana 173–175 communitarianism 120 community 133; participation in 117 Community-Based Participatory Action Research (CBPAR) 113 Community-Based Participatory Research (CBPR) 113 Community-Based Research (CBR) 113 computer-based responsive pedagogical strategies 91 Confucianism 11 Constitution of Lesotho 71

192 Index Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) 9, 51, 71 Costa Rica, students with disabilities in higher education 57 COVID-19 pandemic 8; Deaf people in Ghana 168–177; effect on academic programmes 89–90; Obuntu bulamu 155; shielding 10–11 CRPB see Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities cultural initiation schools, Botswana 136 cultural mismatch 1 culture 68–69; disability and 74–76 curriculum: Botho-inspired 141–142; Obuntu bulamu 157–158 Deaf people in Ghana 166, COVID-19 pandemic 168–177 deaf-deaf marriage 166 deciding what to research, participatory research (PR) 122–123 decolonisation 110 decolonised intersectionality 9–10 decolonising research 109–111, 117 dehumanisation, Ghana 166 developing Obuntu bulamu interventions 152–153 disability: construct of 69; and culture 74–76; defined 69, 163; in East Africa 151; and education 50–53; in higher education, South Africa 31–33; and inclusion in education 71–72; Ubuntu philosophy and 59 disability models 9–10 disability policy for higher education 51–53 Disability Research Indaba (DSI) 105n1 Disability Units (DUs) 36–37 Disabled People’s Organisations (DPOs) 73 discriminatory attitudes 73 dissemination of the results, participatory research (PR) 124 East Africa, disability 151 economic relevance, PESTLE 22 education: disability and 50–53; inclusion 71–72, 137; Obuntu bulamu 149–155; technology 90–92; Ubuntu philosophy 149–150; virtual learning 90–92; see also higher education Education Act 10 of 1995, Lesotho 71 Education Act of 2010, Lesotho 73

educational technology 90–92 enrollment of students with disabilities in higher education 53–57 environmental relationship, PESTLE 26 equitable access to COVID-19 information for Deaf people in Ghana 170–173 ethics, Botho philosophy 133 evaluating Obuntu bulamu peer-to-peer support intervention 154–155 exclusion of students with disabilities, Lesotho 72–76 facilitators 56 faculty members, perceptions of students with learning disabilities 55–56 Focus Group Discussions (FGD) 93 gender inequality, higher education (South Africa) 39 Ghana: biakoye (unity is strength) 165; COVID-19 pandemic 168–177; disability figures 163; people with disabilities (PWDs) 166–168; Persons with Disability Act (2006) 51; students with disabilities in higher education 54–55; Ubuntu philosophy 177–179; wo yonko da ne wo da (Ghanaian equivalent of Ubuntu philosophy) 164–166 Ghana Living Standards Survey (GLSS) 167–168 Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) 167 global disability figure 163 harambee (Kenya/Tanzania) 123 higher education 48–49; students with disabilities 53–57; success and completion of students with disabilities 57–59; Ubuntu philosophy 59–61 higher education (South Africa) 30; Disability Units (DUs) 36–37; inclusion 36–43; policy reforms and approaches to disability 31–33; Ubuntu philosophy 34–35 Higher Education Law, China 52 Higher Education Opportunity Act, United Nations 51 Higher Educational Institutions (HEIs) 89; in South Africa 103–104 Historically Advantages Universities (HAUs) 38–39 Historically Disadvantaged Universities (HDUs) 38–39

Index  193 HIV/AIDS, Botho philosophy 132 holism 134, 137–138 human interdependence 4, 11, 35, 94–97 human resource development 50, 59–60 humanness 22–23, 25, 34 identifying students with disabilities, higher education (South Africa) 38 IHELP model 156 inclusion: Botho philosophy 135; and disability in education 71–72; in education 149–150; in South Africa higher education 36–43; of students with disabilities (Lesotho) 72–76 inclusive education 149–150 inclusive teaching approaches 38 inclusivity 21; participatory research (PR) 120–121 Individuals with Disabilities Act, Korea 52 intellectual disabilities 74 interconnectedness 137, 186 interdependence 35, 80; Open Distance Learning (ODL) 94–97; see also human interdependence International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF) 9 international standards 117 Internet, for virtual learning 100 intersectional disadvantage, higher education (South Africa) 39–40 intersectionality of disability 7 interventions 148, 186; Obuntu bulamu 151–155 isolation in public spaces, Deaf people in Ghana 173–175 kagisano (harmony) 134 Kenya, communalism 136 Kgotla/Dare 122 Kuronzera (chiShona)/ukunqoma (isiXhosa)/ukusisa (isiZulu) 7 landlessness 1 Latin America, participatory research (PR) 112 Law on Persons with Disabilities, Vietnam 52 laws about disability in education 51–53 learner support assistance 144 learning disabilities 55 Learning Management Systems (LMS) 91, 103–104

legal framework, PESTLE 25–26 legislation on education of people with disabilities 51–53 Lesotho: disability and inclusion in education 71–76; misunderstandings 75–76 Lesotho Inclusive Education Policy 69 loaning arrangement 8 lockdown-induced loneliness and fear for Deaf people in Ghana 175–177 mafisa 134 medical model 9; higher education (South Africa) 31 Mexican universities, faculty perceptions of students with disabilities 56 mishandira pamwe (collective working) 22 misunderstandings 75–76 moral conduct, Botho philosophy 133 morality 81 motho le motho kgomo (one man, one beast) 136 Mtukudzi, Oliver 23 multilingual education models 186 munhu (person or human) 34 mutual respect 120 negative affirmations of people with disabilities 76 negative attitudes 79–80 nhimbe (Zimbabwe) 123 Nigeria: communalism 136; ethnic groups 5–6; misunderstandings 76 nursing 19 Obuntu bulamu 149, 155–158; conceptual framework 150–151; interventions 151–155 online learning 37 Open Distance Learning (ODL) 74, 88–89; caring 98–99; challenges of 102–104; interdependence 94–97; respect 97–98; sharing 99–100 Organic Law 4/2007 52 Participatory Action Research (PAR) 112–113 Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) 113 participatory research (PR) 109–110, 112–113; challenges within 114–118; deciding what to research 122–123; dissemination of the results 124;

194 Index power dynamics in 114–118, 122; types of 113–114; Ubuntu philosophy 119–122 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 113 pedagogies, Botho-inspired 142–143 peer-to-peer support, Obuntu bulamu 151–152, 154–155 people with disabilities (PWDs) 164; in Ghana 166–168, 177–179 person is a person through other people (Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu) 3, 25, 90–91 personhood 35, 133, 134, 140 Persons with Disability Act (2006), Ghana 51 policies, integrating Ubuntu philosophy 187–188 political, economic, social, technological, legal and environmental (PESTLE) 19–20; economic relevance 22; environmental relationship 26; legal framework 25–26; political relevance 20–22; social thought 22–24; technological adaptability 24–25 political relevance, PESTLE 20–22 Population and Housing Census (PHC), Ghana 167 positive affirmation of people with disabilities 76 positive attitudes 80 post-colonial Africa 6 power dynamics: in participatory research 114–118; participatory research (PR) 122 pre-colonial Sub-Saharan Africa 7 public deliberation 121–122 quantitative metrics, participatory research (PR) 117 relatedness 134–135 Research Ethics Boards (REBs) 115, 123–124 research problems: deciding 116–117; participatory research (PR) 123–124 research processes, participatory research (PR) 115–116, 123–124 respect 120; Open Distance Learning (ODL) 97–98 Sabbath days, Chisi 11 Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs 51

seka hurema hwafa (laugh at disability after you are dead) 23 sexual health 19 shared responsibility, Obuntu bulamu 156 sharing 99–100 shielding, COVID-19 pandemic 10–11 Shona culture, Sabbath days 11 Sign Language, for Deaf people in Ghana 169–171 social acceptance of people with disabilities 23 social inclusion 156; in higher education 54–55 social model 9; higher education (South Africa) 31–32 Social model of disability 80 social protection systems 7–8 social support 82–83 social thought, PESTLE 22–24 social values 75 social welfare systems 20–21 social-distancing for Deaf people in Ghana 173–175 socialisation 78–79 sociality of disability 164 Sotho-Tswana culture, Botho philosophy 134 South Africa 21; disability in higher education 31–33; Higher Educational Institutions (HEIs) 103–104; Strategic Policy Framework on Disability for the Post School Education and Training System 30–31; students with disabilities 88; students with disabilities in higher education 74; Ubuntu philosophy 132–133; Ubuntu philosophy for higher education 34–35; virtual learning 100–104; White Paper 3 51; White Paper for Post School Education and Training 31 South African Institution of Higher Learning: interdependence 94–97; respect 97–98; sharing 99–100; virtual learning 93–94 spirituality 134, 138 Standard Rules on the Equalisation of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities 51 standards 117 stigma 79–80 storytelling 155–156

Index  195 Strategic Policy Framework on Disability for the Post School Education and Training System 30–31 students with disabilities 48, 88; caring 98–99; challenges to virtual learning 100–104; education 50–53; educational technology 90–92; in higher education 53–57; in higher education, success and completion 57–59; interdependence 94–97; respect 97–98; South Africa 88; see also higher education success of students with disabilities in higher education 57–59 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 48 technological adaptability, PESTLE 24–25 technology, in South Africa higher education 37 testing Obuntu bulamu intervention 153–154 training for Obuntu bulamu 151–152, 155 Truth and Reconciliation Commission 8 Tswana society (Botswana) 131; Botho philosophy 134; colonialism 6 TVET institutions: Botho inspired curriculum, pedagogies and assessments 141–144; meaning of Botho 138–140; relatedness 135; relevance of Botho to people with disabilities 140–141 Ubuntu philosophy 3–5, 18–19, 118–119, 149, 164–166; addressing disability 40–43; caring 98–99; challenges of applying to disability-related issues 10–11; communitarianism 120; decolonising research 111; disability and 59; educational technology 90–92; in Ghana 177–179; higher education and 59–61; for higher education (South Africa) 34–35; inclusive education 149–150; interconnectedness 186; interdependence 94–97; participatory research (PR) 119–122; policies 187– 188; in practice 6–8; practice 185–186; public deliberation 121–122; research 187; respect 97–98, 120; sharing 99–100; see also Botho philosophy

Uganda, Obuntu bulamu 150–151 ujamaa 22 ukama (being related) 23, 26 ukusiza (where you lend a low socioeconomic family a cow to herd and when numbers increase, you take your cow back) 134 Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu (a person is a person through other people) 3, 90–91 United Nations: Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) 9, 51, 71; Standard Rules on the Equalisation of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities 51 United States: Higher Education Opportunity Act 51; students with disabilities in higher education 56–57; students with intellectual disabilities 74 Universidad Nacional (Costa Rica) 57 University of Botswana 136 unkindness toward those with disabilities 23 Vietnam, Law on Persons with Disabilities 52 virtual learning 90–92; Internet issues 100; in South Africa 100–104; study on South African Institutions of Higher Learning 93–94; see also Open Distance Learning Western perspectives in Disability Studies 1 Western standards 117 White Paper 3, South Africa 51 White Paper for Post School Education and Training, South Africa 31 wide participation 114 wo yonko da ne wo da (Ghanaian equivalent of Ubuntu philosophy) 164–165 workmanship (ushavi) 22 World Health Organisation, International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF) 9 Zimbabwe: success of students with disabilities in higher education 58; Zunde raMambo (Chief’s Kraal) 20 Zunde raMambo (Chief’s Kraal) 7, 20