Trends in Romance Linguistics and Philology: Volume 4 National and Regional Trends in Romance Linguistics and Philology 9783110825886, 9027979162, 9789027979162

Citation preview

Trends in Romance Linguistics and Philology Volume 4

Trends in Linguistics Studies and Monographs 15

Editor

Werner Winter

Mouton Publishers The Hague · Paris · New York

Trends in Romance Linguistics and Philology Volume 4: National and Regional Trends in Romance Linguistics and Philology edited by

Rebecca Posner John N. Green

Mouton Publishers The Hague · Paris · New York

ISBN 90 279 7916 2 © Copyright 1982 by Mouton Publishers, The Hague. All rights reserved, including those of translation into foreign languages. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form—by photoprint, microfilm, or any other means — nor transmitted nor translated into a machine language without written permission from the publisher. Phototypesetting: Western Printing Services Ltd, Bristol. — Printing: Werner Hildebrand, Berlin. — Binding: Lüderitz & Bauer Buchgewerbe GmbH, Berlin. Printed in Germany

Contents

4.1 Romance-speaking areas Rebecca Posner Favoured approaches among Romance-speaking nations Robert de Dardel Romance studies in Switzerland Willy Bal Romance studies in Belgium (1945-1974)

3 9 41

4.2 English-speaking areas Noel Corbett Romance studies in North America Glanville Price Romance studies in Great Britain

81 127

4.3 Germanic-speaking areas Helmut Liidtke Romance linguistics in Germany and Austria: a paradigmatic survey Willem Noomen Romance studies in the Netherlands Ebbe Spang-Hanssen Romance studies in Scandinavia

173 223 251

4.4 Slavonic-speaking areas Witold Manczak Romance studies in Eastern Europe J. Ian Press Romance linguistics in the Soviet Union (1945 to the present day) Index of Names

275

295

317

Contributors

Prof. Dr. Willy Bal

Catholic University of Louvain

Prof. Noel Corbett

York University, Ontario

Prof. Dr. Robert de Dardel

University of Groningen

Prof. Dr. Helmut Liidtke

University of Kiel

Prof. Dr. Witold Manczak

University of Krakow

Prof. Dr. Willem Noomen

University of Groningen

Prof. Rebecca Posner

University of Oxford

Dr. J. Ian Press

University of London

Prof. Glanville Price

University College of Wales

Prof. Dr. Ebbe Spang-Hanssen University of Copenhagen

4.1 Romance-speaking areas

REBECCA POSNER

Favoured approaches among Romance-speaking nations

The relevance of a section on national preferences in an academic discipline is open to question. Of course, within the Romance field, those nations that make use in everyday life of a Romance language will tend to concentrate on study of that language. We have not included in our volumes specific sections on the major European Romance languages — French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and Rumanian — partly because Current Trends 9 (1972), with bibliographies running up to 1968, has already covered much of the material. In the last decade, there has been no deceleration in the production of studies in or on these languages, but bibliographical information is readily available from other sources. In those regions where more than one Romance language is spoken — Sardinian, Catalan, Rheto-Friulian, or Occitan — special attention is often paid to the 'minor' language and we have judged it opportune to include special sections on these languages. Similarly, where Romance languages are extensively used outside of Europe, particular problems arise, and we have devoted separate sections to these, for Current Trends 4 (1968), excellent as it is, is already fifteen years out of date. But apart from the obvious preference of Romance speakers for study of their own native languages, how far can we really discern national trends in the study of Romance linguistics and philology? In the modern world, it is true, differences are now being ironed out into uniformity: in Italy, for instance, where there are officially no chairs of Romance linguistics (cf. Ruggieri 1969) the discipline has been, in practice, well supported, as part of the study of Latin, with the Romance languages considered as 'neo-Latin' (a term now often used for medieval and Renaissance Latin). Today, with Latin losing its status in the education system — even in Italy — Romance studies are rapidly going into decline. Since 1965 (cf. SLI1977), Italian linguistics has turned away from

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historical studies and 'idealist' conceptions and taken up more and more sociolinguistics, alongside traditional dialectology, as well as synchronic approaches, along generative lines (cf. also Cardona 1976). Similarly, in Spain, the tradition that owes so much to Menendez Pidal — of meticulous attention to old texts (cf. Marcos Marin 1975) — is supplemented by sociolinguistic approaches to dialectology (especially in the work of Manuel Alvar) and, rather belatedly, it is true, an adoption of transatlantic ideas (cf. Sanchez de Zavala 1976). France, on the whole, is more resistant to international impulses — in scholarship as in other fields — and French linguistics retains its distinctive flavour (cf. Martin 1975), with even its transformationalists, like Maurice Gross, retaining a reserve in face of Chomskyan trends. Admittedly, since 1968 there has been provision for incursion into French University life of foreign scholars — but it is really only at Vincennes that any major (though ephemeral) impact was made on linguistic studies. French remains, for most countries, the most widely taught of the Romance languages: it is different enough from the rest to appear to necessitate separate treatment, and is the language which receives most attention from scholars both inside and outside France. The continuing attention to dialectology (cf. Tuaillon 1976) stems from rather different motives in France than in some other countries — like Italy, Belgium or Portugal: for northern French dialects are virtually extinct, and their study is seen as a last desperate attempt to record for posterity a disappearing aspect of French culture, essentially a rural way of life that is being ousted by modern economic and social developments. In other countries — especially in Italy — dialect study is seen as a branch of sociolinguistics and goes hand in hand with investigations of popular features of language. Indeed, Italian developments have been linked with a swing in opinion among younger academics towards more left-wing views, with less emphasis on elitist language. In France, on the other hand, sociolinguistic investigations of popular language are still less favoured than more pedagogically oriented treatment of the standard. Here, Canada provides something of a contrast — in Montreal, at any rate, popular French receives much attention, though in Quebec, at Laval, language study is particularly linked to French traditions, with Guillaumean theory particularly promoted (cf. Meney 1978). That national trends do still exist is amply demonstrated by the articles in this volume. Often the persistence of national traditions is the result of institutionalization of once fashionable approaches: the German preeminence in comparative Romance studies is surely related to the con-

Favoured approaches among Romance-speaking nations

5

tinuing existence of established Chairs in the subject (though, admittedly, in Britain, reputedly conservative enough, similar Chairs have tended to drift in scope towards more currently popular fields). Influential individuals have swerved whole generations of scholars along set paths: Humboldt in Germany, Croce in Italy, Menendez Pidal in Spain, and Guillaume in France. Such influence is more evident in those countries in which established University teachers are recruited only from nationals of the country — unlike, for instance, Britain, Holland or North America. Not unrelated to this point is the availability of funding for research: projects with the backing of well-known personalities or related to national prestige are more likely to attract financial support. Naturally, in some countries research is geared to specific problems: it is not surprising that Creole studies flourish in ex-colonialist countries like Portugal or Holland (to a lesser degree in France), or that bilingualism is a particular concern of Canada, Belgium or Switzerland. In non-Romance-speaking countries, French — as the educationally most prestigious 'foreign language' — usually receives most attention, while Spanish figures large in U.S. linguistic discussions, as the most readily accessible Romance language. Accessibility and the nature of data available to scholars is an important factor in the formation of national trends. Synchronic studies of all kinds — especially dialect investigations — require ease of access to informants and are best done on home ground; foreign scholars will often prefer historico-comparative study and editing of texts. A less obvious example can be drawn from a comparison of French and Italian traditions in textual editing. The French preference for reconstructing an "Ur"- text on the basis of corrupt versions is not simply due to the influence of Joseph Bedier, nor are Italian editors simply following Lachmann in advocating meticulous reproduction of the actual texts. French medievalists have the special problem of not possessing extant autograph versions of their (pre-classical) texts, whereas in Italy, where the medieval and the classical periods more closely coincide, directly transmitted texts are more frequent (cf. Speer 1979). But if we admit that national traditions do exist, an apparent lacuna in our volumes is the absence of sections on comparative Romance studies in individual Romance-speaking nation states. This brief introduction is meant in some degree to stop this gap. But it has to be said that comparative Romance studies—sometimes categorized as a German invention — are little promoted in most Romance-speaking countries. Yakov Malkiel's admirable survey of European trends in comparative Romance

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linguistics up to 1968 (Current Trends 9 (1972): 834-925) devotes little space to Romance-speaking countries as such: indeed, he suggests that too high a specialization in one language may lead to neglect of related languages. Coseriu's well-informed general survey of linguistic trends in Latin America (Current Trends 4 (1968): 5-62) also brings out the relative neglect of comparative Romance studies by the Spanish-speaking countries, in contrast to Brazil, which, under the influence of da Silva Neto, does keep comparatism more alive. It is, in fact, 'peripheral' Romance-speaking nations — like Belgium, Switzerland, Rumania and, possibly, Brazil — that show more interest in comparatism than the European 'hard core'. Belgium and Switzerland are discussed in the following two contributions, by Willy Bal and Robert de Dardel, while Brazilian trends are covered in Naro's article in Volume 3. Perhaps we can include in our peripheral category the active Centre du Philologie et de Literatures Romanes at Strasbourg, under the direction (1960-1979), of Georges Straka (cf. Straka 1979), which, although (just) within the confines of France, may be seen as continuing essentially a German, or at any rate a Middle European, tradition: its policy of inviting visiting professors from other countries has kept alive a nonparochial spirit which is reflected in its publications, periodicals Travaux de Linguistique et de Litterature (1963—), the Bulletin desJeunes Romanistes (1960—) and the series Bibliotheque fra^aise etromane (1960—) (cf. also the Centre's annual Brochure-Programme which lists publications of staff members and visitors, as well as dissertations presented and in progress). Whereas the influence of German scholarship may well explain the vitality of Romance studies in Belgium, Switzerland and Alsace, the emergence of Rumania as the most active centre of comparative Romance studies within Romance-speaking nations must surely be due to other factors. One is undoubtedly the comparatively ample supply of funds from the socialist government which is keen to promote national culture and to establish Rumania's position in the Romance world, differentiating it from surrounding nations. Another is probably the personal influence of the veteran Academician lorgu Jordan (cf. Posner 1970: 406-407). Be that as it may, Rumania has an impressive record, especially since 1956, in all branches of linguistics, but especially in comparative studies and in dialectology: cf. the volume of RRLing 23 (1978), devoted to a survey of "Current Trends in Romanian Linguistics".

Favoured approaches among Romance-speaking nations

7

At the other end of the scale, we might place Portugal, where political instability and economic disarray may account for the relative stagnation of scholarly activity: the most active centres are the Institute de estudos romänicos at Coimbra, under Manuel Paiva Boleo (publishing RPF), which is concerned mainly with Portuguese dialectology, and the Centre de estudos filologicos at Lisbon, under Luis F. Lindley Cintra (publishing BF); which since 1970 has had study groups on Portugues fundamental, theoretical linguistics and medieval Portuguese texts as well as preparing an Atlas linguistico-etnografico de Portugal e da Galizia. Insurmountable difficulties retard the regular publication and diffusion of learned periodicals: in any case comparative Romance studies are rare, though there is, not surprisingly, in view of the Portuguese presence in Africa and Asia, much interest in creole languages. But it is not really fair to take Romance-speaking countries to task for neglect of comparative studies, for they all devote much energy to comparatism within their own national frontiers — in dialectological investigation (cf. John Green's introduction to Volume 2) and to study of 'minor' Romance languages (cf. Volume 3.2). It is only right and proper that they should tackle the problems nearest at hand, while still being ready to learn from others' experience. A not totally irrelevant factor in the formation of 'national schools' is the language in which research is reported: Soviet research, for instance, is almost totally unknown to most Romanists, who, even if they are ready to tackle Rumanian or German, often balk at Russian. Rumanian scholars are, in fact, usually eager to translate their work into other Romance languages; Dutch and Scandinavian scholars as often as not use French. Portuguese and Catalan-speaking scholars on the whole prefer their native tongues, even though this renders their work less accessible than that of French, Spanish and Italian speakers. But it is fair to say that English began to supplant French or German as the international language of linguistics — even of Romance linguistics — from the time of the second world war. The pre-eminence of the U.S.A., bolstered at first by the influx of distinguished European refugee scholars and then by the more ample provision it provides for research, has had the effect not only of levelling out national differences, but also of making knowledge of English a sine qua non of linguistic research. Perhaps the fact that most of the articles in these present volumes are appearing in English, compared with Gröber's (1888) German survey, is symptomatic of the shift. It should be noted in this context that, traditionally, North American Universities owe more to German patterns than to British or Romance.

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That one of the most brilliant centres of comparative Romance studies is located in California, at Berkeley, is perhaps significant — in that prosperous, cosmopolitan atmosphere a broad-sweeping, if elitist, discipline survives better than in many European Universities. It would be a shame though if national quirks were to disappear: International Congresses of Romance Linguistics and Philology are tremendous jamborees of scholars united by their interest in, and use of, Romance languages and literatures, profiting from rubbing shoulders with other scholars of varying traditions. One can only proclaim: "Vive la difference!" References Cardona, Giorgio Raimondo 1976 Standard Italian (The Hague: Mouton). Current Trends . . . (in Linguistics, edited by Thomas A. Sebeok) (The Hague: Mouton). 1968 4. Ibero-American and Caribbean linguistics. 1972 9. Linguistics in Western Europe. Marcos Marin, Francisco 1975 Linguistica y lengua espanola: introduction, historia y metodos (Madrid: Cincel). Martin, Robert 1975 The French contribution to modern linguistics: theories of language and methods in syntax (Paris: Klincksieck). Meney, Lionel 1978 Bibliographie de la recherche en psycho-systtmatique du langage (1911-1977) (Quobec: Laval U.P.). Posner, Rebecca 1970 "Thirty years on" supplement to lorgu lordan and John Orr, Introduction to Romance Linguistics (1937, reprint 1970 Oxford: Blackwell). Ruggieri, Ruggiero M. 1969 Lafilologia romanza in Italia (Milan: Marzorati). Sanchez de Zaval, Victor (editor) 1976 Estudios de gramatica generative (Barcelona: Labor Universitaria). Speer, Mary B. 1979 "In defense of philology — two new guides to textual criticism", RomPh 32: 335-344. SLI 1977 Died anni di linguistica italiana (1965-1975) edited by Daniele Gambarara and Paolo Ramat (Rome: Bulzoni). Straka, Georges 1979 Les sons et les mots: choix d'otudes de phonatique et de linguistique (Paris: Klincksieck). Tuaillon, Gaston 1976 Comportements de recherche en dialectologie frangaise (Paris: CNRS).

ROBERT DE DARDEL

Romance studies in Switzerland

l. l As a great number of writings by Swiss Romanists have appeared in the twentieth century, this survey has for its main topic the studies done in Switzerland after the Second World War (1945), referring only to striking or indispensable pre-war facts in so far as they serve to put in context the most recent trends in the history of Romance linguistics in Switzerland. I do not draw a distinct line between Romance studies in Switzerland and elsewhere, since there are linguists with a Swiss background working outside Switzerland and, on the other hand, non-Swiss linguists from other countries now doing important work in Switzerland itself. 1.2 Rebecca Posner has clearly shown1 that Romance studies after 1940 have been on the wane, probably owing to a recent development in theoretical linguistics towards abstraction, formalism and synchronism on the one hand, and to the difficulties that Romanists face in keeping in touch with theory and in integrating into their field of research on the other. For those who peruse Helvetic works of the last thirty years, it is obvious that these observations are very much to the point. This phenomenon may be all the more striking as Switzerland has a fairly fruitful past in this field. Around 1900, roughly, Swiss Romanists such as Gillieron, Meyer-Lübke, Morf, Salvioni, Tobler greatly contributed to Romance studies. Between the two wars, Romance studies in Switzerland, especially linguistic geography and etymological research, were still of international fame. However, after 1945 this generation began to disappear: Oskar Keller died in 1945, Albert Sechehaye in 1946, Charles Bally in 1947, Jules Jeanjaquet in 1950, Jakob Jud in 1952, Alexis Francois and Karl Jaberg in 1958, Arnald Steiger in 1963, Johann Ulrich Hubschmied in 1966, Walther von Wartburg in 1971, Silvio Sganzini in 1972, Paul Scheuermeier in 1974 and Paul Aebischer in 1977. The loss of

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Robert de Dardel

these masters, some of whom, either by temperament or by necessity, had never abandoned their views or methods, created a kind of vacuum for young Swiss Romanists. The greater part, those formed in the tradition of these masters, had lost touch with certain theories, either older ones, such as comparative Romance linguistics and Saussurean structuralism, or more recent ones, such as the various extensions of structuralism or transformational-generative grammar. Those who made an effort to return to theory, after carefully selecting from various trends (Guillaume? Hjelmslev? Martinet? Chomsky? . . .), have not always been successful in their syntheses of new theories and traditional aims in Romance studies. Consequently, Romance studies in Switzerland after 1945 tend to give the impression of confusion and stagnation, in contrast with the preceding period and in comparison with some other countries. 1.3 These considerations have determined the plan of this survey. First the activities carried on in the Helvetic tradition will be discussed (2), next the traditional aspects tending to disappear or to stay in the background (3) and finally the activities that break away from tradition (4). In two of these sections there will be subdivisions referring to Romance areas (2.1 and 4.1) and to aspects of language with which research is concerned (2.2 and 4.2); in all three sections there will be a subdivision referring to methods applied (2.3, 3 and 4.3). This is, of course, a very subjective classification, not always satisfactory in describing facts, leading besides to duplication of reference. 1.4 Since the many Swiss Romanists are very prolific, the publications discussed — with bibliographic reference at the end of the survey — have had to be severely selective; they have been chosen mainly for their quality, but sometimes also for being characteristic of Swiss scholarship. 1.5 This survey is a condensed version of "Etudes romanes en Suisse (1945-1976)" (VR 37:1-104), to which the reader may refer for further details and a more expanded bibliography. 2.1 Among the Romance areas with which Swiss Romanists are traditionally concerned, a distinction will be made between the Romance languages and dialects as spoken in Switzerland (2.1.1) and those spoken elsewhere (2.1.2). 2.1.1 Swiss Romanists have always taken a great interest in the native

Romance studies in Switzerland

11

Romance dialects, perhaps nowadays even more so than in the past years. This may be due to the fact that these dialects are so close at hand, sometimes spoken by the linguists themselves. It certainly is due also to the fact that these dialects are spoken in mountainous regions, in the fringe area of the large linguistic groups to which they belong (Swiss Romansh — or Rheto-Romance — excepted), politically and culturally isolated from these groups and having resisted unifying tendencies and preserved linguistic elements which have disappeared elsewhere. Especially in the case of dialects liable to disappear sooner or later, the need is felt to record them in every possible way for scientific purposes and for posterity. The very important lexicographical works on French and Francoprovengal in Switzerland, on Italian dialects of Switzerland and on the Romansh of the Orisons, begun in the first half of the twentieth century, should be completed whatever happens; teams of field-workers and editors should go on working, and financial support by State and canton should continue. Swiss Romanists very rightly consider the preservation of this linguistic heritage as one of their first and foremost missions. In this light, it might be useful to mention two valuable contributions: the publication of gramophone-records of Romance dialects together with explanatory booklets in the series Schweizer Dialekte in Text und Ton — Dialectes suisses, and some pages (maps 27 and 28) in the Atlas de la Suisse dealing with the linguistic situation in 1960 and showing — by means of maps and commentaries composed by experts — the dialectal areas and the lexical variety of the three Romance groups of Switzerland. Mention must be made of the positive attitude taken by many Swiss people to the problem of linguistic minorities; this attitude is based on a feeling of respect and, at the same time, on the hope that the most threatened dialects can be preserved from becoming extinct. This attitude showed itself before the Second World War, in which period the Swiss people took the Rheto-Romance (or Romansh) of the Orisons as a fourth national language. And it goes on showing itself in every kind of material and moral support given to minorities for their cultural activities, especially in the case of the Orisons. The same attitude appears in creating research centres and University Chairs. Let us turn now to each of the three Romance groups. The editorial team of the GPSR (chief editor Ernest Schule) regularly publishes the fascicules of this monumental work, which has got as far as the letter E; a Rapport annuel gives a survey of the work done. According to an interuniversity agreement in French Switzerland, Neuchätel recently became the centre of Francoprovengal research. A newly created chair

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of dialectology is held by Schule. A centre for dialectology and regional French studies was opened in 1973 and the archives of the GPSR are now housed here. In 1969 there was a conference on Francoprovengal dialectology here, where Swiss and foreign specialists met. The youngest of the great Swiss glossaries, the VSI, began to appear in 1952, under the direction of Silvio Sganzini; since Sganzini's death, the chief editor is Federico Spiess. This work, first begun by the Tessinian Carlo Salvioni and continued after his death by Clemente Merlo, is the result of an inquiry made in more than 300 villages and hamlets in Ticino (Tessin) and in the Italian speaking valleys of the Orisons. The Romansh of the Orisons, recognized as a fourth national language in 1938 and presently spoken by about 40,000 people, is threatened on two sides simultaneously, in the North by German, in the South by Italian. The efforts of radio and television, federal financial support for publications, local societies for defending linguistic heritage and the inclusion of Swiss Romansh in the school programmes of the canton and at Swiss universities, are not succeeding in checking the decline of this language. A study by Wunderli (1966), based on successive censuses, confirms this. According to him, Swiss Romansh declines wherever industry and tourism play a part in this canton with its few resources; the natives themselves sometimes do not use it for convenience sake. Other factors operate in the same direction: firstly the fact that Swiss Romansh, unlike the other national languages of Switzerland — German, French and Italian — is not supported by an important European language; next, the dialectal multiplicity inside Swiss Romansh itself, and the absence of a uniform or model Romansh language, even a written one (printed texts are published in five dialectal varieties). The activity of Romanists in the field of the Orisons dialects is particularly great, for it embraces two fields: linguistic research aiming at recording and describing this extremely interesting Romance language, and the standard work of grammarians and lexicographers aiming at solving the practical problems linked with a group of dialects taught at school and still serving as a written means of communication. In the field of scientific activities, the DRG should be mentioned; it is due to the initiative of Robert von Planta, a well-known Romansh linguist; this work, the counterpart of the two glossaries quoted before — one of the dialects of French Switzerland and the other one of the dialects of Italian Switzerland — is also very important because of its size and scientific level. The letters A to F have been published. Its chief editor is Alexi Decurtins. The Rätisches Namenbuch, also started by Robert von

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Planta, is a large collection of place names and names of persons past and present, comprising the whole canton of Orisons, including the German and Italian speaking parts. Volume one (Planta-Schorta 1939) contains the toponyms classified according to borough; volume two (Schorta 1964) is an etymological dictionary of materials occurring in volume one; volume three, which is being prepared by Konrad Huber, will be about anthroponymy. The Annalas da la Societa Retorumantscha frequently publish linguistically interesting documents, particularly old Swiss Romansh texts. In the field of standard works, activities centre especially round the publication of bilingual dictionaries coupling German and one of the Romansh dialects. The authors of dictionaries have made it their delicate task to find linguistic and orthographic norms suited to satisfy all the present needs of the written Swiss Romansh; moreover they aim to preserve the genius of the language, to see to it that Romansh keeps its character in spite of the influx of foreign words. The cultural history of the Orisons, the main linguistic problems of this canton are clearly outlined in a brief but substantial essay by A. Decurtins (1959), the holder of the new Chair of Rheto-Romance at Fribourg. 2.1.2 As for Romance languages outside Switzerland, the interest of Swiss Romanists has concentrated, even before the war, especially on the Romance fields shared by Switzerland, that is to say Gallo-Romance, with Albert Sechehaye, Charles Bally, Henri Frei, Walther von Wartburg and his FEW, and Italo-Romance, with Karl Jaberg, Jakob Jud, Carlo Salvioni, Paul Scheuermeier and the AIS. This trend has not changed with the new generation, if we think of what the names of Kurt Baidinger, Carl Theodor Gossen, Eddy Roulet and Jean Rychner mean to Gallo-Romance studies, and those of Siegfried Heinimann and Gustav Ineichen to Italo-Romance studies. In spite of geographical distance, Ibero-Romance had, between the two wars, attracted the attention of Arnald Steiger; likewise tradition continues here with Kurt Baldinger, German Colon, Gerold Hilty and Michael Metzeltin. Sardinian and Rumanian, as exclusive objects for studies, have been and still are rather marginal sections in Swiss research. On the other hand, Swiss scholars who are, in some sense, PanRomanists in so far as they do not basically exclude any Romance language or dialect from their field of observation are more numerous, for example, Johann Ulrich Hubschmied, Karl Jaberg, Jakob Jud and Walther von Wartburg. Some, such as Kurt Baldinger, Siegfried

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Heinimann, Gerold Hilty, Konrad Huber and Heinrich Schmid, consider the problems of virtually any Romance language; others, such as Paul Aebischer, view the organic whole of Romania; and there are some scholars, for instance Johannes Hubschmid, who consider any nonRomance language with which Romance languages may have some historical connection. 2.2 Recent Swiss Romanists still stick to tradition — in this case the neogrammarian school — when it comes to the study of phonetic and lexical facts. An important part of the research by Gossen, for instance, is taken up by the study of connections between phonetics and graphic systems in ancient scriptae. Several studies by Pfister (e.g. 1960) are centred around historical phonetics. Wartburg and his team are primarily concerned with the form, the meaning and the history of words. This is also true of numerous dialectological monographs, where this restriction is probably linked up with methods of inquiry, which lend themselves to the study of syntax only at the cost of endless precautions; it is still linked up with material offered by fundamental works such as atlases and glossaries, which present mostly — although not exclusively — lexical elements. 2.3 In the choice of method and approach, Swiss Romanists, even some of the youngest ones, remain very much anchored in Swiss pre-war traditions. This does not necessarily imply immobility, but may imply, as will be seen presently, a certain adaptation, a certain renewal. We can put under this heading onomastics (2.3.1), etymology and lexicology (2.3.2), dialectology and linguistic geography (2.3.3), the study of influences among languages (2.3.4), contrastive linguistics (2.3.5), onomasiology (2.3.6), the study of socio-cultural and historic factors (2.3.7), the edition of medieval texts and medieval philology (2.3.8). 2.3.1 Together with von Planta, J. U. Hubschmied has founded a Swiss toponymy on a scientific basis. His famous research on substrata rests partially on toponyms. Another prominent toponymist at that time was Muret. This tradition continues after the war, although there is not much research done. Let us first mention Bruckner (1945), whose work covers all parts of Switzerland, and maps 29 and 30 of the Atlas de la Suisse, devoted to the main toponymic layers. Toponymies are made use of in the

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German part of Switzerland in order to distinguish, in time and space, Germanic settlements from Romance ones. On the side of the Romance languages, linguists resort to toponymies for the study of interlinguistic relations (with Wartburg (1950) who supports his belief in a prolonged bilingualism in northern Gaul by reference to duplication of toponyms) and for the study of linguistic systems (with Schmid (1951-1952), according to which the contrast between Germanic place-names in -s, e.g. Truns, and Romansh place-names without -s, e.g. Trun, reveals a trace of nominal declension in Rheto-Romance). While Planta-Schorta 1939 is nearing completion, a Dictionnaire toponymique de la Suisse romande is being launched; it consists partly of the materials which E. Muret collected for the GPSR. Ticino is starting a similar work, the Rilievo toponomastico ticinese. 2.3.2 As shown very clearly by Baldinger (1959), etymology which is essentially based on the laws of phonetic evolution and secondarily on the meaning of words is definitely dated. It has been replaced by a more demanding etymology, which — although respecting phonetic laws — traces back the history (some will even speak of it as a biography) of words, from their origin up to their most recent appearance, at the same time submitting their semantic development to a critical examination. Moreover, this kind of etymological approach tends to determine the cause of certain changes, causes which can lie in the linguistic system itself or in factors outside the system: influences of other languages and of non-linguistic factors. One of the most important works written according to the principles of this etymological approach is the FEW, to which W. von Wartburg (1922-1968) has given the best of his abilities, even in his declining years. The theoretical aspects of the evolution of words, in particular the causes to be found in the linguistic system, such as homonymic collisions, associative etymology, etc., are elaborately discussed in Wartburg 1943. No doubt the FEW is open to criticism, as is to be expected of a work whose publication extends over more than forty years; it is to be regretted, for instance, that the historical aspect so clearly predominates over the geographical one. A reflection of the FEW and at the same time a continual up-dating of Gallo-Romance etymology can be found in the successive editions of Oscar Bloch and Wartburg 1932. Baldinger has started on an etymological dictionary of Old French (1971-), in which, in accordance with modern trends in etymology, he

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gives a biography of a particular word from within the etymological family to which it belongs. Besides the three great Swiss glossaries, the GPSR, the VSI and the DRG, all of which partly deal with etymology, Jaberg-Jud 1960 is considered, as suggested by the subtitle, Ein propädeutisches etymologisches Wörterbuch der italienischen Mundarten, to be a basis for etymological research; indeed, the dialectal forms in the Atlas, accompanied by semantic indications, are all classified according to their etymological relations. Swiss etymological research, with a long past as we have seen, remains singularly alive these days, with Baldinger, Colon, Gossen, Hilty, Hubschmid, Jänicke, Keller, Lurati, Metzeltin and Pfister. This is no doubt partially due to the intellectual brilliance of Wartburg and to the influence which he exercised on his disciples, many of whom seem to have found their vocation as etymologists in their work at the bureau of the FEW in Basle. Let us just mention one etymological essay: Jänicke (1971); the author, inquiring into French becane 'bicycle', proposes to combine a former meaning of this word, Old-fashioned engine that is no longer used except for shunting', with the elements be-, depreciatory prefix (also occurring in bevue 'blunder') and cane 'female duck', on account of her walk; his hypothesis is supported by analogous developments in German, lahme Ente 'slow vehicle' (literally 'lame duck'), and in English, lame duck. 2.3.3 Romance dialectology in Switzerland in the first half of this century clearly bears the mark of the teaching of Jules Gillieron; still, his direct or indirect disciples have tried to improve his methods. Jaberg and Jud, the most prominent among them during the period between the two wars, published the second great Romance atlas, the AIS (1928-1940). So much for the output of materials and their presentation. With regard to the actual scientific interpretation, the Swiss dialectologists of the first half of the century have adopted the method based on areal norms either from Jules Gillieron or later from Matteo Bartoli; by means of this method, they can draw their inferences about the succession and expansion of forms from their spatial distribution. For instance, when a Romance word has disappeared in a part of the Romance area, proof of its former existence may eventually be furnished by its occurrence in the peripheral Romance languages and dialects or the nearby non-Romance languages and dialects. This method has been illustrated in a number of articles of that era, for instance by Jud (e.g. 1908-1910) and

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Jaberg (1908). The dialectologists of that period have also adopted from Gillieron the notions of pathology and therapeutics of language, which explain certain linguistic changes by inherent tendencies of the system and which have been illustrated by the well-known example of the homonymic collision oigallus andgattus in Gasconian. An application of this is to be found in Jud 1925 on eteindre in the Romance languages. Certain dialectologists, who both adopt and apply these views, are "»••nngly opposed to the neogrammarians. Among Jud's (1908-1910) reproaches of Meyer-Lubke's work is that he analyses the geographical position of present forms only and neglects those of deeper-lying layers, their stratigraphy and the spatial transfers which have produced them; he sets Wortgeologie against Meyer-Lübke's Wortgeographie. Jud (19141917: 71-74) reproaches Carlo Salvioni with having relied exclusively on phonetic laws and asserts, with the aid of examples, that the spatial distribution of forms may complete, or furthermore correct, a hypothesis based solely on phonetic laws. The methods of linguistic geography handed down by Gillieron and Bartoli have been perfected. In particular Jaberg, who had at his disposal more abundant and, above all, more sensitive material, has carefully differentiated the method. Another improvement (according to its authors at any rate) is the addition, intended to differentiate and correct the theory of areal norms, of a historic or cultural dimension to the usual method, which is essentially based on linguistic data and criteria. It is significant that Jaberg (1940), in his interpretation of Rumanian linguistic maps, relates the synchronic data of the atlas to diachronic facts that are mainly extra-linguistic and historic. It is significant too that Jud (1934) considers the word basilica, preserved in Rheto-Romance and indicating the building destined to worship, to be more recent than ecclesia, descendants of which are found in Northern and Central Italy; the peripheral position of basilica should, according to the areal norms, indicate on the contrary that it is older than the more centrally situated ecclesia; however, history intervenes here: according to Jud, as Italy was christianised earlier than the distant and savage Raetia and preserved the word ecclesia and as Raetia was christianised later and preserved the word basilica, the latter term is younger than the former and replaced it in Christian Latin at a given moment. Anyone who deals with the post-war period cannot doubt that, after the death of Jud and Jaberg, ground was lost for the interpretation and the theory, which filled an important place in their writings and reflections, as well as for the spirit which animated that team. However, collection of materials with a less ambitious way of interpreting them, and

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analysis of geographically more restricted subjects dealing with fewer languages or dialects, such as already existed before the war, still flourish. Let us first look at the works of ampler scope. The tradition of Jud and Jaberg, with their wide horizon and their search after general principles, may be found among linguists such as Schmid, Aebischer and Hubschmid. Schmid (1958) points out for instance that, generally speaking, the Lower Engadine constitutes a peripheral archaising zone of Swiss Romansh, but that, in the case of the word indicating 'yellow', one finds the opposite: the Lower Engadine opposes a more recent form, gelk or yelk, to the archaic Romansh melon. The former type, which accidentally resembles the Lombardic gait, from galbinus, is a loanword from the Germanic Tyrolese dialects — a frequent occurrence in that area. In a book devoted to the whole of the Romance area, Schmid (1949) discovers archaic areas, in the sense of Bartoli. In another publication (1956), he encompasses not only the Romance languages but also the neighbouring non-Romance languages and touches, among other problems, upon the loss of declension in central and western Romance as well as in the Germanic dialects of Central and Northern Europe, in contrast to the conservation of a declension, in the extreme east part of the Romance area, in Rumanian, as well as in adjacent non-Romance languages on one hand and, on the other, in the West, in the Western part of the British Isles, forming thus two compact marginal conservative areas over and above the frontiers between Romance and non-Romance languages, at least in the East. Schmid points out that this case illustrates a thesis of Jaberg, according to which the marginal archaic areas tend to reinforce or to exaggerate their archaic features; Rumanian reinforces indeed its flexional system by introducing a vocative which has not been handed down by Latin. Aebischer (1963) takes up once more the problem of the chronology of basilica and ecclesia, touched upon by Jud (1934); he applies the areal norms but, contrary to Jud, without according a prominent part to cultural history and, after having considered the whole of Romania, Aebischer concludes — rightly, I should say — that the word basilica is earlier than ecclesia. Hubschmid (1958) mentions the case of a pre-Romance word meaning at first 'cow' or 'pig', afterwards, probably, owing to its use in children's games, 'fir-cone', 'ear of corn'; the first meaning occurs peripherally and the second centrally, in conformity with areal norms. With respect to research on a smaller scale, it seems sensible to give a brief summary for each Romance area, adopting the same plan as before (2.1).

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Improved techniques coupled with the research-worker's intimate knowledge of the dialect to be studied have made it possible to collect valuable materials. For Francoprovengal, Müller (1961) and Schule (1961-1962) should be mentioned; their lexical and phraseological material has been ordered in accordance with the conceptual system of Hallig-Wartburg. The synchronic study of the pronoun of Central Valais by Olszyna-Marzys (1964) is remarkable in that it makes a start in the almost untouched field of Francoprovengal syntax. The problem of the frontiers of Francoprovenc.al and of appropriate criteria to distinguish it from neighbouring Romance dialects has been tackled more than once, first by Lobeck (1945), next by Hafner (1955) and finally by Burger (1971). With regard to the Italian-speaking part of Switzerland, Spiess (1965 -1968) describes the phonetic alternants in the morphology of a Ticino dialect, his mother tongue, and Zeli (1968) examines the principal negative constructions (non, mica, non-mica, etc.) on the basis of the material of the VSI and characterises various dialects from that point of view. In the field of Rheto-Romance, historical phonetics has been dealt with mainly by Caduff (1952) and Widmer (1962-1974) and historical morphology by Decurtins (1958); in historical syntax two books, by Liver (1969) and Ebneter (1973), have recently been published. The Swiss dialectologists, occupied with indigenous dialects, have contributed proportionately little to the progress of Gallo-Romance dialectology; the main names to be mentioned here are those of Baldinger, Gossen, Keller, Pfister and Wüest. The most original contribution of Swiss Romanists to the Gallo-Romance dialectology is certainly found in the many publications which Gossen devoted to ancient Picard (above all 1942, 1970) as well as his systematic research on the scriptae, i.e. the written medieval languages, of Picardy and other provinces of the Langue d'ofl (1967). These are investigations on the extra-linguistic circumstances under which the charters were written (transition from Latin to Romance texts, scribes, notaries, aldermen, etc.), and further into the linguistic features of the scriptae, especially their phonetic aspect. Gossen seems to have been led to this research-work by the following considerations: the localisation of an ancient text by the pseudo-equation "ancient grapheme ~ modern phoneme" does not offer sufficient guarantees; it is therefore preferable to start from extra-linguistic criteria, such as texts dated and located at the time they were written; consequently, he examines non-literary texts, in particular charters, which often contain an indication of place and date; starting from such

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documents, it is possible to establish the equivalence between graphemes and the phonetic elements of a region at a given period. Gossen is of the opinion that historical phonetics has often attributed too much value to the grapheme of the scriptae; as regards the relation between the grapheme of a scripta and the sound of the corresponding modern dialect , it can only be of value if this sound has not evolved in the meantime. Relying on these considerations and after patient research in archives where there are gaps, taking into account rigid formulae, conventional spellings, alterations due to copyists, the complex, hybrid, artificial character of the scriptae, and sometimes resorting to statistics, Gossen succeeds in isolating various scriptae according to the region and the period and in determining their influences on each other. Bearing in mind that, to some extent, the scriptae reflect dialectal features, Gossen is able to correct some notions about historical phonetics. He is quite aware of the fact that he has not yet perfected his method nor solved all the problems posed by the scriptae; his research-work is continued and his methods are improved by younger scholars, in particular by his former pupil Hans Goebl, who intends to make use of modern means such as mecanography and arithmetic interpretation. 2 Italo-Romance dialectology, partly stimulated by the treasures amassed in the AIS, regularly attracts attention, though much less than Gallo-Romance dialectology. 2.3.4 The influence exerted by languages on each other plays an important part in the research-work of the pre-war Swiss Romanists. Because of the conservative character of the Alpine dialects, Switzerland was excellently suited for field-research on the pre-Romance and even pre-Indo-European substrata of the Romance dialects, as well as, incidentally, on the Germanic superstrata. The contacts of Romance and Germanic on Helvetic soil, both the assimilation of Burgundian by Romance in present French Switzerland and the decline of Romance with respect to Alemannic and the formation of a Romance substratum in German Switzerland, offered another favourable field of investigation on the strata. These studies, related to analogous phenomena outside Switzerland, naturally had to take other Romance languages and dialects into consideration and sometimes, especially with respect to the substrata, to envisage linguistic fields beyond the Romance area. Before the war, the substrata and superstrata have been explored fairly systematically by J. U. Hubschmied (1938, where he assumes that Gallic was still spoken on the Swiss Plateau at the time the Alemanni arrived

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there, in the fifth century) and by Jud (1908-1910, 1908, supporting the thesis of the Germanic origin of respectively French aune and Italian barba 'uncle'). The most important and virtually the only Swiss Romanist who ought to be mentioned for the period we are dealing with is J. Hubschmid (cf. among many other titles 1951 and 1960), who took up and considerably enlarged and differentiated the investigations of his father, J. U. Hubschmied; his investigations follow the same directions as those made by Alessio, Wagner, Rohlfs and Wartburg. His method, inspired by linguistic geography, consists in tracing forms in the Romance area which are explained neither by the Romance dialects themselves nor by the superstrata and which, therefore, may be pre-Romance. The pre-Romance forms may be Indo-European, if the corresponding form has been found in other Indo-European languages. The forms that cannot thus be classified as Indo-European may be pre-Indo-European. One of the important criteria is a geographical one: Hubschmid finds the greater part of pre-Romance elements in the most archaic zones of Romania, such as the Pyrenees and the Alps; from that point of view, Sardinian, which had not been Indo-Europeanised before the Roman conquest, is particularly instructive. Hubschmid draws his evidence from the toponyms, from ancient Latin and Romance forms and from modern Romance languages and dialects. The toponyms have the advantage of being well located and often archaic witnesses; the advantage of the appellatives over toponyms is that they have a meaning; so Hubschmid refers to them more and more. The 'thing meant' is of importance for this research, since there may be a link between a language and a civilisation, i.e. the category of objects whose names have come down to us; besides, certain objects travel and facilitate loans. Hubschmid also studies the phonetic facts of Romance dialects; some phonetic clusters seem to have been borrowed by the Romance languages from pre-Romance languages. The Romance dialects and languages are particularly suited for this research-work, because in this field abundant material is available, owing to numerous preparatory works. The principal conclusion drawn by Hubschmid is the hypothesis of various pre-Indo-European layers in Romania, one of which may be the Eurafrican substratum and the other more recent one, partly covering the former, may be the Hispano-Caucasian substratum; paleo-Sardinian and Basque, it seems, are related to each other. Hubschmid is not without opponents; in a review Alessio3 points out errors and reproaches Hubschmid with drawing over-bold conclusions and of a certain monogenetic tendency; however he is not sparing of

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encouragement and acknowledges Hubschmid as an authority in this matter. The Romance substrata in the non-Romance areas have been touched upon by Jud (1914-1917), to whom the Reliktwörter, or vestiges, have given the opportunity of locating the original extension of Romanisation and of supplementing the material of use for linguisticgeography. Schule (1963) pursues similar study for the Upper Valais. Substrata and superstrata may be said to be cornerstones of Wartburg's hypotheses as formulated in Wartburg 1936, 1939, and, for GalloRomance, in Wartburg 1934. He especially explains by means of the Celtic substratum the palatalisation of Latin ü in Gallo-Romance and, convinced of the long-term existence of a Romance-Germanic bilingualism in the north of Gaul, he links up the Germanic superstratum there with certain phenomena which, like the diphthongisation of close Romance e and o, oppose the Langue d'ofl to the Langue d'oc. He perceives a relation between the frontier dividing those two groups and an ancient Prankish political boundary. He also perceives a linguistic and historical relation between the first Burgundian kingdom and the Francoprovengal dialect group. The part he attributes to Germanic superstrata in the partition of Romania and in the evolution of Romance languages or dialects have given rise to animated reactions from Romanists, such as Vidos or Malkiel,4 and up to now the discussion has not subsided. The problem of Germanic influence in Gaul has cautiously been discussed by Hilty (1968), with regard to some syntactic facts, and by Pfister (1973), who asserts that the linguistic frontier of Prankish origin, extending from the Loire to the Plateau de Langres, is an illusion, because the Prankish words which are used to support that hypotheses actually have different geographical locations; the thesis of Jud (1908-1910) according to which French aune is originally a Germanic word is also considered wrong, for it is really a Latin word, and consequently the frontier between aune and verne, which has been considered as representative of the extension of Prankish influence, is unreliable. Wartburg's thesis, according to which Francoprovengal has geographically and linguistically been conditioned by the first Burgundian kingdom, is questioned again. In the Symposium of Francoprovenc.al dialectology, in 1969, Schule (1971) took it upon himself to refute Wartburg's principal arguments. Wartburg's methodological view, which, in spite of criticism, contains valuable elements, has been taken up by K. Baldinger (1958) for the study of Ibero-Romance. The Germanic superstrata often pose the ticklish problem of the relation of a Germanism to such and such a Germanic dialect. Schmid

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(1958) observes a double Germanic influence in the Orisons, namely that of the Alemanni in the valley of the Rhine and that of the Tyrolese in the valley of the Inn (cf. e.g. the two Rheto-Romance forms pur and paur 'peasant'), and he postulates the prolongation of the frontier between those two Germanic dialects on Romance soil under this form. Suggestive is the view adopted (in the wake of for instance Jaberg, 1939) by Schmid, defining convergence areas, i.e. converging dialects related by some linguistic form, irrespective of their belonging to a Romance or to a non-Romance family; above (2.3.3), we mentioned an example in connection with the conservation or the loss of the declension (1956); Schmid (1951-1952) gives another one concerning the declension of the Swiss-Romansh article: the opposition of a nominative-accusative and a dative, from Latin illi and illis respectively (thus two formal cases), but in a combination which seems to be unique in Romance, exactly corresponding however to the situation found in the nearby Germanic dialects. 2.3.5 Bally (1932) has given us a model of the contrastive comparison of languages, particularly by his contrasting of French and German; Wartburg clings to similar views, for instance in the final chapter of Wartburg 1934. Since 1945, favoured by bilingualism, several books have been published, based on the structural contrasts among systems, which are mostly explored by taking good translations of literary texts. 2.3.6 Onomasiology, as a semantic study starting from the structure of the thing meant, is not of recent date, at least in Switzerland (cf. Quadri 1952); there are numerous publications, in the first half of the century, devoted to the linguistic expression of such and such a thing; not the least among them is Wartburg's dissertation. This approach has not come to an end in the period we are dealing with; the most diverse fields of extralinguistic experience are touched upon, from the agricultural terminology to the linguistic expression of the concepts 'to say' and 'to speak' and the religious terminology, from the onomasiological description of natural facts, such as diseases, to that of manufactured objects, such as the compass. It is to be regretted that Wartburg, who incidentally used in his FEW work not an alphabetical classification, but a conceptual one, was not able, for lack of time, to realise the onomasiological essays which, in his view, were to complete and crown the FEW and of which he gives a specimen in "Los nombres de los dias de la semana" (1949). Onomasiology goes hand in hand with the idea of establishing a system of concepts,

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taken as extra-linguistic entities, thus independent of any particular language except for their formulation. Charles Bally (1909: 2, 223-264) already made such an attempt; we ought also to mention here HalligWartburg 1952, which has served as a framework for several onomasiological investigations in Switzerland and for two onomasiological dictionaries (Baldinger 1975a, 1975b). 2.3.7 Social, cultural and historical facts play a not to be neglected part in pre-war Swiss Romance linguistics. We can distinguish two opposing aspects: (I) Extra-linguistic facts allow for a description or an explanation of linguistic facts, and (II) Extra-linguistic facts are conceived of as facts which the linguistic facts can determine or account for. The first is the case with Jud (1934), when the relative chronology of basilica and ecclesia has to be determined; and he has recourse again to that criterion (1946-1947), when, in deriving the Romamhstuver from estopus, he explains the extension of the originally impersonal verb to all persons as due to Christian influence; according to him, Christianity preached the idea of personal duty, thus expressed in all persons, and so went beyond the idea of an impersonal duty, expressed in the third person only. The second happens with Huber (1944:27-48); in his study above the open air threshing-floor, the names of the area-type in the archives and the toponyms enable one to assume the occurrence of that type of object in regions where nowadays it is no longer found; here linguistics is subservient to ethnography. These tendencies lived on after the war, although Swiss scholars nowadays do not go to extremes, as did Jud in one of the examples mentioned above. As regards aspect I, we must mention Egloff (1950), who shows, by examining the technical terminology of crafts, how society is reflected in language. He shows among other things: (1) the influence of the origin of the craftsmen on the vocabulary (in the Valais, where the greater part of the bricklayers are of Italian origin); (2) that the craftsman who works by himself (e.g. the man from Gruyere who carves wooden spoons) has no special terms for his tools, because he is the only one to use them, whereas the boatmen of the lake of Geneva, who work in teams, have at their disposal a complete technical vocabulary; (3) that a tool used by different guilds has generally the same name but with a different complement (marteau de magon, marteau de cordonnier, etc.), whereas, if a guild uses variations on the same tool, it is given different names (tranche, etampe, chasse, etc.). Egloff notes a uniform, sometimes international, terminology in crafts in those cases where the apprenticeship involves a sojourn of several years in France.

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As regards aspect II, we confine ourselves to pointing out an attractive article where the ethnographer Weiss (1963) tests, by means of Swiss data, the assumption that the territory of a language covers that of a civilisation; he states that this occurs very rarely or perhaps owing to non-linguistic factors; yet it does occur in a few cases, which are not fortuitous; there is for instance a linguistic basis in the superstition attached to the names of the days of the week: in French Switzerland, Friday is the day which brings misfortune; in German Switzerland, it is Wednesday; the frontier of the two forms of superstition covers the linguistic one. This phenomenon is accounted for by the fact that Wednesday, German Mittwoch, gives the impression of being a day by itself, because its name is the only one without the element -tag. 2.3.8 The publication of texts of literary or linguistic value, already important in Switzerland long before the war, with Aebischer, Cornu, Decurtins, Piaget, Steiger and Ulrich, is still going on. It is mainly occupied with medieval Gallo-Romance texts (Aebischer 1965; Mandach 1970; Rychner 1966; Wunderli 1968), less so with Italo-Romance (Ineichen 1962-1966) and Ibero-Romance (Hilty 1954) ones. For Francoprovengal, Burger (1952) published a new edition of the Chanson de {'Escalade and Aebischer (1950) an anthology. With regard to the RhetoRomance of the Grisons, all kinds of texts (literary texts, charters, etc.) have been published, in particular in the Annalas de la Societa Retorumantscha. Bezzola (1971) published an anthology of texts in an English translation. Few alphabetical lexicons have been published — among the most important is A. Burger 1957. Various texts have been explored from a linguistic point of view, often with the purpose of better locating and dating them, of identifying the author, of exploring the transmission of the manuscripts and of elucidating the interpretation of certain passages, like the studies devoted to the Girart de Roussillon (Pfister 1970), to the Lois de Guillaume (Wiiest 1969) and to the Livre de lEschiele Mahomet (Wunderli 1965). The thorny problem of verse in the Romance languages, to which Spoerri had devoted himself before the war, has been taken up again by M. Burger (1957); he gives a novel version of the birth of the Romance verse, based especially on the assumption that Romance verse has come from the classic Latin verse in connection with the linguistic evolution of the quantitative into a qualitative vocalic system. We ought to mention the names of three scholars who have more

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especially concentrated on philology, on the literary aspects of texts and the history thereof: Aebischer for his research on the origin, the historical background and the Scandinavian equivalents of the Chanson de Roland (e.g. 1954-1972), Mandach (1961—) for his study of the numerous documents belonging to the Turpinian and Turoldian traditions in Europe and of the connection between the Chanson de Roland and historic reality, and Rychner for his inquiry into the chanson de geste (1955) and into the fabliaux (1960). 3 We should now glance at those methods which either have kept in the background or have declined since the war — at genetic comparative linguistics (3.1), at the method called Wörter und Sachen (3.2) and at the so-called idealistic tendency (3.3). 3.1 More than once, already, we have considered research-work as dealing with several Romance languages or with all Romance languages, which are looked upon as forming one organic whole from a historic point of view. Such is the dialectological research based on the theory of areal norms (2.3.3) and the approach consisting of partitioning the Romance area according to external criteria (2.3.4), which establish chronological and spatial relations between the parts of that whole. These investigations, using the traditional methodology, have in common that they pay attention rarely, or only incidentally, to reconstructing the departingpoint of Romance languages, in other words to raising the issue of Common Romance (also called Proto-Romance). Many Romanists, victims of an illusion, believe indeed that the departing-point for the Romance languages is to be found in Latin texts. A. Burger (1943,1951) has shown that the Latin of the texts is not sufficient to account for Romance languages and that Romance linguistics cannot avoid methodically reconstructing a Common Romance, taking as the starting-point the Romance languages, in the same way as Indo-European has been reconstructed from comparison of the Indo-European languages. Reconstruction of Common Romance assumes the application of the comparative method to the Romance languages, as Meillet did with the Indo-European languages and Meyer-Lubke with the Romance languages, though the latter's comparative method is not always consistent and consequently leaves certain problems unsolved. That tradition however has been almost completely lost in Switzerland since the war or, to be more precise, since the death of its main representative, Meyer-Lübke, in 1936.

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Some post-war Romanists use that method more or less intuitively and without making displays of a comparativistic credo. Wartburg, for example, whose work has so many different aspects, makes (1954) an excellent comparative analysis in order to establish the relative chronology of ficatum and ficatum in Romance; but he does not think of assigning his results to Common Romance and still less of relating them to analogous facts in Common Romance. Several articles by Aebischer (1963, 1971) have been conceived within the comparativistic framework of thought; this linguist poses the question of Common Romance in more precise terms. The main representative of comparative Romance linguistics in Switzerland, however, is A. Burger, a trained Indo-Europeanist, a pupil of Meillet's, who not only always recommended the comparative study of Romance languages but also produced important articles as a result of the application of that method (1943, 1949). Two of his pupils have followed his example: M. Burger (1957) and Dardel (1958). Not much more has been done in Switzerland since the war. It is however not so much the scarcity of research-work as the fact that the younger generation hardly participates in it, that makes us mention comparative linguistics as among the methods kept in the background or becoming extinct. 3.2 If one understands by Wörter und Sachen the juxtaposition, in the presentation of materials, of the thing and the word indicating it, the two elements being taken as each other's complement, it may be said that the Wörter und Sachen method is continuing, particularly in certain studies on terminology, such as Scheuermeier (1963). Much of the current work is conceived from an onomasiological view-point in which linguistic data is simply classified according to non-linguistic ones. In this sense each onomasiological work may be called an application of the Wörter und Sachen method, even though the word sometimes indicates an abstract concept. However the method seems to have had a more precise meaning among certain pre-war Romanists, just as with its promoter, Hugo Schuchardt, namely that the "thing" is of service to the linguist in his etymological research-work. Jaberg and Jud set forth in their preface to Scheuermeier 1943-1956, an illustrated complement to the AIS, that this work, even though it provides important support for the ethnographer, has been conceived in relation to the needs of the linguist. The above mentioned essay of Egloff (1950), who had taken on a supplementary investigation and the collecting of illustrations for the GPSR, remains in that tradition; we find there excellent examples of etymologies based on

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the form or the manipulation of the thing. The Wörter und Sachen method, which was still very much alive in the first half of the century, seems however to have declined in the post-war period, or, to be more precise, to have ceased to exist as an isolated method and to be more and more entangled with the complex collection of data used by the etymologist, to the degree of sometimes becoming almost imperceptible. In that sense, one may safely say that this method has become obsolete. 3.3 Idealism in the Romance studies in Switzerland has been especially manifested in Wartburg's work; the famous parallel he establishes, in Wartburg 1934, between the tenses of Old French and the absence of perspective in painting has often been cited, sometimes reproachfully. Yet, in general, his idealism is more moderate than Vossler's and is limited to drawing parallels between civilisation and language, without going to the length of envisaging causal links. The idealistic tradition of Romance studies in Switzerland seems to have disappeared with Wartburg. 4 Let us come, finally, to the aspects of Swiss research in which progress has definitely been made. 4.1 The reader of Vox romanica cannot but be struck by the international atmosphere which has always prevailed in this Swiss periodical; but he is no less struck, after closely studying the Swiss production, by the contrast between that openmindedness and the reticence shown in practice by the Swiss Romanists as against certain new trends, particularly in methodology. The Romance areas in which Swiss Romanists are interested have in general remained the same after the war. Yet one may note a slight shift of interest: the development of studies on Picard, due to Gossen, have already been mentioned (2.3.3); besides, attention has recently been paid to Occitan by several Swiss Romanists, to regional French by researchworkers of the GPSR (Voillat 1971; Knecht 1974) and to regional Italian by Lurati (1976). The only spectacular development is to be found in the diachronic and synchronic study of the written or 'culture' modern Romance languages, with stress laid on French, a continuation of the works by Sechehaye, Bally, Frangois and Wartburg. 4.2 The aspects of language which after the war have attracted attention more especially are morphology (4.2.1), syntax (4.2.2), stylistics in the sense of Bally (4.2.3) and transphrastic structure (4.2.4).

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4.2.1 The Swiss Romanists had been at work on morphology already at the beginning of the century. The dissertations and early publications of J. U. Hubschmied, Jaberg, Jud, Keller, Tappolet and Wartburg testify to this. The AIS is endowed with maps devoted to morphology. However, it is only later that monographs on a morphological problem became frequent. 4.2.2 Neither has the study of syntax been neglected, in particular by the Geneva school. Meyer-Lübke devotes much space to it in his Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen. Lavallaz (1935) incorporates a syntactic section into his essay, which unfortunately remained almost unique for Francoprovengal. Raw materials for syntactic study are available; the GPSR, the VSI and the DRG often give the words in their context; the AIS contains many specimens of sentences. During the post-war period, the study of syntax has been considerably developed, even more so than the study of morphology. We ought also to mention the Livre des deux millephrases by H. Frei (1953), which corpus may be used for comparative of contrastive syntactic study; and let us bear in mind that some dialectal inquiries (Müller 1961; Schule 1961-1962; Zeli 1967) contain sentences and even texts. Bally had made some important remarks on the intonation of the various types of sentences; this research is continued at present by Frei (1968). 4.2.3 Charles Bally, who was the first to conceive a systematic study of the stylistic resources of a language, will no doubt have influenced Jaberg, throughout whose work expressiveness is considered as an important aspect of language and as a factor of linguistic evolution (cf. his explanation of French fronde and Italian fionda from expressive derivations of Latin funda, 1954). Frei (1929) devotes a chapter to the need of expressiveness. Yet this approach has only recently been developed in Switzerland. Wartburg incorporates a chapter on stylistics into the 1962 edition of Wartburg 1943, written by S. Ullmann, who himself had been influenced by Charles Bally. There are relatively numerous monographs. We ought to especially mention one by Lehmann (1949), a pupil of Jaberg's, for the general results she tries to draw from her observations. 4.2.4 In Switzerland, the study of the transphrastic structure began with Jean Rychner (cf. e.g. 1970). It is worthy of notice, because of its originality and importance. Rychner's starting-point has been his desire

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to find out if there exist in medieval French narrative prose more or less obligatory forms, characteristic of a certain genre and playing a part similar to that of the couplet, stanza or verse in poetry. Therefore, Rychner made a study of the structure of the transphrastic units, which, going beyond the sentence, are concerned with sections of the text with respect to the narrative (the same subject) and with respect to morphology (starting with a nominal subject, or an anaphora, in the form of personal pronouns, or verbs without pronouns). In other words, Rychner studies the relation of sentences among themselves and examines, for instance, the function of the conjunction et at the beginning of a sentence, the function of an initial subordinate clause or a parenthetic clause. It seems however that Rychner does not regard these structures as characteristic of Old French as such, but only as processes of a certain literary prose, which, all considered, are connected with a genre. 4.3 Until the Second World War and even long after, Swiss Romanists have almost ignored recent linguistic theories, be they of Genevan, Praguian or American origin. Articles by Bally and Sechehaye appear alongside those by dialectologists in Vox romanica, but hardly influence them. 4.3.1 Jud, who was a structuralist like Gillieron, i.e. in a limited sense (he does not mention Saussure before 1937), had not realised the synthesis between historical linguistics and Saussurean structuralism. The spirit of nascent structuralism and the positions taken up towards it are chiefly found in the works of Jaberg and Wartburg. One may say that, apart from this, and still after the war, structuralism, as a method of description and analysis, almost remained a dead letter to Swiss Romanists. But it is now coming to the fore with the new generation of research-workers. It strikes one, however, that many publications are either valuable synchronic descriptions, though not very strict from the point of view of structuralism (e.g. Jaeggi 1956), or so theoretical that they enter into the field of general linguistics (e.g. Hilty 1971). Real syntheses between synchronic and structural Romance linguistics are scarce; sometimes they suffer from a profusion of theories and structural methods and from the difficulty of selecting amongst them. One of the most marked contributions is an article by A. Burger (1961), in which he illustrates the difference between valeur and signification in Saussure by means of the French verbal suffix -ς-. Wunderli (e.g. 1970) is also working in this direction; he tries to find a valeur in the

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langue from the various realisations of the French subjunctive mood in the parole, and he applies this method to the Middle French subjunctive. We also ought to mention for French Frei (1954), Kahn (1954) and Baldinger (1968). M. Mahmoudian, one of Martinet's pupils, professor at Lausanne University, has conducted a syntactic inquiry in Vaud in order to verify certain hypotheses about the correlation between variations of linguistic structure and geographical or social subdivisions of the linguistic community (cf. Mahmoudian 1976a, 1976b; Jolivet 1976a, 1976b). 4.3.2 H. Frei 1929 is an application of Saussurean structuralism; on the level of the parole, from the errors committed against the norm, Frei seeks to bring to light the deficiencies of the language system and the needs resulting from these deficiencies. This is more or less what Gillieron called verbal pathology and therapeutics, though it goes much further, following the Saussurean theory, and has been systematically applied to all needs. This work, which has served as a model for research on other languages, e.g. Dutch, and which is reflected in Martinet's theories, has scarcely influenced Romance studies in Switzerland. The most we can say about it is that a functionalist tradition remains or has even become a little stronger, whether it has been prompted by Gillieron, Frei or Martinet. Here again, A. Burger stands out; he explains an etymology by a homonymic collision (1958) and he describes how a disturbance of equilibrium in the Latin system leads to a new balanced system in Common Romance (1949). 4.3.3 Transformational-generative grammar applied to a Romance language started in Switzerland with the Synlaxe de la proposition nucleaire en frangais parle by Roulet (1969), in which, besides a generative analysis, the author gives a tagmemic analysis following Pike's method, the first of the kind for French. 4.3.4 The study of inter-relations between language and society has been mentioned repeatedly in the preceding pages, but more or less incidentally and mostly as a fortuitous aspect of language research. Although the linguistic situation of Switzerland lends itself extremely well to pure socio-linguistic research, it is not before the sixties that these problems have become independent subjects for linguistic inquiry among Swiss Romanists. Ineichen (1972) and Lurati (1976) are good examples of this recent tendency.

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5 Considering Romance studies in Switzerland as a whole, we may say there is continuity in the dialectological studies of the Romance dialects as spoken in Switzerland, in those of dialects spoken outside Switzerland, with a stress on Gallo-Romance, and in the study and edition of old texts. There are also changes to be noticed: development of research in the field of written or cultured languages, transition from atomistic diachronism to a synchronism tending towards structuralism and functionalism, from the almost exclusive study of phonetics and lexicology to that of morphology and syntax, from a kind of linguistics strongly mixed with external elements to a kind of linguistics more purely autonomous. The differences between Switzerland and other countries seems basically to lie in a more deeply rooted traditionalism and consequently in a delayed adoption of new views, even if they originate in Switzerland, like those of Saussure. I have strongly insisted on traditional currents in Switzerland, which have persisted for such a long time. It would not be fair to regard this as only a negative point, even if renovation is altogether out of the question. Swiss Romanists should complete the great lexicographical works which they have undertaken, and they have to do this without too sweeping changes in outlook. Besides, material threatening to disappear should be collected with the utmost speed and by means of methods which have been put to the test; and this is a task that Swiss Romanists have set themselves. Finally, the study of phonetic facts or, as far as the past is concerned, of graphical systems, which is in the line of Swiss Romance studies, is or may some day turn out to be indispensable for the study of morphology and syntax. Raw material of the most modest sort is sometimes the basis of structural analysis. A positive result of this traditionalism will be a wealth of linguistic data Swiss Romanists are preparing for the use of coming generations. Further, we should remember that certain aspects of this traditionalism are not characteristic only of Romance studies in Switzerland. This slowness in adopting new methods and theories is all the more striking when we look at the activities of Romanists outside Switzerland, who produce dialectal monographs dedicated to syntax or to the phonological system, dialectological descriptions after the Chomsky an model, or using statistics and mecanographic gadgets, as well as essays on comparative linguistics. This tardiness is certainly to be regretted and may account for the rather unfavourable opinion expressed by outsiders about the research of Swiss Romanists.5 It stands to reason that certain gaps should be filled, particularly by the study of new trends and by a return to a neogrammarian comparative linguistics.

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On the other hand, a small country like Switzerland cannot do everything or tackle every new method; a certain amount of specialisation is desirable and the golden mean must be found. As a matter of fact, taking into consideration the slowness which sometimes characterises the renovation of Helvetic institutions, the development shown in a very recent past gives certainly rise to some optimism. Notes 1. lorgu lordan - John Orr, An Introduction to Romance Linguistics, revised with Supplement "Thirty Years On", by Rebecca Posner, 1970 (Oxford: Blackwell). 2. Hans Goebl, "Moderner Dialekt und mittelalterliche Skripta in der Normandie", 1972, VR 31: 287-333. 3. Giovanni Alessio, review of J. Hubschmid, Thesaurus praeromanicus, 1967, RLR 31: 213-220. 4. Benedek Elemer Vidos, Handboek tot de Romaanse taalkunde, 1956 ('s-Hertogenbosch: Malmberg): 217-233. Yakov Malkiel, "Comparative Romance Linguistics" (1972) Current Trends in Linguistics, ed. by Thomas A. Sebeok, 1963— (The Hague: Mouton) 9: 835-925. 5. Cf. Y. Malkiel's statement in an article mentioned in note 4.

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1939 Melanges de linguistique offerts a Charles Bally (Geneve: Georg). Bezzola, Reto R. 1971 The Curly-Horned Cow. Anthology of Swiss-Romansh Literature (= Unesco Collection of Representative Works, European Series) (London: Peter Owen). Bloch, Oscar - Walther von Wartburg 1932 Dictionnaire etymologique de la langue frangaise, 2 volumes (Paris: PUF). [6th edition 1975.] Bruckner, Wilhelm 1945 Schweizerische Ortsnamenkunde. Eine Einführung (= Volkstum der Schweiz 6) (Basel: Schweizerische Gesellschaft für Volkskunde). Burger, Andre 1943 "Pour une theorie du roman commun", Memorial des etudes latines publie a l'occasion du ^ anniversaire de la Societe et de la Revue des etudes latines, offert par la Societe a son fondateur, J. Marouzeau: 162-169 (Paris: Beiles Lettres). 1949 "Sur le passage du Systeme des temps et des aspects de l'indicatif, du latin au roman commun", CFS 8: 21-36. 1951 "Latin vulgaire et roman commun (resume)", Actes du Premier Congres de la Fedaraüon internationale des Associations d'etudes classiques a Paris, 1950, 220 (Paris: Klincksieck). 1952 Ce qu'e laino. Chanson sur ['Escalade de Geneve en lengageSavoyard (= SPRF37) (Geneve: Droz, Lille: Giard). 1957 Lexique de la langue de Villon (Geneve: Droz, Paris: Minard). [2nd edition 1974.] 1958 "V. fr. loi 'licence'", in Wartburg 1958: 123-128. 1961 "Significations et valeur du suffixe verbal fran9ais - -", CFS 18: 5-15. Burger, Michel 1957 Recherches sur la structure et l'origine des vers romans (Gen£ve: Droz, Paris: Minard). 1971 "A propos de la limite nord du francoprove^al", in Colloque 1971: 56-69. Caduff, Leonard 1952 Essai sur la phonetique du parier rhetoroman de la vallle de Tavetsch (canton des Grisons — Suisse) (Bern: Francke). Colloque 1971 Colloque de dialectologie francoprovengale, Neuchätel 23-27 septembre 1969, Actes (Neuchätel: Faculte" des lettres; Geneve: Droz). de Dardel, Robert 1958 Le parfait fort en roman commun (Geneve: Droz, Paris: Minard). Debrunner, Albert 1954 Sprachgeschichte und Wortbedeutung. Festschrift Albert Debrunner gewidmet von Schülern, Freunden und Kollegen (Bern: Francke). Decurtins, Alexi 1958 * Zur Morphologie der unregelmässigen Verben im Bündnerromanischen (= RH62) (Bern: Francke). 1959 La Suisse rhetoromane et la defense de sä latinite, Leson inaugurate de Fribourg (= Discours universitaires, Nouvelle sorie, 22) (Fribourg/Suisse: Editions universitaires). DRG 1938- Dicziunari rumänisch grischun (Cuoira: Societä Retommantscha). Ebneter, Theodor 1973 Das bündnerromanische Futur. Syntax der mit vegnir und habere gebildeten Futurtypen in Gegenwart und Vergangenheit (= RH 84) (Bern: Francke).

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Egloff, Wilhelm 1950 "Enquete d'un dialectologue sur la vie romande. Observations sur les anciens metiers et leurs vocabulaires", VR 11: 1-63. Frei, Henri 1929 La grammaire des faules (Paris: P. Geuthner, Geneve: Kundig). [2nd edition 1971.] 1953 Le livre des deux mule phrases (Geneve: Droz). [3rd edition 1966. Japanese 1973.] 1954 "Cas et deses en frangais", CFS 12: 29-47. 1968 "Signes intonationnels de mise en relief", in Wartburg 1968. 1: 611-618. GPSR 1924- Glossaire des patois de la Suisse romande (Neuchätel: V. Attinger). Gossen, Carl Theodor 1942 Die Pikardie als Sprachlandschaft des Mittelalters (auf Grund der Urkunden), Dissertation Zürich (Biel: Graphische Anstalt Schüler). 1967 Französische Skriptastudien. Untersuchungen zu den nordfranzösischen Urkundensprachen des Mittelalters (= SböAW 253) (Graz-Wien-Köln: H. Böhlhaus). 1970 Grammaire de landen picard (Paris: Klincksieck). Hafner, Hans 1955 Grundzüge der Lautlehre des Altfrankoprovenzalischen (= RH 52) (Bern: Francke). Hallig, Rudolf - Walther von Wartburg 1952 Begriffsystem als Grundlage für die Lexikographie. Versuch eines Ordnungsschemas ( = Abhandlungen der deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Klasse für Sprachen, Literatur und Kunst 4) (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag). [2nd edition 1963.] Heinimann, Siegfried 1946' Wort- und Bedeutungsentlehnung durch die italienische Tagespresse im ersten Weltkrieg (1914-1919) (= RH 25) (Erlenbach/Zürich: Rentsch, Geneve: Droz). 1963 Das Abstraktum in der französischen Literatursprache des Mittelalters ( = RH 73) (Bern: Francke). Hilty, Gerold 1954 Aly Aben Ragel, El libro conplido en los iudizios de las estrellas. Traduccion hecha en la corte de Alfonso el Sabio (Madrid: Real Academia Espaüola). 1968 "Westfränkische Superstrateinflüsse auf die galloromanische Syntax", in Wartburg 1968. 1: 493-517. 1971 "Bedeutung als Semstruktur", VR 30: 242-263. Huber, Konrad 1944 Über die Misten- und Speichertypen des Zentralalpengebietes. Eine sach- und sprachgeschichtliche Untersuchung (= RH 19) (Geneve: Droz, Erlenbach/Zürich: Rentsch). Hubschmid, Johannes 1951 Alpenwörter romanischen und vorromanischen Ursprungs (Bern: Francke). 1958 "Schweizerd. lobe 'Zuruf an Kühe' und slowen. laba 'ein Kuhname'", Wartburg 1958: 401-408. 1960 Mediterrane Substrate, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des Baskischen und der west-östlichen Sprachbeziehungen (= RH 70) (Bern: Francke). Hubschmied, Johann Ulrich 1938 "Sprachliche Zeugen für das späte Aussterben des Gallischen", VR 3: 48-155. Ineichen, Gustav 1962-1966 El Libro Agrega de Serapiom. Volgarizzamento di Frater Jacopus Philippus de Padua, 2 vol. (= Civilta veneziana, Fonti e testi 3, Serie terza, 1) (VeneziaRoma: Istituo della collaborazione culturale). 1972 "Condizionamenti sociologici nell'uso della lingua", PeM 4, 165-174.

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Jaberg, Karl 1908 "Sprachgeographische Untersuchungen: Arocher, garocher, garoter, rocher, rucher = 'werfen'", ASNS 120: 96-98. 1939 "Considerations sur quelques caracteres generaux du romanche", Bally 1939: 283-292. 1940 "Der Rumänische Sprachatlas und die Struktur des dakorumänischen Sprachgebiets", VA 5: 49-86. 1954 "Die Schleuder. Zur expressiven Wortgestaltung", Debrunner 1954: 213-232. Jaberg, Karl - Jakob Jud 1928-1940 Sprach- und Sachatlas Italiens und der Südschweiz, 12 volumes (Zofingen: Ringier u. Co.). 1960 Index zum Sprach- und Sachatlas Italiens und der Südschweiz. Ein propädeuüsches etymologisches Wörterbuch der italienischen Mundarten (Bern: Stämpfli). Jaeggi, Adolphe 1956 Le role de la preposition et de la locution prepositive dans les rapports abstraits en franqais moderne (= RH 58) (Bern: Francke). Jänicke, Otto 1971 "Beiträge zur galloromanischen Wortforschung", VA 30: 65-83. Jolivet, Remi 1976a "Theories linguistiques et formalisation", EtL 3/9/1: 37-64. 1976b "Rigueur et laxite de structure en syntaxe: approche exporimentale", EtL 3/9/1: 81-119. Jud,Jakob 1908 "Sprachgeographische Untersuchungen: Oberitalienisch barba Onkel'", ASNS 121: 96-102. 1908-1910 "Sprachgeographische Untersuchungen: aune 'Erle'", ASNS 121 (1908): 76-96; 124 (1910): 83-108. 1914-1917 "Probleme der altromanischen Wortgeographie", ZRPh 38: 1-75. 1925 "Eteindre dans les langues romanes", RLR 1: 192-236. 1934 "Sur l'histoire de la terminologie ecclesiastique de la France et de l'Italie", RLR 10: 1-62. 1946-1947 "Altfrz. estuet; bündnerrom. stuver, stuvair", VR 9: 29-56. Kahn, 1954 Le Systeme des temps del'indicatifchez un Parisien etchez une Bäloise(= SPRF46) (Geneve: Droz). Knecht, Pierre 1974 "Problemes de geographic linguistique en Suisse romande", in Actes du 5e Congres international de langue et litterature d'Oc et d'etudes franco-prove^ales (Nice 1967): 488-496. de Lavallaz, Leon 1935 Essai sur le patois d'Heremence (Paris: Droz). Lehmann, Ruth 1949 Lesemantisme des mots expressifs en Suisse romande (= Ä//34) (Bern: Francke). Liver, Ricarda 1969 Die subordinierenden Konjunktionen im Engadinischen des 16. Jahrjunderts. Ein Beitrag zur Frühgeschichte der rätoromanischen Schriftsprache.( RH 78) (Bern: Francke). Lobeck, Konrad 1945 Die französisch-frankoprovenzalische Dialektgrenze zwischen Jura und Saöne (= RH 23) (Geneve: Droz, Erlenbach/Zürich: Rentsch). Lurati, Ottavio 1976 Dialetto eitaliano regionale nella Svizzera italiana (Lugano: Banca Solari e Blum). Mahmoudian, Morteza

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1976a "Convergences et divergences dans les theories linguistiques", EtL 3/9/1: 23-36. 1976b "Rigueur et laxite de structure en syntaxe: aspects theoriques", EtL 3/9/1:65-80. de Mandach, Andre 1961- Naissance et developpement de la chanson de geste en Europe. 1. (1961) (Geneve: Droz, Paris: Minard); 2. (1963) (Geneve: Droz); 3/1. (1975) (Geneve: Droz). 1970 Chronique dite saintongeoise. Texte franco-occitan inedit 'Lee'. A la decouverte d'une chronique gasconne du Xlll· siede et de sä poitevination (= BeiheftZRPh 120) (Tübingen: Niemeyer). Müller, Marianne 1961 Le patois des Marecottes (commune de Salvan, Valais) (= BeiheftZRPh 103) (Tübingen: Niemeyer). (Olszyna-) Marzys, Zygmunt 1964 Les pronoms dans les patois du Valais central. Etude syntaxique (= RH76) (Bern: Francke). Pfister, Max 1960 Die Entwicklung der inlautenden Konsonantengruppe -ps- in den romanischen Sprachen, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des Altprovenzalischen (= RH 69) (Bern: Francke). 1970 Lexikalische Untersuchungen zu Girart de Roussillon (= BeiheftZRPh 122) (Tübingen: Niemeyer). 1973 "La repartition geographique des elements franciques en galloroman", RLR 37: 126-149. von Planta, Robert - Andrea Schorta 1939 Rätisches Namenbuch, 1. Materialien (= RH 8) (Paris: Droz, Zürich-Leipzig: Nienhans) [for 2. see Schorta, 1964], Quadri, Bruno 1952 Aufgaben und Methoden der onomasiologischen Forschung. Eine entwicklungsgeschichtliche Darstellung (= RH 37) (Bern: Francke). Rapport annuel de la redaction. Glossaire des patois de la Suisse romande, 1912-. RH Romanica helvetica Roulet, Eddy 1969 Syntaxe de la proposition nucleaire enfra^aisparle. Etude tagmemique et transformationnelle (Bruxelles: V). Rychner, Jean 1955 La chanson de geste. Essai sur l'art epique des jongleurs (Geneve: Droz, Lille: Giard). 1960 Contribution a l'etude des fabliaux. Variantes, remaniements, degradations, 2 volumes (Neuchätel: Faculte des lettres, Geneve: Droz). [2nd edition 1974.) 1966 Les Lais de Marie de France (Paris: Champion). 1970 Formes et structures de la prose fran^aise medievale: L'articulation des pi.rases narratives dans la Mort Artu (= Universite de Neuchätel, Recueil de travauxp Mies par la Faculte des lettres 32) (Neuchätel: Faculte des lettres, Geneve: Droz). Scheuermeier, Paul 1943-1956 Bauernwerk in Italien, der italienischen und rätoromanischen Schweiz, 1. (Erlenbach/Zürich: Rentsch), 2. (Bern: Stämpfli). 1963 "Seidenraupenzucht in Ligornetto (Tessin) um 1920", in Sprachleben der Schweiz. Sprachwissenschaft, Namenforschung, Volkskunde: 189-196 (Bern: Francke). Schmid, Heinrich 1949 Zur Formenbildung von dare und stare im Romanischen (= RH 31) (Bern: Francke). 1951-52 "Zur Geschichte der rätoromanischen Deklination", VR 12: 21-81. 1956 "Über Randgebiete und Sprachgrenzen", VR 15/2: 19-80.

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1958 "Eine lexikologische Merkwürdigkeit des Unterengadinischen", in Wartburg 1958: 681-698. Schorta, Andrea 1964 Rätisches Namenbuch, begründet von R. von Planta, 2. Etymologien (= RH 63) (Bern: Francke) [for I. see von Planta-Schorta 1939]. Schule, Ernst 1963 "Romanisches Wortgut in der Sprache des Oberwalliser Weinbauern", in Sprachleben der Schweiz. Sprachwissenschaft, Namenforschung, Volkskunde: 209-229 (Bern: Francke). 1971 "Le probleme burgonde vu par un romaniste", in Colloque 1971: 27-47. Schule, Rose Ciaire 1961-62 "Inventaire lexicologique du parier de Nendaz (Valais): la nature animee, la flore, la faune", VR 20 (1961): 161-284; 21 (1962): 141-241. Schweizer Dialekte in Text und Ton — Dialectes suisses ([texts:] Frauenfeld: Huber, [records:] Phonogrammarchiv der Universität Zürich). Spiess, Federico 1965-68 "Einige Betrachtungen zur Mundart der Collina d'Oro", VR 24 (1965): 106131;27(1968): 275-288. Voillat, Frangois 1971 "Aspects du fran9ais regional actuel", in Colloque 1971: 216-241. VSI 1952- Vocabolario dei dialetti della Svizzera italiana (Lugano: Tipografia La Commerciale S.A.). von Wartburg, Walther 1922-68 Französisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Eine Darstellung des galloromanischen Sprachschatzes, 23 volumes (Bonn: Klopp [1], Leipzig-Berlin: B. G. Teubner [21, 3], Basel: Helbing und Lichtenhahn [22, 4, 5], Basel: Zbinden [6-23]). [2nd edition 1969-] 1934 Evolution et structure de la langue frangaise (Leipzig-Berlin: B. G. Teubner. [Spanish 1966, tenth edition 1971.] 1936 "Die Ausgliederung der romanischen Sprachräume", ZRPh 56, 1-48. [2nd edition 1950. Spanish 1952, 1971, French 1967, English 1974.] 1939 Die Entstehung der romanischen Völker (Halle: Niemeyer). [French 1941, 2nd edition 1951.] 1943 Einführung in Problematik und Methodik der Sprachwissenschaft (Halle a.d.S.: Niemeyer). [3rd edition 1970. French 1946, 1963, 1969; Spanish 1951, English 1969, Italian 1971, Japanese 1973.] 1949 "Los nombres de los dias de la semana", RFE 33, 1-14. 1950 Umfang und Bedeutung der germanischen Siedlung in Nordgallien im 5. and 6. Jahrhundert im Spiegel der Sprache und der Ortsnamen (= Deutsche A kademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin; Vorträge und Schriften 36) (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag). 1954 "Zum Problem der Romanisierung Sardiniens", ZRPh 70: 59-72. 1958 Etymologica. Walther von Wartburg zum siebzigsten Geburtstag 18 Mai 1958 (Tübingen: Niemeyer). 1968 Festschrift Walther von Wartburg zum 80. Geburtstag, 18 Mai 1968, 1 volumes (Tübingen: Niemeyer). Weiss, Richard 1963 "Die viersprachige Schweiz im Atlas der schweizerischen Volkskunde (ASV)", in Sprachleben der Schweiz. Sprachwissenschaft, Namenforschung, Volkskunde: 121 (Bern: Francke). Widmer, Ambros 1962-74 "Beiträge zur Mundart von Medels", VR 21 (1962): 83-107; 22 (1963): 177191; 26 (1967): 28-36; 29 (1970): 36-56; 33 (1974): 157-172.

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Wiiest, Jakob 1969 Die Lei? Willelme. Untersuchungen zum ältesten Gesetzbuch in französischer Sprache (= RH 79) (Bern: Francke). Wunderli, Peter 1965 Etudessur le Livre de l'Eschiele Mahomet. Prolegomenes a une nouvelleedition de la version franqaise d'une traduction alphonsine (Winterthur: Keller). 1966 "Zur Regression des Bündnerromanischen", VR 25: 56-81. 1968 Le Livre de l'Eschiele Mahomet. Die französische Fassung einer alfonsinischen Übersetzung (= RH 77) (Bern: Francke). 1970 Die Teilaktualisierung des Verbalgeschehens (Subjonctif) im Mittelfranzösischen. Eine syntaktisch-stilistische Studie (= BeiheftZRPh 123) (Tübingen: Niemeyer). Zeli, Rosanna 1967 Terminologia domestica e rurale della volle Cannobina (Novara), Zürich Dissertation (Bellinzona: Istituto grafico Casagrande S.A.). 1968 "Spunti per lo studio della negazione nei dialetti del Ticino e del Moesano", VR 27: 289-298.

WILLY BAL

Romance studies in Belgium (1945-1974) Translated and adapted by Rebecca Posner

0 Introduction 0.1 The present survey is mainly limited to the post-war period ending 1974 and covers work done in Belgium, by scholars, whether Belgian or not, who participate in the cultural life of Belgium. Thus the work of such scholars as Nicolas Ruwet, well-known in generativist circles but who has lived and worked outside his native country, is not included. 0.2 No reference is made to text-books and manuals, nor to dissertations: the Revue beige de philologie et d'histoire (RBPH) regularly publishes lists of doctoral dissertations. 0.3 I wish to thank all those who have helped me in the preparation of this survey — especially my wife and Messrs. Dekeyser, Germain, Lechanteur, Mourin, Muraille, Piron, Pohl and Wilmet. 0.4 I have throughout attempted to pinpoint the specific contribution made by Belgian research and to trace its methodological trends, while assessing its role and predicting its future course. The bibliography, though ample, is not meant to be exhaustive and sometimes scholars will be named without a full list of the publications referred to. 0.5 The survey is divided into six sections: (1) Generalities; (2) Romance philology; (3) French linguistics; (4) Belgian studies — regional French, dialectology, sociolinguistics, onomastics; (5) Romance linguistics and studies of Romance languages other than French; (6) Conclusions. 1 Generalities 1.1 Romance philology in Belgium before 1945

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The teaching of Romance philology was begun, in the terms of the law of 1890-1891, by Maurice Wilmotte, the Grand Master of the discipline. There is no complete history of, or bibliography for, the period before 1945, though some rapid sketches by, for instance, Desonay, Delcourt, M. Delbouille and O. Jodogne, do exist. Accounts of developments during the Second World War are given by Remy (1948) and Warnant (1949a). 1.2 Periodical publications Here we shall describe the most important periodicals, published in Belgium, that regularly or frequently contain articles concerned with our subject. Most have a bibliographical section. For Romance philology in the wider sense we have the Bulletin de l'Academie royale de Belgique. Classe des lettres (Brussels 1900—); the Bulletin de l'Academie de langue et de litterature frangaises (Brüssels 1922—); the Revue beige de phüologie et d'histoire (Brüssels 1922—), published by the 'Societe pour le progres des etudes philologiques et historiques'; Les Lettres romanes (Louvain 1947—), with a decidedly literary orientation, published by the 'Groupe de phüologie romane de l'Universite Catholique de Louvain', and which sometimes contains philological articles; Marche romane (Liege, 1951—), published by the 'Association des romanistes de l'Universite de l'Etat ä Liege'. For medieval studies we have: Le Moyen Age (Brussels, 1888—), covering history and philology, and Scriptorium (Ghent, 1946—), published by Story-Scientia, concentrating on manuscript studies. For literary stylistics (mainly French) we have: les Cahiers d'Analyse textuelle (Liege, 1959—), published by graduates of 'l'Universite de l'Etat ä Liege' (cf. 3.8), and Degres (Brussels, 1973-), published by TAssociation internationale pour la recherche et la diffusion des methodes audio-visuelles et structuro-globales' ( V), with semiological orientation. For linguistics we mention the Revue des langues vivantes (Brussels, 1935—), organ of TAssociation des professeurs de langues vivantes'; Orbis (Louvain, 1952—), now a bulletin of linguistic documentation, previously concerned with general dialectology, put out by the 'Centre international de dialectologie generate'; the Revue de Phonetique appliquee (Brussels, 1965—), from the 'Centre universitaire de l'Etat ä Mons'; Linguistica Antverpiensia (Anvers, 1967—), from the 'Centre universitaire de l'Etat ä Anvers'; the Cahiers de l Institut de Linguistique

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(Louvain, 1972—) from the 'Institut de linguistique de l'Universite Catholique de Louvain'. For onomastics, dialectology and folklore we have: the Bulletin de la Commission royale de Toponymie et Dialectologie (Brussels, 1927—), published by the 'Ministere de l'Education nationale et de la Culture'; the bulletin-questionnaire Enquetes du Musee de la Vie wallonne (Liege, 1927—), published by the 'Musee de la vie wallonne'; Les Dialectes belgo-romans (Brussels, 1937-1969), formerly published by 'Les Amis de nos dialectes'; YAnnuaire (de la] Commission royale beige du Folklore; Section wallonne (Brussels, 1940—), published by the 'Ministere de la Culture frangaise'; Onoma. Bibliographical and Information Bulletin (Louvain, 1950—), from the 'International Center of Onomastics'; Les Dialectes de Wallonie (Liege, 1973—), from the 'Societe de langue et de litterature wallonnes', which also produces, at irregular intervals, the Bulletin de la Societe de langue et de litterature wallonnes (Liege, 1858—), and has published the Bulletin du Dictionnaire wallon (Liege, 19061970). We should also mention two series of publications, one on Romance philology: Romanica Gandensia (Ghent, 1953—) from the 'Section de Philologie romane de l'Universite de l'Etat ä Gand'; and the other on French linguistics: Travaux de Linguistique (Ghent, 1969—) from the 'Service de linguistique franQaise' of the same University. 2 Philology 2.1 French philology: medieval works and regional texts 2.1.1 Generalities Belgian scholars are particularly active in this traditional field. Here is the place to refer to Sonet (1956), and to M. Delbouille (1976) who examines the relationship between medieval philology and textual criticism. 2.1.2 Editions of texts Among anthologies we should mention especially those by Henry (1953) and Groult-Emond (1942-43). Chansons de geste editions include, notably, Ruelle (I960), Thomas (1962), De Poerck et al. (1970), while M. Delbouille (1951) and Thiry-Stassin-Tyssens (1976) figure prominently among those who have edited narrative lays. Editions of poetry include those by Bastin-Faral (1946, 1959-1960), Henry (1948), Van Deyck-Zwaenepoel (1974), Rychner-Henry (1974), Ruelle (1965).

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O. Jodogne (cf. 1959, 1965) specializes in the religious theatre of the fifteenth century: cf. also Henry 1962. Other religious literature also receives attention — cf. e.g. Sonet 1949-1952, Ruelle 1973, Mourin 1946 — while didactic literature is represented by Ruelle 1968 — an edition and translation of two thirteenth-century Anglo-Norman texts. A thirteenthcentury example of moral literature is edited also by Ruelle (1969a). The most important edition of a historical work is by Guiette (19401951), a verse history of Charlemagne completed in 1458 by David Aubert, a scribe at the Burgundian court; also of note is the edition by Goosse (1965) of a work by a fourteenth-century Liegeois author, Jean d'Outremeuse. Non-literary regional texts (legal and archival documents) are edited by philologists and historians — sometimes in collaboration. We refer only to some of those of particular philological interest. Gysseling has transcribed non-literary Belgian and Northern French texts dated before 1226. Baguette (1946) has edited, with a linguistic study, a collection of Liegeois legal documents from the late thirteenth or early fourteenth century, known as Paweilhar Giffou. The 'reglements et privileges des XXXII metiers de la Cite de Liege', are being published, with philological glossaries, by 'La Commission communale de l'histoire de l'ancien pays de Liege' (1943—). Yans-Hansotte (1958), continuing Poncelet's work, have published the 'records de coutumes' of the Stavelot district, with a philological glossary by E. Renard. Thisquen - Moors Massart (1961) have edited the thirteenth-century Romance and Thiois versions of the ancient customs of the Duchy of Limburg. Among Ruelle's editions we note especially those texts (1962) from the State archives at Mons, dating from 1316 to 1433. Sixty-eight original texts illustrating a linguistic study of thirteenth- and fourteenth-century French language texts from the Flemish-speaking region of Flanders, are among Mantou's contributions (1972). 2.1.3 Studies of texts Medieval texts are approached in various ways: textual criticism, linguistic, structural or thematic analysis. We concentrate on those studies of principally philological interest. The oldest French texts have been the subject of important studies by De Poerck and M. Delbouille; the latter is among those who have written on the chansons de geste, especially concerned with the spoken-written language relationship (cf. M. Delbouille 1959 for the proceedings of a 1957 Liege colloquium on this topic).

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We should cite Horrent (1951a) and M. Delbouille (1954) among those who have written on the Chanson de Roland—the latter defends the Oxford text against the former, who sees it as an adaptation. Horrent (1961) has also written an important essay — literary, textual and philological — on the Pelerinage de Charlemagne. The Guillaume cycle has been studied by Tyssens (1967), who traces the formation of the cycle by dint of meticulous examination of the different versions, as well as by O. Jodogne, M. Delbouille and Wathelet-Willem. Piron, and then Thomas, have inspired studies on Renaut de Montauban at the University of Ghent. Some of the above-mentioned scholars have made a study of Arthurian literature — to them should be added the names of Rita Lejeune and De Caluwe. Courtly poetry is the subject of Guiette (1949) and of Dragonetti (1960), who makes use of the methods of poetics, considering courtly lyrics as form. Religious literature is studied by Henry (1961), as well as by O. Jodogne and Van Deyck. Mourin (1952) has written an important synthesis based on the exhaustive study of documents relating to the fifty-six of Jean Gerson's sermons that survive. Old regional texts have been studied principally by E. Renard (cf. Lechanteur 1968 for an index of articles) and by Remade (cf. 1967 and 1972), while Mantou has examined Middle Dutch words in documents from Ypres. 2.2 French philology: post-medieval literary texts P. Jodogne (cf. 1964) is the specialist on the "grand rhetoriqueur", Jean Lemaire de Beiges (end 15th — early 16th c.), on whom he has published literary and linguistic studies. For sixteenth-century works we cite Mortier (1959) and Louant (1954), and, for the seventeenth century, Vercruysse (1969). The eighteenth century receives much attention — we mention Charlier-Mortier (1952), Mortier (1970), de Booy-Mortier (1966), Trousson (1970, 1971), Vercruysse (1970, 1971), Piron (1961a). Guillaume (1966, 1968, 1972), Jacques (1970), Bismut (1974) and P. Delbouille are particularly to be noted with reference to the nineteenth century. Nineteenth- and twentieth-century Belgian literature is the special domain of Hanse (cf. 1959,1965, 1966); we mention also the volumes of correspondence edited by Guiette (1963) and Laroche (1972).

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2.3 Texts in other Romance languages Occitan texts have received a good deal of attention — we mention the names of M. Delbouille, De Poerck, D'Heur, Dragonetti, Groult, Horrent, Joset, Remy and especially R. Lejeune (for some works worthy of note cf. the references). Pirot's work (1972), on Occitan and Catalan troubadours of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, unites literary history and philology, with textual criticisms in the first part and the edition of "sirventes — ensenhamens". De Caluwe's major work (1974) on the ethical and aesthetic use of medieval literary Occitan in the work of Frederic Mistral has a wider scope than philology as we have chosen to define it. In Spanish philology we mention Horrent (1951a, b), Groult (1959), Duvivier (especially 1971, 1973), and, for modern literature, Henry (1958). Galician-Portuguese philology is represented mainly by Bismut, a specialist on Camöes (cf. 1970, 1973) and D'Heur, who studies the work of the medieval troubadours (cf. especially 1973b). Italian philology is represented by Van Nuffel (1951, 1956a, b, 1961) who studies writers of the Risorgimento. Rhaeto-Friulian and Sardinian are covered by some of Mourin's writings, while Dräghici-Tänase has edited a collection of modern Rumanian texts. 2.4 Philological translations A study of Biblical translations into Romance before 1300 is the work of De Poerck - Van Deyck-Bauwens (1968) and Van Deyck (1970). Translation from one Romance language to another is represented by Vivier (1960), Bal (1963a, 1965), Bismut (1961), Henry (1958), Groult (1959), Sempoux (1970), while Henry (1962), Ruelle (1968), O. Jodogne, and Braet (1974) have published translations from Old French into modern French. Piron (1961b) presents contemporary Walloon poetry, together with French translations, while Haust's (1945a, b) edition of texts by Calozet is accompanied by translations by E. Renard. 3 French linguistics

3.1 Generalities We should mention that Renson collaborated with H. E. Keller in preparing the supplement (1955) for Wartburg's Bibliographie des dictionnaires patois gallo-romans. A popular brief history of French has been written by Desonay (1946); Piron edited in 1972 the second part of volume 13 of Bruneau's Histoire

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de la langue frangaise: la prose litteraire. M. Delbouille has investigated the genesis of written French, suggesting that the relative unity of the 'scripta' is founded not on a Francien base but on a predialectal tradition, reflecting an earlier unity of the langue d'ott. On French outside France, we have a general survey by Pieltain and articles by Piron (1958) and Duvosquel on French in Belgium. Deneckere (1954) writes on French in Flanders. French in Black Africa is the subject of studies by Pohl, Van der Vorst, Doppagne and, especially, Bal. The question of the 'Universality of French' and the responsibility of French speakers for the future of their language has been a major concern of Hanse, a leading light in organisations like the Conseil International de la langue fran^aise, the Office beige du bon langage, and the Biennales de la langue franfaise. On the relationship between nationality and literary language, he concludes that, at the cultural level, membership in a linguistic community should take precedence over nationality. Henry is concerned with the abstract character of French, which he believes to be neither an exclusive property nor a permanent characteristic, and which does not preclude expressivity. The relationship between written and spoken French is examined by Klinkenberg, De Kock and Bossaert, while Pohl has been collecting data on the spoken variety. The most famous study of child language acquisition is that of Gregoire (1937,1947) whose first volume is devoted to the first two years, with the second covering the third and following years: observations were made in the Liege French-speaking community. Remacle has studied the acquisition of the prefix re- and of the locution ne. . .que by children. Moreau is also researching child language, especially in relation to comprehension and the linguistic differences between contrasting social groups, a topic also studied by A. Leroy. Belgian sociolinguistic questions are surveyed in 4.4: here we mention Shyirambere's work on bilingualism in Ruanda and Vanneste's studies of the linguistic situation in French Flanders. 3.2 Historical grammar and Old French Among methodological studies we mention Ruelle (1959) on the history of approaches to historical grammar, De Poerck - Van Hoorenbeeck (1966), on how to study the syntax of the earliest texts, and Wilmet (1970a), on historical syntax. In diachronic phonology, most noteworthy is De Poerck's (1953) study of the diphthongisation of Latin close vowels and the palatalisation of u: he insists on the importance of discovering phonological correlations, of

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philological comparative data, while eschewing the solutions suggested by general phonetics. De Poerck's work on Old French morphology is inspired by similar linguistic-philological considerations. Jonas (1971) is the most important work on Old French syntax, rigorously synchronic in its approach, but faithful to philological and inductive methods, perhaps to the detriment of theoretical considerations. Ruelle is concerned with grammatical tense and real time in the Roland. A noteworthy study of the indicative in Middle French, based on distribution of verbs and complements of time, comes from the pen of Wilmet (1970b) written in a Guillaumean framework (cf. also Wilmet 1970a). 3.3 Phonetics and phonology Warnant (1962-1966 and 1973a) has produced two important dictionaries — first a normative pronunciation dictionary based on educated Parisian usage, and second a dictionary of rhymes classified phonetically, which is useful to linguists. Other topics that attract interest are prosody (Boone) and metrics (Munot). Experimental phonetics is represented by R. Renard-Wuilmart (1970) and Giot-Debrock, while Debrock-Jouret (197la) have done a contrastive study of French and Dutch phonetic systems. 3.4 Orthography Grevisse (1948) has written a code for French spelling, with a brief historical account. R. Thimonnier has proposed orthographical reforms (partly supported by the Conseil international de la langue frangaise) which are severely criticised by Klinkenberg. 3.5 Morphosyntax French syntax attracts more attention among Belgians than morphology: De Kock and Bossaert have been concerned with formal and automatic morphological segmentation, especially of French. Warnant is working on modern French syntactic structure, taking into account form of content as well as form of expression. Syntax and stylistics are conjoined by Henry's (1960a) study of expressive constructions in Old and Modern French. Dessaintes (1960a) proposes a theory of 'construction by insertion', of which parenthetic phrases is one aspect: insertion has a modal function, and there are semantic links with the matrix sentence. Renchon (1967) provides two descriptive studies, though not without normative overtones, first of verb usage in conditional clauses (with

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particular attention to the nonstandard use of-R- forms in i/clauses), and second of periphrastic interrogation. Solid documentation is here more in evidence than innovation in theory or method. Henry's (1968) study of U y a deserves special mention: though principally a descriptive study of modern French usage, he gives ample historical and comparative documentation. Other studies by Warnant, Reynvoet, Pohl, Pieltain, Wilmet, De Rijck-Tasmowski, Ruelle, Larochette, J. Thomas, are concerned with specific features of French syntax: we pick out Moreau's (1970) transformational analysis of c'est. Among studies of the French verbal system let us mention De Poerck's Saussurean analysis of verb morphology (1946), and Larochette's (1969) transformational study of verb syntax. Verb mood receives much attention — we pick out Hanse (1960) on the subjunctive — as does tense. 3.6 Grammar and linguistics applied to teaching Belgium has produced what is generally acknowledged to be the best French grammar (Grevisse 1936): wholly traditional in its approach with no concessions to modern linguistic theory, it is a perfect example of a normative-descriptive grammar, formulating rules, modified in the light of the practice of the 'best authors', thus elevating 'bon usage' to be the supreme authority. Grevisse is the outstanding representative of what can be called the 'Belgian School of Grammar' (cf. also Grevisse 19611970, 1973, Bottequin 1945, 1946, Doppagne 1966, Goosse 1971, Pohl 1959, all of which are written in accessible style, with rich documentation, and avoiding extreme judgements). Grammatical, lexicological and even orthographical difficulties are discussed by Hanse (1949). Some such difficulties seem to be peculiar to Belgium — so-called belgicismes, an empirical notion without specific definition (cf. 4.3) — and attract much attention. L'Office du bon langage has published two popular works (Hanse - Doppagne - Bourgeois-Gielen 1971, 1974) with the explicit aim of conducting Ία chasse aux belgicismes'. The 'conseils aux Wallons\on the orthophonic level, by Remacle (1948a) are also to be noted. Definitions and refinements of the idea of a norm are also frequent: thus Hanse discusses the Belgian contribution to the definition of bon usage; Paquot examines provincial attitudes; Goosse, regional deviations; Grevisse, the relative status of grammatical rules; Wilmet, the relationship between linguistics and grammar; while De Poerck and Boone pay attention to particular points of grammar. Mertens has worked in the history of grammar, and Mantou has

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studied French-Flemish conversation handbooks of the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries. In applied linguistics we note the pedagogical work of Dessaintes (1960b, 1962,1971), unfortunately cut short by his premature death, who attempted to incorporate structuralist and TG ideas into language teaching methods, as well as that of Van Hout (1973-1974), who introduces mathematical techniques. Also on teaching methods, we should mention the work of Moreau (1971) and of Hanse, Bai and Helbo. For teaching French to Flemish speakers, Verlee's dictionary (1963), Debrock-Jouret's phonetic study (1971b), as well as work by Mertens, Dessein and Reynvoet, are worthy of note. 3.7 Lexicology and lexicography On the general level, we note Mantou's (1969) index of reviews of FEW, and Goosse's work on neologism as well as his bibliography of French lexicology. Historical lexicology, especially of the word or word-family history type, is well represented: cf. especially Henry 1960b, and Piron 1953 as well as studies by M. Delbouille, de Poerck, Hanse, Herbillon, O. Jodogne, M. Leroy, Maquet, Pohl, Ruelle, Sempoux, Venckeleer. Purely semantic studies are the work of Thomas, Piron, Ruelle and Mudimbe. Much work is limited to Old French: we note especially de Poerck (1951), on drapery terms; Messelaar (1963), on the vocabulary of ideas in Brunei Latin's Tresor; Lavis et al. (1969) on words for 'woman'; and Lavis (1972), on the lexical network "joie-dolof. The University of Liege Institut de lexicologie frangaise, founded in 1963, has restarted the project for a Dictionnaire onomasiologique de Vancienfrangais, which a team led by De Poerck worked on from 1942 to 1956 (cf. M. Delbouille-Grisay 1968), now using computerized analysis of texts: already a series of word-lists for twelfth- and thirteenth-century lyric and narrative works have been produced, as well as concordances for works of trouveres of the same period (cf. Dubois et al. 1969, Lavis and Dubois 1970, Dubois-Stasse et al. 1974). A dictionary of medieval French lyrical poetry is also planned, based on the work of students, under the direction of Institut members. Systematic, mainly descriptive, studies of modern French have been carried out under the direction of Goosse (cf. 1966): for instance, Deckers (1968) on the Greek elements in Teilhard de Chardin's vocabu-

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lary, as well as work on vocabulary — Second Empire vie parisienne (Klein), hunting (Lenoble-Pinson), the Code de procedure civile (Spitaels), entomology (De Leenheer). Messelaar has studied French-Flemish lexicographical problems. Fa'ik (1974) has examined reve and its etymological family in contemporary literary language using statistical methods, in the framework of a stylistic and thematic study of Bernanos. In the field of onomasiology we note specially Renson's (1962) study of words for 'face' in French and the other Romance languages, and E. Legros' (1969) 'Word and Thing' study of the beehive in Gallo-Roman, with methodological contributions to chronological and etymological problems. 3.8 Stylistics and literary semiotics Bestriding the literary and linguistic, as well as sometimes philological, domains, stylistics is a difficult field to define, but one that receives much attention. Henry is concerned not only with syntax, but also with stylistic considerations — cf. especially Henry 1952 on Valery, mainly centred on vocabulary; Henry 1963b, on the themes, words, images and phrases in Saint-John Perse'sj4ram; Henry 1971b, on general rhetoric, with meticulous analysis of French texts; as well as, for instance, Henry 1966, on a Rimbaud text, where a link is made between Tesniere structuralism and literary aesthetics. Piron, too, has published several stylistic studies of texts: cf. e.g. his methodological article (1951), illustrated by reference to Verlaine. His teaching aims to "retrouver dans 1'unite du poeme la coincidence d'une sensibilite et d'un langage": cf. his pupil Angelet (1961) on Tristan Corbiere's poetics. Guillaume began with an exegesis of Van Lerberghe, and continued with studies on Nerval (1956, 1959, 1962a). His approach, which uses vocabulary statistics as a subsidiary aid, starts from subjective reactions and progresses by successive stages: essentially a method of convergence; it combines intuitive and deductive method. Both Piron and Guillaume, in their own ways, approach literary work from the point of view of internal criticism and obviously owe much to Servais Etienne whose Defense de la Philologie appeared in 1933. In the same tradition is the Cahiers d'analyse textuelle founded at Liege by Remacle in 1959, and now edited by P. Delbouille (cf. 1961, a general phonostylistic study). The Cahiers contains articles, notably, by Chalon,

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G. Legros, Delhez-Sarlet, Lavis, Lechanteur, Munot, M. Remacle. The group μ of Liege (cf. Dubois et al. 1970) has applied its principles to an Eluard poem (Dubois et al. 1972), and to other texts. Archaism and its stylistic function is of particular interest to one of the group's members, Klinkenberg (cf. 1973, also Klinkenberg's article in Volume 3.1 of this series). At the Louvain centre for stylistics and literary semiotics, under the direction of Otten, several doctoral dissertations are being prepared (cf. Emond (1974), on Jean Cayrol's La Noire, whose basic hypothesis is that a text can go far beyond a "vouloir dire initial"). Some isolated studies are worthy of note: Bal (1958) on comparison in Pourrat; De Rijck-Tasmowski's transformational analysis of a Verlaine poem; Vanneste (1972) and Fai'k (1974). 3.9 Paroemiology We note the project for a dictionary of French proverbs, inspired by O. Jodogne, and carried out by students at the Louvain Centre de lexicologie franfaise under the direction of Goosse, with the collaboration of Coppens d'Eeckenbrugge. 4 Dialectology, onomastics, studies of regional French, sociolinguistics 4.1 Dialectology 4.1.1 Generalities Studies of the Romance dialects of Belgium are popularly grouped under the title 'Walloon dialectology', even though Walloon dialects, properly so-called, are to be distinguished from Belgian Picard, Lorraine (or gaumais}, and Champagne dialects. There is no complete retrospective bibliography, though Hanart is preparing a bibliographical guide to dialectal letters and Germain, a thematic bibliography of artisanal vocabulary. Current bibliography is well represented by Doutrepont - Haust E. Legros- Herbillon et al. (1926—) and O. Jodogne (1937-1951), which also cover onomastics. For periodicals cf. 1.2: an index to the French sections of the first twenty-five volumes of the Bulletin de la Commission royale de toponymie et de dialectologie has been prepared by Goosse (1956). General articles include: E. Legros (1949a) on dialectal glossaries of Northern France and Walloon studies; E. Legros (1950-1967) on gaumais dialectology; Ruelle (1950) on the patois borain and Hainaut dialects.

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4.1.2 Linguistic geography An essential work precisely tracing the present-day limits of Romance dialects on the basis of field studies, is that of E. Legros (1948). Using this and Remouchamps' systematic map of Wallonie, Doppagne-Manet (1974) have drawn up an atlas of Romance Belgium and adjacent areas. Among more detailed works, we note Herbillon's article on alloglottal islands and Duvosquel's history of language use in the Comines region. On Romance-Germanic contacts and resulting interference, we note the work of Boileau (esp. 1971, 1972) who is mainly, but not exclusively, concerned with toponymy. Also of note is Remacle's studies on Germanic influence on Walloon internal structure, Herbillon and Warland's lexical studies, and Descamps on the relationship between Picard and Flemish. Dialectal segmentation has also been studied by Remacle who distinguishes a group of Southern Walloon dialects, as well as those of the East, and of the Centre West. The fruit of thirty years of patient toil by the master of Walloon dialectology, Haust, and his followers, the Atlas linguistique de la Wallonie (ALW) has begun to appear (cf. Remacle 1953 on phonetics; Remacle 1969 on morphology; and E. Legros 1955a on atmospheric phenomena and weather). Volumes 4 and 5, on the dwelling and the household, are the responsibility of Lechanteur, while E. Legros left almost completed the manuscript of Volume 6, on the farm. Important articles on methodology are due to E. Legros (1974a) and to Remacle (1951). 4.1.3 Phonetics and phonology Remacle (1944) uses both synchronic and diachronic approaches to study variations in secondary h in the Liege Ardennes, describing the Λ-like sounds, their geographical distribution and the fluctuation in usage, as well as investigating their origin, in comparison with other Romance data, and assessing Germanic influence. Diachronic studies include Warnant's article on -uru, -ura, -unu, -una in East Walloon. Warnant is also the author of important synchronic studies (e.g. 1953, 1956). An experimental study of nasals in the Herve region is being carried out by Giot, Lechanteur, and Munot; cf. also Bal 1966a on the phonology of the Charleroi dialect. 4.1.4 Morphosyntax Walloon syntax is dominated by Remacle (1952, 1956, 1960), uniting descriptive, historical and comparative methods and based on twenty-five

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years of patient and careful observation: he not only compares Walloon dialects among themselves, but also, where necessary, introduces other Romance and Germanic languages. More modest descriptive works, concerned only with one dialect, are due to Leonard (1952) and to Coppens (1959). Detailed studies include that of Pierret on the syntax of personal pronouns in the Longlier dialect, of E. Legros on verbal morphology and on en/dans variation, while some studies use modern linguistic theories and methods (Warnant 1969, 1974). 4.1.5 Lexicology and lexicography Lexical studies take four different forms: regional or local dictionaries, technical vocabularies and ethnographico-linguistic studies, onomasiology, and diachronic lexicology. Among the first, pride of place must go to Haust's (1948) Dictionnaire fra^ais-liegeois (DFL), originally the key to his 1933 Dictionnaire liegeois (DL), but with (mainly etymological) corrections (it was edited by E. Legros). Haust (1946) and Haust-Legros (1947) have published annotated extracts from Dr. Louis Bonnet's Tournais (Picard) dictionary. A local lexicon, together with an ethnographico-linguistic description of rural life at Jamioulx (West Walloon) is due to Bal (1949). Coppens has produced a Walloon-French dictionary (1950), and a French-Walloon dictionary (1962), of the West Walloon dialect of Nivelles. E. Legros (1963) has contributed to Balle's dictionary of the West Walloon dialect of Cerfontaine. Leonard (1969) in collaboration with Guillaume, is responsible for a voluminous Namurois (Central Walloon) lexicon, with ideological classification following Hallig-Wartburg, and an alphabetical index. Bourgeois (1973) has produced a glossary of the Comines-Belgique (Picard) dialect, accompanied by glossaries for Comines-France by Allard and Vermes, and for Warneton, by de Simpel. Pierret (1975) has prepared a new edition of Massonnet's lexicon of the gaumais dialect of Chassepierre; Bal is doing the same for Carlier's Charleroi dictionary, while Dascotte has published two supplements to Nopere's dictionary of central Hainaut (on the Walloon-Picard border). Droixhe is analysing early Walloon dictionaries and glossaries: as a result he has published an article on forgotten words in H. Forir's French-Liegeois dictionary. Much attention is paid to traditional activities and usage, presented either in the form of professional vocabularies (cf. e.g. Ruelle (1953) on the Borain coal industry of Hainaut), or of ethnographico-linguistic

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descriptions, along Word-and-Thing lines (Remacle's (1937) Le Parier de la Gleize provides the model). Outstanding works include: E. Legros' articles on Walloon artisanal trades (cf. Melanges Legros: 425-430, published by the Musee wallon (1973), for a bibliography); agricultural activities are examined by Bal (1949), Warnant (1949b), Houziaux (1959), Dascotte (1972-1973); family life, by Fossoul-Risselin (1969); housing, by Lerond (1963) for the Malmedy region, and by Pierret for the Longlier (Neufchäteau) dialect. Stone-working at Spontin (Dinant) is Germain's (1974) topic, while water-mills in East Wallony are examined by G. Legros, and blacksmiths in South Luxemburg, by Deom. We should also mention numerous studies of popular games, superstitions, and customs, closely linked to dialectology and folklore, many of which have appeared in the Bulletin des Enquetes du Musee de la Vie Wallonne. Dialects play an important part in Henry's historical lexicological studies (cf. e.g. 1960b); histories of individual words abound (cf. e.g. Henry (1974) on Wallon and Wallonie). Spanish elements in Walloon and Netherlands French are studied by Herbillon (1961). 4.1.6 Paroemiology We cite especially Depretre (1947), Ruelle (1969b), Hostin (1971). 4.1.7 Old Walloon "scripta" The classic work is by Remacle (1948b) who takes up problems tackled by Feller in 1931, and shows, by means of detailed analysis of Liegeois and Ardennais documents, that thirteenth- and fourteenth-century texts in the vulgar tongue represent a composite scripta, reflecting not the dialect of one region but a somewhat regionalized variety of the written language with a norm tending towards Central or Franco-Picard usage. Lexical studies of Old Walloon have been written by Balle, Haust, Herbillon, Lechanteur (cf. also 2.1.3). 4.1.8 Philological editions of dialectal texts Piron (1962) has published an inventory of literary works in Walloon from about 1600 to the end of the eighteenth century. Among anthologies we note: M. Delbouille (1950), for seventeenth— twentieth-century texts; Piron (1961b), for contemporary poetic texts, with French translation; and the general anthology of Walloon texts being prepared under Piron's direction. Critical editions of individual texts have been prepared by Bal and E. Legros, but especially by Haust (cf. 1945a, b, 1949b), by Guillaume

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(1960, 1962b, 1970) and by Piron (e.g. 1956). Droixhe is editing seventeenth- and eighteenth-century literary texts. Oral folkloric texts — dialectal or French — have been edited and studied principally by E. Legros and Pinon. For notes on old popular songs from Hainaut cf. Libiez-Pinon 1939-1972. 4.2 Onomastics 4.2.1 Generalities A retrospective bibliography of toponymic studies in Wallony is soon to appear (Germain-Toussaint). 'State of the Art' surveys include O. Jodogne 1947 and E. Legros 1947b: cf. also Herbillon 1969 and Arnould 1945. Historians, notably Arnould and Yans, are concerned with onomastics: cf. especially Bougard-Gysseling (1970), on rolls for royal taxes in Artois (1295-1302). 4.2.2 Toponymy The names to conjure with are Carnoy (1948-1949), who is sometimes thought too bold in his conjectures, Gysseling (1960), for a monumental toponymic dictionary which goes well beyond Belgian frontiers, Herbillon (1938-1967, 1945—), Vannerus (cf. Herbillon 1971: 38-56 for a bibliography) and Vincent (cf. Herbillon 1962:31-38 for a bibliography). This last-named is one of the great masters of Belgian onomastics: his most important works Les noms de lieux de la Belgique and Toponymie de la France (1927 and 1937) were followed by a short version (Vincent 1947), where neither clarity nor precision suffered by the condensation. We note, too, Doppagne (1951-1952, 1969), Simon-Renard (1951), Gaspar (1955), E. Legros (1955b), E. Renard (1957), Ruelle (1970), Laurent (1973). 4.2.3 Anthroponymy Important studies are due to Carnoy, O. Jodogne, Herbillon, Vincent. Two works are concerned with the general question of family names in Belgium: Vincent (1952) and Carnoy (1953). Each cites 14,000 names. The first, a 'pioneering' study, is more condensed, with ideological classification, and is a careful treatment of abundant data. The second is more extensive and aims at a 'classification of family names' grouped according to the idea that led them to be applied to a person: it has been subject to much criticism, both of method and documentation (cf. especially Herbillon 1954—).

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O. Jodogne (1956-1964) has published a repertory of family names in quarters of Nivelles and Liege: cf. also Doppagne 1951, 1969. 4.3 Regional French 4.3.1 Generalities Goosse (1964) and Piron (1970) provide an overall view of work on Belgian French; Goosse (1970) and Warnant (1973b — particularly important methodologically) are concerned with the norm and regional variations. Pohl (1979) provides a bibliography. 4.3.2 Special studies Besides those mentioned in 3.6, we pick out three books: Herbillon (1961), on Spanish borrowings; Pohl (1962), a scientific description, with evidence from verb syntax; and Baetens Beardsmore (1971), a description of Brussels French, using recordings of spontaneous speech. Warnant is preparing a phonetic atlas, and Goosse, a dictionary of belgicismes. In numerous articles, Goosse has studied lexical questions, Piron, texts and belgicismes (cf. 1973), Pohl, especially marginal usage, like slang. Vie et langage (Nov.-Dec. 1953) contained a number of short articles by Hanse, Henry, Maquet, Piron, Pohl. 4.4 Sociolinguistics Verdoodt (1973) provides a copious bibliography of the problems of co-existing linguistic groups in Belgium. Baetens Beardsmore and Vanneste are concerned with the situation in Brussels, while Pohl shows the relationship between regional French and political frontiers. The vitality of Walloon dialects and their position in relation to French has been the object of several works by Doppagne (publication of a questionnaire, drawn up by Balle, on the use of Walloon), by Bal (contamination of the dialect by French), by Ruelle (French and patoisants) and by Piron (French and dialect in Wallony). On bilingualism, we note Hanse's stand against precocious FrenchDutch bilingualism in the Belgian context, and Boileau's part in W. F. Mackey's Bibliographie internationale sur le bilinguisme (Quebec, Laval U.P. 1972). 5 Romance languages in general and languages other than French 5.1 Comparative studies 5.1.1 Generalities A selective bibliography of Romance linguistics is to be noted in its fourth

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edition: Mourin - Pohl 1971. Introductory works include Pop 1955 and Bal 1966b. Pop (1950, 1960, 1966) was concerned principally with dialectology and linguistic geography, whereas De Kock (esp. 1974) considers the automatisation of Romance linguistics. 5.1.2 Special studies On the formation of the Romance languages we cite Groult (1947) and M. Delbouille (1972). Pohl has considered classification problems. Mourin is the leading figure in comparative morphology: cf. De Poerck -Mourin 1961 —, of which the first volume concerned Old Portuguese (Mourin) and Old Castilian (De Poerck); of the other projected volumes, that on Old Catalan was published by Mourin in 1961, on RhetoRomance, in 1964, on Sardinian, in 1963, on Old Rumanian, in 1962. Mourin is also responsible for a series of contributions to the comparative description of verb morphology (1966—), as well as to problems of historical morphology, using comparative methods. He has also been directing studies on Romance syntax. Lexicology is represented only by some articles by de Poerck and by Renson (1962). Bal is concerned with Creoles and interference between Romance and Black African languages: cf. especially Bal 1968. 5.2 Individual Romance languages 5.2.1 Occitan Belgian Occitanists are concerned mainly with literary history and criticism and with philology (cf. Pirot 1973). De Caluwe has done a linguistic study of the medieval langue d'oc in Joseph Roumanille's dissertation on Provengal orthography. 5.2.2 Ibero-Romance Apart from articles by Mourin and Horrent, there is no general work in this field. 5.2.2.1 Spanish A structural study stems from Garcia Bardon (1967-1968), while R. Renard (1966) has written on Judeo-Spanish. We recall the work of De Poerck-Mourin on Spanish grammar: other names include De Kock, Vermeylen and Victorio. A number of doctoral dissertations are concerned with this field. Vocabulary studies include contributions by Garcia Bardon. In stylistics, there are several important studies: Henry (1958) was mentioned in 2.3.

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Another noteworthy scholar, Galle-Dehennin (1957) examined the poetic works of Pedro Salinas, using a method which consists of searching for valeurs at the interface between ideation and expression and of showing the exact superposition of fond and forme. Galle-Dehennin (1969) has also done an eminent study of the Cantico of Jorge Guillen, proceeding from the contemplative act to the verbal act. Both are approached via the frequency studies of nouns and adjectivisation; the first are considered as revelatory (mots-temoins) of the zones of reality with which the poet is obsessed, the second, as privileged elements as regards the verbal actualisation of the original vision. De Kock (1966, 1968) has analysed, in Unamuno's Cancionero, metrical, linguistic and rhetorical procedures. Several scholars are concerned with the applications of linguistics to Spanish teaching problems: we mention especially Dumont (1970) on misleading lexical concordances between French and Spanish. 5.2.2.2 Portuguese Mourin's work on morphology should here be mentioned again. Bal (1969-1971) is concerned with lexical interference between Portuguese and African languages. A basic bi-lingual Portuguese-French vocabulary by Moura (1967) was devised for pedagogical purposes (cf. the English version Moura 1968). 5.2.2.3 Catalan Apart from Mourin's work, there is nothing to speak of. 5.2.3 Italian, Rhaeto-Friulian and Sardinian 5.2.3.1 Italian A very brief survey of Italian studies in Belgian Universities is the work of Van Bever (1970). Among general works we note articles by Horrent on Christopher Columbus's language and on metrics. Mourin's studies on the past conditional, on the imperfect indicative and the pluperfect subjunctive are to be noted in the realm of morphosyntax: cf. also Lo Cascio 1970. In lexicology, important studies are due to Plomteux (e.g. 1974) using the methods of linguistic geography, onomasiology and dialectology, with the help of ethnography: his principal field of study is Liguria. The language of individual authors is a popular subject of study, which borders on stylistics, grammar and lexicology: De Poerck, Van Muffel, Jacqumain, Gourski, Van der Meerschen, Sempoux, Bastiaensen, Maquet and Van Bever are among those who have pursued this kind of work.

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The problems of teaching Italian also receive a good deal of attention. 5.2.3.2 Rhaeto-Friulian Volume IV of De Poerck-Mourin (1961—), written by Mourin, is devoted to Old Surselvan, Engadinois and Dolomite Ladin. Other studies in this field are the work of De Poerck and of Mourin. 5.2.3.3 Sardinian We note Mourin's contribution to Volume V of De Poerck-Mourin 1961. 5.2.4 Rumanian Mourin's Volume VI of De Poerck-Mourin (1961—) is concerned with Old Rumanian. Pop's work (e.g. 1966, 1968) is also to be noted. 6 Conclusions 6.1.1 Without wishing to underestimate the influence of French scholars, especially Gaston Paris, we must recognize that Belgian Romance studies were originally attached to the conceptions and methods of German scholarship, for which Maurice Wilmotte professed such great esteem. This is most apparent in studies of the Romance area as a whole (e.g. by Mourin) and in the consideration of Romance studies — language and literature — as a unified field of study. To be sure, with increased specialisation, there has been attenuation of this attitude, but Henry, for instance, represents an outstanding example of the continuing trend. Romance philology has kept, until just recently, some of the problematic and methodological characteristics that it had at the time of its foundation. One notes, for instance, the importance attached to medieval studies and the predominance of Diachronie linguistics. As far as methodology is concerned, there survives careful attention to analysis and an inductive approach, together with a suspicious attitude to theoretical speculation. Thus while theoretical progress has been somewhat impeded, an appreciable number of solid, well documented and prudent studies have been produced, often combining philology and linguistics — as, for example, by M. Delbouille and De Poerck. It is true that, from quite early on, some work has shown the influence of Saussurean theories or Prague phonology, but this has remained isolated. It is really only in the last decade that synchronic linguistics and innovating theories and methods have made their mark. This development is not unrelated, in the Belgian context, to the educational reforms that, from 1968 on, have ceased to impose historical perspectives in Romance Linguistics courses.

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6.1.2 The Belgian environment has promoted a study of special problems, rather than dictated use of special methods. Dialects on the periphery of Gallo-Roman territory, archaising and yet still in active use to some extent, have offered excellent scope for researching dialectology and linguistic geography, often hand in hand with folklore and ethnography. The greater part of scholars' work has been in this direction: most typical are Haust, E. Legros and Remacle. Philologists (e.g. Goosse, Henry, Ruelle) have been attracted by the diverse peculiarities of the old texts — literary and non-literary — from this region, and much research has been done on the dialectal characteristics of these "scripta", leading to a consideration of the general problem of the linguistic nature of medieval texts. Remacle has shown that old "scripta" are not transcriptions of spoken dialect usage. Another problem has been concerned with the late appearance of spoken dialects in written form. Piron has shown that dialect literature began to appear in all langue d'o'il regions in the sixteenth century, explaining the timing in terms of the interaction of three types of factor: linguistic, historical and psychological. Thus two general problems have been resolved by the Liege dialectological school; both solutions knit together to give an overall picture. The salient special features of Belgian French — in a peripheral region outside the political boundary of France — have been mostly interpreted as 'faults', deviations from a norm. They have been regarded as particular dangers to the purity of the language insofar as they result from Germanic influences, and because the norm appears less well established in a region where there are various types of bilingualism and/or diglossia. Thus there have appeared various prescriptive studies (Grevisse). At present, under the influence of modern linguistic ideas, a more systematic description of these peculiarities is being undertaken. The history of the linguistic frontier, with Belgium at the meeting-point of the Romance and the Germanic world, has posed specific problems, often brought to the fore by linguistico-political disputes between French and Flemish speakers. Some onomastic studies are closely linked to these problems. Obviously related are questions of linguistic interferences and bilingualism. 6.2 Romance linguistics and philology in Belgium have their good and bad points. Among their strengths are undoubtedly: Walloon dialectology, medieval studies (especially of Chansons de geste, troubador poetry, religious literature and non-literary regional texts) and descriptive-normative French grammar.

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Weaknesses are to be found in instrumental phonetics, phonology and especially semantics. On this point, we should note that important lexical projects are in progress, which imply more semantic research. 6.3 Posner wrote, in 1970, about Belgian Romanists: "From a methodological point of view, they tend to be traditionalist." This judgement remains valid. In any case, in at least one sector of research, dialectology, one might suggest that, given the rapid decline of dialects over the last few decades, it is more urgent and more useful to collect reliable and copious data than to try to develop new descriptive methods. However, it has to be said that modern methods and ideas have penetrated into different sectors — automatization in lexicology, morpho-syntactic analysis, textual studies; formalization in grammar; set-theory mathematics in didactical works on French; semiotics and sociolinguistics have just got going. This partial and progressive modernisation has introduced a welcome and fertile variation into the continuity of Romance studies in Belgium. References Angelet, Christian 1961

La poetique de Tristan Corbiere (= Academic Royale de Langue et de Litterature Frangaises) (Bruxelles: Palais des Academies). Arnould, Maurice 1945 "La Toponymie et l'Anthroponymie en Hainaut. Sources et ressources actuelles", BCTD 19: 113-138. Baetens Beardsmore, Hugo 1971 Le franc.ais regional de Bruxelles (Bruxelles: P.U.). Baguette, Albert 1946 Le Paweilhar Giffou, edition critique par — (= Commission Communale de l'histoire de Γ Anden Pays de Liege, Documents et Memoires sur le Pays de Liege l) (Liege: editions de la Commission Communale de l'histoire de PAncien Pays de Liege). Bai, Willy 1949 Lexique du parier de Jamioulx (= Memoires de la Commission royale de Toponymie et de Dialectologie, section wallonne, 5) (Liege: Vaillant-Carmanne). 1958 La Comparaison. Son emploi dans "Gaspard des Montagnes" d'Henri Pourrat (= Studio Universitatis "Lovanium". Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres 4) (Leopoldville, Ed. de l'Univ.). 1963a Description du Royaume de Congo et des Contrees environnantes par fHippo Pigafetta et Duarte Lopes (1591), traduite de V Italien et annotee par — (= Publications de ΓUniversit^ Lovanium de Kinshasa 12) (Louvain-Paris: Ed. Nauwelaerts). [2nd edition 1965.] 1963b Le Royaume du Congo aux XVe et XVIe siecles. Documents d'Histoire choisis et presentes en traduction franfaise avec annotations par — (= Coll. Histoire, 1) (Leopoldville: Ed. de l'Institut National d'Etudes Politiques). 1966a "Le Parier wallon de Charleroi. Elements d'une description phonologique", CaroLoreglUm VaLDe ConCeLebratVr MDCLXVI — MCMLXV1. Bilan de

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trois siecles d'histoire locale public par {'Administration Communale de Charleroi a {'occasion du Tricentenaire de la Fondation de la Ville (Charleroi): 221-228. 1966b Introduction aux etudes de linguistique romane avec consideration speciale de la linguistique frangaise (= Linguistique appliquee, 3) (Paris: Didier). 1968 "Introduction aux recherches de linguistique romane en rapport avec I'Afrique noire", Recueil commemoratif du Xe anniversaire de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres, Universite Lovanium de Kinshasa (Louvain-Paris: Nauwelaerts), 7-34. 1969-71 "O Destine de palavras de origem portuguesa num dialecto quicongo", RPF15: 1-2,49-102. [Reprint: Louvain: Centre d'Etudes portugaises et bresiliennes 1974.) Bastin, Julia - Edmond Faral 1946 Onze poemes de Rutebeuf concernant la croisade publies par — (= Documents relatifs a l'histoire des croisades publies par l'Academie des Inscriptions et BellesLettres 1) (Paris: Geuthner). 1959-60 Oeuvres completes de Rutebeuf, 2 volumes (Paris: Fondation Singer-Polignac). Bismut, Roger 1961 Les Lusiades de Luis de Camöes. Une nouvelle Traduction des Lusiades (Lisbon: Calouste Gulbenkian). 1970 La Lyrique de Camoes( = Fondation Calouste Gulbenkian. Publications du Centre culturel portugais) (Paris: PUF). 1973 La critique textuelle des "Lusiades". Comunica o apresentada a I Reuniao internacional de Camonistas realizada em Lisboa de 15 a 18 de novembro de 1972 (Lisbon: Comissäo executiva do IV centenario da Publicac,ao de "Os Lusiadas"). 1974 Guy de Maupassant. Contes de la Becasse. Chronologie, introduction et archives de l'oeuvre par — (Paris: Garnier-Flammarion). Boileau, Armand 1971 Toponymie dialectale germano-romane du nord-esl de la province de Liege. Analyse lexicologique et grammatical comparative (= Bibliotäque de la Faculta de Philosophie & Lettres de l'Universite de Liege 187) (Paris: Les Belles Lettres). 1972 "Toponymie et contact des langues en Belgique", Les noms de lieux et le contact des langues/Places Names and Language Contact, edited by H. Dorion (Qu6bec: Laval U.P.). de Booy, J. Th. - Roland Mortier 1966 Les annees de formation de F. H. Jacobi, d'apres ses lettres inedites a MM. Rey (1763-1771) avec Le Noble, de Madame de Charriere. Textes präsentes par— ( = Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 45) (Geneve: Institut et Musoe Voltaire Les Dolides). Bottequin, Armand 1945 Difficutäs et finesses de langage (Gand: Daphne^. 1946 Subtiltäs et Dalicatesses de Langage (= Le fra^ais d'aujourd'hui) (ParisBruxelles: Baude). Bougard, Pierre - Maurits Gysseling 1970 L'Impot royal en Artois (1295-1302). Roles du lOOe et du 50«? pr&enfes et publies avec une table anthroponymique (= Memoires de la Commission royale de Toponymie et de Dialectologie 13) (Louvain: Imprimerie Orientaliste). Bourgeois, Henri (ed.) 1973 Le Patois picard de Comines et de Warneton. With a preface by A. Henry (= Memoires de la Societa d'Histoire de Comines et de la region 3) (Comines). Braet, H. 1974 Beroul. Le roman de Tristan. Version compete en frangais moderne par — (= collection KTEMATA) (Gand: Story-Scientia). Carnoy, Albert 1948-49 Origines des Noms des Communes de Belgique y compris les Noms des Rivieres et principaux Hameaux. Two volumes (Louvain: Ed. Univ.).

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1953 Origines des noms de families en Belgique (Louvain: Ed. Univ.). Charlier, Gustave - Roland Montier 1952 Une suite de Encyclopedic: Le Journal encyclopedique (1756-1793). Notes, documents et extraits reunis par — (Paris: Nizet). Commission Communale de I'histoire de 1'ancien pays de Liege 1943- Reglements et privileges des XXXII metiers de la cite de Liege [publics par la) — (Liege: Commission Communale de I'histoire de Tancien pays de Liege). Coppens, Joseph 1950 Dictionnaire Aclot, wallon-franfais, parierpopulairedeNivelles. Notes etymologiques de H. Fernere (Nivelles: Federation Wallonne du Brabant). 1959 Grammaire Achte. (Parierpopulaire de Nivelles) (Nivelles: Federation wallonne du Brabant). 1962 Dictionnaire Aclot fran^ais-wallon. Parier populaire de Nivelles (Nivelles: Federation Royale Wallonne du Brabant). Dascotte, Robert 1972-73 "Les cultures ä Seneffe", Les Dialectes de Wallonie 1: 7-34; 2: 5-42. Debrock, M. - J. Jouret 1971 a "Elements d'une etude contrastive des systemes phonetiques fran9ais et neerlandais", Revue de phonetique appliquee 19: 3-29. 1971b "Systeme verbo-tonal de correction phonetique des neerlandophones qui apprennent le frangais", Revue de phonetique appliquee 20, 33-57. De Caluwe, Jacques 1974 Le moyen age litteraire occitan dans l'oeuvre de Frederic Mistral. Utilisation ethique et esthetique (Paris: Nizet). Deckers, Marie-Christine 1968 Le Vocabulaire de Teilhard de Chardin. Les elements grecs (= Travaux du Centre de Lexicologie fra^aise de l'Universite catholique de Louvain 1) (Gembloux: Duculot). De Kock, Josse 1966 Introduccion al "Cancionero" de Miguel de Unamuno (Madrid: Gredos). 1968 Lengua y poesia en El Cancionero de Miguel de Unamuno, Estudios preliminares (Anvers: "Linguistica Antverpiensia"). 1974 Introduccion a la lingütstica automatica en las lenguas romanicas (= Biblioteca Romanica Hispanica) (Madrid: Gredos). Delbouille, Maurice 1950 Petite anthologie liegeoise. Choix de textes wallons (XVIIe-XXe siede) (Liege: P. Gothier). [2nd edition 1950; 3rd edition 1959.] 1951 Henri d'Andeli. Le Lai d'Aristote, public d'apres tous les manuscrits par — (= Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universita de Liege 133) (Paris: Les Beiles Lettres). 1954 Sur la genese de la chanson de Roland (Travaux recents. Propositions nouvelles). Essai critique (= Academic Royale de Langue et de Litterature Frangaises de Belgique) (Bruxelles: Palais des Academies). 1959 ed., La Technique litteraire des chansons de geste. Actes du Colloque de Liege (septembre 1957) — (= Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universite de Liege 150) (Paris: Les Beiles Lettres). 1970 "Comment naquit la langue frangaise?", Phonetique et linguistique romanes [Melanges offerts ä M. Georges Straka] (Lyon - Strasbourg) 1: 187-199. 1972 "Les plus anciens textes et la formation des langues littoraires", Grundriss der romanischen Literaturen des Mittelalters l Gekralltes (Heidelberg: Winter) 559584 and 605-622. 1976 "La philologie medievale et la critique textuelle", Actes du Xllle Congres international de Linguistique et de Philologie romanes 1: 59-73 (Quebec: Laval U.P.).

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Delbouille, Maurice - Aletta Grisay 1968 "Comment concevoir et realiser un Dictionnaire onomasiologique de Ancien Frangais", Verba et Vocabula. Ernst Gamillscheg zum 80 Geburtstag, edited by Helmut Stimm and Julius Wilhelm (München: Wilhelm Fink Verlag) 159168. Delbouille, Paul 1961 Poesie et sonorile: la critique contemporaine devant le pouvoir suggeslif des sons (Paris: Beiles Lettres). Deneckere, Marcel 1954 Histoire de la langue frangaise dans les Flandres (1770-J823) ( = Romanica Gandensia II-III) (Gand: "Romanica Gandensia"). De Poerck, Guy 1946 Essai sur la morphologic du verbe /ra«fais (= Langues vivantes 15) (Bruxelles: Didier). 1951 La draperie medievale en Flandre et en Artois. Technique et terminologie, avec des complements par M. Dubais et une introduction par H. Van Werveke. I. La technique. II. Glossaire franqais. III. Glossaire flamand (= Travaux publies par la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universite de Gand) (Bruges: De Tempel). 1953 "Les diphtongaisons des voyelles fermees du latin principalement dans le domaine gallo-roman, et la palatalisation de ü", Romanica Gandensia 1: 23-92. 1957 "Un poeme religieux quercinois du Xlle siecle. EU aor Damrideu", Milanges de linguistique et de litterature romanes a la memoire d'Istvan Frank (= Annales Universitatis Saraviensis herausgegeben von der Philosophischen Fakultät der Universität des Saarlandes 6) 512-545. De Poerck, Guy - Louis Mourin 1961-64 Introduction a la morphologic comparee des langues romanes basee sur des traductions anciennes des Actes des Apdtres eh. XX a XXIV, [Volume l(de Poerck-Mourin 1961): Andenportugaisetancien castillan (Bruges: De Tempel). Volume 2(Mourin 1961): Ancien Catalan (Bruxelles: P.U.). Volume 4(Mourin 1964): Ancien sursilvain, ancien engadinois et ladin dolomitique (Bruges: De Tempel). Volume 5[partim] (Mourin 1963): Sarde (Bruxelles: P.U.). Volume 6(Mourin 1962): Ancien roumain (Bruges: De Tempel).] De Poerck, Guy - M. Van Hoorenbeeck 1966 "Methodes d'approche de la syntaxe des plus anciens textes fransais", Methodes de la grammaire. Tradition et nouveaute. Actes du Colloque international tenu a l'Universite de Liege du 18 au 20 novembre 1964 (= Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universitt de Liege 175) (Paris: Les Beiles Lettres) 141-154. De Poerck, Guy - R. Van Deyck-Bauwens 1968 "La Bible et l'activite traductrice dans les pays romans avant 1300", Grundriss der romanischen Literaturen des Mittelalters (Heidelberg: Winter) 6.1: 21-48. De Poerck, Guy - R. Van Deyck - R. Zwaenepoel 1970 Le charroi de Nimes 2 volumes (= Textes et Traitement Automatique 1) (SaintAquilin-de-Pacy: Ed. Mallier). Depretre, Fl. 1947 Möchon de 1400 rebus et Fleürs du langage wallon du Centre (La Louviere: Imprimerie Commerciale Industrielle). Desonay, Fernand 1946 La vivante histoire dufra^ais (= Coll. Lefranqais d'aujourd'hui) (Brussels: Ed. Baude).

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Dessaintes, Maurice 1960a La construction par insertion incidente (Paris: D'Artrey). 1960b Elements de linguistique descriptive en fonction de l'enseignement du franqais (Namur: La Procure). 1962 L'analyse grammatical au seuil de la stylistique (Namur: La Procure). 1971 Recherche linguistique et enseignemenf (Gembloux: Duculot). D'Heur, Jean-Marie 1971 L'utilisation de l'occitan par les troubadours galiciens-portugais et celle du galicienportugais par les troubadours occitans (Paris: Institut d'Etudes provencales de la Sorbonne). 1973a Troubadours d'oc et Troubadours galiciens-portugais. Recherches sur quelques echanges dans la litterature de l'Europe au moyen age (= Cultura Medieval e Moderna 1) (Paris: Funda$ao Calouste Gulbenkian. Centra cultural Portugues). 1973b "Nomenclature des troubadours galiciens-portugais (Xlle-XIVe siecles). Table de concordance de leurs Chansonniers, et liste des incipit de leurs compositions", Arquivos do Centra Cultural Portugues 7: 17-100. Doppagne, Albert 1951 "Contribution mdthodologique l'etude des prenoms", 3e Congres international de toponymie et d'anthroponymie, Bruxelles 1949. Vol. HI. Actes et Memoires, edited by H. Draye and O. Jodogne: (Louvain: Centre international dOnomastique). 700-715. 1951-52 "Onomastique d'un village ardennais: Louette-Saint-Pierre. Premiere partie: la toponymie", RlOno3:165-174,265-272; 4:27-34,109-122,183-195,265-276. 1966 Trois aspects dufra^ais contemporain (= La Langue vivante) (Paris: Larousse). 1969 "Les noms des communes de la Belgique romane: leur graphic, leur prononciation et les gentile's (noms des habitants) correspondants", Disputationes ad montium vocabula aliorumque nominum significationes pertinentes. We Congres international des Sciences onomasuqu.es (Wien: Verlag der Wiener Medizinischen Akademie) 2: 215-222. Doppagne, Albert - Delphine Manet 1974 Alias systematique de la Belgique romane, de la France wallonne et du GrandDuche de Luxembourg elabore a la suite d'enquetes personnelles et de mise jour, d'apres la Carte systdmatique de la Wallonie ou Belgique romane avec ropartition des Communes en regions etablie par J. M. Remouchamps et trac detaillo de la frontiere des dialectes romans etabli par E. Legros (= Institut de Sociologie de l'U. L. B. Documents de travail 14). Doutrepont, Auguste - Jean Haust - Elisoe Legros - Jules Herbillon et al. 1926- "La philologie wallonne en . . .", BCTD 1-. Dragonetti, Roger 1960 La technique poetique des trouveres dans la chanson courtoise (= Rijksuniversiteit te Gent, Werken uitgegeven door de Faculteit van de Letteren en Wijsbegeerte 127) (Bruges: De Tempel). Dubois, C. - M. Dubois-Stasse - G. Lavis 1969 "Philomena" de Chretien de Troyes. Concordances et index etablis par — (= Publications de Γ Institut de Lexicologie franqaise) (Liege: Faculte" de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Univ.). Dubois, Jacques - F. Edeline - Ph. Minguet - J. M. Klinkenberg - F. Pire - H. Trinon 1970 Rhέtorique gέnέrale (Paris: Larousse). 1972 Rhέtorique poatique: le jeu des figures dans un poeme de P. Eluard (= Centra Internazionale di Semiotica e di Linguistica, Documents de travail et p^publications s6rie B) (Univ. di Urbino). Dubois-Stasse, M. - A. Fontaine-Lauve - C. Dubois - M. Graitson 1974 "Le Roman de Guillaume d'Angleterre" — Concordances et index ilablis par M.

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Dubois-Stasse et A. Fontaine-Lauve — Traitement automatique: C. Dubais et M. Graitson (= Publications de l'Institut de Lexicologie frangaise) (Liege: Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Univ.). Dumont, Maurice Alex 1970 Espagnol-Frangais: Lesfausses concordances lexicales (= Cahiers de l'Institut des Langues vivantes 9) (Louvain: Vander). Duvivier, Roger 1971 La genese du "Cantique spirituel'' de saint Jean de la Croix (= Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universite de Lege 189) (Paris: Les Beiles Lettres). 1973 Le dynamisme existentiel dans la poesie de Jean de la Croix. Lecture du "Cantico espiritual" ( = Etudes de litterature etrangere et comparee 65) (Paris: Didier). Emond, Paul 1974 La Mart dans le Miroir. Ecriture et Representation romanesque dans La Noire de Jean Cayrol (= Lectures 1) (Bruxelles: Ed. Jacques Antoine). Faik, Sully 1974 Reve dans la langue litteraire contemporaine. Approche quantitative liminaire ä une etude de l'onirisme bernanosien (Gembloux: Duculot). Fossoul-Risselin, Anne-Marie 1969 Le Vocabulaire de la vie familiale ä Saint-Vaast (= Memoires de la Commission Royale de Toponymie et de Dialectologie, Section wallonne 12) (Liege: G. Michiels). Galle-Dehennin, Elsa 1957 Passion d'absolu et tension expressive dans l'oeuvre poetique de Pedro Salinas (= Romanica Gandensia 5) (Gand: "Romanica Gandensia"). 1969 Cantico de Jorge Guillen: une poesie de la clarte ( = Universite Libre de Bruxelles: Travaux de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres 41) (Bruxelles: P.U.). Garcia Bardon, Salvador 1967-68 Estudio estructural del espanol. I. Elementos (= Cahiers de l'Institut des langues vivantes 2). //. Praxis morfosemantica. III. Teoria morfosemantica (= Cahiers de rinstitut des langues vivantes 18) (Louvain: Librairie universitaire). Gaspar, Charles 1955 Les lieux-dits de la Commune de Fosse (= Memoires de la Commission royale de Toponymie et de Dialectologie, Section wallonne 7) (Liege: G. Michiels). Germain, Jean 1974 Les Carrieres ä Spontin (D 12). Etüde dialectologique et ethnographique (Louvain: Imprimerie de la Bibliotheque Centrale de l'Univ. Catholique). Goosse, Andro 1956 Commission Royale de Toponymie et de Dialectologie. Table des tomes l—XXV du Bulletin (partie frangaise) (Tongres: Michiels). 1964 "Remarques sur le fra^ais de Wallonie", Communications et Rapports du premier Congas international de Dialectologie generate (Louvain-Bruxelles, 1960) (Louvain: Centre international de Dialectologie gdne~rale). 1: 163-176. 1965 Jean d'Outremeuse, Ly myreur des histors, fragment du second livre (annees 794-826) (= Academic Royale de Belgique. Classe des Lettres et des Sciences morales et politiques. Collection des Anciens Auteurs Beiges, nouvelle sine 6) (Bruxelles: Palais des Acadomies). 1966 "Quelques riflexions sur les möthodes de la lexicologie", RLaV 32: 3-13. 1970 "La norme et les ocarts rogionaux", Annales de la Faculte des Lettres et Sciences humaines de Nice 12: 91-100. 1971 Fagons de parier: 1. (Gembloux: Duculot). Grogoire, Antoine 1937 L'apprentissage du langage 1. Les deux premieres annees (= Bibliotheque de la Facultä de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universili de Liege 73) (Paris: Droz).

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1947 L'apprentissage du langage II. La troisieme annee et les annees suivantes (= Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de Γ Universite de Liege 106) (Paris: Beiles Lettres). Grevisse, Maurice 1936 Le Bon Usage (Gembloux: Duculot). [9th edition 1969.] 1948 Code de l'onhographe franqaise (= Bien ecrire et bien parier) (Bruxelles: Baude). 1961-70 Probleme* de langage. I (1961); II. 2e serie (1962); III. 3e serie (1964); IV. 4e serie (1967); V. 5e serie (1970) (Gembloux: Duculot; Paris: PUF; Lausanne: Payot). 1973 Le Fra^ais correct. Guide pratique (Gembloux: Duculot). Groult, Pierre 1947 La formation des langues romanes (= Coll. Lovanium) (Tournai-Paris: Casterman). 1959 Anthologie de la literature spirituelle du XVIe siέcle. Textes presentes et traduitspar — (= Temoins de l'Espagne. Textes bilingues 4) (Paris: Klincksieck). Groult, Pierre - V. Emond 1942—43 Anthologie de la litterature frangaise du moyen ge des origines a lafin du Xllle siedel. Textes.2. Notes et glossaire (Gembloux: Duculot). [3rd edition, revised by G. Muraille 1964-1967.] Guiette, Robert 1940-51 Croniques et conquestes de Charlemaine publics par — (= Academic royale de Belgique. Classe des Lettres et des Sciences morales et politiques. Collection des ndern Auteurs Beiges, nouvelle serie 3) (Bruxelles: Palais des Academies) [3 volumes. 1: 1940; 2.1: 1943; 2.2: 1951]. 1949 "D'une poesie formelle en France au Moyen Age", Revue des Sciences humaines 54: 61-69. [Reprint 1960 Romanica Gandensia 9-18.] 1963 Eiskamp (Max) ei Jean de Bosschere. Correspondance. Introduction et notes de — (= Academic Royale de langue et de litterature frangaises de Belgique) (Bruxelles: Palais des Academies). Guillaume, Jean 1956 Essaisur la valeur exegetique du substantif dans les "Entrevisions" et "La Chanson d'Eve" de Van Lerberghe (= Academic Royale de Langue et de Litterature Franςaises de Belgique) (Bruxelles: Palais des Academies). 1959 Le Mot-theme dans l'exegese de Van Lerberghe. Essais complementaires: le v erbe et l'adjectif. Conclusions gέnerales (= Academic Royale de Langue et de Litterature Franqaises de Belgique) (Bruxelles: Palais des Academies). 1960 Georges Willame. Sonnets. Edition critique avec introduction, traduction et notes par — (= Collection Htt6raire wallonne3) (Liege: Socidte de Langue et de Litterature wallonnes). 1962a La Poesie de Van Lerberghe. Essai d'exegese integrale (= Academic Royale de Langue et de Litterature Francoises de Belgique) (Bruxelles: Palais des Acadomies). 1962b Michel Renard. Les-aventures da Djan d'Nivile elfi de s'pere. Edition critique du texte original avec introduction et notes par — (= Cercle Litteraire "Les Relis Namurwes", Namur). (Edition "Les Cahiers wallons".) 1966 "Les Chlmeres" de Nerval. Edition critique (= Academic Royale de Langue et de Litterature Fra^aises de Belgique) (Bruxelles: Palais des Academies). 1968 Gerard de Nerval. Pandora. Edition critique (= Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de Namur 36) (Namur: Secretariat des Publications, Gembloux: Duculot). 1970 Franz Dewandelaer. Oeuvres poetiques. Edition critique avec introduction et notes par—(= Collection litteraire wallonne 4) (Liege: Societe de Langue et de Litterature wallonnes).

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Gerard de Nerval. Aurelia. Prolegomenes a une edition critique (= Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de Namur 51) (Namur: P.U.)· Guillaume, Jean - Claude Pichois 1972 Gerard de Nerval. Lettres inedites a Franz Liszt (= Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de Namur 52) (Namur: P.D.). Gysseling, Maurits 1960 Toponymisch woordenboek van Belgie, Nederland, Luxemburg, Noord-Frankrijk en West-Duitsland (voor 1226) (= Bouwstoffen en Studien voor de geschiedenis en de lexicographic van het Nederlands 6) (Belgisch Interuniversitair Centrum voor Neerlandistiek). Hanse, Joseph 1949 Dictionnaire des difficultes grammatical et lexicologiques (= Bien ecrire et bien parier) (Bruxelles: Baude). 1959 Charles de Coster. La legende d'Ulenspiegel. Edition definitive (Bruxelles: La Renaissance du Livre). [2nd edition 1966.] 1960 La valeur modale du subjonctif(= Academic Royale de Langue et de Litterature Franqaises de Belgique) (Bruxelles: Palais des Academies). 1965 Maurice Maeterlinck. Poesies completes. Serres chaudes. Quinze chansons. Neuf chansons de la trentaine. Treize chansons de l'äge mur. Edition definitive avec introduction, notes et variantes (Bruxelles: La Renaissance du Livre). 1966 Les enseignements d'une edition critique des poemes d'Emile Verhaeren (= Academic Royale de Langue et de Litterature Fra^aises de Belgique) .(Bruxelles: Palais des Academies). Hanse, Joseph - Albert Doppagne - Helene Bourgeois-Gielen 1971 Chasse aux Belgicismes (Bruxelles: Fondation Charles Plisnier). 1974 Nouvelle chasse aux Belgicismes (Bruxelles: Fondation Charles Plisnier). Haust, Jean 1945a Joseph Calozet. O Payis des Sabotis (Au Pays des Sabotiers) Nouvelle en dialecte d'Awenne. Grand prix du centenaire 1930. 2e edition. (Liege: VaillantCarmanne). [French translation by Edgard Renard = Nos Dialectes I . ] 1945b Joseph Calozet. Li Crawieuse agasse (La Pie Grieche) Nouvelle an dialecte d'Awennesuivie de trois contes. 2e edition. (Liege: Vaillant-Carmanne). [French translation by Edgard Renard = Nos Dialectes 10.] 1946 "Le Dictionnaire tournaisien du Dr Louis Bonnet. Extraits [lere partie]", BCTD 20: 243-266. 1948 Le Dialecte wallon de Liege (3epartie). Dictionnaire franqais-liegeois public sous la direction d'E. Legros (Liege: Vaillant-Carmanne). Haust, Jean - Elisee Legros 1947 "Le Dictionnaire tournaisien du Dr Louis Bonnet. 2e partie. Extraits edites et annotes par —", BCTD 21: 29-42. Henry, Albert 1948 L'oeuvre lyrique d'Henri III due de Brabant (= Rijksuniversiteit te Gent. Werken uitgegeven door de Faculteit van de Wijsbegeerte en Letteren 103) (Bruges: De Tempel). 1951 Les oeuvres d'Adenet le Roi, tome l, Biographie d'Adenet, la Tradition manuscrite (= Rijksuniversiteit te Gent. Werken uitgegeven door de Faculteit van de Wijsbegeerte en Letteren 109) (Bruges: De Tempel). 1952 Langage et poesie chez Paul Valery. Avec un lexique des oeuvres en vers (Paris: Mercure de France). 1953a Chrestomathie de la litterature en ancien fra^ais. l. Textes. II. Notes, Glossaire, Table des noms propres (= Bibliotheca romanica, Series altera: Scripta romanica selecta 3-^t) (Bern: Francke). [2nd edition 1960; 3rd edition 1965.] 1953b Les oeuvres d'Adenet le Roi, tome II, Buevon de Conmarchis (= Rijksuniversiteit

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te Gent. Werken uitgegeven door de Faculteit van de Wijsbegeerte en Letteren 115) (Bruges: De Tempel). 1956 Les oeuvres d'Adenet le Roi, tome III, Les Enfances Ogier (Rijksuniversiteit te Gent. Werken uitgegeven door de Faculteit van de Letteren en Wijsbegeerte 121) (Bruges: De Tempel). 1958 Les grands poemes andalous de Federico Garcia Lorca. Textes originaux. Traductions franqaises, etudes et notes (= Romanica Gandensia 6) (Gand: "Romanica Gandensia"). 1960a Etudes de syntaxe expressive (ancien franqais et franqais moderne (= Travaux de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universite Libre de Bruxelles 19) (ParisBruxelles: P.U.). 1960b Etude de lexicologie franqaise et gallo-romane (= Universite libre de Bruxelles. Travaux de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres, 18) (Paris: PUF). 1961 "Introduction stylistique au Jeu de Saint Nicolas", Romania 82: 201-239. 1962 Le jeu de Saint Nicolas de Jehan Bodel: introduction, edition, traduction, notes, glossaire complet, tables par — (= Universite tibre de Bruxelles, Travaux de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres 21) (Paris-Bruxelles: P.U.). 1963a Les oeuvres d'Adenet le Roi, tome IV, Berte aus grans pies (= Universite libre de Bruxelles, Travaux de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres 23) (Bruxelles: P.U.). 1963b Amers de Saint-John Perse: une poesie du mouvement (Neuchätel: Ed. de la Baconniere). 1966 "Linguistique structurale et esthetique litteraire: un essai d'explication de Enfance de Rimbaud", Methodes de la grammaire (Tradition et Nouveaute). Actes du colloque international tenu a l'Universite de Liege du 18 au 20 novembre 1964 dans le cadre de la semaine culturelle danoise (= Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universite de Liege 175) (Paris: Les Beiles Lettres), 105-127. 1968 C'etait il y a des lunes, etude de syntaxe franqaise (= Bibliotheque franqaise et romane, publiee par le Centre de Philologie romane de Strasbourg serie A 15) (Paris: Klincksieck). 1971a Les oeuvres d'Adenet le Roi, tome V, Cleomades. 1. Texte; 2. Introduction, notes, tables (= Universite libre de Bruxelles: Travaux de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres 46) (Bruxelles: P.U.). 1971b Metonymie et metaphore (= Bibliotheque frangaise et romane publiee par le Centre de Philologie romane de Strasbourg serie A 21) (Paris: Klincksieck). 1974 Esquisse d'une histoire des mots wallon et Wallonie (Bruxelles: La Renaissance du Livre). Herbillon, Jules 1938-67 Toponymie de la Hesbaye liegeoise (en fascicules) (Wetteren: Ed. Universa). 1945- "Toponymes hesbignons", Bulletin de la Commission Royale de Toponymie et Dialectologie 19-46. 1954- "Un nouveau traite sur les noms de famille beiges", Bulletin , . . Le vieux-Liege 106-184. 1961 Elements espagnols en wallon et dans le franqais des anciens Pays-Bas (= Memoires de la Commission Royale de Toponymie et de Dialectologie 10) (Liege: G. Michiels). 1962 "In memoriam Auguste Vincent (1879-1962)", BCTD 36: 27-38. 1968-74 "Notes de toponymie namuroise", Le Guetteur wallon 1. 1969 "La toponymie romane", Les Travaux d'histoire locale. Conseils aux auteurs. Complements /., edited by M.-A. Arnould, M. Bruwier, J. Dhondt, F. Rousseau, F. Vercauteren (= Coll. Histoire 22) (Bruxelles: Pro Civitate). 1971 "In memoriam Jules Vannerus", BCTD 45: 33-56. Horrent, Jules 1951 a La chanson de Roland dans les litteratures franqaise et espagnole au moyen age

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(= Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universite de Liege 120) (Paris: Les Beiles Lettres). 1951b Roncesvalles. Etüde sur le fragment de Cantar de gesta conserve a l'Archivo de Navarra (Pampelune) (= Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universite de Liege 122) (Paris: Les Beiles Lettres). 1961 Le Pelerinage de Charlemagne (= Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universite de Liege 158) (Paris: Les Beiles Lettres). Hostin, Reynolds 1971 Des spots et des ratoürnüres d'emon nos-ötes (Ciney: Le Cercle culture! cinacien, Hotel de Ville). Houziaux, Mutien-Omer 1959 Enquete dialectale a Celles-lez-Dinant [D 72] (= Memoires de la Commission royalede Toponymie et de Dialectologie section wallonne9) (Liege: G. Michiels). Jacques, Georges 1970 "Le Doigt de Dieu" d'Honore de Balzac. Edition critique et etude litteraire ( = Travaux de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universite catholique de Louvain 4 Philologie romane 1) (Louvain: Bibliotheque de l'Univ.). Jpdogne, Omer 1937-51 "Bibliographie dialectologique belgo-romane", Les Dialectes belgo-romans 1-8. 1947 "Les travaux anthroponymiques en Belgique depuis 1938", Onomastica 1: 6771. 1956 Repertoire beige des noms de famille 1. Arrondissement de Nivelles (Louvain: Nauwelaerts). 1964 Repertoire beige des noms de famille 2. Arrondissement de Lüge (Bruxelles: Commission Royale de Toponymie et Dialectologie). 1959 Jean Michel. Le Mystere de la Passion (Angers 1486) (Ge.mbloux: Duculot). 1963 "La naissance de la prose fransaise", Bulletin de Academie Royale de Belgique. Glosse des Lettres 49: 296-308. 1965 Le Mystere de la Passion d'Arnoul Greban. Edition critique 1. (Bruxelles: Academic Royale de Belgique). Jodogne, Pierre (editor) 1964 Jean Lemaire de Beiges. La Concorde du genre humain (= Academie royale de Belgique, Coll. des Anciens Auteurs Beiges nouvelle sorie 5) (Bruxelles: Palais des Academies). Jonas, Pol 1971 Les systemes comparatifs a deux termes en ancien franc^ais (= Travaux de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universite libre de Bruxelles 45) (Bruxelles: Ed. de l'Univ.). Klinkenberg, Jean-Marie 1973 Style et archaisme dans la legende de Charles De Coster (= Academie Royale de Langue et de Litterature Fra^aises de Belgique) (Bruxelles: Palais des Acaddmies). Laroche, Daniel 1972 Francis Jammes et Thomas Braun. Correspondence (1898-1937) Texte etabli et presente par Daniel Laroche. Introduction de Benoit Braun (= Academie Royale de Langue et de Litterature Franqaises de Belgique) (Bruxelles: Palais des Acadomies). Larochette, Joe 1969 "Problemes de grammaire transformationnelle. I. L'analyse transformationnelle de l'enonce. II. A propos de la fonction des morphemes. III. "Rendere compte de la competence linguistique". IV. Introduction ä l'etude transformationnelle de la syntaxe du verbe en fransais", LAnt: 133-257.

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Laurent, Jean-Louis 1973 Toponymie de la Commune d'Ethe (Virton: Ed. du Musöe gaumais). Lavis, Georges 1972 L'expression de I'affectivite dans la poesie lyrique frangaise du may en age (XHeXllle s.). Etude semantique et stylistique du reseau lexical "joie-dolor" (= Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universite de Liege 200) (Paris: Les Beiles Lettres). Lavis, Georges - A. Grisay - M. Dubois-Stasse 1969 Les denominations de la femme dans les anciens textes litteraires fra^ais (= Publications de l'lnstitut de Lexicologie franqaise de Universite de Liege) (Gembloux: Duculot). Lavis, Georges - C. Dubois 1970 Les chansons de Blonde! de Nesle. Concordances et index etablis par G. Lavis — Traitement automatique: C. Dubois (= Publications de l'lnstitut de lexicologie franqaise de i Universite de Liege) (Liege: Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Univ.). Lechanteur, Jean 1968 "Index general des textes d'archives liegeoises d'E. Renard", BCTD 42:129-205. Legros, Elisee 1947a "L'Atlas linguistique de la Belgique romane", VR 9: 382-384 and BCTD 22: 473-476. 1947b "La toponymie wallonne de 1939 ä 1946", Onomastica 1: 143-148. 1948 La frontiere des dialectes romans en Belgique (= Memoires de la Commission Roy ale de Toponymie et de Dialectologie, section wallonne 4). (Liege: VaillantCarmanne). 1949a "Les glossaires dialectaux de la France septentrionale et les 6tudes wallonnes", Les Dialectes belgo-romans 7: 131-158. 1949b Edition de Le Bedete d'a Colas de L. Henrard (mise au point de l'edition preparoe par J. Haust) (= Coll. Nos Dialectes 12) (Liege: Vaillant-Carmanne). 1950-67 "Notes de dialectologie gaumaise", Le Pays gaumais 11-13,15,24-25, 27-28. 1955a Atlas linguistique de la Wallonie. Tome 3. Les phenomenes atmosphlriques et les divisions du temps (Liege: Vaillant-Carmanne). 1955b "Documentation et mothode en toponymie wallonne. A propos des articles de F. Schreurs", La Vie wallonne 29: 39-46. 1963 Arthur Balle. Contribution au dictionnaire du parier de Cerfontaine. Introduction et edition d' — (= Memoires de la Commission Roy ale de Toponymie et de Dialectologie section wallonne 11) (Liege: G. Michiels). 1969 Sur les types de ruches en Gaule romane et leurs noms (= Coll. d'etudes publiaes par le Musle de la Vie wallonne 3) (Liege: Ed. du Musoe Wallon). Leonard, Lucien 1952 One saye di creujöte di nasse patwes (Namur: Ed. de Vers l'Avenir). 1969 Lexique namurois (= Bibliotheque de Philologie et de Litterature wallonnes 3) (Liege: Societi de Langue et de Littorature wallonnes). Lerond, Alain 1963 L'habitation en Wallonie Malmedienne (Ardenne beige). Etüde dialectologique. Les termes d'usage courant (= Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universite de Liege 168) (Paris: Les Beiles Lettres). Libiez, Albert - R. Pinon 1939-72 Chansons populaires de l'ancien Hainaut recueillies par Albert Libiez [vol. 1: 1939. vol. 2: 1941; 2e eU corrigoe: 1959. vol. 1A: Notes compiloes par Roger Pinon, 1959. vol. IB: Notes compiloes par Roger Pinon, 1959.

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vol. 2A: Notes compilees par Roger Pinon, 1960. vol. 2B: Notes compilees par Roger Pinon, 1960. vol. 4: 1957. vol. 4: Notes compilees par Albert Libiez et R. Pinon: 1972. vol. 5: 1958. vol. 6: complements aux vol. I ä V, 1963]. (= Ministire de {'Education Nationale et de la Culture, Commission Royale Beige de Folklore, section wallonne) (Bruxelles: Schott Freres). Lo Cascio, V. 1970 Strutture pronominali e verbali italiane (Bologna: Zanichelli). Louant, Armand 1954 Le "Livre des Ballades" de Jehan et Charles Bocquet, Bourgeois de Mons au XVle siede (= Academic Royale de Belgique, Collection des Anciens Auteurs Beiges Textes et Etudes nouvelle serie 4) (Bruxelles: Palais des Academies). Mantou, Reine 1969 "Index des comptes rendus du F.E.W.", BCTD 43: 67-71. 1972 Actes originaux rediges en frangais dans la partie flamingante du Comte de Flandre (1250-1350). Etude linguistique (= Memoires de la Commission Royale de Toponymie et de Dialectologie 15) (Liege: G. Michiels). Messelaar, P. A. 1963 Le vocabulaire des idees dans le "Tresor" de Brunei Latin (Assen: Van Gorcum). Moreau, Marie-Louise 1970 "Notes pour une Analyse transformationnelle des Phrases C'est. . . qui, c'est. . . que, etc.", Actes du Xlle Congres international de Linguistique et de Philologie romanes, Bucarest, avril 1968 (Bucuresti: Ed. acad.) 1: 469-474. 1971 Frangais ecrit, Methode programmee de Lecture et d'Ecriture (Liege: Service des Langues vivantes). Mörder, Raoul 1959 Un pamphlet jesuite "Rabelaisant", "Le Hochepot ou Salmigondi des Folz" (1596). Etüde historique et linguistique suivie d'une edition du texte (= Academic Royale de Langue et de Litterature Frangaises de Belgique) (Bruxelles: Palais des Academies). 1970 Difficultes sur la religion proposees au Pere Malebranche par Mr. . . Texte intlgral du "Militairephilosophe" d'apres le manuscrit de la Bibliotheque Mazarine. Edite, introduit et annotepar —(= Publications de l'Institut d'histoire du christianisme de l'Universite Libre de Bruxelles) (Bruxelles: P.U.). Moura, Fernando 1967 Vocabulaire Fondamental de Portugals pour Etrangers (= Cahiers de Institut des Langues vivantes 3) (Louvain: Librairie univ.). 1968 Portuguese: a Fundamental Vocabulary for Students (= Cahiers de l'Institut des Langues vivantes) (Louvain: Librairie univ.). Mourin, Louis 1946 Six sermons frangais inedits de Jean Gerson. Etüde doctrinale et litteraire suivie de edition critique et de remarques linguistiques (Paris: J. Vrin). 1952 Jean Gerson predicateur frangais (Bruges: De Tempel). 1966-74 Contribution ä la description comparee de la morphologic verbale des langues romanes (Bruxelles: P.U.). [Volume 1(1966) i : La distinction en conjugaisons ii: Les formes irragulieres du present de iindicatif Volume 2(1968) iii: Les parfaits irreguliers Volume 3(1968) iv: Les participes passes irreguliers v : Les rapports entre les formes irregulieres du parfait et du participe passe

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Volume 4(1971) vi: L'indicatif present Volume 5(1974) vii : Le subjonctif present viii: L'imperalif.] Mourin, Louis - Jacques Pohl 1971 Bibliographie de linguistique romane (4th revised edition) (Bruxelles: P.U.). Musee Wallon 1973 Melanges de Folklore et d'Ethnographie dedies a la memoirs d'Elisee Legros (Liege: Musee Wallon). Pierret, Jean-Marie 1975 "Jules Massonnet, Lexique du patois de Chassepierre et de la region", Patwas d'Tschespire (2nd edition) Bulletin de la Societe de Langue et de Litterature wallonnes 76. Piron, Maurice 1951 "Sur Verlaine et l'explication litteraire", Annales de Γ Universite de Paris 21: 340-358. 1953 "Caractorisation affective et crdation lexicale", Romanica Gandensia 1: 119170. 1956 Jules Claskin: "Airs di flute" et autres poemes wallons. Edition critique d'apres les manuscrits de l'auteur avec introduction et notes (= Collection litttraire wallonne l) (Liege: Sode"Ιέ de Langue et de Littdrature wallonnes). 1958 "La langue fransaise en Belgique", Histoire illustrie des lettres frangaises de Belgique edited by G. Charlier et J. Hanse (Bruxelles: La Renaissance du Livre) 3-10. 1961a Turgot: Etymologie. Edition avec notes (Bruges: De Tempel). 1961b Poetes wallons d'aujourd'hui. Textes pr sentes et traduits par — (Paris: Gallimard). 1962 Inventaire de la litterature wallonne, des origines (vers 1600) a lafin du XVIIIe siede (= Commission Communale de l Histoire de lAnden Pays de Liege. (Extrait de VAnnuaire d'Histoire Liέgeoise 6.4: 1961) (Liege: Paul Gothier). 1965 "Aspects du fran;ais en Belgique", Bulletin de l'Academic Royale de Langue et de Litterature frangaises 43.3: 231-251. 1970 "Apergu des otudes relatives au fran;ais de Belgique", Annales de la Faculti de Lettres et Sciences humaines de Nice 12.2: 31-42. 1973 "Les belgicismes lexicaux: essai d'un inventaire", Malanges de linguistique franςακε et de Philologie et Literatures medievales offerts Paul Imbs TLL 11.1: 295-304. Pirot, Frangois 1972 Recherches sur les connaissances litteraires des troubadours occilans et Catalans des XHe et Xllle siecles. Les sirventes — ensenhamens de Guerau de Cabrera, Guiraut de Calanson et Bertrand de Paris (= Memorias de l'Academia de Buenos Letras de Barcelona 14) (Barcelona). 1973 "Les e"tudes occitanes dans les Universitds beiges et particulierement Liege", Hommage au professeur Maurice Delbouille. Marche romane. Cahiers de l'A.R.U.Lg. n° spocial 1973, 191-208. Plomteux, Hugo 1974 Lessico dei dialetti della Liguria Orientale. La val Graveglia (Bologna: Patron). Pohl, Jacques 1959 Forme et Pensae. Esquisse d'une Grammaire franqaise fonctionnelle (Paris-Namur: Wesmael-Charlier). 1962 Tέmoignages sur la syntaxe du verbe dans quelques parlers frangais de Belgique (= Academie Royale de Langue et de Litterature fran$aises de Belgique) (Bruxelles: Palais des Acaddmies). 1979 Varietes regionales du frangais. Etudes beiges 1945-1977 (Bruxelles: Ed. Univ.).

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Pop, Sever 1948 Grammaire roumaine (Bern: Francke). 1950 La dialectologie, Αρβτςιι historique et methodes d'enquetes linguistiques. Premiere partie. Dialectologie romane (Gembloux: Duculot). 1955 Encyclopedic de la Philologie romane: Langues et dialectes de la Romania (Univ. catholique de Louvain: Impr. Offset Dewallens). [2nd edition 1957; 3rd edition 1958.] 1960 Atlas linguistiques europeens. Premiere partie: Domaine roman. Repertoire systematique des cartes: Α-B. en collaboration avec R. D. Pop. (Louvain: Commission d'Enquete linguistique). 1966 Recueil posthume de linguistique et dialectologie (Gembloux: Duculot). Remacle, Louis 1944 Les variations de /'h secondaire en Ardenne liegeoise. Leprobleme de /'h en liageois (- Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de Γ Universite de Liege 96) (Paris: Les Beiles Lettres). 1948a Orthophonie franfaise. Conseils aux Wallons (Liege: Les Lettres Beiges) 2nd edition 1969. 1948b Le probleme de landen wallon (= Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universite de Liege 109) (Liege: Faculto de Philosophie et Lettres). 1951 "L'Atlas linguistique de la France et l'Atlas linguistique de Wallonie", Les Dialectes belgo-romans 8: 157-182. 1952-60 Syntaxe du parier wallon de La Gleize. Tome 1(1952): Noms et articles — Adjectifs et pronoms Tome 11(1956): Verbes — adverbes — prepositions Tome 111(1960): Coordination et subordination — Phenomέnes divers (= Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Univ. de Liege 126, 139, 148) (Paris: Les Beiles Lettres). 1953 Atlas linguistique de la Wallonie. l. Aspects phonetiques (Li ge: VaillantCarmanne). 1967 Documents lexicaux des archives scabinales de Roanne (La Gleize) 1492-1794. (= Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universita de Liege 177) (Paris: Les Beiles Lettres). 1969 Atlas linguistique de la Wallonie. 11. Aspects morphologiques (Li£ge: VaillantCarmanne). 1972 Documents lexicaux extraits des archives de Stoumont, Rahier et Francorchamps (= Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de Γ Universal de L ge 205) (Paris: Les Beiles Lettres). Remy, P. 1948 "La philologie romane en Belgique de 1939 1945", Symposium (New York) 2: 192-209. Renard, Edgard 1957 Toponymie de la commune de Louveigne with 3 maps (= Memoires de la Commission royale de Toponymie et de Dialectologie 8) (Liege: G. Michiels). Renard, Raymond 1966 Sepharad. Le monde et la langue judao-espagnole des Sephardim (Mons: Annales univ.). Renard, Raymond - Claude Wuilmart 1970 "Observations sur le Comportement acoustique de la voyelle finale fra^aise dans des ononcos monosyllabiques", Linguistique contemporaine. Hommage Eric Buyssens, edited by Jean Dierickx and Ivan Lebrun (Bruxelles: Ed. de l'Institut de Sociologie de l'Universito libre). Renchon, Hector 1967 Etudes de syntaxe descriptive, l. La Conjunction "si" et l'emploi des formes

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verbales. II. La syntaxe de interrogation (= Academic Roy ale de Langue et de Litterature Franqaises de Belgique) (Bruxelles: Palais des Academies). Renson, Jean 1962 Les denominations du visage en fra^ais et dans les autres langues romanes. Etüde semantique et onomasiologique (= Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universite de Liege 162) 2 volumes (Paris: Les Beiles Lettres). Ruelle, Pierre 1950 "Le patois borain", Revue de l'Institut de Sociologie 2-3: 307-321. 1953 Le vocabulaire professionnel du houilleur borain (= Academic Roy ale de Langue et de Litterature franqaises de Belgique) (Bruxelles: Palais des Academies). 1959 "L'evolution des idees relatives ä la grammaire historique du frangais", RUB 11: 309-325. 1960 Huon de Bordeaux (= Travaux de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universite libre de Bruxelles 20) (Bruxelles-Paris: P.U.). Ruelle, Pierre 1962 Actes d'interel prive conserves aux Archives de l'Etat a Mons (1316-1433) (= Academie Royale de Belgique, Commission Royale d'histoire) (Bruxelles: Academie Royale de Belgique). 1965 Les Conges d'Arras (Jean Bodel, Baude Fastoul, Adam de la Halle) (= Travaux de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universite libre de Bruxelles 27) (Bruxelles: P.U.). 1968 L'ornement des dames (Ornatus mulierum), texte anglo-normand du XIlie siede (= Travaux de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universite libre de Bruxelles 36) (Paris-Bruxelles: P.U.). 1969a Les dits du Clerc de Vaudoy (= Travaux de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universite libre de Bruxelles 42) (Bruxelles: P.U.). 1969b Lesproverbes borains (Mons: Ed. du Trait d'Union. Ecoles normales primaire et moyenne de l'Etat). 1970 Les noms de veines de charbon dans le Borinage (XVe-XXes.) (= Memoires de la Commission Royale de Toponymie et de Dialectologie, section wallonne 14) (Liege: G. Michiels). 1973 Le Besant de Dieu de Guillaume le Clerc de Normandie (= Universite libre de Bruxelles. Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres 54) (Bruxelles: Ed. de l'Univ.). Rychner, Jean - Albert Henry (editors) 1974 Le Testament Villon 1: Texte 2: Commentaire (= Textes litteraires franc.ais 207208) (Geneve: Droz). Sempoux, Andre 1970 Redi, Francesco. Experiences sur la generation des insectes et autres ecrits de science et de litterature. Traduction, introduction et notes par — (= Travaux de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universite de Louvain 5 section philologie romane) (Louvain: Bibliotheque de l'Univ.). Simon, Henri - Edgard Renard 1951 Toponymie de la Commune de Sprimont with 3 maps. (Notice historique de Jean Yernaux) (= Memoires de la Commission Royale de Toponymie et de Dialectologie section wallonne 6) (Liege: Vaillant-Carmanne). Sonet, Jean 1949-52 Le roman de Barlaam et Josaphat. I (1949) Recherches sur la tradition manuscrite latine et frangaise. (= Recueil de travaux d'Histoire et de Philologie de l'Universite de Louvain, 3e serie 33) (Louvain: Bibliotheque de l'Univ.) II La Version anonyme frangaise. l (1950) Texte critique. II (1952) Etudes critiques et mise en prose (= Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettre de Namurl, 9) (Namur: Bibliotheque de la Faculte). 1956 Repertoire d'Incipit de priöres en ancien franqais (Geneve: Droz).

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Thiry-Stassin, Martine - M. Tyssens 1976 Lai de Narcisse. edition critique par — (= Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universite de Liege) (Paris: Les Beiles Lettres). Thisquen, Jean - Joseph Moors - R. Massart 1961 L'ancienne coutume du duche de Limbourg en versions romane et thioise du debut du XVIIe siede (Liege: Gothier). Thomas, Jacques 1962 L'episode ardennais de "Renaut de Montauban". Edition synoptique des versions rimees 3 volumes (Bruges: De Tempel). Trousson, Raymond 1970 Fougeret de Monbron; Le Cosmopolite ou le Citoyen du Monde, suivi de la Capitate des Gaules ou la Nouvelle Babylone (Bordeaux: Ducros). 1971 Louis-Sebastien Mercier, L'An deux mille quatre cent quarante (Bordeaux: Ducros). Tyssens, Madeleine 1967 La geste de Guillaume d'Orange dans les manuscrits cycliques (= Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Univ. de Liege 178) (Paris: Les Beiles Lettres). Van Bever, Pierre 1970 "L'italiano e l'italianistica nelle Universitä del Belgio", L'insegnamento deü'italiano in Italia e all'estero. Atti del 4" Convegno Internazionale di Studi, Societa di Linguistica Italiana. Roma 1-2 giugno 1970 edited by Mario Medici and Raffaele Simone (Roma: Bulzoni) 9-10. Van Deyck, R. 1970 "La Bible et l'activite traductrice dans les pays romans avant 1300", Grundriss der romanischen Literaturen des Mittelalters (Heidelberg: Carl Winter) 6.2: 54-80. Van Deyck, R. - R. Zwaenepoel 1974 /ra/ifois Villon. Oeuvres d'apres le manuscrit Coislin (= Textes et Traitement Automatique 2) (Saint-Aquilin-de-Pacy: Ed. Mallier). Van Hout, Georges 1973-74 Franc-Math. Essai pedagogique sur les structures grammaticales du frangais moderne. Introduction mathematique. I. Le syntagme nominal //. La relation predicative. III. La proposition 4 volumes (Paris: Didier). Vanneste, Alex 1972 "Du style en linguistique. Essai de definition", TLGand 3: 45-98. Van Nuffel, Robert 1951 "Esercizi linguistic! e traduzionacce inedite di G. Berchet", Studi sul Berchet pubblicati per il primo centenario della morte (Milano: Liceo Ginnasio Giovanni Berchet) 101-143. 1956a "Document! per la Storia del Romanticismo Italiano. Inediti Berchettiani dall'Archivio del Castello di Gaesbeek. II Romancero", Convivium B.S.4: 81-90. 1956b "Inediti di Berchet. Le Ballate Danesi", Rivista di Letterature moderne e comparate A.9.3: 180-199. 1961 Giovita Scalvini. II Fuoruscito (Testo critico, dall'autografo) a cura di — (Bologna: Commissione per i Testi di Lingua). Venckeleer, Th. 1966 On recueil cathare: Le manuscrit A.6.10. de la "Collection Vaudoise" de Dublin (Antwerpen: Univ. Faculteiten Sint-Ignatius). [Reprint of A#/Vi 38: 815-834; 39: 759-793.] Vercruysse, J. 1969 Boileau. "Oeuvres completes" 1. Introduction et notes (Paris: Gamier). 1970 Voltaire. La Pucelle d'Orleans. Introduction, Variantes et notes (= The Complete Works of Voltaire 7) (Banbury: The Voltaire Foundation).

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1971 Bibliographie descriptive des ouvrages attribues au baron d'Holbach (Paris: Les Lettres modernes). Verdoodt, A. 1973 Les problemes des groupes linguistiques en Belgique (= Univ. Catholique de Louvain. Cours et Documents 1) (Louvain: Centre de Recherches Sociologiques et Institut de Linguistique). Verlee, P. 1963 Basis-Woordenboek voor de franse taal (Antwerpen: De Sikkel). Vincent, Auguste 1947 Que signifient nos noms de lieux? (= Collection Nationale, 7e serie 82) (Bruxelles: Office de Publicitd). 1952 Les noms de families de la Belgique (Bruxelles: Librairie generate). Vivier, Robert 1960 Traditore. , . Essai demise enversfra^ais de poemesoccitans, Italiens, espagnols, roumains, polonais et russes de diverses epoques (= Academic Roy ale de Langue et de Litterature Fra^aises de Belgique) (Bruxelles: Palais des Academies). Warnant, Leon 1949a "La linguistique romane en Belgique de 1939 ä 1947", extract from Suplemento bibliografico RPF edited by M. de Paiva Boleo (Coimbra: Casa do Castelo) 175-202. 1949b La culture en Hesbaye liegeoise. Etude ethnographique et dialectologique (= Memoires de l'Academic Royale de Langue et de Litterature fra^aises de Belgique 19) (Bruxelles: Palais des Academies). 1953 Etudes phonetiques sur le parier wallon d'Oreye (Liege: G. Michiels). 1956 La constitution phonique du mot wallon. Une etude fondee sur le parier d'Oreye (= Bibliotheque de la Facutä de Philosophie et Lettres de l'Universite de Liege 135) (Paris: Les Beiles Lettres). 1962-66 Dictionnaire de la pronunciation frangaise Volume l (1962) [2nd edition 1964] Volume 2 (1966): Les noms propres (Gembloux: Duculot). [3rd edition 1968.] 1969 "Esquisse pour un chapitre d'une grammaire structurale du wallon: Le nombre", Melanges offerts a Rita Lejeune (Gembloux: Duculot). 1: 623-651. 1973a Dictionnaire des rimes orales et ecrites (Paris: Larousse). 1973b "Dialectes du frangais et francais regionaux", Lfr 18: 100-125. 1974 "Le subjonctif imparfait en frangais et en wallon", FM 42: 42-69. Wilmet, Marc 1970a "Syntaxe historique et structuralisme", RUB 4: 341-358. 1970b Le Systeme de l'indicatifen moyen franfais. Etüde des "tiroirs" de l'indicatifdans les farces, sotties et moralites franfaises des XVe et XVle siecles (= Publications romanes et francaises 107) (Geneve: Droz). Vans, Maurice - Georges Hansotte 1958 Les records de coutumes du pays de Stavelot. Edition begun by (t) Edouard Poncelet, continued by Maurice Vans and Georges Hansotte, with philological glossary by Edgard Renard. Volume 1 (= Coutumes de la principaute de Stavelot) (Bruxelles: C.A.D.).

4.2 English-speaking areas

NOEL CORBETT

Romance studies in North America

Romance philology Text-centered study, or Romance philology, is a stable and wellestablished field of intellectual endeavor. There is, consequently, much less in this domain that can properly be styled 'current trends' or 'schools of thought' than is the case for Romance linguistics.' Nevertheless, a few interpretive remarks are in order. I perceive the current state of philological affairs as being marked, at one end of the spectrum, by the close linguistic examination of medieval texts, and, at the other, by sophisticated literary analysis. Granted that the forte of non-native Romance philologists will always be the close study of texts, one wonders whether the price of originality in that sector is not being paid, increasingly often, with the edition of texts and, more specifically, with the edition of obscure texts of questionable literary or historical worth. In that no man's land which sets language study apart from literary analysis, I nonetheless discern a limited number of innovative experiments. Let me cite a few which have eventuated in monographs within the past few years: J. M. A. Beer's (1968) Villehardouin: Epic Historian, and P. F. Dembowski's (1963) La Chronique de Robert de Clan are sparkling studies of medieval language and style. Stylistic and literary study make excellent bedfellows too, witness Alice Colby's (1965) The Portrait in Twelfth-Century French Literature: An Example of the Stylistic Originality of Chretien de Troy es, Joseph Duggan's (1973) The Song of Roland: Formulaic Style and Poetic Craft, and Stephen G. Nichols's (1961) Formulaic Diction and Thematic Composition in the Chanson de Roland.2 Attempts to reconcile linguistics with literature called forth Karl Uitti's (1969) Linguistics and Literary Theory, and Eugene Dorfman's (1969) The Narreme in the Medieval Romance Epic. That there does not exist a vast number of such semilinguistic and semiliterary studies bears

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witness to a heavy reliance, in our graduate schools, on the edition of texts, and the consequent rejection of that particular mode in favor of thematic literary abstraction. 3 North Americans have also authored some important general works. Along with Urban T. Holmes's (1962) ever-serviceable manual A History of Old French Literature from the Origins to 1300 and Grace Frank's (1967) The Medieval French Drama, I can cite a pair of useful works by W. T. H. Jackson, namely The Literature of the Middle Ages (1960), and Medieval Literature: A History and A Guide (1966). Not to be slighted is the set of bibliographical essays published under the title, The Medieval Literature of Western Europe: A Review of Research, Mainly 1930-1960 edited by John H. Fisher (1966), and to which Romanists Thomas R. Hart, John E. Keller, Charles A. Knudson, Vincent Luciani, Jean Misrahi, Joan Ruiz i Calonja, and Josep Roca i Pons have made substantial contributions. 4 The fruits of North American literary and philological activity have traditionally secured publication and widespread acceptance in Europe. Increasingly however, perhaps as a sign of growing self-assurance, and progressive liberation from European norms, North Americans publish at home. Monographs spring forth here and there, under the aegis of a university press but, since World War II, a great deal of work has appeared in the University of North Carolina Studies in the Romance Languages and Literatures series (= UNCSRLL), founded by Urban T. Holmes, and published now under the general editorship of Aldo Scaglione. In fact, the University of North Carolina has been the North American fortress of text-centered Romance Studies for well-nigh fifty years, during which time it has granted literally dozens of doctorates in Romance philology. The local journals, Studies in Philology and Romance Notes, continue to enjoy high esteem in the world of Romance philology. Many other universities have mounted programs which include a strong philological component, and form medievalists with an abiding concern for literature and culture. One such program is offered by the University of Toronto's Centre for Medieval Studies. Since 1967, the Centre has organized semiannual seminars, which are now beginning to assume a national character. Distinguished speakers from both Europe and North America have been invited to lecture on topics of broad interdisciplinary scope, specifically "The Court and Courtliness in the Middle Ages", "The Culture of the Medieval Town", "The Two Cultures in the Late Medieval Period", "The Liberal Arts and Medieval Life",

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"Islamic Influences on the Latin Middle Ages", "The Cathedral", "War in the Middle Ages", "Musica: From Mistress to Maid", "The Barbarians in the Age of Rome's Fall", "The Aesthetics of Difficult Literature in the Middle Ages", and "The Liturgy". At the Universite de Montreal we discover a dynamic new program in Comparative Literature with special emphasis accorded to French, medieval literature, literary theory, and analytical method. Eugene Vance writes that the program is generating considerable interest in France, Germany, and the U.S.A., though Canadians, he contends, are unreceptive to its problematics. There are many other dynamic centers of medieval study on this continent. I name only the better known: The Medieval Institute of Western Michigan University, the Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies at UCLA, and the Institut d'etudes medievales at the Universite de Montreal. Not to be forgotten is the professional organization of New World medievalists, the Medieval Academy of America, and its highly respected journal Speculum. In a volume whose primary concern is language study, I hesitate to advance further into the realm of literature. Suffice it to say that, in the present state of literary study, North American philologists do well to concentrate their attention on the study of major authors, works, genres, and themes. Neither does it hurt when their selection of research topics bears some clear relationship to pedagogical needs.5 In that regard, I applaud the concentration of intellectual energy on epic literature which is apparent in the Modern Language Association Seminar on 'Problems in the Medieval Romance Epic'. Grouping together members of the American-Canadian Branch of the Sociate Rencesvals, this organization has begun to publish a quarterly journal, Olifant. I suspect that, as a result of their professional preoccupation with the close reading of texts, some medievalists may have let the study of literature, culture, and society slip into obscurity. In fact, students are interested in the 'medieval mind'. If, despite their research interests or personal inclinations, Romance philologists could be persuaded to inject into their teaching, literary and socio-cultural perspectives sufficient to stimulate more students, they would render themselves and their discipline a distinct service. If, within Romance departments, it is unwise to draw too strict a line of demarcation between the study of language and the study of literature, since the one constantly nourishes the other, that is all the more true when language presents major obstacles to comprehension.6

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Not enough North American philologists recognize that the intrinsic remoteness of their subject matter can be turned to good advantage. By casting into bolder relief those facets of the ancient language, literature and culture which differ most strikingly from contemporary norms, one can provoke and sustain an interest in other times and other places.7 If emphasis on high specialization and the close reading of texts has produced less than spectacular results in the field of Romance philology, does sudden conversion to literature offer the recipe for unconfined success? I doubt it. The track record of North American philologists as litterateurs is simply not outstanding when judged in terms of thematic scope and gross productivity. My apologies to those who rank as significant exceptions to the rule. The oeuvre of North American medievalists is such as to suggest, not that text-centered philological study be abandoned, but that it be more strongly supported, on the graduate level, by literary study in those restricted areas of competence to which individual philologists lay rightful claim. On the undergraduate level, the problem is very different. Here, specialized philological study does not flourish, except perhaps in a few elite establishments, here and there. By restricting study of medieval Romance languages and literature to the close reading of original texts, Romance philology has been effectively confined to the Graduate School. Where this approach has seeped down to the undergraduate level, say, via 'Reading Bartsch', it has met with less than resounding success. Better, I think, that medieval texts be known in translation than not at all. Better that some introduction to the field be furnished to undergraduates than none at all. Without conceptual foundations, no specialized superstructure can expect to stand firm. One obvious way to stimulate expanding interest in the study of the medieval languages and literatures might be to offer, at the undergraduate level, a survey course comprised of outstanding works of medieval literature, read in modern translation. With audio-visual support, a socio-cultural orientation to the Middle Ages becomes possible. An introduction to the original language is also desirable. For that purpose, plays — especially comedies — are ideal. Reflecting lively spoken usage, these can be read, performed, and stand a good chance of sparking further interest in the field.8 Romance linguistics North American Romanists cover such a broad spectrum of interests that few of them hope to enjoy more than a partial perception of the discip-

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line. By dint of ever-increasing specialization, conservatives seem to share with innovators an ever-diminishing range of common interests. With specific reference to Romance linguistics, most realize, however, that the long-established historico-comparative tradition, marked by data-orientation, is currently rivalled — or complemented — by a form of synchronic analysis which exalts theory. They sense, further, that birds of a linguistic feather flock to one feeding station or the other, depending upon their preferred diet of fact and theory, description and interpretation, synchrony and diachrony. Few are the individuals capable of resisting this polarization, upon which they rely for moral support, if not for intellectual equilibrium. Viewed in that perspective, the debate over whether the Romance languages ought to carry tribute to linguistic theory, or vice versa, reflects a state of contemporary academic polarization rather than a dilemma of authentic substance. Let us not agonize over a pseudoproblem. It should be self-evident that our understanding of the Romance languages has much to gain from the judicious application of linguistic theory and, conversely, much to contribute to it.9 A questionnaire circulated to a broad cross-section of North American Romanists netted these pertinent observations on the state of the linguistic art. 10 On the continuing vitality of the empirical tradition: The renewed confidence in linguistic data — instead of theory for its own sake — and the recognition of the relevance of historical linguistics seem to offer a major opportunity to Romance Studies to contribute significantly to the forefront of linguistic investigation, particularly because of the long and valuable tradition of dealing with the data. (Dieter Wanner, University of Illinois) . . . what attracts me in the field of Romance linguistics is the sobering effect is has on anyone who tends to engage in wild speculations or to produce oversimplified 'scientific' constructs. The abundance of documentation, along with the scholarly tradition it has produced, are the strong points of the field and should by no means be abandoned for new fashionable trends. As long as scholars like Malkiel can make their influence felt and form new students, I feel that Romance linguistics and philology are in good shape. (Bernard Rochet, University of Alberta) My view is that the work done by such generative phonologists as Schane, Foley, and Harris has been, in large part, artificial, much too abstract, and — worst of all — non-empirical. The trend, it

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seems to me, is clearly away from such abstract and non-empirical solutions. (Royal Skousen, University of Texas, Austin) On theory: I feel that the exclusive concern with theoretical issues is a debilitating trend. A plethora of dissertations has recently appeared where Pope's book on the history of French is dressed up with arrows, square and curly brackets etc., while being considerably trimmed down in the process. It all looks as if one had hit upon the ultimate answer and all that remains is to translate old analyses, preferably those found in textbooks where the facts have already been considerably condensed, by using a new notational system. This . . . does not constitute research. (Bernard Rocket, University of Alberta) There is still so much in the generative-transformational approach that is purely speculative, and so much that is couched in esoteric language and virtually undecipherable formulae, that even the most avid learner is soon alienated. [. . .] The further we remove ourselves from the concrete evidence . . ., the more we are apt to . . . indulge in abstract theorizing, which results in the disintegration of our discipline and the demoralization of our students. (Henry Mendeloff, Catholic University of America) On innovation, and disciplinary renewal: . . . In Europe, Romance philology enjoys a very solid and respectable niche . . . but tends to be too conservative. The situation here in the United States appears to me to be exactly the opposite: Romance philology is still thought of as a rather esoteric discipline, and it still does not have a very large following, but this very situation seems to be favorable to bold experimentation . . . (Paolo Valesio, New York University) [I see] a healthy reawakening of interest in historical linguistics and Romance linguistics. The use of Romance data to confront current theoretical problems, and the deepening of initial generative analyses [are significant trends]. (Douglas Walker, University of Ottawa) My book [Klausenburger 1974] applies generative theory to a subject that has been done both traditionally and structurally. New insights are gained, although I would not say that generative theory replaces other frameworks. (Jürgen Klausenburger, University of Washington, Seattle)11

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On the relationship of Romance linguistics to its material base, the Romance languages: Trends . . . are going to be towards a more enlightened application of linguistic discoveries.. . . Pedagogically, we need a more sophisticated applied linguist on the market. (Jean Casagrande, University of Florida)12 The impetus given linguistics by the crash foreign language improvement programs emanating from Washington has long since died out. NDEA and other funds have dried up, enrolments are down, faculties are shrinking. The University of Missouri has maintained its foreign language requirement, against trends set elsewhere . . ., so we are in relatively better condition than many universities. . . .My prediction is that some of the ground gained in the sixties will be held, despite present austerity t r e n d s . . . . As mobility is reduced, the quality of permanent staff is increased. . . . This is particularly good for Romance linguistics, since we have gained entrance into a vast number of foreign language and linguistics departments. . . . If there is anything to lament . . ., it might be that there is now a shortage of bona fide historical linguistics, and a surplus of synchronic specialists. (Daniel Gulstad, University of Missouri) From this corner of the world, there is room for tempered optimism concerning our field. It still attracts extremely high quality graduate students who do rather well in finding jobs. (Jerry Craddock, University of California, Berkeley) Admittedly, these comments do not reflect all conceivable states of the collective Romance mind. Still, a number of factors emerge clearly. Romance linguistics is materially and morally dependent upon its language teaching base, to which Romanists should reasonably expect to make constructive contributions, both theoretical and practical. As highly specialized individuals we have gained access to key areas, where our potential to exercise influence over the future course of Romance studies is considerable. As far as pure diachronic research is concerned, there is a continuing faith in the viability of the empirical tradition, but disagreement over the value of generative grammar. This discord focusses on the latter's tendency to render both the lexical base and the transformational process abstract. As a diversity of concrete output forms is analytically distilled into an invariant input base plus transformations, concrete verifiable fact is transmuted into abstract, unobservable mental process.13

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Granted the current popularity of generative Romance linguistics, it seems worthwhile to stand back just far enough to gain some coherent historical perspective on the North American scene. It bears emphasizing that there continues to flourish a long-established tradition of Romance linguistics which takes the Romance languages, rather than the theory of grammar, as its principal locus of concern. In common with generative grammarians, traditionalists hold that a knowledge of diachrony can contribute much to an improved understanding of the contemporary Romance languages. But, above and beyond the belief in 'diachrony for synchrony's sake', traditionalists generally take language history as their primary investigative dimension. In that, they are not motivated, as is sometimes suggested, by a perverse desire to cultivate ". . . a dead field, the musty province of pedants and philologists" (King 1969: 217), but instead by a fascination with the most intriguing and dynamic feature of language — the problem of change. Traditional Romance linguistics is characterized by a number of distinctive features. As a consequence of its dominant concern with Romance for its own sake, there has always existed a scrupulous respect for the empirical data, a respect perhaps best typified in the work of Yakov Malkiel.14 At its best, this orientation — which I will style empirical-explicative — has been strictly controlled by a will to organize, analyze, interpret and explain an extensive corpus of raw data, deriving from it only those general and theoretical insights which might arise naturally. No ad hoc method is applied. The perspective is resolutely diachronic, the preferred subject-matter linguistic change. Malkiel's analytical strategy normally comprises a critical historique of prior research, if any. The plan of attack is determined by the idiosyncratic character of the data under scrutiny. Since there is no cut-and-dried scientific method to apply, this approach promotes intellectual flexibility, expanding scope, and the likelihood of uncovering new lines of inquiry. Good judgement and a highly developed critical sense are therefore necessary to keep the investigation under control. The fundamental 'discovery procedure' is an ability to perceive linguistic interrelationships. Indeed, while the vast majority of North Americans were preoccupied with the study of phonetics and phonology divorced from its morphosyntactic roots, Malkiel spoke of the interlocking of 'linguistic levels', one of his favorite themes, for which he has lately won a measure of 'rehabilitation' from the 'Generative School'. Fascination with the permanent antinomy which prevails between micro- and macrolinguistics, between detaillisme and panoramic abstrac-

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tion, between raw fact and analytical interpretation has, to be sure, marked every single piece of Malkiel's research. Some of his most illuminating reflections on this apparently irreconcilable paradox are grouped together under the rubric "Theory Versus Practice as a Starting Point for Discoveries in Linguistic Research" (Malkiel 1968c), and deserve consideration by workers in a field whose wealth of data at once offers complexities of vast proportions and unmatched potential for synthetic analysis.15 No single individual has done more to promote the study of Romance linguistics and philology on this continent. Malkiel's commitment16 has been dual, to Romance on the one hand, to linguistics on the other. This particular attitude has meant that, up till now, Romance linguistics and Romance philology have not been split asunder. Indeed, Malkiel seems to stand in single-handed defiance of the forces of specialization which are tending in any case to produce that result. To my mind, however, a divergence between text-centered and language-centered study carried with it less potential for disaster than does the failure of contending forces — within Romance linguistics proper — to confront one another constructively. Traditionalists and modernists have, I fear, too little to say to one another these days. That situation cries out to be rectified. Without doing injustice to some, I could not begin to delineate, within the scope of this survey, all of the research which flourishes within the empirical-explicative tradition. If I neglect the contribution of other individuals, it is not with the intention of denigrating their competence by implication. Rather, I seek to characterize specific personalities, not as they represent themselves, but rather as they typify 'trends' or 'schools'. Perhaps five or ten years hence, when a larger proportion of these newly embarked upon Romance careers have made their professional mark, "Portraits of North American Romanists" will provide the appropriate title for a survey of the field. At all events, the North American research record is familiar to all readers of the journal Romance Philology. Thus, I ask my readers' indulgence if I dodge a potentially monographic chore.17 In general terms, one can say that traditionalists have kept faith with the 'functionalism' which originated in Prague. For them, dimensions assuming particular relevance have been the influence of analogy and grammatical paradigms in favoring, retarding, or channelling linguistic change, usually phonological, and the Janus-faced concept of syncretism and differentiation as a partial determinant of change. Though there has prevailed a willingness to take advantage of available descriptive techniques, an all-out ideological commitment to systematic taxonomy — be it Neogrammatical, structural, or transformational — has at no time been

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apparent, or required. The dominant theme of the empirical-explicative tradition has been science, not in the narrow denotation of 'systematic analytical method', but in the broad sense of 'knowledge'. Before turning to more innovative modes, let me allude to a significant 'Schuchardtian' current which has fallen on hard times. Long ago, the study of Vulgar Latin held a certain appeal for North Americans. The 'Columbia School' of Vulgar Latin studies, launched in the late twenties by Henri Frangois Muller, and boosted by Mario Pei and Louis Furman Sas, was prolonged by Paul Cooper, Paul Gaeng, Robert L. Politzer, and others. Muller, it will be recalled, championed the hypotheses that there existed a West Romance unity of spoken Latin — reflected in Vulgar Latin documents — right down to the eighth century. The hypothesis no longer generates much enthusiasm, doubtless because it could not be substantiated in any genuinely compelling way. Moreover, Elise Richter (1934) dealt it an apparent death-blow with simple facts of relative chronology. When all is said and done, there is absolutely no way to ascertain whether Merovingian and Carolingian documents reflect a spoken vernacular, however correct. Consequently, much of the original intellectual dynamism of Columbia-based (or trained) Romance linguists has been redirected into adjacent sectors. Pei turned to popularization, where he succeeded in stirring up widespread general interest in language study. Politzer jumped ship, finding that language pedagogy offered the terra firma necessary for a successful career. Lately, his research has shifted almost entirely into the area of psycholinguistics (processes of second language acquisition) and dialect (Black English and Mexican-American Spanish).18 All the same, there is still some residual interest in Vulgar Latin on this continent. Paul Gaeng's (1968) Inquiry Into Local Variations in Vulgar Latin adduces new data culled, this time, from the vocalism of Latin Christian inscriptions, particularly of the funeral type. More important, it sheds some new light, by means of comparative study, on the issue of whether linguistic features that differentiate Romance languages and dialects correspond to dialect differences already in existence in the period spanning the fourth to sixth centuries. At the same time, Gaeng reports sustained research in this sector, both on his part, and that of Columbia graduate students who have adopted his methodology. At the University of Rochester, Charles M. Carlton works along similar lines, witness his recent monographs! Linguistic Analysis of a Collection of Late Latin Documents Composed in Ravenna Between A.D. 445-700 (1973).

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Turning now to more distinctively indigenous approaches to Romance linguistics, I note that, at Cornell, historico-comparatism of the Neogrammatical variety allied itself with mainstream structural linguistics during the forties and fifties. The result, which came into full bloom in the sixties, was a unique blend of tradition and innovation. Seeking to rejuvenate the discipline, which he considered backward and unoriginal, Robert A. Hall, Jr., spoke out against 'nonscientific' and 'nonregularist' styles of research. As the standard-bearer of 'Bloomfieldian' Romance linguistics, Hall singled out the idealism of Croce, Vossler, Bärtoli, Bertoni, Spitzer and others for condemnation. So too did he contend that the 'dead hand of Schuchardt' was guiding Romance linguists down paths strewn with linguistic minutiae, encouraging an excessive zeal for documentation, and an unhealthy preoccupation with exceptions to general rules. But, above all, idealism, or the belief that 'spiritual' factors, meaning, creative process, and such, play a role in shaping language, was the gremlin responsible for all the alleged woes of Romance linguistics in the mid-twentieth century. In Idealism in Romance Linguistics (1963: 94),19 Hall argued that "Romance Linguistics lags behind other fields of linguistics in the application of scientific method, both in synchronic description of structure and in historical-comparative reconstruction". The solution proposed was to develop and apply to the reconstruction of Romance synchrony and diachrony modern techniques of linguistic description and analysis.20 Hall and his colleagues have gained a considerable following among Romance linguists interested in linguistic description and historical reconstruction. In fact, for long years, the systematic reconstruction of Romance diachrony was pursued only at Cornell. To my mind, the principal merit of the 'Cornell School' of Romance linguistics resides in the fact that its proponents emphasize a convergent and cohesive analytical method. In that respect, they look like precursors of generative Romance linguistics. Thus, if I now devote some extended critical attention to that school's conceptual foundations, namely regularism and taxonomy, that fact may be interpreted as a tribute — however indirect — to Cornell's influence on the North American Romance scene over the past thirty years. I doubt that the systematic analysis of a core of 'regular' linguistic structures and processes needs any defense these days. But can anything constructive be said in support of 'irregularism'? Language is not all 'regularity', and competence in 'regularity' is not competence in the language as a whole. Natural languages show irregular structures and

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processes by the hundreds, many of which stubbornly resist regularization for centuries. Not all of these are unfamiliar, peripheral anomalies, or aberrant, historical curios devoid of linguistic significance. Indeed, some of them may dominate the linguistic unconscious to such an extent that they create obstacles for 'regular' processes or, alternatively, they override regular processes which have been carried through. In fact, linguistic diversity and linguistic change results, to a very large extent, from the interplay of dominant and recessive mechanisms. Diachronically speaking, some dominant but 'irregular' processes expand, diffusing gradually or swiftly throughout the lexicon, achieving eventual regularity, while recessive but 'regular' processes may conversely recede, leaving a residue of irregularity. Thus, the determination of dominance and the assessment of regularity are crucial, but qualitatively different, matters. I think it a tactical error to assume that 'irregular' processes are invariably recessive, 'regular' ones dominant. Though that assumption may enjoy some validity as a generalization, the embarrassing fact is that irregularity is never homogenized out of existence. Moreover, it seems likely that certain processes which want for generality in a specific language at a given point in time may rank as major in terms of their typological significance. Consequently, I seriously question whether a researcher can expect to reach a full understanding of linguistic processes by confining his inquiry to the analysis of 'regularities', even though the legitimate end of the investigation may be to characterize a nucleus of 'regular' systems and processes. On the broad question of taxonomy, however, the 'Cornell School' stands on firm ground. Romance linguists do indeed stand to profit from harnessing precise techniques of description and analysis, provided, of course, that these be taken as the means to improved understanding of the data, and not as self-sufficient ends. But whether the taxonomy ought to be Neogrammatical, structural, transformational — or a synthesis of the «three — is quite another problem. To my mind, the important question facing Romance linguists today, and particularly those who cleave to the historico-comparative tradition, is not whether to use taxonomic methods — if indeed it ever was — but what precise techniques to adopt or elaborate, and — much more crucial than that — with what specific intentions, beyond the mere pursuit of clarity and simplicity of description. It would also seem profitable to ask questions of the sort: Does joining the mainstream of General Linguistics imply rejection of 'nontaxonomic' forms of inquiry? Does the study of exceptions shed useful light on

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general rules, and does the analysis of minor currents illuminate major processes? Does the study of dialects contribute significantly to understanding of a national language, or stages in its evolution? Are phonetics and phonology the paramount factors in linguistic change, or does meaning play an equally important role? How does morphosyntactic system and process influence the course of linguistic change? And is the exclusive goal of linguistics the construction of grammars? The central problem with taxonomic modes of research, and, in this, Neogrammar, structuralism, and generative grammar stand equally charged, is that they seem to define in advance the types of results which are likely to accrue from their application — and those which are not. Furthermore, they may foster an all-consuming preoccupation with formal 'discovery procedures1, linguistic description, organization, classification and, most recently, issues in the theory of universal grammar. That is not necessarily a bad thing. But it does tend to minimize the importance of informal 'discovery procedures', namely Old-fashioned' trial and error, inspiration and desperation. Since 'traditional' Romance linguists have such a strong background in linguistic explanation, perhaps their most natural, yet original, contribution to general linguistics might be to enrich existing taxonomies with nontaxonomic dimensions. It must be conceded, I think, that Romance linguistics has steadily diverged from the regularism and taxonomy of Neogrammar. That is not particularly surprising. Against the historico-comparative reconstruction of the Neogrammarians, and specifically that of Meyer-Lübke, innovation could only follow a limited number of alternative channels, for instance: (1) the data base could be enlarged (the solution of dialectology and linguistic geography); (2) the facts could be recast in new taxonomic molds (the solution of structuralists and generative grammarians); (3) botched Neogrammatical analyses could be replaced or complemented by more compelling demonstrations; (4) more emphasis could be devoted to explicative linguistics, i.e., to illuminating the how and why of linguistic change; (5) a larger share of attention could be accorded to 'minor' processes which had slipped through the Neogrammarians' nets — with particular emphasis on the mechanisms interfering with, or overriding, 'major' linguistic processes; or (6) the contemporary Romance languages could be taken as the primary focus of interest, with their raw data serving to test and consolidate an entirely new theory of grammar. In fact, all of these approaches have been tried, either singly or in concert. That fact must be taken as evidence of some kind of continuing vitality. Nevertheless, there exists no broad consensus about which

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approach, or combination of approaches holds out the strongest promise of intellectual returns. Hall's major ideological contribution to the field has been to draw attention to that fact, suggesting that Romance linguists stand to gain a great deal by concentrating their efforts on combining the Neogrammatical tradition with an innovative linguistic taxonomy.21 Despite the numerous qualifications adduced here, I daresay that this position retains most of its original validity. If the Cornell approach to Romance linguistics could be characterized as 'descriptive structuralism', that which emerged at Columbia University during the period of vitality associated with the presence of Roman Jakobson and Andre Martinet should probably be styled 'explicative structuralism'. If the structural foundations were substantially identical at both institutions, the component of explanation seemed more apparent at the latter, largely due, I imagine, to the more powerful emphasis on functionalism of Prague School inspiration. In short, whereas Bloomfieldian America was acutely embarrassed by the problem of meaning, explicative structuralism took it as the very axis upon which language revolved — both synchronically and diachronically. If one could distill from explicative structuralism a single concept of crucial proportions, it would undoubtedly be that of 'functional load'. First popularized in the forties by Haudricourt and Juilland (1970, 1949), explicative structuralism was imported to North America at the close of World War II. Martinet did much to demonstrate the relevance of that approach for Romance linguistics, both in the Economic (1955), and in his earlier major article (1952) "Celtic Lenition and Western Romance Consonants". It would be no exaggeration, however, to say that North American Romanists did not rush to leap on the 'explicative' bandwagon. Alphonse Juilland, who set up shop at Pennsylvania, later at Stanford, never reverted to the diachronic themes of the Essai, nor did his students.22 Neither did Eugene Dorfman's early enthusiasm for this style of inquiry generate a voluminous output of linguistic research.23 One of the most substantial North American contributions to explicative structuralism was Luigi Romeo's (1968) monograph The Economy of Diphthongization in Early Romance2* which, though published only in 1968, had been written almost a decade earlier, hard on the heels of Martinet's Economic. Since I have summarily chronicled the decline of structuralism elsewhere (Corbett 1970), there is no point in repeating those remarks here. Let me add only this: if explicative structuralism gained little more than a toehold on this continent, it was not because it

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was utterly devoid of validity. There were more compelling reasons for its demise. The well-entrenched American conviction that meaning was an unwanted intruder in linguistic analysis clashed head-on with European functionalism. 25 Furthermore, North American linguistics had simply turned its attention to grammatical theory. A dazzling new taxonomy of process burst onto the horizon, and synchrony reasserted itself as the dominant concern of North American linguists. As the structuralist vein ran dry on this continent, so too did diachronic research lose much of its lifeblood. As coup de grace, Martinet himself turned to synchrony and, little by little, most of his New World disciples have done the same. Thus, for example, Henry Schogt, who launched his career on a diachronic note with strong explicative overtones, has of late shifted to descriptive synchronic analysis. For proof, compare his early work, Les Causes de la double issue de e ferme tonique libre en francais (1960), a fine piece of explicative diachronic research, with his more recent monograph (1968), Le Systeme verbal du jταηςαίχ contemporain. Since Martinet's departure from diachronic ranks, the cause of Romance historical linguistics has been championed principally by Hall and Malkiel. I should also single out Ernst Pulgram who, from his home base at the University of Michigan, has exerted a constant beneficial effect.26 Leaving aside the direct students and followers of these three, one finds that the diachronic spirit still lives in a number of those who — directly or at several stages of remove — have felt the impact of Martinet's teachings. To name but a few: James Anderson (Calgary), Eugene Dorfman (Alberta), Douglas Walker (Ottawa), Luigi Romeo (Colorado), and Bernard Rochet (Alberta). There have been significant, if isolated, attempts to transfuse new blood into diachronics. Attempting to draw attention to the importance of restoring historical and Romance linguistics to a position of leadership among the primary linguistic disciplines, W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel organized a Symposium at the University of Texas in the spring of 1966. The contributions to that conference are recorded in Lehmann and Malkiel (1968).27 Perhaps the most original paper in that volume was contributed by Labov, Herzog, and Weinreich, who maintain that, to external interference28 and internal factors of 'linguistic economy' must be added a third, sociological dimension, if linguists are ever to make more successful attempts at diachronic explanation than they have in the past.29 That sociological insight can be highly pertinent to problems of linguistic diversity and linguistic change has been convincingly demonstrated in

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all of Labov's research. That it can be put to systematic use is also clear. In his Spanish Phonology, Harris (1969a: 6f) shows that specification of the style of utterance in which a given phenomenon occurs is a necessary and essential component of phonological analysis. Until the advent of generative grammar, the vast majority of papers in Romance linguistics were heard at the Modern Language Association's Comparative Romance Linguistics section, founded in 1950 by Giulio Bonfante, Robert A. Hall, Jr., Lawrence B. Kiddle, and Yakov Malkiel. Though the section remains active, generative grammarians tend to seek their audience elsewhere (see infra). Traditionalists' and 'modernists' rarely risk confrontation. For some reasons why, see Posner (1970: 431-432). The Comparative Romance Linguistics Newsletter (= CRLN) has been edited most recently by M. Roy Harris (Virginia), and Charles M. Carlton (Rochester). Would a minor change in orientation give this valuable brochure a new lease on life? Since we are so well served by the extensive bibliographical research of the Permanent International Committee of Linguists, the ML A International Bibliography III: Linguistics, and the Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, to name only three, CRLN could easily dispense with its emphasis on published work. In its stead, contributors could emphasize those remaining areas which CRLN now handles so well. The Personalia section keeps one posted on current activity, while offering the individual ample scope for self-promotion. Bibliographically, the focus could be narrowed down to those research activities which are not normally publicized: work in progress and in press, papers read, dissertations underway and completed. Published at more frequent intervals, a slimmer brochure would also fill a gap if it stimulated the written exchange of ideas on matters of professional concern. The central linguistic fact in North American of the sixties was the meteoric rise of generative grammar. Suddenly, a taxonomy of structure was eclipsed by a more dynamic taxonomy of process. Whether that eclipse is total — or only partial — is a matter best left to future historians of linguistics.30 Still, one fact seems assured: To the mechanistic attitude of the first two-thirds of this century has succeeded a mentalistic reaction of truly remarkable proportions. This reaction has not gone unmarked by polemic, perhaps more strongly accentuated on the side of the innovators, seeking to establish themselves in firmer contradistinction to their Old-fashioned' predecessors.31 At Cornell and Columbia, where Romance linguistics was most heavily

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committed to mainstream structuralism, it also suffered most from the impact of the theoretical revolution.32 Traditionalists got off lightly, if only because of their reluctance to embrace structural ideology. It seems clear, nevertheless, that the will to describe and analyze Romance data with sophisticated scientific tools has merely been passed on to the 'generative school'. Like structuralism, generative grammar accords heavy emphasis to taxonomy and regularism. Thus, the remarks earlier addressed to those concepts apply with equal pertinence to the currently dominant model of linguistic analysis. Where generative Romance linguistics most radically diverges — at least in its pioneering manifestations — from prior forms of research in the discipline, is in the preponderant emphasis it accords to synchrony.33 Does the generative model correctly and substantially characterize the grammatical structures and processes of language? Or, to rephrase the question: Allowing for the fact that language is a basically unconscious matter for the speaker but a highly explicit process for the linguist, is language as conceived in the mind of generative grammarians exactly congruent with language as it exists in the minds of speakers? To answer these questions would require sustained discussion of theoretical issues. Once again, I ask my readers to dispense me from a monographic undertaking. The point is that Romance linguists who believe that it does are currently engaged in the critical application, testing, and refinement of the theory.34 Canonical studies in this genre already exist for three major Romance languages. I refer, of course, to the morphophonemic analyses of contemporary French, Italian, and Spanish, by Sanford Schane (1968), Mario Saltarelli (1970), and James Harris (1969a) respectively. Of a more distinctly 'introductory' character are Hadlich (1970) and Otero (1971), both dealing with Spanish. The bulk of generative studies more restricted in scope have, during the past four years, appeared in the proceedings of annual conferences.35 The first of these, held at the University of Florida in 1971, under the title Linguistic Symposium of Romance Languages: Application of Generative Grammar to their Description and Teaching, explicitly sought to elicit novel contributions to the description of Romance languages, to draw attention to phenomena of potential importance for the constant reevaluation of theoretical views, and to make available some insights into the nature of Romance languages of use for the teaching of those languages. Of twenty-four contributions to the proceedings entitled Generative Studies in Romance Languages (Casagrande and Saciuk: 1972),36 a mere four concern matters pedagogical,

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while three address themselves to problems diachronic. Proceedings of the subsequent yearly Symposia held at the Universities of Illinois (Saltarelli and Wanner: 1973), Indiana (Campbell, Goldin and Wang: 1974), Texas (1974), Michigan (1975), Montreal (1976) and Cornell (1977) will all have appeared by the time this survey is published. Though the historical element of these conferences has increased steadily, the initial attention devoted to language pedagogy has all but disappeared. Like structuralism before it, generative grammar stresses a convergent analytical method. Unlike structuralism, whose concern for phonology was paramount, generative grammar accords a larger share of attention to morphology and syntax. Thus, in a sense, it more closely approximates the mainstream Neogrammatical tradition. Unlike Neogrammar, however, it explicitly treats syntax, morphology, and phonology as tightly interlocking linguistic components. In many generative studies, diachronic perspectives are introduced less for their own sake than to resolve problems arising from synchronic data, descriptive, and organizational method. Indeed, among generative grammarians, the current upsurge of interest in historical linguistics is springing from that particular source.37 Since that is the case, I think it worth reemphasizing that Romance data has normally been interpreted, either within a tradition of European creation, or else it has served as input data for analytical taxonomies. The latter orientation, typically North American, shines through the notion of 'application of generative grammar to the linguistic description of Romance'. However, the indigenous taxonomic models were founded on an overriding concern for the analysis of contemporary languages, and in the case of generative grammar, for the discovery of principles of universal grammar. Thus, research within these conceptual modes has tended to concentrate on synchrony, to the initial detriment of diachrony. But if the early emphasis on formal modes of analysis wanes, and resolves itself into a will to deepen the pioneering generative analyses, we may expect to witness a sustained resurgence of diachronic inquiry. As innovative zeal confronts diachronic fact, we should anticipate a sober reinterpretation of the Romance historico-comparative tradition, and perhaps even some narrowing of the 'veneration gap'. Though burdened by age, convention, a heavy load of data, and more than a century of patiently accumulated research,381 suspect that historico-comparatism holds the aces which guarantee it a strong measure of continuing vitality. If Romance can make any genuinely unique contribution to linguistic theory, or vice versa, that is to say, some contribution

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that cannot equally well be made by using non-Romance data, it will be made with the support of comparative and historical dimensions. Sophisticated Romance linguists will continue to ask: How does a single process manifest itself divergently in related languages and dialects? In single languages through time? How can descriptive analysis improve our understanding of these processes? And what contribution do the data make to our understanding of the general principles of linguistic process and linguistic change? I think it must be conceded that the theory which has reached such an advanced state of sophistication in its application to synchronic data remains relatively undeveloped in precisely those respects which would be most useful for historical linguistics. That is not to say that no progress has been made. But the fact remains that the application of generative grammar to a body of diachronic data seems to yield results which are descriptive and organizational in character. For the canonical example, see Chomsky and Halle (1968, Chapter six), "The Evolution of the Modern English Vowel System". For the significant exception to the rule, see Harris (1969b). To speculate dangerously, I predict that the principal contribution of generative grammar to Romance diachronics will lie in the area of precise description and organization. Significant generalizations will also be brought to light, as facts and processes formerly thought to be unrelated are shown to be conjoined. Moreover, I foresee a more sophisticated understanding of relative chronology thanks to the concept of ordered rules. In itself, all that is no mean contribution. But it strikes me as less probable that purely formal devices will endow diachronic Romance linguistics with explicative dimensions which are currently hidden from view. Taxonomically speaking, there exist but four historical processes (apart from lexical gain and loss): rules may be added or deleted, simplified or reordered. But the task of diachronic Romance linguistics is not merely to describe and assign processes to one of the four categories. Any researcher worth his salt wants to ascertain how and why these processes took effect. In this latter respect, generative grammarians are only slightly less pessimistic today than they were in 1969. Summarizing the results of the UCLA Conference on Historical Linguistics in the Perspective of Transformational Theory, held in February of that year, Robert P. Stockwell and Ronald K. S. Macaulay (1972: xi) declared that ". . . at the end, many seemed to share . . . a sense of despair that perhaps transformational theory had less to contribute than we had imagined". Most were

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agreed, however, on ". . .the need to remedy the excessive formalism in 'classical generative phonology' as exemplified in Chapters one to eight of The Sound Pattern of English by Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle". Gazing into my crystal ball, I see the concept of grammatical optimization (or simplification) harmonizing substantially with many interpretive concepts already in existence, but currently unpopular. I can see them being rediscovered, rehabilitated, and reformulated. In fact, the crystal ball may be tossed away, for the reluctant exhumation of ancient concepts has already begun. At the First International Conference in Historical Linguistics, held in Edinburgh (Sept. 2-7, 1973), Roger Lass astutely observed that much of the delegates' time had been spent "resurrecting useful old notions", an explicit recognition of the fact that, despite their antiquity, such venerable concepts as proportional analogy, 'paradigmatic' influences on 'regular' phonological change could be usefully integrated into a contemporary theory of linguistic change, to the distinct advantage of that theory. To the extent that reformulation of established concepts substantially clarifies an existing notion or renders it still more cogent, it will properly rank as a genuine contribution to knowledge, rather than as a mere restatement of known fact.39 As for bridging the gulf between diachronic empiricism and synchronic theorism, the earliest initiatives have come from beyond the Romance field, where Henning Andersen, Robert King, Paul Kiparsky and Theo Vennemann may be styled as trendsetters. Romance overtures are discerned in the work of James Foley, James Harris, Jürgen Klausenburger, Bernard Rochet, and Douglas Walker, to mention only a few. On the west coast, Jonathan Butler had just launched a vibrant career in Romance diachronics when, at age 34, he was killed in an unprovoked automobile accident, struck down from behind.40 This discussion has drawn attention to the inescapable fact that significant styles of research in Romance linguistics have been created or nurtured at four North American institutions: Berkeley, Columbia, Cornell and, though not explicitly named up till now, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Typically, the faculty of virtually every North American university today comprises at least one Romance linguist, who generally bears the earmarks of one of those institutions. In fact, he may well illustrate a synthesis of diverse styles, so rapidly has the linguistic environment evolved over the past half-century. Surveying current activity in the field, we may safely predict new centers of Romance linguistics to declare themselves within the decade,41 contributing substantially to the discipline's self-renewal. In fact, judging from the sheer numbers of

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new recruits to the field, one may expect the final quarter of this century to be much livelier than the first three. Romance linguistics will flourish on this continent to the extent that it actively continues to capitalize on its strengths. In Europe, where the tradition of historico-comparative inquiry lives on, its distinctive feature is a propensity to examine data under an intellectual microscope. Indeed, many European Romanists seem unable or unconcerned to relate their microresearch to any immediately obvious macrocontext. Though North Americans may continue to draw whatever sustenance they can from that tradition, our independence from the European scene affords us the opportunity to lay the microscope aside from time to time, the better to get the facts into coherent perspective.42 Removed as we are from the mainstream, our most natural attitude can be a selective concern for deriving general insights from synchronic and historico-comparative research, hence for offering to the field a sharper definition and clearer orientation for the future. We are also in an excellent position to experiment with the application of analytical taxonomies. But if the Romance tree thrusts out branches indigenous to the New World, it will not be because it has allowed its traditional roots to wither and die. Of the state of Romance linguistics and philology, Malkiel (1972: 835-836) commented a few years ago: The danger o f . . . extinction — if there ever was any—has. . . been averted, and the pendulum seems to be swinging back on both sides of the Atlantic. [. . .] What remains at issue — and on this score the next few years may well prove to be decisive — is the ability of the pacesetters to rejuvenate the methodology, to set new goals (clearly defined and attractive to talented, ambitious workers), and to reestablish a much-needed rapport with general linguistics, which has somehow been lost in the last few decades. Granted, there is a certain self-sufficiency to text-centered philological studies, in whose pursuit — as medievalists — many Romanists share a communality of interest. But in the more abstract domain of Romance linguistics, which has traditionally supported philology, conferring upon it a unified intellectual perspective, the late nineteenth and early twentieth century momentum has been progressively shifting to general linguistics. Doubtless, the benefits accruing to that multifaceted discipline have been considerable, but the loss of support to Romance historical studies — both philological and linguistic — has been disturbing. What

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then of the future? Will lost strength be regained, or is diachronic Romance linguistics destined to slip free from its traditional moorings in Romance philology? Will Romance historical linguistics gain momentum simply by drifting with the indigenous linguistic mainstream? The inescapable fact is that some Romanists will always be attracted by text-centered language study which stresses humane and cultural perspectives on a practical base of language learning. Others will always prefer a higher degree of abstraction. A small number will somehow manage to combine the two interests successfully. If the study of Romance literatures flourishes throughout North America, is that an undiluted tribute to the inspired teaching of litterateurs, or a testimonial to the forces of disciplinary inertia? Many students are only slightly less repulsed by formal-esthetic literary analysis bearing no relation to life, than they are by insistence on inhumane, impractical, and abstract styles of language study, prematurely presented.43 With such a scenario, Romance linguistics and philology render each other a disservice when they fail to combine forces to offer attractive alternatives. If the two manage to retain any cohesiveness at all in the New World, it will be for two reasons. First, as individuals, researchers who combine a humane and practical competence in language study with more abstract, scientific interests will seek cross-appointments reflecting that orientation.44 Secondly, on a collective basis, they will mount programs which — more successfully than in the past — combine the practical with the theoretical, the humane with the scientific. More could be done to lay undergraduate foundations for the enterprise.45 If many Romance linguists cleave to the historico-comparative tradition, is it not because they perceive a measure of authentic value in continuity, and find continuing relevance in established methods? Moreover, do traditionalists not nostalgically seek to perpetuate a discipline's earlier momentum, and reactivate its magnetic forces? Still, the more brilliant an established tradition is made to appear, the more depressing present reality seems to become. That is why North American Romanists cannot afford to look only to the past, or expect to renovate their discipline by resurrecting earlier triumphs. For my part, I am convinced that sustained advances in our understanding of linguistic processes and linguistic change will go far to maintain the vitality of Romance linguistics, and to endow it with the coherence and magnetism necessary to attract and hold new workers, adherents, and needed supporters. I cannot imagine, however, that

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salvation will come from formal modes of analysis alone. Scientific method must be enriched by explanatory dimensions, and researchers sobered by'the realization that most genuine discoveries occur as sheer accidents, however strongly supported by 'methodology' and concerted efforts of the will. The University Surveys such as this one, through their necessary and proper concentration on trends in research, tend to create the impression that disciplines evolve in a vacuum of pure intellect, from which all traces of sociocultural reality have been exhausted. In fact, that is far from the case: Change within the ambient society has had both subtle and conspicuous repercussions on the North American university as an institution. With specific regard to Romance linguistics and philology, there now appears to prevail a belief that, as highly specialized and technically oriented subjects, they can be successfully taught only to graduate students, or to an elite corps of well-motivated undergraduates. Let us therefore consider the post-Sputnik educational revolution, if only because its impact on the discipline — both real and potential — is generally ignored in polite professional discussion, and invariably disregarded in print. Traditionally, the university has been considered a sanctuary. By nature idealistic, stressing innovation, discovery, and excellence for its own sake, the sanctuary could be traced back to the medieval society that gave it birth. Aristocrat, saint, and martyr were social heros of the age, incarnating an ethical ideal, and selflessly guiding the less perfect in the paths of righteousness. The sanctuary still lives. Short years ago, it was presented to me when, as an undergraduate, I was encouraged to withdraw momentarily from the real world, to pursue higher goals and confront values of a more enduring nature. Lux et Veritas! The true scholar fanned the sparks of intellectual curiosity with his own quasireligious fervor for learning. Everyday reality was not a matter of urgent concern. Practical applications would follow naturally from later contact with life.46 Values of the sanctuary fired the democratic, educational explosion of the sixties. Learning was the means to wisdom, and once man possessed those means, all else — understanding, sensitivity, compassion, responsibility, intellectual honesty and personal integrity — would fall within his reach. Education was the wonder-working 'Preparation for Life' which would break the shackles of ignorance, of doubt, and of frustration; that would take those responding to its call out of their poverty, their slums

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and their despair; that would spur the talented to heights of achievement and give everyone the experience of success; that would make all men brothers, equal in dignity if not in ability. Spurred on by such extravagant rhetoric, not to mention lavish government aid and earnest assurances that education meant increased personal income, upward social mobility, and an exponentially expanding Gross National Product, battalions of new recruits stormed the halls of ivy. Education was 'good fer what ails yuh', and the more of it the better. Thus, responding to society's collective will, the university moved, perhaps for the first time in history, into the mainstream of mass culture.47 No one appears to have foreseen the consequences of uncontrolled expansion. As the sanctuaries were deluged with skeptics and nonbelievers, they were frequently converted to supermarkets. True, the doors to intellectual excellence were flung wide, but, for many, there was no incentive to walk through. If the sanctuary reflects the ideals of a conservative segment of North American society, the supermarket offers a vibrant counter-model, whose materialistic values are woven into the very fabric of the North American middle class, and are unconsciously acquired from childhood. One hero of mass culture is the shrewd consumer, who aims to acquire the highest quality at the lowest possible price. He looks to the supermarket to provide him with the necessities for survival and, as everyone knows, education is one of those necessities. All told, in North America of the sixties, university education was successfully packaged, marketed, and oversold.48 By the end of the decade a rift, first barely perceptible, had widened into a chasm, separating the professoriate — most of whose members embraced the sanctuary — from the student populace, shopping lists in hand. The term 'academic', used by professors to evoke sacred values, became a profane synonym of 'useless' in the parlance of their students. Against those adjectives, 'relevant' and 'meaningful' marched forth. Granted, I recreate a depressing state of ideological polarization which most would be happier to forget. In retrospect, it seems surprising that any kind of specialized study managed to survive, at least in the Arts. In the sanctuary, the excellence of a discipline — whether humane or scientific — is the measure of its worth. In the supermarket, by contrast, utility for real life becomes paramount.49 Those two measures do not contradict each other necessarily and absolutely, though they were generally thought to do so, and they still are. Under such circumstances, the disciplines which flourished were those which generated momentum by stressing conceptual and thematic perspectives, and those which — by

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sheer luck or conscious design — related themselves to the 'Preparation for Life' ethic. For better or for worse, Romance linguistics and philology were sometimes perceived as having removed themselves too far from literature and culture to stake a convincing claim to humanizing powers, and too far from language learning to build a cogent case for pedagogical relevance. Those who best managed to retain balance and integrity did not abandon sanctuary for supermarket. Rather, they sought to enrich their teaching with humane and practical dimensions. Furthermore, they renewed their efforts to relate the abstract or remote aspects of their discipline to present-day reality. In the Graduate School, specialization was still justified by legitimate imperatives, chiefly the need for sustained commitment to excellence, and a concern to initiate new recruits into the ways of discovery. But it quickly became clear that specialized study of any kind could prosper only within well-defined limits at the undergraduate level. The most enterprising Romance philologists therefore sought renewed energy by emphasizing cultural and literary perspectives. Romance linguists, for their part, recognizing that a majority of language specialists would teach, sought a firmer foothold in language pedagogy. Between uncompromising specialization and pure language teaching, there lay plenty of unexploited potential. Increasingly, future teachers are being readied for market on a diet of General Linguistics, Applied Linguistics, Phonetics and Phonology (all with a Romance twist), Cultural and Linguistic History of the Romance Languages (individually or collectively), Romance Minorities in North America and, with special importance in the northern half of this continent, Canadian French.50 This process of creative adaptation may be expected to continue, without any implied rejection of advanced study. Chief among the positive results of the expansionary sixties is the fact that so many new opportunities for intellectual fulfilment were opened up. As challenging subjects, Romance linguistics and philology attracted predominantly intelligent, well-motivated students, and in greater numbers than had previously been seen on this continent. These facts alone give promise for the future. That a majority of new practitioners display a strong commitment to excellence in both teaching and research gives further cause for optimism. Postscript, January 1978 Reviewing this survey, completed in early 1974,1 am still hopeful about

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the possibilities for a fruitful convergence of European and North American approaches to Romance linguistics. Granted an undeniably persistent theoretical concern for the study of universal grammar, the Romance languages still rank as a privileged testing-ground. While the search for universal descriptive and explanatory principles can only prove beneficial to Romance linguistics, both synchronic and diachronic, it is equally clear that reciprocal benefits must accrue to linguistic theory. And the growing concern for analytical and interpretive concreteness should also favor the Romance field. Speaking of concreteness, Romanists might do well to congratulate themselves less on their hoary tradition, and instead exploit that tradition to more immediate practical advantage. Most North American universities could support a modest to vigorous expansion of linguistically-oriented courses in the Romance languages, even — or perhaps especially — at the undergraduate level. Notes 1. I am taking 'Romance philology' in the narrow sense of 'text-centered' study, thus avoiding use of that term with the disparaging connotation of Old-fashioned Romance linguistics'. In order to hypercharacterize the contrast, I will use 'Romance linguistics' to designate 'language-centered' study. That does not mean a single practitioner must necessarily cleave only to the one or the other. Indeed, some manage to combine the two successfully. All, however, are taken to be 'Romanists', regardless of their orientation. The dichotomy reflected in the title has a historical and cultural basis. Those influenced most by European-trained Romanists are generally oriented towards the historico-comparative tradition, analysis of empirical data, and the study of ancient texts. Those shielded from this foreign influence generally opt for the indigenous style of linguistic inquiry, with focal points in synchrony and the study of universal grammar. 2. In any linguistic, stylistic, or literary analysis of ancient texts, the principal danger is anachronism. The shrewd philologist avoids the temptation of: taxing a medieval author with naivete when the latter's conception of reality diverges from his own; accusing an author of unoriginality because he translates a Latin original too closely, or berating him for linguistic incompetence because he fails to follow it closely enough; characterizing style as 'abusively repetitious' and 'clichd-ridden'. Does repetition not serve an emphatic purpose in works intended for oral presentation? And may the clichd not be a type of 'stylistic shorthand', designed to abbreviate and quicken the pace of oral narration? 3. Some philologist of mature years, well versed in the art, ought to compose a manual entitled How to Edit Medieval Texts, What Texts to Edit, and Why. He would render the philological world a service if he distilled the wisdom accumulated by shrewd textual critics over the past half-century. Plenty of examples would help, as would a short bibliography of perceptive critical reviews. For starters, here are some naive comments on the editor's task: no editor is obliged to say everything conceivable about his text. Hence, it need not be engulfed in a sea of critical apparatus. All things considered, critical commentary which suggests new lines of inquiry is to be preferred. As for language study, it is pointless to recapitulate well-known facts of historical grammar. Lecoy (1971: 141) astutely observes that:

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[dans certaines de] ... ces etudes de langue (langue des mss., langue de l'auteur) . . . les quelques traits importants . . . sont noyes dans un fatras de banalites,. . . dont il serait bien souhaitable que l'on debarrassät une fois pour toutes les dditions imprimees des textes d'ancien frangais, meme lorsque ces editions sont presentees en vue de l'obtention d'un diplöme universitaire.

4.

5.

6.

7.

In fact, only the major salient traits of phonology, morphology, syntax and style should be delineated. By the same token, it is unnecessary to publish a complete bibliography. It should suffice to identify extant bibliographical resources, completing them with reference to pertinent recent studies. As far as vocabulary is concerned, one need tabulate in the Glossary only uncommon words, words not easily recognized, and common words of unusual meaning. In an ideal world, we might possess exhaustive vocabularies for all ancient texts, bar none. While awaiting the millennium, we should be content with a concise glossary, used in conjunction with existing dictionaries. Computer-generated concordances should probably be restricted to the most frequently studied masterpieces, or to the total oeuvre of an outstanding author. But even here, one discovers scepticism about their importance (cf. for example, Koenig's review (1972) of Duggan's monumental Concordance of the Chanson de Roland). Are concordances useful enough to justify the expense and the unrewarding drudgery required to produce them? And why, finally, does a given text deserve an afterlife in literary paradise? If the answer to that question is not immediately apparent, or remains subject to controversy, the editor must evaluate the linguistic, literary, and socio-cultural merits (and/or demerits) of his text. To the list of available Old French dictionaries, we may now add Gorog 1973. To produce this work, Godefroy's Lexique de fanden /ratals was rearranged by computer, and necessary corrections made to the substance. The user of this dictionary, passing from the contemporary French term to its ancient counterparts, will discover more than simple correspondences. List of synonyms appear, for example, types of horses, weights and measures, diseases, and cross-references to conceptually related words are given. Thus, the novelty of this dictionary resides in the use to which the concept of semantic field is put, and the modern French point of departure. Along more traditional lines, I can mention a joint venture undertaken by Canadian, French, and German researchers: D£/lF(Baldinger et al. 1971, in collaboration with Jean-Denis Gendron and Georges Straka). At the time of writing, only one fascicule had appeared. According to the authors, this work differs from both the Godefroy and the Tobler-Lommatzsch, which are philological dictionaries, designed to aid the reader of ancient texts. Like the FEW, the DEAF aims to be linguistic, i.e., to disengage from the enormous mass of data only that which pertains to the history of the language. A second objective is to sketch the history of Old French word families, from their origin to the mid-fourteenth century. Not to be overlooked is another significant North American dictionary, already more than twenty years old, Corominas 1954 (DCEC). If this suggestion be thought too unorthodox, I draw attention to the fact that PMLA, that bastion of scholarly conservatism, will henceforth refuse to publish articles dealing with minor authors or works unless they ". . . bring insight to a major author, work, genre, period, or critical method" (MLA Newsletter, 4: 7, p. 1, December, 1972). If interested in self-preservation, Romance philologists will be chastened by the current plight of classicists in our secondary schools and universities. There, a virtually imperceptible residue of loyal faculty and students doggedly engage in the close reading and grammatical analysis of Greek and Latin. Doubtless the medievalist shares the archeologist's passion for history, reflected by his interest in the transmission of an ancient culture via the written word. But ideally, to his central preoccupation with the linguistic artifact is conjoined another, more

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imaginative dimension: the study of ancient texts and ancient times appeals to those who seek release from the confines of contemporary reality. To deem interest in the remote past simple escapism would be uncharitable. Imaginative escape from the obvious, the routine, the banal, or the oppressive must be a universal tendency, judging from the popularity of nostalgic confrontation of today's troubled world with an allegedly simpler, better past. Other generations, more optimistic perhaps, have preferred to situate Utopia in the future. 8. Romance philologists interested in experimenting with undergraduate teaching can now easily familiarize themselves with the available resources. With the aid of a grant from the Standing Committee on Centers and Regional Associations (CARA) of the Mediaeval Academy of America, and with support from the Medieval Institute at Western Michigan University, the Medieval Association of the Pacific, a triquarterly newspaper, RALPH, devoted to undergraduate teaching in medieval and renaissance humanities has been founded. Projected features include course syllabi, available resources (media materials, films, recordings), reviews, calendars of regional events (conferences, films, discussions, etc.), bibliographies, methods of teaching, methods for relating medieval and renaissance subjects to the present, student responses to medieval and renaissance materials, advice on how to obtain source material, queries and answers. The first issue appeared in February, 1974. By the late sixties, increased attention was being devoted to the need to devise better methods of teaching 'text-centered' Romance philology and the various "Histories of the Language", especially at the undergraduate level. The Pedagogical Seminar for Romance Philology (= PSRP) was founded at the Modern Language Association's convention of 1970, its purpose to disseminate information, and facilitate the reproduction of materials on the teaching of Romance philology, with special emphasis on undergraduate preparation. Currently, the Seminar is preparing a model syllabus and textbook, with annotated bibliography, to aid college teachers in giving general courses without requiring that they be specialists in Romance linguistics and philology. In this way, PSRP hopes to lay broader foundations for future specialized studies at the graduate level. The Seminar issues an occasional newsletter ("Teaching Romance Philology"), and holds annual meetings in conjunction with the M LA conventions. At last count, PSRP's membership had reached 213, evidence of widespread interest. For an excellent bird's-eye view of the position of Romance linguistics and philology in 86 North American Romance Departments (graduate and undergraduate), together with a judicious sample of students and faculty attitudes, consult the PSRP's "1970 Progress Report". 9. Harris (1969b: 538) puts it this way: "The study of particular facts of individual languages and the study of universal grammar — that is, linguistic theory — are tightly interlocked and mutually dependent. Past a certain point, neither can be pursued independently of the other without detriment to both. Exactly where this crucial point lies is, in many cases, a matter of judgment, not of fact." Undeniably, too extreme a theoretical orientation can lead to preoccupation with only those facts which support aprioristic claims. Contrariwise, too strong an empirical orientation can blind one completely to general insights. One quite properly rejects the continued accumulation of facts serving to sustain no significant generalization. Should one do the same for a theory more complex than the facts it purports to explain? Is theory by nature simpler than fact? 10. I owe a great debt of gratitude to the scholars who so generously provided offprints and copies of their publications, for useful information on the state of Romance linguistics and philology at their institutions, and for pertinent comments on disciplinary trends. That not all of the information provided could be reproduced, in extenso, is a simple tribute to its abundance. The fact remains that all of it has given sharper definition to this survey, at every stage from script to print: Curtis Blaylock (Illinois), Gerard Brault

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(Pennsylvania State), James Burke (Toronto), Jonathan Butler (Davis), Pierre Cardinal (Ottawa), Jean Casagrande (Florida), Paul Cassano (Windsor), A. Clas (Montreal), Gianrenzo Clivio (Toronto), Robert Cook (Pittsburgh), Jerry Craddock (Berkeley), Eugene Dorfman (Alberta), Henri Dorion (Laval), Michael Freeman (Harvard), Paul Gaeng (Cincinnati), Georgia Green (Illinois), Daniel Gulstad (Missouri), Frank Hamlin (British Columbia), Roy Harris (Virginia), Herbert Izzo (Calgary), Fred Jenkins (Illinois), Tai Whan Kim (Simon Fräser), Jürgen Klausenburger (Washington). Paul Lloyd (Pennsylvania), Yakov Malkiel (Berkeley), Henry Mendeloff (Catholic University of America), Carroll Olsen (Toronto), Annette Paquot (Laval), R. L. Politzer (Stanford), Paul Pupier (Universite de Quebec ä Montreal), Bernard Rochet (Edmonton), Aldo Scaglione (North Carolina), Royal Skousen (Texas), Paolo Valesio (New York University). Eugene Vance (Montreal), Douglas Walker (Ottawa), Dieter Wanner (Illinois). This study undertakes to träte only the broad outlines of North American Romance linguistics and philology, as they may be observed within the lifetime of even the youngest living practitioners. Detailed analyses of specific research areas naturally figure in the appropriate subsections of this volume. Of necessity, readers wishing to acquaint themselves more intimately with the state of the art on this continent will want to examine previously published syntheses to which I now refer summarily, without undertaking to duplicate either their substance or interpretive stance. Undeniably, Yakov Malkiel has exerted a more potent influence on the American scene than any other single practitioner. Some of his thoughts on Romance linguistics and philology are expressed with particular coherence in the following studies: Malkiel 1951-1952, 1961-1962, 1964, 1972b. Malkiel's most characteristic general writings are grouped together under the rubric Essays on Linguistic Themes (1968a). Cf. also Malkiel 1972c, 1968b, for insight into a major geographical sector excluded by the scope of this survey. Consult, additionally, Current Trends in Linguistics 4.1: General and Ibero-American linguistics. On current work in Central America, Curtis Blaylock was kind enough to volunteer these pertinent remarks: There is a little bit of linguistic activity south of the Rio Grande, and a few individuals are struggling valiantly, though with severely limited resources. Juan M. Lope Blanch has been directing dissertations at the Colegio de Mexico and the Universidad National Autonoma, but student unrest and government intervention have kept the latter closed much of the time over the past three years or so. Emphasis has been almost exclusively on Spanish studies, and to my knowledge, little attention is accorded Comparative Romance. The Nueva Revista de Filologia Hispanica continues to issue an occasional number just about the time everybody assumes it has finally expired. Since the University of Texas withdrew its support, Alatorre has relied on Rosenblat and the Universidad Central in Caracas, but that is apparently insufficient. In the meantime, Lope has assumed editorship of the Anuario de Letras, a spin-off from a formerly more general publication of the National University. The Anuario is devoted almost exclusively to linguistics and philology, and some eight or ten volumes have appeared so far. Some distinguished contributors, including North Americans and Europeans, have published some very substantial work there. Though narrower in scope, Lope's journal bears a vague resemblance to the Romanistisches Jahrbuch. Also largely through Lope's efforts, the University of Mexico has had a few eminent visitors from Europe. Alonso Zamora Vicente and his wife, Maria Josef a Canellada conducted some surveys of peculiarly Mexican phonological phenomena and published their findings in the NRFH. More recently Manuel Alvar Lopez did a dialect description

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Noel Corbett for Ajusco. Baldinger apparently also gave some guest lectures during his tour of Latin America some years ago. The University of Puerto Rico may start picking up. Humberto Lopez Morales, a Cuban with a Madrid Ph.D. who used to teach at the University of Texas, and more recently at Rice, has moved there and may stir things up a bit. There is, of course, a lot of activity in general linguistics at Puerto Rico, but most of the work in Romance and Hispanic studies has been done by more or less enlightened amateurs.

Extremely well-informed remarks on the North American scene are to be found in Posner (1970). With respect to the linguistic and philological study of North American Romance languages — both indigenous and imported — we are well-served by Current Trends in Linguistics, 10 (The Hague: Mouton, 1973) which contains the following pertinent items: Jean-Paul Vinay, "Le fran?ais en Amerique du Nord: Problemes et Realisations", 323-406, and bibliography 441-463; Gaston Dulong, "Histoire du fran5ais en Amerique du Nord", 407-421; and Ernest F. Haden, "French Dialect Geography in North America", 422-439. Jerry R. Craddock gives Spanish a thorough treatment in "Spanish in North America", 467-501. Einar Haugen accords some attention to French, Italian and Spanish when discussing problems of language maintenance and language contact (517-519), while J. B. Rudnyckyj deals with all the major Romance languages in his study of "Immigrant Languages, Language Contact, and Bilingualism in Canada", 592-651. With Richard V. Teschner (University of Wisconsin-Parkside) as general editor, and Garland Bills (University of New Mexico), Craddock is currently engaged in a bibliographical project entitled The Spanish Spoken in the United States. This work will cover research on the Spanish spoken natively by Mexican-Americans, Puerto Ricans, Cubans, peninsular Spaniards, islenos, and others. Given the completeness of coverage which Dulong, Haden and Vinay have achieved for North American French in general, and Canadian French in particular. I shall confine myself to succinct observations on that subject. Both within French Canada and without, lexicology and phonology have always received the lion's share of attention, both from specialists and amateurs, doubtless because distinctively Canadian features of vocabulary and sound-pattern stand out most clearly against a backdrop of continental French. Typical efforts by non-specialists are Orkin 1971, and a word-list of French-Canadianisms (Smith-Robinson 1973). Until very recently, studies of Canadian French remained shielded from the linguistic methodology and theoretical assumptions current in English-speaking North America. Canadian researchers of French expression have traditionally turned to France for intellectual guidance. Thus, experimental phonetics has come to enjoy immense popularity under Georges Straka's aegis. Typical products of this style of inquiry are Gendron 1966, and Charbonneau (1971. Experimental analysis has not been confined to French Canada, however, witness Leon 1968. Another favorite style of inquiry has sought to relate phonetic features of North American French to analogous features found in continental French dialects, ancient or contemporary. The most recent, and the most thorough investigation conducted within this perspective is Juneau 1972. Studies in phonology, lexicology, and dialectology have multiplied fruitfully in Quebec, especially at the Universite Laval and the Universite de Montreal. Thus, for instance, Annette Paquot reports that studies in semantics and lexicology are developing steadily at Laval, and cites current research into semantic fields, following trails blazed by Pettier, Coseriu, and Baldinger. Along more innovative lines, I draw attention to the activity emanating from the Departement de Linguistique of the newly established Universite du Quebec a Μοηίτέαΐ which, since 1971, has been publishing Cahiers de Linguistique, each issue devoted to a

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single theme. Though contributions are exclusively written in French, the linguistic orientation is distinctly North American, and a high proportion of the articles apply generative grammar to the analysis of Canadian French. Romance linguists will want, in particular, to consult CahierN" 4 (1974), which bears the title Le frangais de la region de Montreal: Aspects phonetique et phonologique. Since 1971, Paul Pupier of the Universite du Quebec ä Montreal has directed a dynamic team of young researchers studying Montreal French. They are currently engaged in the elaboration of a phonological dictionary. This innovative enterprise receives continuous support from the Quebec Ministry of Education under a program for the Formation de chercheurs et Action concertee. A closely related project deals with the Competence sociolinguistique des Montrealais d'origine italiene. A few Montreal French studies are scattered beyond the Cahiers de Linguistique, specifically: Pupier-Pelchat 1972, Pupier-Legare 1973. Pierre Cardinal reports work on a Descriptive syntax of popular Canadian French. noting that the University of Ottawa's Department of Linguistics and School of Translators is offering more and more courses in Franco-Canadian Linguistics and Language. Even in the absence of a bilingual milieu, one can reasonably expect the interest in Canadian French to spread. Bernard Rochet reports lively activity along these lines at the University of Alberta. At the Pennsylvania State University, New England French has long been a favored area of research and teaching for Gerard Brault, and many of his Franco-American students have carried this interest to neighboring institutions. Studies in North American French assume a certain coherence, thanks to the existence of French VIII (The French Language in the Americas), a section of the Modern Language Association. Albert Valdman, who edits the section's annual bulletin recently organized — with Emile Snyder as co-director — a symposium on the theme Identite culturelle et francophonie dans les Ameriques (Indiana University, March, 1974). 11. I also draw attention to Klausenburger's doctoral dissertation, published as Klausenburger 1970. The primary dimension of this work is diachronic, but the phonotactic structures of Modern French are also singled out for attention. 12. Casagrande quite properly draws attention to this pedagogical vacuum. Few 'sophisticated' linguists have the stomach for practical application. There are, of course, meritorious exceptions to the rule — the names of Pierre Delattre, Robert Politzer and Albert Valdman spring readily to mind, and there will doubtless be more. Many linguists scorn pedagogy. Would a strong dose of 'budgetary stringency' cure them? Or is the cult of abstraction so firmly rooted that it can brook no compromise with reality? As far as generative grammar is concerned, its foundations — both theoretical and analytical — are simply not yet firm enough to safely support a pedagogical superstructure. But granting the validity of such basic concepts as generation and transformation, is it reasonable to expect learners to swallow a full-blown model of adult competence? Would it not be more logical to construct for them partial models of grammatical competence, graduated in complexity, and approximating the reality of a native learner's childhood experience? 13. Thus, what appears to the unsophisticated native speaker as a concrete set of variations on concrete lexical themes becomes, for the generative grammarian, an abstract lexical base and an abstract set of phonological rules. Unfortunately, no one can expect to dredge these abstractions up intuitively from even the shallowest recesses of the unconscious mind, allegedly because linguistic structures and processes are forever destined to remain unconscious. Language-learners thus have no direct access to language proper; they can only infer it unconsciously from its performance effects. 14. It is no exaggeration to say that the University of California at Berkeley has proven to be the most durable North American bastion of Romance linguistics and philology, a fact that can be traced directly to Malkiel's perennial ability to stimulate and channel

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the existing empirical-explicative forces — however diverse in character—into a single reservoir. The quarterly journal Romance Philology stands out as one of the best in the field, its success due, above all, to its editor's extraordinary commitment of energy and critical acumen. In the impressive review section, all significant Romance scholarship has been evaluated since the journal's establishment in 1947. Additionally, the most significant works of general and historical linguistics have properly received a generous share of attention in the pages of Romance Philology. Most contributors to that journal discover, to their dismay or delight, that, instead of stamping their endeavors with an uncritical imprimatur, Malkiel actively edits their material. Beyond Romance Philology, Romance linguistics — whose forces have at no time been immense on this continent — has found itself no unitary focus. In ancient times, PMLA and a few other literary journals netted some significant Romance contributions, but those days are long gone. One finds that during the forties, Hall, Pei, and Politzer figured among the most active linguistic contributors to Romanic Review. The trickle of structuralist experiments using Romance data typically appeared in Word, while Romance studies with broad methodological implications usually cropped up in Language. I purposefully ignore North American contributions to European journals, which have at all times been numerous. After Word reached its apparent apogee, with volumes XXIII and XXIV (19671968) Linguistic Studies Presented to Andre Martinet on the Occasion of his Sixtieth Birthday, it faltered visibly. But that journal has arisen once again, phoenix-like, and the Linguistic Circle of New York, newly transmuted into the International Linguistic Association, continues to hold annual meetings. North of the 49th parallel, the occasional Romance study has surfaced in the Canadian Journal of Linguistics and, more recently, in Glossa. A new venture, the Canadian Journal of Romance Linguistics, launched in 1973 by Paul Cassano (University of Windsor) and Bernard Rochet (University of Alberta), has been stricken with a severe attack of budgetary contraction, which puts its continued existence in question. Of late, the stray Romance study has been turning up in Papers in Linguistics, another new journal, edited by Anthony L. Vanek, and published by Linguistic Research, Inc., of Edmonton, Alberta. With the appearance of Generative Studies in Romance Languages (Casagrande and Saciuk: 1972), there emerged the nucleus of a second coherent locus of Romance Linguistics, whose primary concerns are theoretical and methodological, and whose vitality derives from a determination to explore the analytical and descriptive potential inherent in generative grammar. 15. There is, of course, safety in operating within carefully delineated confines — be they empirical or theoretical — and danger in venturing beyond their limits. But step out we must. As Malkiel (1967: 225) puts it: ". . . we must counterbalance the ever-present temptation of detaillisme by carving out, from the overflowing mass of raw data and of minute accurate findings, such salient discoveries as lend themselves to wider generalization and higher abstraction, thus constituting a welcome feedback into the main stream of general linguistics." 16. For a pen-portrait of Malkiel, see Posner (1970: 434-447). For a selective bibliography to ca. 1969 cf. Malkiel 1969. Critical response to Malkiel's research is seldom indifferent. For some negative reactions, see Otero (1971), or H. Guiter's numerous observations, strung out over several volumes of the RLaR. A more positive approach is evident, say, in Gonzälez-Llubera's yearly contributions to the YWMLS series, and in reviews by Georges Gougenheim in several volumes of the BSL, or by Dembowski (1972). To do proper justice to Malkiel's research activity would demand a lengthier footnote than this one. Let me simply bring the record up to date by mentioning a few of his

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recent and current undertakings. Malkiel's work falls into a number of clearly-defined categories. Early experiments in the typology of genres of linguistic research appeared during the mid and late fifties, and can be traced down in RomPh, Lingua, and the Lexicography supplement to UAL. Currently, he is completing a monograph in that genre, entitled "A Tentative Typology of Etymological Dictionaries". This work cuts across language families, but places a discernible emphasis on Romance. The history of philology and linguistics has at all times been a dominating interest. Cf., for example, the necrological essays on Kantorowicz, Menendez Pidal, Arnald Steiger. Archer Taylor, and Victor Zirmunskij, which have appeared in recent issues of RomPh. More panoramic in scope are Malkiel (1968: 1972a, and 1972b). Definitely classifiable as a lighter piece is the essay Malkiel 1973e. Etymology is clearly one of Malkiel's first loves. Of late, he has tried to integrate it into general linguistics, seeking to liberate it from a position of dangerous isolation. Examples of this new approach include Malkiel 1966,1973a, b, c, d. I note also that the first volume of the new journal Lexis, edited by Alain Rey, will contain a lengthy article entitled: "Deux categories d'etymologies interessantes". In the domain of morphology, Malkiel strikes out in a new direction with the morphophonemic study, 1974b. Romance affixation has proven to be a productive mother lode for both Malkiel and some of his advanced students: cf. Malkiel 1972d and the work of Margaret Sinclair Breslin, Jonathan L. Butler, Jerry R. Craddock, Suzanne Fleischman, Walter Geiger, Emanuel S. Georges, Anita Katz Levy, Paul M. Lloyd, and Edward F. Tuttle. Though Malkiel's work in phonology has not been to everyone's liking, he looks for a fresh response to the paper "In Search of 'Penultimate' Causes of Linguistic Change: Studies in the Avoidance of /z/ in Proto-Spanish", which appears in Lujän-Hensey 1976. 17. Nevertheless, an excursus on experimental phonetics would not be entirely irrelevant. After dynamic European beginnings long ago, instrumental phonetics has gained limited popularity, not only in French Canada (see note 10), where it continues to exercise a remarkable fascination, but beyond, where it is associated, above all, with the names of Simon Belasco, Frederick Eddy, Pierre Leon, Andre Malecot, Michel Monnot, and Carroll Olsen. If I situate instrumental phonetics within the empiricalexplicative tradition, it is because of its microscopic analysis of the data. Its impact on Romance linguistics has been both direct and diffuse. Instrumental phonetics underlies Jakobsonian distinctive feature theory and, by extension, generative phonology. Although Romance researchers were not innovators in that domain, they have nonetheless been profoundly affected by its latter-day consequences. Of course, experimental phonetics has driven home the self-evident truth, which structuralists were prone to ignore, that speech is a continuum, unlike language, which is an amalgam of discrete analytical components. On the pedagogical front, instrumental phonetics has clarified interlinguistic differences, hence refining the empirical bases for corrective phonetics. However, in this particular area, instrumentalism has probably passed the point of diminishing returns. Hence, it is not surprising to find experimental phoneticians striking out in new directions. Interesting scientific work in the formerly nebulous domains of intonation and phonostylistics is now being carried out. For typical examples, see Kvavik-Olsen 1974 and Leon-Martin 1970. For samples of current North American practice, cf. Valdman (1972). When all is said and done, the direct contribution of New World experimental phonetics to Romance diachronics has been meagre, Pierre Delattre notwithstanding. Experimental phonetics originally served to support a Neogrammatical hypothesis about the nature of phonological change, to wit, that much innovation arises at the linguistic surface, from assimilatory, dissimilatory, and simplifying processes such as metathesis, metaphony, haplology, syncope, and so forth. The explanatory potential of

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that strategy was fully exploited decades ago though, undeniably, we could all afford to take a pertinent refresher course. Most varieties of Romance research currently practiced in Europe are also to be found in North America. I make an exception, however, for linguistic geography and dialectology. Outside of French Canada, where these approaches retain a certain residual relevance, boosted by a sense of linguistic and cultural nationalism, there has been scant activity along these lines. I note some exceptions to the general rule, say, in the work of Gianrenzo Clivio (University of Toronto), whose Piedmontese dialect studies flow forth in abundance. A few Cornell-based (or trained) linguists have shown interest in Romance dialectology. For them, the analytical techniques of structural linguistics have served to organize the data more coherently, place it in proper perspective, and better illuminate the mainstream evolution of standard languages. Following the trail blazed by Hall (1949), Stanton P. Durham continues to analyze that important dialect. C. S. Leonard (1964) has dealt instead with "Proto-Rhaeto-Romance and French". There can be no denying that a Romance linguist whose field of interest covers both French and Italian has much to gain from acquaintance with the Gallo-Italian and Provencal dialect areas. Combine him with a cohort whose competence includes Catalan, Portuguese and Spanish, and the foundations are laid for a truly economical program in Romance linguistics. Pidgin and Creole languages have attracted much livelier attention in recent years, doubtless because the data is readily accessible to North Americans. See, for instance, Goodman 1958, 1964, and Hall's research on the subject, particularly Hall 1962, 1965 and 1953. 18. As Professor of Linguistics in Stanford's Faculty of Education, his longstanding pedagogical interests have been directed to questions of pressing educational concern. Should we bemoan his defection from Vulgar Latin studies, or applaud his ability to put Romance talents to constructive social use? 19. For a critical response to this work, see Posner (1966-1967). Cf. also the pen-portrait of Hall in Posner (1970: 515-519). 20. Hall and his companion-at-arms, Frederick Agard, have thus bent all their efforts in a concerted attempt to remedy that situation. Without ever abandoning the mainstream tradition of Romance linguistics, they have managed to achieve a balance between synchronic and diachronic inquiry, both in their own work and in that of their students. As typical synchronic studies, let me cite Agard 1958, Hall 1948, and Valdman 1960. In Hadlich 1965, and Chen 1973, the same methodology is applied to diachrony, which is viewed as a succession of synchronic stages. Meantime, Hadlich (1970) has begun to express himself in transformational terms. Clifford S. Leonard, Jr. has remained faithful to historico-comparatism. Cf. Leonard 1964, 1969-1970. 21. Hall scored his point by dramatically sharpening up ideological differences into a single binary opposition: Idealism versus Scientific Method. In this regard, it is interesting to note that generative grammarians have used the same tactic against structuralists, denouncing their 'mechanism' (cf. note 31), the better to sing the praises of 'mentalism'. Incidentally, it is not too surprising that Hall's distaste for idealism in Romance linguistics extends to the 'mentalism' of generative grammar, which accords primacy to deep structure, i.e. to elements of grammar not subject to direct scientific observation. 22. True, when paying homage to Martinet in 1967, he published a bibliographical essay entitled "Perspectives du structuralisme evolutif" (1967). But, in drafting the Louisiana French Grammar (1963) with Marilyn J. Conwell, he opted instead for the descriptive style of synchronic analysis. His Outline of a General Theory of Structural Relations (1961) merely distills theoretical assumptions. 23. Indeed, Dorfman has moved over gradually to literary studies. Since the appearance of "Correlation and core-relation in diachronic Romance phonology" (1968), we have

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seen him apply structural perspectives to the analysis of Old French literary texts. The most substantial example of this kind of analysis is the monograph Dorfman 1969. 24. See Posner's pen-portrait of Romeo (1970: 495). 25. Paradoxically, meaning is now making a strong comeback, even in the orthodox conception of generative grammar. 26. Blending tradition with an open-minded attitude towards linguistic innovation, Pulgram has succeeded in making his influence felt through well-formed students, and via his own numerous publications (perhaps the best known being The Tongues of Italy, Prehistory and History (1958). 27. Participants in the Symposium included the two greatest twentieth-century IndoEuropeanists (Benveniste and Kurytowicz), a distinguished American Germanist (Lehmann), one of the world's foremost practicing Romanists (Malkiel), and an exciting team of linguists then based at Columbia (William Labov, Marvin Herzog, and the late Uriel Weinreich). Only a small number of papers was presented, and participants received copies well in advance of the meeting. Brief oral summaries were followed by abundant, lively, and well-informed discussions. Local conferences have similarly attempted to stimulate interest in Romance Linguistics. In October, 1974, Charles Faulhaber of the Berkeley Group in Romance Philology organized a 'convocation' of Romance linguists teaching in the University of California system. Entitled Current Research Opportunities in Romance Linguistics, the conference singled out four areas as deserving of special attention: Diachronie Romance Linguistics and Generative Grammar; Languages in Contact: Diachrony and Synchrony; Theoretical Implications of Etymological Studies; Stylistics and Poetics. 28. A modest number of North Americans succeed either in supporting or refuting claims of linguistic interference. Among the more important 'substratum studies', I can cite Craddock (1969), Izzo (1972), and Jungemann (1956). Cf. also the chapter in Vol. 1 entitled "Substrata", by Giovanni Pellegrini. 29. I quote from Jerry Craddock's excellent summary of their hypothesis (Craddock 1970: 693-^94): The authors argue that linguists must abandon the concept of the homogeneous idiolect as the object of linguistic description (as defined by Bloch . . . and maintained by Chomsky . . .), in favor of 'a model of language structure' that displays Orderly differentiation' . . ., since without the recognition of such differentiation, the processes of language change must remain forever an impenetrable mystery. If I understand them correctly, their argument runs as follows: Each speaker possesses several discrete modes or styles, all of which have describable linguistic and sociological properties. The choice among the various styles is regulated by social circumstances, and the latter may also determine a shift in the relative evaluation of the styles, such that a given feature once exclusively substandard becomes acceptable, while the former standard falls into obsolescence. This complex interaction of several coexistent linguistic structures is, the authors assert, the synchronic correlate of language change, and can, unlike shifts recorded in the past, be observed directly and with scientific precision. 30. That generative grammar can serve as a precise descriptive mechanism — either in synchrony or diachrony — is surely not open to question. To the extent that it permits a simpler, clearer, and more general symbolization of observable processes, to the extent that it relates such processes to one another plausibly, it may be said to improve our understanding of them. But, in a deeper sense, does it genuinely 'explain' or 'account for' those processes? Only sustained psycholinguistic research can prove to what extent the theory corresponds to the facts of mental process, however unconscious it may be. 31. For the apotheosis of the polemical genre, replete with attacks on the style of linguistics practiced by two generations of North Americans generally, and Charles F. Hockett in

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particular, cf. Postal (1968). His monographic flogging of dormant linguistic horses has called forth at least one significant Romance retort. For a note of balance, see Posner (1973). Sober diachronists can afford to take Postal's fulminations on the subject of 'causality' in linguistic change cum grano salts. Granted that a certain amount of change springs from nonfunctional stylistic variation, and from linguistic interference, it is simply incorrect to suggest that functional motives never intervene, or to observe that "there is no more reason for languages to change than there is for automobiles to add fins one year and remove them the next, for jackets to have three buttons one year and two the next, etc." (Postal 1968: 283). Postal ought to pin on his jacket a button proclaiming: Die wertvollsten Einsichten sind die Methoden. For his automobile, I suggest a bumper-sticker bearing the slogan: Diephonologischen Regeln wirken geistig, mit unbewusster Notwendigkeit. These may, of course, be removed at year's end. 32. If the recent history of North American linguistics has taught us something, it is that new analytical modes require a heavy intellectual investment, and run the constant risk of being superseded. To be sure, that is no argument for Romance linguists to turn aside from technical modes, or imaginative experimentation. What is does suggest is that, in the long run, the inherent worth of descriptive and analytical research is measured less by its surface sophistication and more by the depth of understanding it produces. 33. In fact, when applied to Romance data, the style of research generated by MIT bears little resemblance to anything that has traditionally gone by the name of Romance linguistics. Generative grammarians are primarily concerned with the elaboration, application and testing of a synchronic theory of grammar. Whether or not Romance languages furnish the input data is a matter of little consequence. 34. Others seem intent upon producing technical reformulations of the known data, an exercise which adds little to our understanding of language process and linguistic change. If produced as doctoral dissertations, such undertakings may enjoy a certain methodological raison d'etre. Still, could the same benefits not be appropriately combined with attempts to prove a linguistic point, make a modest discovery, or point the way to further innovation? 35. The 'generative school' of Romance linguistics is very young, and many of its practitioners at the beginning of their careers. Since the school has no Romance 'figurehead', it is worth listing the names of those who have participated in the first four conferences: Frederick Agard, T. Grant Brown, Gregory Brown, Jean Casagrande, Heles Contreras, William Cressey, Frangois Dell, E. Dean Detrich, Daniel Dinnsen, Nicole Domingue, Genevieve Escure, Gilles Fauconnier, James Foley, Mark Goldin, Georgia Green, Daniel Gulstad, Eric Hamp, James Harris, Fritz Hensey, Henry Kahane, Richard Kayne, Jürgen Klausenburger, Robin Lakoff, Ronald Langacker, Mark Long, Roberta Long, Marta Lujän, Peter Mäher, Paula Meyer, Yves Morin, Donna Jo Napoli, Carlos Otero, Toby Paff, George Patterson, Thomas Pavel, David Perlmutter, Rebecca Posner, Antonio Carlos Quicoli, Robert Rankin, Wayne Redenbarger, Maria-Luisa Rivero, Mercedes Roldan, Nicolas Ruwet, Bohdan Saciuk, Mario Saltarelli, Victor Sanchez De Zavala, Sanford Schane, Royal Skousen, Margarita Suner, Robert Szabo, Albert Valdman, Paolo Valesio, Mary Clayton Wang, Dieter Wanner. Generative Romance linguists are also inclined to offer papers at the annual meetings of the Linguistic Society of America and the Canadian Linguistic Association. On a regional basis, there has been steadily increasing Romance participation in the Linguistics sections of the Kentucky Foreign Language Conference and the Philological Association of the Pacific Coast. 36. For an excellent interpretive, bibliographical panorama of the state of generative research (ca. 1971), consult Casagrande's "Syntactic Studies in Romance", and Saciuk's "Phonological Studies in Romance". The volume also contains a lengthy

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bibliography including items, both published and unpublished, which interpret Romance languages from a generative viewpoint, or illustrate theoretical issues with Romance data. 37. Traditionally, Romance linguistics has held that the study of linguistic change is a self-sufficient activity. In generative grammar, however, it is subordinated to a more abstract goal. In that perspective, language change is of interest only to the extent that, along with the study of particular synchronic grammars, language acquisition, language disorders, and so forth, it provides data relevant to the formulation of theories concerning the general properties of human language. 38. Generative Romance linguistics offers the freshness and appeal of a well-articulated theory and method. By contrast, historico-comparative Romance linguistics looks positively forbidding. The non-Romance speaker must master his major language synchronically and diachronically. To this is added a comparative dimension which can be acquired only through more than passing familiarity with related major Romance languages and dialects. To a substantial knowledge of the Latin base is added German for research, a truly massive accumulation of critical literature and, of late, ever shifting theoretical perspectives and methodological foundations. Medieval language and literature may add still further weight to the neophyte's burdens. Would it be entirely inaccurate to suggest that part of the appeal of synchronic Romance linguistics, as currently practiced by generative grammarians, lies in the fact that it offers a handy shortcut? In fact, it becomes possible — though surely undesirable — to practice synchronic Romance linguistics with only a mastery of the modern language and the ability to process it systematically. Though Latin, German, comparative Romance data, and even the traditional literature are frequently allowed to recede into outer space, the synchronic researcher ignores language history at his peril: savings in intellectual energy can be paid for with loss of insight. Posner (1970: 412) paints a cruder picture: The Romanist, in objecting to new trends, is often put in the position of the testy old man who cannot keep up with activities of nimbler youth. In short, Romance linguistics often appears old-fashioned, a refuge for the slower-wilted but conscientious academic 'swot'. In that apprentices in the Romance field have to become acquainted with a vast amount of work done by their predecessors, it is true that they have to be 'swots': many younger linguists today are only too eager to believe that anything written more than a few years ago is not worth reading, but all too often scorn for their elders is only a cloak for their own indolence. It is true too that the Romance languages present such a plethora of material that those who seek to draw up neat and elegant schemata are daunted by them. 39. For an example of the constructive work that can be done along these lines, see Walker (1974). 40. Butler's highly original doctoral dissertation, published at university expense in a prestigious monograph series, was beginning to stimulate discussion through the appearance of searching book reviews in influential journals. The flow of his articles and papers presented orally was picking up momentum, and his circle of friends was ever widening. Here, it seemed, was a talented young scholar of unlimited intellectual potential, endowed with a zest for life and enjoying the blessings of a happy and meaningful marriage. Romance Philology, 28: 4 (1975) is given over to a posthumous Jonathan L. Butler Testimonial. 41. Indeed, the nucleus of such centers may be said to exist already, here and there. In Canada, Romance linguistics has gained a certain momentum at the Universities of Alberta, Calgary, and Toronto. In the U.S.A., I note significant new activity at the Universities of Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Texas, Washington, and California (at San

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45. 46. 47.

48.

Noel Corbett Diego). In naming these, I pass over dozens of institutions where the cause of Romance linguistics is served by single individuals, both promising newcomers and wellestablished oldsters. Compare this state of affairs with that described for the U.S.A. only a few years ago in Posner (1970: 425). North Americans continue to participate in the triennial international congresses of Romance linguistics and philology which are organized by the French-based Societe de Linguistique romane. Though membership in this organization is predominantly European, the thirteenth congress was held at the Universite Laval (Quebec), outside the confines of European ROMANIA, for the first time ever. The sheer number of participants — over 500, of a total membership of less than 1,000, of which some 150 were North Americans — bears witness to considerable vitality, but vitality of a resolutely traditional kind. European Romanists are still heavily committed to philology, much less to linguistics, and hardly at all to taxonomic methods — be they structural or transformational. Still, I seem to detect from that quarter a glimmer of interest in the widening of traditional horizons. Perhaps, under these circumstances, North Americans could make a concerted attempt to help redress the imbalance. Apart from the fuzzy-minded who seek only the path of least intellectual resistance, students seem to manifest no innate predisposition either for linguistics or literature, nor even a clear conception of what either one represents. The unindoctrinated student seems to display only an amorphous interest in language and its diverse cultural manifestations. That he may choose to specialize in either linguistics or literature is a partial result of curricular and departmental structures. Since professionalism is so strongly entrenched at all levels, departments of linguistics and departments of literature tend to hypercharacterize their differences, and the Devil take the unpolarized! Where my respondents comment on the matter of graduate enrolment in Romance linguistics and/or philology, it is to note high quality but modest size. Those holding appointments in Romance departments predominantly attribute this to the fact that their departments recruit and form only specialists in literature. Why then do more of our number not move to departments of linguistics? Is it because the price of admission must be paid in commitment to theory? Or to generative grammar? At least one respondent finds this to be so. Still, rather than lay our woes at others' doorsteps, why not frankly admit that limited enrolment is the price paid for disciplinary sophistication. Paradoxically, specialization is at once our greatest source of strength, and — given the wide assortment of competing alternatives — our Achilles' heel. Cf. Posner (1970: 539-540) for other "Prospects for Romance Linguistics". 'General' or 'liberal' education was seldom mentioned and, in any case, best avoided. True general education was an assortment of specialties, taken undiluted. Though it would be flattering to think that the university actively led society through the recent past, there is reason to believe that educational institutions have simply mirrored the social tenor of the times. In the U.S.A., political events changed the national mood of unbridled optimism to one of cynical despair. Polite civil disobedience and a belief in Orderly change gave way to anarchy and rampant criminality. There occurred a loss of faith that change could be effected by nonviolent means, and a growing suspicion that society's managers were unresponsive, not only to the democratic will of the people, but to the rule of law itself. As the seventies dawned, the general public manifested a desire for less 'interesting' times, coupled with a nostalgic rediscovery of the concept that, ultimately, more durable progress can be achieved through due process than by sheer brute force. In the supermarket model of the university, the student is a consumer, selecting his products (courses or disciplines) freely, in accordance with his desires. Methods of packaging (teaching) assume considerable importance there, for they may favorably or adversely affect sales (course enrolments). So too does the intrinsic desirability of the

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product, which is measured with a utilitarian yardstick: does it serve a practical need in real life? In the supermarket, the professor is a producer who may, if not carefully regulated, foist shoddy intellectual goods on the naive consumer. Shared control of management (student parity on university committees) would allow consumers to rid the retail market of undesirable products and, with a little luck, of their producers too. Failing that, consumer protection agencies (courses unions, course evaluations and countercalendars) could serve the purpose nicely. 49. Proponents of the sanctuary aim to develop the critical capacity to distinguish right from wrong, good from bad, the ideal from the real, that which demands change from that which does not. They seek to effect changes that are possible, and to develop the wisdom to cope with the inalterable. By contrast, partisans of the supermarket expect desirable change to be implemented without delay, regardless of obstacles or cost. Change, that pivotal trait of North American society, ought not to take the form of individual, eccentric adaptation to prevailing conventions, but should instead confront dominant norms head-on, test them critically, and cast them aside if they are found wanting. Ideals which cannot be translated into immediate practice are simply not worth having. This impatience to bring reality into line with ideal expectations is the hallmark, not of the university in particular, but of North American society in general. One way to bring the real world into harmony with the ideal is to work conscientiously towards that objective. But that approach demands patience, energy and, above all, hard work. There are easier paths to tread. One can, for instance, forsake one's ideals: but that way lie cynicism and despair. A more imaginative approach has provided the dominant model for students of the past decade. One rejects instead the real world, perceived as corrupt, oppressive, and evil. If that objective cannot be achieved short of insanity, it can at least be accomplished symbolically. What is simpler than to exalt values conflicting directly with established norms, to exchange short hair for long, good manners for bad, self-denial for self-indulgence, work for play, depression for euphoria, management for labor, 'establishment' for 'counterculture'. . .; the list is endless. And to this strategy a 'liberal' dose of drugs and mind-boggling slogans: "Reality is a crutch!, Paradise now!" and the picture is complete. Though qualitatively similar, the mood in Canada was much less intense, doubtless because the root causes of social upheaval — racial tensions, urban crime, political assassinations, compulsory service in a demoralizing military adventure, and political maladministration — were all foreign to that milieu. At all events, it is a tribute to the resilience and vitality of North American democracy that society could countenance unrest to the very brink of revolution, then draw back voluntarily, without launching programs of social or political repression. 50. Textbooks are at once a sign of, and a positive contribution to any discipline's vitality. Judged by that criterion, the North American record is eminently respectable. Within the Romance domain, Mendeloff (1969) has evoked mixed critical reactions, ranging from the vituperative to the enthusiastic. Mendeloff leans heavily to fact. So too does Boyd-Bowman, whose now venerable From Latin to Romance in Sound Charts (1954) was reprinted as recently as 1965. Both of these texts will serve best as handy reference sources of data. Still serviceable is Williams (1938,, 19622), reissued in 1962 by the University of Pennsylvania Press. I note in particular the collaboration of a Canadian, Frank Hamlin, with P. T. Ricketts and J. Hathaway, both of the University of Birmingham, England, on an important anthology of Old Provengal texts (1967). In turn, this work has served as the basis for Jensen 1972. Nor should one overlook four important texts formulated in terms of synchronic contrastive analysis: Agard-Di Petro 1965a, b; Stockwell-Bowen 1965, and Stockwell -Martin 1965. The projected English and French volumes by Mandach and Martinet have never materialized. In their absence, I note a technical manual of linguistics, Mayer 1969, and a similar work produced for speakers of Canadian French by Jules

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Noel Corbett Bergeron, Antoni Boulet, Jean-Charles Castonguay and Pierre Mongeau (Bergeron et al. 1971). Of necessity, we pass over literally hundreds of strictly pedagogical works. Along more stimulating lines, I can cite three important manuals in the diachronic vein. From the pen of a Canadian, we have Anderson 1973, an introduction to principles and methods of historical linguistics, with strong Romance overtones. Despite the title, this manual is neither doctrinaire nor dated: it stands squarely within the historico-comparative tradition. With coauthor Jo Anne Creore, Anderson has also produced Readings in Romance Linguistics (1972), an anthology of some of the best Romance research to appear over the past twenty-five years. The articles were judiciously selected on the basis of theoretical merit. Therefore, it is worth emphasizing that fully half of them come from North Americans. Phonology, morphology and syntax are all given fair representation, but diachrony is allowed to predominate, as it has in fact predominated in Romance research during the period covered. Synchronic contributions are made by Agard, Alarcos Llorach, Contreras, Foley, Hammarström, Langacker, Martinet, Saporta, Schane, and Togeby; diachronic selections come from Coseriu, Dorfman, Hall, Haudricourt and Juilland, Malkiel, Martin, Martinet, Mattoso Cämara, Politzer, Posner, Pulgram, Romeo, Spence, and Vasiliu. Hall's flair for pedagogy has become legendary. His External history of the Romance languages (Hall: 1974) deserves to become a standard introduction to the field, and should provoke interest in the study of Romance linguistics as early as the undergraduate level. The author promises five companion volumes dealing, respectively, with phonology, inflection, syntax, word-formation and lexicon. This book should be compared with Posner's introductory manual (1966). I can also announce a volume of Readings in Italian Linguistics, edited by Gianrenzo Clivio and Antonio Verna, currently in press at Mouton. Textbooks are finally appearing which draw aside the hieroglyphic curtain (i.e. the highly formalized approach of Chomsky, Halle and their adepts) that has left the vast majority of Romanists on two continents utterly in the dark as to what generative grammar is all about. In particular, I can single out three introductory manuals which economically distill essential theoretical assumptions and methodological practices. Not surprisingly, these touch only incidentally upon Romance data: Schane 1973 is a model of clarity. R. D. King 1969 is appealing for its comprehensive coverage of diachronic topics, both old and new. The grass is definitely greener in California, judging from Elgin-Grinder 1973. In this manual, composed at San Diego and Santa Cruz, we learn that linguistics, a 'head science', may induce in habitual practitioners a sublime state of intellectual euphoria. Textbooks of high caliber can do nothing but strengthen the foundations of General and Romance linguistics. The best of these will not dish out the facts gratuitously, but will instead seek to stimulate interest in the dynamic processes which underlie them, and the sociocultural dimensions which complement them. By the same token, the best manuals of methodology will do much more than tell us how to apply techniques. They will point out the advantages to be derived from mechanistic modes of thought.

References Agard, F. B. 1958

"Structural sketch of Roumanian", Language Monograph 26 (Baltimore: Waverley Press). Agard, F. B. - R. J. Di Pietro 1965a The sounds of English and Italian (Chicago: U.P.). 1965b The grammatical structures of English and Italian (Chicago: U.P.).

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Anderson, James M. 1973 Structural aspects of language change (Toronto: Longman). Anderson, James M. - Jo Anne Creore 1972 Readings in Romance linguistics (The Hague: Mouton). Baidinger, iCurt et al. 1971 Dictionnaire etymologique de l'ancien frangais ( = DEAF) (Quebec: P.U. Laval). Beer, J. M. A. 1968 Villehardouin: Epic historian (Geneve: Droz). Bergeron, Jules et al. 1971 Les structures de la langue: Analyse linguistique programmee (Montreal: Editions Lingua). Boyd-Bowman, Peter 1965 From Latin to Romance in sound charts (Michigan: Kalamazoo College), [reprint of the 1954 edition.] Campbell, R. Joe - Mark G. Goldin - Mary Clayton Wang 1974 Linguistic studies in Romance languages (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown U.P.). Carlton, Charles M. 1973 A linguistic analysis of a collection of Late Latin documents composed in Ravenna between A.D. 445-700 (The Hague: Mouton). Casagrande, Jean 1972 "Syntactic studies in Romance", in Casagrande and Saciuk 1972: 1-22. Casagrande, Jean - Bohdan Saciuk 1972 Generative studies in Romance languages (Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury House Publishers). Charbonneau, Rene 1971 Etude sur les voyelles nasales du fra^ais canadien (Quebec: P.U. Laval). Chen, U. F. see Frank Chen, U. Chomsky, Noam - Morris Halle 1968 The sound pattern of English (New York, Evanston, and London: Harper and Row). Clivio, Gianrenzo - Antonio Verna In press Readings in Italian linguistics (The Hague: Mouton). Colby, Alice 1965 The portrait in twelfth-century French literature: An example of the stylistic originality of Chretien de Troyes (Geneve: Droz). Corbett, Noel L. 1970 "Reconstructing the diachronic phonology of Romance", RomPh 24: 273-290. Corominas, Juan 1954 Diccionario critico etimologico de la lengua caslellana (= DCEC), 4 vols (Bern: Francke). Craddock, Jerry R. 1969 Latin legacy versus substratum residue: The unstressed "derivational" suffixes in the Romance vernaculars of the western Mediterranean (Berkeley-Los Angeles: California U.P.). 1970 Review of Directions for historical linguistics: A symposium by W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel, Lg. 46: 688-695. 1973 "Spanish in North America", Current Trends in Linguistics 10: 467-501. Dembowski, Peter F. 1963 La Chronique de Robert de Clan: Etude de la langue et du style (Toronto: U.P). 1972 "Review of Yakov Malkiel, Essays on linguistic themes and Linguistica generate, filologia romanza, etimologia", RLR 36, 163-172. Dorf man, Eugene 1968 "Correlation and core-relation in diachronic Romance phonology", Word 24: 81-98.

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The narreme in the medieval Romance epic: An introduction to narrative structures (Toronto: U.P.). Duggan, Joseph 1973 The Song of Roland: Formulaic style and poetic craft (Berkeley-Los AngelesLondon: California U.P.). Dulong, Gaston 1973 "Histoire du fran9ais en Amerique du Nord", CTL 10: 407-421. Elgin, Suzette Haden - John T. Grinder 1973 Guide to transformational grammar: History, theory, practice (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston). Fisher, John H. 1966 The medieval literature of Western Europe: A review of research, mainly 1930-1960 (London-New York: New York U.P.). Frank, Grace 1967 The medieval French Drama (Oxford: U.P.). Frank Chen, Ursula 1973 Essai sur la phonologic frangaise: revolution structurale du vocalisme (Paris: Nizet). Gaeng, Paul 1968 Inquiry into local variations in Vulgar Latin (Chapel Hill: UNCSRLL). Gendron, Jean-Denis 1966 Tendances phonetiques du frangais pane au Canada (Paris-Quebec: P.U. Laval). Goodman, Morris 1958 "On the phonetics of the French Creole of Trinidad", Word 14: 208-212. 1964 A comparative study of French Creole dialects (The Hague: Mouton). de Gorog, Ralph 1973 Lexique fra^ais moderne - ancien fra^ais (Athens, Georgia: Georgia U.P.). Haden, Ernest F. 1973 "French dialect geography in North America", Current Trends in Linguistics 10: 422-439. Hadlich, Roger 1965 The phonological history of Vegliote (Chapel Hill: UNCSRLL). 1970 Spanish transformational grammar (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall). Hall, Robert A., Jr. 1948 "Structural sketch No. 1: French", Language Monograph 24 (Baltimore: Waverley Press). 1949 "The linguistic position of Franco-Provencal", Lg 25: 1-14. 1953 Haitian creole, American Anthropological Association Memoirs (Menasha, Wisconsin). 1962 "The determination of form-classes in Haitian Creole", ZRPh 78: 172-177. 1963 Idealism in Romance linguistics (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell U.P.). 1965 Pidgin and creole languages (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell U.P.). 1974 External history of the Romance languages (New York-London-Amsterdam: Elsevier). Hamlin, Frank, - P. T. Ricketts - J. Hathaway 1967 Introduction a ΐ etude de Vancien provengal: Textes a"elude (Geneve: Droz). Harris, James W. 1969a Spanish phonology (Cambridge, Mass.-London: M.I.T. Press). 1969b "Sound change in Spanish and the theory of markedness", Lg. 45: 538-552. Haudricourt, Andre" - Alphonse Juilland 1970 Essai pour une histoire structurale du pho^tisme frangais (The Hague: Mouton). [reprint of 1949.]

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Haugen, Einar 1973 "Bilingualism, language contact, and immigrant languages in the United States: a research report 1956-1970", Current Trends in Linguistics 10: 505-591. Holmes, Urban T. 1962 A history of Old French literature from the origins to 1300 (New York: Russell and Russell). Izzo, Herbert J. 1972 Tuscan and Etruscan: The problem of linguistic substratum influence in Central Italy (Toronto: Toronto U.P.). Jackson, W. T. H. 1960 The literature of the Middle Ages (New York: Columbia U.P.). 1966 Medieval literature: A history and a guide (New York: MacMillan). Jensen, Frede 1972 From Vulgar Latin to Old Provengal (Chapel Hill: UNCSRLL). Juilland, Alphonse 1961 Outline of a general theory of structural relations (The Hague: Mouton). 1967 "Perspectives du structuralisme 6volutif", Word 23: 350-361. 1967-69 [ed.] Linguistic studies presented to Andre Martinet on the occasion of his sixtieth birthday, Word 23, 24 and 25. Juilland, Alphonse - Marilyn J. Conwell 1963 Louisiana French grammar (The Hague: Mouton). Juneau, Marcel 1972 Contribution a l'histoire de la pronunciation frangaise au Quebec: Etude des graphics des documents d'archives (Quebec: P.U. Laval). Jungemann, Frederick H. 1956 La Teoria des sustrato y los dialectos hispano-romances y gascones (Madrid: Credos). King, Robert D. 1969 Historical linguistics and generative grammar (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: PrenticeHall). Klausenburger, Jürgen 1970 French prosodies and phonotactics: An historical typology, ZRPh Bhft. 124 (Tübingen: Niemeyer). 1974 Historische französische Phänologie aus generativer Sicht, Romanistische Arbeitshefte 12 (Tübingen: Niemeyer). Koenig, Frederic 1972 "Review of Joseph J. Duggan, A concordance of the CHANSON DE ROLAND", RomPh 26: 204-205. Kvavik, Karen H. - Carroll L. Olsen 1974 "Theories and methods in Spanish intonational studies: A survey", Phonetica 30: 65-100. Lecoy, Felix 1971 "Compte rendu de Robert de Blois, Floris et Lyriope, . Paul Barrette", Romania 92, 141-143. Lehmann, W. P. - Yakov Malkiel 1968 Directions for historical linguistics: a symposium (Austin-London: Texas U.P.). Loon, Pierre R. 1968 Recherches sur la structure phonique du fra^ais canadien (Bruxelles-Montr6alParis: Didier). Leon, Pierre - Philippe Martin 1970 Prolegomenes ä l^tude des structures intonatives (Montroal-Paris: Didier). Leonard, Clifford S., Jr. 1964 "Proto-Rhaeto-Romance and French", Lg. 40: 23-32.

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1969-70 "The Romance 'Stammbaum' in the West", RomPh 23: 261-276. Lujän, Marta - Fritz Hensey 1976 Current studies in Romance linguistics (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown U.P.). Macaulay, Ronald K. S. - Robert P. Stockwell 1972 Linguistic change and generative theory (Bloomington and London: Indiana U.P.). Malkiel, Yakov 1951-52 "The pattern of progress in Romance linguistics", RomPh 5: 278-295. 1961-62 "Three definitions of Romance linguistics", RomPh 15: 1-7. 1964 "Distinctive traits of Romance linguistics", in Language in Culture and Society, ed. D. Hymes (New York: Harper and Row). 1966 "Form versus meaning in etymological analysis: Old Spanish auze 'luck'", Estudios dedicados a James Homer Herriott (Madison, Wisconsin: Wisconsin U.P.). 1967 "Linguistics as a genetic science", Lg. 43: 223-245. 1968a Essays on linguistic themes (Oxford: Blackwell). 1968b "Hispanic philology", Current Trends in Linguistics 4: 158-228. 1968c "Theory versus practice as a starting point for discoveries in linguistic research", AGI 53: 43-58. 1969 (with Francisco Rico) "Breve Autobibliografia Analitica", AEM 6: 609-639. 1972a "General diachronic linguistics", Current Trends in Linguistics 9: 82-118. 1972b "Comparative Romance linguistics", Current Trends in Linguistics 9: 835-925. 1972c Linguistics and philology in Spanish America: A survey (1925-1970) (The Hague: Mouton). 1972d "The pan-European suffix -esco, -esque in stratigraphic projection", in Valdman 1972. 1973a "Ancien francais/aw, feü, malostru", TLL 11: 177-189. 1973b "Phonological irregularity vs. lexical complexity in diachronic projection: The etymological substructure of Luso-Hispanic abarcar 'to clasp, embrace, contain' ", Issues in Linguistics: Festschrift Kahane (Urbana: Illinois U.P.): 606635. 1973c "Quelques avatars romans d'un zoonyme et d'un ornithonyme latins", Melanges . . . Felix Lecoy (Paris: Champion): 377-384. 1973d "Two problems of Hispanic morpho-etymology", Studies in Honor of Tatiana Fotitch (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press). 1973e "Summits of Romance Linguistics", Canadian Journal of Romance Linguistics 1: 33-48. 1974a "In Search of 'Penultimate" Causes of Linguistic Change: Studies in the Avoidance of HI in Proto-Spanish", in Lujän and Hensey 1976. 1974b "New problems in Romance interfixation: The velar insert in the present tense (with an excursus on -zerl-zir verbs"), RomPh 27: 304-355. In Press "Deux categories d'etymologies interessantes", Lexis 1. Martinet, Andre 1952 "Celtic lenition and Western Romance consonants", Lg 28: 192-197. 1955 Economic des changements pho^tiques: Tratte de phonologic diachronique (Bibliotheca Romanica \0) (Bern: Francke). Mayer, Edgar N. 1969 Structure of French: A programmed course on the linguistic structure of French (New York: New Century). Mendeloff, Henry 1969 A Manual of comparative Romance linguistics: Phonology and morphology (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press). Morin, Yves-Charles et al.

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1974 Le frangais de la region de Montreal: Aspects phonetique et phonologique, Cahier de Linguistique No 4 (Montreal: P.U. Quebec). Nichols, Stephen G. 1961 Formulaic diction and thematic composition in the Chanson de Roland (Chapel Hill: UNCSRLL). Orkin, Mark M. 1971 Speaking Canadian French: An informal account of the French language in Canada (Toronto: General Publishing). Otero, Carlos-Peregrin 1971 Evolution y revolution en romance: Minima introduction a la fonologia (Barcelona: Editorial Seix Barral). Posner, Rebecca 1966 The Romance languages: A linguistic introduction (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday). 1966-67 "Positivism in historical linguistics", RomPh 20: 321-331. 1970 "Thirty years on", a supplement to lordan-Orr, An Introduction to Romance Linguistics: Its Schools and Scholars (Oxford: Blackwell): 393-593. 1973 "Postal's pronouncement on phonological phenomena", RomPh 26: 664-673. Postal, Paul M. 1968 Aspects of phonological theory (New York, Evanston and London: Harper and Row). Pulgram, Ernst 1958 The tongues of Italy, prehistory and history (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard U.P.). Pupier, Paul - Roland Pelchat 1972 "Observations sur la phonologic des pronoms personnels du fransais de Montreal", Lingua 29: 326-346. Pupier, Paul - Luc Legare 1973 "L'effacement du III dans les clitiques et les articles definis en frangais de Montreal", Glossa 7: 63-80. Richter, Elise 1934 Beiträge zur Geschichte der Romanismen (ZRPh Bhfl 82) (Halle-Saale: Niemeyer). Romeo, Luigi 1968 The economy of diphongization in early Romance (The Hague: Mouton). Rudnyckyj, J. B. 1973 "Immigrant languages, language contact, and bilingualism in Canada", Current Trends in Linguistics 10: 592-652. Saciuk, Bohdan 1972 "Phonological studies in Romance", in Casagrande and Saciuk 1972: 215-224. Saltarelli, Mario 1970 A phonology of Italian in a generative grammar (= Janua Linguarum, Series practica 93) (The Hague: Mouton). Saltarelli, Mario - Dieter Wanner 1975 Diachronie studies in Romance linguistics (= Janua Linguarum, Series practica 207) (The Hague: Mouton). Schane, Sanford A. 1968 French phonology and morphology (Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press). 1973 Generative phonology (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall). Schogt, Henry 1960 Les causes de la double issue de e ferme tonique libre en fra^ais (Amsterdam). 1968 Le syste^me verbal du franfais contemporain (The Hague: Mouton). Sebeok, Thomas A., ed. 1968 Current trends in linguistics, vol. 4.1bero-American and Caribbean linguistics (The Hague: Mouton).

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1973 Current trends in linguistics, vol. 10: Linguistics in North America (The Hague: Mouton). Smith, Donald - Sinclair Robinson 1973 Practical handbook of Canadian French (Toronto: Macmillan). Stockwell, Robert P. - J. Donald Bowen 1965 The sounds of English and Spanish (Chicago: Chicago U.P.). Stockwell, Robert P. - John W. Martin 1965 The grammatical structures of English and Spanish (Chicago: Chicago U.P.). Uitti, Karl 1969 Linguistics and literary theory (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall). Valdman, Albert 1960 A descriptive phonology of Standard French. Cornell University dissertation [Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms 60-2256]. 1972 Papers in linguistics and phonetics to the memory of Pierre Delattre (The Hague: Mouton). Vinay, Jean-Paul 1973 "Le franc,ais en Amerique du Nord: Problemes et Realisations", Current Trends in Linguistics 10: 323-406 and 441-463. Walker, Douglas C. 1974 "Analogy, Simplification, and the History of French", CJL 19: 67-78. Williams, Edwin B. 1962 From Latin to Portuguese: Historical phonology and morphology of the Portuguese language (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania U.P.) [reprint of the 1938 edition.]

GLANVILLE PRICE

Romance studies in Great Britain

/. Introduction Although British scholars have not dominated any major field of Romance linguistics or philology, with the exception of Anglo-Norman which is dealt with in the final section of this survey, they have made important contributions to most aspects of our discipline. In view of the extensive range of these contributions, a comparatively brief survey such as this cannot do more than indicate those areas in which British scholars have worked and draw attention to the main fruits of their labours. Many of the works in question are of course the subject of comment elsewhere in this volume. The scope of this section is taken to be work published in any country by scholars normally resident in the United Kingdom, whether or not they are of British nationality. With some exceptions, works published before 1930 have not been mentioned. Such topics as stylistics and onomastics are not covered. The article was originally written in 1974, but an attempt has been made to bring it up to date to 1977. 2. General In view of the extent to which John Orr augmented and revised the text when translating from the Rumanian lorgu lordan's invaluable work on the history and schools of thought that had characterized Romance linguistics up to the 1930's, and in view of the influence that Orr's version (lordan-Orr 1937) has exercised, this can properly be considered as an important British contribution to Romance linguistics. It must be stressed that Romance linguistics, not the Romance languages, is the subject of the volume: its four sections are entitled "Romance studies before 1900", "The idealistic or aesthetic school of K. Vossler", "Linguistic geography", and "The French school". The second edition (lordon-Orr

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1970) contains a substantial additional chapter (185 pages), "Thirty years on", by Posner, bringing the survey up to date. The scope of Elcock's book, The Romance languages (1960), is well enough indicated by the titles of its five sections, viz. "The Latin foundation", "Early non-Latin influences", "The formative period of Romance", "Medieval Latin and Romance vernacular", "The creation of Romance standards". Though in some respect a little old-fashioned (its conception is prestructuralist), this is nevertheless one of the most useful overall surveys of the Romance field written in any language. Posner's much slighter introductory volume to the Romance languages (1966) is enthusiastic and stimulating but unfortunately often unreliable on points of detail. Most of the major Romance languages have been the subject of general treatments by British scholars, varying greatly in scope and importance. It would probably be widely accepted that pride of place amongst these goes to Mildred K. Pope's From Latin to modern French (1934). Apart from comparatively brief sections on external history and orthography, this monumental work is devoted to a profound and extensive treatment of the historical phonetics and morphology of French (there is nothing on syntax), with a final section on the external history, phonology, orthography and morphology of Anglo-Norman. An appendix itemizes the principal phonetic and morphological traits characterizing seven continental Old French dialects or dialectal groups. The Faber series "The great languages" includes (in addition to Elcock 1960) standard histories of French (Ewert 1933a), Spanish (Entwistle 1936) and Italian (Migliorini-Griffith 1966), contrasting markedly in conception. Whereas Ewert concentrates on the internal history of French (phonology, orthography, morphology and syntax, vocabulary), with only a short opening chapter on "General and external history", Entwistle takes a different approach, strictly 'linguistic' developments being discussed within a basically historico-cultural framework: a general, introductory chapter is followed by others entitled "Before the Romans" (largely devoted to Basque, Celtic and Greek), "The Latin of Spain", "Standard Spanish", "The extension of Spanish to Spanish America", "Portuguese" and "The Portuguese language overseas". The volume on Italian, which is also primarily on 'external' history, is a version of Migliorini's Storia della lingua italiana (1960), translated, abridged and recast by Griffith who is himself the author of a final chapter, "Recent developments (1915-1965)". Still in "The great Ian-

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guages" series, L. R. Palmer's volume on Latin (1954) also of course contains much that is of direct relevance to the needs and interests of Romance linguists, in particular a substantial chapter on Vulgar Latin. Other histories of French are provided by Fox and Wood (1968) (historical phonetics and morphology only), Price (1971), and Rickard (1974), and of Spanish by Trend (1953) and Stevenson (1970, a work that has — rightly — come in for devastating criticism from reviewers). No British survey of Catalan or Portuguese exists other than that given in Entwistle (1936), and Rumanian has only the multum in parvo of an article by Nandris, (1951). Rickard's La langue frangaise au seizieme siecle (1968) is, as its sub-title states, an etude suivie de textes; though the etude occupies less than one-seventh of the book, it is astonishingly comprehensive and welldocumented and is complemented on points of detail by the fifty pages of linguistic notes and the ample glossary that follow the texts. His later volume on the fifteenth century (Rickard 1976) is referred to below (5, "Chrestomathies"). Harmer (1954) surveys the characteristics and tendencies of contemporary French, principally but not exclusively in respect of syntax, vocabulary and style, with many fresh insights and a wealth of examples drawn from a variety of registers, including the literary, the journalistic and the popular: a posthumous work (Harmer 1980) develops some of these themes. Spence's Lefra^ais contemporain (1976) is a collection of essays on points of lexical, syntactical and phonological interest. The bibliography of the field has also been well served by British scholars. The year's work in modern language studies, volumes 12 (1950) to 39 (1977), has (apart from occasional gaps) regularly included sections, each by a succession of different contributors, on French, Spanish, Portuguese and Italian linguistics. Vol. 17 (1955) saw the reappearance for the first time since Vol. 8 (1937) of a section on Rumanian and the introduction of a section, "Provengal Studies", which has been contributed since its inception by S. C. Aston (Occitan having earlier been included under French). The section on Catalan language has appeared irregularly (Vols 12, 15, 20, 23, 27, 30, 32, 34-39). A section on American Spanish has been included in most volumes since Vol. 26 (1964), while Brazilian Portuguese, which constituted either a separate section or part of the section on Brazilian language and literature in Vols 26 and 28 to 31, has since been covered by the section on Portuguese language. Romance linguistics in general, which had earlier been sometimes covered by the French section, first appeared as an independent section in Vol. 19 (1957)

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and has since appeared regularly, apart for a gap of three years (Vols 21-23). Kathryn F. Bach and G. Price (1977) provide a classified and annotated bibliography of bibliographies (some 650 items) covering all aspects of Romance linguistics in general and each language (including dialects and Creoles) individually. On more specific topics: M. Dominica Legge (1950b) surveys work in the Anglo-Norman field (language, literature and the editing of texts); Spence (1957a, 1961, both with Levy and Poston) has contributed to a bibliography of longer French word-studies, which is supplemented by two contributions from Wexler (1959, 1964, both with Quemada); Price has compiled bibliographies of works on Occitan syntax (1965) and on the present position of minority languages in Western Europe (including Catalan, Occitan, Romansh and Sardinian) (1969a), each brought up to date by periodical supplements: Goddard (1977a), in the first of a series of bibliographical surveys on loan-words in Romance, deals with foreign elements in Rumanian. 3. Editions of texts Admirable critical editions and linguistic studies of two early French texts of considerable linguistic (but little literary) importance, viz. the tenthcentury Vie de St Leger and the eleventh-century Vie de St Alexis, are provided by Linskill (1937) and Storey (1934) respectively. British scholars have also produced standard editions of two major early Romance texts of outstanding interest, both linguistic and literary, viz. the Chanson de Roland (Whitehead 1942) and the Poema de mio Cid (Smith 1972 and Michael 1976). Whereas Whitehead's supporting material (other than the glossary) relates solely to textual problems, the introductions and notes provided by Smith and Michael range widely over the fields both of literary and textual criticism and of the historical background to the text, and elucidate linguistic difficulties, allusions, etc. There is a strong tradition among British scholars of editing medieval French and Occitan texts. Such editions are far too numerous for even a moderately full list to be given here. Amongst the more recent of those that are internationally recognized as authoritative editions of major texts of linguistic as well as literary importance in the French field are McMillan's editions of the Chanson de Guillaume (1940-1949) and the Charroi de Nimes (1972), editions by Holden of Wace's Roman de Rou (1970-1973), by Ewert of Beroul's Romance of Tristran (1939-1970) (Vol. 1 contains the text, Vol. 2 — posthumous — the introduction and commentary), and by Robson of the homilies of Maurice de Sully (1952).

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In the Occitan field, the works of the troubadours Arnaut de Mareuil, Peirol, Raimbaut de Vaqueiras, Guilhem de Montanhagol, Berenger de Palazol and Raimon de Miraval have been edited by Johnston (1935), Aston (1953), Linskill (1964), Ricketts (1964), Newcombe (1971) and Topsfield (1971) respectively, while Marshall (1969) has provided a critical edition of the thirteenth-century "Provensal Donatus" or grammatical treatise of Uc Faidit, followed (1972) by an edition of Raimon de Vidal's "ars poetica", the Razos de trobar, and associated texts. Ricketts has begun publication (1976) of an edition in several volumes of another important text, the Breviari d'Amor of Matfre Ermengaud. The most important medieval Franco-Prove^al text, Girart de Roussillon, has been edited by W. Mary Hackett (1953-1955). The principal edition by a British scholar of a non-Gallo-Romance medieval text (other than those of the Poema de mio Cid by Smith, 1972 and Michael, 1976) is Waters's Old Italian Navigatio Sancti Brendani (1931). Worthy of special mention among editions of post-medieval texts is Frank Pierce's edition (1973) of The Lusiads. Finally, one must mention the important series of editions published by the Anglo-Norman Text Society (see section 16 below, "AngloNorman"). 4. Textual criticism The principles of textual criticism have been discussed on various occasions by Romance medievalists. Ewert (1929-1930) dealt in particular with the classification of the manuscripts of Gui de Warwick but his remarks have more general relevance, and in the same volume M. Dominica Legge (1929-1930) discussed Bedier's views and objections thereto raised by Dom Quentin. Some ten years later, Vinaver, in a major contribution to the subject, enunciated with admirable clarity the principles of a method of textual emendation aimed "not at restoring the original work in every particular, but merely at lessening the damage done by the copyists" — the practice advocated is compared to that adopted in clearing a painting of "adventitious and foreign matter" without attempting to reconstruct it in its entirety (1939: 366, 367). Much of Whitehead's historical survey (1961) of textual criticism of the Roland is devoted to general principles of textual criticism and the editing of texts, concluding that it is probably best to "combine Bedier's 'structural' approach . . . with the traditional concept of the textual critic as a weigher of probabilities" (1961: 89). Writing on "The scribal process" in the Vinaver Festschrift, Brian Blakey (1965: 19) argues that, since the

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lack of medieval autograph manuscripts "makes it difficult to achieve a thorough documentation of the copying process" and consequently to evaluate modern editorial techniques, some light can nevertheless be cast on the scribal process if we compare a close and faithful translation with an original text, which may to some extent serve as a substitute for an author's copy. A procedure for dating Middle French texts on the basis of their old and new morphological features is proposed by Runnalls (1976). Tackling a problem of considerable interest for the origins of the Romance languages, Robson argues, in a paper whose conclusions have been widely (though not unanimously) accepted, that the compiler of the glossary known as the Appendix Probi, long considered to date from the third or fourth century, was acquainted with certain identifiable GrecoLatin glossaries and that he lived "aux siecles Chretiens, sous les Lombards", i.e. some time after A.D. 568 (1963: 52-53). The linguistic status of the earliest Gallo-Romance text, the Strasbourg Oaths, is the subject of an important study by Ewert, who argues that the text was translated from Latin into "a Carolingian Court language" but that, in the form in which we have it, it contains non-original elements arising from faulty transmission (1935: 30). Various problems of interpretation posed by the earliest French literary work, the brief Sequence of St Eulalia (ca 880), are studied in two articles by Barnett (1959,1961) in the light of a comparison with Latin Christian writings. The text of Chanson de Roland has, not unnaturally, been the subject of much comment: in particular, Waters (1930) solved, wholly or partly, a number of palaeographical difficulties with the aid of an ultra-violet ray lamp, Ewert (1933b), Pope (1936) and Whitehead (1972) discuss the reading of various problematic passages, and Johnston (1963) discusses the word hoese 'boot'. Mellor (1966) comments on the text of the Franco-Italian version of the poem. The extensive textual criticism and comment devoted by British scholars to other medieval texts can be illustrated by taking only one such text, Beroul's Tristran, which has received much attention in recent years, culminating in Reid's textual commentary in the form of a book (1972). Earlier, Reid had discussed, with reference to many specific passages, the problems presented in establishing the text of a work that exists only in "a single manuscript of exasperating defectiveness" (1965a: 263) and had argued on linguistic grounds that there were two authors, in an exchange of articles (1965b, 1969) with Holden (1968) who claimed that there are no significant linguistic differences between the sections of

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the text that Reid and others would attribute to different authors. Further comments on the text are to be found in Vinaver (1961), Reid (1964) and Blakey (1967,1976), while Robson (1972) attempts a reconstruction of a hitherto unsuspected strophic pattern in the text. In the Occitan field, Kastner (1932-1937), published a series of notes, mainly linguistic, on the text of Bertran de Born. Notes on the linguistic problems presented by the Old Spanish metrical life of St Mary of Egypt are provided by Rees (1959), and Pattison (1967) argues on linguistic grounds (in particular on the basis of patterns of suffixal derivation) that the composition of the Cid ought perhaps to be dated in the early thirteenth century rather than in the mid twelfth century. 5. Chrestomathies British scholars have produced a number of chrestomathies as aids to the teaching of the history of various Romance languages. Studer-Waters, Historical French reader (1924), is specifically stated by the compilers to be "designed primarily to meet the requirements of University teaching and to supply material suitable for instruction in historical grammar". The 65 extracts range from Vulgar Latin to the fifteenth century. An admirable chrestomathy of fifteenth-century French texts, with a linguistic introduction, copious notes and a detailed glossary, has recently been published by Rickard (1976). For Italian, Dionisotti-Grayson, Early Italian texts (1949), though including only 25 texts, has proved its worth not only on account of the texts themselves (ranging in time from the Indovinello Veronese of the late eighth or early ninth century to the late thirteenth century) but also on account of the introductory commentary provided for each passage and the thorough discussion of linguistic points presented in the notes. More recently, chrestomathies for Spanish and Catalan respectively have been provided by Gifford and Hodcroft (1959) and Russell-Gebbett (1965, supplemented by his article of 1973). Both volumes present primarily — though not exclusively — non-literary texts (which in the Spanish volume are classified according to region), with a linguistic introduction (to each regional section in the case of the Spanish volume), lists of toponyms (only in the 2nd edition, 1966, of the Spanish volume) and extensive glossaries. More literary in its approach, but well provided with linguistic aid and comment, is the volume of selections from the troubadours published by Hamlin, Ricketts and Hathaway (1967). A welcome new addition is Sampson 1980, a collection of a hundred texts drawn from all Romance areas and arranged in twelve geographically-based sub-sections.

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6. Phonetics and phonology Here there is something for nearly everyone. The major pan-Romance work is Rebecca Posner's book (1961a) on consonantal dissimilation which must be considered as a fundamental work on the subject, proposing, with a good deal of supporting evidence and taking due account of phonological as well as phonetic considerations, general principles that seem to govern the occurrence and operation of dissimilation. The Vulgar Latin vowel system is the subject of two carefully-argued structuralist articles (1963,1965a) by Spence, and another, characterized by the careful marshalling and analysis of an impressive body of evidence, by Coleman (1971). This last gave rise to an exchange between Spence (1974b) and Coleman (1974) on the monophthongization of Latin ae. Spence also studies (1965b) the palatalization of k, g + a in GalloRomance, showing the complexity of the problem and taking account of the various phonetic, structural and substratic factors brought into the debate by earlier writers, suggests (1974a) an explanation for the metathesis -sk > -ks in French, provides (1971b) a critical structuralist analysis of the modern French semi-vowels, and, in a wide-ranging survey (1975) of the relevant data and of views expressed by other scholars, tackles the thorny problems posed by 'mute e1 in the description and analysis of modern French. More 'traditional' contributions to historical phonetics in the Gallo-Romance domain are offered by such articles as those by Johnston (1939) on the stages by which tonic free [o] became Old French [0], by Collas (1939) on final consonants in the Poitevin area (a study based on the evidence provided by the Atlas linguistique de la France), by Spence (1957b) on the assibilation of intervocalic -r- in Jersey French, and by Fox (1958) on the evidence for loss of preconsonantal r provided by such rhymes as Villon's alalparla, sagesse/largesse. A much needed cautionary note on the dangers of excessive systematization in the field of historical phonetics is sounded in Robson's (1955) article (further discussed below in Section 14, "The creation of standard languages"). On Occitan, there is Helene Coustenoble's detailed descriptive analysis (1945) of the phonetics of modern Provengal. Elcock's thesis (1938) on phonetic affinities between the Aragonese and Bearnese dialects is a notable contribution both to the study of the Pyrenean Romance dialects and to linguistic geography. It is supplemented by later articles by Elcock on the development of intervocalic -//- in Aragonese (1950), problems of Aragonese chronology (1952), and the dangers of attributing phonetic changes too hastily to substratum influence (1953a), and by Cremona's

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work on the development of proparoxytons in Gascon (1953) and the development [a] > [o] in contact with a nasal consonant, characteristic of the Pyrenean Gascon dialect of the Vallee d'Aure (1954). Macpherson has produced (1975) a major work on the phonetics and phonology of Spanish, combining the synchronic and the diachronic approach. Penny (1972b), writing on the re-emergence of /f/ as a phoneme in Castilian, presents an admirably documented and wellargued case, setting out the evidence for the allophonic or phonemic status of [f], [φ], [hqp], [h], at various periods not only in Castilian but in other dialects also. He returns to the problem of the phonemic status of Ibero-Romance bilabials and labiodentals in a study (1974) of the convergence of [b], [v] and intervocalic [p]. Wright (1976a) investigates the problem of the retention or reduction of pretonic diphthongs in Old Castilian. Lepschy has written on the phonology (in a structuralist sense) of the Venetian dialect (1962) and of Italian (1964), on the segmental phonemes of Venetian (1963a) and the supra-segmental phonemes of Italian (1968). Generative phonology is represented by Bladon (1970) on the phonotactics of Old Provencal, Brasington (1973,1974) on Catalan, and Pullum (1976) on rule-ordering in Spanish. Notable contributions from Rebecca Posner include a witty and effective onslaught (1971a) on S. A. Schane's French phonology and morphology (1968), followed up (1971b) by a detailed criticism of Schane's rules for nasalization, and a more general consideration (1974) of restructuring and rule elimination as procedures for bringing divergent underlying forms and phonetic representation closer together. 7. Scripta and orthography A fundamental problem, that of the relation between the spoken and written media and of the degree of awareness that people may have had a thousand years ago of just what it was they were in fact speaking and writing, is raised by Wright who argues (1976b: 178) that it is "only some time after the choice between two writing systems is established that people begin to see Latin and Romance script as two separate languages rather than two methods of committing the same language to paper". Roy Harris (1970) argues that the controversial representation of the stressed vowels savfr, podir in the Strasbourg Oaths is perhaps neither phonetic nor phonemic but "sound-typological". Diverres (1972) characterizes the French orthographical system adocated by Laurent Joubert between 1578 and 1580. For Robson's article (1955) discussing, in the

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context of wider issues, the problem of the orthographical representation of Old French vowels and diphthongs, see below under section 14, "The creation of standard languages". 8. Grammar The only extensive discussion of a morphosyntactic problem in relation to all of the major western Romance languages is Ramsden's book (1963) on the position of weak object pronouns, which discusses anteposition, postposition and interpolation (i.e. the interpolation of another element between pronoun and verb, e.g. Cid 1105 si nos cercar vienen) in Late Latin and Early Romance, following the investigation through to the late fifteenth century in the case of Spanish. Barnett (1965) has tackled the problem of the origins of the forms in -lud (masc.), -lei (fern.) that occur in most non-Iberian Romance languages. In the field of verbal morphology Rebecca Posner has on three occasions (1961b, 1963, 1965) adopted a 'macrocosmic' approach to some of the problems presented by the development of the endings of the perfect, imperfect indicative and conditional tenses. Martin Harris has taken a searching look at the changing role of the subjunctive as a category in Romance (1974) and at Fillmore's case grammar in relation to Latin and early Romance (1975). His recent book (1978), though specifically on the evolution of the syntax of French, in fact ranges over all the major Romance languages except Rumanian. Radford uses the evidence provided by Romance causatives to argue against a transformational view of syntax and in favour of a "nondiscrete, relational framework" (1976: 95). It is particularly in relation to French that British scholars have contributed to the study of Romance morphosyntax. The first major work in this respect, Graeme Ritchie's thesis on the syntax of que, in fact goes back nearly to the beginning of the century (1907). Although it was not until Paula Clifford's thesis (1973) on the syntactic and stylistic functions of the order VERB + SUBJECT in French narrative prose since 1500 that another work of comparable length appeared in this field, a great deal has been published by way of articles, not all of which are referred to below. Still within the domain of word-order, Martin Harris (1976) has argued for a typological approach to word-order change in French, Price (1961) has written on Froissart, Rickard (1962) has studied the order OBJECT + VERB + SUBJECT in medieval French generally, Paula Clifford (1974) has drawn attention to the explicit views on French word-order expressed by sixteenth-century grammarians, and Ullmann (1952b) examined the stylistic — as opposed to the grammaticalized — use of inversion in some

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twentieth-century novels. Closely connected with the topic of wordorder, and in particular with that of the postposition of the subject, is the problem of the use of the subject personal pronoun in Old French. This has been studied by Price (1966,1973), Offord (1971) and Spence (1973). The development of the possessives has been investigated by Rickard (1959) and Barnett (1972), while Price (1968,1969b), Offord (1976b) and M. Harris (1977) have studied aspects of the history of the demonstratives. On the basis of a computerized analysis of the substantives in the Chanson de Roland, a team of researchers at University College, London, led by Professor Brian Woledge, has investigated, in two important articles (Woledge 1967, 1969), the use of the original nominative and oblique forms as subjects and attributes according to whether the noun is or is not determined and has suggested a number of factors (syntactic, metrical, collocational and others) that may have influenced the copyist to use one or another case in given circumstances. Woledge has also studied (1970, 1974) the Old French case system in relation to other factors (above all, word-order) that might serve to indicate a given noun's function in the sentence. The Old French case system has also attracted the attention of Spence who has devoted a congress paper (1962) and an article (1971a) to the problem of the survival of reflexes of the Latin nominative case in French, and (1966) has easily refuted Guiraud's view (Romania, 83,1962, 289-302) that the use of the nominative and oblique cases in the Chanson de Roland corresponds to an actuel~virtuel opposition. Roy Harris proposes (1966) structural explanation for phonetically 'irregular' nominative plurals of third declension nouns in GalloRomance (Latin nom. and ace. canes, Old French oblique chiens but nom. chien, etc.). Spence (1975-1976) discusses the problems posed by the irregular phonetic development of the definite article and Woledge has a useful article (1956) on the Old French plural indefinite article, uns, unes. Aspects of the morphosyntax of negation have been studied by Reid (1933,1939a and b) and the history of the negative particles pas, mie and point by Price (1962a and various notes), and Offord (1976c) provides a thorough study of negation in Berinus. In the field of verbal morphology, Spence (1977) makes an important contribution to the debate on the origin of the ending -ons and Offord (1976a) devotes a major article to the cooccurrence in Old French of different forms for the imperfect indicative and future respectively of the verb estre and the gradual elimination of competing forms in favour of estoit, sera, etc.

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On the use of tenses in Old and Middle French, D. Rhoda Sutherland suggests (1939) that the flexibility seen in Old French is part of the "dramatic technique" of works intended to be recited or sung, and Rothwell (1969) shows how the strict distinction made between the preterite and the pluperfect differentiates modern French from Middle French (and from other Romance languages). The use of tenses in modern French, with particular reference to the stylistic effect of the past definite and the imperfect subjunctive in the contemporary theatre and the use of the past definite in Racine, is the subject of two early articles by Ullmann (1938,1948), and the obsolescence of the past definite is further discussed in relation to Classical drama by Saunders (1955). Harmer (1963) draws attention to the alternation in contemporary French, for stylistic effect, of the indicative and subjunctive in successive and parallel subordinate clauses and devotes the most important part of a later article (1965) on the present state of French to deviations from the usual literary norms in the use of tenses and moods. The question of verbal aspect has aroused the interest of a number of scholars. Reid has twice (1955,1970) argued that a proper appreciation of the nature of the French verbal system requires us to take account of the concept of STAGE as well as of TENSE and ASPECT. Blanc accepts these three categories in his article (1965) on time and tense in Old French narrative and suggests that, interacting with these, there is the MODE OF ACTION, which is determined by the lexical meaning of the verb itself (e.g. Old French aler is imperfective, venir is perfective, estre is stative). Martin Harris (1970) makes a structural comparison of the verbal systems of Latin and French, concerning himself in particular with the categories of tense, aspect and mood (the latter with reference only to the 'conditional'), and, returning to the subject from a transformationalist standpoint, considers (1972a: 270) "certain aspects of the evolution of the verbal system from Latin to French to see at which level various changes can best be accounted for". Rebecca Posner (1972), in a review article, provides a critical survey of differing analyses of aspect and tense in French. On more specific topics within the general field of the syntax of the verb, Currie (1973) gives notes on hypothetical constructions in fifteenthand sixteenth-century French, Rickard (1970) provides a more thorough treatment than had previously existed of the syntax of Old and Middle French expressions indicating obligation, such as estuet and ilfaut, Shirt (1975) studies the syntactical and semantic behaviour of verba cogitandi in Old French interrogative constructions, and George (1976) looks at the substantival use of the infinitive in modern French.

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Light has been thrown by Rothwell (197la) on the comparatively little studied syntax of prepositions in Middle French. Roy Harris has devoted a number of articles to the morphosyntax of personal pronouns in the Franco-Provengal dialect of the Val d'Aosta. The historical, geographical and syntactical extension of the tendency to substitute for the normal Franco-Provengal construction, corresponding to French je l'ai dit, etc., an Italianate construction (derived from the neighbouring Piedmontese dialects) with the object pronoun postposed to the participle, is examined in some detail (1967, 1969) and the curious pronoun n 'je' is explained (1968) as a reflex of negative ne. There is little to note on the syntax of other non-French Gallo-Romance forms of speech other than Price's paper (1962b) on negative particles in Occitan (ancient and modern) and W. Mary Hackett's article (1967) demonstrating that the use of reflexes of the Latin pluperfect indicative in Girart de Roussillon with the values both of a conditional and, occasionally, of a past narrative tense illustrates the blend of Occitan and French features typical of this text. Two major contributions in the field of Italian have recently appeared. Anna Laura and Giulio Lepschy's The Italian language today (1977) is largely devoted, apart from some introductory chapters on historical and contemporary aspects of the linguistic situation in Italy, to a survey of the grammar of the modern language. Radford (1977) on Italian syntax approaches the subject from a generative and relational standpoint and, by its constructive criticisms of transformational grammar ä la Chomsky, constitutes an important contribution to linguistic theory. Also on Italian, we have MeikleJohn's article (1955) arguing that shortening of the type bontate > bonta in the thirteenth century is a purely literary phenomenon, arising under the influence of Provengal, Lepschy's structuralist approach to the morphology of Venetian (1963b) and Whitfield's historical survey of proclisis and enclisis of personal pronouns (1964). On Spanish, Ramsden, whose work (1963) on weak pronoun position in Western Romance in general is noted above, had earlier devoted an article (1960) to refuting the view that the position of weak pronoun objects in medieval Spanish owed something to Arabic influence, and another (1961) to a detailed analysis of the use of a with personal pronouns in Old Spanish. Macpherson (1961) argues that the use se los (las) for se lo (Id) where se is plural, a construction frequent in LatinAmerican Spanish, is common in medieval Aragonese and Navarrese, and (1967) studies the agreement of the past participle in Old Spanish. Hodcroft demonstrates (1961) that the so-called 'impersonal active' con-

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struction (Type: se desea informes) occurs as early as the fifteenth century. A structural account by Martin Harris (1971) of the development of the conditional complex from Latin to Spanish has given rise to a lively debate in which Harris (1972b) answers Green (1972) who had questioned the applicability of structuralist principles to historical linguistics. Green has also devoted an article (1975) to the passive in Spanish. In the field of historical morphology, Penny has argued convincingly, on the basis of a thorough analysis of attested forms, that, except in strong preterites, "there is a marked tendency for the stem-vowel of 2nd and 3rd conj. verb-forms to be determined by the class to which they belong" and that this is "a case of phonetic change determined by, and subordinate to, morphological pattern" (1972a: 359). England (1976) studies the question of subject-verb agreement in 24 Old Spanish texts. On Catalan, there appears to be nothing other than Russell-Gebbett (1976) on hypothetical clauses and on Portuguese only Brasington (1971) on noun pluralization in Brazilian Portuguese. Hurren has taken up (1969) an interesting syntactical feature of the dying Istro-Rumanian dialect which, it would appear, has acquired from the surrounding and dominant Croatian speech a Slavonic-type perfective ~ imperfective opposition. 9. Semantics Whereas the majority of Stephen Ullmann's books relate either to semantics in general or else to stylistics, and so fall outside the scope of this review, as do many of his articles for similar reasons, his second major book on semantics (1952a) is devoted specifically to French. In it, he applies to this specific field the general principles enunciated in his earlier work, Principles of semantics (1951). His paper on synchronic and diachronic semantics (1962), though having of course general applicability, was delivered to a Congress of Romance Linguistics and presents a survey of work with particular reference to the Romance field. Rothwell (1962a), drawing on experience acquired in preparing articles on aspects of medieval French vocabulary (1955b, 1959,1960,1961), draws attention to some of the difficulties facing those who attempt to apply the theory of semantic fields to medieval languages, a point that is taken up by Hemming (1968) who sees Rothwell's articles as an honourable exception to a widespread failure to pay sufficient attention to such factors as register, date, dialect, style, in determining the meanings of Old French words.

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Other aspects of the study of semantics are referred to below in Section 10, "Homonymics". 10. Homonymics Following in the steps of his master, Jules Gillieron, John Orr campaigned throughout his career against what he referred to as the 'pseudoscience' of the Neogrammarians, and, later, also against what he called the 'pseudo-mathematics' of the Structuralists (Orr 1953a: v) (see also his anti-structuralist lecture, 1953b, reprinted in Orr, 1963a), and in favour of linguistic geography, invoking in particular the concept of 'homonymic collision' in a series of brilliant studies of vocabulary and idiom characterized by abundant documentation and vigorous argument. The most important of these have been reprinted in two volumes (Orr, 1953a, 1963a) and many of them will not be specifically referred to here. Among later studies, we shall mention only those of songer, penser and soigner (1962c) and of the words for 'doll' in the various Gallo-Romance dialects (1963b). What might well be referred to as his 'manifesto', the article "On homonymics" (1939), has been twice reprinted (1953a, 1962a), and is supplemented by "Notes to On homonymics'" (in Orr 1953a; reprinted in Orr 1962a). It constitutes a spirited and witty defence of homonymics in the Gillieronian tradition, with copious illustrations, mainly from French. A further statement of his views is found in Orr 1948b, in which he states his intention of conveying, with reference specifically to the etymology otruban, "something of Gillieron's method, something of his approach to linguistic problems, and something of his attitude to etymology, as commonly practised, and to etymologists of the traditional type"; he illustrates how the geographical method "obliges the etymologist to concern himself with things as well as words", and the weakness of what he calls "studio etymology" (1948b: 80). Orr's work in this field has been carried on by his successor in the Edinburgh chair of Romance linguistics, McMillan, in studies of, for example, Old French conreer (1953) and suif/suie and associated words (1973), two cases in which McMillan sees the influence of homonymic clash. One of Orr's major articles on homonymic clash was that (1950, reprinted in Orr 1953a, 1962a) in which he takes up and develops Gillieron's view that, as a result of homonymic collision, some values of French aimer derive not from amare but from Old French esmer < aestimare. This particular topic has given rise to something of a debate, which, on the part of the various participants, ranges more widely than this one example and raises the whole question of the validity of homo-

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nymic collision as an explanatory factor, or at any rate of the extensive reliance that Orr placed on it. The participants in the debate are Robson (1954) (against), McMillan (1971) (for), and Reid (1973), who goes so far as to refer to "the alogical, impressionistic and even histrionic character of the expositions of Gillieron and some of his followers such as John Orr, especially in their applications of the doctrine of the 'homonymic collision'" (1973: 229). Objections to the method were also expressed by Whitehead, in a paper on the verbs nouer, nager and naviguer, in which he declared that "la collision homonymique est une methode d'explication ä laquelle la dialectologie a constamment recours, mais que la semantique historique trouve sans utilite" (1962: 230), and by Rothwell, in an article (1962b) questioning the validity of some of Orr's explanations and provoking a sharp rejoinder from the master (Orr 1969). In a later contribution, Rothwell (1972) pays due tribute to Gillieron's achievements but, having adduced in support of his views a mass of examples drawn from Anglo-Norman, warns that it is not enough to attempt to graft Gillieron's ideas on to medieval French with insufficient evidence. Yet more recently, Rothwell (1976a) takes up and carries further Whitehead's questioning (1962) of the view that the loss of Old French noer 'to swim' was due to homonymic clash. 11. Vocabulary and idiom Two glossaries, very different in conception and construction, are those of Jersey French by Spence (1960) and of Spanish bird-names by Whinnom (1966). Smith (1959) provides a list, with references and dates, of some 700 cultismos literarios introduced into Castilian at the time of the Renaissance. An exhaustive computerized study of the vocabulary of one writer, viz. Brassens, is provided by Hantrais 1976. Wexler's book (1955) on the formation of the vocabulary of railways in French is of general as well as of specific interest. Starting not from the words but from the situation and availing himself of an extensive range of documentation, Wexler shows how a whole new technical vocabulary finally became established, but only after a somewhat lengthy period of fluctuation, and stresses the sociolinguistic interest of the fact that very many equivalent terms were often able to coexist for a period of several years. Other onomasiological studies include Burgess's book (1970) on le vocabulaire pre-courtois, Rothwell's articles (1955a, 1959) on winds and cardinal points in French and the hours of the day in medieval French, Spence's study (1957c) of Jersey-French fishing terms, Sutherland's analysis (1961) of the semantic field of the love meditation in Old Occitan

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and Old French, George's volume (1977) on the words for 'weaver' in the various Gallo-Romance dialects, and Meiklejohn's 'word and thing' study (1964) of bird-names in Sardinian. Wright (1976c) seeks to explain (with particular reference to Spanish but his theory has wider implications) the existence of divergent reflexes of the same form (e.g. pensar/pesar) as the result of the avoidance of ambiguity by the retention of each of two forms that had been in free variation when a given sound-change was in progress. In the field of French, a great deal has been done in the way of etymological investigation, foremost among those who have pursued this line of research being Paul Barbier, whose richly documented "Miscellanea lexicographica" (1925-1952) run to 30 articles (the last three being posthumous), some 1,300 pages in all, relating to nearly 900 words or families of words, Old French, Middle French, Modern French, including many dialectal and technical words. Barbier also devoted many articles published elsewhere to similar etymological studies. Among studies of individual words, Evans's book-length treatment (1967) of the word lanier has a methodological importance exceeding the comparatively restricted field to which it relates. Among other studies of individual words or etymologically related groups in the French field, one may instance Rothwell's articles on medieval French bureau (1960), which not only throws fresh light on the history of a word that has frequently been used as a stock example of the process known as extension of meaning but also has wider implications for our understanding of semantic change, and (1961) on the derivatives of tabula and tabularium; Reid (1949) on the semantic development of derivatives of grammatica (including grimoire and glamour); Brian Foster (1952) on fe, fee and maufe (concluding that/«? is "utterly distinct from [maufe and fee] from all points of view" (1952: 352)) and (1963) on Pascal's use of the verb abetir\ Robson's etymological and syntactical analysis ofmaint, whose adjectival use, he concludes, came into being in the mid-twelfth-century in poetic circles and has never had "la vitalite des mots usuels" (1968: 290); Burgess's articles (1973) on orgueil anafierte in Old French and (1974) on the semantics and syntax of talent in early Old French; and Van Emden's study (1975) of the semantic evolution of the word geste in Old French. George has, on a number of occasions (1967a, b, 1970, 1971), discussed words and expressions, especially figurative expressions, derived from the language of weaving. Fletcher (1977) writes on the early history in French of the word patriotisme. Various Old and Middle French idioms have frequently been the

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subject of interpretative comment: to quote only a few examples, one might mention Rickard's study (1961) of tanz and fois with cardinal numbers in Old and Middle French and his two closely-linked articles (1963, 1964) on the use in medieval French of various expressions meaning 'all day' or 'every day', Legge's articles on /es renges de s'espethe (1956a) and I'ars qui ne faut (1956b), the contributions made by Ross (1951), Elcock (1953b) and Rothwell (1955b) to the vexed problem of the meaning of the expression pleine sa hanste (Rothwell supports Ross's view that it probably means 'a full lance-length', against Elcock's interpretation 'with levelled lance'), and Reid's discussion of Vheure du berger (1953) and Old French acroire sor s'ame (1965c). A useful contribution on an Old Occitan word is Bagley's article (1967) onparalge, while outside the Gallo-Romance field we have, for example, Rees's article (1958) on the history and decline of medieval Spanish uviar, Elcock's studies of sagardana and other Aragonese words for 'lizard' (arguing plausibly that such forms derive from earlier Aragonese *lagartana < lacerta + -ana with substitution of the definite article sa < ipsa for la in deglutinated *la gartana] (Elcock 1940) and of Romansh agör and related words in various Pyrenean languages (Elcock 1949), Ian Macpherson's etymological and semantic study (1968) of Old Spanish sobrado, and, in a very different vein, Whitfield's penetrating analysis (1955) of Machiavelli's use of ordini in his political writings. Various works on lexical borrowings are mentioned under 15 below, "Languages in contact". 12. Word-formation Roy Harris (1972) tackles the basic problem of the lack of congruence in French between phonological and grammatical criteria for word delimitation. Having surveyed critically earlier attempts at a satisfactory definition, he concludes that "French has no unit which corresponds exactly to the 'word' of Latin (or of English)" (1972: 133) and that the most appropriate criterion for defining the "word" in French is one based on intercalation. In an article that is likewise concerned with the definition of basic units, Spence (1968) seeks "to point out some of the problems involved in the synchronic analysis of word-formation, and if possible to provide more objective criteria for the division between roots, affixes and compounds in the French language" (1968: 332). Rothwell has devoted a number of articles to problems of prefixation in Gallo-Romance, notably one (1973c) to prefixation in Old French and two to verbal and negative prefixation respectively (1970, 1971b) in Old

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Occitan. His article (1966) on Anglo-Norman de(s)- is mentioned in 16 below, "Anglo-Norman". McMillan (1970) studies in Chretien de Troyes and Jean Renart the iterative particle re- which in Old French sometimes goes with the root verb and sometimes with an accompanying auxiliary or modal verb (e.g. // ra mis = 'il a remis' — i.e. it is 'separable'). Comparatively little attention has been paid to suffixation, but Margaret Pelan has written (1954) on the French nominal suffix -tin(e), with a view to showing "how homonymic clash has affected the meanings and to what extent -tin(e) is alive and productive", and Pattison has devoted three articles (1967, 1973, 1975a) and a book (1975b) to suffixation in early Spanish. 13. Dialectology Studies of particular phonetic, morphosyntactical or lexical features of individual dialects are noted in the appropriate sections. Here we are concerned with more general studies. Robson devotes an important review article (1964-1965) to two monographs by Simone Escoffier on the meeting point of the French, Franco-Provengal and Occitan linguistic zones. Robson makes this the occasion for attempting to define with some precision, on the basis of geographical, historical and sociolinguistic considerations, just what kind of linguistic reality is denoted by the term 'Franco-Provencal'. This article also serves as a most useful bibliographical guide to the problem of Franco-Proven$al. Evans has investigated (1964) the extent to which Occitan and Franco-Provengal agree or differ in respect of bird-names. In the Hispanic field, we have two important, but very different, works. Cynthia M. Crews's volume (1935) on Balkan Judeo-Spanish is a precious collection of extensively annotated texts, some of them lengthy, illustrating the language as spoken in Bucharest, Salonica, Bitolj (Monastir) and Skopje, taken down by the author during a visit she made for this purpose to Rumania and Yugoslavia in 1930. Penny's thesis (1969) represents a comprehensive study of the present-day speech of the Valle del Pas (Province of Santander); not only are there sections on phonetics, morphology and syntax but over half of the text is given up to an onomasiological study, "Cosas y palabras". Whether the curious and controversial language of the twelfth-century epic, Girart de Roussillon, is properly to be called a dialect is a question to which there is no easy answer. W. Mary Hackett, having edited the text (1953-1955), later devoted a book (1970) to the language thereof, coming to the tentative conclusion that what we have may be "une langue

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artificielle, foncierement meridionale, mais ayant quelques traits du fran9ais et d'autres empruntes au dialecte qui existait ou qui se formait en Poitou ä cette epoque" (1970: 113). 14. The creation of standard languages The problem of language standardization, and in particular the Italian questione delta lingua, is one to which British scholars have often turned their attentions. The Italian question falls of course into two parts: Italian or Latin? and, if Italian, which Italian? The first of these was the subject of Cecil Grayson's Oxford inaugural lecture (1960), which analyses the arguments put forward in Renaissance Italy by the partisans of Latin and the vernacular respectively as the vehicle for learned and literary expression. Turning now to the history of the problem insofar as it relates specifically to the creation of literary standards for Italian, we can first of all go back to the Trecento and not only to Dante, various aspects of whose views and practice have been studied by Ewert (1940, 1959), Vincent (1955), Grayson (1963) and Hope (1973), but also to Cavalcanti and an article (1945) by Weiss characterizing the language of this Florentine poet whose views on the volgare illustre were approved by and may indeed have influenced Dante. Dionisotti has studied (1968) nine Italian Humanists (including Aldo Manuzio, G. F. Fortunio and Mario Equicola) with regard to their views on the volgare, and a general survey of the problem from the Cinquecento onwards, with reference in particular to the contribution made by Bembo, Bandello and Manzoni and to the spread of literary Italian in the past hundred years is provided by T. Gwynfor Griffith's inaugural lecture (1967) delivered at the University of Hull. More recently, Griffith (1976) has studied Trissino's views on language. Weiss (1946-1948) gives a survey of Sienese writers on language in the sixteenth century, from Tolomei to Cittadini, and of relevant modern historical and critical works, and Brown (1966) and Woodhouse (1967) devote particular studies to the views of Salviati and Borghini respectively. Dionisotti has edited (1960) the relevant writings of one of the most important figures in the language debate of the Cinquecento, Pietro Bembo, and editions of other relevant works by Calmeta and Alberti are provided by Grayson (1959, 1960-1973, 1964) who has also written (1955) on the important phonological and morphological evidence provided by the numerous autograph corrections and additions in a copy of Alberti's Famiglia, since no autograph manuscript exists of any of the author's works.

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Interesting sidelights on sixteenth-century Italian are provided by Griffith's two studies (1953 and in Griffith 1961) of a work by the Welsh humanist and physician Siön Dafydd Rhys, De italica pronunciatione & orthographica libellus, of 1569, and his account (in Griffith 1961), with particular reference to its sources, of the first Italian grammar and dictionary for English-speaking people, viz. William Thomas's Principal Rules of the Italian Grammer, with a Dictionarie for the better understandynge of Boccace, Petrarcha and Dante, of 1550. An outstanding contribution to the understanding of the later stages of the linguistic question in Italy is Barbara Reynolds's book (1950) on Manzoni's linguistic writings which for the first time establishes a reliable chronology of Manzoni's published and unpublished writings on the Italian language and traces the evolution of his ideas. An article (Reynolds 1949) sets out at greater length the case made in Reynolds 1950, for considering that the text usually known as Sentir Messa is not, as had been claimed by Bulferetti, the earliest of Manzoni's writings on language. Rita Hamilton has argued (1953) that the Spanish writer on language Juan de Valdes (whose Dialogo de la lengua was written in Naples ca 1535, though not published until 1737) owed far more to Bembo than had previously been recognized. In an important article (1955) that reinterprets the evidence and forces one to re-examine many widely accepted views and assumptions, Robson studies the complex web of relationships between Old French dialects, literary language and orthographical conventions (in particular, in the matter of the representation of vowels and diphthongs), suggesting inter alia that some historical grammarians have tended "to set up ideal phonological systems in imaginary dialects" (1955: 164) and arguing persuasively for a complete reappraisal of the Old French scripta and of the origins of the literary language. The diverse and conflicting views advanced by various scholars as to the origin of literary Old Occitan are critically surveyed by John Orr (in Orr 1963a: 192-199), who inclines to the view that what we have is a written form of the language that cannot be precisely localized. The history of the different approaches adopted towards the problem of establishing recognized norms for modern literary Occitan has been chronicled by Price (1964). On Rumanian, Elizabeth Close has recently (1974) published her very important study of the role of Ion Eliade Rädulescu and other earlynineteenth-century writers in establishing linguistic norms. She con-

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eludes (p. 254) that their activity was "decisive for the subsequent development of the vocabulary and syntax of literary Rumanian" and that, though their views were not always accepted by later writers, "ultimately . . . theorists and writers realized that Eliade and his colleagues had found the most acceptable solutions to the major problems involved in the creation of a modern literary language". A general survey of work carried out since 1958 on problems of language standardization in the Romance field is offered by Price (1976). A topic related to that of language standardization is that of attitudes to and theories of language, particularly important at the time of the Renaissance. This has preoccupied Read and Trethewey in various articles, of which Read-Trethewey (1976) and Read (1977) relate the most directly to our field. 15. Languages in contact The much-debated question of Celtic substratic influence on Romance has been revived by Griffith who wonders (1975) whether the gorgia toscana could be attributed to the influence of a Celtic substratum. The interaction of the French and English languages has, not unnaturally, long been a subject of interest and study. The linguistic consequences, for both languages, of the period of symbiosis following the Norman conquest of England in 1066 are considered in section 16, "Anglo-Norman", below. As far as more recent times are concerned, the influence of English on French was studied by Paul Barbier in two of the tracts of the Society for Pure English (Barbier 1922-1923) and, at about the same time, in two articles (1921, 1923), the first being devoted particularly to English loan-words in eighteenth-century French. John Orr (1935) wrote on anglicisms in French sporting vocabulary. The main contribution to this particular field of lexical influence is however Fräser Mackenzie's two volumes (1939) which provide, classified first by period (from the Middle Ages onward) and within each period by field of interest, an abundantly documented and exemplified survey of the English elements in French and the French elements in English. The principal post-Mackenzie contribution has been made by Stephen Ullmann in a series of articles, the first (1940) studying the evolution in the quantity of English borrowings into French in various fields (politics and administration, religion, daily life, etc.) from 1600 to 1815, and the others (1949a and b, 1950) examining the stylistic value of anglicisms in Müsset and Vigny. Ullmann also studies, in a chapter of his volume (1964) on style in the French novel, the use of Italian, Spanish and

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English elements respectively for purposes of local colour by Stendhal, Merimee and Vigny. Moss (1976) studies recent anglicisms in Italian. Hope has published (1971) a two-volume analysis of lexical borrowings between French and Italian which is not only the fullest and most reliable study of that particular field, superseding much previous work, but also an important contribution to the theory of lexical borrowing in general. Seeking both to explain WHY words are borrowed and to find an efficient description of the PROCESS of lexical interference, he stresses the importance of looking at lexical borrowings in the context of the pre-existing lexical resources of the borrowing language and highlights the concept of "lexical defectivity or inadequacy remedied by the creation of neologisms" (1971: 701). Some of these considerations had been previously elaborated by Hope in articles (1962-1963, 1963) and are supported by Goddard (1969, 1977b). Harvey has devoted considerable attention to the interaction of Arabic and Romance in Muslim-occupied Spain. In addition to publishing (1956-1964) various aljamiado texts (i.e. texts written in Spanish but in Arabic characters), he has studied (1960) a group of words in the Romance speech of the Moriscos (original Muslims who were nominally baptized Christians) that he derives from Arabic mahä, and has argued (1967) that a Morisco use of Castilian mancebo can only be explained as a semantic caique of Arabic 'abd. Ignacio Gonzälez-Llubera in his edition (1935) of the fourteenthcentury Spanish poem in Hebrew characters, the Coplas de Yo ef, finds that "a noteworthy feature is the absence of Hebraisms in the vocabulary", and comments that the work contrasts in this respect "with other Jewish productions in the vernacular, and also with Morisco literature in general" (1935: xxx). Non-literary medieval Judeo-Spanish texts showing considerable influence of Hebrew, Arabic and other non-Romance languages (such as Turkish) have been published by Cynthia Crews (1964, 1967), who also published various series of notes on medieval and modern Judeo-Spanish words (e.g. Crews 1952-1956, 1958-1961). Two fifteenth-century Portuguese texts in Hebrew characters are the subject of a note by I. Gonzälez-Llubera (1953). In fields other than the lexicon, the one major study to be noted is Whinnom's book (1956) on three of the four Spanish contact-vernaculars in the Philippines, tracing their origin and the process of creolization, and providing annotated prose and verse texts and a grammatical and phonological discussion of each language. Gifford has published notes (1969,1973) on two varieties of Spanish as

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spoken by South American Indians. Harvey, turning to possible syntactical influence of Arabic on Spanish, suggests (1968) that Arabic influence may well have contributed to the widespread use in Old Spanish of the constructions VERB + NOUN OF AGENT (Type: como sabes sabidor) or + VERB OF ACTION (Type: dar salto), though he does not claim that such constructions are owed exclusively to Arabic. 16. Anglo-Norman Although much still remains to be done by way of publication of texts and linguistic analysis, Anglo-Norman has long been a preoccupation of British scholars and indeed seems to be enjoying a revival of interest at the present time. One problem that has been much debated and may perhaps never be solved to the satisfaction of all is that of the precise linguistic status of Anglo-Norman. Was it ever a thriving and widely used form of everyday speech or was it never, for the majority of its users at least, anything more than a somewhat artificially acquired medium for use in certain registers only? In the introduction to his monumental study (1915) of the verb in Anglo-Norman, Tanquerey had no hesitation in rejecting Gaston Paris's view that "1'anglo-normand n'a jamais etc qu'une maniere imparfaite de parier le francais", claiming on the contrary that 'Tanglo-franc,ais [est] une langue avec son unite et son developpement" (1915: i, v); furthermore, Tanquerey maintained that, although the language evolved rapidly - especially in its pronunciation — the influence of English upon it was minimal. Paul Studer's view, expressed in his Oxford inaugural lecture (1920), is similar: "Until the middle of the fourteenth century AngloNorman remained in every sense of the term a 'living' language, and the natural medium of expression of a considerable portion of the population, of the king's household, the nobility, the clergy, and even the merchants", and it was "not a jargon but an independent language, as homogeneous in character as the majority of French dialects" (1920:11). Studer's opposite number at Cambridge, Prior, was however to argue only three years later that "Panglo-normand a ete, en Angleterre, une langue purement artificielle" and that "les Normands, tout en important leur langue dans les ecoles n'ont pas pu eviter la decadence du fra^ais sous la pression de l'idiome et du genie national anglais" (1923: 170, 171). Some twenty years later, Legge (1941a) and Wilson (1943), working independently but each surveying a wide range of evidence of varying

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kinds, came to conclusions that are broadly similar, and more subtle than those quoted above: If a census of people's languages had been taken in the twelfth century, it would have been found that the upper classes talked French and understood a little English and that the lower classes talked English and hardly ever understood any French. If another had been taken in the fourteenth century, it would have been found that nobody talked French for preference, except perhaps the Court, but that there was nobody of any education who was not fluent in French of a kind, and that quite humble people were anxious to pick some up 'For to be i-tolde of (Legge 1941a: 174). A good deal of the evidence . . . is, to say the least, ambiguous . . . Yet it does suggest that during the period up to 1300 English probably remained the sole language of the lower classes; many of the middle and upper classes and lower clergy were probably bilingual, speaking English and French, or English and Latin; amongst the higher clergy trilingualism was probably not uncommon. Such a conclusion is perhaps not very definite, but it seems fairly clear that the displacement of English, as a spoken language, by French is unsupported by any considerable body of evidence. After 1300 there can be no doubt that English is the language of the country, though French survives for some time in Court circles, as a literary language and, of course, in the law (Wilson 1943: 60). Helen Suggett, in her Alexander Prize Essay (1946), produces a substantial amount of new evidence for the use of French, drawn mainly from unofficial documents such as the correspondence of members of the royal family and of religious houses, petitions, and legal deeds, and argues that French was extensively used as late as the 1370s, and that the quality of the language "seems to show that the French used in England was no mere accomplishment but that it was a true vernacular whose roots had penetrated into all classes of English society who could read and write" (1946: 79). One may at least query whether in fact the evidence is strong enough to support this last conclusion. The editor of the Anglo-Norman dictionary, William Rothwell, stresses rather the gradual weakening of the grip — which may never, or only briefly, have been a strong one — that Anglo-Norman had held on English society: Bien que dans les annees qui suivirent la Conquete Panglo-normand ait ete la langue maternelle de tous ceux qui accompagnerent le Conquerant. . ., il devint vite une langue acquise. La pression de

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1'anglais qui se parlait tout autour, de nombreux manages avec les femmes du pays occupe, le relächement progressif des liens qui unissaient l'Angleterre ä la Normandie, toutes ces choses contribuerent ä faire de l'anglo-normand une langue ä part. Loin d'etre devenue une langue nationale parlee par Pensemble des Anglais, cette forme de franc.ais devint assez tot une langue qui s'enseignait, qu'on apprenait dans les ecoles ou sous l'autorite de precepteurs. Langue de groupe, en somme, qui dut son extension ä son utilite dans les circonstances ou l'emploi du latin n'etait pas necessaire et lä ou le latin n'etait pas compris, cette forme de fran5ais devint un moyen de communication privilegie dans tous les milieux instruits de la population (Rothwell 1973a: 197-198). M. Dominica Legge has studied (1935) the use of Anglo-Norman in the law and has also shown (1950a) to what extent French rather than Latin was used amongst the regular clergy in England "for discussion and conversation within the cloister itself; for business transactions, letterwriting, and law-suits outside it; and for the edification and instruction of the laity" (1950a: 146). The accessibility of Anglo-Norman texts has been greatly enhanced by the activities of the Anglo-Norman Text Society. Since 1939, the Society has published twenty-two texts, the most substantial (not necessarily of course the most important in all respects) being the editions of a corpus of letters and petitions (Legge 1941b), the Life ofStModwenna (Baker-Bell 1947), the Romance of Horn by Thomas (Pope 1955), Geffrei Gaimar's Estoire des Engleis (Bell 1960), The Anglo Norman pseudo-Turpin chronicle of William of Briane (Short 1973), Fouke le Fitz Waryn (Hathaway et al. 1975), and The Anglo-Norman "Alexander" by Thomas of Kent (Foster 1976-1977). Anglo-Norman texts of primarily legal and administrative interest are published by the Camden Society, the Seiden Society and the Surtees Society. Other important literary texts published include editions of AngloNorman lapidaries by Studer and Evans (1924), of the Voyage of St Brendan by Waters (1928), and of Gui de Warewic by Ewert (1933c). An edition of Walter of Bibbesworth's treatise on the French Language is provided by Annie Owen (1929). The major British linguistic contributions to the study of AngloNorman are Tanquerey's now old but still serviceable treatise on the verb (1915) and Mildred K. Pope's section on Anglo-Norman (Pope 1934: 420-485). In an article (1967) on the origins of literary Anglo-Norman,

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Dominica Legge suggests that there is aprimafacie case, which calls for further investigation, for supposing that the dialects of Lower Normandy may have constituted a dominant influence. Studies of the language of particular texts are to be found in the introductions to most of the editions referred to above, particularly those of the Anglo-Norman Text Society, and in Mildred K. Pope's note (1952) on flexion and syntax in the Anglo-Norman rhymed Apocalypse. Otherwise, interest has tended to be directed primarily towards vocabulary, and in particular towards the question of the extent of English influence thereon. Among comparatively recent studies, Dominica Legge (1961) suggests, inter alia, that the lexicon is fairly free of English influence except in respect of technical terms, whereas W. Rothwell, in a study (1966) taking as its starting point the prefix de-Ides- and passing on to more general considerations, attributes divergence between Anglo-Norman and continental French in the matter of prefixation to the influence of English on French as used in England and comments that "the prefix de(s)- provides one example of the manner in which the French language was adapted to the English mind in what we call Anglo Norman" (1966: 39). More recently, he has devoted a substantial article (Rothwell 1976b) to a study of AngloNorman medical and botanical terminology. Rothwell also draws attention (1975) to the need for approaching the study of Anglo-Norman vocabulary without preconceived ideas. Studies of particular texts are provided by, for example, Pope's analysis (1953) of the use of titles of respect (sire, ami, dameisele, etc.) in the Romance of Horn and by Bell's articles on technical terms (1948, 1954) and military terms (1971) in Gaimar's Estoire des Engleis. Over half a century ago, Studer (1920: 26) commented on the need of a trustworthy dictionary felt by every student of Anglo-Norman, and, with a reference to the fact that he was at the time delivering a lecture to the University of Oxford, continued: "I would humbly suggest that an Oxford Dictionary of Anglo-Norman would constitute a worthy sequel to the English Dictionary." It was not until after the Second World War that, a comparison with existing Old French dictionaries having shown quite clearly "that a dictionary of Anglo-Norman really had a useful and necessary part to play" (Rothwell 1971-1972: 4), the preparation of a dictionary was undertaken by a team of scholars under the auspices of the Anglo-Norman Text Society. The principles and problems of the dictionary are discussed by its general editor, Rothwell (1971-1972), who also draws attention to some of the particular problems facing the AngloNorman lexicographer. Foremost amongst these is the fact that "in a

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language such as Anglo-Norman, untrammeled by rules of orthography and written by many a scribe for whom it was patently a foreign language, a word in current use may be found in ten, twenty, or even more spellings" — a difficulty that is made all the worse by frequent misreadings of manuscripts on the part of editors. The editor further exemplifies these and other difficulties in a later article in which he concludes (Rothwell 1973b: 256) that "in Anglo-Norman perhaps more than in any other field of French Studies one is so often brought face to face with oddities and irregularities that one is forced to ask whether any outline or even detailed survey of its phonology and morphology can be of much practical help to the reader. What is needed, primarily, is a determination to make good sense of a text, given its historical and literary background." The first fascicule of the dictionary has appeared (Stone-Rothwell 1977), covering A — CYVERE, and prospects seem good for publication of the complete work in the not too distant future. The extensive and undeniable influence of Anglo-Norman upon English, particularly in the field of vocabulary, has frequently been studied. We shall not here take account of work done by those whose interests lie primarily in the field of English studies but shall draw attention to the work of three British scholars in the Romance field. Mildred K. Pope chose the Anglo-Norman element in the English vocabulary as the topic of a public lecture in Oxford (1944), and discussed some of the principal spheres of activity (including administration and the law, the organization and hierarchy of the church, architecture, culinary and commercial activities) in which English drew extensively on AngloNorman. John Orr, in another public lecture also delivered in Oxford (1948a, reprinted in Orr 1953a), sought to go further than the search for French influences on English vocabulary and to "inquire whether there are not to be detected in the deeper fabric of our language hidden strands of French modes of speech which affect not only its use of words but its very structure, and consequently condition in a measure the processes of our thoughts, and determine, to some extent at least, our attitude of mind" (1948a: 4). He hoped to have demonstrated that the matter of French semantic and syntactical 'caiques' was worthy of fuller investigation. This task he was later to take upon himself: by far the greater part of a book (1962b) he devoted to French influence in English idiom is given up to the discussion of over 350 parallels in turns of speech or word usage that, Orr claims, involve either a French word or a French idiom expressed in English words. Particular examples are further developed in some of Orr's many articles, the most important of which are reprinted in the

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volume Words and sounds in English and French (Orr 1953a). R. L. Graeme Ritchie, taking into account Lowland Scots as well as English, was able to find in these two forms of Anglo-Saxon speech earlier attestations than those given in the Oxford English Dictionary for some 180 French loan-words (Ritchie 1928, 1939). Anglo-Norman influence on Welsh was studied by Morgan Watkin who argued (1920) that French loan-words in medieval Welsh entered the language directly from Anglo-Norman and not via English. 17. Conclusion In view of the very wide range of topics that have engaged and continue to engage the interest of British scholars in the Romance field, and the diversity of approaches adopted, the general impression one gets is of a mass of valuable but uncoordinated work. No major research school of international standing has been developed under the leadership of a British scholar, and no well defined theme or method characterizes the whole, or even the greater part of the whole. It is therefore verging on the impossible to make, by way of conclusion, many general comments. It is perhaps fair to observe that, in general, British romanistes have tended to be data-oriented rather than theory-oriented — though, of late, transformational-generative grammar, case grammar and relational grammar have been catching on among Romance linguists as well as others in Britain and one can look forward with some confidence to important contributions in these fields. Not unconnected with this preoccupation with data rather than theory is the fact that the work covered in the present survey, if often (but by no means always) cautious and indeed sometimes unimaginative, is usually solidly based and reliable. There has been a marked tendency to avoid both, at an earlier period, the bewitched forests of luxuriant etymological extravaganza, and, at the present time, some of the more arid and less fruitful fields that have lately become fashionable. It is worth noting that there are distinct signs of a coming together of Romance linguists specializing in different languages, and of different theoretical persuasions. This is seen particularly in the Romance Linguistics Seminar that has been held at Cambridge annually since 1973, bringing together some twenty or thirty specialists in the Gallo-Romance, Hispanic and Italian fields, many of them also having Rumanian as a secondary interest. The participants include both well-established scholars and young researchers, both 'traditionalists' and 'modernists'. The impression the present writer has is that, though one or two

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'traditionalists' were soon discouraged and one or two 'modernists' may have been somewhat impatient of anything 'non-generative', there is among the group as a whole a disposition to accord due recognition to the worth of the past and present achievements of the 'historicists', and a readiness on the part of those brought up in an earlier tradition to adopt an open-minded and in many cases sympathetic and even receptive attitude towards recent developments in linguistics, in particular perhaps in the fields of grammar, semantics and sociolinguistics. Bibliography Aston, Stanley C. 1953 Peirol, troubadour of Auvergne (Cambridge: U.P.). Bach, Kathryn, F. - Glanville Price 1977 Romance linguistics and the Romance languages: a bibliography of bibliographies (London: Grant & Cutler). Bagley, C. P. 1967 "Paratge in the anonymous Chanson de la Croisade Albigeoise", FS21: 195-204. Baker, A. T. - A . Bell 1947 St Modwenna (Oxford: Anglo-Norman Text Society 7). Barbier, Paul 1921 "Loan-words from English in eighteenth-century French", MLR 16: 138-149 and 252-264. 1922-23 English influence on the French vocabulary (= Society for Pure English, Tracts VII and XIII) (Oxford: U.P.). 1923 "Some notes on English influence in the vocabulary of written French", ML, 4: 139-146 and 175-182. 1925-52 "Miscellanea lexicographica. Etymological and lexicographical notes on the French language and on the Romance dialects of France", Proceedings of the Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society, Vols I-VI. Barnett, Francis J. 1959 "'Virginity' in the Old French Sequence of Saint Eulalia", FS 13: 252-256. 1961 "Some notes to the Sequence of Saint Eulalia", Studies in medieval French presented to Alfred Ewert (Oxford: U.P.) 1-25. 1965 "The origin of the lui-lei forms in Romance", TPhS 1965: 97-104. 1972 "The development of the Old French possessives of singular person reference", History and structure of French. Essays in the honour of Professor T. B. W. Reid (Oxford: Blackwell) 1-17. Bell, A. 1948 "Glossarial and textual notes on Gaimar's Estoire des Engleis", MLR 43: 39-46. 1954 "Further glossarial notes on Gaimar's Estoire des Engleis", MLR 49: 308-321. 1960 Geffrei Gaimar, L'Estoire des Engleis (Oxford: Anglo-Norman Text Society 14-16 [in one volume]). 1971 "Notes on Gaimar's military vocabulary", MAev 40: 93-103. Bladon, R. A. W. 1970 "Phonotactics in a generative grammar of Old Provengal", TPhS 1970: 91-114. Blakey, Brian 1965 "The scribal process", Medieval miscellany presented to Eugene Vinaver (Manchester: U.P.): 19-27. 1967 "On the text of Beroul's Tristran", FS 21: 99-103. 1976 "Further comments on the text of Beroul's Tristran", FS 30: 129-139.

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Blanc, M. H. A. 1965 "Time and tense in Old French narrative", ArchL. 16: 96-124. Brasington, R. W. P. 1971 "Noun pluralization in Brazilian Portuguese", JL 7: 151-177. 1973 "Reciprocal rules in Catalan phonology", JL 9: 25-33. 1974 "On the phonological interpretation of Catalan sibilants". ArchL new series, 5: 11-24. Brown, P. M. 1966 "The conception of the literary 'volgare' in the linguistic writings of Lionardo Salviati", 7521: 57-90. Burgess, G. S. 1970 Contribution a l'etude du vocabulaire pre-courtois (Geneve: Droz). 1973 "Orgueil andfierte in 12th-century French", ZRPh 89: 103-122. 1974 "Talent in early Old French (to 1150)", Romania 95: 443-466. Clifford, Paula M. 1973 Inversion of the subject in French narrative prose from 1500 to the present day (= Publications of the Philological Society 25) (Oxford: Blackwell). 1974 "The grammarian's view of French word order in the 16th century", PhQ 53: 380-388. Close, Elizabeth 1974 The development of modern Rumanian. Linguistic theory and practice in Munlenia, 1821-1838 (London: Oxford U.P.). Coleman, Robert 1971 "The monophthongization of/ae/and the vulgar Latin vowel system", TPhS 1971: 175-191. 1974 "The monophthongization of Latin ae: a reply", TPhS 1974: 86-92. Collas, J. P. 1939 "A note on final consonants in the Poitevin area", Studies in French language and mediaeval French literature presented to Professor M. K. Pope (Manchester: U.P.): 71-77. Coustenoble, Helene N. 1945 La phonetique du provenqal moderne en terre d'Arles (Hertford: Stephen Austin). Cremona, Joseph 1953 "Le probleme des voyelles d'appui dans la reduction des proparoxytons en gascon", VllCongreso internacional de lingüistica romanica (Barcelona, 1953). Actas y memorias, 2 vols, 1955-57 (Barcelona: Boletin dedialectologia espanola 33,34), Vol. 2: 673-678. 1954 "A localized aspect of Gascon phonology", MLR 49: 469-472. Crews, Cynthia M. 1935 Recherches sur le judeo-espagnol dans les pays balkaniques (Paris: Droz). 1952-56 "Notes on Judaeo-Spanish", Proceedings of the Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society (Literary and historical section) 7 (1952-1955): 192-199 and 217-230; 8 (1956-1959): 1-18. 1958-61 "Miscellanea Hispano-Judaica", VR 16: 224-245; 20: 13-38. 1964 "A Judeo-Spanish medical MS (ca 1400-1450)", VR 22: 192-218; corrigenda in VR 24 (1965): 132-133. 1967 "One hundred medical recipes in Judeo-Spanish of ca 1600", Revue d'Etudes Juives 126: 203-263. Currie, M. 1973 "Some notes on hypothetical sentences in fifteenth and sixteenth century French", Studies in medieval literature and languages in memory of Frederick Whitehead (Manchester: U.P.) 67-89.

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Dionisotti, C. 1960 Edition of P. Bembo, Prose e rime (Turin). 1968 Gli umanisti e il volgare fra Quattro e Cinquecento (Firenze: Le Monnier). Dionisotti, C. - C. Grayson 1949 Early Italian texts (Oxford: Blackwell). [Second edition, corrected and enlarged, 1965.] Diverres, A. H. 1972 "Laurent Joubert's system of orthography between 1578 and 1582", History and structure of French. Essays in the honour of Professor T. B. W. Reid (Oxford: Blackwell) 89-97. Elcock, W. D. 1938 De quelques affiniles phonatiques entre l'aragonais et le bearnais (Paris: Droz). 1940 "The enigma of the lizard in Aragonese dialect", MLR 35: 483-493. 1949 "A semantic group in Alpine Romance: Rheto-Rom. agör. Beam., Basque agor, abor, Arag. agüerro". Studies in French language, literature and history presented to R. L. Graeme Ritchie (Cambridge: U.P.) 41-47. 1950 "The evolution of -LL- in the Aragonese dialect", Actas del primer congreso internacional de pireneistas del Instituto de estudios pirenaicos (San Sebastian, 1950), Zaragoza, 1952, 7: 9-21. 1952 "Problems of chronology in the Aragonese dialect", Melanges de linguisüque et de (literature romanes offerts a Mario Roques (Paris: Didier) 4: 103-111. 1953a "Substrats phonetiques dans les parlers romans des Pyrenees", VII congreso internacional de lingüistica romanica (Barcelona, 1953). Actas y memorias, 2 vols, 1955-57 (Barcelona: Boletin de dialectologia espanola, 33, 34), Vol. 2: 695697. 1953b "Pleine sa hanste", FS 7: 35-47. 1960 The Romance languages (London: Faber). [Second edition, revised with a new introduction by John N. Green, 1975.] England, John 1976 "'Dicho Rachel e Vidas'. Subject-verb agreement in Old Spanish", MLR 71: 812-826. Entwistle, William J. 1936 The Spanish language together with Portuguese, Catalan and Basque (London: Faber). Evans, D. 1964 "Les rapports des domaines franco-provensal et occitan eclaires par la terminologie ornithologique", IVe congres de langue et litterature d'oc et d'etudes francoprovenqales (Editions de la Revue de langue et litterature d'oc) 183-191. 1967 Lanier: histoire d'un mot (Geneve: Droz). Ewert, Alfred 1929-30 "On textual criticism, with special reference to Anglo-Norman", Arthuriana 2: 56-69. 1933a The French language (London: Faber). [Second edition 1943, reprinted with additional bibliography, 1966.] 1933b "L'accident du vers 2242 de la Chanson de Roland", Romania 59: 81-82. 1933c Gui de Warewic (= Classiques fra^ais du moyen age 74-75) (Paris: Champion). 1935 "The Strasburg Oaths", TPhS 1935: 16-35. 1939-70 Beroul, The romance of Tristran (Oxford: Blackwell). 1940 "Dante's theory of language", MLR 35: 355-366. 1959 "Dante's theory of diction", Bulletin of the Modern Humanities Research Association 31: 15-30. Fletcher, D. J. 1977 "The emergence of patriotisme", Semasia 4: 1-14.

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Foster, B. 1952 "Fe, fee and maufe", FS 6: 345-352. 1963 "Pascal's use of abetir", FS 17: 1-13. 1976-77 The Anglo-Norman "Alexander" by Thomas of Kent (Oxford: Anglo-Norman Text Society 29-31, 32-33). Fox, John 1958 "L'affaiblissement de r devant consonne dans la syllabe protonique en moyen fran9ais", RLiR 22: 92-97. Fox, John - R. Wood 1968 A concise history of the French language (Oxford: Blackwell). George, K. E. M. 1967a "Faire la futaine, flutaine, fuitaine", RLiR 31: 272-281. 1967b "L'expression faire (de) la toile en gallo-roman". Romania 88: 540-547. 1970 "Expressions figurees empruntees au jargon du tisserand". RLiR 34: 395-402. 1971 "L'emploi analogique de quelques noms d'etoffes dans le domaine gallo-roman", Melanges de philologie romane dedies a la memoire de Jean Boutiere (Liege: Ed. Soleil) 267-278. 1976 "The substantival use of the infinitive in modern French", SNPh 48: 205-210. 1977 Les designations du tisserand dans le domaine gallo-roman (= ZRPh, Beiheft 163) (Tübingen: Niemeyer). Gifford, D. J. 1969 "Serrano speech: Notes on the Mestizo dialect of S.E. Peru", FMLS 5: 162179. 1973 "Field-notes on the morphosyntax of Chaco-Spanish", Studio Iberica: Festschrift für Hans Flasche (Tübingen: Niemeyer), 167-174. Gifford, D. J. - F. W. Hodcroft 1959 Textos lingüisticos del medioevo espanol (Oxford: Dolphin). [Second, revised edition 1966.] Goddard, K. A. 1969 "Loan-words and lexical borrowing in Romance", RLiR 33: 337-348. 1977a "Bibliographie des etudes des mots d'emprunt dans les langues romanes. I. Les influences etrangeres sur le vocabulaire roumain", RLiR 41: 162-189. 1977b "Some linguistic considerations affecting loan-words and lexical borrowing in Romance", Semasia 4: 101-114. Gonzälez-Llubera, I. 1935 Cop/05 de Kofe/(Cambridge: U.P.). 1953 "Two Old Portuguese astrological texts in Hebrew characters", RomPh 6: 267272. Grayson, Cecil 1955 "Appunti sulla lingua d'Alberti", LN 16: 105-110. 1959 Edition of Vincenzo Calmeta, Prose e lettere (Bologna: Commissione per i testi di lingua). 1960 A Renaissance controversy: Latin or Italian? (Oxford: U.P.). 1960-73 Edition of L. B. Alberti, Opere volgari, 3 vols (Bari: Laterza). 1963 "Dante e la prosa volgare", // Verri, 9: 6-26. 1964 Edition of L. B. Alberti, La prima grammatica della lingua volgare. La grammatichetta Vaticana (Bologna: Commissione per i testi di lingua). Green, John Nigel 1972 "Spanish conditionals: systems or rules?" ArchL new series 3: 75-85. 1975 "On the frequency of passive constructions in modern Spanish", BHS 52: 345362. 1976 "How free is word order in Spanish?", Romance syntax: synchronic and diachronic perspectives, ed. M. Harris (Salford: University of Salford): 7-32.

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T. Gwynfor "De italicapronundatione . . .", IS 8: 71-82. Avventure linguistiche del Cinquecento (Florence: Biblioteca del Saggiatore). Italian writers and the "Italian" language (Hull: University of Hull Publications). "Reflections on a problem of linguistic substratum", Bulletin of the John Rylands Library 58: 112-136. 1976 "Giangiorgio Trissino and the Italian language", Hermathena 121: 169-184. Hackett, W. Mary 1953-55 Girart de Roussillon, 3 vols (Paris: Societe des anciens textes fran9ais). 1970 La langue de Girart de Roussillon (Geneve: Droz). 1967 "Le plus-que-parfait latin dans Girart de Roussillon", RLiR 31: 282-291. Hamilton, Rita 1953 "Jean de Valdes and some Renaissance theories of language", BHS 30: 125133. Hamlin, F. R. - P. T. Ricketts - J. Hathaway 1967 Introduction a l'etude de landen provenqal: textes d'etude (Geneve: Droz). Hantrais, Linda 1976 Le vocabulaire de Georges Brassens (Paris: Klincksieck). Harmer, Lewis C. 1954 The French language today (London: Hutchinson). 1963 "La variete et le subjonctif", FM 31: 262-268. 1965 "The present state of French", FMLS 1: 250-265 and 376-390. 1980 Uncertainties in French Grammar, edited by. P. Rickard and T. G. S. Combe (Cambridge: U.P.). Harris, Martin 1970 "The verbal systems of Latin and French", TPhS 1970: 62-90. 1971 "The history of the conditional complex from Latin to Spanish: some structural considerations", ArchL new series, 2: 25-33. 1972a "Problems of deep and surface structure, as reflected in a diachronic analysis of the French verbal system", JL 8: 267-281. 1972b "Systems or rules: a false dichotomy?", ArchL new series, 3: 87-93. 1974 "The subjunctive mood as a changing category in Romance", in Historical linguistics edited by J. Anderson and C. Jones (Amsterdam: North Holland) 2: 169-188. 1975 "Some problems for a case grammar of Latin and early Romance", JL 11: 183-194. 1976 "A typological approach to word-order in French", in Romance syntax: Synchronic and diachronic perspectives, ed. M. Harris (Salford: University of Salford): 33-53. 1977 "Demonstratives', 'articles' and 'third person pronouns' in French: changes in progress", ZRPh 93: 249-261. 1978 The evolution of French syntax. A comparative approach (London: Longman). Harris, Roy 1966 "Gallo-Romance third declension plurals", RLiR 30: 57-70. 1967 "Piedmontese influence on Valdötain syntax", RLiR 31: 180-189. 1968 "Notes on a problem of Franco-Provengal morphology", ZRPh 84: 572-581. 1969 "Pronominal postposition in Valdötain", RLiR 33: 133-143. 1970 "The Strasburg Oaths: a problem of orthographic interpretation", RLiR 34: 403-406. 1972 "Words and word criteria in French", History and structure of French. Essays in the honour of Professor T. B. W. Reid (Oxford: Blackwell) 117-133. Harvey, L. P. 1956-64 Editions of aljamiado texts in Al-Andalus, 1956, 297-302; 1958, 50-74; 1962, 461-465; 1964, 373-376.

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"Amaho, desamaho, maho, amahar. . .: a family of words common to the Spanish speech of the Jews and of the Moriscos", BHS 37: 69-74. 1967 "Castilian mancebo as a caique of Arabic 'abd, or how el Mancebo de Arevalo got his name", MPh 65: 130-132. 1968 "Una nota sobre las 'formas descompuestas' en el espanol antiguo", RFE 51: 239-242. Hathaway, E. J. - P. T. Ricketts - C. A. Robson - A. D. Wilshere 1975 Fouke le Fit z Waryn (Oxford: Anglo-Norman Text Society 26-28). Hemming, T. D. 1968 "Lexicology and Old French", MLR 63: 818-823. Hodcroft, Frederick W. 1961 "Se desea informed, BHS 38: 25-27. Holden, A. J. 1968 "Note sur la langue de Beroul", Romania 89: 387-399. 1970-73 Wace, Roman de Rou, 3 vols (Paris: Societe des anciens textes frangais). Hope, Thomas Edward 1962-63 "Loan-words as cultural and lexical symbols". ArchL 14: 111-121; 15: 29-42. 1963 "The process of neologism reconsidered with reference to lexical borrowing in Romance", TPHS 1963: 46-84. 1971 Lexical borrowing in the Romance languages. A critical study of italianisms in French and gallicisms in Italian from 1100 to 1900, 2 vols (Oxford: Blackwell). 1973 "Gallicisms in Dante's Divina Commedia: a stylistic problem?" Studies in medieval literature and languages in memory of Frederick Whitehead (Manchester: U.P.) 153-172. Hurren, H. Anthony 1969 "Verbal aspect and archi-aspect in Istro-Rumanian", Linguistique 2: 59-90. lordan, lorgu - John Orr 1937 An introduction to Romance linguistics. Its schools and scholars (London: Methuen). 1970 An introduction to Romance linguistics. Its schools and scholars, revised, with a supplement by R. Posner (Oxford: Blackwell). Johnston, R. C. 1935 Les poesies lyriques du troubadour Arnaut de Mareuil (Paris: Droz). 1939 "How close Ο tonic and free became 0. A discussion of some current theories", Studies in French language and mediaeval French literature presented to Professor M. K. Pope (Manchester: U.P.) 215-224. 1963 "Hoese 'boot' in the Chanson de Roland", MLR 58: 391-392. Kastner, L. E. 1932-37 "Notes on the poems of Bertran de Born", MLR 27: 398-419; 28: 37-49; 29: 142-149; 31: 20-33; 32: 169-221. Legge, M. Dominica 1929-30 "Recent methods of textual criticism", Arthuriana 2: 48-55. 1935 "French and the law", Year books of Edward II. Vol. XXI (= Publications of the Seiden Society 54), xxxviii-xliv. 1941a "Anglo-Norman and the historian", History 26: 163-175. 1941b Anglo-Norman letters and petitions (Oxford: Anglo-Norman Text Society 3). 1950a "The French language and the English cloister". Medieval studies presented to Rose Graham (London: Oxford U.P.) 146-162. 1950b "Anglo-Norman studies today", RLiR 17: 213-222. 1956a "Les renges de s'espethe", Romania 77: 88-93. 1956b "The unerring bow", MAev 25: 79-83. 1971 "Some notes on Anglo-Norman vocabulary". Studies in medieval French presented to Alfred Ewert (Oxford: U.P.) 214-231.

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1967 "Les origines de l'anglo-normand litteraire", RLiR 31: 44-54. Lepschy, Anna Laura - Giulio Lepschy 1977 The Italian language today (London: Hutchinson). Lepschy, Giulio C. 1962 "Fonematica veneziana", ID 25: 1-22. 1963a "On the segmental phonemes of Venetian and their classification", Word 19: 53-66. 1963b "Morfologia veneziana", ID 26: 129-144. 1964 "Note sulla fonematica italiana", ID 27: 53-67. 1968 "Note su accento e intonazione con riferimento all'italiano", Word 24: 270285. Linskill, J. 1937 Saint Leger. Etude de la langue du manuscrit de Clermont-Ferrand suivie d'une edition critique du texte (Paris: Droz). 1964 The poems of the troubadour Raimbaut de Vaqueiras (The Hague: Mouton). Mackenzie, Fräser 1939 Les relations de l'Angleterre et de la France d'apres le vocabulaire, 2 vols (Paris: Droz). McMillan, D. 1940-49 La chanson de Guillaume, 2 vols (Paris: Societe des anciens textes frangais). 1953 "Old French conreer and its derivatives", Studies in Romance philology and French literature presented to John Orr (Manchester: U.P.) 177-187. 1970 "Note de syntaxe medievale: la particule re- en ancien frangais", RLiR 34: 1-15. 1971 "Remarques sur esmer-aimer", TLL 9: 209-228. 1972 Le Charroi de Nimes (Paris: Klincksieck) [Second, revised edition, 1978]. 1973 "Le suifde cheminee", TLL 11: 199-206. Macpherson, Ian R. 1961 "Associative interference in object-pronoun combinations in Navarre and Aragon", BHS38: 28-31. 1967 "Past participle agreement in Old Spanish: transitive verbs", BHS 44: 241-254. 1968 "Old Spanish sobrado", ZRPh 84: 586-592. 1975 Spanish phonology: descriptive and historical (Manchester: U.P.). Marshall, J. H. 1969 The "Donatz Proensals" of Uc Faidit (London: Oxford U.P.). 1972 The "Razos de Trobar" of Raimon Vidal and associated texts (London: Oxford U.P.). Meiklejohn, M. F. 1955 "On the shortening of certain abstract nouns in the Duecento", IS 10: 51-58. 1964 "Gli uccelli sardi nello specchio della lingua: saggio di Wörter und Sachen", ID 27: 222-249. Mellor, G. 1966 "Some comments on the text of the Franco-Italian Roland", MLR 61: 401-408. Michael, Ian 1976 Poema de mio Cid (Madrid: Castalia). Migliorini, Bruno - T. Gwynfor Griffith 1966 The Italian Language (London: Faber). Moss, H. K. 1976 "Borrowings from English in recent Italian", Trivium 11: 49-63. Nandri§, Grigore 1951 "The development and structure of Rumanian", SEER 30: 7-39. Newcombe, T. 1971 "The troubadour Berenger de Palazol, a critical edition of his poems", Nottingham Medieval Studies 15: 54-95.

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Of ford, M. H. 1971 "The use of the personal pronoun subject in post-position in fourteenth-century French", Romania 92: 37-64 and 200-245. 1976a "Sur 1'imparfait de l'indicatif et le futur du verbe estre en frangais medieval", ILL 14: 161-228. 1976b "Reflexions sur la construction du frangais medieval demonstrate/ + phrase relative avec adverbe locatif'\ Romania 97: 195-217. 1976c "Negation in Berinus: a contribution to the study of negation in fourteenth century French", ZRPh 92: 313-385. Orr, John 1935 "Les anglicismes du vocabulaire sportif", FM 3: 293-311. 1939 "On homonymics", Studies in French language and mediaeval French literature presented to Professor M.K, Pope (Manchester: U.P.) 253-297. 1948a The impact of French upon English (The Taylorian Lecture, 1948) (Oxford: U.P.). 1948b "Linguistic geography as a corrective to etymology", TPhS 1948: 81-91. 1950 "Le fran9ais aimer". Melanges de linguistique et de litterature romanes offerts ä Mario Roques (Paris: Didier) 1: 217-227. 1953a Words and sounds in English and French (Oxford: Blackwell). 1953b "Homonymie et philologie", VII congreso internacional de lingüistica romanica (Barcelona, 1953). Actas y memorias, 2 vols, 1955-57 (Barcelona: Boletin de dialectologia espanola, Vols 33, 34), 2: 621-626. 1962a Three studies on homonymics (Edinburgh: U.P.) 1962b Old French and modern English idiom (Oxford: Blackwell). 1962c "Songer, penser et soigner, d'apres YALF\ RLiR 26: 395-402. 1963a Essais d'etymologie et de philologie fran^aises (Paris: Klincksieck). 1963b "La poupee etude de geographic linguistique", RLiR 27: 295-321. 1969 "On homonymics", ArchL 17, 1965 [1969]: 77-90. Owen, Annie 1929 Le traite de Walter de Bibbesworth sur la langue franqaise (Paris: P.D.F.). Palmer, L. R. 1954 The Latin language (London: Faber). Pattison, D. G. 1967 "The date of the Cantor de mio Cid: a linguistic approach", MLR 62: 443-450. 1973 "The Latin suffix -ATICU in early Old Spanish", VR 32: 60-65. 1975a "Suffixed tree-nouns and grove-nouns in early Old Spanish", Neophilologus 59: 242-253. 1975b Early Spanish suffixes (= Publications of the Philological Society 27) (Oxford: Blackwell). Pelan, Margaret 1954 "The nominal suffix -tin(e)", MLR 49: 13-22. Penny, R. J. 1969 El habla pasiega: ensayo de dialectologia montahesa (London: Tamesis). 1972a "Verb-class as a determiner of stem-vowel in the historical morphology of Spanish verbs", RLiR 36: 343-359. 1972b "The re-emergence of III as a phoneme of Castilian", ZRPh 88: 463-482. 1974 "The convergence of B, V and -P- in the Peninsula: a reappraisal", Medieval Hispanic studies presented to Rita Hamilton, ed. A. D. Deyermond (London: Tamesis) 149-159. Pierce, Frank 1973 Luis de Camöes: "Os Lusiadas" (Oxford: U.P.). Pope, Mildred K. 1934 From Latin to modern French with especial consideration of Anglo-Norman (Manchester: U.P.). [second edition 1952.]

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1936 "Notes on some ambiguous passages in the Chanson de Roland", MAev 5: 1-10. 1944 The Anglo-Norman element in our vocabulary: its significance for our civilization (The Philip Maurice Deneke Lecture) (Manchester: U.P.). 1952 "A note on the flexion and syntax of the Anglo-Norman rhymed Apocalypse", Melanges de linguistique et de litterature romanes offerts a Mario Roques (Paris: Didier) 3: 237-242. 1953 "Titles of respect in the Romance of Horn", Studies in Romance philology and French literature presented to John On (Manchester: U.P.) 226-232. 1955 Thomas, The Romance of Horn, 2 vols (Oxford: Anglo-Norman Text Society 9-10; the second vol., ANTS 12-13, revised and completed by T. B. W. Reid, 1964). Posner, Rebecca 1961a Consonantal dissimilation in the Romance languages (= Publications of the Philological Society 19) (Oxford: Blackwell). 1961b "The imperfect endings in Romance", TPhS 1961: 17-55. 1963 "Phonology and analogy in the formation of the Romance imperfect", RomPh 17: 419-431. 1965 "Romance imperfect and conditional endings — a further contribution", SNPh 37: 3-10. 1966 The Romance languages (New York: Anchor Books). 1971a "The generative generation and French phonology", RomPh 24: 625-633. 1971b "On synchronic and diachronic rules: French nasalisation", Lingua 27: 184-197. 1972 "Aspects of aspect and tense in French", RomPh, 26: 94-111. 1974 "Ordering of historical phonological rules in Romance", TPhS 1974: 98-187. Price, Glanville 1961 "Aspects de l'ordre des mots dans les Chroniques de Froissart", ZRPh 77: 15-48. 1962a "The negative particles pas, mie and point in French", ArchL 14: 14-34. 1962b "Aspects de l'emploi des particules negatives en occitan", Actes du Xe congres international de linguistique etphilologie romanes (Strasbourg, 1962) (Paris: Klincksieck 1965) 1: 265-271. 1964 "The problem of modern literary Occitan", ArchL 16: 34-53. 1965 "Bibliographie de la syntaxe occitane", SNPh 37: 279-300; supplements in SNPh, 41 (1969): 62-64; 43 (1971): 72-75; 44 (1972): 27-29; 47 (1975): 76-78; 50 (1978): 289-291. 1966 "Contribution ä l'etude de la syntaxe des pronoms personnels sujets en ancien frangais", Romania 87: 476-504. 1968 "Quel est le röle de l'opposition cist/cil en ancien frangais?", Romania 89: 240253. 1969a The present position of minority languages in western Europe. A selective bibliography (Cardiff: University of Wales Press). [First supplement, Orbis 21 (1972): 235-247; Second supplement, Orbis 25 (1976): 162-175.] 1969b "La transformation du Systeme frangais des demonstratifs", ZRPh 85: 489-505. 1971 The French language: present and past (London: Arnold). 1973 "Sur le pronom personnel sujet postpose en ancien fran$ais", RRom 8: 226-236. 1976 "Language standardization in the Romance field: a survey of recent work", Semasia 3: 7-32. Prior, . . 1923 "Remarques sur 1'anglo-normand", Romania 49: 161-185. Pullum, Geoffrey K. 1976 "Sequential and simultaneous rule application in Spanish phonology", Lingua 38: 221-262. Radford, Andrew 1975 "Pseudo-relatives and the unity of subject raising", ArchL new series, 6: 32-64.

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"On the non-transformational nature of syntax: synchronic and diachronic evidence from Romance causatives", Romance syntax: synchronic and diachronic perspectives, ed. M. Harris (Salford: University of Salford) 69-95. 1977 Italian syntax. Transformational and relational grammar (Cambridge: U.P.). Ramsden, H. 1960 "The question of Arabic influence in Spanish weak-pronoun collocation", MLR 55: 33-39. 1961 "The use of α + PERSONAL PRONOUN in Old Spanish", BHS 38: 42-54. 1963 Weak-pronoun position in the early Romance languages (Manchester: U.P.). Read, Μ. Κ. 1977 "A linguistic perspective on the town-country debate in the Spanish Renaissance", Journal of Hispanic Philology 1: 195-208. Read, M. K. - J. Trethewey 1976 "Two Renaissance contributions to the semantic analysis of language", VR 35: 1-12. Rees, J. W. 1958 "Medieval Spanish uviar and its transmission", BHS 35: 125-137. 1959 "Notes on the text of the Vida de Santa Maria Egipciaca", Hispanic studies in honour of I. Gonzalez Llubera (Oxford: Dolphin) 259-268. Reid, Thomas B. W. 1933 "Old French giens, Provengal ges, Catalan gens", MAev 2: 64-67. 1939a "Notes on French syntax", MLR 34: 541-549. 1939b 'Won, nen and ne with finite verbs in French", Studies in French language and mediaeval French literature presented to Professor M. K. Pope (Manchester: U.P.) 305-313. 1949 "Grammar, grimoire, glamour, gomorei\ Studies in French language, literature and history presented to R. L. Graeme Ritchie (Cambridge: U.P.) 181-188. 1953 "L'heure du berger". Studies in Romance philology and French literature presented to John ΟΛΑ (Manchester: U.P.) 12-17. 1955 "On the analysis of the tense-system of French", RLiR 19: 23-38. 1964 "On the interpretation of Beroul, Tristran, 4223-5", Romania 85: 366-367. 1965a "On the text of the Tristran of Beroul", Medieval miscellany presented to Eugene Vinaver (Manchester: U.P.) 263-288. 1965b "The Tristran of Beroul: one author or two?" MLR 60: 352-358. 1965c "Old French acroire sor s'ame", Australian Journal of French Studies 2: 1-8. 1969 "A further note on the language of Beroul", Romania 90: 382-390. 1970 "Verbal aspect in modern French", The French language. Studies presented to L. C. Harmer (London: Harrap) 146-171. 1972 The Tristran of Beroul: a textual commentary (Oxford: Blackwell). 1973 "A note on homonymic convergence: aimer/esmer", Studies in medieval literature and language in memory of Frederick Whitehead (Manchester: U.P.) 229-238. Reynolds, Barbara 1949 "Sentir Messa", MLR 44: 490-503. 1950 The linguistic writings ofAlessandro Manzoni. A textual and chronological reconstruction (Cambridge: Heffer). Rickard, Peter 1959 "The rivalry of m(a), t(a), s(a), and man, ton, son before feminine nouns in Old and Middle French", ArchL 11: 21-47 and 115-147. 1961 "Tanz and fois with cardinal numbers in Old and Middle French", Studies in medieval French presented to Alfred Ewert (Oxford: U.P.) 194-213. 1962 "The word-order object-verb-subject in medieval French", TPhS 1962: 1-39. 1963 "Chascun jour et tous les jours en fransais medioval", Romania 84: 256-273.

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1964 "Toute jour, tout le jour et toute la journee en francais medieval", Romania 85: 145-180. 1968 La langue /ranpaise au seizieme siede (Cambridge: U.P.). 1970 "(II) estuet, (il) convient, (il) faut and their constructions in Old and Middle French", The French language. Studies presented to L. C. Harmer (London: Harrap) 65-92. 1974 A history of the French language (London: Hutchinson). 1976 Chrestomathie de la langue franqaise au quinzieme siede (Cambridge: U.P.). Ricketts, P. T. 1964 Les poesies de Guilhem de Montanhagol (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies). 1976 Le Breviari d'Amor de Matfre Ermengaud, vol. 5 (Leiden: Brill). Ritchie, R. L. Graeme 1907 Recherches sur la syntaxe de la conjunction "que" dans fanden frangais (Paris: Champion). 1928 "Early instances of French loan-words in Scots and English", Englische Studien 63: 41-58. 1939 "Early instances of French loan-words in Scots and English", Studies in French language and mediaeval French literature presented to Professor M. K. Pope (Manchester: U.P.) 315-319. Robson, C. Alan 1952 Maurice de Sullv and the medieval vernacular homily (Oxford: Blackwell). 1954 Review of Orr (1953a), FS 8: 57-60. 1955 "Literary language, spoken dialect and the phonological problem", TPhS 1955: 117-180. 1963 "L'Appendix Probi et la philologie latine", MA 69: 37-54. 1964-65 "Franco-Provengal: definition and boundaries", RomPh 17: 63-75. 1968 "Maim: histoire d'un mot litteraire", RLiR 32: 273-290. 1972 "Quatrains and passages of eight lines in Beroul: some stylistic and linguistic aspects", History and structure of French. Essays in the honour of Professor T. B. W. Reid (Oxford: Blackwell) 171-201. Ross, D. J. A. 1951 "Pleine sa hanste", MAev 20: 1-10. Rothwell, William 1955a "Winds and cardinal points in French", ArchL 7: 29-56. 1955b "A further note on pleine sa hanste", ArchL 7: 87-95. 1959 "The hours of the day in medieval French", FS 13: 240-251. 1960 "Medieval French 'bureau'", MAev 29: 102-114. 1961 "Some aspects of the semantic field of tabularium in medieval French and Provencal", ArchL 13: 129-144. 1962a "Medieval French and modern semantics", MLR 57: 25-30. 1962b "Homonymics and medieval French", ArchL 14: 35-48. 1966 "A study of the prefix del des in Anglo-Norman and some considerations arising therefrom", TPhS 1966:24-41. 1969 "Quelques aspects du manque de relief temporel en frangais", RLaR 78: 285-291. 1970 "Some observations on verbal prefixation in Old Provengal", The French language. Studies presented to L. C. Harmer (London: Harrap) 26-37. 1971a "Contribution ä la syntaxe de la preposition en moyen franc.ais", RLiR 35: 156-166. 1971b "Remarques sur la prefixation negative en ancien provencal", Actes du Vie congres de langue et literature d'oc (Montpellier) 443-451. 1971-72 "Problems of lexicography: making a dictionary of Anglo-Norman", British Studies Monitor 2: 4-14.

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1972 "Rectus vindicatus?", History and structure of French. Essavs in the honour of Professor T. B. W. Reid (Oxford: Blackwell) 203-222. 1973a "Ou en sont les etudes d'anglo-normand?", ZFSL 83: 195-204. 1973b "Appearance and reality in Anglo-Norman". Studies in medieval literature and language in memory of Frederick Whitehead (Manchester: U.P.) 239-256. 1973c "Prefixation et structure de la langue en ancien franQais", Romania 94: 241-250. 1975 "Anglo-Norman perspectives". MLR 70: 41-49. 1976a "Sink or swim? A Homonymie dilemma in medieval French". ZRPh 92:386-393. 1976b "Medical and botanical terminology from Anglo-Norman sources", ZFSL 86: 221-260. Runnalls, G. A. 1976 "The linguistic dating of Middle French texts with special reference to the theatre", MLR 71: 757-765. Russell-Gebbett, Paul 1965 Medieval Catalan linguistic texts (Oxford: Dolphin). 1971 "La expresion de las condiciones de realizacion imposible en el Catalan medieval", Acles du XIlie congres international de linguistique etphilologie romanes (Quebec, 1971) 1976 (Quebec: P.U. Laval) 1: 367-372. 1973 "Mossen Pere Pujol's Documents en vulgar dels segles XI, XII & XIII . . ., a partial retranscription and commentary", Studies in medieval literature and language in memory of Frederick Whitehead (Manchester: U.P.) 257-277. 1976 "L'estructura de les oracions condicionals de realitzacio imposible en el catalä medieval", Actes del tercer colloqui internacional de llengua i literatura catalanes (Oxford: Dolphin) 207-216. Sampson, Rodney 1980 Early Romance texts: an anthology (Cambridge: U.P.). Saunders, H. 1955 "Obsolescence of the past definite and the time-perspective of French classical drama". ArchL 1: 96-122. Shirt, D. J. 1975 "Les 'verba cogitandi' dans les constructions interrogatives en ancien frangais", RLR 39: 351-380. Short, I. 1973 The Anglo-Norman pseudo-Turpin Chronicle of William of Briane (Oxford: Anglo-Norman Text Society 25). Smith, C. C. 1959 "Los cultismos literarios del Renacimiento: pequena adicion al Diccionario critico etimologico de Corominas", BHi 61: 236-272. 1972 Poema de mio Cid (London: Oxford U.P.). Spence, Nicol C. W. 1957a "A bibliography of longer French word-studies, 1935-1955" (with R. Levy and L. Poston), RLiR 21: 145-182. 1957b "L'assibilation de IV intervocalique dans les parlers jersiais", RLiR 21: 270-288. 1957c "Jersey-French fishing terms", VR 16: 189-218. 1960 A glossary of Jersey-French (Oxford: Philological Society). 1961 "A supplementary bibliography of longer French word-studies, 1955-1960" (with R. Levy and L. Poston), RLiR 25: 144-160. 1962 "La survivance en frangais moderne des formes du nominatif latin", Actes du Xe congres international de linguistique et philologie romanes (Strasbourg 1962) (Paris: Klincksieck 1965) 1: 231-243. 1963 "A problem of Romance accentuation", RLiR 27: 449-457. 1965a "Quantity and quality in the vowel-system of Vulgar Latin", Word 21: 1-18. 1965b "The palatalization of , g + a in Gallo-Romance", ArchL 17: 20-37.

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1966 "Existait-il en ancien franc.ais une opposition 'actuel'/'virtuel'?", RLiR 30: 183197. 1968 "What are the French prefixes?" RLiR 32: 324-333. 1971a "La survivance des formes du nominatif latin en franc,ais. Frequence ou analogic?", RRom 6: 74-84. 1971b "The French semi-vowels: a fresh angle?" Lingua 27: 198-215. 1973 "The Old French pronoun subjects and the problem of stress", RLiR 37: 379-386. 1974a "The development in French of Gallo-Roman -sk in final position", RLiR 38: 501-506. 1974b "A further note on the monophthongization of Latin ae", TPhS 1974: 81-85. 1975 "French 'mute e": the basic difficulties", Lingua 39: 27-51. 1975-76 "A note on the history of the French definite article lellalles"\ RomPh 29: 311-318. 1976 Le frangais contemporain (Munich: Fink). 1977 "The French -ons ending", RLiR 41: 66-76. Stevenson, C. H. 1970 The Spanish language today (London: Hutchinson). Stone, Louise W. - William Rothwell 1977 Anglo-Norman dictionary (London: MHRA). Storey, C. 1934 Saint Alexis. Etude de la langue du manuscrit de Hildesheim, suivie d'une edition critique du texte (Paris: Droz). Studer, Paul 1920 The study of Anglo-Norman (Oxford: U.P.). Studer, P. - Joan Evans 1924 Anglo-Norman lapidaries (Paris: Champion). Studer, P. - E. G. R. Waters 1924 Historical French reader. Medieval period (Oxford: U.P.). Suggett, Helen 1946 "The use of French in England in the later middle ages", Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, fourth series 28: 61-83. Sutherland, D. Rhoda 1939 "On the use of tenses in Old and Middle French", Studies in French language and mediaeval French literature presented to Professor M. K. Pope (Manchester: U.P.) 329-337. 1961 "The love meditation in courtly literature. A study of the terminology and its development in Old Provencal and Old French", Studies in medieval French presented to Alfred Ewert (Oxford: U.P.) 165-193. Tanquerey, F. J. 1915 L'evolution du verbe en anglo-frangais (XHe-XIVe siecles) (Paris: Champion). Topsfield, L. T. 1971 Les poesies du troubadour Raimon de Miraval (Paris: Nizet). Trend, J. B. 1953 The language and history of Spain (London: Hutchinson). Ullmann, Stephen 1938 "Le passe defini et l'imparfait du subjonctif dans le theatre contemporain", FM 6: 347-358. 1940 "Note sur la chronologic des anglicismes en francos classique et postclassique", FM 8: 345-349. 1948 "The vitality of the past definite in Racine", FS 2: 35-53. 1949a "Les anglicismes dans la poesie de Musset", FM 17: 25-32. 1949b "Sur quelques anglicismes de Vigny", FM 17: 95-101. 1950 "The stylistic role of anglicisms in Vigny", FS 4: 1-15.

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1952a Precis de semantique /nmcaise (Paris: P.U.F.; Bern: Francke). 1952b "Inversion as a stylistic device in the contemporary French novel", MLR 47: 165-180. 1962 "Synchronie et diachronie en semantique", Xe congres international de linguistique et philologie romanes (Strasbourg, 1962) (Paris: Klincksieck 1965) 1: 55-69. 1964 Style in the French novel (Oxford: Blackwell). Van Emden, W. G. 1975 "Contribution l'etude de Involution semantique du mot 'geste' en ancien frangais", Romania 96: 105-122. Vinaver, Eugene 1939 "Principles of textual emendation", Studies in French language and mediaeval French literature presented to Professor M. K. Pope (Manchester: U.P.) 351-369. 1961 "Pour le commentaire du vers 1650 du Tristan de Beroul", Studies in medieval French presented to Alfred Ewert (Oxford: U.P.) 90-95. Vincent, E. R. 1955 "Dante's choice of words", /5 10: 1-18. Waters, E. G. R. 1928 The Anglo-Norman Voyage of St Brendan by Benedeit (Oxford: U.P.). 1930 "Gleanings from MS. Digby 23", MLR 25: 95-99. 1931 An Old Italian version of the Navigatio Sancli Brendani (London: Philological Society). Watkin, Morgan 1920 "The French linguistic influence in medieval Wales", Transactions of the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, session 1918-19 146-222. Weiss, R. 1945 "The language of the poems of Guido Cavalcanti", MLR 40: 284-288. 1946-48 "The Sienese philologists of the Cinquecento — a bibliographical introduction", IS 3: 34-49. Wexler, Peter J. 1955 La formation du vocabulaire des chemins defer en France (1778-1842) (Geneve: Droz; Lille: Giard). 1959 "Notes bibliographiques" (with B. Quemada), CLex 1: 101-135. 1964 "Bibliographie des etudes lexicologiques" (with B. Quemada), CLex 4:73-126; 5: 111-132. Whinnom, K. 1956 Spanish contact vernaculars in the Philippine Islands (Hong Kong: U.P.). 1966 A glossary of Spanish bird names (London: Tamesis). Whitehead, Frederick 1942 La Chanson de Roland (Oxford: Blackwell). 1961 "The textual criticism of the Chanson de Roland: an historical review", Studies in medieval French presented to Alfred Ewert (Oxford: U.P.) 76-89. 1962 "La collision homonymique et la semantique ovolutive: le cas de 'nouer' et de 'nager' ", Xe congres international de linguistique et philologie romanes (Strasbourg, 1962) (Paris: Klincksieck 1965) 1: 225-230. 1972 "Comment on three passages from the text of the Oxford Roland", History and structure of French. Essays in the honour of Professor T. B. W. Reid (Oxford: Blackwell) 257-262. Whitfield, J. H. 1955 "On Machiavelli's use of ΟταίηΓ, IS 10: 19-39. 1964 "In margine alia legge Tobler-Mussafia: la proclisi della negativa", Le parole e le idee 6: 61-71. Wilson, R. M. 1943 "English and French in England 1100-1300", History 28: 37-60.

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Woledge, Brian 1956 "The plural of the indefinite article in Old French", MLR 51: 17-32. 1967 "La declinaison des substantifs dans la Chanson de Roland. (Premier article)", Romania 88: 145-174. 1969 "La declinaison des substantifs dans la Chanson de Roland. (Deuxieme article)", Romania 90: 174-201. 1970 "Notes on the syntax of indeclinable nouns in twelfth-century French", The French language. Studies presented to L. C. Harmer (London: Harrap) 38-52. 1974 "Noun declension in twelfth-century French", TPhS 1974: 75-97. Woodhouse, John R. 1967 "Vincenzo Borghini and the continuity of the Tuscan literary tradition", 75 22: 26-41. Wright, Roger 1976a "Pretonic diphthongs in Old Castilian", VR 35: 133-143. 1976b "Speaking, reading and writing late Latin and early Romance", Neophilologus 6: 178-189. 1976c "Semicultismo", ArchL new series 7: 13-28.

4.3 Germanic-speaking areas

HELMUT LÜDTKE

Romance linguistics in Germany and Austria: a paradigmatic survey

1.

Introduction

1.1 Preliminaries The following account of Romance studies carried out in Germany and Austria after 1945 (but with reference, in some special cases, to the preceding decades) must necessarily be sketchy and highly selective, because of the overwhelming mass of data to be handled. The aim of this study is therefore not to give a complete or near-complete survey, but rather a characterisation of what is typical for Romance scholars' work in the German-speaking countries and, hopefully, to convey an idea of the intellectual climate that makes it prosper. It should be clear, right from the start, that there is no institutional boundary between the Federal Republic of Germany, Austria, and Switzerland; the bulk of the German-speaking universities form an intellectual pool characterised by a high mobility rate. A fact worth noting is that, in the Romance field, Swiss export of scholars to the neighbouring countries by far outweighs movement in the opposite direction; this is due to easier contact with Romance-speaking areas and better language training that Swiss Germans enjoy from their schooldays. In the absence of a clear dividing line, a workable solution has been adopted which assigns those scholars who have received their university training in Switzerland to that country, even though most of their later activity in research and teaching may have taken place in Germany and/or Austria.1 1.2 Exclusions Apart from omissions for quantitative reasons, the present account refers only to linguistics proper, leaving out some borderline sub-disciplines

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such as editing of texts (with the exception of some special cases, viz. works that have a direct bearing on language history), versification (or metrics), stylistics, i.e. studies of the language of single authors or works (with similarly motivated exceptions as stated above), history of the discipline, and the bulk of what may be termed pedagogical work, whether applied to translation or to language teaching or to the teaching of linguistics within university curricula. In the latter case, some very outstanding works that have acquired the status of "standard reference books" (at least for some time) will be kept in view; it goes without saying that a dividing-line is difficult to draw and judgement is highly subjective. 1.3 The socio-economic and institutional background 1.3.1 Organisation of Romance studies A general characteristic of universities in the Federal Republic and in Austria is the "combination of research and teaching", which means that full professors and assistants are regularly paid for both activities (although the former is rather difficult to control). Therefore the bulk of research work is done in the university departments. These are aided by institutions like the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, which sponsors special research projects by means of grants providing for additional staff and covering those expenses that would fall outside the university's responsibility, — or the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst, which provides for all sorts of temporary exchanges of personnel, in either direction, with the Romance-speaking countries. We might also mention the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, which caters for foreign scholars' stays at university departments within the Federal Republic. Academies of sciences have different functions according to the sociopolitical systems: while the Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften in East Berlin has its own research staff (also for Romance studies), institutions with analogous names in the Federal Republic (Düsseldorf, Göttingen, Heidelberg, Mainz, Munich) and in Austria (Vienna) are strongly associated with universities. In former times there was intense osmosis between universities and secondary schools; some research in the Romance field was carried out by teachers of French, and published in Programmschriften. This practice has become obsolete; universities and schools are now nearly segregrated. 1.3.2 The educational framework Given the institutional link between research and teaching in the univer-

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sides, Romance studies may be said to feed upon a reproduction cycle that includes teaching of French (and to a lesser degree, Spanish and Italian) in secondary schools (age group 10-19) and training future teachers of French in the universities (age group above 19). The same holds, of course, for English and, generally speaking, for any other school subject. The prerequisite for studying French at the university level is a certain standard of knowledge of both French and Latin. This was practically secured as long as in the secondary schools that gave access to the faculty of arts these were the first two languages in their compulsory curriculum, followed by English and Greek (an exception holds for the sea-port towns of Hamburg and Bremen, where the traditional order of modern languages was English - Spanish - French). A decisive turn came about in 1937 when English and French changed their places in language teaching. The consequence was that those born after the middle of 1926 have had compulsory English as their first or, if preceded by Latin, second foreign language, French being relegated to the third or fourth place. In the 1970's English made for more than 80 per cent, French for little more than 15 per cent, of modern language teaching in the Federal Republic of Germany. This severe loss is only partly compensated for by the fact that nowadays a far larger percentage of children accede to secondary schools and are taught foreign languages. As French is more different from German than English, competent knowledge of French has become rare among intellectuals. The decline of French teaching has inevitably been followed by a recession of Romance studies in the German-speaking area, a recession which — strongest in the north and east, weaker in the south and west — is likely to continue in the foreseeable future. 1.3.3 The university curriculum A successful scholar's life in a German university is normally divided into four parts by the following events: Promotion (i.e. taking a doctor's degree), Habilitation (tantamount to recognised eligibility for a chair), and Berufung, i.e. election to a chair. His training, as a student — in our case, of Romance "philology" — includes one or two non-Romance disciplines (Fächer); it ends with an Inaugural-Dissertation (doctoral thesis) in his main, and an oral exam in all of his disciplines; the thesis has to be published as a book and serves as a visiting-card to the Scholars' Republic; this practice, suspended during the war, was resumed in the late 1950's. Compulsory publication of doctoral theses and the requirement of

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copious Habilitationsschriften helps maintain standards and also has a concentrative effect, channelling research work into monographic studies. On the other hand, requiring students to engage in more than one discipline (mostly, but not necessarily, among other language families, with free choice) provides for multilateral contact between the neighbouring disciplines, and also accounts for a certain inclination towards studies of interference phenomena between Romance and other languages. For a Romance scholar to publish articles on both Germanic and Slavic linguistics (as the present author has done), or at least in one other domain, is indeed not rare. One may also pass on to another linguistic discipline after having held a Romance chair, as was the case with Harald Weinrich and Klaus Heger. 1.3.4 The pan-Romance tradition In the German university tradition, the Faculty of Arts, called 'philosophische Fakultät', comprises the non-biological aspects of humane studies. Among them, the language-oriented part is subdivided, not according to some rationalistic general principle, but rather in keeping with traditions peculiar to single disciplines, such as 'klassische Altertumskunde' (i.e. Latin and Greek languages and literatures), German, English (comprising in both these cases one language and its literature); beside these departments there are others for Romance, Slavic, IndoEuropean etc. organised according to the linguistic family-tree concept, i.e. to a genetic paradigm (cf. 1.5.2, 2.1); they are, at least in principle, each concerned with a fairly great number of languages. Since it is impossible for even the most assiduous scholar to be well versed in such a vast domain, there has to be some division of labour within the department, the most common one being, nowadays, that between linguistics and literature. As to the different languages, various makeshifts are practised, according to personal tastes and to the relative cultural and curriculum importance of each language concerned. If there are any hard-and-fast rules for Romance they may be stated as follows: (1) while being a pan-Romance scholar is an ideal, dealing with two languages is a minimum requirement; (2) French is indispensable (except for some universities that have Ibero-Romance departments). Everything else varies from one place to another. The general preference of French over the other Romance languages is, of course, due to the fact that between eighty and ninety per cent of students in the department are interested wholly or mainly in French, as they will later become teachers of that language in secondary schools.

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1.4 Publishing activity 1.4.1 Generalities Although the bulk of German and Austrian Romance scholars' work, is written in their mother tongue, they have also produced both some larger publications and a fairly great number of minor contributions to journals, Festschriften, and other collections, published in virtually all the Romance languages and sometimes in English. They have also been present at many national and international congresses and symposia, reading and discussing papers in the respective languages. Publishing activity can be tentatively classified into minor and major work, the former comprising all sorts of articles (including book reviews) and monographs, while major work consists of journals, book series, congress proceedings, Festschriften and other collective volumes, dictionaries, atlasses, and larger bibliographies. While none of these activities has been entirely neglected in Germany and Austria, the most peculiar feature in the landscape is the amazing wealth of doctoral dissertations, most of them really worth having been published and some even masterpieces in the field. 1.4.2 Journals and series The most outstanding journal is certainly the Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, the only journal entirely concerned with Romance linguistics (if we discount some articles on general linguistic themes); it was founded in 1877 and continued to appear, after the Second World War, with vol. 65 in 1949; its editors were Walther von Wartburg and — since 1958 — Kurt Baidinger (Tübingen: Niemeyer). Journals in which a considerable number of the contributions are devoted to Romance linguistics are the following: Zeitschrift für französische Sprache und Literatur, founded in 1879 äs "Zeitschrift für neufranzösische Sprache und Literatur", started again in 1956 with vol. 66 by Ernst Gamillscheg and Julius Wilhelm; editors since 1971: Helmut Stimm and Alfred Noyer-Weidner (Wiesbaden: Steiner; Verlag der Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur in Mainz); Romanische Forschungen, founded in 1883, started again in 1947 with vol. 58/59 by Fritz Schalk who has remained its editor (Frankfurt/M.: Klostermann); Romanistisches Jahrbuch, founded in 1947 and continued by a board of editors from the University of Hamburg;

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Die neueren Sprachen, a journal with a didactic slant, Neue Folge started in 1952 (Frankfurt/M.: Diesterweg); Beiträge zur romanischen Philologie, founded in 1961 (Berlin (East): Rütten & Loening). Occasional contributions to Romance linguistics are to be found in several other journals, among them Archiv für das Studium der neueren Sprachen und Literaturen; Germanisch-romanische Monatsschrift (Neue Folge); Idioma, founded in 1964, edited by Wolf Friedrich and Günther Haensch (München: Hueber) (ceased to be published with vol. 6/1969); Iberoromania. Zeitschrift für die iberoromanischen Sprachen und Literaturen in Europa und Amerika, founded in 1969 (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Französisch heute, founded in 1970, edited by Jürgen Olbert and Bruno Schneider (Frankfurt/M.: Diesterweg); Lendemains, founded in 1975 by Michael Nerlich, in co-operation with other scholars (Köln: Pahl-Rugenstein). Among the most important book series, the following maybe mentioned: Analecta Romanica, edited by Fritz Schalk (Frankfurt/M.: Klostermann); Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, the oldest one, which arrived at its 176th volume in 1979; edited by Kurt Baldinger (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Forschungen zur romanischen Philologie, edited by Heinrich Lausberg (Münster i. W.: Aschendorff); Grundlagen der Romanistik, edited by Eberhard Leube and Ludwig Schrader (Berlin: E. Schmidt); Heidelberger Beiträge zur Romanistik, edited by Bodo Müller (Frankfurt/M.: Lang); Kölner romanistische Arbeiten, Cologne University, Romanisches Seminar; Mainzer romanistische Arbeiten, Mainz University, Romanisches Seminar (Wiesbaden: Steiner); Publications of the Institut für romanische Sprachwissenschaft of the Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften in Berlin (East); Romanica Aenipontana, edited by Guntram Plangg (Innsbruck University: Institut für romanische Philologie); Romanistische Arbeitshefte, edited by Gustav Ineichen and Christian Rohrer (Tübingen: Niemeyer);

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Romanistische Versuche und Vorarbeiten, edited by Harri Meier (Bonn University: Romanisches Seminar); Sitzungsberichte of the Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Phil.-hist. Klasse (Wien: Böhlau); Tübinger Beiträge zur Linguistik, edited by Gunter Narr (Tübingen: Narr); Untersuchungen zur romanischen Philologie, edited by W. Theodor Elwert and Heinz Kroll (Meisenheim/Glan: Hain); Münchner romanistische Arbeiten, edited by Hans Rheinfelder (München: Hueber). 1.4.3 Festschriften and other collections of articles According to a rough calculation, the number of scientists all over the world doubles every 15 years. The same rhythm (or nearly) seems to hold for Germany's and Austria's Romance scholars; and since most of the outstanding ones will sooner or later, i.e. at their sixtieth, sixty-fifth, seventieth or later birthdays be rewarded with a Festschrift,2 this genre of publication has been multiplying at a fast-increasing rate, as shown in the list below. It has by now become virtually impossible for some people, including the present writer, to cope with more than a tiny fraction of contribution requests launched at them by colleagues and disciples who are preparing a Festschrift for their fellow scholar or former teacher approaching the 'critical age'. Among the more important Festschriften (from the point of view of Romance linguistics) we may list: Festgabe Ernst Gamillscheg, edited by his friends and disciples (Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1952); Gedächtnisschriftfür Adalbert Hämel, edited by the Romanisches Seminar of the University of Erlangen (Würzburg: Triltsch, 1953); Syntactica und Stylistica. Festschrift für Ernst Gamillscheg, edited by Günter Reichenkron (Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1957); Melanges de linguistique et de litterature romanes a la memoire d'Istvan Frank (Saarbrücken: Universität des Saarlandes, 1957); Romanica. Festschrift für Gerhard Rohlfs, edited by Heinrich Lausberg and Harald Weinrich (Halle: Niemeyer, 1958); Etymologica. Walther von Wartburg zum 70. Geburtstag, edited by Hans Erich Keller (Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1958); Weltoffene Romanistik. Festschrift für Alwin Kühn, edited by Guntram Plangg and Eberhard Tiefenthaler (Innsbruck: Sprachwissenschaftliches Institut, 1963);

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Medium Aevum Romanicum. Festschrift für Hans Rheinfelder, edited by Heinrich Bihler and Alfred Noyer-Weidner (München: Hueber, 1963); Festschrift Karl Pivec zum 60. Geburtstag, edited by Anton Haidacher and Hans Eberhard Mayer [Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Kulturwissenschaft Vol. 12] (Innsbruck: Sprachwissenschaftliches Institut der Leopold-Franzens-Universität, 1966); Verba et vocabula. Festschrift für E. Gamillscheg, edited by Helmut Stimm and Julius Wilhelm (München: Fink, 1968); Festschrift Walther von Wartburg, 2 vols, edited by Kurt Baidinger (Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1968); Serta Romanica. Festschrift für Gerhard Rohlfs, edited by Rudolf Baehr and Kurt Wais (Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1968); Philologische Studien für Joseph M. Fiel, edited by Wolf Dietrich Lange and Heinz Jürgen Wolf (Heidelberg: Winter, 1969); Interlinguistica. Sprachvergleich und Übersetzung. Festschrift für Mario Wandruszka, edited by Karl Richard Bausch and Hans Martin Gauger (Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1971); Sprache und Geschichte. Festschrift für Harri Meier, edited by Eugenio Coseriu and Wolf Dieter Stempel (München: Fink, 1971); Aus der französischen Kultur- und Geistesgeschichte. Festschrift für Walter Mönch, edited by Werner Dierlamm and Wolfgang Drost (Heidelberg: Kerle, 1971); Festschrift für Wilhelm Giese, edited by Harald Haarmann and Michael Studemund (Hamburg: Buske, 1972); Studia Iberica. Festschrift für Hans Flasche, edited by Karl Hermann Körner and Klaus Rühl (Bern: Francke, 1973); Filologia y didactica hispanica. Homenaje a K. H. Schneider, edited by Jose M. Navarro, Michael Studemund and others (Hamburg: Buske, 1975); Philologica Romanica. Erhard Lommatzsch gewidmet, edited by Manfred Bambeck and Hans Helmut Christmann, together with Erich v. Richthofen (München: Fink, 1975); Lebendige Romania. Festschrift für Hans-Wilhelm Klein, edited by A. Barrera-Vidal,E. Ruhl,P. Schunk(Göppingen: Kümmerle, 1976); Sprachtheorie und Sprachenpraxis. Festschrift für Henri Vernay, edited by Walter Mair and Edgar Sallager (Tübingen: Narr, 1979); Sprache und Mensch in der Romania. Heinrich Kuen zum 80. Geburtstag, edited by Gerhard Ernst and Arnulf Stefenelli (Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1979);

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Festschrift für Rupprecht Rohr, edited by Wolfgang Bergerfurth, Erwin Diekmann, and Otto Winkelmann (Heidelberg: Groos, 1979); Festschrift für Kurt Baldinger, edited by Manfred Höfler, Henri Vernay, and Lothar Wolf (Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1979). Other collections: Actes du Colloque franco-allemand de grammaire transformationnelle, edited by Christian Rohrer and Nicolas Ruwet, 2 vols (Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1974); Rätoromanisches Colloquium Mainz, contributions edited by W. Theodor Elwert (Innsbruck: University, Institut für Romanische Philologie, 1976; Romanica Aenipontana 10); Bildung und Ausbildung in der Romania, edited by Rolf Kloepfer, Proceedings of the 1977 Romanistentag, vol. II: Sprachwissenschaft und Landeskunde (München: Fink, 1979). 1.4.4 Larger dictionaries The Tobler - Lommatzsch Altfranzösisches Wörterbuch whose first instalment was published in 1955 (Wiesbaden: Steiner) — about a century after Adolf Tobler had first conceived it — arrived at the end of letter T in 1976. Ernst Gamillscheg's Etymologisches Wörterbuch der französischen Sprache, first published in 1928, is again accessible, thanks to a second 1969 edition prepared by the author himself. After his 1932 Dizionario dialettale delle Tre Calabrie, Gerhard Rohlfs come out with a supplement: Vocabolario supplementäre delle Tre Calabrie (München, 1966), and a Dizionario toponomastico e onomastico della Calabria (Ravenna, 1974); in the meantime, he had published the three volumes of his Vocabolario dei dialetti salentini (München: Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1956-1961). Of similar importance is Max Leopold Wagner's Dizionario etimologico sardo, 3 vols (Heidelberg, 1960-1964). A methodical newcomer is Dieter Messner's Dictionnaire chronologique des langues iberoromanes which is to consist of four volumes with the following subtitles: 1: Dictionnaire chronologique portugais 2: Dictionnaire chronologique espagnol 3: Dictionnaire chronologique Catalan

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4: Repertoire chronologique des mots frangais. Index alphabetique. Vol. l came out in 1976 (Heidelberg: Winter), vol. 4 came out in 1977. The much admired FEW has been promised an Italian counterpart, the LEI (Lessico etimologico italiano) under preparation by Max Pfister and his staff at the university of Saarbrücken. An experimental instalment was presented at a meeting in Macerata (Central Italy) in 1979. 1.4.5 Bibliography Romance linguistic studies in the German Democratic Republic are recorded periodically in the journal Beiträge zur romanischen Philologie (e.g. in vol. 17/1978, pp. 289-298, by Matthias Perl, for 1966-1977). Every volume of the Romanistisches Jahrbuch contains a list of doctoral dissertations newly accepted by the Romance departments of German and Austrian universities. The most important work in the field, however, is the Romanische Bibliographie supplementing the Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie. This bibliography is in some respects richer than the corresponding Romance chapter in the UNESCO-sponsored Linguistic Bibliography/Bibliographie linguistique. Its shortcomings, on the other hand, consisting in some mistakes in the arrangement of the material — though they may confuse a beginner — should not be regarded as a serious drawback to the well-versed scholar. The volume covering work done in 1969/1970 was issued in 1979; the next two were in preparation in 1980. 1.4.6 Other work A remarkable feature in a negative sense is the lack of linguistic atlases in the otherwise so varied palette — although quite understandable since their preparation is, of course, more easily handled within the countries concerned. It should be noted, however, that in the 1920's two German scholars, Gerhard Rohlfs and Max Leopold Wagner, collaborated as researchers on the project of the Swiss-sponsored linguistic atlas of Italy and Southern Switzerland. Similarly, scholars from Germany and Austria had a minor share, both in preparatory work and in the editing of articles, in the FEW. As regards remaining genres of major work, larger "historical" grammars should be mentioned. The most important one, from the point of view of size as well as of method, is the Historische Grammatik der italienischen Sprache und ihrer Mundarten by Gerhard Rohlfs (3 vols, Bern: Francke, 1949-1954). Less satisfactory, owing to their neglect of the diatopic parameter, are their French counterparts, like the two-

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volume Altfranzösische Grammatik by Hans Rheinfelder (München: Hueber, 1953/1967). The huge number of smaller books and articles will be selectively dealt with in the second part of the present work. 1.5 Presentation of the data 1.5.1 Possibilities of classification The first ordering principle that comes to one's mind is, of course, that which is based upon the well-known division of scholars' activity into schools or methods. It is, however, less appealing to the present author than others, precisely because its application has been current practice in surveys. Moreover, there are two — although minor — arguments against it, viz. (1) that, for some linguists at least, different methods are like different tools concomitantly used depending on the purpose, and not on the scholar's convictions; (2) methods overlap, in a certain sense; inflectional morphology, e.g., has always been handled in the structuralist fashion, even by the most ardent traditionalists: none of them would have considered presenting inflectional data "atomistically". In conclusion, some other ordering principle would seem preferable. A well-known schema found in bibliographies is the classification by fields of interests. In our case, however, following it would result in a mere juxtaposition of an extremely high number of disconnected paragraphs, since Romance scholars in Germany and Austria have engaged in research not only on every Romance language area (Dalmatia included), but they have also tried virtually all the approaches that have at one time or another been current in the world of linguistics, from neogrammarianism through Wörter and Sachen, neolinguistics, structuralism, TGG, dependency grammar, towards cybernetics and formal algorithms; their interests have covered fields as widely apart as frequency counts, aljamiado texts, and Creole dialect studies — to name just a few haphazardly chosen items. It would not suffice to present this overwhelmingly rich and diversified output in the form of several dozens of simply juxtaposed chapters, without any attempt at discerning general lines of thought that might underlie the output and link the apparently divergent activities that produced it. Instead, it would appear more satisfactory to present the data using a matrix with the following binary decisions: synchronic vs. diachronic; systemic vs. non-systemic; pan-Romance or comparative vs. concerning a

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single area; isolating the linguistic parameter vs. inserting language into its psychological, social, and historical context. Such a grid would e.g. permit us to range a so-called historical grammar and a history of language L| into two compartments differing by one distinctive feature, viz. 'isolating' vs. 'inserting'. The distinction between 'systemic' and 'non-systemic' would lead us to put studies on lexical fields into the same slot along with phonemics, rather than with research centred around single lexical items. The divisions suggested here of 'pan-Romance' vs. 'area-specific' and 'synchronic' vs. 'diachronic' need no further comment. However tempting such a matrix, conceived with a view to classifying scholars' work in the Romance field, might appear at first sight, it rather reflects the librarian's standpoint, who wants to make the existing reading material accessible, in the best possible way, to the potential reader, but who is not himself a member of the set. In order to illustrate the shortcomings of such a procedure, let me give a hypothetical example. A study on French phraseology and syntax from 1300 to 1500 should be ranged under the label diachronic, since a fairly large time span is involved, whereas a phraseological and syntactical comparison between Joinville and Froissart, whose chronicles are only 60 years apart, might be classified as a synchronic work, although it would reveal strong differences3 that can be plotted on a diachronic scale. Now, if the purpose of those two imaginary works were to enable students to write essays in Middle French, we should neither hesitate to put them both into the same slot nor to range them together with similar didactic works on Modern French and Latin. If, on the contrary, we appreciated them as contributions to the history of the French language, we should again keep them together but range them under some different label. Therefore, our criteria for classification ought to be radically different from the librarian's, viz. paradigmatic instead of taxonomic. Consequently, the problem is to find out which are — for those who belong to the set — the relevant paradigms that underlie research in the field of Romance linguistics. I hope I am not mistaken in stating that they are three, viz. the genetic,4 the phenomenological, and the connective (the latter conceiving of language as part and parcel of the social and cultural being and history of society). 1.5.2 The genetic paradigm The genetic paradigm hinges upon the continuity principle, understood in the sense of identity of (lexical or morphological) items through time and

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space, and in the sense of continuous functioning of linguistic systems. Judged according to this principle, all the Romance dialects, present and past (including spoken Latin), constitute a whole, clearly separated from the non-Romance neighbourhood. Genetic relationship as defined by the above principle does not entail comprehensibility, although it implies continuity of the bulk of the earliest acquired and most frequently occurring lexical or morphological items. As regards linguistic research, the concept of genetic relationship relies on cyclic movement around a circle consisting of lists of single items identified through time and space, and of correlation rules — phonetic and semantic — which in turn endorse plausible identification. 'Spiral' is a better metaphor than 'circle': while the most obviously identical items (like Lat. terra, It. Cat. Ptg. terra, Sp. tierra, Fr. terre etc.) serve as input for rules, these in turn allow of further identifications, which yield additional rules . . . etc. Therefore, historical grammar (a misnomer for diachronic) and etymology are two intertwined threads in the web of genetic research. The paradigm originated in Germany. It can be traced as far back as Jakob Grimm's (1819) Deutsche Grammatik, where it is clearly stated that all the Germanic dialects, ancient and modern, form a historically knit whole.5 This concept could easily be extended to every single branch of Indo-European, according to the family-tree model; it was, a little later, by Diez who thus became the founder of Romance linguistics. His work has been continued — not only, but especially — in the Germanspeaking area, until the present day. At least until the 1960's the genetic paradigm was the most favoured one in the domain of Romance linguistics. We can observe a sort of interplay between research paradigms and university organisation, as far as the language part of the Faculty of Arts is concerned. Departments like "Romance", "Germanic", "Slavic", indeed, owe their demarcation to the genetic paradigm of linguistics, although their programs include the respective literatures for whose study the usefulness of the above-mentioned framework may well be questioned — and has been so, for instance, by Ernst Robert Curtius, who deemed it profitable to include Greek, English, and German in his comparative research on Romance literature. Beside tradition, a decisive explanation for the tenacity with which German and Austrian universities have clung to the genetic paradigm especially in Romance studies, may be their location outside Romance territory. Since all the languages involved are foreign, none of them is

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given preference, on principle; quantitative predominance of French is contingent upon the educational system, more exactly, upon the importance of that language in the secondary school curriculum (cf. 3.2) — and therefore has no direct bearing on linguistic research. The genetic paradigm is not committed to any particular approach. It is true that, two or three decades ago, it appeared to be almost inevitably linked with neogrammarian traditionalism. However, since Prague-style structural linguistics was very slow in gaining a foothold in German and Austrian universities, this appearance was deceptive. In fact, the first Romance scholars to introduce it here, viz. Heinrich Lausberg (cf. 2.1.1) and his followers, insisted on diachronic along with synchronic structuralism (cf. 2.1.4). I f — according to Rebecca Posner6 — there is a spirit of tolerance towards different approaches, particularly among traditionalists, this is due to the fact that we are fellow travellers engaged within the same paradigm. At the same time, more and more structuralist terms and concepts are being absorbed by former traditionalists so that the borderline is becoming blurred. In a similar way, recent work carried out by some younger scholars with a generativist background (e.g. Willi Mayerthaler, cf. 2.1.5) fits equally well into the genetic paradigm. 1.5.3 Crisis of the genetic paradigm Nevertheless, de Saussure's (and von der Gabelentz's) claim that a given linguistic system could be studied and described in its own right, i.e. without being conceived as a contribution to be utilised for further comparative and diachronic work, was a challenge to the exclusiveness of the genetic paradigm. This claim could easily be extended to linguistic geography, whose achievements, although at first intended as a complement to diachronic studies (in fact, Wenker's 1875 questionnaire was expected to furnish an empirical demonstration of the exceptionless character of phonetic laws), could also be viewed as available knowledge, regardless of the potential user's paradigmatic bias. Actually, the results of linguistic geography, in the Romance field, have not yet been fully integrated into the neogrammarian pattern of 'historical' grammar. The most successful achievement, in this respect, viz. Gerhard Rohlfs' threevolume Historische Grammatik der italienischen Sprache und ihrer Mundarten (1949-1954), still lacks counterparts for any other Romance language. The available historical grammars of French and Spanish, for instance, are very poor in diatopic data, in comparison with Italian. Certainly, there is a great problem. How are we to cope with the overwhelming mass of data contained in so many atlas maps and dialect

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monographs? Even Rohlfs confesses, in his foreword (vol. 19 f.), that he had to refrain from full utilisation of the extant material, for the sake of clarity. Finding suitable methods for handling large amounts of data has now become essential for any further progress (aside from the filling of gaps) within the genetic paradigm. Recourse to formal algorithms, as suggested by the present author (cf. 2.4.6), and/or electronic data processing, as developed by Hans Goebl (cf. 2.4.6), is likely to become indispensable. 1.5.4 The phenomenological paradigm If we set ourselves the task of inquiring into the totality of man's linguistic behaviour, taking the latter in a biological, not in a cultural sense, we must realise that this task cannot be accomplished within the genetic paradigm. The study of pidgin and Creole languages, which came back into fashion in Germany in the late 1970's (cf. 2.2.5), after a long time gap since Hugo Schuchardt, is certainly outside its scope, because the criteria generally agreed upon to decide whether a given dialect is Romance or not do not necessarily apply to pidgins and Creoles as well. Another phenomenon to be mentioned here is contact between genetically unrelated (or distantly related) languages resulting in a set of common structural features. A typical example is mutual influence between Romance, Slavic, Greek, and Albanian (and even Turkish, in the last centuries) in the Balkans, which gave rise to the notion of 'linguistic union' (Sprachbund). Awareness about the incompatibility of this type of study with the institutional framework based upon the genetic paradigm (cf. 1.3.4) eventually led to the creation of a department of Balkanology at the Free University of Berlin. When comparison of languages finally extended to genetically unrelated ones, a new sub-discipline came into being, viz. typology, which has had an ever-growing appeal in the German-speaking area during the 1970's. Other types of research that fall outside the scope of a Romance department but are nevertheless carried on by many Romance scholars nowadays, are bilingualism, interference, contrastive linguistics (which compares whole systems or sub-systems of few languages, in contradistinction to typology which compares many languages as to few properties), and — last but not least — language acquisition. Within this wider paradigm which prospects the whole domain of man's linguistic behaviour, and which we venture to call 'phenomenological', genetic relationship and whatever accrues from it appears as just one special way of viewing some language phenomena.

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1.5.5 The connective paradigm While geneticists, interested as they are in continuity through time and space (cf. 1.4.2), lay emphasis on past events — whereas phenomenologists, for the sake of greater accessibility and density of data, give preference to things present — "connectivists" lay stress upon the fact that man is a social being, a zoon politikon, and that his speech acts are not naturally isolated events but occur within a wider frame of social interaction; it is only the linguist with a plurimillennial tradition behind him who disentangles linguistic phenomena from their proper setting, in an artificial way. For a long time, scholars normally working in the genetic paradigm have been led to pay attention to such phenomena as language standardisation, learned relatinisation (or massive borrowing of mots savants) and reduction of dialects to writing. In the field of etymology, with the 'Wörter und Sachen' approach and its logical extension to non-concrete domains, it was agreed that establishing the 'etymologie origine' of a word was either just a first step towards, or an unattainable goal without, investigation of the history of the lexical item in question. It is a moot point whether the linguist ought to take the social and cultural aspects into account whenever this seems feasible and worth while (i.e. selectively) — or whether, as some angry young "connectivists" demand, language phenomena ought never to be viewed without considering their social and psychological context. 2.

Paradigmatic survey

2.1 Genetic linguistics Until far into the 1960's, the bulk of both university teaching and research in the field of Romance linguistics (as well as in the neighbouring disciplines) was carried out within the framework of the genetic paradigm. Only the foundation of a great number of new universities and, consequently, the incursion of a large new generation of younger scholars with a vigorous anti-traditionalist attitude, turned the scale in favour of the phenomenological paradigm. 2.1.1 General orientations, handbooks, and treatises The first items of the kind to appear after 1945 were Alwin Kühn (1951), Die romanischen Sprachen (Bern: Francke), and Gerhard Rohlfs (1950-1953), Romanische Philologie, 3 vols. (Heidelberg: Winter),

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both critical bibliographical introductions. They were followed by a comparative Romance grammar, viz. Heinrich Lausberg (1956-1962), Romanische Sprachwissenschaft, 4 vols. of the Göschen collection (Berlin: de Gruyter) and by translations of Vidos's and Tagliavini's well-known handbooks. What promised to become the most detailed work in the field, Günter Reichenkron (1965), Historische latein-altromanische Grammatik (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz) remained a copious introductory fragment, since its author died after the publication of the first volume. Somewhat more restricted in their scopes are: Gerhard Rohlfs (1954), Die lexikalische Differenzierung der romanischen Sprachen (München: Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften), and some typical "historical" grammars of the traditional pattern, such as Moritz Regula (1955-1966), Historische Grammatik des Französischen, 3 vols. (Heidelberg: Winter), Wolfgang Rothe (1957), Einführung in die historische Laut- und Formenlehre des Rumänischen (Halle: Niemeyer); and, with a different approach: Max Leopold Wagner (1951), La lingua sarda (Bern: Francke). Minor studies are concerned with the classification of the Romance languages (Zarko Muljacic (1967), in RJb 18: 23-37), the position of Catalan (Heinrich Kuen (1973), in the Flasche Festschrift: (see 1.4.3), 331-352), or semantic differentiation of Romance (Hans Wilhelm Klein (1961), in Orbis 10: 144-156). Single areas are viewed from the genetic angle in the following contributions: Werner Bahner (1976), Die lexikalischen Besonderheiten des Frühromanischen in Südosteuropa (Berlin: Akademie), Gerhard Rohlfs (1975), Rätoromanisch (München: Beck), Karl Finsterwalder (1974), "Romanische Vulgärsprache in Rätien und Norikum von der römischen Kaiserzeit bis zur Karolingerepoche", and Alwin Kühn (1974), "Das Ladinische im 16. Jh. um Silvretta und Rätikon", both in the Pivec festschrift (see 1.4.3); Christian Schmitt (1974), Die Sprachlandschaften der Galloromania (Frankfurt/M.: Lang); Bodo Müller (1974), "La structure linguistique de la France et la romanisation", TLL 12: 7-29;

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Gerhard Rohlfs (1975), Historische Sprachschichten im modernen Sizilien (München: Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften). A precursor of the cybernetic approach may be detected in Heinrich Kuen (1952), "Rückläufige Bewegungen in der Entwicklung der romanischen Sprachen zum analytischen Typus" in the Gamillscheg Festschrift (see 1.4.3), 140-163. 2.1.2 Etymology and word history This is by far the most intensively tilled field within the whole domain, counting hundreds of larger or lesser contributions that interplay with the publication of etymological and/or historical dictionaries. Among the host of authors, J. M. Fiel and H. Meier deserve especial mention as etymologists, while others (like M. Bambeck, R. Baum, O. Best, J. Bruch, E. Coseriu, O. Deutschmann, E. Gamillscheg, A. Greive, K. Heisig, M. Höfler, O. Jänicke, W. Krauss, F. Krüger, W. Kuhfuss, H. Lausberg, H. Lüdtke, W. Mettmann, H. M. Militz, F. Mohren, F. Nies, H. Peter, M. Regula, G. Rohlfs, Chr. Schmitt, L. Soll, A. Stefenelli, H. Stimm, J. Thele, M. L. Wagner, H. Weinrich, S. Wolf, D. Woll) count etymology and/or word history as other notches on their score. Some of the studies are at the same time contributions to the literary and cultural history of the Romance nations: Fritz Schalk (1961) on aphorism (RF 73: 40- 59), and (1976) enthusiasm (RF 87: 191-225); Julius Wilhelm (1952) on Fr. sagesse (in the 1952 Gamillscheg festschrift (see 1.4.3), 245-260; Fritz Nies (1968) on Fr. gothique (ZRPh 84: 67-88); Wido Hempel (1965) onspiritus, mens, ingenium (RJb 16: 21-44); Jürgen Storost (1973) on mercury (BRPh 12: 371-383). Among books on similar themes we may mention: Alfred Rommel (1954), Die Entstehung des klassischen französischen Gartens im Spiegel der Sprache (Berlin: Akademie); Ulrich Ricken (1961), "Gelehrter" und "Wissenschaftler" im Französischen (Berlin: Akademie); Fritz Schalk (1966), Exempla romanischer Wortgeschichte (Frankfurt/M. : Klostermann); Werner Krauss (1972), Werk und Wort (Berlin: Aufbau). Other books are either conceived as monographs on single words or word families, like Hans Dieter Bork (1969), Die Familie von lat. quatere im Romanischen (Heidelberg: Winter); Hans Helmut Christmann (1958), Lat. "calere" in den romanischen Sprachen (Wiesbaden: Steiner),

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Artur Greive (1961), Französisch part, partie, parti [Dissertation, Bonn]; Helmut Kessler (1973), Terreur (München); Fritz Krüger (1956), Problemas etimologicos. Las raices car-, corren los dialectos peninsulares (Madrid); Herbert Krüger (1967), Zur Geschichte von "danger" im Französischen (Berlin); Barbara Schuchard (1970), Valor (Bonn); Gertrud Schumacher de Pefia (1967), Lat. cap(p)ulare im Romanischen (Bonn); or concerned with semantic fields, like: Richard Glasser (1956), Studien über die Bildung einer moralischen Phraseologie im Romanischen (Frankfurt/M.: Klostermann); Johannes Dietrich Schleyer (1961), Der Wortschatz von List und Betrug im Altfranzösischen und Altprovenzalischen (Bonn: Romanisches Seminar der Universität Bonn); Hans Krings (1961), Die Geschichte des Wortschatzes der Höflichkeit im Französischen [Dissertation, Bonn]; Karl Ludwig Müller (1973), Übertragener Gebrauch von Ethnika in der Romania (Meisenheim/Glan: Hain). Longer etymological contributions to single Romance areas include: Johannes Kramer (1971), Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Gadertalischen (Köln) for Dolomite Ladin; for Galician and Portuguese: Sigrid Buschmann (1965), Beiträge zum etymologischen Wörterbuch des Galizischen (Bonn); Joseph M. Fiel (1968-1971), "Beiträge zur portugiesischen Etymologie und Wortgeschichte" in APK 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. Contributions especially illustrative of method and approach in etymological research are: Olaf Deutschmann (1947), "Französisch aveugle", RJb 1: 87-153; Helmut Lüdtke - German Colon (1964), "Die Etymologie von fr. son "Kleie", VR 23: 69-84; Wolfgang Hillen (1973), Saineans und Gillierons Methode und die romanische Etymologie (Bonn: Romanisches Seminar der Universität Bonn). Collections of articles to be mentioned are: Manfred Bambeck (1959), Lateinisch-romanische Wortstudien (Wiesbaden: Steiner); Harri Meier- Wolfgang Roth, editors (1968), Romanische Etymolo-

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gien (Heidelberg) followed by (1975) Neue Beiträge zur romanischen Etymologie (Heidelberg). It may seem surprising that — apart from word history — so much attention should have been paid to etymological problems if one considers that the overwhelming majority (more than 90 per cent?) of the vocabulary represented in the standard languages has long ago ceased to be controversial as to its origin. It is indeed only the remaining fraction that is still at issue, the moot point being in many cases the attribution of a given word either to some unattested Latin etymon, or to one of the numerous other languages from which Romance has borrowed. 2.1.3 Lexical borrowing: substrata and superstrata It would be an impossible task to establish a neat distinction between internal shift and external influence; therefore many studies that involve alleged borrowing of single items have been included in the foregoing chapter. Only such work as makes explicit reference to, or deals with methodology of, substratum and superstratum research is treated here separately. The impact that languages formerly spoken in France and Spain and then ousted by Latin, had on the incipient Romance languages has been a favourite subject of Harri Meier and of Gerhard Rohlfs: Harri Meier (1953), " "Mirages prelatins". Kritische Betrachtungen zur romanischen Substratetymologie", RF 64: 1-42; Harri Meier (1952), "Erwägungen zu iberoromanischen Substratetymologien", in the 1952 Gamillscheg Festschrift, Festgabe Ernst Gamillscheg (see 1.4.3); Gerhard Rohlfs (1957), "Zur Methodologie der romanischen Substratforschung", in the 1957 Gamillscheg Festschrift, Syntactica und Stylistica (see 1.4.3). Both authors also dealt with the question of Germanic superstratum influence, the former in ASMS (1966) 202: 428-431 and (1969) 205: 257-288; the latter in "Fränkische und frankoromanische Wanderwörter in der Romania", in the aforementioned Festgabe Ernst Gamillscheg (1952): 111-128. The same subject is treated in the following works: Ute Joppich-Hagemann - Ute Korth (1973), Untersuchungen zu Wortfamilien der Romania Germanica (Bonn: Romanisches Seminar der Universität Bonn); Helmut Stimm (1957), "Germanisches Wortgut im Galloromanischen", ZRPh 73: 414-427; Otto Jänicke (1974), "Betrachtungen zu frankoprovenzalischen

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Lexikalien vermeintlich burgundischen Ursprungs", VR 33: 173185. Greek influence upon Romance is treated in the following works: Griechisch und Romanisch, edited by Gunter Narr (1971) (Tübingen: Narr); Otto-Bäuerlein (1965), Die ältesten griechischen Wörter des Französischen (Mainz); Gerhard Rohlfs (1964-1965), "Ellenismo e latinitä nella Sicilia d'oggi", Kokalos 10/11: 565-578; W. Theodor Elwert (1966), "Zur griechisch-rumänischen Symbiose der Phanariotenzeit", in Beiträge zur Südosteuropa-Forschung (München): 391-402. Many contributions concern French: Manfred Höfler (1967), "Zum französischen Wortschatz orientalischen Ursprungs", ZRPh 83: 43-66; Karl Gebhardt (1974), Das okzitanische Lehngut im Französischen (Frankfurt/M.: Lang); Armin Schütz (1968), Die sprachliche Aufnahme und stilistische Wirkung des Anglizismus im Französischen, aufgezeigt an der Reklamesprache (Meisenheim/Glan: Hain); Karlheinz Becker (1970), Sportanglizismen im modernen Französisch (Meisenheim/Glan: Hain); Notburga Bäcker (1975), Probleme des inneren Lehnguts dargestellt an den Anglizismen der französischen Sportsprache (Tübingen: Narr); Christian Schmitt (1973), "Cultisme ou occitanisme? Etude sur la provenance du frangais amour et ameur", Romania 94: 433-462. In the opposite direction: Ulrich Krohmer (1967), Gallizismen in der spanischen Zeitungssprache (Stuttgart). Linguistic interference is, of course, strongest in the vocabulary; as regards syntax, we may mention: Klaus Hunnius (1971), "Zur Frage der syntaktischen Entlehnung", RFS7: 64-81; Wilhelm Giese (1952), "Balkansyntax oder thraktisches Substrat?", SNPh 24: 40-54; Wilfried Fiedler (1968), "Das aromunische Verbalsystem", in Beiträge zur rumänischen Philologie edited by Werner Bahner (Berlin): 115-139. Substratum influence in phonology was treated by Dieter Geissendörfer

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(1964), Der Ursprung dergorgia toscana (Neustadt/Aisch), with criticism from Gerhard Rohlfs (ZRPh (1967) 83: 461-471) and a reply (ZRPh (1968) 84: 606-610); for other works see the next section. 2.1.4 Phonology Among studies of general scope we may mention: Helmut Lüdtke (1956), Die strukturelle Entwicklung des romanischen Vokalismus (Bonn); Harald Weinrich (1958), Phonologische Studien zur romanischen Sprachgeschichte (Münster: Aschendorff); Udo L. Figge (1966), Die romanischen Anlautsonorisation (Bonn); Friedrich Schurr (1970), La diphtongaison romane (Tübingen: Narr), a book which recapitulates in full detail numerous articles by the author on umlaut and diphthongization phenomena all over the Romancespeaking territory. As examples for the study of more detailed phenomena one may cite: Rupprecht Rohr (1963), Das Schicksal der betonten lateinischen Vokale in der Provincia Lugdunensis Tertia, der späteren Kirchenprovinz Tours (Berlin: Duncker und Humblot); Isolde Burr (1975), Lateinisch-romanische Konsonantenverbindungen mit Liquid (Bonn: Romanisches Seminar der Universität Bonn); Otto Gesell (1975), "Zur Entwicklung der Gruppe "Haupttonvokale vor muta cum liquida" im Französischen", ZFSL 85: 219-246; Günter Reichenkron (1952), "Zur Geschichte des auslautenden -u im Rumänischen", Cahiers Sextil Pu$cariu 1: 269-296; Fritz Krüger (1965), "Aportes a la fonetica dialectal de Sanabria y de sus zonas colindantes", RFE 48: 251-281; Karl Heinz Rensch (1968), "Zur Entwicklung der lat. Lateralkonsonanz in Kalabrien und der Basilikata", ZRPh 84: 593-605; Ernst Gamillscheg (1968), "Randbemerkungen zum Thema Dissimilation", Serta Romanica (see 1.4.3): 35-44. Questions of substratum (see also the end of the preceding chapter) are touched on by Karl Gebhardt (1968), "A propos du changement ü > ü, BJR 15: 44-52; Friedrich Schurr (1959), "Efeito de substrate ou selecgäo fonologica?", BF 18: 57-66; Walter Koch (1970), Zur Theorie des Lautwandels (Hildesheim: Olm).

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2.1.5 Morphology Although this sphere of linguistic research seems to have grown less attractive — or rather less controversial — than most of the neighbouring ones, some important studies belonging to it may be listed: Bodo Müller (1956), Die Herkunft der Endung -i in der L Pers. sing. Präs. Ind. des provenzalischen Vollverbs (Erlangen); Irene Soff (1960), Die Formen der katalanischen Verbalendungen von den Anfängen der schriftlichen Überlieferung bis 1400 [Dissertation, Erlangen]; Wolfgang Roth (1965), Beiträge zur Formenbildung von lat. "esse" im Romanischen [Dissertation, Bonn] from a generative point of view: Willi Mayerthaler (1972), "Zur Diachronie von frz. -ons", ZFSL 82: 289-335. The noun system is treated by: Ilse Schön (1971), Neutrum und Kollektivum [Dissertation, Innsbruck] ; Rudolf Windisch (1973), Genusprobleme im Romanischen. Das Neutrum im Rumänischen (Tübingen: Spangenberg). On the morphological function of metaphony: Friedrich Schurr (1966), "Die innere Flexion des Rumänischen im Vergleich mit derjenigen anderer romanischer Sprachen und Mundarten", Acta Phüologica. Societas academica Dacoromana 5: 143152. 2.1.6 Word formation As in the other spheres of grammar, genetically oriented work on word formation is susceptible of certain more or less standard approaches, i.e. either pan-Romance or focussing on some language area, and either general or thematically limited to some narrower domain. As examples for the languages area type we find: Max Leopold Wagner (1952), Historische Wortbildungslehre des Sardischen (Bern: Francke); Helmut Jochems (1959), Beiträge zu einer vergleichenden Wortbildungslehre des heutigen Bündnerromanischen [Dissertation, Köln]; for a pan-Romance outlook, with limited domain: Annegret AIsdorf-Bollee (1970), Die lateinischen Verbalabstrakta der u-Deklination und ihre Umbildungen im Romanischen (Bonn); Ralf Cornelissen (1972), Lateinisch com- als Verbalpräfix in den

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romanischen Sprachen (Bonn: Romanisches Seminar der Universität Bonn); Stefan Ettinger (1974), Form und Funktion in der Wortbildung (Tübingen: Spangenberg), which treats suffixation. Of course, both kinds of thematic restriction also occur combined, as illustrated by the following studies: Heinz Jürgen Wolf (1964), Die Bildung der französischen Ethnica (Geneve: Droz); Manfred Höfler (1972), Zur Integration der neu-lateinischen Kompositionsweise im Französischen (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Ernst Gamillscheg (1967), "Sur l'histoire des suffixes galloromains -iacum, -iaca, -iacas", RLiR 31: 35-43; Werner Runkewitz (1968), "Innersprachliche Veränderungen und Lehnwörter in der aktuellen Pressesprache", BRPh 7: 131-149, which mainly concerns suffixation in French; Heinz Jürgen Wolf (1975), "Die Differenzierung der romanischen Sprachen im Bereich der Wortbildung", RF 86: 239-254. 2.1.7 Lexicology Besides studies on the history of individual words, which have been subsumed under "etymology" in section 2.1.2, there are two kinds of holistic approach to vocabulary, viz. onomasiology, a field intensively tilled by Romance scholars especially in Germany (see 2.2.3), and what may be called systematic study — from whatever point of view — of some larger part of the vocabulary of a given language or dialect. Relatively general works of this sphere are: Ernst Gamillscheg (1951), Französische Bedeutungslehre (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Albert Junker (1955), Wachstum und Wandlungen im neuesten italienischen Wortschatz (Erlangen: Universitätsbund); Ion Popinceanu (1964), Religion, Glaube und Aberglaube in der rumänischen Sprache (Nürnberg: Carl). As examples of somewhat more specialized studies we may cite: Werner Bahner (1966), "Entwicklungstendenzen bei den Neologismen der modernen rumänischen Sprache", WZUL 15: 527532; Jürgen Storost (1972), "Zur Herausbildung der Grundsätze der modernen französischen Fachsprache der Chemie im ausgehenden 18. Jh.", BRPh 11: 291-311. An important task of lexicology — apart from the composition of die-

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tionaries — is research into the first dating of lexical elements; examples for this kind of work are Manfred Höfler (1974), "Probleme der Datierung aufgrund lexikographischer Quellen", ZRPh 90: 30-40; Karl Gebhardt (1973), "Quelques datations nouvelles", FM 41: 294-299, and numerous articles on the lexical chronology of French, Catalan, Spanish, and Portuguese by Dieter Messner (see also 1.4.4). 2.1.8 Syntax As regards approaches, the introductory remarks in the section on word formation (2.1.6) hold for syntax as well. For a copious diachronic description see Ernst Gamillscheg (1957), Historische französische Syntax (Tübingen: Niemeyer); while the pan-Romance approach is represented by: Wolf Dietrich (1973), Der periphrastische Verbalaspekt in den romanischen Sprachen (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Theodor Berchem (1973), Studien zum Funktionswandel bei Auxiliarien und Semi-Auxiliarien in den romanischen Sprachen (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Gustav Adolf Beckmann (1963), Die Nachfolgekonstruktionen des instrumentalen Ablativs im Spätlatein und im Französischen (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Henrich Kuen (1957), "Die Gewohnheit der mehrfachen Bezeichnung des Subjekts in der Romania und die Gründe ihres Aufkommens", in the 1957 Gamillscheg Festschrift, Syntactica und Stylistica (see 1.4.3): 293-326; on the same subject, with restriction to French: Hans-Dieter Paufler (1968), "Form und Funktion der französischen Subjektpronomina", BRPh 7: 295-302. Olaf Deutschmann (1959), Zum Adverb im Romanischen (Tübingen: Niemeyer) treats emphatic expressions of quantity (like // a terriblement d'argent} in French and Provencal. That French comes to the fore, regardless of sphere and even of paradigm, is due to institutional circumstances, as explained in 1.3.2-4. Connection of clauses is the subject of the following studies: Wolf Dieter Stempel (1964), Untersuchungen zur Satzverknüpfung im Altfranzösischen (Braunschweig: Westermann);

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Johannes Klare (1958), Entstehung und Entwicklung der konzessiven Konjunktionen im Französischen (Berlin: Akademie); Alfred Adler (1975), "Lat. qum und ne und die konjunktionslose Hypotaxe im Altfranzösischen", in Neue Beiträge zur romanischen Etymologie, edited by Harri Meier (Heidelberg): 7-51. Outside the domain of French we find Karl Heinz Delille (1970), Die geschichtliche Entwicklung despräpositionalen Akkusativs im Portugiesischen (Bonn: Romanisches Seminar der Universität Bonn); Horst Isenberg (1968), Das direkte Objekt im Spanischen (Berlin: Akademie); Jürgen Bredemeier (1976), Strukturbeschränkungen im Rumänischen (Tübingen: Narr). 2.2 Between the genetic and the phenomenological paradigms Before any epistemological rupture was proclaimed between the diachronic and the synchronic studies of language phenomena, quite a lot of data gathering had been going on in various branches of research, which was of an inventorial nature rather than pertaining to history or diachrony proper. To be sure, orthodox dialect descriptions in the traditional vein almost invariably started from single stressed vowels of Classical Latin and not from today's phonemic pattern. However, since in most cases no more than two chronological levels were considered (viz. Latin and Modern Romance) on which the data had to be plotted, a truly diachronic arrangement was practically never achieved within the framework of a dialect monograph—it had to be left over to 'historical grammars' which, on the other hand, lacked diatopic data (for a remarkable exception, see 1.4.6). Thus integration of dialectology into the genetic paradigm was still a desideratum when it was suggested that language phenomena could and should be studied from different points of view. Analogous considerations hold good for such spheres as toponymy and onomasiology. Moreover, many studies based on single medieval texts, although intended as contributions to genetically oriented scholarship, were carried out in a synchronic way. To sum up, much of the linguistic fruit that has been harvested can be consumed in different ways. My plea is not for substitution, but for a co-existence, i.e. simultaneous adoption, of different paradigms. 2.2.1 Dialectology The most comprehensive work in this section is

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Gerhard Rohlfs (1971), Romanische Sprachgeographie (München: Beck). Other studies — if we except the publication of dialect texts, e.g. Heinrich Lausberg (1957), "Ein Apostelmärchen aus Lukanien", ASNS 194: 39-43; Ernst Hirsch (1968), "Mundartgeschichten aus dem oberen Tal der Dora Riparia", ZFSL 78: 160-168; — are either mono-systemic (i.e. conceive of a dialect as a single communication system, regardless of its geographical extension) or comparative (i.e. focus on variation along with systemic description). As examples of mono-systemic work we may cite: Alfred Bammesberger (1973), "Le parier ladin dolomitique du Val Gardena", BJR 20: 5-75; Antone Pizzinini - Guntram Plangg (1966), Parores Iodines. Vokabulare badiot tudesk (Innsbruck); Walter Mair (1973), Ennebergische Morphologie (Innsbruck: Institut für Romanische Philologie der Leopold-Franzens-Universität); Klaus Dieter Schneider (1968), Die Mundart von Ramosch (Graubünden) (Berlin); Helmut Stimm (1973), Medium und Reflexivkonstruktion im Surselvischen (München: Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften); Utz Maas (1969), Untersuchungen zur Phänologie und Phonetik der Mundart von Couzou (Dep. Lot) (Freiburg); Theodor Berchem (1974), "Le parier de Guardia Piemontese est-il franco-provengal ou provengal?", Actes du5e Cong. Int. de langue et litt d'Oc etd'Etudes Franco-Provengales Nice, 6-12 Sept. 1967 (Nice: Belles Lettres): 237-245. The comparative approach — which, generally speaking, stems from the genetic paradigm, whether diachronic considerations are made explicit or not — is best illustrated by W. Theodor Elwert (1972), Die Mundart des Fassa-Tals (Wiesbaden: Steiner); Guntram Plangg (1973), Sprachgestalt als Folge und Fügung. Zur Phänologie des Dolomitenladinischen (Badiot) und seiner Nachbarn (Tübingen: Niemeyer); the former being committed to the neogrammarian, the latter to the Prague-style structuralist procedure of description. Much of the work carried out in the same vein is devoted to Italian dialects: Hans Joachim Simon (1967), Beobachtungen an Mundarten Piemonts (Heidelberg: Winter);

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Werner Forner (1975), Generative Phonologie des Dialektes von Genua (Hamburg: Buske); Friedrich Schurr (1955), "Nuovi contributi allo studio dei dialetti romagnoli", RIL 89 (four instalments); Wolfgang Wieter (1971), Phonologische Studien zum Konsonantismus mittelitalienischer Mundarten (Freiburg); Sigmund Schlack (1966), Beiträge zur Lautlehre der Abruzzendialekte (Berlin); Rainer Bigalke (1976), Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Mundarten MittelLukaniens [Dissertation, Münster]; Karl Heinz Rensch (1964), Beiträge zur Kenntnis nordkalabrischer Mundarten (Münster: Aschendorff) and (1973) Nordkalabrischer Sprachatlas anhand der Parabel vom verlorenen Sohn (The Hague: Mouton). France is represented by the following studies: Arno Tausch (1954), Die Lautentwicklung der Mundarten des Trieves (Berlin: Akademie); Rudolf Hallig (1950), "Beitrag zur Kenntnis des Departements Lozere und seiner Mundarten", ZRPh, 68: 243-280; Hans Goebl (1972), "Der Atlas linguistique et etnographique normand", AÖAW 109: 228-248; Gerhard Rohlfs (1966), "Welsches Patois im Elsass", ZFSL 76: 264-274; Spain by Günther Haensch (1960), Las hablas de la Alta Ribagorza (Zaragoza), a study of the transition between Catalan and Spanish; Günther Haensch (1974), "Las hablas del Valle de Isäbena", RDyTP 30: 295-314; Fritz Krüger (1957), "Notas de dialectologia asturiana comparada", BIEA 11: 3-48. Although the bulk of German and Austrian scholars' dialectological research is confined to the countries of Europe, a few exceptions concerning Latin America can easily be found, as e.g. Horst Geckeier — Jaime Ocampo Marin (1973), "La posicion del habla andina de Venezuela en el marco de la dialectologia hispanoamericana", VR 32: 66-94; Hans Dieter Paufler (1971), "Charakter und Verbreitung des "zeismo" in Lateinamerika", BRPh 10: 169-173.

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2.2.2 Onomastics Generally speaking, due to intensive exchange not only of ideas but also of personnel between the universities of the Federal Republic of Germany, of Austria, and of Switzerland, characteristic types and methods of research, as well as special favour bestowed upon certain themes, will more or less rapidly spread over the whole German-speaking area. This is not so, however, as far as onomastics is concerned. Here we find concentration of work in the hands of single scholars or schools. Typical cases are Ernst Hirsch who has devoted most of his research activity to the Waldenses, producing a conspicuous number of studies on their dialects, both in the Western Alps and in Germany (where their language has died out), and on their various toponymic and anthroponymic traces. The Innsbruck school founded by Alwin Kühn and continued by Guntram Plangg has set itself the task of retrieving the lost Romance area that once linked Dolomite Ladinian with the Rhaeto-Romanic of Grisons (Graubünden) through a systematic study of the place-names and loanwords that passed into the German dialects now spoken in this region. The following books pertaining to this field of study have come out so far: Guntram Plangg (1962), Die rätoromanischen Flurnamen des Brandnertales ; Eberhard Tiefenthaler (1968), Die rätoromanischen Flurnamen der Gemeinden Fräs tanz und Nenzing; Reinhart Jaufer (1970), Die romanischen Orts- und Flurnamen des Paznauntales; Annemarie Schmid (1974), Die romanischen Orts- und Flurnamen im Räume Landeck; Elmar Schneider (1963), Romanische Entlehnungen in den Mundarten Tirols; Sr. Maria Clarina Mätzler (1968), Romanisches Wortgut in den Mundarten Vorarlbergs — all of them in the Innsbruck series Romanica Aenipontana (Innsbruck: Sprachwissenschaftliches Institut der Leopold-Franzens-Universität). The Western half of the Iberian Peninsula, with its dialects and its onomastic treasure, has been a lifelong field of research for Joseph M. Piel. His numerous articles on onomastic themes are in part summed up in the (1976) Hispano-gotisches Namenbuch (Heidelberg: Winter) which he published together with his Cologne disciple Dieter Kremer, who himself wrote (1972) Die germanischen Personennamen in Katalonien (Barcelona: Institut d'Estudis Catalans).

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Other works inspired by Fiel are: Johann Werner Flamm (1962), Die von Tiernamen abgeleiteten italienischen Ortsnamen (Geneve: Droz); Hans Gerd Tuchel (1962), Studien zur italienischen Phytotoponomastik (Geneve: Droz); Erich Welslau (1966), Untersuchungen zu den Orts- und Flurnamen des Kantons Clermont (Köln); Hans-Josef Niederehe (1967), Strosse und Weg in der galloromanischen Toponomastik (Geneve: Droz). As examples for contributions from different angles (both locally and methodically) we may cite: Wulf Müller (1973), Die Siedlungs- und Flurnamen von Urbeis (Orbey) im Oberelsass (Bern); H. Storing (1974), Untersuchungen zu den Personennamen in der altfranzösischen Literatur (Münster); Manfred Höfler (1968), "Beiträge zur Entwicklung vom Personennamen zum Appellativum", ZRPh 84: 89-97; Jürgen Prinz (1967), "Zur näheren Bestimmung des slavischen Elements in rumänischen Ortsnamen", ZBalk 5: 71-102. 2.2.3 Onomasiology The validity of the very basis of this linguistic subdiscipline (viz. the presupposition that there are sets of given 'things' and of given notions that any language must render by means of lexical items), has been questioned. Nevertheless, for practical purposes, such as inquiry into well-defined referential domains, with a view to establishing the terminology of a single language or language group, the method has produced satisfactory results, in spite of its epistemological shortcomings. The long tradition of onomasiological studies, especially in the German-speaking area, was continued after 1945 with a great number of contributions, although a certain decline in popularity — as compared with other sub-disciplines that originated within the genetic paradigm — can hardly be denied. As with the neighbouring fields, we shall begin with a sample of pan-Romance studies: Hans Gerd Schöneweiss (1955), Die Namen der Obstbäume in den romanischen Sprachen (Köln); Ludwig Soll (1967), Die Bezeichnungen für den Wald in den romanischen Sprachen (München: Hueber);

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Hans Schwerteck (1968), Bezeichnungen für Schuhwerk in den romanischen Sprachen (München); Hans Ulrich Becker (1974), Die approximativen Farbbezeichnungen in den romanischen Sprachen (Bonn); Karl Neubert (1967), Die Bezeichnungen von Onkel und Tante in den romanischen Sprachen (Erlangen-Nürnberg); Alfred Thierbach (1951), Untersuchungen zur Benennung der Kirchenfeste in den romanischen Sprachen (Berlin: Akademie); Walter Jack (1961), Studien zu den Zeitadverb-Reihen "gesternvorgestern-vorvorgestern" und "morgen-übermorgen-überübermorgen" in den romanischen Sprachen [Dissertation, ErlangenNürnberg]; Helmut Stimm (1967), Die romanischen Wörter für "frei" (Saarbrücken); Richard Glasser (1964), "Sich finden" in den romanischen Sprachen (Frankfurt/M.: Klostermann); Harri Meier (1972), Die Onomasiologie der Dummheit (Heidelberg: Winter); Hans-Heinrich Baumann (1967), Sekundäre Motivationen bei romanischen Tierbezeichnungen (Bonn). It is difficult exactly to delimit the sphere of onomasiology proper, because collection of the material is often followed or intermingled with (etymological or other) interpretation, and in some extreme cases, e.g. when the material is ready at hand (it may be gathered from two or three atlas maps), all that remains to be done is to draw linguistic conclusions. The following list is a sample of regionally more restricted studies, grouped geographically, from Italy via France to the Iberian Peninsula. Wolf Dieter Stempel (1958), "Zum Bezeichnungsverhältnis von Frucht und Fruchtbaum in einigen italienischen Dialekten und im Sardischen", RF 69: 93-123; Kurt Reichenberger (1967), "Die Bezeichnung der Schürze in Italien und Frankreich", VR 16: 52-59; Manfred Bambeck (1968), Boden und Werkwelt. Untersuchungen zum Vokabular der Galloromania aufgrund von nichtliterarischen Texten (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Hannelore Beekmann (1961), Der Begriff "fete du village" und seine Bezeichnungen im Galloromanischen (Berlin: Akademie); Manfred Höfler (1967), Untersuchungen zur Tuch- und Stoffbenennung in der französischen Urkundensprache (Tübingen: Niemeyer);

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Ferdinand Simonis (1963), Von altfranzösisch terdre zu neufranzösisch essuyer (Köln); Dieter Zastrow (1963), Entstehung und Ausbildung des französischen Vokabulars der Luftfahrt (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Hans Krings (1961), Die Geschichte des Wortschatzes der Höflichkeit im Französischen [Dissertation, Bonn]; Ute Trettner (1967), Die Ausdrücke der Bewunderung und des Absehens im Umgangsfranzösischen und im Argot (Bonn); Walter K. Grafschaft (1974), Die Onomasiologie von "sterben" im Französischen (Bonn: Romanisches Seminar der Universität Bonn); Lothar Wolf (1968), Sprachgeographische Untersuchungen zu den Bezeichnungen für Haustiere im Massif Central (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Gerhard Rohlfs (1961), "Apuntes para una flora popular de Espana", ER 8: 121-133; Heinrich Ruppert (1964), Beiträge zu einer Untersuchung des gegenwärtigen politischen Wortschatzes in Spanien (Erlangen-Nürnberg); Ingo Nagel (1972), Die Be zeichungen für "dumm" und "verrückt" im Spanischen (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Sigrid Buschmann de Gelos (1974), "Bezeichnungen für "sich niederhocken" in der Iberoromania", RF 85: 532-545. Finally, Heinz Kröll's (1955) Designa öes portuguesas para "embriaguez" (Coimbra) which had appeared before in instalments in RPF, was followed by additions (1964-65) in RPF 13: 27-63. 2.2.4 Studies based on medieval texts Although textual edition is not taken into consideration here, we should not exclude the study of past stages of the Romance languages, the description of which is, of course, based either directly upon old texts or upon grammars and dictionaries that, in turn, use old texts as their sources. A great number of these studies is concerned with Old French. This is obviously due to the fact that, until the 1960s, Old French occupied a strong position in the university curriculum, in accordance with the general predominance of the genetic paradigm. The following works on Old French themes are listed together, in spite of differing in method and topic: Wolf Dieter Stempel (1964), Untersuchungen zur Satzverknüpfung im Altfranzösischen (Braunschweig: Westermann);

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Arnulf Stefenelli (1967), Der Synonymenreichtum der altfranzösischen Dichtersprache (Wien: Böhlau); Irmgard Vogel (1967), Die affektive Intensivierung der Adjektiv a mit Hilfe des Vergleichs im Altfranzösischen (Heidelberg: Winter); Theodor Berchem (1973), "Zu den alfranzösischen Pronominalformen gie und zie", ZFSL 83: 291-316; Irmgard Maierhofer (1957), Das altfranzösische Adjektiv im Sinnbezirk des Denkens und Fühlens mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des höfischen Zeitalters (München); Harald Scholler (1956), Studien im semantischen Bereich des Schmerzes (Marburg); Doris Sammet (1968) Die Substantivbildung mit Suffixen bei Chrestien de Troyes (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Erwin Diekmann (1969), Die Substantivbildung mit Suffixen in den Fabliaux (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Friederike Stefenelli-Fürst (1966), Die Tempora der Vergangenheit in den Chanson de geste (Wien: Braumüller); Gustav Adolf Beckmann (1965), Trojaroman und Normannenchronik. Die Identität der beiden Benoit und die Chronologie ihrer Werke (München: Hueber). The last-mentioned work is especially illustrative of how linguistic circumspection may result in solving problems of literary identity. Sundry studies on past stages of Romance languages other than Old French are listed below: Fritz Schalk (1957), "Bemerkungen zum Pron. indef. in der französischen Sprache des 17. Jahrunderts", in Syntactica undstylistica (see 1.4.3): 511-518; Clemens Diekamp (1972), Formelhafte Synonymenhäufungen in der altpoitevinischen Urkundensprache (München: Fink); Helmut Stimm (1974), "Lexikalischer Kommentar zur sogenannten poitevinischen Katharinenpassion", ZFSL 76: 291-311; Helmut Stimm (1974), "Concordances lexicales entre 'Girart de Roussillon' et les 'Legendes et miracles' franco-provencaux", RLiR 38: 507-523; Manfred Betz (1975), Aussagegehalt und Syntax deverbaler Adjektive im Altprovenzalischen (Rheinfelden: Schäuble); Karl Peter Linder (1968), "Volere + infinitif. Periphrase du futur en ancien ", BJR 15: 53-59; Werner Blochwitz (1965), Präzisierungstendenzen der altgaskognischen Urkundensprache (Heidelberg: Winter);

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Hans-Dieter Paufler (1968), Strukturprobleme der Stellung attributiver Adjektive im Altspanischen (Halle: Niemeyer); Rose-Marie Peisker (1973), Materialien zur Beschreibung der Sprache des franko-venezianischen Epos 'La Guerra d'Attila' [Dissertation, Göttingen]; Günter Holtus (1979), Lexikalische Untersuchungen zur Interferenz: die franko-italienische "Entree d'Espagne" (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Gerhard Ernst (1970), Die Toskanisierung des römischen Dialekts im 15. und 16. Jahrhundert (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Werner Draeger (1964), "Zu den Kryptogrammen in den rumänischen Texten des 18. Jahrhunderts", SUBB 9: 87-99. 2.2.5 Pidgin and Creole studies The overseas varieties of Romance languages — with the exception of Spanish and Portuguese in the Americas — have, in spite of the notable example set by Hugo Schuchardt, at the beginning of this century, attracted little attention in Germany and Austria, until Annegret Bollee's quite recent studies on the French-based Creole languages of the Indian Ocean. Her research is published in the following books: (1977) Zur Entstehung der französischen Kreolendialekte im Indischen Ozean (Geneve: Droz); (1977) Le creole franqais des Seychelles (Tübingen: Niemeyer); (1978) Apprenons la nouvelle orthographe, together with D. D'Offray (Köln - Mähe). As may be gathered from the last title, in the case of Creole languages linguists may, instead of acting as mere onlookers and describers, take on the role of promoters of indigenous culture. This type of activity, reflected also in Jürgen M. Meisel, editor (1977), Langues en contact Pidgins - Creoles - Languages in Contact (Tübingen: Narr), leads on to the connective paradigm, which will be treated at the end of the present survey. 2.3 Phenomenological linguistics The decisive argument for claiming the superiority of the phenomenological over the genetic paradigm springs from the undeniable fact that our — actual or possible — knowledge about data regarding the present and the immediate past by far outweighs that about preceding centuries or millennia; therefore — that is the idea — intensive investigation of present phenomena may shed light upon more obscure past ones, and not vice versa. In conclusion, research about past events may, according to

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personal tastes, be viewed either as a 'quantite negligeable' or as a welcome supplement. The phenomenological paradigm will presumably remain valid, for those who subscribe to it, until the dissipation of the illusion that 'languages' are real objects (i.e. psychologically real ones, whatever that may mean), ontologically prior to people's speech activity — and not mere terms in the metalanguage game linguists play. Research work in the phenomenological paradigm partly consists in fact-finding, partly in fact-understanding. Application of already available knowledge for practical purposes, whether it be language teaching or cultural promotion or whatever else, will be excluded from consideration here. 2.3.1 Syntax and stylistics There is a remarkable shift of interest: while in genetic linguistics the most intensively tilled field is etymology and word history, in phenomenologically inspired work it is syntax. This change was not due to the incursion of TGG, which happened relatively late in Germany and Austria, but it continued when TGG was being viewed as a method among others. In the present chapter, only studies concerning standard languages will be treated; a few other contributions to Romance syntax are found under such headings as "dialectology" (2.2.1) and "studies based on medieval texts" (2.2.4). The descriptive approach is mono-systemic; only in some rare cases more than one Romance language is taken into consideration; the pan-Romance approach is practically absent. Some particularly favorite themes are the position of the adjective (or the adjective, in general) and anything referring to the tense/aspectsystems; such studies are listed first: Hans-Dieter Paufler (1966), "Positionsprobleme des spanischen Adjektivs", BRPh 5: 134-143; Harald Weinrich (1966), "La place de l'adjectif en frangais", VR 25: 82-89; Erwin Reiner (1968), La place de l'adjectif epithete en frangais (Wien: Braumüller); Herwig Krenn (1975), "Die Hypothese vom 'nackten Adjektiv'. Ein Beitrag zum Adjektivstellungs-Problem im Französischen und in den romanischen Sprachen", KN/22: 365-373; Wilhelma Liebenhagen (1971), "Zur Stellung des attributiven Adjektivs im Italienischen", BRPh 10: 149-168;

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Werner Fiebig (1957), "Zum adjectif demonstratif im Neufranzösischen", in Syntactica und Stylistica (see 1.4.3): 121-127; Dorothea Möhle (1968), Das neufranzösische Adjektiv. Wortinhalt und sprachliche Leistung (München: Fink); Gabriele Stein (1971), Primäre und sekundäre Adjektive im Französischen und Englischen (Tübingen: Spangenberg); Albert Barrera-Vidal (1972), Parfait simple et parfait compose en castillan moderne (München); Helmut Berschin (1976), Präteritum- und Perfektgebrauch im heutigen Spanisch (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Wolfgang Pollak (1960), Studien zum ''Verbalaspekt" im Französischen (Wien: Rohrer); Horst G. Klein (1972), "Der Verbalaspekt zwischen Satzsyntax und Textlinguistik", NS 11: 133-139; Hans-Günter Appuhn (1966), "Die hyperperiphrastischen Tempora' im Französischen und im Deutschen", NS 65: 237-243; Harri Meier (1965), "Future y futuridad", RFE 48: 61-77; Harri Meier et al. (1967), "Futur und Zukunft im Spanischen", ASNS 204: 332-353; Franz Rauhut (1957), "Das Futurum exactum als Ausdruck der Vorwegnahme eines späteren Urteils", in Syntactica und Stylistica (see 1.4.3): 421-428. From the immense number of other studies only a few are cited below, in geographical order: Reinhard Meyer-Hermann (1973), Zur Syntax des Infinitivs mit Person im gesprochenen Portugiesisch (Köln); Elisabeth Rudolph (1973), Das finale Satzgefüge als Informationskomplex. Analysen aus der spanischen Literatursprache (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Günter Peuser (1966), Die Partikel 'de' im modernen Spanischen [Dissertation, Freiburg]; Horst Isenberg (1968), Das direkte Objekt im Spanischen (Berlin: Akademie); Brigitte Schlieben-Lange (1971), Okzitanische und katalanische Verbprobleme (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Peter Schifko (1967), Subjonctif und subjuntivo. Zum Gebrauch des Konjunktivs im Französischen und Spanischen (Wien: Braumüller); Klaus Hunnius (1960), Der Ausdruck der Konditionalitat im modernen Französisch (Bonn);

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Klaus Henning Schroeder (1961), Die medialen Verben im Neufranzösischen (Berlin); Martin Raether (1968), Untersuchungen über die Konstruktion "Verb + Infinitiv im Französischen (Köln); Peter Behnstedt (1973), Viens-tu? Est-ce que tu viens? Formen und Strukturen des direkten Fragesatzes im Französischen (Tübingen: Narr); Susanne Schmidt-Knäbel (1971), Die Syntax der -ant-Formen im modernen Französisch (Bensberg: Schäuble); Reinhold Kontzi (1958), Der Ausdruck der Passividee im älteren Italienisch (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Max Leopold Wagner (1957), "Die Iteration im Sardischen", in Syntactica und Stylistica (see 1.4.3): 611-624. The delimitation between syntax and word-formation and morphology, which has never been established in an epistemologically satisfactory way (being based simply on the orthographical concept of "word"), is sometimes difficult to define. This is particularly the case as regards the following studies: Wolfgang Rothe (1967), Strukturen des Konjunktivs im Französischen (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Winfried Busse (1974), Klasse, Transitivität, Valenz. Transitive Klassen des Verbs im Französischen (München: Fink); Ulrich Wandruszka (1972), Französische Nominalsyntagmen (München: Fink), where the transition is towards lexicology and semantics. 2.3.2 Lexicology and semantics Within this sub-discipline we find a special predilection for the study of lexical fields. Both the term and the notion it stands for had originated in Germany in the 1920's; in Romance linguistics the inclination towards this type of studies received a fresh impulse though the teaching and the publications of Eugenio Coseriu (Tübingen) and his disciples. The following are theoretical works: Horst Geckeier (1973), Strukturelle Semantik des Französischen (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Horst Geckeier (1971), Zur Wortfelddiskussion (München: Fink); Thomas Kotschi (1974), Probleme der Beschreibung lexikalischer Strukturen (Tübingen: Niemeyer). As examples of studies on particular fields (undertaken from different methodical angles) we may cite: Ursula Liehr (1971), Jour-Journee, An-Annee (Tübingen: Spangenberg);

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Barbara von Gemmingen-Obstfelder (1973), Studien zum Wortfeld "Arbeit" im Französischen (Tübingen: Narr); Werner Blochwitz (1965), Präzisierungstendenzen der altgakognischen Urkundensprache im Begriffsfeld 'Verwandtschaff' (Heidelberg: Winter); Heinz Kroll (1968), Die Ortsadverbien im Portugiesischen unter besonderer Berücksichtigung ihrer Verwendung in der modernen Umgangssprache (Wiesbaden: Steiner); Max Aschenbrenner (1972), Das Vokabular des Verkehrswesens im Zentralladinischen (München: Hueber); Arthur Beyrer (1968), "Die Bezeichnungen für "Volk" in Dimitrie Cantemirs Werk", and Bärbel Techtmeier (1968), "Über die Synonymie der Bezeichnungen für "dumm" und "klug, gescheit" in der rumänischen Gegenwartssprache", both in Beiträge zur rumänischen Philologie, edited by Werner Bahner (Berlin: Akademie): 49-72 and 73-92, respectively. Other types of work that may be subsumed under the above heading are: Klaus Bochmann, ed. (1977), Beiträge zur Geschichte des politischsozialen Wortschatzes der rumänischen Sprache, (Leipzig: KarlMarx-Universität) ; Mario Wandruszka (1959), Der Geist der französischen Sprache (Hamburg); Mario Wandruszka (1954), Haltung und Gebärde der Romanen (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Karl Ludwig Müller (1973), Übertragener Gebrauch von Ethnika in der Romania (Meisenheim/Glan: Hain). Much less cultivated is the area of word frequency. Examples are: Wolfgang Strack (1977), Das Verb im gesprochenen Französisch. Frequenzuntersuchungen als Grundlage zur Erarbeitung sprachlicher Minima (Frankfurt/M.: Lang); Klaus Henning Schroeder (1965), "Probleme der Wortzählung im Rumänischen", ZBalk 3: 169-179. 2.3.3 Word formation As in the preceding section, we shall try to distinguish between predominantly theoretical and predominantly descriptive work, taking into consideration, among the former, only such studies as apply to Romance material. General linguistic studies by Romance scholars, however valuable they may be, are excluded.

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An example of theoretical work is Hans Martin Gauger (1971), Durchsichtige Wörter. Zur Theorie der Wortbildung (Heidelberg: Winter). Several Romance languages are treated more or less comparatively by Stefan Ettinger (1974), Diminutiv- und Augmentativbildung: Regeln und Restriktionen (Tübingen: Spangenberg) and Jens Lüdtke (1978), Prädikative Nominalisierungen mit Suffixen im Französischen, Katalanischen und Spanischen (Tübingen: Niemeyer). Other studies listed in geographical order are: Günther Haensch — A. Lallemand-Rietkotter (1972), Wortbildungslehre des modernen Französisch (München: Hueber); Ulrich Wandruszka (1976), Probleme der neufranzösischen Wortbildung (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Christian Rohrer (1967) Die Wortzusammensetzung im modernen Französisch [Dissertation, Tübingen]; Erwin Diekmann (1973 and 1975), "Wortbildungsstruktur und Mengenlehre", ZRPh 89: 52-65 and 91: 129-142; Hans Martin Gauger (1971), Untersuchungen zur spanischen und französischen Wortbildung (Heidelberg: Winter). Rosel Weidhase-Sengle (1967), Beiträge zur Kenntnis der spanischen Suffixe (Tübingen); Christoph Schwarze (1965), "Bemerkungen zur Transformationsgrammatik der italienischen Nominalsuffixe", FoL 1: 49-58; Werner Bahner (1961), 'Zur Funktion des Suffixes -giu im Rumänischen", WZUL 10: 407-408. It is interesting to note that, regardless of school or method (neogrammarian, structural, TGG), the notion of "word" always seems to be taken for granted. 2.3.4 Morphology Since the inflexional systems of the standard languages (for the others see "dialectology", 2.2.1) have been intensively studied in the past, new work carried out in this field applies to methods of description or presentation rather than to the fact as such. Only a few studies are listed below. Willi Mayerthaler (1977), Studien zur theoretischen und zur französischen Morphologie (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Ferenc Kiefer (1973), Generative Morphologie des Neufranzösischen (Tübingen: Niemeyer);

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Wolfgang Rettig (1974), "Die pragmatische Beschreibung der Pluralbildung entlehnter Substantive im Französischen", ZFSL 84:193 -209; Klaus Heger (1963), Die Bezeichung temporal-deiktischer Begriffskategorien im französischen und spanischen Konjugationssystem (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Klaus Heger (1968), "La conjugation objective en fran$ais et en espagnol", Langages 3: 19-39; Wolfgang Rothe (1966), "Romanische Objektkonjugation", ÄF78: 530-547; Ludwig Soll (1968), "Synthetisches und analytisches Futur im modernen Spanischen", RF 80: 239-248; Paul Miron (1974), "Verb und Verbalisierung im Rumänischen," V R 33: 80-98; Hans Stammerjohann (1973), "Phonologic des italienischen Artikels", Italica 50: 66-72. The last mentioned article, apparently referring to phonology, is an instructive example of how the borderlines between the traditional subdisciplines are becoming slurred by the introduction of new methods—in this case, TGG. 2.3.5 Phonology Phonology has had a limited appeal. Two explanations can be adduced for this fact: in the first place, lack of phonetics laboratories that provide instrumental training in most German and Austrian universities; in the second place, the difficulty of communicating facts of pronunciation through the medium of writing. The detrimental result is that phonological descriptions — especially the more modern ones — deal with letters rather than with speech. A few works are cited below: Zita Hess (1975) Typologischer Vergleich der romanischen Sprachen auf phonologischer Basis (Frankfurt/M.: Lang); Hans Wilhelm Klein (1963), Phonetik und Phonologie des heutigen Französisch (München: Hueber); Wolfgang Rothe (1972), Phonologie des Französischen (Berlin: E. Schmidt); Michael Herrmann (1973), "Probleme der allgemeinen und der französischen Phonologie", Phonetica 30: 149-174; August Dauses (1973), Etudessur l'e instable dans lefranfaisfamilier (Tübingen: Niemeyer);

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Christian Rohrer (1968), "Das französische Vokalsystem" in Wortbildung, Syntax und Morphologie, Festschrift Hans Marchand (The Hague: Mouton): 190-202; Christian Rohrer (1967), "Die Behandlung der französischen Nasalvokale in der generativen Phonologic", in Phänologie der Gegenwart, edited by Josip Hamm (Wien: Böhlau); Bodo Müller (1974), "Mots regionaux et Systeme phonemique du fran9ais contemporain", RLiR 38: 347-390; Mario Wandruszka (1966), "Wortfolge und Satzton im Französischen", ZFSL 76: 275-290; Otto von Essen (1965), "Zur Frage der Geminaten im Rätoromanischen des Unterengadins", in Omagiu Rosetti: 209-213; Helmut Lüdtke (1952 and 1953), "Fonemätica portuguesa", BF 13: 273-288 and 14: 197-217; Georg Heike (1969), "Zur Methodik phonetisch-phonologischer Vergleichung. Ein Beitrag zur luso-brasilianischen Aussprache", Phonetica 17: 231-240. 2.4 Linguistics in the connective paradigm This is the least well established of the three paradigms. Rather than being a topic of general agreement, it stems from convergence of ideas between scholars of different backgrounds and apparently heterogeneous fields of study. What unites them, nevertheless, is their insight into the shortcomings of any systemic approach presupposing mental reification of the complex of man's speech activity, which gives rise to such metaphorical entities as "languages" that act and interact as if they were physical bodies. The alternative is to look at linguistic regularity and systematicity as properties of human behaviour to be studied as such, that is to say, as sets of dynamic events which can be classified according to rational criteria. In the following sections I shall try to give a rapid survey of work that can be regarded as belonging to the connective paradigm. 2.4.1 Language history Book titles like "History of language X" would seem to be part and parcel of our discipline. And yet, they could never be made to fit into the genetic paradigm. It was even difficult to tell what exactly was meant by the explicit term "history" in those book titles when the term "historical" was also used for the diachrony of single language phenomena pertaining to phonology, morphology, etc.

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In the meantime, the formerly erratic field of language history (sometime called "external history" in order to distinguish it from "historical grammar") has grown into a full-fledged sub-discipline, with an everincreasing number of contributions. These are heterogeneous, since the situations of the Romance languages differ extremely (standard vs. nonstandard; tolerated vs. oppressed etc.) and the situation of a single language (e.g. French), varies from one country to the next. The contributions listed below are arranged geographically (from the Iberian Peninsula via France and Italy towards Rumania); pan-Romance studies precede. Ludwig Soll (1966), "Die Namen der romanischen Sprachen", MS 65: (N.f. 15) 249-262; W. Havers (1957), "Über den Einfluß der christlichen Kultsprachen auf die Profansprache", ASNS 194: 24-35; Hans J. Vermeer (1969), "Das Portugiesische in Süd-Asien", APK 9: 136-226; Werner Bahner (1956), Beitrag zum Sprachbewusstsein in der spanischen Literatur des 16. und 17. Jh. (Berlin: Rütten und Loening); Jetta Margarita Zahn (1974), Aspekte der nationalen Werbesprache in Mexiko (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Brigitte Schlieben-Lange (1971), Okzitanisch und Katalanisch (Tübingen: Narr); Georg Kremnitz (1974), Versuche zur Kodifizierung des Okzitanischen seit dem 19. Jh. (Tübingen: Narr); Georg Kremnitz (1972-3), "La situation de la langue d'oc ä travers une enquete sur les mass-media", RLaR 80: 249-315. Studies concering French may be sub-divided into general, diastratic, and various: Helmut Berschin - Josef Felixberger - Hans Goebl (1978), Französische Sprachgeschichte (München: Hueber); Bodo Müller (1975), Das Französische der Gegenwart (Heidelberg: Winter); Ludwig Soll (1974), Gesprochenes und geschriebenes Französisch (Berlin: E. Schmidt); Klaus Dieter Schneider (1973), "Was istfrangaisparleT\ ZRPh 89: 196-205; Hans Dieter Bork (1976), "Neo-frangais = frangais avance? Zur Sprache Raymond Queneaus", RFS1: 1-40; Klaus Hunnius (1975), "Archaische Züge des langage populaire", ZFSL 85: 145-161;

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Wolf Dieter Stempel — Klaus Weber (1974), "Stereotypie und Selbstartikulation. Bemerkungen zur restringierten Schriftpraxis anhand französischer Briefe", RJb 25: 27-62; R. Zimmer (1972), Aspekte der Sprachkomik im Französischen (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Wolfgang Rothe (1971), "Asterix und das Spiel mit der Sprache", NS13: 241-261; Eckhard Rattunde (1971), "Toleranzbreite oder Normgrenze? (des bons amis — de bons amis)", N S 73: 331-339; Harald Weinrich (1961), "Die clarte der französischen Sprache und die Klarheit der Franzosen", ZRPh 77: 528-544; Wolf Dieter Stempel (1975), "Prosaübersetzungen und Prosastil. Zur altfranzösischen Übersetzung der 'Quatre livre des Rois' ", in the Lommatzsch Festschrift Philologica Romanica (see 1.4.3): 357369. On the Eastern Romance languages: Hans Wilhelm Klein (1957), Latein und Volgare in Italien. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der italienischen Nationalsprache (München: Hueber); Werner Bahner (1966), Dantes Bemühungen um die Geltung und Formung der italienischen Literatursprache (Berlin: Akademie); Albert Junker (1957), "Gesunkenes Metapherngut im zeitgenössischen Italienischen", in Syntactica und Stylistica (see 1.4.3): 243259; Werner Bahner (1967), Das Sprach- und Geschichtsbewusstsein in der rumänischen Literatur von 1780-1880 (Berlin: Akademie); Werner Bahner (1975), "Petru Maiors Auffassung von der romanischen Sprachgeschichte und ihr wissenschaftlicher Kontext", SCL 26: 325-330; Klaus Bochmann (1956), "Zum Verhältnis von gesellschaftlichem Fortschrittsdenken und lexikalischer Neuerung im Rumänischen", in Beiträge zur Soziolinguistik, edited by Werner Bahner (Berlin); Klaus Bochmann (1973), "Neologismus und Neosemantismus im politisch-sozialen Wortschatz des Rumänischen von 1821-1829", BRPh 12: 345-365. 2.4.2 Text-editing The larger part of text-editing activity, which is concerned with literary texts, will be excluded from consideration here, because it has only indirect bearing upon linguistics. In a variety of particular cases,

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however, text-editions provide new insight into language history. Some examples are listed below. Die Reichenauer Glossen, 2 vols.; (1968) part I (text, index, concordances) by Hans Wilhelm Klein and Andre Labhardt; (1972) part II (origin, history) by Manfred Raupach (München: Fink); Reinhold Kontzi (1974), Aljamiadotexte, 2 vols. (Wiesbaden: Steiner); Ursula Klenk (1972), La leyenda de Yüsuf. Ein Aljamiado-Text (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Gisela Labib (1976), "Spanische Lautentwicklung und arabischislamischer Geist in einem Aljamiado-Manuskript des 16. Jh.", VR 26: 37-109; Helmut Stimm (1955), Altfrankoprovenzalische Übersetzungen hagiographischer lat. Texte (Wiesbaden: Steiner); Oskar Pausch (1972), Das älteste italienisch-deutsche Sprachbuch (Wien: Böhlau); Dietrich Hauck (1965), Das Kaufmannsbuch desJohan Blasi (13291337) [Dissertation, Saarbrücken]; Gerhard Ernst (1966), "Un ricettario di medicina popolare in romanesco del Quattrocento", SLI 6: 138-175; Ernst Hirsch (1976), "Die Notariatsakten von Mentoules aus den Jahren 1532 und 1549", ZRPh 92: 365-385. 2.4.3 Text linguistics While systemic linguistics views any language as a set of sentences or of shorter items, text linguistics starts from the insight that in reality sentences hardly occur in isolation but rather in concatenation. Later on, it was discovered that this is true not only for written texts but also for speech, and since speech precedes writing it may be profitable to investigate concatenation phenomena in speech in order to better account for similar ones in writing. A few examples of text linguistic studies are listed below: Birgit Scharlau (1969), Eine Darstellung der Anaphorik im Spanischen [Dissertation, Frankfurt/M.]; Elisabeth Gülich (1970), Makrosyntax der Gliederungssignale im gesprochenen Französisch (München: Fink); Wolfgang Raible (1972), Satz und Text. Untersuchungen zu vier romanischen Sprachen (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Artur Greive (1974), Neufranzösische Formen der Satzfrage im Kontext (Wiesbaden: Steiner);

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Hans Manfred Schuh (1974), Ellipse, Text, Kommunikation. Ein Beitrag zur französischen Textlinguistik (Bonn: Romanisches Seminar der Universität Bonn); Peter Blumenthal (1976), "Zur kommunikativen Funktion von Adverbien und Umstandsbestimmungen im Französischen", RF8T: 295-332; H. Genaust (1975), "Void und voila. Eine textsyntaktische Analyse", in Textgrammatik, edited by Michael Schecker and Peter Wunderli (Tübingen: Niemeyer): 76-106. 2.4.4 Dynamic comparison ("interlinguistics") While in systemic linguistics differences between languages are conceived as differences of "structure" (that may give rise to "interference"), work in the connective paradigm starts from speech activity, which means that differences between languages can be properly studied only if there are people, bilingual or polyglot, who know and use both languages in question. Consequently, there are two main sources for dynamic comparison, viz. L2 utterances and translations. We must credit Mario Wandruszka with having set up the rules of the game, i.e. created the method of comparison of languages through multilateral translation. Most of the extant work has been done by disciples of his. The following are a few examples of this type of study: Mario Wandruszka (1969), Sprachen — vergleichbar und unvergleichlich (München: Piper); Mario Wandruszka (1971), Interlinguistik. Umrisse einer neuen Sprachwissenschaft (München: Piper); Mario Wandruszka (1967), "Implication et explication", RLiR 31: 316-330; Mario Wandruszka (1964), "Les temps du passe en francais et dans quelques langues voisines", FM 34: 3-18; Heidrun Pelz (1967), Das französische qualifizierende Adverb und seine Übersetzung im Englischen und im Deutschen [Dissertation, Tübingen]; Gerhard Ernst (1973), "Der Übersetzungsvergleich als Hilfsmittel wortgeschichtlicher Forschung. Zum französischen Wortschatz des 17. Jahrhunderts", ZRPh 89: 182-95; Heinrich Stobitzer (1968), Aspekt- und Aktionsart im Vergleich des Französischen mit dem Deutschen, Englischen und Italienischen [Dissertation, Tübingen].

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2.4.5 Scriptology "Scripta", a term for a notion worked out, from the late 1940's onwards, by Louis Remacle and Charles Theodore Gossen, refers to the set of linguistic properties common to a group of written texts usually originating from one and the same region and hence reflecting the scriptural behaviour of a spatially and chronologically defined group of scribes. If such a set of linguistic properties always coincided with the structure of a given local or regional dialect, there would be no point in coining a new term. The need for it arose when it was discovered that, in medieval France, sets of linguistic features characterising given regional groups of texts could only to a small extent be accounted for as reflecting some spoken dialect. Nor can the rest of the features be regarded as simply due to interference from another given dialect. Instead, we observe a sort of convergence of different regional scriptae, with respect to their nonindigenous features, towards some common goal, viz. an inter-regional written language, becoming more and more standardised. Studies of medieval French scriptae have been carried out by Hans Goebl; cf. the following examples: (1970) Die normandische Urkundensprache (Wien: Böhlau); (1966) "Qu'est-ce que la scriptologie?", MedRom 2: 3-43; (1979) "Verba volant, scripta manent", RLiR 43: 344-399. For a fuller bibliographical account, see RLiR 43: 396. The functions of orthographies within different cultural settings — together with the possible motives for, and repercussions of, spelling and/or pronunciation reforms — were studied by Helmut Lüdtke in the following articles: (1964) "Die Entstehung romanischer Schriftsprachen", VR 33: 3-

21; (1974) "Tesi generali sui rapporti fra i sistemi orale e scritto del linguaggio", AttidelXIVCongressoIntern, ailing, efil. rom. (1974), I: 433-443. Orthography itself (not as a glottotechnical skill, but in the sense of graphemic systems conveying information) is beginning to be appreciated as a subject worthy of scholarly attention, witness the following studies (parallel to what has been undertaken in other countries, especially France): Wolfgang Börner (1976), Schriftstruktur und Lautstruktur. Studien zur altgalizischen Skripta (Tübingen: Niemeyer); Wolfgang Börner (1977), Die französische Orthographie (Tübingen: Niemeyer);

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Wolfgang Börner (1970), "La ortografia del espanol", IbRom 2: 5-31; Ludwig Soll (1975), "Eine Pseudoregel der französischen Orthographie", in the Lommatzsch Festschrift Philologica Romanica (see 1.4.3): 349-356; Guntram Plangg (1967), "Schreibtradition im Gadertalischen", Moderne Sprachen 9: 113-121; Rolf Nagel (1968), "Die Orthographieregeln des Pero Magalhäes de Gändavo", APK 8: 110-135; Klaus Henning Schroeder (1966), "Zur Entwicklung der rumänischen Orthographie", ZRPh 82: 320-338. 2.4.6 Algorithmics The elaboration of algorithms for electronic data processing has only of late come into fashion in Romance linguistics; accordingly, its status is still open to as many doubts as hopes. Generally speaking, the use of electronic data processing is to compress material; we can, indeed, reasonably expect to be capable of handling large quantities of available data, with a view to solving problems that could not be solved with conventional means. A well-known application of electronic data processing is automatic translation. Research involving Romance languages is being carried out by teams in the following universities: Bochum (Udo L. Figge); Heidelberg (Klaus Brockhaus); Saarbrücken (Hans Ludwig Scheel); similar work on technical vocabulary is being done in Bielefeld (Manfred Sprissler), whereas Mannheim (O. Winkelmann) pursues automatic analysis of French morphosyntax. A fuller account, by Udo L. Figge, is scheduled to be published in the proceedings of the first section of the Deutscher Romanistentag 1979. Other applications of electronic data processing and of algorithms serving it are the description of morphological or morphosyntactic systems, e.g.: Helmut Liidtke (1976), "La description algorithmique de la flexion verbale du Catalan", in Actes del Tercer Col.loqui Int. de Llengua i Literatura Catalanes (Oxford): 81-91; Helmut Liidtke (1979), "Selektionsgrammatik (am Beispiel des Französischen)", in Bildung und Ausbildung in der Romania (see 1.4.3) II: 71-84. The aim of this type of work is to enable us to give a diatopically and

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diachronically complete account of language change through processing the available data in a "miniaturised" way. Another type of research — and one already well underway — is dialectometry; cf. the following studies by Hans Goebl: (1976) "La dialectometrie appliquee ä l'ALF (Normandie)", in Atti del XIV Congresso Intern, di ling, e fil. rom (1974), (Napoli) II: 165-194; (1977) "Rätoromanisch versus Hochitalienisch versus Oberitalienisch. Dialektometrische Beobachtungen innerhalb eines Diasystems", Ladinia 1: 39-71. Dialectometry, or measurement of dialect differences, starts from extant material (like linguistic atlases or monographs) and enables us, through electronic processing of large amounts of data, to get a better and securer insight into the relationship between dialects. 3 Bibliographical work Apart from the Romanische Bibliographie, of which a fuller treatment is given in 1.4.5, and from the bibliographical chapters contained in many introductory and other works, a few minor bibliographical surveys may be mentioned, viz.: Franz-Rudolf Weller (1975), "Bibliographische Einführungen in die französische Sprachwissenschaft. Eine kritische Literaturübersicht", NS 74: 593-604; Udo L. Figge (1977), "Die Entwicklung der Sprachwissenschaft des Französischen in der Bundesrepublik von 1945 bis 1975", in: Kritik der Frankreichforschung 1981-1975, edited by Michael Nerlich (Berlin: Argument): 200-215; Heinz Schütz (1978), Gesprochenes und geschriebenes Französisch (Tübingen: Narr); Michael Studemund (1975), Bibliographie zum Judenspanischen (Hamburg: Buske); Günter Holtus (1975), "Zur franko-italienischen Sprache und Literatur. Forschungsbericht 1959-1974", ZRPh 91: 491-533; Hans Ludwig Scheel (1955), "Geistesgeschichtlich orientierte Wortforschung in der romanischen Philologie (1945-1954)", GRM 36: 53-76. Notes * [Editor's note: A separate bibliography has not been provided here since all references are fully specified where they occur in the text. RP] 1. This applies to the following Swiss scholars: Baidinger, Gossen, Hubschmid, Ineichen, Pfister, Wunderli.

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2. Yakov Malkiel, Editorial Comment: "Which Scholars Have Received no Festschrift?", RomPh 27 (1973): 211-213. 3. Pierre Guiraud (1963), Le moyen frangais (Paris: P.U.F.): 14 f. 4. The term "genetic", as proposed by Yakov Malkiel (see Rebecca Posner in lordanOrr (1970), An introduction to Romance linguistics (Berkeley: California U.P.): 445) is preferable to "historical". 5. Zsoltän Telegdi (1976), "Begründungen der historischen Grammatik: zur Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft", in: To honor Roman Jakobson (The Hague: Mouton) 3: 1996-2005. 6. Rebecca Posner, op. cit. note 4, p. 431.

WILLEM NOOMEN

Romance studies in the Netherlands Translated from the French by Rebecca Posner

0 Introduction 0.1 "It is impossible", writes the Nijmegen Romanist Vidos (1956: 4-5), "to separate method from history in Romance linguistics. Its history, indeed, is no more than a historical survey of the different methods which were worked out in the intellectual climate of one period and which come together as methodological trends. Individual attitudes, which are mainly intuitive, are taken up by each scholar, implicitly or explicitly, within, or sometimes outside, the context of such trends. ( . . . ) They cannot be covered by a historical survey, but are implicitly manifested in the way they clarify or resolve the problems studied." Whether Vidos is right or not, I shall try, in what follows, to look at the relationship between individual scholars' activities and methodological trends and tendencies, as far as this is possible. The reader should not expect a detailed comment on all worthwhile work published in Holland since the last war. On the contrary, I have thought it better to make a selection, in order to illustrate clearly the trends. Thus neither my account nor my bibliography claims to be exhaustive: my bibliographical appendix refers only to publications mentioned in the text. Needless to say, my choice has been restricted in several ways — to my own notes and memory, supplemented by reference to the Unesco bibliographies (with the help of my assistant Harry Oosterbeek to whom I owe a debt of gratitude), by my personal preferences and predilections, by the subjective nature of any judgement and the inevitable limitations on any knowledge, and by lack of time. Nevertheless I have tried as best I can to give an honest account of the evolution of Romance linguistics and philology in the Netherlands since the second World War. I make no judgement on individual studies: indeed I am not competent to do so, in many cases, and, in others, it would have taken too much space — depriving the whole of balance. I

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have divided my presentation into sections, each of which corresponds more or less to a principal field of activity within Romance linguistics and philology. Within each section I have tried to bring out the important trends, by stressing recent developments. For a general idea of the direction in which research is moving in the Netherlands, readers should consult Current Research . . .1973. 1 Generalities 1.1 Looking back at Romance Studies in the Netherlands from 1884 to 1954, Engels (1954b) stresses that French has always been at the centre of interest. This is doubtless to be explained by cultural and economic conditions linked to the geographical position of the country and by the fact that French was the only Romance language that was obligatory in secondary schools. The study of other Romance languages only got under way after the second World War, when chairs and lectureships were established in several Universities. It is not surprising then that there is almost total lack of studies on comparative Romance grammar and of syntheses covering the whole of the Romance field. Vidos 1956 is an isolated exception: based on lectures and seminars at the University of Nijmegen, this manual includes, for the first time in a work of this sort, a discussion of structuralist ideas. As it has had an international circulation with translations into Italian (1954), Spanish (1963) and German (1968), there is no need for me to discuss it here. We should here mention Engels (1953b) who made proposals for terminological and methodological clarification. 1.2 On the other hand, there has been a turn towards general problems that go beyond the field of Romance studies proper. Publications during the last decade, emanating from structuralists or generativists often include important theoretical discussions; I shall come back to these as occasion demands. I should also call attention to a whole series of articles devoted to general questions: typology (Kukenheim 195la, Geschiere 1956), methodology and its history (Kukenheim 1955,1960,1961,1963b, 1967,1969; Guiraud 1958,1960; Francescato 1962b, 1964a, 1964b, 1965a, 1965b; Schogt 1965b; Geschiere 1966; Mok 1966b; Alinei 1967); history of grammar (Kukenheim 1950, 1951b; Geschiere 1961b, 1962; Schogt 1961). Kukenheim 1962 deserves special mention: a work of synthesis and reference dealing with the history of linguistics and grammar as part of the history of society and of ideas. The exposition is divided into 'generations', beginning at about 1800, earlier periods being considered

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as 'prehistory'. Each generation is characterised by a dominant principle. Logicism, characteristic of prehistory, is dethroned by comparativism at the beginning of the nineteenth century; then there follows genetism, positivism, parallelism and structuralism successively inspiring linguistic thought. The conclusion, looking forward in time, takes dynamism as its watchword. As progress will stem from interdisciplinary activities and internationalisation of science, the author asks for collaboration between grammarian, linguist and scientist. 2 Phonetics and phonology 2.1 Leaving aside Salverda de Grave and Weerenbeck, who studied diphthongisation, Dutch Romanists in the first half of this century did not place the study of language sounds in the forefront of their scholarly activities. This is as true for synchronic as for diachronic research, in spite of the success of Prague phonology after the First International Congress of Linguists (The Hague 1928). Thus Vachek's claim (1968: 4), "that the Netherlands, more than any other country, was instrumental in making the structuralist and functionalist ideas of the Prague group widely known among the linguists of the late nineteen-twenties and early nineteenthirties" does not hold for the Romance field. If we except Weerenbeck's (1933) study of the French vowel system in the eleventh century, the Prague School exerted influence only in the post-war period. In this Dutch Romanists differ little from their colleagues abroad. More than ten years after the war, Vidos was still sceptical about structural phonology, concluding that this "promising branch of structural linguistics has not yet attained, in our field, any results worth talking about (1956: 143)." 2.2 It is in the sixties that there was a reawakening of interest in phonetic and phonological research, diachronic as well as synchronic. Schogt (1960) reexamines, in a thesis directed by Wind, the old problem of the double issue of tonic free close e in French, criticising previous explanations, including that of Haudricourt (1948). According to the author, who stresses that his findings are only provisional, in Parisian speech must have coexisted from the 12th to the 17th century, a Western 'popular' pronunciation [ε] < [ei] < [e], and an Eastern 'cultured' pronunciation [we]/[wa] < [oi] < [ei] < [e]. Geschiere (1963) contributes to the debate on vowel nasalisation, arriving at a more positive position with regard to structuralist solutions. "The distinctive value of the nasal consonant passed to the nasal timbre of the vowel: this is what constitutes the essence of the problem and not

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the combinatory (automatic) influence of the nasal consonant. The creation of a nasal vowel is less a case of regressive assimilation - though it is that too - than of the use, with semantic function, of a feature that previously did not have that function" (1963: 20-21). 2.3 Synchronic research is concerned especially (though cf. Zwanenburg 1965b, 1966c; Schogt 1965a, 1968c) with phonetic features of syntactic structures of an utterance: prosody (Zwanenburg 1965a, 1969a, Levelt et al. 1970; Kukenheim 1971); 'mute e1 and liaison (Zwanenburg 1966a, 1968a; Mok 1966a; Bichakjian 1973). Zwanenburg 1965a deserves special mention: inspired by the syntactic theories of the Dutch linguist de Groot, it aims at verifying the hypothesis that prosodic phenomena form a system, by means of the analysis of a corpus of tape-recorded conversations. He distinguishes the following distinctive elements in sentence prosody (besides the pause): sentence-final intonation patterns, specified for questions, statements and 'continuatives'; element-final intonation patterns, forming what the author calls the initial organisation of 'topic and comment'; internal element intonation pattern, which further marks 'topic and comment'. For the author the prosodic system functions almost exclusively at the level of syntax, as it is one of the three ways (the others being the form of the elements at the verbal level and the position of these elements relative to each other) by which the hearer can combine the successive elements of an utterance. Levelt et al. (1970) turn from a structuralist to a transformational-generativist approach, attempting to resolve experimentally the controversial problem of the nature of phonetic representations. "The syntactic material consisted of ambiguous French sentences of the following sort: On a tourne ce film interessant pour les etudiants. They were spoken (a) in disambiguating contexts without the (four) readers noticing the ambiguities, and (b) without context, but with instructions to make a conscious effort to disambiguate. By tape splicing, the contexts were removed from the context-imbedded sentences. Twenty eight native speakers of French listened to the sentences and judged whether one or the other meaning had been intended by the speaker. . . . The results suggest that phonetic facts can be considered as psychological realities, but with the restriction that they can (but not necessarily always do) take acoustical shape" (1970: 260). Zwanenburg is undertaking a study of the degree to which word boundaries in Modern French are phonetically marked as such. (Current Research 1973: 213.) Vowel nasality has also been studied experimentally by Linthorst

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(1973), in collaboration with the Institute for the Study of Perception (IPO) at the Polytechnic University of Eindhoven: he shows that French nasal vowels are distinguished from their oral counterparts by a specific articulatory feature (constriction of the velopharyngeal isthmus). From the point of view of perception, the feature consists in, besides the different distribution of formants, a progressive reduction in strength of the spectrum during emission, except for an acoustic high-spot in the region of 250-300 Hz. To conclude, the author describes nasal vowels in the framework of transformational-generative grammar. Unlike his predecessors, who envisage a special rule deleting the nasal consonant after the introduction of nasality, he proposes using a more generalized consonant deletion rule. Linthorst's study reflects growing interest in the practical application of scientific research: it includes proposals for improving the teaching of nasal vowels to Dutch speakers. 2.4 Outside the French field, there is no old tradition. For Italian, we should mention the work of Francescato (1958a; 1961, 1962), who held the Chair of Italian at the University of Amsterdam until 1973, on many aspects of synchronic and diachronic Friulian phonetics and phonology. Sciarone has also undertaken research, in collaboration with the Department of Electro-technics at the Polytechnic University of Delft, on the phonematic structure of the Italian and of the French word (Current Research 1973: 169-170) — a computerised classification of phoneme combinations and of the distribution of individual phonemes. 3 Morphology and Syntax 3.1 Grammatical studies have been traditionally held in high honour by Dutch Romanists: Sneyders de Vogel (1918) and his pupils provide the most salient examples, cf. also Veenstra 1946. De Boer (1917) introduced Saussure's ideas into Dutch Romance studies: a long series of articles, in the Genevan vein, led up to Boer 1947 (cf. also Baarslag 1952). In general, though, historical studies and research inspired by recent developments in general linguistics had little to do with each other, until the first decade after the second World War when an attempt was made to integrate Romance studies into General Linguistics (Zumthor 1948; Engels 1953a, 1954b; Wind 1954; Geschiere 1954). A clarification in axiomatics and methodology was anticipated as well as a move towards viewing problems in a new light. However the purview was restricted in practice to European, more particularly Genevan, linguistics: neither Prague School nor glossematics, nor American tendencies seem to have

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attracted Dutch Romanists at that time. Even the Guillaumean ideas, so dear to French linguists, have little repercussion in the Netherlands: Wind's discussion (1961) of Moignet's work ends with this significant remark:— "adepts of psychology can doubtless discern the mechanism of the movements underlying linguistic expression. I present my excuses to the author: I have not been bold enough to venture into this territory" (cf. also Schogt 1963, 1965b). Here too the sixties saw a widening of perspectives. The Dutch school of General Linguistics (De Groot, Reichling, Uhlenbeck) began to make its influence felt; at the same time the work of English-speaking linguists was gaining currency in the younger generation of Romanists. 3.2 Among diachronic studies, we should mention first Kukenheim 19671968: the premature death of the author meant that a third volume, on phonology, never appeared. The work bears the mark of its author's scepticism who wrote ten years earlier that "all theories are condemned in advance to not being able to incorporate into their explanations, many-faceted reality, and they are always in danger of committing the sin of over-systemization" (Kukenheim 1955: 161). Addressed to a wide public, the material is presented in a practical manner, using traditional terminology and categories. On the explanatory side, we find an extremely liberal eclecticism, in which psychological interpretations are to be found cheek-by-jowl with structuralist considerations, sociological remarks and neogrammarian-type reasoning. The work has real merits, but it lacks a firm doctrine that might have led to a new treatment of the subjectmatter. But the author himself stresses that in the present state of our knowledge, a historical syntax cannot be definitive and that any attempt at giving shape to the material must be controversial (1968: chapter 6). A. Dees (1971), too, is no revolutionary but he enriches diachronic research by rigorously applying conventional methods (meticulous and intelligent analysis of the enormous material found in charters as well as in literary texts, statistical treatment of the results) and by using a structuralist framework to account coherently for the variation he discerns. In brief, the very stable Old French system seems to have been upset by the way the adjectives cez and eel fell together as ces, in the course of the thirteenth century, bringing about a series of modifications in the system, which settled into its modern form in the sixteenth century for the adjective and in the seventeenth century for the pronoun (cf. also for French, Verschoor 1959, Guiraud 1962a, 1963a, 1963b, 1964b, 1967b; for Occitan, Boogaard 1969b).

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3.3 In the sixties, the absorption of structuralist ideas began to bear fruit in synchronic description. There appeared a series of studies, of varying length, on descriptive problems of French, and much more rarely, other Romance languages, like Italian and Spanish. It was not rare for authors to discuss explicitly points of doctrine and method. In spite of divergences in theory and practice insofar as descriptive procedures are concerned (gathering of a corpus or not, distinction of levels or registers, functionalist or distributionalist orientation) there is general agreement about the necessity of basing linguistic descriptions on formal criteria as well as on semantic criteria. This attitude is in accord with the views of the Dutch linguists mentioned above (3.1), to whom specific reference is often made. I cannot review all these studies, so I shall confine myself to a few longer or more representative ones (cf. also for French, Geschiere 1961 a, 1961c; Guiraud 1962b; Schogt 1968a; Zwanenburg 1966b, 1967, 1968b, 1969b; Landheer 1969; Mok 1969; Niekerk 1972; for Italian, Lo Cascio 1968; for Spanish, Haverkate 1973, 1974). The Slavicist and Romanist Schogt (1968b) takes up again the muchdiscussed problem of the forms of the finite verb in modern French. The theoretical section (two chapters representing a third of the book) shows that his inspiration derives largely from Martinet. He describes the distinction between indicative and subjunctive (to which he ascribes, unlike De Boer, a single overall 'value') in terms of an opposition with low functional yield. In the indicative system, he takes account of surcomposes, a marginal category which seems to owe its existence to a tendency toward equilibrium in the signifiant system (after the regression of the passe simple), rather than to a need for new categories in the signifie system. Moreover the combinations aller, venir de, devoir plus infinitive, to which one might conceivably add etre en train de plus infinitive, are subject to certain morphological and syntactic constraints. This leads Schogt to see them as part of an open-ended inventory, but to include them in the grammatical system in which they correspond to oppositions at the semantic level. He draws up an inventory of elements that form the French verbal system which he intends should be checked with the use of texts of different kinds, with the aim of describing the way different registers function. In a thesis supervised by Reichling, Mok (1968a) examines the formal system and grammatical function or semantic value of gender and number in colloquial French. He takes up the following position on methodology: "the task of the linguist is not to reduce language to a set of algebraic formulae but, in the case we are concerned with, to describe in a

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non-contradictory, exhaustive, simple and positive way, the means by which the morphological categories of masculine and feminine are effectively expressed in the spoken language, and the informative role they play" (1968a: 50). Thus he refuses to consider forms like /son/ or /fij/ as the single forms of the morphological homonyms jaune (masculine) and jaune (feminine), or fille (singular) andfilles (plural). He takes no account of adjectives and nouns that are not differentiated in the spoken language, whether permanently or in determinate distributional contexts. Gender and number flexion shows the existence, on the signifie and on the signifiant level, of equipollent oppositions with two marked terms. The semantic value and grammatical function depend, in each case, on the class to which the inflected word belongs, and on the text or the situation in which it is used, For Italian we should mention Sciarone (1971). The study is based on a corpus of examples taken from a daily and a weekly newspaper, representing written 'non-literary' language, with spoken examples from intelligent subjects with no secondary education. The author studies successively adjectives that express judgement, adjectives that combine with a proper name, ones that express an idea of 'time' and 'quantity' and deictic adjectives. Groups of words are delimited by relational criteria. 3.4 The intellectual climate of the early sixties was not conducive to the acceptance of transformationalist theories. Influential linguists either condemned them outright or, at best, had serious reservations. The conclusion of Uhlenbeck's article (1963) seems symptomatic. "It is to be expected, he writes, that if the approach initiated by Chomsky, Worth and Lees is followed, a transformational grammar will be constituted that will contain hundreds of rules to account for all kinds of mostly pseudorestrictions in the semantic combinability of elements. Most of them will turn out to be superfluous. Chomsky himself expects that one may find that a transformational grammar will converge with what has been called logical grammar. In my opinion such a prospect is a hint that transformational theory will take us along a road perhaps valuable for those who are interested in modern logic; for linguists it will turn out to have been a blind alley." Thus it is not surprising that we had to wait till the seventies to see the first applications of TG grammar to Romance. True Alinei (1966) of the University of Utrecht, stressing the novelty and originality of transformational grammar, applied its principles to causal constructions, and Levelt (1966) and Schultink (1967) wrote introductions to transformational grammar, in Dutch, but the first native Dutch Romanist

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was Zwanenburg (1971a), who picked out some hitherto unnoticed features of French co-ordination. Arguing against Dik's (1968) nontransformational, but generative, description he proposes the use of transformational rules, especially of deletion, in sentences where two constituents (or (2x2) or (3x2) constituents) of the same kind are separated in surface structure, by something other than a coordinating conjunction. Lo Cascio submitted in 1969 a thesis Sostituenti e sintagmi verbali: uno studio su alcune strutture della lingua italiana (definitive version: Lo Cascio 1971), which was a systematic description of the subclass of object pronouns (or, in his own more adequate term, 'sostituenti d'ordine'), following a paradigmatic study with a description of their role in the modern Italian sentence. In order to account for the way the language functions, the author had to review some parts of the theory - the relationship of deep to surface structure is particularly problematic. Deep structure should not be described by means of surface-structure categorial and functional criteria, not is it clear whether it is subject to the same rules as surface structure. Theoretical preoccupations occupy an important place in Schroten's thesis (1972), supervised by H. Schultink, Professor of General Linguistics at Utrecht. The author defines his topic thus - "firstly the fundamental principles underlying reflexivisation in Spanish will be studied; and secondly, some details of the theory of transformational-generative grammar ( . . . ) will be tested as to their adequacy, and will be refined as we proceed. These details are concerned with the rules which explain the relations between the subject, the direct object, the indirect object, and the verb in deep structure, and the corresponding parts of the sentence that are found in surface structure" (1972: 9). The analyses show that it is advantageous to incorporate Fillmore's (1968) proposals into Chomsky's (1965) theories. Schroten's study is a good illustration of the evolution of one section of Romance linguistics: by adopting TG theories they turn ipso facto to more general problems. Romance data are no longer examined for their own sake, within the framework of a specific description for the language or language family studied. Research is concerned also with finding out how far the data and their description can contribute to the development of a general theory of language. 4 Etymology — semantics — lexicology 4.1 Etymological research is traditionally one of the central activities of Romance linguists. Dutch Romanists follow this tradition, witness

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the numerous etymological notes by scholars like Salverda de Grave, Sneyders de Vogel, Valkhoff, Vidos, Engels, Geschiere, van Wijk, van Praag, Houwens Post and others, published partly in the revue Neophilologus. To these should be added publications of foreign scholars working in Dutch Universities: Zumthor, Guiraud, Keller, Francescato, Alinei. Some of these studies are monographs on the history of a word (Engels 1958, Zumthor 1958, Alinei 1963). Following Yakov Malkiel, Engels (1955b) has drawn attention to the important contribution of Romanists to theoretical reflection on the methodology of etymological research. In this context we should mention the work of Vidos, to whom we owe the idea of Organic etymology', described in the words of the author (1957: 95): "in a technical vocabulary (. . .) a word whose origin is unknown can have, if other factors do not intervene, the same origin as words belonging organically to the same ideological category. If the word in question, moreover, indicates an object which is an integral part of another object, and if thus the ideological relationship is closer and organic, and if the dates of appearance are more or less the same, then the probability of identity of origin will be greater." The author abundantly illustrated this principle in studies on Romance nautical vocabulary. For his part, Engels (1955b), following de Boer and well before discussion provoked by the success of TG grammar, points out that there is confusion about the notion of 'explanation' in linguistics and, especially, etymology. He underscores the need for reflection on methodology, an indispensable condition for the further development of research (cf. also Guiraud 1955, 1956a, 1961a, 1964a, 1967a). The work of Valkhoff and Geschiere fits into the more general study of dialectology and of Romano-Germanic contacts. Geschiere (1950) eloquently illustrates the methodological difficulties of this type of research, and shows how to overcome them. In deciding whether a word is Germanic or not, we also have to discover its dialectal origin. As phonetic criteria are often absent, or at least of doubtful value, the author has recourse to a multitude of approaches that might furnish proof. Sometimes it is something internal to the word that provides information (meaning, pronunciation, orthography, participation in a semantic field), sometimes it is external circumstances (geographical distribution, relationships between the lending and the borrowing country, date of first appearance or the nature of the object itself). 4.2 Vocabulary studies take what might be termed a 'structuralist'

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direction with Zumthor, who from 1948 to 1972 held a Chair of Romance Philology in the Netherlands. He contributed to the FEW, in the parts devoted to terms denoting intellectual processes, and in several articles (1955,1956) he discusses the problems that arise in this sort of research. In particular, there are specific difficulties in applying the idea of semantic field, because of the role that individual initiative plays in this vocabulary sector, as well as of the learned character and semantic autonomy of the words involved, and of the complex relationship between the history of ideas and the history of words. We can see his influence in the work of his students: Fermin (1954) orders her lexical material very much in the same way as Hallig and Wartburg's Begriffssystem. Messelaar's thesis (1963) fits into the scheme of research outlined by Zumthor (1956: 350) ". . . A valid history of the vocabulary of ideas, non-existent at present, would be as useful to philosophers as to linguists." His material is presented, Trier-like, in the form of seven semantic fields (mental powers, thought processes, knowledge, linguistic expression, moral activities and values, politics, physical factors), of which the last five correspond to the pedagogical intentions of Brunei Latin (cf. also Oostendorp 1966). 4.3 Since the sixties the emphasis has shifted somewhat. Exclusively eymological research has given way to investigations on the statistical properties of vocabulary or on word-formation. I should mention here the work of Alinei (esp. 1962), who is in charge of research, at the Mechanolinguistic Center of the Italian Institute at the University of Utrecht (CMLIU), which aims to compile "a computerized inventory of thirteenth-century Italian and a frequency list of contemporary literary Italian (Alinei 1965, 1968a, 1968b, 1968c, 1969 cf. also Current Research 1973:174). On word formation, Mok (1964) is attempting a reinterpretation, on a new basis, of the material relating to the prefix re, with the aim of determining its communicative function in present-day French. Zwanenburg (1971b, cf. also Current Research 1973: 213) tackles derivational processes in modern French and tries to show which factors in performance tend to constrain the effective use of the potentialities of competence (cf. also Guiraud 1961b, 1961c; Vidos 1961; Garcia de la Torre 1965; Keller 1964a, 1966). Among ongoing research we should mention (Current Research 1973: 179, 212, 214): Kruijsen, The names of the table in Romance languages; Sciarone: Grammatical properties of French vocabulary; Simonis: The

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vocabulary of Benoit de Sainte-Maure, ideologically arranged and compared with that of Wace. 5 Geographical and socio-cultural aspects 5.1 It is tempting to look systematically at the way the geographic situation of a country can influence the activities, intellectual or otherwise, of its inhabitants. For the Netherlands, at the cross-roads of Roman, Germanic and Anglo-Saxon civilisations, one might predict a particular interest in language contact and interference — as far as Romanistik is concerned, the prediction would be confirmed. Salverda de Grave is well-known for his work on French-Dutch relations: his contribution to the fifth volume of Brunot's Histoire de la langue frangaise des origines a 1900 on "French in the Netherlands", deserves special mention, as does Salverda de Grave 1913. Ever since, the theme of Romance influences on Dutch has continued to attract scholars: cf. for French, Vieu-Kuik 1951 and Schulten 1966; for Spanish, Dam 1940; for Portuguese, Houwens Post 1960,1962-1963; for Italian, Francescato 1963c, 1966b. As a corollary, the influence of Dutch on the Romance languages has been the subject of several publications. A pupil of Salverda de Grave, Valkhoff devoted his thesis to this question (1931); in the post-war period, we should mention Geschiere 1950, Valkhoff 1951a, Vidos 1947, 1954 and Wind 1960. Outside the field of Romance-Dutch relationships, there are a few publications concerning linguistic interaction with other parts of Romania: foreign words (Boulan 1934) and italianisms in French (Wind 1928), or Spanish (Terlingen 1943), Arabisms in Spanish (Wijk 1949, 1951). Since the fifties, however, there has been less interest in this type of research (but cf. Francescato 1958b; Guiraud 1965b; Garcia de la Torre 1965; Keller 1964a, 1966). The same is true of research on the Dutch-French linguistic frontier, to which Valkhoff devoted several publications (1950,195Ib), and of dialectological studies generally. After Valkhoff left for South Africa, dialect studies (1938, 1942) were continued only by foreign scholars holding University chairs in The Netherlands (Zumthor 1957,1962; Francescato 1963b, 1966a; Keller 1964b, 1969). The Centre for Dialectology and Onomastics of the University of Nijmegen is preparing an alphabetic repertory and ideological system of linguistic maps for the area covered by the Romance languages, under the direction of A. A. Weynen (Current Research 1973: 179).

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5.1.2 Profiting from his rich experience in research into linguistic interference, Vidos (1960) makes useful comments on the mechanism of borrowing in a bilingual community. In particular, when it is a question of a technical term, there is not usually borrowing from language B to language A, but a creation by more or less bilingual individual speakers of language B, who 'disguise' a term of their own language to look like a language A word (cf. also his synthesis (1965) in which a score of earlier works are linked organically together, with the addition of two previously unpublished articles on 'popular and learned migration', and 'the borrowing of technical terms'). 5.2 The expansion of Romance languages beyond their original territory, and the phenomena that accompany this have especially attracted the attention of Dutch Hispanists and Lusitanists. Several aspects of South American Spanish have been studied by Wijk (1946, 1955, 1956, 1961, 1964, 1969), Brazilian Portuguese, by Houwens Post (1957, 1958) and Besselaar (1963). The creole of the island of Curasao, a Dutch ex-colony, is the subject of a study by Wijk (1958), who stresses the Afro-Portuguese, rather than Afro-Spanish, character of the original papiamento, and underscores the importance of the Dutch contribution to its formation. In effect, this is shown, not only by the large number of economic and administrative terms, but also by the fact that many apparently Ibero-Romance idioms have a Dutch-type semantic function. A. M. d'Ans's (1968) thesis on Haitian creole should also be mentioned: cf. also Valkhoff 1960, 1963, 1966 on African Creoles, and Zumthor 1953. Studies of other sociolinguistic problems include those of van Wijk on the popular speech of Venezuela (1946), and the rural speech of Peru (1956): he is also researching on the rural speech of Olancho, Honduras, in the works of Angel Porfirio Sanchez (Current Research 1973: 190). L. Kukenheim (1963a) surveyed Jewish French topics, with an eye to their contribution to Romance studies. Finally, R. Crespo is engaged on a synchronic description of medieval Pisan scripta (Current Research 1973: 218). 6 Texts 6.1 Romance philology has always considered one of its most import?' tasks to be edition of medieval texts: Dutch Romanistik has a partic'-' rich tradition in this field (cf. especially Salverda de Grave's

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d'Eneas, de Boer's L'Ovide Moralise, Sneyders de Vogel's Li Fet des Romains). It is notable that the most 'linguistic' of Dutch Romanists, de Boer, never deserted philological study, and at the end of his life (1954a) completed the dossier on the Ovide Moralise. This tradition continued after the war: an enumeration of all the texts edited would be tedious (cf. the references); here I mention only those with particular literary merit, like Wind 1950, Stuip 1970, Noomen 1971. Boogaard (1969a) has done a great service to medievalists in publishing 200 rondeaux and 2,000 refrains, dispersed through hundreds of manuscripts and inserted in thousands of songs, motets, romances and other texts, the whole accompanied by indices and concordance tables which make it a precious tool of the trade. Smeets (cf. 1955) has undertaken a tremendous task, heading a team to edit the vernacular Bibles rimees, first that of Mace de la Charite, then that of Herman de Valenciennes and of Malkaraume (cf. Current Research 1973: 216). The first of these will consist of seven volumes of which four have already appeared (Krabben 1964, Smeets 1967, Prangsma-Hajenius 1970, Verhuyck 1977). The introduction to each volume includes, as well as necessary information on the use of the volume, a special study on one or more aspects of the entire text (special philological and historical problems, grammatical aspects). There is also an ample commentary, including meticulous comparison of sources, especially with the Latin text of Aurora by Petrus Riga. 6.2.1 Parallel with the edition of texts, there proceeds all sorts of philological work: the most important include Engels 1945, JonxisHenkemans 1947, Knops 1952, Smeets 1968-1970, Walravens 1971, Schobben 1969, 1972. 6.2.2 Versification and metrical problems of old texts have been the subject of several studies: Wind 1949, Geers 1954, Noomen 1956, 1962, Smeets 1963, Zumthor 1965. Geers (1954) defends the hypothesis that Spanish poetry since the Cantar de Mio Cid has used a type of verse with four accented syllables and a number of unaccented syllables that varies between six and sixteen. This verse-type, in its primary form, is that of the Cid: it then influenced all sorts of other types, of French or Italian origin. Noomen (1962) submits the metrical forms of the Mystere du Vieil Testament to a statistical and functional analysis. He demonstrates that metrical expression can be described in terms of a system of oppositions,

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disposed on the double plane of metres and strophic combinations. Functionally, this complex system corresponds to the register oppositions expressive/non-expressive, and, within each expressivity register, affective/grave. Each of these registers uses specific devices: determinate combinations of determinate types of verse. In certain octosyllabic combinations, register oppositions are neutralised. 6.3 The trend towards working out a rigorous methodological framework, of a structuralist type, for philological studies is exemplified by this last-mentioned work. It is especially Zumthor who, by precept and example, led this movement. His ideas and methods, worked out in lectures and seminars before publication (1963, 1972) have influenced directly or indirectly a number of Dutch scholars. Inspired by the ideas of Roman Jakobson, Zumthor stresses (1963: 8) that "the fundamental phenomenon, on which all poetic creation rests, is Ά fait de langue. . . . Poetics is basically a part of linguistics, because the poetic act springs from the privileged exercise of a function inherent in langue". Medieval texts are, in their direct referential meaning, beyond the grasp of modern readers. The philologist is therefore faced with a methodological imperative: he will first tackle the texts in their very materiality, in their textuality. Zumthor outlines a programme of analysis at various levels, with the aim of discovering two series of observable relationships between the different elements: distributional (horizontal) and integrative (vertical) relationships. The former level covers rhythmic features resulting from linguistic articulations, phonic phenomena and syntagmatic organisation. The second-level analysis is concerned with vocabulary elements, with features defined at the expression as well as at the content level. Besides Zumthor's own works, several other studies on medieval texts adopt a similar standpoint: Boogaard 1962,1973 and Noomen 1968,1969 (cf. also Vermeer-Pardoen 1973). 6.4 Present-day research tends to follow recent developments in semiotics, poetics and the grammar of discourse, whether generative or not. The quarterly review Rapports (Het Franse Boek) published by Rodopi (Amsterdam) gives a fairly good impression of efforts to work out adequate descriptive and interpretive procedures. Alongside the inductive operations of structural analysis, we should mention attempts to apply to medieval texts logico-semiotic models (Noomen 1973, 1974, van Zoest 1971,1974) and to go as far as possible towards formalisation. Van Zoest (1974) begins his thesis with a long methodological discussion, in which

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he opts for a deductive procedure. His study is based on the "assumption that the Lais and the Testament contain a coherent set of textual elements which allow them to be considered as fictional elements, with some of them affirming the testamentary character of the poems, while others, on the contrary, stress their fictionality" (1974: 43). His first step consists in the construction of a hypothetical model of a real fifteenth-century testament, on the basis of contemporary documents. This model, which includes a listing of constitutive elements and information about their ordering, their optionality and their frequency, is then put side by side with Villon's text. As a result of this confrontation we can discern how far the text is testamentary and how far fictional. Conclusions are drawn as much about the object of such a study as about the theoretical aspects of this method of description. According to the author, his description will be concerned only with the generative description of the 'deep structure' of the text. There remains to be added generative rules and, possibly, transformational rules. 7 Final comments 7.1 Drawing up the balance sheet of 70 years of Romance studies in Holland, J. Engels (1954b) enumerates their characteristic features: a preference for French studies; close links with Romance philology of the orientation found in France and Germany; a preponderance of historicism; a persistence, at least in medievalist studies, of the 'philological synthesis' which combined a study of language and literature; constant concern with the edition of medieval texts. 7.2 If we look at the evolution of Dutch Romanistik during the last twenty-five years, and at present-day trends, we note first of all that there has been a widening of its scope. Research is linked principally to University teaching — at least as far as the humanities are concerned. Thus, it depends more or less directly on the economic and cultural needs of the country, and on the demand for specialists in the different disciplines. During the two decades following the second World War considerable expansion in the Universities led to the creation of several new chairs and lectureships. Romance languages other than French — especially Italian and Spanish, but to a lesser extent, Portuguese — now have a place in nearly all Universities. Rumanian and 'minor languages' are less well represented. To fill some of the chairs, recourse has had to be made to foreign scholars, some of whom have made an essential contribution to the development of Romance studies. Lately, there is an increasing

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number of young Dutch-trained Romanists in the newly-developed subjects. 7.3 It can no longer be said that the Dutch 'version' of Romance philology receives its inspiration principally from Germany or from France. Thanks to those Romanists who have been advocating, since the forties and fifties, a widening of viewpoint, thanks also to the influence of the Dutch school of general linguistics, and, last but not least, to the fact that every Dutch intellectual can read English, as well as French and German, there has been a more receptive attitude towards hitherto little-known linguistic doctrines, especially towards influences from English-speaking countries. This movement gained momentum in the sixties, parallel to a similar trend in other European countries. The historical method, which Vidos still maintained in 1956 to be fundamental to Romance linguistics, is far from dominant in present-day research. Methodological reorientation towards structuralism and transformational grammar has led to a predilection for synchronic research, preferably into contemporary language — without however loss of interest in historical studies. One might wonder how far this reorientation will necessitate a revision of the notion of Romance linguistics. If previously, in the comparativisthistoricist era, the discipline could be considered as the praeceptrix linguisticae, it is not impossible that it is now liable to do little more, in the future, than supply guinea-pigs for linguistics tout court. We need to think out again its ideological and, especially, methodological basis. The same is true, mutatis mutandis., for Romance philology. But here the term 'Romance' has had the connotation 'Federalist': 'Romance' philology takes in the study of old French, Spanish, Italian, etc. texts, with, in theory, no comparativist intention. One might say that Romance philology has always been in the pass that Romance linguistics finds itself in today. But this has become more obvious as the study of medieval literature has become more emancipated. This is due to the differentiation and refining of methods in linguistics, literary sciences and semiotics. An inevitable result is that research works will become specialised in one aspect or other. The methods of medievalist Romanists are more and more inspired by structuralism in its various forms; by discourse grammar, and by generative poetics. Philological study properly so-called (establishing the text and everything that goes with it) becomes a preliminary, indispensable but no longer an end in itself, to research into the system inherent in the texts.

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References (contains references only to scholars working, or having worked, in the Netherlands). Alinei, Mario L. 1962 Dizionario inverso italiano, con indici e liste di frequenza delle terminazioni (= Ricerche linguistiche e lessicografiche 1) (The Hague: Mouton). 1963 Origin and History of the Italian Word ambasciata 'embassy' (The Hague: Mouton). [Inaugural lecture Utrecht University.) 1965 "La lista di frequenza della Divina Commedia", Miscellanea Dantesca, edita dalla Soc. Dantesca dei Paesi Bassi (Utrecht and Antwerp): 138-270. 1966 "Appunti per un' analisi strutturale di alcuni tipi sintattici italiani", LeSt 1: 281-303. 1967 "Evaluation of Semantic Isoglosses with regard to Romance Dialects", Verhandlungen des zweiten Internationalen Dialektologenkongresses (Marburg/Lahn, 1965) / (= Zeitschrift f r Mundartforschung Beihefte Neue Folge 3): 7-13. 1968a "The Mechanolinguistic Center of the Italian Institute at the University of Utrecht (CMLIU)", in Les machines dans la linguistique (Colloque international sur la mecanisation et Pautomation des recherches linguistiques, Prague, 1966) (The Hague: Mouton): 73-74. 1968b "Lexical, Grammatical and Statistical Indexing of Italian Texts with the help of Punched Card Machines at the University of Utrecht", idem: 95-108 (The Hague: Mouton). [First published in LT 1963: 166-173.] 1968c Spogli elettronici dell'italiano delle origini e del Duecento. A Linguist Inventory of Thirteenth-Century Italian. II. Form I. Prose fiorentine (= Ricerche linguistiche e lessicografiche, 2) (The Hague: Mouton). 1969 "Lessico e grammatica generativa", Atti del I e del II convegno . . . della S.L.I. (Rome: Bulzoni). 1972 Spogli elettronici dell'italiano delle origini e del Duecento. A Linguistic Inventory of Thirteenth-Century Italian. II. Forme 10: Bono Giamboni, Della miseria dell'uomo, Ed. F. Tassi (= Ricerche linguistiche e lessicografiche delihtituto di Lingua e Letteratura italiana dell'Universita di Utrecht, 11) (Bologna: II Mulino). 1973a Spogli...//, Forme 16: II Fiore e U Detto d'Amore, ed. E.G. Parodi (= Ricerche . . . 17) (Bologna: II Mulino). 1973b Spogli . . . / / , Forme 17: Prose veneziane, ed. A. Stussi (= Ricerche . . . 21) (Bologna: II Mulino). 1973c Spogli elettronici dell'italiano letterario contemporaneo. I: A. Moravia, La Ciociaria (= Ricerche . . . 18) (Bologna: II Mulino). 1973d Spogli . . .2: I. Calvino, II sentiero dei nidi di ragno (= Ricerche . . . 19) (Bologna: II Mulino). 1973e Spogli . . . 3: C. Cassola, Ferrovia locale (= Ricerche . . . 20) (Bologna: II Mulino). d'Ans, A.M. 1968 Le Creole franqais d'Hatti. Etude des unites d'articulation, d'expansion et de communication (The Hague: Mouton). Baarslag, M. N. 1952 Etude comparative de quelques besoins linguistiques du fταηςαίε et du neerlandais [Dissertation, Leyden] van Bellen, E. C. 1947 "La pensee et la grammaire". Nph 31: 81-82. 1951 "La philologie romane en Hollande depuis 1939", Suplemento bibliografico to RPF\: 285-302. van den Besselaar, J. J. 1963 Het Portugees van Brazilie. I. Spraakleer; oefeningen; lectuur. II. Fonetiek; overzicht van het werkwoord; woordenlijsten ('s Hertogenbosch: Malmberg).

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Bichakjian, Bernard H. 1973 La liaison en fra^ais: du caprice a la regie (Nijmegen: Brakkenstein). de Boer, Cornells 1917 Autour d'un mot [Inaugural lecture] (Amsterdam: M. J. Portielje). 1947 Syntaxe du franqais moderne (Leyden: U.P.). 1954a Ovide moralise en prose (Texte du quinzieme siede). Edition critique avec introduction (= VKNA Nieuwe Reeks 61. 2: Amsterdam). 1954b Syntaxe du franqais moderne. 2e edition entierement revue, revisee et modifiee (= Leidse Rom. Reeks 1) (Leyden: U.P.). van den Boogaard, Nico H. J. 1962 "Note sur l'utilisation de motifs et formules dans la Chanson de Sainte Foy", CCM 5: 195-202. 1969a Rondeaux el Refrains. Du 12e siecle au debut du 14e. (Paris: Klincksieck). 1969b "Les formes en -ria et en -ra en ancien occitan, et plus spicialement dans le Roman de Flamenco", FB 39: 36-52. 1973 Taal, rekenen, geschiedenis. Over Franse motettenteksten uit de Middeleeuwen (Amsterdam: Adolf M. Hakkert). Boulan, Henri R. 1934 Les mots d'origine etrangere en fra^ais, 1650-1700 (Amsterdam). Crespo, Robert 1968-69 "Jean de Meun traduttore della 'Consolatio Philosophiae' di Boezio, Atti delta Accademia della Scienze di Torino, Classe di scienze storiche e filologiche 103: 71-171. 1972 [ed.] Una versione pisana inedita del 'Bestiaire d'amours' = (Leidse Rom. Reeks) (Leyden: U.P.). Current Research 1973 Netherlands Organization for the A dvancement of Pure Research (Z. W.O.): Current Research in the Netherlands. Humanities 1971 (The Hague: Z.W.O.). van Dam, C.F.A. 1940 "De Spaanse woorden in het Nederlands", Bündel opstellen van oudleerlingen, aangeboden aan Prof. Dr. C.G.N. de Vooys (Groningen: Wolters): 86-103. de Dardel, Robert 1972 Quelques aspects de la sequence expressive en frangais pane [Inaugural lecture] (Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff). Dees, Anton 1971 Etude sur ['evolution des demonstratifs en ancien et en moyen fra^ais (Groningen: Noordhoff). Dik, S. C. 1968 Coordination. Its Implications for the Theory of General Linguistics (Amsterdam: North Holland). Engels, Joseph 1945 Etudes sur /'Ovide Moralise [Dissertation, Groningen]. 1953a "De romanistiek en de nieuwe Stromingen in de taalwetenschap", LT: 462476. 1953b "Philologie romane — linguistique — etudes littoraires", Nph 37: 14-24. 1954a "Valeur de la philosophic pour la recherche linguistique", Nph 38: 248-251. 1954b "Zeventig jaar Nederlandse romanistiek (1884-1954)", LT: 254-272. 1955a "Het probleem der motivering", LT: 521-539. 1955b Nieuwere inzichten in de etymologie. Voordracht. . . (= Voordrachten en redevoeringen Centrals opleidingscursussen te Utrecht, I). 1956 "Y a-t-il du progres dans le langage?", Nph 40: 242-249. 1958 De geschiedenis van het woord 'abominabeP (Openbare les . . .) (Groningen: Wolters).

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Fermin, Maria H. J. 1954 Le vocabulaire de Bifrun dans s traduction des quatre Evangiles (Amsterdam: Veen). Francescato, Giuseppe 1958a "Consonant! prepalatali e palatali in friulano", AIV 117: 235-267. 1958b "On Italian Loan-words in German", Nph 42: 152-154. 1960 Barzon, A., E. Morpurgo, A. Petrucci, G. Francescato, Giovanni Dondi dell'Orologio, Tractatus astrarii (Biblioteca Capitolare di Padova, Cod. D39) (= Codices ex ecclesiasticis Italiae bibliothecis selecti series minor 9) Vatican City: Bibl. Apostolica Vaticana). 1961 Saggio sul vocalismo tonico friulano, extracted from Atti delta Accademia di Scienze, Letters e Arti di Udine 1957-1960, Serie 7.1. 1962a "II sistema dei suoni sibilanti del dominio friulano", RLiR 26: 51-70. 1962b "Notes on Relevant Features with Low Functional Yield", Lingua 11:118-127. 1963a Dialect en taal. Een probleem van het hedendaagse Italiaanse proza. Rede . . . [Inaugural Lecture of the University of Amsterdam] (Groningen: Wolters). 1963b "II dialetto di Erto", ZRPh 79: 492-525. 1963c "SuII'influsso lessicale italiano in Olanda nel XVIII secolo", LN 24: 6-10. 1964a "Dialect Borders and Linguistic Systems", Proceedings of the 9th International Congress of Linguistics (Cambrige, Mass., 1962) (The Hague: Mouton): 109114. 1964b "Concezioni tradizionali e concezioni strutturali nell'indagine dialettale", Quaderni dell'Istituto di Glottologia della Universit di Bologna 8: 143-153. 1965a Linguistica, psicologia e lo studio del linguaggio infantile (= MALinc Serie 8: 11.7). 1965b "Structural comparison, diasystems and dialectology", ZRPh 81: 484-491. 1966a Dialettologia friulana (Udine: Soc. Fil. Friulana). 1966b "Contributi allo studio degli element! italiani in olandese", SFI 24: 443-607. Garcia de la Torre, J. M. 1965 Castille et Galice, interaction linguistique [Inaugural Lecture of the Univ. of Amsterdam] (Amsterdam: van Campen). Geers, G. J. 1954 Het vier-heffingsvers in het Spaans (=MKNA, Nieuwe Reeks 17.11 Amsterdam). Geschiere, Lein 1950 Elements neerlandais du wallon liegois (= VKNA, Nieuwe Reeks 53.2 Amsterdam). 1954 Enkele opmerkingen over de beoefening der Franse syntaxis (Gorinchem: Noorduijn). 1956 "De 'α3Γΐέ frangaise' ", Algemene aspecten van degrote cultuurtalen (The Hague: Servire): 149-170. 1960 "Twee nieuwe bronnen voor de kennis van de 16e eeuwse Franse grammatika", LT: 674-678. 1961a "La structure des functions syntaxiques dans la phrase fransaise", LT: 5067. 1961b "Plaidoyer pour la langue (Une discussion de m£thodologie syntaxique)", Nph 45: 21-37. 1961c "Function des structures de la phrase fransaise", in: Dresden, S., L. Geschiere and B. Bray, La notion de structure (The Hague: van Goor): 9-32. 1962 "La 'langue': condamnation ou sursis?", Nph 46: 201-210. 1963 "La nasalisation des voyelles frangaises: Probleme phonotique ou phonologique?", Nph 47: 1-23. 1966 "Taalkunde en statistiek", FB 36: 93-102. Guiraud, Pierre

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1955 La semantique (Paris: PUF). [6th edition 1969.] 1956a "Les champs morpho-semantiques (Criteres externes et criteres internes en etymologic)", BSLP 52: 265-288. 1956b L'argot (Paris: PUF). 1958 La grammaire (Paris: PUF). [5th edition 1970.] 1960 Problemes et methodes de la statistique linguistique (= Synthese Library 2) (Dordrecht-Paris: Reidel). 1961a Les locutions fra^aises (Paris: P.U.F.). 1961b "Le champ morpho-semantique des composes tautologiques", ZRPh 77: 444469. 1961c "Le champ morpho-semantique de la derivation pseudosuffixale", BSLP 56: 104-121. 1962a "L'expression du virtue! dans le Roland d'Oxford", Romania 83: 289-302. 1962b La syntaxe du fra^ais (Paris: P.U.F.). [4th edition 1970.) 1963a L'ancien fran^ais (Paris: P.U.F.). [4th edition 1971.] 1963b Le moyen fra^ais (Paris: P.U.F.). 1964a L'etymologie (Paris: P.U.F.). [3rd edition 1972.] 1964b "L'opposition actuel-virtuel. Remarques sur l'adverbe de negation dans Aucassin et Nicolette", Melanges Delbouille 1 (Gembloux: Duculot): 295-306. 1965a Le frangais populaire (Paris: P.U.F.). [2nd edition 1969] 1965b Les mots etrangers (Paris: P.U.F.). 1967a Structures atymologiques du lexique frangais (Paris: Larousse). 1967b "L'assiette du nom dans la Chanson de Roland. II. Le d£monstratif', Romania 88: 59-83. Haring, M. 1973 La formacion de palabras en el Selenario de Alfonso el Sabio [Dissertation, Amsterdam] Haverkate, W. H. 1973 "The Performative Analysis of the Spanish Imperative", CLex 21: 66-74. 1978 "On Vocative constituents in Modern Spanish", Linguistics in the Netherlands 1974-1976 (Lisse: De Ridder Press). Houwens Post, Hendrik 1957 Het Portugees van Brazilie. [Inaugural lecture] (Groningen: Wolters), 1958 "O portugues do Brasil", RP 23: 69-84. 1960 "A terminologia portuguesa ou aportuguesada do Itinerario, viagem ou navegagao a India Oriental ou portuguesa de Joäo Huyghen van Linschoten (1563-1611)", RP25: 349-361; 454-472. 1962-63 "De Lusitanismen in de Itinerario van Jan Huygen van Linschoten (15631611)", NTg 55: 161-171; 327-334, ibid. 56: 108-113; 169-172. Jonxis-Henkemans, Wilhelmina L. 1947 Bijdrage tot de bronnenstudie der Primera cronica general (Rotterdam: van Waesberge, Hoogewerff and Richards). Keller, Hans-Erich 1964a "Survivances lexicologiques de l'ancien saxon en Normandie", Malanges Delbouille 1: 347-361 (Gembloux: Duculot). 1964b "Evolution phon^tique des parlers du Poitou", Nph 48: 210-219. 1966 L'influence germanique sur les parlers frangais. [Inaugural Lecture of the University of Utrecht] (Breukelen: van Dijk). 1969 Wartburg, W. von, H.-E. Keller, R. Geuljans, Bibliographie des dictionnaires patois galloromans (1550-1967) (Geneve). Kerkhof, Maximiliaan P. A. M. 1976 (editor) Inigo Lopez de Mendoza Marques de Santillana. La comedieta de Ponza [Dissertation, Groningen],

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Knops, J. P. H. 1952 Etudes sur la traduction frangaise de la Morale a Nicomache d'Aristote par Nicole Oresme (The Hague: Excelsior), van der Krabben, Henri D. M. 1964 La Bible de Mace de la Charite (Publ. sous la dir. de J. R. Smeets) IV Ruth, Judith, Tobie, Esther, Daniel, Job (= Leidse Rom. Reeks 10) (Leyden: U.P.). Kukenheim, Louis 1950 "Contributions ä l'histoire de la grammaire hebraique ä l'epoque de la Renaissance", AcOt 21: 124-152; 190-206. 1951 a Euphonie, logique, clarte. Drie my then van de Franse spraakkunst [Inaugural Lecture of the University of Leyden] (Leyden: U.P.). 1951b Contributions a l'histoire de la grammaire grecque, latine et habraique a l'epoque de la Renaissance (Leyden). 1955 "L'adventice — I'arbitraire — la regression. Quelques reflexions nonstructuralistes sur la linguistique frangaise" Nph 39: 161-174. 1960 "Van glossarium tot thesaurus. Lexicologische theorieen en lexicographische realiteiten", LT\ 15-34. 1961 "Codering van grammaticale gegevens", in Automafisering en taalkunde (Amsterdam: Stichting Studiecentrum voor administratieve automatisering): 35-45. 1962 Esquisse historique de la linguistique fra^aise et de ses rapports avec la linguistique generate ( = Leidse Rom. Reeks/Publications romanes de Univ. de Ley de 8) (Leyden: U.P.). [2nd revised edition 1966.] 1963a "Judeo-Gallica ou Gallo-Judaica? Avec une bibliographic de 1750 ä 1962", Nph 47: 89-111. 1963b "Die Verschlüsselung grammatikalischer Daten", Beiträge zur Sprachkunde und Informationsverarbeitung 1: 45-57. 1967 (editor) Linguistique appliquee. (Premier colloque organise par la Haute Autorito pour les fonctionnaires des Communautes europeenes (Luxembourg, 1966) (Luxembourg: Communaute Europeenne du Charbon et de l'Acier).) 1967-68 Grammaire historique de la langue frangaise. I. Les parties du discours. II. Les syntagmes (= Publications romanes de /'t/mV, de Leyde 13; 14) (Leyden: U.P.). 1969 Grammatica, linguistiek, techniek (Leyden: U.P.). 1971 "Role de la prosodie dans l'histoire de la langue frangaise", Melanges Boutiere 1: 317-331 (Liege: Soledi). Landheer, R. 1969 "Les regies du jeu de mots en fran9aise moderne", Nomen: 81-103 (The Hague: Mouton). Levelt, W. J. M. 1966 "Generatieve grammatica en psycholinguistiek I. Inleiding in de generatieve grammatica", Nederlands Tijdschrift voor de psychologic en haar grensgebieden 21: 317-337. Levelt, W. J. M. - W. Zwanenburg - G. R. E. Ouweneel 1970* "Ambiguous surface structure and phonetic form in French", FL 6: 260-273. Linthorst, P. 1973 Les voyelles nasales dufrangais. Etude phonetique etphonologique [Dissertation, Utrecht]. Lo Cascio, Vincenzo 1968 "Struttura, funzione, valore di 'andare + participio passato'", LeSt 3: 271-293. 1971 Strutture pronominali e verbali italiane (Bologna: Zanichelli). Messelaar, Petrus A. 1963 Le vocabulaire des idees dans le 'Trasor' de Brunei Latin (Assen: van Gorcum). Meyer, M. P. 1962 Enquete sur le fra^ais d'enfants lausannois (Meppel: Ceres).

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Mok, Quirinus I. M. 1964 "Le profixe 're-' en frangais moderne: essai d'une description synchronique", Nph 48: 97-114. 1966a "Le röle de la liaison en frangais moderne", Lingua 16: 27-39. 1966b "Motalangage et traduction", FB 36: 103-108. 1968a Contribution a I'etude des categories morphologiques du genre et du nombre dans le frangaise parle actuel (The Hague: Mouton). 1968b "Vaugelas et la 'desambiguisation' de la parole", Lingua 21: 303-311. 1969 "Les pronoms personnels de la deuxieme personne en frangais et en hollandais", FB 39: 71-80. Morpurgo, E. 1960 Barzon, A., E. Morpurgo, A. Petrucci, G. Francescato, Giovanni Dondidell'Orologio, Tractatus astrarii (Biblioteca Capitolare di Padova, Cod. D 39) (= Codices ex ecdesiasticis Italiae bibliothecis selecti series minor 9) (Vatican City: Bibl. Apostolica Vaticana). Niekerk, P. J. 1972 L'expression du futur en fra^ais et en neerlandais. Etude synchronique sur les syntagmes verbaux susceptibles d'exprimer la futurite (Groningen: V.R.B.). Noomen, Willem 1954 La traduction frangaise de la Chronographia Johannis de Beka (The Hague: Excelsior). 1956 "Remarques sur la versification du plus ancien theatre frangais. L'enchainement des repliques et la rime mnemonique", Nph 40: 179-193; 249-258. 1962 Etudes sur les formes metriques du Mystöre du Vieil Testament (= MKNA Nieuwe Reeks 25.2) (Amsterdam). 1963 Zumthor, P., W. Noomen, Un prete montheysan et le sac de Liege en 1468. La Complainte de la Cite de Liege, poeme inedit (extracted from: Annales Valaisannes, bulletin de la Societe d'Histoire du Valais Romand 3-4,1963,67-155) (Saint Maurice). 1968 "Le Jeu d'Adam, Etude descriptive et analytique", Romania 89: 145-193. 1969 "Roman et gothique: mirage stylistique ou realite structurale", FB 39: 1421. 1971 LeJeu d'Adam (Ordorepresentacionis Ade) ( = Classiques Franqais du Moyen Age 99) (Paris: Champion). 1973 "Le lai des Deus Amanz de Marie de France. Contribution pour une description", Etudes de lange et litterature du moyen age offerts a Felix Lecoy: 469-481 (Paris: Champion). 1974 "Le lai des Deus Amanz: eloments pour une description formelle de I'£nonc6", in Du linguistique au textuel (Assen-Amsterdam: van Gorcum): 33-47. Oostendorp, Hendrik T. 1966 "La evolucion semäntica de las palabras espanolas 'auctor' y 'actor' a la luz de la estetica medieval", BH 68: 338-352. Prangsma-Hajenius, Angelique M. L. 1970 La Bible de Macede la Charite (Publ. sous la dir. de J. Smeets). III. Rois (= Leidse Rom. Reeks 10.3) (Leyden: U.P.). de Rooy, Ferdinand C. 1958 La Vie de Saint Hubert, dite d'Hubert le Prevost [Dissertation, Leyden] (Zwolle: Tjeenk Willink). Roudil, Jean 1962 El fuero de Baeza. E., estudio y vocabulario (= Publ. del Inst, de estudios hispanicos . . . de la Univ. estatal de Utrecht, 5) (The Hague: van Goor). 1968 Lesfueros d'Alcarez et d'Alarcon. Edition synoptique avec les variantes du Fuero d'Alcazar. Introduction, notes et glossaire I. Introduction et texte II. Glossaire,

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tableau de concordance et index (= Bibliothequefra^aise et romane, B 6) (Paris: Klincksieck). Salverda de Grave, Jean J. 1913 L'influence de la langue frangaise en Hollande, d'apres les mots empruntes (Paris). 1917 "Le frangais aux Pays-Bas", in Ferdinand Brunot, Histoire de la langue fra^aise des origines a 1900, Tome V, Deuxieme partie, Livre II: 195-274 (Paris). Schobben,J. M. G. 1969 La part du Pseudo-Turpin dans les Chroniques et Conquestes de Charlemaine de David Aubert (The Hague: Mouton). 1972 Contributions a I 'etude des sources de David Aubert, 2 vol. [Dissertation, Utrecht] (The Hague: Mouton). Schogt, Henri G. 1960 Les causes de la double issue de 'e' ferme tonique libre en frangais [Dissertation, Utrecht] (Amsterdam: van Oorschot). 1961 "La notion de loi dans la phonetique historique", Lingua 10: 79-92. 1963 "Le systeme verbal du russe d'apres Gustave Guillaume", Dutch Contributions to the Fifth International Congress ofSlavicists (Sofia, 1963) (= Slavistic Printings and Reprintings 45) (The Hague: Mouton): 145-153. 1964 "L'aspect verbal en fran?ais et I'ilimination du passe simple", Word 20: 1-17. 1965a "La reduction du nombre de degres d'aperture en ancien frangais", Omagiu lui Alexandru Rosetti la 70 de ani: 829-833 (Bucure§ti: Ed. Acad.). 1965b "Temps et verbe de Gustave Guillaume trente-cinq ans apres s parution", Linguistique 1: 55-74. 1968a "Les auxiliaires en franc.ais", Linguistique 4: 5-19. 1968b Le systeme verbal dufra^ais contemporain (The Hague: Mouton). 1968c "Une 'case vide': la phonologic diachronique du frangais canadien", Recherches sur la structure phonique du fra^ais canadien: 119-130, edited by P.-R. Loon (= Studio phonetica 1) (Montreal — Paris — Brussels: Didier). Schroten, Jan D. W. 1972 Concerning the Deep Structures of Spanish Reflexive Sentences (The Hague: Mouton). Schulten, Cornells M. 1966 Contribution α Γ etude des termes militaires frangais et neerlandais I567-1625 (The Hague: Smits). Schultink, H. 1967 "Transformationeel-generatieve taalbeschrijving", NT 60: 238-257. Sciarone, A. G. 1971 La place de iadjectif en Italien moderne (The Hague: Mouton). Smeets, Jean-Robert 1955 La Chevalerie de Judas Macabe. Ed. par . . . [Dissertation, Groningen] (Assen: van Gorcum). 1963 "Alexis et la Bible de Herman de Valenciennes. Le probleme de l'origine de la laisse", CCM 6: 315-325. 1967 La Bible de Mace de la Charite (Publ. sous la dir. de J. R. Smeets) I. Genese, Exode. Publ. par ... (= Leidse Rom. Reeks 10.1) (Leyden: U.P.). 1968-70 "Les traductions, adaptations et paraphrases de la Bible en vers", Grundriss der Romanischen Literaturen des Mittelalters (Heidelberg): vol. VI/1,1968,48-57; vol. VI/2, 1970, 81-96. 1978 La Bible de Malkaraume 2 volumes (Assen: van Gorcum). Sneyders de Vogel, K. 1918 Syntaxe historique du franfais (Groningen — The Hague: Wolters). 1948 "Romaanse taal- en letterkunde", Geesteswetenschappelijk onderzoek in Nederland (1933-1943): 158-170 (Amsterdam: North Holland).

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Sneyders de Vogel, Jr., K. 1947 Les mots d'identite et d'egalite dans les langues romanes (Wageningen: Fonsen & Looyen). Spiele, Ina 1975 Li Romanz de Dieu et de sa Mere, d'Herman de Valenciennes, chanoine et pretre (XHe siecle) (Leyden: U.P.). Stuip, Rene E. V. 1970 La Chastelaine de Vergi. Edition critique du ms. B.N.F.fr. 375 avec Introduction, Notes, Glossaire et Index, suivie de {'edition diplomatique de tous les manuscrits connus du XHle et du XlVe siecle (The Hague: Mouton). Terlingen, J. H. 1943 Los Italianismos en Espanol desde la formation del idioma hasta principios del sigh XVII (Amsterdam: North Holland). Uhlenbeck, E. M. 1963 "An Appraisal of Transformation Theory", Lingua 12: 1-18. Vachek,J. 1968 Dutch Linguistics and the Prague Linguistic School (Leyden: U.P.). Valkhoff, Marius 1931 Etude sur les mots frangais d'origine neerlandaise (Amersfoort: Valkhoff). 1938 Philologie et litterature wallones. Vademecum (= Allard Pierson Stichting, Univ. d'Amsterdam 15) (Groningen: Wolters). 1942 "Clermontois et warsogeois", Bulletin du Dictionnaire Wallon 21: 59-77. 1950 Geschiedenis en actualiteit der Frans-Nederlandse taalgrens (Amsterdam: Meulenhoff). 1951a "Etymologies noerlandaises. II. Mots neerlandais en hispanique", Nph 35: 6572. 1951b "Prolegomenes ä une carte de la frontiere linguistique franco-noerlandaise", Melanges de linguistique . . . Albert Dauzat (Paris: d'Artrey): 351-366. 1960 "Contributions to the Study of Creole, I-III", African Studies 19,77-87; 113-125; 230-244. 1963 "Notes socio-linguistiques sur le parier Creole de la Reunion", RomPh 17: 723735. 1966 Studies in Portuguese and Creole, with special reference to South-Africa (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand U.P.). Veenstra, H. D. 1946 Les formes nominales du verbe dans la prose du treizieme siecle. Participe prasent— g rondif— infinitif (Rotterdam: Brusse). Verhuyck, Paul E. R. 1977 La Bible de Mace de la Charite (general editor J. R. Smeets) 2. Levitique, Nombres, Deuteronomes, Josue, Juges (Leyden: U.P.). Vermeer-Pardoen, Johanna M. 1973 Le Chateau. Fonctionnement d'un type figuratif dans la litterature romanesque du douzieme siecle [Dissertation, Amsterdam]. Verschoor, J. A. 1959 Etude de grammaire historique et de style sur le style direct et les styles indirects en franqais (Groningen: V.R.B.). Vidos, B. E. 1947 Nieuwe onderzoekingen over Nederlandsche woorden in Romaansche talen (Utrecht: Spectrum). 1954 Les problemes de l'emprunt et les relations qui ont existe entre la Peninsule iberique et les Pays-Bas (Flandre et Hollande), extracted from: RPF 6. 1956 Handboek tot de Romaanse taalkunde ('s-Hertogenbosch: Malmberg). 1957 "Etymologie organique", RLR 21: 93-105.

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1959 Manuale di linguistica romanza. Prima edizione italiana completamente aggiornata dall'autore. Traduzione dall'olandese di G. Francescato (Firenze: Olschki). 1960 "Le bilinguisme et le mecanisme de l'emprunt", RLR 24: 1-19. 1961 "La place du vocabulaire technique dans le thesaurus de la langue frangaise". Lexicologie et lexicographic fra^aises et romanes. Orientations et exigences actuelles (Paris: Klincksieck): 185-194. 1963 Manual de linguistica romanica. Trad, de la ed. italiana por Francisco de B. Moll (Madrid: Aguilar). 1965 Prestito, espansione e migrazione dei termini tecnici nelle lingue romanze e non romanze. Problemi, metodo e risultati (= Bibl. dell'Archivum Romanicum, Serie II, 31) (Firenze: Olschki). 1968 Handbuch der romanischen Sprachwissenschaft (Munich). Vieu-Kuik, Hermina J. 1951 Het gebruik van Franse woorden door Wolff en Deken (Arnhem: van der Wiel). [Second part, Arnhem, 1957.] Walravens, Cornells J. H. 1971 Alain Chartier, etudes biographiques suivis de pieces justificatives, d'une description des editions et d'une edition des ouvrages inedits (Amsterdam: MeulenhoffDidier). Weerenbeck, B. H. J. 1933 "Le Systeme vocalique fran9ais du Xle siecle, d'apres les assonances de la Vie de Saint Alexis", Archives neerlandaises de phonetique experimental 8: 252-262. van Wijk, H. L. A. 1946 Contribucion al estudio del habla popular de Venezuela [Dissertation, Amsterdam]. 1949 "L'element arabe en espagnol", Nph 33: 13-23. 1951 "El calco ärabe semäntico en esp. 'adelantado', port, 'adiantado'", Nph 35: 91-94. 1955 Herkamst en evolutie van het Spaans in Amerika, [Inaugural lecture] (Groningen: Wolters). 1956 "Algunos aspectos del habla rural de Ayacucho (S.O. del Peru) representada en Cholertas del Porfirio Meneses" 1930-1955, HomenajeaJ. A. van Praag 145-154 (Amsterdam: Plus Ultra). 1958 "Origenes y evolucion del papiamentu" Nph 42: 169-182. 1961 "Los bolivianismos foneticos en la obra costumbrista de Alfredo Guillen Pinto" BFUCh 13: 49-73. 1964 "Los hipocoristicos hondurenos", RJb 15: 302-312. 1969 "Algunos aspectos morfologicos y sintäcticos del habla hondurena", BFUCh 20: 3-16. Wind, Bartina H. 1928 Mots Italiens introduits en frangais au XVle siecle (Deventer: Kluwer). 1942 "Introduction ä un cours de linguistique genorale", Nph 27: 21-30. 1949 "Quelques remarques sur la versification du Tristan de Thomas", Nph 33: 85-94. 1950 Thomas: Les fragments du Roman de Tristan, poeme du Xlle jj^c/e. Ed. avec un commentaire par . . . (Leyden: Brill). [2nd edition 1960 (Geneve-Paris: Droz).] 1954 Enkele structurele kenmerken van het moderne Frans. [Inaugural lecture](Groningen: Wolters). 1960 'Nederlands-Franse taalcontacten", Nph 44: 1-11. 1961 "Les signes de l'exception dans l'histoire du frangais", Nph 45: 195-199. van Zoest, A. J. A. 1971 "Vers une grammaire du texte?", Rapports/FB 1971: 190-196. 1974 Structures de deux testaments fictionnels: Le Lais et le Testament de Francois Villon (The Hague-Paris: Mouton).

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Zumthor, Paul 1948 Positions actuelles de la linguistique et de l'histoire litteraire (Groningen: Wolters). 1953 "Le fran9ais Creole de Haiti", LT 1953: 6-16. 1955 "Note sur les champs semantiques dans le vocabulaire des idees", Nph 39: 175-183; 241-249. 1956 "Pour une histoire du vocabulaire francais des idees", ZRPH 72: 340-362. 1957 "Survivances patoises dans le francais local", Nph 41: 161-173. 1958 "Fr. 'etymologic' (essai d'histoire semantique)", Etymologica. Walther von Wartburg zum siebzigsten Geburtstag, 18. Mai 1958: 873-893 (T bingen: Niemeyer). 1962 "Le langage parle Saint-Gingolph. Contribution l'histoire des 'franc.ais locaux' ", Annales Valaisannes (Saint-Maurice): 207-276. 1963 Langue et techniques poetiques a iepoque romane (Xle-Xllle siede) (= Bibliotheque fra^aise et romane, Serie C,4) (Paris: Klincksieck). 1965 "Le vers comme unite d'expression dans la poesie romane archaique", Actes du Xe Cong^s international de linguistique et philologie romanes (Strasbourg, 1962) (Paris: Klincksieck) 2: 763-774. 1972 Essai de poetique medievale (Paris: Seuil). Zwanenburg, Wiecher Zumthor, P. — W. Noomen 1963 Un pretre montheysan et le sac de Liege en 1468. La Complainte de la Cite de Liege, poeme inedit (extracted from: Annales Valaisannes, bulletin de la 5οαέΙέ d'Histoire du Valais Romand 3-4: 67-155) (Saint-Maurice). Zwanenburg, Wiecher 1965a Recherches sur la prosodie de la phrase frangaise (Leyden: U.P.). 1965b "De Franse 'lettergreep' ", FdL 6: 161-167. 1966a 'La liaison du frangais moderne comme probleme morphologique et syntaxique", RLaR 77: 91-102. 1966b "Genre et nombre grammaticaux dans les substantifs en franc.ais moderne", LT 1966: 659-672. 1966c "Les phonemes 'semi-vocaliques' du frangais moderne", Nph 50: 28-32. 1967 'Void', 'voila' en Oui', 'si', 'non . [Inaugural lecture] (Groningen: Noordhoff). 1968a "Quelques remarques sur le Statut phonologique de 'e' muet en frangais moderne", Word 24: 508-518. 1968b "Hulpwerkwoorden in modern Frans", FdL 9: 22-42. 1969a "Deux problemes prosodiques du frangais moderne. Frontieres des mots et des groupes rythmiques", Nomen. Leyden Studies in Linguistics and Phonetics (The Hague: Mouton): 195-205. 1969b "Les complements du verbe en franQais moderne", FB 39: 59-70. 1971a "La coordination en franc.ais moderne", Lingua 27: 20-31. 1971b Franse afleidingsmanoeuvres (Leyden: U.P.). 1975 "Question, periphrase grammaticale et dotachement en franeais", FM 43: 135147. 1976 "La grammaire generative et la derivation suffixale en fransais moderne", Actes XHIe Congres international de linguistique et philologie romanes (Quebec: P.U. Laval): 1: 1089-1097.

EBBE SPANG-HANSSEN

Romance studies in Scandinavia

Just as in other countries, Romance studies in Scandinavia have been marked by shifting currents of thought: historicism, positivism, structuralism, transformationalism. The commonplace that scientific research is international contains some truth, and many Scandinavian contributions to Romance philology could equally well have been written elsewhere in Europe, if not in the world. Nevertheless, I think it is possible to find, in Scaninavian treatises, a common stamp which has not been obliterated by the waves of European intellectual life. It is this common stamp I should like to stress in the following pages, at the risk of saying too little about valuable works which just happen not to be very representative of what is going on in this part of the world. Most Scandinavian philology bears the stamp of a certain empiricism or pragmatism, that is, a predilection for what, at the time given, is considered linguistic fact. Scandinavian philologists are often more interested in palpable proofs than in brilliant and stimulating theories. A good example of this attitude is found in the polemic of Knud Togeby against A. J. Greimas some years ago in Cahiers de Lexicologie (1965). Togeby attacks Greimas' theory about semes, according to which theory it should be possible to find out "que haut et has contiennent des semes de spatialite, dimensionalite et verticalite, long et court des semes de spatialite, dimensionalite, horizontalite et perspectivite, large et etroit des semes de spatialite, dimensionalite, horizontalite et lateralite, vaste et epais seulement des semes de spatialite" (1965: 7). Togeby thinks that, in research strategy, priority ought to be given to what is properly linguistic, which means that the linguist, first of all, should describe all the combinations in which the different morphemes enter. In this particular case, one finds that haut, grand, large can be combined with the ending -eur, whereas bos, petit, etroit are combined with -esse. One finds that haut,

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grand, large take complements introduced by de, while the adjectives of the other series do not; further, that haut, long, more easily than has and court, can be combined with moins. According to Togeby, a linguist who has enough will and skill will be able to find an almost infinite number of distributional differences; therefore such distributional facts as these can and must be the starting point for linguistic analysis. It is obvious that all Scandinavian Romanists do not agree entirely with Togeby, but I think that his viewpoint, which I have cited here, expresses a hypothesis about language that seems inbred in Scandinavian linguists: the hypothesis that language can be considered as a natural organism — or, if you prefer, as an organ like the heart or the liver — in the sense that it is a profoundly complicated mechanism sui generis, living its own life and having very little in common either with logic, or with normal social or cultural conventions. As a whole, Scandinavian Romanists are very little inclined to logico-semantic studies that are not explanations of distributional phenomena. It is characteristic that one hardly finds the word 'idiosyncratic' used by Scandinavian linguists; as a matter of fact, what this word says is, that linguistic phenomena that do not agree with the logic of the linguist must be non-systematic peculiarities; in this particular respect, Scandinavians are more humble and generally prefer to think of the unintelligible facts as unmistakable signs of how far we still are from understanding the system of language. This approach not only keeps Scandinavian philology away from idealism and pure semantics, it also draws a borderline between linguistics, on the one hand, and stylistics, on the other. From that point of view, aesthetics and stylistics have just as much to do with linguistics as the art of decorating your home with flowers has to do with botany. Changes in taste may make people prefer some flowers to others and may even make them want to modify some particular kind of flowers; but that explains nothing about the structure and physiology of the plants. Philology, as practised in Scandinavia, has little to do with 'Geistesgeschichte'. This attitude is probably due, first of all, to traditional Scandinavian naturalism and distrust for all kinds of metaphysical speculation. But it can have been reinforced by the way in which the studies are organised, in Institutes of Romance Philology. The heading 'Romance Philology' signifies in practice that linguistic studies have dominated literary studies, whereas, for instance in the Romance-speaking countries, the study of the mother-tongue has been heavily influenced by literary and aesthetic considerations. A measure of the extent to which the study of French, Italian and Spanish literature has been subordinate to linguistic pre-

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occupations is the relatively low number of literary treatises published by the Institutes of Romance philology. I think that the most striking example is found in the lists of books published by the Swedish Institutes. Each of them has since the second world war published its own series of 'Etudes Romanes'. Only four out of about eighty titles figuring in recent versions of the lists can be classified as literary criticism or literary history; all the other books are either linguistic studies or editions of medieval texts. In Denmark and Norway, however, the lack of balance is less apparent, and it seems that literary studies are gaining ground within the Institutes of Romance Philology. It falls outside the scope of this paper to treat also purely literary studies, but I should like to mention the fact that recent linguistic structuralism has given inspiration to many structural descriptions. Concerning the theory of literature or the definition of a literary genre: Svend Johansen (1949, 1950), Per Nykrog (1957), Steen Jansen (1968). Concerning the relation between literary style and grammar: Jens Rasmussen (1958), John Pedersen (1974). Concerning the works of a particular author: Togeby (1957), Nykrog (1965), Moestrup (1972), N0jgaard (1973). In a long article in Revue d'histoire litteraire de la France (1967), by P. Barberis, Nykrog's study on Balzac was hailed as an event — a victory for structuralism — in the history of French literary criticism. In Norway structuralist points of view in literature were expressed already in the nineteen-thirties by Peter Rokseth (1928, 1953), whose influence might partly explain the comparatively important place occupied by literary criticism in Norway. In recent years, however, the Norwegians seems more interested in philosophy and 'Weltanschaung' than in formalism: Hans Aaraas has written about the thought of Bernanos (1959), Asbj0rn Aarnes about Nerval (1957), Brikt Jensen about Mauriac (1963), Annelisa Amadou about Proust (1965) and in a remarkable book Per L0nning has probably given the best existing introduction to the conceptual world of Pascal (1958). In Sweden, literary criticism and linguistics have met in the works of Gunnar von Proschwitz on the vocabulary of the eighteenth century (1956, 1964). Even if linguistics and literary criticism have found a meeting-point in the theory of structuralism, it should be underlined that it is not linguistics that has been influenced by literary criticism but rather the reverse: the study of the Romance languages has not been marked by aestheticoliterary considerations as, for instance, in France, where, in order to explain the structures of French, many grammarians attach great importance to literary taste in the seventeenth century and to the activities of

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the French Academy. It cannot be denied that there can be some nearsightedness in a philology of the Scandinavian type which renounces all claims at the refreshing perspectives of the history of thought, and which concentrates on rather limited linguistic patterns. But this narrowing of outlook is bearable for those who study language with the same respect as scientists study nature, because, in this perspective, language is not seen primarily as a curious result of a great number of historical accidents, but as an extraordinarily complicated mechanism which one would be happy just to understand the slightest bit of. The Scandinavian approach appears perhaps in its most typical form in the syntactical studies which fairly can be said to have dominated Romance studies in Scandinavia in recent years, and to which I will dedicate the last and the longest part of this article: but it is impossible to pass over historical philology which counts many great achievements also in Scandinavia, and which is still a living discipline although it does not occupy the center of the scene anymore. One of the most impressive achievements of Scandinavian scholarship is the enormous mass of medieval texts edited by Swedish and Finnish scholars. The leading figures in Romance studies in Sweden in the beginning of this century were all distinguished editors of old texts: P. A. Geijer, Carl Wahlund, Johan Vising, and so were the professors of the next generation: Hilding Kjellmann (1922a, 1922b, 1935), Johan Melander (1922, 1930), Emanuel Wahlberg (1900, 1905, 1928, 1946). From later years one could mention: Bertil Malmberg (1940), Börje Schlyter (1941), Einar Ronsjö (1942), Äke Blomqvist (1951), Bertil Maler (19561964), Göran Bornäs (1968), and last but not least the monumental edition, in three volumes (1951, 1954, 1967), of Chronique des Dues de Normandie par Benoit by Carin Fahlin, who did not live to finish the edition before her death in 1964, and whose work has been completed by Osten Södergaard. In Finland historical philology has been even more predominant than in Sweden. All readers of Les Classiques Franqais du Moyen Age will be acquainted with the names of the two great Finnish scholars Arthur Langfors and Holger Petersen Dyggve. Their work has been carried on after the second world-war by, in particular, Tauno Nurmela (1937,1947, 1967), Veikko Väänänen (1951), Erik von Kraemer (1950), just to mention a few specimens of the Finnish contributions. These great traditions for text-editions are still alive in Finland and Sweden, and I think it is great 'litre d'honneur' for romanists in these two countries to have such an important share in the improvement of our

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knowledge of medieval literature, which is by now published to such a large extent in good editions that it can be an object of literary criticism in rather the same way as the literature of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In connection with the work on text-editions, a great number of historical studies on grammatical or literary problems have been carried out. Naturally, different scholars have often edited texts related to some particular problem they were interested in. In this respect, the enterprises of Gunnar Tilander constitute an outstanding example. He started his university career with a thesis on Le roman de Renart (1923), followed the next year by Lexique du roman de Renart. Thus initiated into the language of animal kingdom, he continued to explore the vocabulary of hunting, publishing a great number of 'artes venandi' and explaining the etymologies of many words concerning this noble art. The list of books on that subject published by Tilander himself and his students at the university of Stockholm now comprises more than twenty titles, concerning also Italian, Portuguese and Spanish texts and vocabulary. But Tilander's editorial activities also had another focal point: the laws of ancient Spain. He published the ancient Spanish fueros, and he and h'is students have produced not fewer than ten book-titles, renewing thus our knowledge of another aspect of medieval life. His colleague in Götheborg, Karl Michaelson, and O. Brattö have explored, in numerous contributions, the traditions of Romance anthroponomy, publishing texts suitable to throw light on the origin of personal names. The main efforts of historical Romance philology have naturally concentrated on medieval texts, but speaking of the Finnish and Swedish historical schools, it should be mentioned that they have given us some of the fundamental editions of texts and studies concerning Vulgar Latin, first of all E. Löfsted: Philologischer Kommentar zur Peregrinatio Aetheriae (1911) and Veikko Väänänen: Le latin vulgaire des inscriptions pompeiennes (1937). More recently Torsten Sävborg (1941), Dag Norberg (1943, 1944), Väänänen (1967), Lena Löfsted (1966). Also in other branches of historical philology one can count many Swedish and Finnish contributions. In dialectology, one of the most well-known is the study by Bengt Hasselrot of a Franco-Proven$al dialect (1937). Other studies in this field have been made by C. Bjerrome (1957), and by L. O. Svenson (1959). In historical morphology the most outstanding achievements are, perhaps, the thorough investigation of the Rumanian verb by Alf Lombard (1954, 1955) and Hasselrot's studies on Romance diminutives (1957,

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1972). Hasselrot's studies raise, and partly solve, a great many problems of general interest for Romance linguistics. Hasselrot gives, for instance, an interesting contribution to the discussion about the relation between gender and sex. He supports Wartburg's idea that the feminine gender, because it continues, for purely formal reasons, the neuter plural in some cases, can be suitable to express big size; but on the other hand he gives convincing evidence of the existence of a rather strong tradition relating the masculine gender to words indicating big things, and this seemingly for non-linguistic reasons. Even from the beginning of the century, the syntactical studies carried out within the framework of historical philology are marked by the empiricist style I have just referred to as typical for Scandinavian grammarians. A good example is the thesis of Johan Melander on the development from magis to mais (1916), a book which may interest even those who are concerned only with modern grammar, because it gives a fine syntactico-semantic analysis of the use of adversative expressions. Most characteristic is his refusal to go further in the classification of the senses of mais — as other philologists have done — than what palpable syntactic criteria allow him to do. Each of the rather few senses he distinguishes is characterized by a particular type of context, and he is careful only to establish relationships — diachronical or synchronic — between senses that are characterized by similar contexts. Thus the documentation occupies more space in the book than speculations on possible logical connexions. Another example of rather general interest could be the thesis of Paul Falk on jusque and its synonyms in old French and old Provenc,al (1934). Falk, who constantly uses distributional criteria to support his semantic hypothesis, studies the close connexion between expressions signifying the ending point and expressions indicating the starting point, and he claims that there is a general tendency in French, throughout the ages, to use expressions which originally indicate the starting point with the meaning 'until': "En creant d'ici que = jusqu'a ce que (e.g.: II ne me faudra rien d'ici qu'il fasse jour), le frangais litteraire de nos jours ne fait que renouveler apres quatre ou cinq siecles d'oubli un vieux precede qui semble inherent au genie meme des langues de la Gaule" (1934: 10). Also the historical studies of Sven Andersson on the word tout (1954,1961) use carefully measured doses of semantics and distributional criteria, and throw much light even on the modern use of tout. In Denmark and Norway historical Romance philology has not had a flowering that can be compared to that of the Swedish and Finnish

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schools; in particular, in these two countries, there has been, up till now, no tradition for publication of medieval texts. It seems, however, that Birger Munk Olsen, who publishes 'les dits' of Jean de Saint-Quentin (1977), is about to form a school for medieval palaeography in Copenhagen. It would probably be erroneous to attribute the absence of that branch of philology in Denmark and Norway to one single reason, but one can hardly neglect the fact that the real founder of Romance philology in Denmark, Kristoffer Nyrop, the author of the well-known 'Grammaire historique de la langue francaise' (in six volumes 1899-1930) had weak sight — completely blind from the age of forty-five — and hence was prevented from dedicating himself to the study of old manuscripts. In spite of the impact of Nyrop, whose work comprises numerous treatises on grammar, etymology and literary history, it is, however, his younger colleague Kristian Sandfeld, who has most deeply influenced modern Romance philology in Denmark; I think that more than anybody else he has established the now prevailing Scandinavian tradition for synchronic syntactic studies in an empiricist style, that is to say with a minimal, but relatively solid, theoretical framework, and a mass of documentation. His first purely synchronic study, on subordinate clauses in French, is from 1909. Sandfeld was at the same time a fine historical linguist, and before I turn exclusively to modern Scandinavian work in synchronic syntax, I must take care not to give the false impression that historical studies have been neglected in Norway and Denmark. Sandfeld is considered one of the founders of 'Balkan philology'; he contributed to the very creation of the idea of a 'Balkan philology', by pointing out structural relationships between languages from this area, which are not genetically related (1900,1930). These studies as well as the important description he made, together with Hedvig Olsen, of modern Rumanian syntax (in three volumes, 1936-1962) have largely inspired later works on Rumanian: Rosenstand Hansen (1952), Togeby (1968), Halvorsen (1973). In collaboration with Hedvig Olsen, Sandfeld wrote a Rumanian syntax of which only one volume had appeared (1936) before the authors' deaths. The two following volumes were achieved (1960, 1962) mostly due to the efforts of Eugen Lozovan, whose most important personal contribution to Romance philology might be his convincing explanations of the survival of Latin in Eastern Romania (1957, 1962). What has been done in the historical field in Denmark and Norway is more grammar or linguistics than philology, in the narrow sense of the word. This is the case with the historical work of Viggo Bröndal (1917),

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the thesis of Arne-Johan Henrichsen on conditional clauses in old Occitan (1955), the thesis of Falle Spore on the Romance diphthongization (1972), the studies of Sletsj0e (1959) and Sten (1944, 1951) on Portuguese, the studies of Togeby on Romance morphology and syntax (1968). On the very high linguistic level one finds the comprehensive study of Poul Skaarup on word-order and use of personal pronouns in Old French (1974); he renews the well-known discussions about these matters, to which also the Swede Franzen (1939) has contributed, with some new rigorous formulations of the word-order rules which enable him to show numerous false corrections made by the modern editors of the old French texts. As to properly philological outlook, the great introduction to the medieval literatures, by Anker Laugesen (1966), deserves particular mention; with incredible scholarship, embracing nearly all the languages used in the medieval literatures of Western Europe. Laugesen describes the conditions of literary activity, stressing the unity of medieval civilization. This unity has been illustrated in another great synthesis, by Togeby (1969), concerning the legend of Ogier le Danois. Togeby's description of the origin of the legend and its life throughout the ages is at the same time a summary of the history of ancient French literature, and a contribution to the discussion about the conditions of literary creation and its relation with reality; not only for Danes it may be fascinating to see how the old French poets created the national hero of Denmark, who, although sleeping, still lives in the casemates of Elsinore. In the last decades, synchronic syntactical studies have been predominant in Sweden as well as in Norway and Denmark, and from now on there will be less reason to describe the different schools separately. Of course, the influential scholars have held different methodological convictions, and much could be said about the structuralism of Viggo Bröndal (1948, 1950), about the early structuralism of Togeby which was inspired by Hjelmslev's glossematics (1951), about the psychological approach of Andreas Blinkenberg (1928, 1960), about the statistical methods of Arne Klum (1961) and Lennart Carlsson (1966) and so forth. But I think it is more in agreement with the best Scandinavian matter-offact traditions to look rather at the results than at the theories and at the authors. After all, if philology is not created solely for the pleasure of philologists, the most important questions to put, in a survey like this, seem to be: What have the philologists achieved? What do we know now that we did not know fifty years ago? It may be natural to take as a first example of progress in syntactical knowledge the typology of subordinate clauses set up by Sandfeld within

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the framework of traditional grammar. Everyone knows that a subordinate clause has a function in a main clause or in another subordinate clause, but Sandfeld had the idea of taking this analysis in earnest, and of posing the question of which clauses could have which functions under which circumstances. (Sandfeld, indeed, does not formulate the question explicitly; he only gives the answer, a fact that easily creates the impression that there is less theory in his books than there actually is.) So Sandfeld accounts for the fact that when and with which conjunctions nominal clauses (propositions completives) and interrogative clauses can be regimen in prepositional phrases; when and with which conjunctions nominal clauses can be the second term in comparisons after que; and so forth. In this way we have got exact information about the correspondence between word-classes and types of clauses. The classification of relative clauses, in particular, seems an advance on previous ones. Four main types are distinguishes: (1) the independent, or nominal, introduced in fact by a pronoun of the interrogative type: J'aime quije veux, (2) the predicative, whose antecedent may be a joint personal pronoun: Je l'entends qui descend, (3) the attributive, which can be subdivided in determinative (restrictive) and appositive, (4) relatives in cleft sentences, which have a syntax of their own as regards the use of pronouns, tense and mood. The important thing is that these types are clearly characterized by syntactical features. Another advance due to Sandfeld is the more exact statement of some rules governing the use of de before infinitive in modern French. For instance, traditional grammars had maintained that de was not used before an infinitive as predicate. Sandfeld (l) proves that the infinitive is a predicate in a sentence such as mon plus grand desir est de voyager, by means of substitutions as for example mon plus grand desir qui est de voyager, where qui undoubtedly is the subject; (2) shows, with many examples, that this use of the infinitive is quite common; (3) formulates in a simple rule the difference between the uses of the infinitive in this function with and without de, namely that de is used only when the predicate can be interchanged with the subject: (de) voyager est mon plus grand desir. A modern transformationalist would say, perhaps, that the predicate takes de precisely in the case where it is the subject of the deep-structure sentence. Of course, the analysis made by Sandfeld is not the ultimate truth, but a consistent description of surface structure rules will normally be a good background for further progress. The most important gains are probably to be found in the syntax of the verb: aspect, tense, mood. In the first place, Scandinavian Romanists,

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following in the path of German linguists (Eduard Hermann, Walter Porzig), have taken part in working out the fundamental and fruitful distinction between mode d'action (Aktionsart, sometimes also called 'root-aspect') and 'aspect' (sometimes also called 'inflexional aspect'). The adjectives 'perfective' and 'imperfective' are mostly used to speak of the mode d'action, whereas 'punctual' and 'non-punctual' ('durative') describe 'aspect'. Even if Romanists in some countries still use the word 'aspect' in the two different senses, I think that these distinctions constitute a significant clarification which opens up new opportunities for the work on the syntax of Romance verbs. As already pointed out by Eduard Hermann, the perfective and the imperfective mode d'action can be distinguished fairly well by a simple criterion: the possibility of combining the verb with an adverb such as longtemps. The Scandinavians cannot take credit for the basic ideas in this field, they have only contributed by showing their linguistic relevance, in the work of Holger Sten (1952), J. Schmitt Jensen (1963), Arne Klum (1961), Knud Togeby (1953,1965). This latter French grammar by Togeby, which counts more than nine hundred pages, is a cornerstone in recent Scandinavian syntactical research, and it is constantly referred to in papers dealing with all kinds of problems within French grammar; a French edition is in preparation. With regard to diathesis, the distinctions just mentioned can account for the use of etre + past participle to express a process (// est observe = On Γ observe}, as opposed to the expression of a state (// est tue) that cannot be transformed to an active sentence in the same tense (On le tue). The rules can be roughly outlined in this way: etre + past participle can always be used with imperfective verbs, whereas with perfective verbs it can only be used in a punctual tense, unless the non-punctual tense is used in an iterative sense, or unless other disambiguating factors are added. The distinction between mode d'action and 'aspect' is crucial, because it is largely the interaction between the two that accounts for the choice of etre + past participle or one of the alternative passive constructions (reflexive passive, se faire + infinitive). With regard to tense, the distinctions are particularly useful for the description of the differences between le passe simple andl'imparfait. The difference between the two tenses is of course, aspectual, i.e. a 'punctual' tense, as opposed to a 'non-punctual' tense; but many of the difficult uses of the two tenses can be described as an interaction between 'aspect' and mode d'action: no particular problem arises when a perfective root is combined with the punctual aspect, or when an imperfective root is

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combined with the non-punctual aspect; but if, for instance, a perfective root is connected with the non-punctual aspect, special effects are obtained such as I'imparfaitpittoresque, or the badly named I'imparfait de conatu (i.e. an action which was about to take place: j'oubliais mon parapluie); conversely, if an imperfective root is connected with the punctual aspect, one most often gets the so-called 'ingressive' use of le passe simple: il sut meaning 'he heard' and not 'he knew'. A prerequisite for the successful use of these notions, in a rather complicated situation, has been the introduction of exact criteria, the best of which seems to be the correlation between aspect and adverbs of time. Many facts, which are far from being obvious, have come out, e.g. the fact that longtemps more often is combined with 'punctual' than with 'non-punctual' aspect; observations like this have made it still more clear that the difference between le passe simple and I'imparfait has nothing to do with duration, but only with the opposition 'limitation — nonlimitation'. In the works just mentioned in particular in those of Klum and Togeby, detailed accounts are given for every single adverb of time. Common sense would not have guessed, I suppose, that plusieurs fois should be classified with the adverbs that indicate a precise number of iterations, such as trois fois, rather than with those which indicate an undetermined number of iterations, like parfois; it is a useful warning against the use of common-sense considerations in language analysis. Another important tool in the analysis is the correlation of tense and aspect with the type of the clause in which the verb is used. In a fundamental article (1954), Togeby gives a good theoretical foundation for the study of these problems. He distinguishes between 'concordance' which is a dependency that holds between two identical morphemes, and 'rection', which is a dependency between two different morphemes; in the second place he distinguishes dependencies holding between tense morphemes from dependencies between aspect morphemes and from dependencies of mixed types (tense — aspect). On this basis he gives an improved formulation of the rule proposed by Damourette and Pichon about an important feature of concordance des temps; the rule, which now appears to be a rule concerning 'rection', goes like this: "Si le verbe de la principale est au passe (imparfait ou passe defini), celui de la proposition completive ou interrogative indirecte sera ä l'aspect imperfectif (imparfait ou conditionnel) et non ä l'aspect perfectif (passe defini ou futur)" (Togeby 1954: 144). The rule is tested on a large amount of material, and it appears that nearly all exceptions can be reduced to one single type of nominal clause, namely the type // arriva qu'elle le rencon-

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tra, where there is no real subordination since the two actions are identical. Togeby further points out a number of different dependencies between aspect or tense and conjunctions such as quand, comme, lorsque, alors que, des que, tant que. Concerning French, rules of this kind have been examined and improved in works of Nilsson-Ehle (1944), H0ybye (1966), M0rdrup (1971), Olsson (1971). Concerning Italian: Blücher (1970), Henrichsen (1971), Välikangas (1972), Nilsson-Ehle (1973). Concerning Portuguese: Sten (1973). Concerning Spanish: Togeby (1953). For the description of the verbal system the exact limitation of the notion periphrases verbales plays an important role. A good step forward has been made particularly concerning the distributional differencies between the periphrase aller + infinitive and the main verb aller followed by an infinitive, first in the thesis of Leiv Flydal (1943), later on Henrichsen (1967) and Togeby (1965). One can hardly say that, within the theory of mood, a similar clarification of the basic ideas has taken place as within the theory of aspect and mode d'action. The factors that condition use of subjunctive are still described in very different ways. Yet the Scandinavian studies in this field have in common that they are very careful to distinguish the use of mood in the different types of clauses. The most convincing result obtained in the study of mood is probably that semantic speculations without incessant consideration of the different syntactical constructions are useless. A striking example is the difference, emphasized by Togeby (1965) and Nordahl (1969), between the use of mood in nominal clauses as logical subject (// est etonnant qu'ils soient restes fideles), and as predicate (L'etonnant est qu'ils sontjsoient restes fiddles). This phenomenon has earlier been pointed out by the German Romanists Soltmann, Lerch and Regula; it is nevertheless characteristic for Scandinavian scholars that they attach so much importance to the thorough investigation of these syntactical variations. Nordahl, for instance, finds that it is important to distinguish, in the predicate construction, whether it is direct (Le malheur estque. . .) or indirect (Le malheur, c'estque. . .), whether the subject is a noun (Le malheur . . .) or an adjective in the positive degree (Le malheureux . . .), an adjective in the superlative degree (Le plus malheureux . . .) or a clause (Ce qui est malheureux, c'est que . . .). As regards nominal clauses as object, it seems often necessary to study every governing verb (comprendre, croire, dire etc.) separately. Many new rules about particular cases are proposed in the works of Borjeson (1966), Nordahl (1969), Ronsjö (1966, 1967), Boysen (1971). These

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rules, or hypotheses, are generally based on solid documentation; the corpus studied by Börjeson comprises 12,000 examples, that of Nordahl 22,000. The thesis of J. Schmitt Jensen (1970), which describes, in more than seven hundred pages, the use of the subjunctive in Italian, can be said to fill a gap in the existing literature on Italian syntax. Besides the modal syntax of noun-clauses, that of relative clauses following a superlative has been particularly studied. Apparently, three Scandinavian grammarians, Ulleland (1967), Nordahl (1970, 1972) and Carlsson (1969), have obtained consonant and convincing results: in these relative clauses, the subjunctive is not used to express a personal evaluation or a reservation, as is usually claimed, but whenever there is, or can be inserted, some generalizing factor such asjamais, au monde or the like (la maison la plus belle qu'ilaitjamais vue). Togeby, however, has thrown some doubt on this gratifying agreement (1973) by pointing out that, as regards French, the subjunctive is simply the normal mood in real restrictive relative clauses after a genuine superlative. Even if the terminology concerning the theory of moods has not been clarified in a way that is generally accepted, the hypotheses that have been set forward deserve to be mentioned. The thesis of Nordahl (1969) is of a rather semantic kind, since he thinks it possible to define three semantic spheres or systems, that determine the use of the subjunctive in the noun clauses: 'un Systeme volitif, un Systeme subjectif, un Systeme dubitatif. Boysen (1971) tries to avoid semantic explanations and describes the subjunctive by means of a hierarchy of syntactical factors, among which he ranges the places of the subordinate clause, the root of the governing verb, its syntax, its derivation, its inflexion. Schmitt Jensen (1970), as well, wants to avoid considerations of the meaning of the subjunctive, but he is not satisfied with a mere description; he explains the use of subjunctive by its functional value, as a morpheme indicating subordination. He tries to prove his hypothesis, which reminds one of Martinet's theory on the economy of linguistic structures, by showing that modal differentiation protects against misinterpretations about what type the subordinate clause in question belongs to. A very important problem in this respect is the correlation between the use of subjunctive and omission of introductory ehe, a problem which is the subject of a penetrating study — with a somewhat misleading title — by Hans Nilsson-Ehle (1947). In the study of word-order the works of Andreas Blinkenberg (19291932) have been influential. The method by which he describes the place of the attributive, for instance, has been adopted by Togeby (1965). The

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basic idea is to make a syntactical problem out of what seemed to be a semantic problem, by saying that some ten adjectives have their normal place before the noun, the others after the noun, and that the normally 'postpositive' adjectives just acquire the value of some of the adjectives normally placed before when moved to that position. The advantage of this approach is, here as elsewhere, that the semantic problem is reduced to one of likeness, and that we can operate with relatively clear substitutional criteria. Also the description given by Blinkenberg of the different types of subject-inversion has given impulse to further studies: Spang-Hanssen (1971), Togeby (1971). N0jgaard has in an interesting way related inversion in exclamations to the use of negation (1967). Within the field of word-order a very positive step forward has been made by Lennart Carlsson (1966), who has formulated new and accurate rules concerning the place of the adjective in nominal groups of the type substantive + de + substantive. As everyone knows, groups of this type are extremely frequent in Romance languages, and there has been a real lack, even for pedagogical purposes, of rules stating where to place an adjective that refers to the first noun or to the whole group. One of Carlsson's more important rules says that we have the order S, AS2 if the adjective is non-distinctive in regard to the whole group, but distinctive in regard to S,, which explains, for instance, une blouse blanche d'infirmiere and une face ronde de bebe opposed to une explosion de gaz violente. The rules Carlsson formulates are based on the study of eight thousand examples. The problems of concord have been studied in great detail, with particular attention to the syntactical relations (coordination and subordination, exocentric relations): H0ybye (1944), Blinkenberg (1950), Grundt (1972). Even in the rather numerous Scandinavian works on prepositions, priority has been given to the study of syntactical patterns. Typical in this respect are: the article of Karin Ringenson on the alternation between de and par to express the agent after a passive verb (1926), Boström's study on phrases like avoir leplaisir de faire qch. and avoir du plaisir a faire qch. (1957), Blinkenberg's study on transitivity (1960), Spang-Hanssen's thesis on the colourless prepositions (1963); in all these studies an effort has been made to explain the use of the prepositions not only by their meaning but also by syntactical factors, such as the use of determiners. The same tendency can be observed, to some extent, in the diachronic studies of Fahlin (1942).

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The more detailed syntactic studies become, the closer they get to lexicography. The picture of Scandinavian syntactical studies would be too incomplete without a mention of the huge amount of syntactical knowledge laid down in the big dictionaries that are at the disposal of the Scandinavians: Bratli's Spanish-Danish dictionary (1947), the DanishFrench dictionary by Blinkenberg and Thiele (1937) and the FrenchDanish dictionary by Blinkenberg and H0ybye (1964). And it would be an equally important omission not to mention phonetics which, as it is well known, has played a great historical role in the development of modern structural methods. In Scandinavia, Bertil Malmberg, in particular, who is at the same time a phonetician, a general linguist and a Romance philologist, has done much to introduce modern methods in Romance philology (1966, 1973). Also in a geographical sense, he has opened new horizons, working with predilection on the Romance languages of South America; he has, for instance, used structural methods to refute the theories that explain the particularities of South American Spanish by the influence of the substratum-language (1973). The influence of transformational grammar has been very limited just until the middle of the seventies, probably on account of the longlasting prestige of Hjelmslev's glossematics and, especially, of the empiricist tradition in Scandinavia. Transformational grammar appears to many Scandinavian Romanists as too hypothetical, that is to say that it sets up more and greater hypotheses than necessary or than it will ever be possible to make probable. But, on the other hand, it is also a part of the empiricist tradition to imitate, as closely as possible, the methods of the natural sciences. It has become obvious, I suppose, that distributional criteria alone do not contribute a sufficient tool for linguistic research. Avoiding taking refuge in traditional vague semantics, Scandinavian Romanists have turned to frequency investigations: Klum (1961), Carlsson (1966), Nordahl (1969). But simple statistical methods do not offer the necessary framework, either. Rather a lot of grammarians in these countries have been eager to use other modern tools. Three Romanists have written an important handbook in mathematical linguistics (Maegaard - Prebensen - Vikner 1975), and with a background in the knowledge of modern logic, traditional structuralism as well as Hjelmslev's glossematics have been severely criticized, for instance by Prebensen (1967a, 1967b). Others have tried to use computer techniques in their investigations, as, for instance, Gunnel Engwall in her study of modern French vocabulary (1974) or Bente

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Maegaard and E. Spang-Hanssen (1978) in their experiments with automatic recognition of sentence and clause boundaries in modern French texts. Even in the more purely transformational studies that have been published, Scandinavian traditions are well respected. Extraordinary weight is laid upon documentation and upon the solidity of the step-bystep argumentation in the studies of Bartning (1976), Gunnarson (1972), M0rdrup (1976), K. Olsson (1976), Vikner (1973, 1978). Scandinavian Romanists, who are always suspicious of metaphysics, welcome the new techniques.

References Aaraas, Hans 1959 Georges Bernanos (Oslo: Gyldendal). Aarnes, Asbjörn 1957 Diktningen has Gerard de Nerval (Oslo: Tanum). Amadou, Anne-Lisa 1965 Dikteren og Hans vaerk i Marcel Prousts estetikk (Oslo). Andersson, Sven 1954 Etudes sur la syntaxe et la semantique du mot frangais TOUT (Lund: Gleerup). 1961 Nouvelles etudes sur la syntaxe et la semantique du mot frangais TOUT (Lund: Gleerup). Bartning, Inge 1976 Remarques sur la syntaxe et la semantique des pseudo-adjectifs denominaux en frangais (Institut d'Etudes Romanes de l'Universite de Stockholm). Bjerrome, G. 1957 Le patois de Bagnes (Stockholm: Valais). Blinkenberg, A. - P. H0ybye 1964 Fransk-dansk ordbog (K0benhavn: Hagerup). Blinkenberg, A. - A. Thiele 1937 Dansk-fransk ordbog (K0benhavn: Hagerup). Blinkenberg, Andreas 1928-33 L'ordre des mots en Frangais moderne, I-II (K0benhavn: H0st). 1950 Le probleme de accord en frangaise moderne (K0benhaven: Munksgaard). 1960 Le probleme de la transitivtä en frangais moderne (K0benhavn: Munksgaard). Blomqvist, Aake 1951 Le Roman des deduis de Gace de la Buigne (Karlshamn). Blücher, Kolbjörn 1970 Studio suite forme HO CANTA TO — CANTA1 — CANTA VO — STA VO CANTAN DO (University of Bergen). Börjeson, Lars 1966 "La frequence du subjonctif dans les subordonnees comple"tives" SNPh 38: 3-64. Bornäs, Goran 1968 Trois contes frangais du XIIIe siede, tires du recueil des Vies des Peres (Lund). Boström, Ingemar 1957 Les noms abstraits accompagnes d'un infinitif et combines avec AVOIR (Lund: Gleerup). Boysen, Gerhard

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1971 Subjonctifet Hierarchie (Odense: Odense U.P.). Bratli Carl 1947 Spansk-dansk ordbog (K0benhavn: Munksgaard). Brattö, O. 1955 Nuovi studi di antroponimia Fiorentina (Stockholm). 1956 L'anthroponymie et la diplomatique (Stockholm). Bröndal, Viggo 1948 Substrat et emprunt en roman et en germanique (K0benhavn : Gad. 1917) [traduction frangaise (K0benhaven-Bucure§ti: Munksgaard)]. 1948 Les parties du discours (K0benhavn). 1950 Theorie des prepositions (K0benhavn: Munksgaard). Carlsson, Lennart 1966 Le degre de cohesion des groupes subs t. + de + subst. en f'rangais contemporain (Uppsala: Almqvist-Wiksell). 1969 Le type C'EST LE MEILLEUR LIVRE QU'IL AIT JAMAIS ECRIT (Uppsala: AlmqvistWiksell). Engwall, Gunnel 1974 Frequence et distribution du vocabulaire dans un choix de romans franqais (Stockholm: Skriptor). Fahlin, Carin 1942 Etude sur l'emploi des prepositions EN, A, DANS au sens local (Uppsala). 1951-54 Chronique des Dues de Dues de Normandie par Benoit. (Vols I, II, III). Glossaire entierement revu et complete par les soins de Osten Södergaard (Uppsala: Almqvist-Wiksell). Falk, Paul 1934 JUSQUE et autres termes en ancien franqais et en ancien prove^al marquant le point d'arrivee (Uppsala: Lundequistska). Flydal, Leiv 1943 ALLER et VENIR DE suivis de l'infinitif comme expressions de rapports temporeis (Oslo: Dybwad). Franzen, T. 1939 Etude sur la syntaxe des pronoms personnels sujets en ancien /ra/ifais (Uppsala: Almqvist-Wiksell). Grundt, Lars Otto 1972 Etudes sur I'adjectif invarie en franqais (Bergen). Gunnarson, Kjell-Äke 1972 Le complement de lieu dans le syntagme nominal (Lund: Gleerup). Halvorsen, Arne 1973 Essai d'une analyse des formes dites "du futur" en roumain moderne (Bergen). Hansen, Asgar Rosenstand 1952 Artikelsystemet i rumaensk (K0benhavn: Munksgaard). Hasselrot, Bengt 1937 Etude sur les dialectes d'Ollon et du district d'Aigle (Vaud) (Uppsala). 1957 Etudes sur la formation diminutive dans les langues romanes (Uppsala). 1972 Etude sur la vitalite de la formation diminutive frangaise au XX* si£cle (Uppsala). Henrichsen, Arne-Johan 1955 Les phrases hypothitiques en ancien occitan (Bergen). 1967 "Les poriphrases verbales du fran;ais moderne". In: Actes du 4' congres des romanistes scandinaves (K0benhavn): 45-56. 1971 "II condizionale nell'italiano moderno". SNPh 43: 101-112. H0ybye, Poul 1944 L'accord en frangais contemporain (K0benhavn: Host). 1966 "Les concordances temporelles", RRom 1: 46-59.

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Jansen, Steen 1968 "Esquisse d'une theorie de la forme dramatique", Langages 12: 71-93. 1968 "L'unite d'action dans Andromaque et dans Lorenzaccio", RRom 3: 16-29, 116-135. Jensen, Brikt 1963 Diktning eller psykologi. En Studie i Ρταηςοίχ Mauriacs roman Ormebolet (Oslo: Cappelens forlag). Jensen, J rgen Schmitt 1963 " 'Vorgang' et 'Zustand' des formes passives et leurs rapports avec l'aspect du verbe en frangais moderne", In: Etudes romanes dediees a Andreas Blinkenberg (K0benhavn): 59-83. 1970 Subjonctifet Hypotaxe en Italien (Odense: Odense U.P.). Johansen, Svend 1949 "La notion de signe dans la glossematique et dans l'esthetique", Recherches structurales (K0benhavn) 288-303. 1950 "Glossematics and Logistics", AL 6: 17-30. Kjellmann, Hilding 1922 La deuxieme collection anglo-normande des miracles de la Sainte-Vierge et son original latin (Uppsala). 1922 Le troubabour Raimon-Jordan (Uppsala). 1935 La vie seint Edmund le rei (Uppsala). Klum, Arne 1961 Verbe et adverbe (Uppsala: Almqvist-Wiksell). Kraemer, Erik von 1950 Du clerc qui fame esponsa et puis la lessa (Helsinki). Laugesen, Anker, T. 1966 Middelalderlitteraturen, en orientering (K0benhavn: Gyldendal). L fstedt, E. 1911 Philologischer Kommentar zur Peregrinatio Aetheriae (Uppsala). [Reprint: Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1970.] L fstedt, Leena 1966 Les expressions du commandement et de leur survie dans les langues romanes (Helsinki). Lombard, Alf 1954 Le verbe roumain, 1-2 (Lund). L nning, Per 1958 Tro og tanke efter Blaise Pascal (Oslo: Forlaget Land og Kirke). Lozovan, Eugen 1957 "Byzance et la romanite scytique", RER 1957-58: 218-46. 1962 "Villes, campagnes et routes de la Romania Orientale", in Altheim: Geschichte der Hunnen (Berlin: de Gruyter)2:327-362. [See alsoZRPh 73 (1957): 124-44, RIO9 (1957): 213-226.] Maegaard, Bente - H. Prebensen - C. Vikner 1975 Matematik og lingvistik (Odense: Odense U.P.). Maegaard, Bente - E. Spang-Hanssen 1978 La segmentation automatique dufra^ais ecrit (Paris: Documents de linguistique quantitative 35). Maler, Bertil 1964 Orto do Esposo. Texto inedito do Firn do Seculo XIV ou comengo do XV. Vol. I: Texto critico, Vol. II: Comentario. Rio de Janeiro 1956. Vol. III (Stockholm). Malmberg, Bertil 1940 Le roman du Comte de Poitiers (Lund). 1966 Les nouvelles tendances de la linguistique (Paris: P.U.F.).

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1973 Linguistique generate et romane (The Hague — Paris: Mouton). Melander, Johan 1916 Etudesur magis et les expressions adversatives dans les langues romanes (Uppsala). 1922 La chanson de geste Guibert d'Andrenas (Paris). 1930 Les poesies de Robert de Castel (vol. 3 of SNPh). Michaelson, Karl 1936 Etudes sur les norm de personne franqais d'apres les roles de taille parisiens (roles de 1292, 1296-1300, 1313). I. (Uppsala 1927). II. Lexique raisonne des noms de bapteme, -B (Uppsala). 1951 Le livre de la taille de Paris l'an de grace 1313 (Göteborg). Mördrup, Öle 1971 "Quelques observations sur comme" RRom 6: 203-218. 1976 Une analyse non-transformationnelle des adverbes en -ment. (K0benhavn: Akademisk Forlag). Nilsson-Ehle, Hans 1944 "Le conditionnel futur de passe et la periphrase devait + infinitif, SNPh 16: 50-88. 1947 Les propositions completives juxtaposees en Italien moderne (Lund: Gleerup). 1973 "Sur le conditionnel-temps en Italien", RRom 8: 178-184. Nöjgaard, Morten 1967 "Le röle de la negation dans les exclamations introduces". In: Actes du 4e congas des romanistes scandinaves: (Ktfbenhavn): 94-112. 1973 Elevation et expression. Trois essais sur la technique poetique des Fleurs du Mal (Odense). Norberg, Dag 1943 Syntaktische Forschungen auf dem Gebiete des Spätlateins und des Frühen Mittellateins (Uppsala). 1944 Beiträge zur spätlateinischen Syntax (Uppsala). Nordahl, Helge 1969 Les systemes du subjonctif correlatif (Oslo: Universitets-forlaget). 1970 "Le mode le plus fascinant qui soit", RRom 5: 106-119. 1972 "La pire riens qui soit c'est mal Famme", RRom 7: 285-296. Nurmela, Tauno 1937 Le sermon en vers de la chastee as nonains de Gautier de Coinci (Helsinki: These). 1947 Traductions en vers frangais du XIII' siede de iepitre de saint Jerome a Eustochium. (AASF). 1967 Giovanni Boccaccio, II Corbaccio, testo critico con introduzione e note. (AASF). Nykrog, Per 1957 Les Fabliaux (Köbenhavn: Munksgaard). 1965 La pensee de Balzac (Köbenhavn). Nyrop, Kristoffer 1899-1930 Grammaire historique de la langue frangaise, 6 volumes (Köbenhavn: Gyldendal). Olsen, Birger Munk 1977 Jean de Saint-Quentin: Dits en quatrains monorimes (Societe des Anciens Textes Fransais). Olsson, Kerstin 1976 La construction: verbe et objet direct et compliment predicatif en frangais (Stockholm). Olsson, Lars 1971 Etude sur l'emploi des temps dans les propositions introduites par QUAND et LORSQUE et dans les propositions qui les competent enfranqais contemporain (Uppsala).

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Pedersen, John 1974 Images et figures dans la poesie franqaise de l'äge baroque (K0benhavn: Akademisk Forlag). Prebensen, Henrik 1967 "Quelques reflexions sur le paradigme des pronoms interrogatifs-relatifs" In: Actes du 4 congres des romanistes scandinaves (K0benhavn): 113-128. 1967 "La glossematique est-elle une theorie?" Langages 6: 12-25. von Proschwitz, Gunnar 1956 Introduction a l'etude du vocabulaire de Beaumarchais (Stockholm: AlmqvistWiksell). 1964 "Drame. Esquisse de l'histoire du mot", SNPh 36: 9-50. Rasmussen, Jens 1958 La prose narrative frangaise du XV' siede (K0benhavn: Munksgaard). Ringenson, Karin 1926 "De et par comme expression du rapport d'agent en frangais moderne", NphM 27: 76-94. Rokseth, Peter 1928 Denfranske tragedie l (Oslo). 1953 Etterlate skrifter (Oslo: Aschehoug). Ronsjö Einar 1967 "Le mode du verbe dans les propositions introduites par l'idee que, lapensee que", MSpräk 61: 19-36. 1942 La vie de saint Nicolas par Wace (Lund). 1966 "Le mode du verbe dans les propositions completives introduites par lefait que", MSpräk 60: 305-319. Sandfeld, Kristian 1900 Rumaenske studier (Copenhagen). 1928 Syntaxe du Fra^ais contemporain. I. Les pronoms (Paris: Champion). II. Les propositions subordonnies (Geneve: Droz 1936). III. L'infinitif (K0benhavnParis 1943). [Reprint 1965.] 1930 La linguistique balkanique (Paris). Sandfeld, Kristian - Hedvig Olsen 1936 Syntaxe roumaine I (Paris), vols II and III (K0benhavn 1960, 1962). Sävborg, Torsten 1941 Etude sur le role de la preposition DE dans les expressions de Heu relatives (Uppsala). Schlyter, Börje 1941 La vie de Thomas Becket par Beneit (Lund: Gleerup). Skaarup, Poul 1975 Les premieres zones de la proposition en ancien frangais. Essai de syntaxe de position (K0benhavn: Akademisk Forlag). Sletsjöe, Leif 1959 Le d veloppement de L et N en ancien portugais (Oslo: Gyldendal). S0rensen, Hans 1944 La poesie de Paul Valery (K0benhavn). Spang-Hanssen, Ebbe 1963 Les prepositions incolores du frangais moderne (K0benhavn: Gad), (Reprint 1973). 1971 "Le classement des formes de l'inversion du sujet en frangais moderne", RRom 6: 63-73. Spore, Falle 1972 La diphtongaison romane (Odense: Odense U.P.). Sten, Holger

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1944 "Les particularites de la langue portugaise" Travaux du cercle linguistique de Copenhague, 2. 1951 "Accusatif + infinitif et nominatif + infinitif", BF 12: 45-59. 1952 Les temps du verbefini (indicatif) enfrangais moderne (K0benhavn: Munksgaard). 1973 L'emploi des temps en portugais moderne (K0benhavn). Svenson, L.-O. 1959 Les parlers du Marais Vendeen, 2 volumes (Stockholm). Tilander, Gunnar 1923 Remarques sur le Roman de Renart (Göteborg: These). 1924 Lexique du Roman de Renart (Göteborg). 1953-71 Cynegetica 1-18 (Stockholm: Almqvist-Wiksell). Tilander, Gunnar et al. 1950-63 Leges Hispanicae MediiAevi. Vol l by Max Gorosch Vols. 2-9 by G. Tilander, Vol. 10 by Gustaf Holmer (Stockholm: Almqvist-Wiksell). Togeby, Knud 1951 Structure immanente de la langue frangaise (Copenhagen). Nouvelle odition (Paris: Larousse 1965). 1953 Mode, aspect et temps en espagnol (Del Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Historisk-filologiske Meddelelser 34). 1954 "La concordance des temps en fransais", SNPh 26: 143-156 [reprinted in Togeby 1968] 1957 La composition du roman "Don Quixote". Supplement to Orbis Litterarun (K0benhavn). 1965 "Grammaire, lexicologie et semantique", Chex 6: 3-7. [Reprinted in Togeby 1968]. 1965 Fransk grammatik (University of Copenhagen). 1968 Immanence et Structure. RRom, numero special 2 (K0benhavn). 1971 "Le mecanisme de l'inversion du sujet", RRom 6: 253-258. 1973 "La chose la plus dangereuse qui soit c'est la statistique", RRom 8: 400-405. Ulleland, Magnus 1967 "La piu bella donna ehe io abbia mai vista. L'uso dei modi nella relativa segnente en concetto superlative," In: Studi sul Boccaccio, 281-293. Väänänen, Veikko 1937 Le latin vulgaire des inscriptions pompeiennes (Helsinki). 1951 D'unefamede Laon qui estoitjugiea ardoir, queNostre Dame delivra (Helsinki). 1967 Introduction au latin vulgaire (Paris: Klincksieck). Välikangas, Olli 1972 "Le futur du pass6 en Italien contemporain". NphM 73: 545-554. Vikner, Carl 1973 "Quelques roflexions sur les phrases clivoes en frangais moderne", In: Actes du 5imt congres des romanistes scandinaves (Turku: Annales Universitatis Turkuensis): 221-235. 1978 "Les auxiliaires nogatifs: fonction et position". RRom 13: 88-107. Wahlberg, Emanuel 1900 Le Bestiaire de Ph. de Thaün (Lund-Paris). 1928 Deux versions intdites de la legende de antichrist en versfra^ais du XIII' siede (Lund). 1946 Contes pieux en vers du XIV' siede (Lund). Wahlberg, Emanuel - F. Wulff 1905 Les vers de la mort par Helinant. (Paris: Soc. des anc. textes).

4.4 Slavonic-speaking areas (and Hungary)

WITOLD MANCZAK

Romance studies in Eastern Europe

There are three countries, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland, which are here designated by the conventional name of Eastern Europe. The production in the field of Romance linguistics has not been great in these countries. Using the Linguistic Bibliography for the year 1968, ie. the last volume that was at my disposal, I found that the number of works published by Hungarian, Czechoslovak, and Polish Romanists constituted 2 per cent of all publications in the field of Romance linguistics in 1968. It is evident that since none of the Romance tongues is used as a native language in the countries of Eastern Europe, interest in these tongues cannot be considerable. However, Eastern Europe, in juxtaposition with other non-Romance countries in which Romance philology is cultivated, does not compare favorably either. The number of works published by Polish, Czechoslovak, and Hungarian Romanists in 1968 constituted 5 per cent of the publications printed by Romanists from non-Romance countries in that year, whereas the population of Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary formed at that time 7.5 per cent of the population of the United States, Canada, the Soviet Union, and other non-Romance European countries taken together. There is a simple explanation for the fact that the number of printed works in Romance linguistics in Eastern Europe is lower than the average typical of the non-Romance countries in which Romance philology is cultivated: in the countries of Eastern Europe, the university libraries are not as well supplied with works on Romance philology. In the same manner it can be explained why fewer works on Romance philology are published in Poland than in Czechoslovakia and Hungary. Polish libraries (among other reasons, because of the events of World War II) are worse supplied with publications connected with Romance philology than Hungarian and Czechoslovak libraries, which are again worse supplied than Swedish or American ones.

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The retreat from historical investigations is a characteristic feature of the postwar period, as contrasted with the period before World War II in all branches of linguistics, including Romance linguistics. The change of interests was so violent in some countries that it led certain universities to liquidate the study of historical grammar. In this respect the countries of Eastern Europe are characterized by the fact that the retreat from diachronic investigations has never been so strong, — e.g. the teaching of historical grammar has nowhere been stopped. And this is reasonable. It is necessary to realize that the difference between synchrony and diachrony is not (despite Saussure's view) of qualitative but of quantitative character. The historical grammar is nothing else but the sum of several descriptive grammars. If we say that (1) Classical Latin had ten vowels: i, i, e, e, a, , o, , u, , (2) Vulgar Latin had seven vowels: i, e, ς, α, ρ, ο, Μ, (3) Spanish has five vowels: i, e, a, o, u, we face three synchronic statements. However, if these statements are joined together: o

o

u

u

u u

we shall get one statement of a diachronic character. Similarly, if we find that (1) vetulus Old' existed in Classical Latin, (2) veclus in Vulgar Latin, (3) vielz in Old French, (4) vieux in Modern French, we shall face four descriptive statements, but it is enough to join them (vetulus > veclus > vielz > vieux) to obtain one statement of a historical character. Consequently, one who knows not only the descriptive grammar, but also the historical grammar of a language has not a superficial but a thorough knowledge of the given language. To know the historical grammar of French from the Serments de Strasbourg to modern times is the same as to know twelve descriptive grammars, namely the grammar of the language from the ninth, tenth, eleventh, etc. to the twentieth centuries. It should be emphasized that the displacement of diachronic grammar, that we often witness in the postwar period, is not justified even from a utilitarian point of view. In any language we frequently come up against facts that the descriptive grammar fails to embrace in formulas, whereas they are explained in a very simple manner by historical grammar. For instance, the sound [ε] is noted in French differently, among others, as e and e (leve 'raises' and tete 'head'). From the descriptive point of view the

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distribution of e and e is incidental, while from the historical point of view the use of accent circonflexe may be explained by a simple rule: this diacritic is usually used in the cases of disappearance of s: testam > tete, Hospitale > hotel, etc. Similarly, a number of phenomena may only be explained historically, e.g. the fact that the sound [s] is spelled either as in sei 'salt' or as in del 'sky1; the reason for the occurrence of liaison after est 'is' but never after et 'and' (// est ä moi but et a moi); in which words h is treated as the so called h aspiree and in which words it is not (la haie 'the hedge' but herbe 'the grass'); in which Italian words e, are pronounced as closed and in which as open vowels (verde 'green' but terra 'earth', noi 'we' but nostro Our'); in which verbs ending in -ere the suffix is stressed and in which it is not (dovere 'must' but prendere 'take'); why we say figliolo 'nephew' but popolo 'people'; some adverbs are of the type malheureusement 'unfortunately' and others of the type intelligemment 'intelligently', and so on. These are the reasons why it is commendable that research in historical linguistics is better appreciated in Eastern Europe, than in some other countries. The Romance studies cultivated in Eastern Europe have yet another feature, namely they are less differentiated than in other places. There exist certain fields of studies that have never or almost never evoked any interest in Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary, e.g. dialectology, onomastics, or the edition of old texts. This is the result of relatively infrequent trips to the Romance countries, and thus difficult access to archives and little contact with the population speaking Romance dialects. Before I proceed to a detailed survey of works published in Eastern Europe I would like to emphasize that it has been possible to enumerate only a part of the works in order to give a general idea of Romanists' interest in Eastern Europe since World War II. Obviously, the choice has not been an easy one. It is beyond doubt that if ten specialists were asked to choose a certain number of the most important works printed in Eastern Europe, it would be impossible to find even two among them who would select the same publications. In order to cope with the selection, the following principle (which can evidently be questioned) has been accepted: investigations in the fields of linguistics that have been neglected are reported in a more precise manner (e.g. Vulgar Latin), whereas research in the domains that, as a matter of course, draw the attention of many scholars are treated more superficially (e.g. French). As far as works dealing with Romance linguistics in general are concerned, several introductions to the comparative grammar of the Romance languages should above all be mentioned (Tamäs 1969;

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Skultety-Hampejs 1959; Sabrsula - Smrckova - Uhlif - Hampejs 1962; Duchäcek 1957a). Apart from these, Kfepinsky has been concerned with different early phonetic changes (1951, 1965, 1968), with certain words (1958a, 1960a), and with the expression of the Latin prohibitive in the Romance languages (1961). Sabrsula's articles have dealt with the verbal aspect (1965), with the history of Lat.familia 'family' (1960), and with the lexical differentiation of the Romance languages (1966a). Osträ (1966a, 1967) has devoted her articles to the semantic fields. Manczak has occupied himself with irregular phonetic development caused by frequency (1969) and with the classification of the Romance languages (1961). Kvapil (1965) has dealt with versification, Kuryiowicz (1965a) with the Romance suffixes -iccus, -ittus, etc., Dubsky (1950) with the passive voice, Skultety (1958) with prepositions, BeneS (1966) with the indefinite subject, Uhlif and Vlasäk (1959) with the statistics of the words of Latin origin in the Romance languages, Duchäcek (1957b) with the semantic system, Widiak (1965) with the problem of taboo and euphemism, and Poläk (1955) with the substratum. As far as the origin of the Romance languages goes, the following books should first of all be enumerated: Herman's (1967a) textbook of Vulgar Latin, Kfepinsky's (1958b) study dealing with the chronology of the development of the Romance languages, Herman's (1963a) work on the conjunctions, and Kiss's (1971) publication on the syllable in Late Latin. Moreover, the following articles should be named: Herman's on the adverbs of time (1963b) and on Latin of the Adriatic coast (1971), Lewicki's (1951) on the Romance onomastic material from North Africa in the Arabian sources, and Manczak's (1974) on the origin of the Romance languages. As far as research in the individual Romance languages is concerned, French holds the first position, as it is the tongue that has been best known in Eastern Europe for the longest time. As far as the book-length editions go, stylistics has been the most popular subject matter (SabrSula 1970-1972; Gäldi 1967; Lewicka 1960-1968; Brandwajn 1952; Morawska 1955,1964), whereas there was a lesser interest in syntax (Kelemen 1968; Dqmbska-Prokop 1965, 1969), in semantics (Duchäcek 1960, 1967), in contrastive grammar (SabrSula 1966b; Kielski 1957), and in the evolution of the language (Herman 1967b; Duchäcek 1968; Manczak 1973). On the other hand, topics of the articles have been more differentiated. To begin with phonetics, Duchäöek was interested in the French phonemic system (1965) and in the evolution of a (1958); HofejSi, in the problems of the phonetic development in French (1956, 1958) and in liaison in the mod-

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ern language (1955); Kfepinsky (1946a, 1960b), in the chronology of phonetic changes; Zichovä, in the pronunciation of the final voiced consonants (1966) and in the quantity of vowels (1967); Bärczi (1962), in the phonetic decay of s, Dvorak (1945a), in the change of -rv- into -rb-; Häla (1945), in present-day palatalization of velars; Hofinek (1959), in rhythmic groups; Kuryiowicz (1945), in the change of accentuation in the sixteenth century; and Uhlif, in the general phonological development of French. Besides, several articles were produced on spelling, namely by HofejSi (1962a, 1964a), concerned with the analysis of French orthography, by Buben (1965), dealing with the reform of orthography, and by Dubsky (1966), treating the problem of graphic redundancy. The following articles should be enumerated in the field of word formation: Lewicka's on compounds (1962, 1963, 1965a) and on a structural history of French word formation (1968); Duchäcek's (1950) on the suffix -erie, Gawetko's (1970, 1972) on the analysis of adjectives; Lozinska's (1964) on the adverbs ending in -merit; Przestaszewski's (1969) on certain suffixes in the Middle Ages; and Vlasäk's (1966) on the classification of some complex words. As far as inflection goes, two articles should be mentioned: HorejsTs (1965a) on the classification of verbs, and Kielski's (1948) on the ending -ons. Syntax has evoked a considerably greater interest among Eastern European linguists. Thus Bakos (1955, 1971) dealt with the usage of tu and vous in Old French; Dvorak, with the definite article in Old French (1945b), as well as with the negative adverbs and pronouns (1959); BeneS (1969), with the origin of the uses of Fr. on; Dubsky (1958a), with the application of the pronominal attribute; Duchäöek (1945), with the reduplication of words; Lewicka (1965b), with the former use of accusative in the function of genitive; Zima (1956), with the reinforcement of the negation. The use of tenses and moods was considered by Bednaf (19451946a, b), Kelemen (1971), Stavinohovä (1966, 1969), Sestäk (19471948, 1949-1950), Lebek (1965), Manczak (1970), Szabics (1973a), and Zawadowski (1967). The following scholars have written about verbal aspect: Sabrsula (1959, 1961a, 1963, 1969), Dubsky (1957, 1961), Duchäcek (1966), and Plachy (1961). Da.mbska-Prokop (1968) occupied herself with the length of the sentence, and the Fonagys (1969) were interested in word order. Lexicology became the subject matter of articles written by Duchäcek (1946-1947,1956,1964), Tichy (1957,1958), Gniadek (1971), Kfepinsky (1946b), Lewicka (1965c), Polivkovä (1952), and Sieczkowski (1952). As far as onomastics is concerned, Czerny (1958) devoted a good deal of

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attention to toponyms, Sekvent (1966) to Christian names, and Szabics (1969) to a surname. The following articles are devoted to stylistics: Sabrsula (1967) wrote about the stylistic use of negation; Szabics (1973b) about Charroi de Nimes; Gäldi (1964a) about Mussel's language; Kelemen (1964) about Camus's language; Ochman (1970) and Dajnbska-Prokop (1960) about Daudet's language. Finally, Gniadek (1955) paid particular attention to the history of linguistics in France, and J. Bartos (1968) as well as Klaus (1956) focused their attention on language culture. Apart from French, Rumanian aroused a great interest, mostly because of the geographic vicinity. First of all two books should be mentioned: Tamäs's (1966) great etymological and historical dictionary of the Hungarian elements in Rumanian as well as in its dialects and Gäldi's (1964b) work on Eminescu's style. Rumanian is characterized by the fact that it has been influenced by foreign languages to a greater extent than any other Romance language. In such a state of affairs it is not surprising that most articles have been devoted to the problem of contacts between Rumanian and other languages. The contacts between Rumanian and Slavic languages were discussed by Kfepinsky (1948, 1952, 1966, 1967), Wittoch (1946, 1948, 1968), BeneS (1958), Budziszewska (1968), Gäldi (1966), Gogolewski (1967), Gostynski (1953), Herman (1962), Smrckova (1966), Sabrsula (1966c), Tamäs (1958a), and Weinsberg (1967a); the Hungarian contributions to Rumanian were shown by Gäldi (1947a, b, c); besides, Gäldi (1948,1965a) presented the influences of Greek, Poläk (1958) of Albanian, Weinsberg (1967b) of French, and Tamäs (1959) of German. Questions of Rumanian phonetics were discussed by BeneS (1968), Kfepinsky (1962), Smrckova (1960), and Tamäs (1956). As far as word formation goes, Benes (1962) dealt with some prefixes and Mirska (1959) with certain compounds. As to inflection, HofejSi (1962b, 1964b, c, 1965b) was concerned with declension and Felix (1965a, b) with conjugation. • Some syntactic problems have been presented by Benes (1960,1965a), Herczeg (1949, 1952), and Hofejsi (1960). Two articles by Gäldi (1960, 1965b) were devoted to stylistics. Tamäs played the greatest role in lexicology; in addition, the contributions of Wittoch (1958,1960,1962), Benes (1952), and Osträ (1966b) may be mentioned. Dialectology was the concern of Goiqb (1961), who concerned himself with the Arumanian dialect, while Gäldi (1952), Tamäs (1958b), and Skultety (1957) were concerned with other problems of dialectology. Truszkowski (1963,1965,

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1966) focused his attention on place names, whereas Gäldi (1963) and Wittoch (1966) wrote about some river names. The problem of the origin of the Rumanian literary language was discussed by Tamäs (1960) and by Smrckovä (1963), who was also concerned with the dating of the oldest Rumanian texts (1967, 1968). Finally, Bakos (1962) presented the problems connected with the edition of the 18th century Transylvanian texts. Italian and Spanish ex aequo are found in the next place of popularity in Eastern Europe. Books on Italian linguistics deal mainly with stylistics (Gäldi 1968, 1971; Herczeg 1963a, 1967a), while one is concerned with the history of the language (Fogarasi 1963-1964), and one with vocabulary (Widtak 1970). Similarly, most articles deal with stylistics. From among the numerous articles by Herczeg, I would like to mention the ones devoted to the structure of the period (1965a, 1967b, 1968), to properties of Boccaccio's (1948, 1965b) and Fucini's language (1950), as well as to inversion (1955). On the other hand Fogarasi (1970) is concerned with Machiavelli's language, Benedek (1966), with Manzoni's language, and Eder (1967), with the frequency of verbal forms in a screen play. Moreover, Herczeg has written a number of articles about syntax, among others, about subordinate clauses (1953,1959,1961,1962,1963b, 1964), about the infinitive (1960, 1965c), about apposition (1957), and about the definite article (1972). Svoboda's (1957-1958) article also deals with syntax, whereas Krämsky (1964) and Manczak (1967) are concerned with phonetics, Gniadek (1959), with word formation, and Ondräcek (1965) as well as Sabrsula (1961b), with inflectional categories. Finally, Herczeg's (1963c) article on nomi parlanti in Decameron may be considered as a publication in the field of onomastics. Proceeding to Spanish, the following separate publications may be named: outlines of the history of Spanish (Fogarasi 1964; Dubsky 1958b) as well as a sketch on the present and the future of Spanish in America (L. Bartos 1971). Spanish is characterized by the fact that it is used in extensive territories outside Spain. Therefore many articles present features of the tongue spoken outside the metropolis. Thus peculiarities of the language as used in Cuba are discussed by L. BartoS (1964, 1965, 1967), Tichy (1965-1966), and Smificky (1966); of that of Venezuela by L. Bartos (1961); of Chile by Pavlikovä (1964); and of Latin America in general by L. Bartos (1969a, b) and Smificky (1965-1966). As far as phonetics is concerned, L. Bartos's articles (1960, 1966) may be mentioned, while Hampejs' contribution (1956a) deals with spelling and Sulhan's (1969), with word formation. The problems of inflection are

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discussed in articles by Cerny (1969), Dubsky (1964), Kurytowicz (1965b), Manczak (1963), and Tomsovä (196&-1969). Syntax became the principal point of interest of the following linguists: Skultety (1963,1964,1966a, b), who concentrated mostly on the circumstantial complement; Dubsky (1956,1960,1965-1966), among others, on inversion; Plachy (1957,1959,1962), among others, on the use of tenses; Spitzovä (1966) on syntactic fields; Hamplovä (1969) on verbal periphrasis; Sulhan (1966) on prepositional phrases; and Tichy (1959) on word order. While only one article is devoted to stylistics (Dubsky 1947-1948), more articles have appeared on lexicology (Dubsky 1964-1965, 1965; Lenghardt 1969). Finally, it is possible to point out an article on onomastics, namely one dealing with anthroponyms in Cuba (BartuSek 1966). Interest in other Romance languages has been much less intense. As far as Portuguese is concerned, Hampejs' name should above all be mentioned. He has focused his attention on features of Brazilian Portuguese (1958, 1961a, 1967) and on the inflected infinitive (1959, 19591960, 1961b). Hampl (1964, 1965a, b) has also paid a good deal of attention to the tongue spoken in Brazil. In addition, both Skultety (1969) and Benes" (1965b) wrote about Portuguese. As far as Provengal is concerned, SabrSula (1962) was interested in the verb, Poläk (1951), in the influence of Basque on Provencal, Manczak (1964), in numerals, Lewicka (1971), in the language of the old theater, and Gniadek (1960), in the vocabulary of Mireio. Hampejs (1956b) wrote on RhaetoRomance, Manczak (1958) on Catalan, Lyer (1957) on the lingua franca, and Gäldi (1959) on Creole languages. It seems to be difficult to answer any question connected with the prospects for development of Romance linguistics in Eastern Europe. It is much easier to be a historian or a chronicler than a prophet. Anyway, one thing cannot be subject to doubt: the future development will mostly depend on the supply of publications on Romance linguistics in Eastern European libraries. Since this set of volumes includes separate chapters on linguistic schools of thought active in Romance linguistics such as functionalism, psychosystematique, idealism, transformational-generative grammar, and glossematics, it will not be out of place to mention that a new conception of linguistics, which so far has no special name, is beginning to be formed in Poland. It consists in explaining different language phenomena by reference to frequency. This new approach is by no means identical with so-called mathematical linguistics, which makes use of a very sophisticated apparatus of notion. Unlike mathematical linguistics,

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this new approach is limited to the consideration of only very simple things: often it only consists in distinguishing between more and less frequent facts. Using the notion of frequency it is possible to solve old problems in a new manner. Since frequency is typical of any language element it is obvious that the new conception may be applied to the solution of different problems. Thus a few specific examples follow: (1) Descriptive grammar. In any language we have to do not only with symmetry but also with asymmetry, e.g. in French the feminine of pere 'father' is mere 'mother', that of chanleur 'singer' is chanteuse, and there is no feminine of temoin 'witness'. Traditional grammar was only able to state this kind of asymmetry, whereas the following law allows for the explanation of this phenomenon: the more a language element is used, the more it is usually differentiated. Thus nouns of the highest frequency (pere — mere, frere 'brother' — soeur 'sister') show a maximum of differentiation, nouns of lower frequency (chanteur — chanteuse, acteur 'actor' — actrice 'actress') are less differentiated, while nouns that are seldom used (temoin) are not at all differentiated. The same is true for the names of animals, cf. etalon 'stallion' —jument 'mare', tigre 'tiger' — tigresse 'tigress', hippopotame 'hippopotamus'. (2) Historical grammar. In any text, nearly every third word is characterized by an irregular phonetic development. Traditional grammar explains these irregularities in various ways, e.g. the development of de > de Of is interpreted differently from monseigneur > monsieur 'gentleman' ; in another way cantäre habebat > chanterait 'would sing', and in yet another manner cantävit > chanta 'sang', while the theory of the irregular phonetic development caused by frequency reduces all these cases to a common denominator. (3) Comparative grammar. Since the fifteenth century there has existed the conviction that the Romance languages originated from a nonClassical Latin which is usually called Vulgar Latin. However, a number of arguments (among others the theory of irregular phonetic development caused by frequency) support the idea that the Romance languages originated from Classical Latin. (4) Linguistic geography. Bartoli's theory of lateral areas is subject to some modification if the frequency of occurrence in different areas is taken into consideration. (5) The classification of languages. All former classifications of the Romance languages shared one common feature, namely none of them considered the frequency of the features that constituted classification

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criteria. In order to take this into account it is necessary to compare not isolated language features but parallel texts. Different features show different frequency in the texts. If this is taken into consideration the relationships between the Romance languages appear in a different light from what the previous classifications have suggested. Evidently, it is hard to foresee the future of this new approach to linguistics but it is worth stressing that the conclusions obtained by this method have the advantage of being verifiable statistically. References Bakos, Ferenc 1955

"Contributions ä l'etude des formules de politesse en ancien francais. I. Tu et vous en ancien fransais", ALH 5: 295-367. 1962 "Problemele publicärii §i prelucrärii citorva texte ardelene din secolul al XVIIIlea", Melanges Petrovid (Bucure§ti: Ed. de l'Acad. de la RPR): 65-70. 1971 "L'emploi, la repetition et l'omission du terme d'adresse en ancien frangais", ACILR 12: 803-809. Barczi, Geza 1962 "Les mots d'emprunt vieux-frangais en hongrois et l'histoire de l'amu'issement des 5 preconsonantiques et finals du frangais", Melanges Petrovid (Bucure§ti: id. de l'Acad. de la RPR): 71-79. Bartos, Jozef 1968 " jazykovej kulture vo Francuzsku", KS 2: 295-298. BartoS, Lubomir 1960 "Zvukovy obraz SpanolStiny ve srovnäni s ceStinou na podkladS fonomovych Statistik", SFFBU 9 (AS): 123-132. 1961 "Observaciones sobre algunas realizaciones foneticas en el espanol venezolano", SFFBU 10 (A9): 165-172. 1964 "Notas al problema de la comprension del habla cubana", ZPhon 17: 133-136. 1965 "Notas al problema de la pronunciation del espanol en Cuba", SFFBU 14 (A13): 143-149. 1966 "Apuntes al problema de la norma ortoepica en el espanol", SFFBU 15 (A14): 117-126. 1967 "La realization de los grafemas b y v en el espanol actual con respecto a la modalidad cubana", IAP 1: 55-66. 1969a "^Homogeneidad o heterogeneidad del espanol americano?", SFFBU 18: 131139. 1969b "Actitud del hispanohablante hacia la lengua — un factor de evolution del espanol en America", ERB 4: 211-219. 1971 El presente y el porvenir del espanol en America (Brno: Univ. J. E. Purkyne). Bartüäek, Josef 1966 "Osobni jmena na souöasne Kube", Onomasticke prace . . . k sedmdesatym narozeninam . . . Smilauera (Praha: Mistopisnä komise CSAV): 5-21. Bednäf, Tobie 1945-46a "Pravidla o uziväni subjonctivnich casü a imparfait du subjonctif', CMF29: 67-71. 1945-46b "Imparfait du subjonctif ve zävislo na praesentu neb na futuru ridiciho slovesa", CMF29: 135-139. Benedek, Nandor 1966 "A 'Promessi Sposi' nyelve", Acta Romanica et Germanica 1: 15-42.

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Pavel "K vyznamu a etymologii rumunskeho slovesa a se o/ärf, SFFBU 1: 166-168. "Origine slave du verbe roumain a chiti", SFFBU 1 (A): 107-110. "Etude sur la position de l'epithete en roumain", SFFBU 9: 94-110. "Prefixes de negation en roumain". Melanges Petrovici (Bucure§ti: Ed. de l'Acad. de la RPR): 89-95. 1965a "Le pronom on en fransais et ses equivalents en roumain", ERB l: 171-189. 1965b "Sur le sujet indetermine en portugais", Omagiu Rosetti (Bucure§ti: Ed. Acad. RSR): 47-52. 1966 "Quelques remarques sur l'expression du sujet indetermine", ERB 2: 51-77. 1968 "Sur un deplacement interessant de l'accent (roum. popor)", RRLing 13: 357359. 1969 "L'origine des emplois de on est-elle latine?", SFFBU 18: 117-123. Brandwajn, Rachmiel 1952 La langue et l'esthetique de Proudhon (Wroclaw: Wroct. Tow. Nauk.). Buben, Vladimir 1956 "Boj pravopisnou reformu ve Francii", CMF 38: 238-242. Budziszewska, Wanda 1968 "Zwi^zki butgarsko-rumunskie przy zapozyczeniach z jezyka greckiego", Zpolskich studiow slawistycznych (Warszawa: Panstw. Wyd. Nauk.): 295-302. Cerny, Jiff 1969 "Sobre la asimetria de las categorias del tiempo y del aspecto en el verbo espanol", PHP 12: 83-93. Czerny, Zygmunt 1958 "Toponomastyka Francji a dzieto A. Vincenta La toponymie de la France", Onomastica 4: 429-451. Da.mbska-Prokop, Urszula 1960 "Transpozycja osoby w mowie pozornie zaleznej w prozie A. Daudeta", ZNUJ 24 (Filologia 6): 293-297. 1965 L'expression syntaxique des notions de cause et de consequence dans les "Chroniques" de Jean Molinet (Krakow: Panstw. Wyd. Nauk.). 1968 "Longueur de la phrase et de la proposition dans la prose de Robbe-Grillet", KNf 15: 391-398. 1969 Quelques propositions d'analyse syntaxique du franqais contemporain. En application aux romans d'Alain Robbe-Grillet (Wroclaw: Ossolineum). Dubsky, Josef 1947-48 "Substantivni sloh ve spanelstine", CMF 31: 201-220. 1950 "O pasivnich vazbäch v romänskych jazycich", CMF 34: 74-77. 1956 "La periphrase dar + nom en espagnol", SFFBU 5 (A4): 77-80. 1957 "Attenuation de la valeur aspectuelle de la periphrase du verbe venir de suivi de I'infinitif, SFFBU ( 5): 101-104. 1958a "L'attribut pronominal dans Pappel et l'exclamation", PhP 1: 57-60. 1958b Uvod do Spanllskeho jazyka (Praha: Stätni pedag. naklad.). 1960 "L'inversion en espagnol", SFFBU 9 (A8): 111-122. 1961 "L'aspect du verbe et l'action verbale en fransais et en espagnol", SFFBU 10 (A9): 157-164. 1964 "L'opposition verbo-nominale en espagnol", PhP 7: 158-167. 1964-65 "K frekvencnimu razboru potencialniho lexika odborneho jazyka (Na zäkladö Spanolskeho materiälu)", C/5 8: 385-389. 1965 "Enmiendas y adiciones a los diccionarios de la Academia aprobadas por la Corporacion (enero-junio de 1965)", BAE 45: 41-64. 1965-66 "K nokterym formäm votne vystavby ve Spanolätinö", CJ$ 9: 49-52. 1966 "A propos d'un cas de redundance graphique", FM 34: 120-122.

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Duchäcek, Otto 1945 "O zdvojoväni slov", CMF 29: 236-240. 1946-47 "Atrakce", CMF 30: 216-224. _ 1950 "O pejorativnosti pfipony -erie", CMF 34: 145-151. 1956 "K zobecnoväni odbornych slov ve francouz§tin£", SFFBU 5 (A4): 66-76. 1957a Uvedeni do romanskeho jazykozpytu (Praha: Stätni pedag. naklad.). 1957b "K otäzce systemu ve vyznamoslovi se zvläStnim zfetelem k romanistickemu materiälu", SFFBU A5, 105-117. 1958 "Revolution de accentue libre en frangais", RLiR 22: 76-80. 1960 Le champ conceptuel de la beaute en frangais moderne (Praha: Stätni pedag. naklad.). 1964 "Differents types de synonymes", Orbis 13: 35-49. 1965 Precis de phonologie franqaise (Brno: Univ. J. E. Purkyni). 1966 "Sur le probleme de l'aspect et du caractere de Faction verbale en frangais", FM 34: 161-184. 1967 Precis de semantiquefranrule relating to the norm. Norm rules will apply to listed, exceptional words. As for invariants, the two languages are very close. Skrelina (1970) studies the morphological evolution of the French verb, advancing the idea that the formation of the compound tenses may be externally explained through strata and internally through the economy of the system. Her thesis is that French is not a continuation of Latin, but the speech form of a people influenced by Romance, Germanic and, to a lesser extent, Celtic, leading to great simplification of forms and use of periphrastic turns of phrase. This was connected with the 'law of the least effort' and a desire for more expressive power. The whole is seen as a creolization process. The morphologization of a construction is conditioned by the semantic value of the auxiliary (estre, aveir being very abstract and semantically very general) and the grammatical value of the auxiliated word (the past participle, for example, being very concrete and semantically narrow (= result)). The past participle contrasts semantically with the present participle, gerund and infinitive (all with a process nuance). An analytic construction requires a very abstract and also an equally concrete component. The form estpassanz is not seen as opposed to the simple present. Also, aler brochant, etc. does not survive since aler may be replaced by other verbs (i.e., it has full lexical and syntactic autonomy). In syntax, Luxt (1962; reviewed by Berea (1967)) studies the relationship between the participial and 'reflexive' passives of Rumanian, seeing the latter as not correlated with the active voice, but as an agentless syntactic synonym of the participial passive. It is subject to certain restraints: third person only, no agent, and the passive meaning depending on the semantics of the verb. Ciobanu (1973) identifies sixty-four semi-copulae in Moldavian, dividing them into fifteen classes (becoming, staying, naming, etc.). In his contrastive study of French and Russian, Gak (1975) pays some attention to the syntactic and logico-communicative levels, contrasting particularly dialogue speech. French, still an analytic language, hesitates

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to omit the predicate: Oii tu vas, Antoine?'; but Russian: "Ty kuda, Antuan?\ Also, French uses interjections: "Ah! C'esi vous, Serguei?'; where Russian uses particles (of consequence, denial, etc.): Τα/c eto vy i est', Sergej?'. Bally's modus (the speaker's attitude to what he is saying) is seen as the most important element in dialogue and the role of context is singled out as a central syntactic problem. Budagov (1973) writes in the same vein, stressing the inseparability of lexicology, semantics, and syntax. Is subordination linked to the use of the subjunctive?: Italian: Credo ehe sia vero, but Spanish: Creo que es verdad and French: Je crois que c'est vrai. If subjunctive use depends on the main-clause verb ('supposing', 'thinking', etc.), the subordination is lexical; if not, then it is syntactic. Meaning is seen as occupying a central position in syntax, with the core meaning of syntax being 'the problem of models and their syntactic content ('filling'), and as well the problem of the breaking-down of these models into more particular varieties and variants' (p. 15). Arutjunova (1971) adopts a semantic approach to syntax, seeing the whole utterance as the 'full linguistic sign (seme)'. Are the subject and object to be opposed as such? From the communicative point of view the subject is often the theme, the object the rheme; so the object, as such, has no independent role in the sentence. In a study of syntactic constructions in French without link-words, Sor (1970) perceives them as characteristic of scientific works (where the competent reader may supply any assumed information). The primary aim is to demonstrate the rise of synthetic structures, and to show that this is a general phenomenon, not stemming from English (or Italian). A connection is drawn with the pre-posing of normally post-posed adjectives, and the whole tendency is seen as stylistically and expressively enriching the language. For lexicology, one may take Akulenko's (1972) study of the internationalization of the lexical component of languages. This is a work of considerable importance. Words and affixes, mostly from Latin and Greek, are discussed, and the concept of multiple etymology (words both borrowed from elsewhere, and created by internal means) is developed. The work is tightly organized and possesses a rich bibliography. As Farca§ (1973) notes in his review, Akulenko does not study internationalisms in isolation, but as a form of manifestation of objectively existing phenomena, which appear in conditions of linguistic contacts and confrontation. Budagov's (1971a) work on the history of words in the history of

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society is a historical and comparative semasiological study. He is working towards laws of the semantic structure of words, how meanings differentiate in connection with the differentiation of concepts, how words lose their semantic nuances as they become key words in their epoch, and on the structure of conceptual fields (see also Borodina-Gak 1974). In semantics, one may single out Gak's (1966) comparative analysis of semantic structure, concentrating on the semantic classification of words, the internal analysis of separate lexico-syntactic groups, and the study of the semantic structure of the independent word or group of words in one lexico-semantic group. He compares French sentences using arriver with Russian renderings: Voila, on arrive — Nu vot iprisli', Nous arrivämes a la venta — My pod'exali k vente; Voila qu'arrive la voiture du colonel— Vot podkatyvaet koljaska polkovnika. Here the three different Russian verbs share a semantic component with the single French verb. The Russian verbs denote 'direction of movement' and 'means of movement'. In the pair: J'ai ete trop jeune quand j'ai quitte Paris — Ja byla sovsem malen'kaja, kogda menja uvezli iz Pariza, we have also 'independent/dependent movement'. These nuances are expressed formally by changes of root morpheme or by various affixes. The 'independent movement' verbs are mainly intransitive (idti, aller). Within 'direction of movement' there may be one direction (idti, aller), more than one direction (xodit', aller), or no direction (xodit', marcher). 'Means of movement' is seen as a multilayered series of aspects and sub-categories, with some coincidences between Russian and French: tec'/couler, bezat'/courir. But idti/exat' are neutralized in French aller, and Russian has no verb corresponding to chevaucher. Gak demonstrates also an intensive nuance: miat'sja s'elancer, se precipiter, and denotation of the stylistic character of the movement: probrat's ja 'get through', sarkat' 'shuffle'. Directional verbs are seen as present in more detail (more variety of root morphemes) in French, and for 'means of movement' Russian is more differentiated. French denotes motion rather than means of motion. The greater development in French of 'directional movement' than 'means of movement' verbs reflects the tendency of French to use connecting signs rather than content. The stylistic character of movement is rarely conveyed in French: [. . .] sournoisement revint occuper sa place [. . .] ispodtiska prokralas' k nemu ('[. . .] steathily stole up to him'). Mention may be made of Referovskaja 1972 (reviewed by Skrelina 1974; short piece also in Budagov et al. 1976: 74-79). In this study of French in Canada, she notes that there is no social or dialectal differentia-

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tion, and that the spoken language of Canadian French is connected with the literary language of the time of importation, and with the dialects of French. Most archaisms are from dialects of central and north-west France: rester 'live, reside' (Normandy, Lorraine) (pp. 92-94). Other forms mentioned arej'avonsje vas[. . .], quant et = avec/en meme temps (archaic), d'abord que = puisque (archaic), etre apres + infinitive = etre en train de + infinitive. It is a most useful contribution to French, Romance, and areal linguistics. Finally, Petrova - Piotrovskij (1966) demonstrate that most statistical data, characterizing the structure of words and determining the influence on them of lexico-grammatical context, coincide in French and Russian. Divergence occurs only where information is conveyed by inflectional endings. They note that, in the analytic French language, the part of inflectional morphemes in the text is about twice as great as the informational load of the grammatical endings and affixes of Russian. Their explanation for this is that French has a larger number of inflectional verb forms, and that support words often play a great role in conveying grammatical information (they may themselves have inflection: le, la, les). So they believe that subsequent statistical and theoreticoinformational study will show to what extent generally accepted intuitive evaluations of analyticity and syntheticity of one or another language, correspond to reality. 5 Final remarks The preceding survey has inevitably been somewhat partial, subjective, and restricted by space and the non-availability of certain works. Some important works could not be discussed, and it is hoped that the space given them in the select bibliography will compensate for this. Certain very worthy scholars, too, have been omitted, in the certainty that mention of works in the references will reveal their contribution. My aim has been to show the type and scope of the Soviet contribution to Romance linguistics. Soviet scholars continue and maintain a distinguished tradition, producing varied, rigorously organized work rich in data. The framework is generally traditional and easily approachable, though certain scholars have been drawn towards more innovative approaches: for example, Piotrovskij in his movement from stylistics and historical and comparative morphology, to statistical and mathematical linguistics. Soviet research has probably made its most significant contribution in the area of linguistic typology and geography. It is hoped that this survey and the following very restricted list of

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references, the latter with translations where appropriate, will go some way towards opening Soviet contributions up to the mainstream of Romance linguistics work. As has been seen from Soviet work on classification of the Romance languages, information of considerable interest is to be found in the marginal areas. References Actele 1970-71 A ctele celui de-al XII-lea congres international de lingvisticä §ifilologie romanicä, 1-2 (Bucure§ti: Ed. Acad. RSR) [eds A. Rosetti, S. Reinheimer-Ripeanu. Included are the names and addresses, and articles, of numerous Soviet scholars, and of several publishing houses.] Akulenko, V. V. 1972 Voprosy internacionalizacii slovarnogo sostava jazyka [Questions of the Internationalization of the Lexical Component of Language] (Xar'kov: Izd. Xar'k. un-ta). [Reviews: Graur RRL (1973) 18.6: 571; Farcas, SCL (1974) 25.6: 634-637.] Alisova, T. B. 1971 Ocerki sintaksisa sovremennogo itaijanskogo jazyka [Outlines of the Syntax of Modern Italian) (Moskva: Izd. Mosk. un-ta). 1972 Strutture semantiche e sintattiche della proposizione semplice in italiano (Firenze: Sansoni). Arutjunova, N. D. 1970 'Las relaciones indirectas en la sintaxis espanola', Actele 1: 731-734. 1971 nominativnom aspekte predlozenija' [On the Nominative Aspect of the Sentence'] VJa 6: 63-73. Axmanova, O. S. - A. M. Avdukova 1978 Ob"ektivnost' suSoestvovanija morfologiceskix oppozicij' ['The Objectivity of the Existence of Morphological Oppositions] VJa 5: 66-71. Berejan, S. 1962 Contribu{ii la studiul infinitivului moldovenesc (Chisjnäu: §tiin{a). 1964 Kurs istoriceskoj grammatiki moldavskogo jazyka (Chisjnau [KiSinev]: Cartea moldoveneascä). 1970 Opoziiii stilistico-functionale intre unitaji lexicale sinonimice', Actele 1: 847-853. 1971 propos de la delimitation des unitis synonymiques dans un champ conceptuel', RRL 16.2: 129-134. 1973 Semanticeskaja ekvivalentnost' leksiieskix edinic [The Semantic Equivalence of Lexical Units] (Chi§inau [Kiainev]: §tiinja). [Review: §erban, CL (1975) 20.1: 102-103.] Borodina, M. A. 1958 'Sur le developpement du franco-provengal', RLR, 22: 81-91. 1961 Phonetique historique dufranfais. Avec elements de dialectologie. Manuel a I'usage del'enseignementsuperieur(Leningf&d; Editionsscholairesd'Etat du Ministere de ['instruction publique de la RSFSR). [Review: Gardette, RLR (1962) 26: 245 -246.] 1961-62 'Sur la notion de dialecte (d'apres les donnees des dialectes frangais)', Orbis: 281-292. 1963 'Le parier de Chabag', ÄLÄ, 27: 470-480. 1964 'La lecture des cartes de l'ALF et le tracement des isoglosses', Melanges de linguistique romane et dephilologie mediavale offerts a Maurice Delbouille (Gembloux: Duculot) 1: 93-98.

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Istortfeskajamorfologijafrancuzskogojazyka. Otsintezakanalizu [TheHistorical Morphology of French. From Synthesis to Analysis] (Leningrad: Prosveäcenie). 1965b 'Etude linguo-geographique du lorrain', Actes du X' Congrös international de linguistique et philologie romanes. Strasbourg, 1962 (Paris): 1269-1278. 1966 Problemy lingvisticeskoj geografii. (Na materiale dialektov francuzskogo jazyka) [Problems of Linguistic Geography. (On the Material of French Dialects).] (Leningrad: Nauka). 1969 Sovremennyj literaturnyj retoromanskij jazyk Svejcarii [The Modern RhaetoRomance Language of Switzerland] (Leningrad: Nauka). [Reviews: M. Iliescu, RRL (1971) 16.2: 166-169, SCL (1971) 22.3: 334; Tomuia, CL (1971) 16.2: 416-419; Udler, Via (1971.3): 127-131.] 1970 'La geographic linguistique et la classification typologique des langues et des dialectes romans', Actele 1: 204-215. 1973 Sravnitel''no-sopostavitel''naja grammatika romanskix jazykov. Retoromanskaja podgruppa. (Engadinskie varianty). [Comparative-contrastive Grammar of the Romance Languages. Rhaeto-Romance Sub-group. (The Engadine Variants)] (Leningrad: Nauka). 1975 'Arealogija i nekotorye voprosy romanskogo jazykoznanija' ['Areal Linguistics and Some Questions of Romance Linguistics'], VJa 2: 47-61. Borodina, M. A. - V. G. Gak 1958 Izucenie zapadnoromanskix jazykov v SSSR (1945-1958) [The Study of the West Romance Languages in the U.S.S.R (1945-1958)] (Minsk: Izd. Minsk, un-ta). 1974 'Essai sur la structure d'un champ semantique (Langue litteraire - dialecte)', RLR 38: 40-66. Borodina, M. A. - M. S. Gurydeva (editors) 1966 Melody sravnitel'no-sopostavitel'nogo izucenija sovremennyx romanskix jazykov [Methods of the Comparative-contrastive Study of the Modern Romance Languages] (Moskva: Nauka). Borodina, M. A. - I. Vilde-Lot 1978 Expose of: Borodina - Roäka et al. 1974. RLR 42: 216-227. Borodina, M. A. - V. Chemietillo - V. G. Gak 1962 'Bibliographie des otudes lexicales en URSS (1945-1959)', RLR 26: 184-223. Borodina, M. A. - M. G. Volox - N. L. Suxacev 1973 'Mikro- i makroatlasy Romanii. (K voprosu interpretacii lingvistioeskoj karty)' ['Micro- and Macro-Atlases of the Romance Languages Area. (On the Question of the Interpretation of the Linguistic Map)'] in: Lingvogeografija, dialektologija i istorija jazyka [Lingua-geography, Dialectology and the History of Language] R. I. Avanesov et al. (editors) (Chi§inau [KiSinev]: §tiinja): 3-16. Borodina, M. A. - P. I. Roäka - S. P. Nikolaeva - S. A. KokoSkina 1974 Opyt rekartografirovanija i interpretacii obSoeromanskogo areala' ['An Attempt at the Recartography and Interpretation of the Common Romance Area'] in: Problemy kartografirovanijavjazykoznanii i tnografii [Problems of Cartography in Linguistics and Ethnography] Suxa6ev, N. L. (editor) (Leningrad: Nauka): 214-220. Borodina, M. A., et al. (editors) 1978a Problemy areal'nyx kontaktov i sociolingvistiki [Problems of Areal Contacts and Sociolinguistics] (Leningrad: Nauka). 1978b Narody i jazyki Sibiri. Areal'nye issledovanija [Peoples and Languages of Siberia. Areal Studies] (Leningrad: Nauka). BorSi, A. T. 1949 Moldavskaja leksikografija (Chi§inäu [Kiäinev]: Gos. izd. Moldavii). Budagov, R. A. 1955 Nekotorye problemy sravnitel'no-istoriceskogo izucenija sintaksisa romanskix

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jazykov' ['Some Problems in the Comparative Historical Study of the Syntax of the Romance Languages'] Via 3: 3-21. 1956 'Ponjatie o norme literaturnogo jazyka vo Francii v XVI-XVII vekax' [The Concept of the Norm of the Literary Language in France in the 17th-18th Centuries'] VJa 5: 10-21. 1958 Etjudy po sintaksisu rumynskogo jazyka [Studies in the Syntax of Rumanian] (Moskva: Izd. Akad, nauk SSSR). 1963 Sravnitel'no-semasiologi(eskie issledovanija. Romanskie jazyki [ComparativeSemasiological Studies. The Romance Languages] (Moskva: Izd. Mosk. un-ta). [Reviews: Gak, VJa (1964.6): 125-130; Tanase - Has, RLaR (1966) 77: 276278.] 1967 Literaturnye jazyki i jazykovye stili [Literary Languages and Linguistic Styles] (Moskva: VysSaja Skola). [Review: Buium R(R)L (1972) 17.2: 178-181.] 1970 'Celovek i ego jazyk' ['Man and his Language'], VJa 6: 3-14 [also book with same title Moskva 1974]. [Review: Camproux RLR (1975) 81: 283-293.] 197la Istorija slov v istorii obSiestva [The History of Words in the History of Society] (Moskva: Prosveäcenie). [Review: Gak, VJa (1973.4): 134-138.] 1971b Jazyk, istorija, sovremennost' [Language, History, Modernity] (Moskva: Izd. Mosk. un-ta). [Review: Graur RRL (1971) 16.5: 435.] 1972 Opredeljaet li princip ekonomii razvitie i funkcionirovanie jazyka?' ('Does the Principle of Economy determine the Development and Functioning of Language?'), VJa 1: 17-36. 1973 'K teorii sintaksiöeskix otnoSenij' [On the Theory of Syntactic Relations'], VJa 1: 3-15. 1974 [review:] Zvegincev, V. A.,Jazykilingvistideskajateorija [Language and Linguistic Theory] (Moskva 1973) VJa 1: 127-132 [also Graur SCL 1974.5: 537]. 1975 'Cto takoe obSoestvennaja priroda jazyka?' ['What is the Social Nature of Language?'], VJa 3: 3-26. 1977 Cto takoe razvitie i soverSenstvovanie jazyka? [What is the Development and Perfecting of Language?] (Moskva: Nauka). [Reviews: Graur SCL (1978) 29.3: 359-60; Makovskij, VJa (1978.4): 138-142.] Budagov, R. A. - G. V. Stepanov et al. (editors) 1976 Tipologija sxodstv i razliöij blizkorodstvennyx jazykov [The Typology of Similarities and Dissimilarities of Closely Related Languages} (Chisjnäu [KiSinev]: §tiinla). Bylinkina, M. I. 1969 Smyslovye osobennosti ispanskogo jazyka Argentiny ( K voprosu o formirovanii nacional'nyx latinoamerikanskix kul'tur) [Semantic Features of the Spanish Language of Argentina (On the Question of the Formation of National Latin-American Cultures)] (Moskva: Nauka). Ciobanu, A. I. 1969 Probleme dificile de gramaticä (Chi§inäu: Cartea moldoveneascä). 1972 [review:] lordan, I. - J. Orr- R. Posner, An Introduction to Romance Linguistics. Its Schools and Scholars (Oxford: U.P. 1970) VJa 6:138-143. [Russian trs Moskva 1971.] 1976a Opyt semantiko-distributivnogo analiza polusvjazoonyx glagolov v moldavskom jazyke [An Attempt at a Semantico-distributive Analysis of Semi-copulae in Moldavian] (Chi§inau [KiSinev]: §tiinia). [Review: Banaru-Cinolej, VJa (1978.2): 137-140.] 1976b Practician la sintaxä (Chi§inäu: Cartea moldoveneascä). Constantinescu-Dobridor, Gh. 1974 Morfologia limbii romäne (Bucures,ti: Ed. §tiinjificä) [many Soviet scholars in the bibliography].

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Corläteanu, N. G. 1961 'Imbogajirea vocabularului moldovenesc in perioda soveticä', Vostofnoslavjanomoldavskie otnoienija [East Slav-Moldavian Relations] (Chisjnäu [Kiäinev]: Cartea moldoveneascä): 13-24. 1964 Studiu asupra sistemei lexicale moldovenes_ti din anii 1870-1890 (Chi§inau: (artea moldoveneascä). [Review: Udler, VJa (1965.2): 105-111.) 1966 'Moldavskij jazyk' [The Moldavian Language 1 ], in: Jazyki narodov SSSR. I. Indoevropejskie jazyki [The Languages of the Peoples of the U.S.S.R. I. The Indo-European Languages] Vinogradov, V. V. (editor) (Moskva: Nauka): 528 -561. 1971 'Asupra interac^iunii lingvistice romano-slave', Actele 2: 1043-1053. 1974 Issledovanie narodnoj latyni i ee otnosenij s romanskimi jazykami [A Study of Vulgar Latin and of its Relationship with the Romance Languages] (Moskva: Nauka) [Review: Ciobanu, VJa (1975. 3) 136-140]. 1976 'Moldavskaja nauano-texniceskaja terminologija na sovremennom etape' ['Moldavian Scientific Technical Terminology at the Present Stage'] VJa 5: 81-89. Dirul, A. 1969 'Cazuri de folosire expletivä a negajiei' Limba f/' literatura moldoveneascä l: 29-38. [See Constantinescu-Dobridor's (1974) bibliography for other morphological studies by Dirul] Filologia 1974 Filologia sovetskä moldoveneascä (Chisjnäu: §tiinia). Gabinskij, M. A. 1956 'Avtoxtonnye elementy v moldavskom jazyke' [Autochthonous Elements in Moldavian'] VJa 1: 85-93. 1965 'Infinitivarea §i definitivarea in limbile romanice', Limba $i literatura moldoveneascä 4: 36-44. [See Constantinescu-Dobridor's (1974) bibliography for other morphological studies, particularly on the infinitive and supine, by Gabinskij] 1966 'K diaxroniceskoj tipologii infinitiva (Na materiale romanskix jazykov)' [On the Diachronie Typology of the Infinitive (On the Material of the Romance Languages)'] VJa 1: 26-36. 1972 Ocerki po osnovanijam grammatiki [Outlines of the Bases of Grammar] (Chisjnäu [KiSinev]: S.tiinta). [Review: Hirläoanu, SCL (1974) 25.1: 96-97.] Gak, V. G. 1966a Besedy ofrancuzskom slave. Iz sravnitel'noj leksikologii francuzskogo i russkogo jazykov [Conversations on the French Word. From the Comparative Lexicology of French and Russian] (Moskva: Mezdunarodnye otnaäenija). [Review: Graur, RRL (1967) 10.3: 257-259.] 1966b Opyt primenenija sopostavitel'nogo analiza k izuoeniju struktury znaienija slova' ['An Attempt to apply a Contrastive Analysis to the Study of the Structure of Word Meaning'] VJa 2: 97-105. 1975 Russkij jazyk v sopostavlenii s francuzskim [The Russian Language in Contrast with French]. (Moskva: Russkij jazyk). [Review: Budagov, VJa (1977. 3): 135 -137.] Gak, V. G. - R. B. Roizenblit 1965 Ocerki po sopostavitel'nomu izufeniju francuzskogo i russkogo jazykov [Outlines of the Contrastive Study of French and Russian] (Moskva: VysSaja Skola). Guryieva, M. S. 1954 zakonomernostjax v slovoobrazovanii romanskix jazykov' [On the Regularities of Word-formation of the Romance Languages'] VJa 1: 69-83. 1957 Osnovnye linii razvitija slovosooetanij vo francuzskom jazyke' ['Basic Lines of Development of Word-combinations in French'] VJa 6: 15-24.

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1959 Narodnaja latyn' [Vulgar Latin} (Moskva: Nauka). [Review: Iliescu, SCL (1962) 13.1.] 1966 Sravnitel'no-sopostavitel'naja grammatika romanskix jazykov. Italo-romanskaja podgruppa [A Comparative-constrastive Grammar of the Romance Languages. The Italo-Romance Sub-group] (Moskva: Nauka). Ilea§enko, T. P. 1970 'Important^ microstructurii pentru tipologizarea macrostructurii sintactice', Actele 1: 253-259. Karpov, N. P. 1969 Fonetika ispanskogo jazyka (Teoreticeskij kurs) [The Phonetics of Spanish (A Theoretical Course)] (Moskva: Vyssaja Skola). Karulin, Ju. 1970 'Note sull'infinito italiano', Actele 1: 717-721. Kasatkin, A. A. - M. P. Akimova 1965 'Materialy o juznoital'janskix govorax v Krymu (dialekt Bisel'e)' ['Material on the South Italian Dialects in the Crimea (the Dialect of BiSel'e)'] Trudy Arxiva AN SSSR 21: 145-153. Katagoäöina, N. A. 1970 Osobennosti fo nologiceskoj sistemy sovremennyx ibero-romanskix jazykov — portugal'skogo, katalanskogo i ispanskogo [Features of the Phonological System of the Modern Ibero-Romance Languages - Portuguese, Catalan, and Spanish] (Moskva: Nauka). Katagoacma, N. A. - E. M. Vol'f [Wolf] 1968 Sravnitel'no-sopostavitel'naja grammatika romanskix jazykov. Ibero-romanskaja podgruppa. [A Comparative-contrastive Grammar of the Romance Languages. The Ibero-Romance Sub-group] (Moskva: Nauka). KatagoSCina, N. A. - M. S. Guryoeva - K. A. Allendorf 1963 Istorija francuzskogo jazyka [The History of the French Language] (Moskva: Izd. lit. na inostrannyx jazykax). [Reviews: Gojdo, VJa (1968.6): 140-145; Skvorcova, RLR (1964) 28: 241-243] Katagoacina, N. A. - E. M. Vol'f- L. I. Luxt - M. S. Guryceva (editors) 1972 Sravnitel'no-sopostavitel'naja grammatika romanskix jazykov. Problema strukturnoj obStnosti [A Comparative-contrastive Grammar of the Romance Languages. The Problem of Structural Community] (Moskva: Nauka). Kordi, E. 1970 'Types de constructions causatives en frar^ais du point de vue de la conception generate du causatif, Actele 1: 511-518. Kotelnik, E. 1968 Adverbializacijaimen (Chi§inäu [Kiäinev]: Cartea moldoveneascä). [see Constantinescu-Dobridor's (1974) bibliography for other morphological studies by Kotelnik] Lingvistica 1974 Lingvistica sovetska moldoveneascä 1924-1974 (Chisjnäu: §tiinta). Luxt, L. I. 1962 Zalog v sovremennom rumynskom jazyke [ Voice in Modern Rumanian] (Moskva: Izd. Akademii auk). [Review: Berea, SCL (1967) 18: 1970a Sravniterno-sopostavitel'naja grammatika romanskix jazykov. Rumynskij jazyk [A Comparative-contrastive Grammar of the Romance Languages. Rumanian] (Moskva: Nauka). [Review: Mocanu - Stan, CL (1971) 16.2: 419-421) 1970b 'Quelques remarques sur la typologie romane (morphologie)', Actele 1: 203207. Malkiel, Y. 1961-2 'The Leningrad Circle of Romance Philogists' (= 'Melanges Krzevskij',

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Romanskaja filologija, Ucenye zapiski Leningradskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta 299) RomPh 15: 154-162. 1974-5 'V. M. Zirmunskij' RomPh 28: 52-56. 1978 [review:] Mejlax, M. B., Jazyk trubadurov [The Language of the Troubadours], (Moskva: 1975). RomPh 31.4: 707-711. Marin, V. 1971 'Unitätile superfrazice §i funcjia lor stilistica', Limba51 literatura moldoveneasca 3: 32-38. [see Constantinescu-Dobridor's (1974) bibliography for other morphological studies by Marin.] Mel'cuk, I. A. 1965 fonologiceskoj traktovke "poluglasnyx" v ispanskom jazyke' [On the Phonological Interpretation of the "Semi-vowels" in Spanish'], VJa 4: 92-109. Mixal'ci, D. E. 1971 'Le francos en Russie', Adele 2: 1029-1034. Moldavskoe 1978 Moldavskoe jazykoznanie v sovetskoj peiati [Moldavian Linguistics in the Soviet Press] (Chisjnäu [KiSinev]: §tiinia). Nazarjan, A. G. 1976 Frazeologija francuzskogo jazyka [The Phraseology of French] (Moskva: Nauka). Nexendzi, B. D. - V. V. Blagovescenskij 1964 Grammatika sovremennogo francuzskogo jazyka [A Grammar of Modern French] (Moskva: Nauka). Novak, L. - R. G. Piotrovski 1968 'Experimentul de predige §i entropia limbii romäne', SCL 19.3: 209-236. O'Brien, Richard J, S. J. (editor) 1971 Linguistics: Developments of the Sixties - Viewpoints for the Seventies, in the series: Georgetown University Round Table (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown U.P.) [includes articles on Soviet developments]. Panfilov. E. D. 1960 dvux stupenjax prjamogo dopolnenija v ispanskom jazyke' [On the Two Degrees of Direct Object in Spanish'] in: Problemy jazykoznanija [Problems of Linguistics]. (Leningrad: Izd. Leningr. un-ta): 175-180. Petrova, N. V. - R. G. Piotrovskij 1966 'Slovo, kontekst, morfologija' [The Word, Context, Morphology'] VJa 2: 111-124. Piotrovskij, R. G. 1954 nekotoryx stilisticeskix kategorijax' [On Certain Stylistic Categories'] VJa 1: 55-68. 1960a 'Esce raz o differencial'nyx priznakax fonemy' [Once more the Differential Features of the Phoneme'] VJa 6: 24-38. 1960b Ocerki po stilistike francuzskogo jazyka. Morfologija i sintaksis. [ Outlines of the Stylistics of French. Morphology and Syntax] (Leningrad: Nauka). 1960c Formirovanie artiklja v romanskix jazykax. Vybor formy [The Formation of the Article in the Romance Languages. The Choice of Form] (Moskva: Nauka). [Review: Mihäescu, SCL (1961) 12.1: 132-134.] 1962 'SosuSöestvujuSöie fonetiöeskie sistemy i stilisticeskie korreljacii v moldavskom jazyke' ['Co-existent Phonetic Systems and Stylistic Correlations in Moldavian'] in: Problemy strukturnoj lingvistiki [Problems of Structural Linguistics] (Moskva: Izd. Akademii nauk SSR): 93-95. 1966 Modelirovanie fonologifeskix sistem i melody ix sravnenija [The Modelling of Phonological Systems and Methods of Comparing them] (Moskva: Nauka). [Review: Ban - Vinieler, CL 1968) 13: 148-152.] 1968 Informacionnye izmerenija jazyka [Informational Measurings of Language] (Leningrad: Nauka).

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1973 'Lingvisticeskie ocenki rasxozdenija blizkorodstvennyx jazykov' ['Linguistic Evaluations of the Divergence of Closely Related Languages'] VJa 5: 36-42. 1975 Tekst, masina, ielovek [The Text, the Machine, Man] (Leningrad: Nauka). 1978 Inzenernaja lingvistika: teorija - eksperiment - realizacija [Mechanical Linguistics: Theory - Experiment-Realization] in: Serija literatury ijazyka [Series of Literature and Language] 37.1: 10-19. [See abstract in: Language Teaching and Linguistics Abstracts 12.1 (January 1979): 79.3: 20.] 1979 Inzenernaja lingvistika i teorija jazyka (Mechanical Linguistics and Linguistic Theory) (Leningrad: Nauka). Piotrovskij, R. G. - K. B. Bektaev 1977 'Maainnyj perevod: teorija, eksperiment, vnedrenie' ['Machine Translation: Theory, Experiment, Inculcation'] VJa 5: 137-139. Referovskaja, E. A. 1966 Istoki analitizma romanskix jazykov. Ocerki po sintaksisu rannesrednevekovoj latyni [Sources of the Analycity of the Romance Languages. Outlines of the Syntax of Early Medieval Latin] (Leningrad: Nauka). 1969 Sintaksis sovremennogo francuzskogo jazyka. Sloznoe predlozenie [The Syntax of Modern French. The Composite Sentence] (Leningrad: Nauka). 1972 Francuzskij jazyk v Kanade [The French Language in Canada] (Leningrad: Nauka). [Review: Skrelina, VJa (1974.1): 138-140.] Referovskaja, E. A. - A. K. Vassilieva 1973 Essai de grammaire fra^aise. Cours theorique. 1. (Leningrad: Nauka). Repina, T. A. 1968 Rumynskij jazyk. Grammaticeskij ocerk, literaturnye teksty s kommentariem i slovarem [ The Rumanian Language. A Grammatical Outline, and Literary Texts with Commentary and Vocabulary] (Moskva: Izd. Mosk. un-ta). [Review: Farca§, RRLing (1970) 156: 606-614.] 1971 'Les rapports de ('analyse et de la synthese dans la declinaison roumaine' Actele 2: 1429-1434. RoSka, P. I. 1971 Lingvogeografic'eskie etjudy Romanii (Na maferiale terminov vinogradstva, vinodelija i sadovodstva) [Linguo-geographical Studies of the Romance Linguistic Area. (On the Material of Wine-growing, Wine-making, and Gardening Terms)] (Leningrad: Nauka). Saumjan, S. K. 1960 'Dvuxstupencataja teorija fonemy i differencial'nyx elementov' [The Two-level Theory of the Phoneme and of Differential Elements'] VJa 5: 18-34. 1968 Problems of Theoretical Phonology (The Hague/Paris: Mouton) [Moskva: 1962]. 1971 Principles of Structural Linguistics (The Hague/Paris: Mouton) [Moskva: 1965]. Scerba, L. V. 1948 Fonetika francuzskogo jazyka [The Phonetics of French] 3rd ed. (Moskva: Izd. lit. na inostrannyx jazykax). Sergievskij, M. V. 1938 Istorija francuzskogo jazyka [The History of the French Language]. (Moskva: Izd. lit. na inostrannyx jazykax). [2nd ed., 1947] 1959 'Francuzskij jazyk v Alzire' ['The French Language in Algiers'] VJa 2: 51-61. Sigarevskaja, N. A. 1970a Ocerki po sintaksisu sovremennoj francuzskoj reci {Outlines of the Syntax of Colloquial Modern French] (Leningrad: Izd. Leningr. un-ta). 1970b 'Sur quelques particularites fondamentales de la syntaxe du frangais parle aujourd'hui' Actele 1: 671-678. SiSmarev, V. F. 1941 Oierkipo istorii jazykov Ispanii [Outlines of the History of the Languages of Spain]

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(Moskva-Leningrad: Izd. Akademii nauk SSSR). [Review: Malkiel, L (1944) 20: 157.] 1952 Istoriceskaja morfologija francuzskogo jazyka [The Historical Morphology of French]. (Moskva-Leningrad: Izd. Akademii nauk SSSR). 1972 Islorija ital'janskoj literatury i ital'janskogo jazyka (Vybrannyestat'i) (The History of Italian Literature and Language (Selected Articles)) (Leningrad: Nauka). [Review: Budagov, VJa (1973.6): 127-130.] 1975 Romanskie poselenija na juge Rossii [Romance Settlements in South Russia] (Leningrad) [prepared by Borodina et al.] [Review: Skrelina, VJa (1978.2): 141-144.] Skrelina, L. M. 1970 'Sur le probleme de l'economie des changements morphologiques' Adele l: 535-540. 1972 Histoiredelalanguefra^aise(Mosk\a: Izd. Mosk.un-ta). [Review Lafon\,RLaR (1974): 512-514.] 1973 Nekotorye voprosy razvitija jazyka. Problemy i melody diaxroniceskogo issledovanija [Some Questions of Language Developments. Problems and Methods of Diachronie Study] (Minsk: Izd. BGU). Skrelina, L. - D. Cebelis 1972 'La determination du nom en ancien francos', Romania, 93: 289-302. Sor, E. N. 1970 'Constructions syntaxiques sans mots-outils' Actele 1: 685-689. Stepanov, G. V. 1957- [ed.] Romanskaja filologija [Romance Philology] (Leningrad: Izd. Leningr. unta). 1963 Ispanski) jazyk v stranax Latinskoj Ameriki [The Spanish Language in the Countries of Latin America] (Moskva: Izd. lit. na inostrannyx jazykax). 1971 'Algunas cuestiones metodologicas del espanol americano' Actele 2: 1165-1167. 1976 Tipologija jazykovyx sostojanij i situacij v stranax romanskoj reci [ The Typology of Linguistic Conditions and Situations in Countries of Romance Speech] (Moskva: Nauka). [Review: Gak, VJa 1977.6: pp. 136-141.] Stepanov, Ju. S. 1965 Francuzskaja stilistika [French Stylistics] (Moskva: VysSaja skola). 1974 zavisimosti ponjatija fonemy ot ponjatija sloga pri sinxronnom opisanii i istoriceskoj rekonstrukcii' [On the Dependence of the Concept of the Phoneme on the Concept of the Syllable in Synchronic Description and Historical Reconstruction'] VJa 5: 96-106. 1975 Metody i principy sovremennoj lingvistiki [ The Methods and Principles of Modern Linguistics] (Moskva: Nauka). [Review: Pazuxin, VJa 1977.5: 140-144.] Stepanov, Ju. S. et al. (editors) 1972 Obscee i romanskoe jazykoznanie [General and Romance Linguistics] (Moskva: Izd. Mosk. un-ta). [In honour of R. A. Budagov.] Suprun, A. 1970 'La locucion idiomätica y el contexto (basändose en el idioma espanol)' Actele 1: 919-924. Udler, R. Ja. 1964a 'Unele totaluri ale expeditjei dialectologice in Jinutul Primoriei sj regiunea Omsk din RSFSR, RSS Kirgizä si RSS Kazaha' Limba j/ literatura moldoveneasca 1: 66-68. 1964b Moldavskie govory Cernovickoj oblasti v sravnenii s govorami Moldavskoj SSR, Zakarpatskoj oblasti UkrSSR i drugix smeznyx oblastej dako-romanskogo massiva. Konsonantizm [The Moldavian Dialects of the Cernovcy Area compared with the Dialects of the Moldavian SSR, the Transcarpathian Area of the Ukr SSR and

316

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other Contiguous Areas of the Daco-Romance Group. The Consonants] (Chisjnäu [KiSinev]: Stiinja). [Review: Sorbalä, VJa 1965.6: 137-142.] 1971 'Starea actualä a graiurilor a§ezarilor moldovene§ti din RSFSR, RSS Kazahä §i RSS Kirgizä (Pe baza Atlasului lingvistic moldovenesc)' Actele 2: 389-397. Udler, R. et al. 1968-73 Atlasul lingvistic moldovenesc (Chisjnäu: Cartea moldoveneascä). [Reviews: Bernätejn-Klepikova, VJa 1969.5: 120-126; Borodina, VJa 1976.1: 145-147.] Vaksman, B. I. et al. (editors) (Vacsman, B.) 1978 Voprosy romanskogo jazykoznanija. Mezvuzovskij tematifeskij zbornik) [Questions of Romance Linguistics (An fnter-VUZ Thematic Collection] (Kalinin: Kalinin, gosud. universitet). Vascenco, V. 1957 'Aspecte ale activitäii lingvistice in RSS Moldoveneascä' SCL 8.3: 371-375. Vasil'eva, N. M. 1967 Struktura sloznogo predlozenija (Na materiale francuzskogo jazyka rannego perioda) [ The Structure of the Composite Sentence (On the Material of French of the Early Period)] (Moskva: Vysäaja Skola). Vasil'eva-Svede, . . 1970 'Algunas tendencias en la evolucion de la estructura gramatical del espaflol, Catalan y portugues' Actele 1: 497-504. Vasil'eva-Svede, O. K., - G. V. Stepanov 1972 Teoretiöeskaja grammatika ispanskogo jazyka [A Theoretical Grammar of Spanish] (Moskva: Vyssaja gkola). [Review: Dumitrescu, SCL (1973) 24.4: 464.] Vol'f, E. M. (Wolf) 1966 'K metodike sopostavitel'nogo analiza morfologii (Na materiale ispanskogo i portugal'skogo jazykov)' [On the Methods of Comparative Morphological Analysis (On the Material of Spanish and Portuguese)'] in: Borodina-GuryCeva 1966: 55-64. VIF 1974 Voprosy ispanskojfilologii. Materialy I Vsesojuznoj nauinoj konferencii po ispanskojfilologii [Questions of Spanish Philology. Materials of the 1st All-Union Scientific Conference on Spanish Philology] (= Drevnjaja i novaja Romania [Old and New Romania] 1) (Leningrad: Izd. Leningr. un-ta). [Review: Panfilov/Fedorov, VJa (1976.5): 162-165.] Xol'max, L. V. 1976 Iz istorii izuöenija konecnogo -s i ego distribucija v romanskix jazykax [Aspects of the History of Final -s and its Distribution in the Romance Languages] (Leningrad) (Diploma work under Borodina). Note: Moldavian titles are given with Rumanian orthography, for greater ease of recognition.

Index of Names

Aaraas, H. 253, 266 Aarnes, A. 253, 266 Aebischer, P. 9, 14, 18, 25, 26, 27, 33 Adler, A. 198 Agard, F. 114,116,119,120 Akimova, M. P. 296, 312 Akulenko, V. V. 305, 308 Alarcos Llorach, E. 120 Alberti, L. B. 146 Alessio, G. 21, 33 Alinei, M. L. 224, 230, 232, 233, 240 Alisova, T. B. 297, 308 Allard, P. 54 Allendorf, K. A. 297, 298, 312 Alsdorf-Bollee, A. 195, 206 Alvar Lopez, M. 4,109,110 Amadou, A. L. 253, 266 Andersen, H. 100 Anderson, James 95, 120, 121 Anderson, John 160 Andersson, S. 253, 266 Angelet, C. 51, 62 d'Ans, A. M. 235, 240 Appuhn, H.-G. 208 Arnaut de Mareuil 131 Arnould, M. 56, 62, 70 Arutjunova, N. D. 305, 308 Aschenbrenner, M. 210 Aston, S. C. 129, 131, 156 Aubert, D. 44 Avanesov, R. I. 309 Avdukova, A. M. 308 Axmanova, O. S. 308 Baarslag, M. N. 227, 240 Bach, K. F. 130, 156 Bäcker, N. 193

Baehr, R. 180 Baetens-Beardsmore, H. 57, 62 Bagley, C. P. 144, 156 Baguette, A. 44, 62 Bahner, W. 189, 193, 196, 210, 211, 214, 215 Baker, A. T. 152 Bakos, F. 279,281,284 Bai, W. 46, 47, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58, 59, 62-3 Baidinger, K. 13,15,16,19,22,24,31,33, 107, 110, 121, 177, 178, 180, 181, 220 Balle, A. 54, 55, 57, 71 Bally, C. 9, 13, 23, 24, 28, 29, 30, 33, 34, 305 de Balzac, H. 253 Bambeck, M. 190, 191, 203 Bammesberger, A. 199 Bän, A. 302, 313 Banaru, V. I. 310 Bandello, M. 146 Barboris, P. 253 Barbier, P. 143, 148, 156 Bärczi, G. 279,284 Barnett, F. J. 132, 136, 156 Barrera-Vidal, A. 180, 208 Bartning, I. 266 Bartoli, M. 16, 17, 91, 283 BartoS, J. 280, 284 BartoS, L. 281,284 Bartüsek, J. 282, 284 Barzon, A. 245 Bastiaensen, M. 59 Bastin, J. 43, 62 Baudouin de Courtenay, J. 295 Bäuerlein, O. 193 Baum, R. 190

318

Index of Names

Baumann, H.-H. 203 Bausch, K.-R. 180 Becker, H. U. 203 Becker, K. H. 193 Beckmann, G. A. 197, 205 Bedier, J. 5, 131 Bednäf, T. 279, 284 Beekmann, H. 203 Beer, J. M. A. 81, 121 Behnstedt, P. 209 Bektaev, K. B. 314 Belasco, S. 113 Bell, A. 152, 153, 156 van Bellen, E. C. 240 Bembo, P. 146, 147 Benedeit 169 Benedek, N. 281, 284 BeneS, P. 279, 280, 282, 285 Benveniste, E. 115 Berchem, T. 197, 199, 205 Berea, E. I. 304, 312 Berejan, S. 308 Berenger de Palazol 131 Bergerfurth, W. 181 Bergeron, J. 120, 121 Bernanos, G. 51,253 BernStejn, S. B. 316 Beroul 63, 130, 132 Berschin, H. 208, 214 Bertoni, G. 91 Bertran de Born 133 van den Besselaar, J. J. 235, 240 Best, O. 190 Betz, M. 205 Beyrer, A. 210 Bezzola, R. R. 25, 34 Bichakjian, B. H. 226, 241 Bigalke, R. 200 Bihler, H. 180 Bills, G. 110 Bismut, R. 45, 46, 63 Bjerrome, G. 255, 266 Bladon, R. A. W. 135, 156 Blagoveäcenskij, V. V. 297, 313 Blakey.B. 131,133,156 Blanc, M. H. A. 138, 157 Blaylock, C. 108 Blinkenberg, A. 258, 263, 264, 265, 266 Bloch, B. 115 Bloch, O. 15, 34 Blochwitz, W. 205, 210 Blomqvist, A. 254, 266 Bloomfield, L. 91, 94

Blücher, K. 262, 266 Blumenthal, P. 217 Boccaccio, G. 281 Bochmann, K. 210, 215 de Boer, C. 227, 229, 232, 236, 241 Boileau, A. 53, 57, 63 Boleo, M. Paiva 7 , . Aisdorf- 195, 206 Bonfante, G. 96 Bonnet, L. 54 van den Boogaard, N. H. J. 228,236,237, 241 Boone, A. 48, 49 de Booy, J. Th. 63 Borghini, V. 146 Börjeson, L. 262, 263, 266 Bork, H. D. 190, 214 Bornäs, G. 254, 266 Börner, W. 218, 219 Borodina, M. A. 295, 296, 297, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303, 306, 308, 309, 316 Bossaert, W. 47, 48 Boräc, A. T. 309 Boström, I. 264, 266 Bottequin, A. 49, 63 Bougard, P. 56, 63 Boulan, H. 234, 241 Boulet, A. 120 Bourgeois, H. 54, 63 Bourgeois-Gielen, H. 49, 69 Bowen, J. D.. 119, 126 Boyd-Bowman, P. 119, 121 Boysen, G. 262, 263, 267 Braet, H. 46 Brandwajn, R. 278, 285 Brasington, R. W. P. 135, 140, 157 Brassens, G. 142 Bratli, C. 265,267 Brattö, O. 255, 267 Brault, G. 108, 111 Bredemeier, J. 198 Breslin, M. S. 113 Brockhaus, K. 219 Bröndal, V. 257, 258, 267 Brown, G. 116 Brown, P. M. 146, 157 Brown, T. G. 116 Bruch, J. 190 Bruckner, W. 14, 34 Bruneau, C. 46 Brunot, F. 234 Bruwier, M. 70 Buben, V. 279, 285

Index of Names Budagov, R. A. 297, 298, 299, 302, 305, 306, 309,310,311,315 Budziszewska, W. 285 Buium, S. 310 Bulferetti, D. 147 Burger, A. 25, 26, 27, 30, 31, 34 Burger, M. 19, 25, 27, 34 Burgess, G. S. 142, 143, 157 Burke, J. 109 Burr, F. 194 Buschmann, S. 191 Buschmann de Gelos, S. 204 Busse, W. 209 Butler, J. 100,109,113,117 Bylinkina, M. I. 310 Caduff, L. 19, 34 Calmeta, V. 146 Calozet, J. 46 de Caluwe, J. 45, 46, 58, 64 Camöes, L. 46 Campbell, R. J. 98, 121 Camproux, Ch. 310 Camus, A. 280 Canellada, M. J. 109 Cardinal, P. 109, 111 Cardona, G. R. 4, 8 Carlier 54 Carlton, C. M. 90, 96, 121 Carlsson, L. 258, 263, 264, 265, 267 Carnoy, A. 56, 63—4 Casagrande, J. 87, 97, 109, 111, 116, 121 Cassano, P. 109, 112 Castonguay, P. 120 Cavalcanti, G. 146 Cayrol, J. 52 Cebelis, D. 315 Cerny, J. 282, 285 Chalon, L. 51 Charbonneau, R. 110, 121 Charlier, G. 64, 73 Chemietillo, V. 296, 309 Chen, U. F. 114, 121, 122 Chomsky, N. A. 4, 10, 32, 99, 100, 115, 120, 121, 139,230,231 Chrotien de Troyes 145 Christmann, H. H. 180, 190 Cindej, G. S. 310 Ciobanu, A. I. 296, 297, 304, 310, 311 Cittadini, C. 146 Clas, A. 109 Clifford, P. M. 136, 157 Clivio, G. 109, 114, 120, 121

319

Close, E. 147, 157 Colby, A. 81, 121 Coleman, R. 134, 157 Collas, J. P. 134, 157 Colon, G. 13, 16, 191 Columbus, C. 59 Combe, T. G. S. 160 Constantinescu-Dobridor, Gh. 303, 310, 311,312,313 Contreras, H. 116, 120 Conwell, M. J. 114,123 Cook,R. 109 Cooper, P. 90 Coppens, J. 54, 64 Coppens d'Eeckenbrugge, M. 52 Corbett, N. 94, 121 Corbiere, T. 51 Corläteanu, N. G. 297,302,311 Cornelissen, R. 195 Cornu, J. 25 Corominas, J. 107, 110, 121 Coseriu, E. 6, 120, 180, 190, 209, 304 Coustenoble, H. N. 134, 157 Craddock, J. 109, 110, 113, 115, 121 Cremona, J. 134, 135, 157 Creore, J. A. 120, 121 Crespo, R. 235, 241 Cressey, W. 116 Crews, C. M. 145, 149, 157 Croce, B. 91 Currie, M. 138, 157 Curtius, E. R. 185 Czerny, Z. 279, 285 van Dam, C. F. A. 234, 241 Da;nbska-Prokop, U. 278, 280, 285 Damourette, E. 261 Dante Alighieri 146 de Dardel, R. 27, 34, 241 Dascotte, R. 54, 55, 64 Daudet, A. 280 Dauses, A. 212 Debrock, M. 48, 50, 64 Debrunner, A. 34 Deckers, M.-C. 64 Decurtins, A. 12, 13, 19, 34 Decurtins, C. 25 Dees, A. 228, 241 DeKeyser, A. 41 De Kock, J. 47, 48, 58, 59, 64 Delattre, P. 111, 113 Delbouille, M. 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 50, 58, 60, 64-5

320

Index of Names

Delbouille, P. 45, 51, 65 Delcourt, M. 42 De Leenheer, G. 51 Delhez-Sarlet, C. 52 Delille, K. H. 198 Dell, F. 116 Dembowski, P. F. 81, 112, 121 Deneckere, M. 47, 65 Doom, F. 55 De Poerck, G. 43, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 58, 59, 60, 65 Depretre, F. 55, 65 Descamps, A. 53 Desonay, F. 42, 46, 65 Dessaintes, M. 48, 66 Dessein, P. 50 Detrich, E. D. 116 Deutschmann, O. 190, 191, 197 D'Heur, J.-M. 46, 66 Dhondt, J. 70 Diekamp, C. 205 Diekmann, E. 181, 205, 211 Dierlamm, W. 180 Dietrich, W. 197 Diez, F. 185 Dik, S. C. 231, 241 Dinnsen, D. 116 Dionisotti, C. 133, 146, 158 Di Pietro, R. J. 119, 120 Dirul, A. 311 Diverres, A. H. 135, 158 Domingue, N. 116 Doppagne, A. 47, 49, 53, 56, 57, 66, 69 Dorfman, E. 81, 94, 95, 109, 114, 115, 120, 121, 122 Dorion, H. 63, 109 Doutrepont, A. 52, 66 Draeger, W. 206 Dräghici-Tänase 46 Dragonetti, R. 45, 46, 66 Droixhe, D. 54, 56 Drost, W. 180 Dubois, C. 50, 66, 72 Dubois, J. 52, 66 Dubois-Stasse, M. 50, 66, 72 Dubsky, J. 278, 279, 281, 282, 285 Duchäöek, J. 278, 279, 286 Duggan, J. 81, 107, 122 Dulong, G. 110, 122 Dumitrescu, D. 298 Dumont, M. A. 59, 67 Durham, S. F. 114 Duvivier, R. 46, 67

Duvosquel, J. M. 47, 53 Dvofäk, J. 279, 286 Dyggve, H. D. 254 Ebneter, T. 19, 34 Edeline, F. 66 Eder, Z. 281,286 Eddy, F. 113 Egloff, W. 24, 27, 34, 35 Elcock, W. D. 128, 134, 144, 158 Elgin, S. H. 120, 122 Eluard, P. 52 Elwert, W. T. 179, 181, 193, 199 van Emden, W. G. 143, 169 Eminescu, M. 280 Emond, P. 52, 67 Emond, V. 43, 68 Engels, J. 224,227,232,236,238,241 England, J. 140, 158 Engwall, G. 265, 267 Entwistle, W. J. 128, 129, 158 Equicola, M. 146 Ermengaud, M. 131 Ernst, G. 180, 206, 216, 217 Escoffier, S. 145 Escure, G. 116 von Essen, O. 213 Etienne, S. 51 Ettinger, S. 196, 211 Evans, D. 143, 145, 158 Evans, J. 152, 168 Ewert, A. 128, 130, 131, 132, 146, 152, 158 Fahlin, C. 254, 264, 267 Faik, S. 51, 52, 67 Falk, P. 256, 267 Faral, E. 43,63 Farcas,, L. 298, 305, 308, 314 Fauconnier, G. 116 Faulhaber, C. 115 Fedorov, A. V. 316 Felix, J. 280, 286 Felixberger, J. 214 Feller, J. 55 Fermin, M. H. J. 233, 242 Fernere, H. 64 Fiebig, W. 208 Fiedler, W. 193 Figge, U. L. 194, 219, 220 Fillmore, C. J. 136, 231 Finsterwalder, K. 189 Fisher, J. H. 82, 122

Index of Names Flamm, J. W. 202 Flasche, H. 180 Fleischman, S. 113 Fletcher, D. J. 143, 158 Flydal, L. 262, 267 Fogarasi, M. 281, 286 Foley, J. 85,100,116,120 Fonagy, I. 279, 286 Fonagy, J. 279, 286 Fontaine-Lauve, A. 66 Forir, H. 54 Forner, W. 200 Fortunatov, F. F. 295 Fortunio, G. F. 146 Fossoul-Risselin, A.-M. 55, 67 Foster, B. 143, 152, 159 Fox, J. 129, 134, 159 Francescato, G. 224, 227, 232, 234, 242, 245 Fra^ois, A. 9, 28 Frank, G. 82, 122, 179 Frank Chen, U. 114,121,122 Franzon, T. 258, 267 Freeman, M. 109 Frei, H. 13, 29, 31, 35 Friedrich, W. 178 Fucini, R. 281 von der Gabelentz, G. 186 Gabinskij, M. A. 302, 311 Gaeng, P. 90, 109, 122 Gaimar, G. 152, 153 Gak, V. G. 296,297,301,304,306,309, 310,311,315 Gäldi, L. 278, 280, 281, 282, 286-7 Galle-Dehennin, E. 59, 67 Gambarara, D. 8 Gamillscheg, E. 177, 179, 180, 181, 190, 194, 196, 197 Garcia Bardon, S. 58, 67 Garcia de la Torre, J. M. 233, 242 Gardette, P. 308 Caspar, C. 56, 67 Gauger, H. M. 180, 211 Gawetko, M. 279, 287 Gebhardt, K. 193, 194, 197 Geckeier, H. 200, 209 Geers, G. J. 236, 242 Geiger, W. 113 Geijer, P. A. 254 Geissendörfer, D. 193 von Gemmingen-Obstfelder, B. 210 Genaust, H. 217

321

Gendron, J.-D. 107,110,122 George, K. E. M. 138, 143, 159 Georges, E. S. 113 Germain, J. 41,52,55,56,67 Gerson, J. 45 Geschiere, L. 224,225,227,229,232,234, 242 Giese, W. 180, 193 Gifford, D. J. 133, 149, 159 Gillieron, J. 9, 16, 17, 31, 141, 142, 300, 301 Giot, J. 48, 53 Glasser, R. 191, 203 Gniadek, S. 279,280,281,282,287 Goddard, K. A. 130, 149, 159 Godefroy, F. 107 Goebl, H. 20, 33, 187, 200, 214, 218, 220 Gogolewski, S. 280 Gojdo, X. M. 298 Golajb, Z. 280, 287 Goldin, M. G. 98,116,121 Gonzälez-Llubera, I. 112, 149, 159 Goodman, M. 114, 122 Goosse, A. 49,50,52,57,61,67 de Gorog, R. 107,122 Gossen, C. T. 13, 14, 16, 19, 28, 35, 218, 220 Gostynski, T. 287 Gougenheim, G. 112 Gourski, A. 59 Grafschaft, W. K. 204 Graitson, M. 66 Graur, A. 297,310,311 Grayson, C. 133, 146, 158, 159 Green, G. 109,116 Green, J. N. 7, 140, 158, 159 Grogoire, A, 47, 67, 68 Greimas, A. J. 251 Greive, A. 190, 216 Grevisse, M. 48, 49, 61, 68 Griffith, T. G. 128,146,147,148,160,162 Grimm, J. 185 Grinder, J. T. 120, 122 Grisay, A. 50, 65, 72 Gröber, G. 7 de Groot, A. W. 226, 228 Gross, M. 4 Groult, P. 43, 46, 58, 68 Grundt, L. O. 264, 267 Gsell, O. 194 Guiette, R. 44, 45, 68 Guilhem de Montanhagol 131 Guillaume, G. 4, 5, 10, 48, 228, 299

322

Index of Names

Guillaume, J. 45,51,55,68 Guillen, J. 59 Guiraud, P. 137, 221, 224, 228, 229, 232, 233, 243 Guiter, H. 112 Gülich, E. 216 Gulstad, D. 87 109, 116 Gunnarson, K.-A. 266, 267 Guryceva, M. S. 297, 298, 302, 309, 311312, 316 Gysseling, M. 44, 56, 63, 69 Haarman, H. 180 Hacke«, W. M. 131, 139, 145, 160 Haden, E. F. 110,122 Hadlich, R. 97, 114, 122 Haensch, G. 178,200,211 Hafner, H. 19, 35 Haidacher, A. 180 Häla, B. 279, 287 Hall Jr., R. A. 91, 94, 95, 96, 112, 114, 120, 122 Halle, M. 99, 100, 120, 121 Hallig, R. 19, 24, 35, 54, 200, 233 Halvorsen, A. 267 Hämel, A. 179 Hamilton, R. 147, 160 Hamlin, F. R. 109, 119, 122, 133, 160 Hamm, J. 213 Hammarström, G. 120 Hamp, E. 116 Hampejs, Z. 278, 281, 282, 287, 292 Hampl, Z. 282, 287 Hamplovä, S. 282, 287 Hanart, M. 52 Hanse, J. 45, 47, 49, 50, 57, 69, 73 Hansen, A. S. 267 Hansotte, G. 44, 78 Hantrais, L. 142, 160 Haring, M. 243 Harmer, L. C. 129, 138, 160 Harris, J. W. 85,96,97,99,100,108,116, 122 Harris, M. 136, 137, 138, 140, 159 Harris, M. R. 96, 109 Harris, R. 135, 139, 144, 159 Hart, T. R. 82 Harvey, L. P. 149, 150, 160-1 Has, C. 310 Hasselrot, B. 255, 256, 267 Hathaway, E. J. 161 Hathaway, J. 119, 122, 133, 152, 160 Hauck, D. 216

Haudricourt, A. G. 94, 120, 122, 225 Haugen, E. 110, 123 Haust, J. 46, 52, 53, 54, 55, 61, 66, 69, 71 Haverkate, W. H. 229, 243 Havers, W. 214 Heger, K. 176, 212 Heike, G. 213 Heinimann, S. 13. 14, 35 Heisig, K. 190 Helbo, A. 50 Hemming, T. D. 140, 161 Hempel, W. 190 Henrichsen, A.-J. 258, 262, 267 Henry, A. 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51,55,57,58,60,61,63,69,70,76 Hensey, F. 113, 116 Herbillon, J. 50, 52, 53, 55, 56, 57, 66, 70 Herczeg, G. 280,281,287,288 Herman, J. 278, 288 Herman, S. 288 Hermann, E. 260 Herrmann, M. 212 Herzog, M. 95, 115 Hess, Z. 212 Hillen, W. 191 Hilty, G. 13, 14, 16, 22, 25, 30, 35 Hirläoanu, A. 311 Hirsch, E. 199,201,216 Hjelmslev, L. 10, 258, 265 Hockett, C. F. 115 Hodcroft, F. W. 133, 139, 16 Höfler, M. 181, 190, 193, 196, 197, 202, 203 Holden, A. J. 130, 132, 161 Holmes, U. T. 82, 122 Holtus, G. 206, 220 Hope, T. E. 146, 149, 161 HofejSi, V. 278, 279, 280, 288, 289 Hofinek, J. 279, 289 Horrent, J. 45, 46, 58, 59, 70, 71 Hostin, R. 55, 71 Houwens Post, H. 232, 234, 235, 243 Houziaux, M.-O. 55, 71 H0ybye, P. 262, 264, 265, 267 Huber, K. 13, 14, 24, 35 Hubschmid, J. 14, 16, 18, 21, 22, 33, 35, 220 Hubschmied, J. U. 9,13,14,20,21,29,35 von Humboldt, W. 5 Hunnius, K. 193, 208, 214 Hurren, H. A. 140, 161 Ileasenko, T. P. 302, 312

Index of Names Iliescu, M. 301, 309 Ineichen, G. 13, 25, 31, 35, 178, 220 lordan, I. 6, 8, 33, 127, 161, 221, 310 Isenberg, H. 198, 208 Izzo, H. 109, 115, 123 Jaberg, K. 9,13, 16, 17, 18, 23,27, 29,30, 36 Jack, W. 203 Jackson, W. T. H. 82, 123 Jacquemain, M. 59 Jacques, G. 45, 71 Jaeggi, A. 30, 36 Jakobson, R. 94, 237, 295 Jänicke, O. 16, 36, 190, 192 Jansen, S. 253, 268 Jaufer, R. 201 Jeanjaquet, J. 9 Jenkins, F. 109 Jensen, B. 253, 268 Jensen, F. 119, 123 Jensen, J. S. 260, 263, 268 Jochems, H. 195 Jodogne, O. 42, 44, 45, 50, 52, 56, 57, 71 Jodogne, P. 45,46,71 Johansen, S. 253, 268 Johnston, R. C. 131, 132, 134, 161 Jolivet, R. 31,36 Jonas, P. 48, 71 Jones, C. 160 Jonxis-Henkemans, W. L. 236, 243 Joppich-Hagemann, U. 192 Joset, J. 46 Joubert, L 135 Jouret, J. 48, 50, 64 Jud, J. 9,13,16,17,18,21, 22, 24, 27, 29, 30,36 Juilland, A. 94, 120, 122, 123 Juneau, M. 110, 123 Jungemann, F. H. 115,123 Junker, A. 196, 215 Kahane, H. 116 Kahn, F. 31,36 Kantorowicz, E. H. 113 Karpov, N. P. 297, 312 Karulin, J. 312 Kasatkin, A. A. 296, 312 Kastner, L. E. 133, 161 KatagoSoina, N. A. 297, 298, 299. 312 Kayne, R. 116 Kelemen, J. 278,279,289 Keller, H. E. 46, 179, 232, 233, 234, 243

323

Keller. J . E . 82 Keller, O. 9, 16. 19 Kerkhof, M. P. A. M. 243 Kessler, H. 191 Kiddle, L. B. 96 Kiefer, F. 211 Kielski, B. 278, 279. 289 Kim, T. W. 109 King, R. D. 88, 100, 120. 123 Kiparsky, P. 100 Kiss, S.' 278. 289 Kjellmann, H. 254, 268 Klare. F. 198 Klaus, M. 280. 289 Klausenburger, J. 86. 100, 109, 111, 116. 123 Klein, H. G. 208 Klein, H.-W. 180, 189, 212, 215, 216 Klein, J. R. 51 Klenk, U. 216 Klepikova, G. P. , 316 Klinkenberg, J. M. 47, 48. 52, 66, 7l Kloepfer, R. 181 Klum, A. 258, 260, 261, 265, 268 Knecht, P. 28, 36 Knops, J. P. H. 236, 244 Knudson, C. A. 82 Koch, W. 194 Koenig, F. 107, 123 KokoSkina, S. A. 309 Kontzi, R. 209, 216 Kordi, E. 312 Körner, K. H. 180 Korth, U. 192 Kotelnik, E. 312 Kotschi, T. 209 van der Krabben, H. D. M. 236, 244 von Kraemer, E. 254, 268 Kramer, J. 191 Kramsky, J. 281, 289 Krauss, W. 190 Kremer, D. 201 Kremnitz, G. 214 Krenn,H. 207 Kfepinsky, M. 278, 279, 280, 289, 290 Krings, H. 191,204 Krohmer, U. 193 Kroll, H. 179, 204, 210 Krüger, F. 190, 191, 194, 200 Krüger, H. 191 Kruijsen, T. J. W. M. 233 Kuen, H. 180, 189, 190, 197 Kuhfuss, W. 190

324

Index of Names

K ü h n , A . 179, Kukenheim, L. Kurytowicz, J. Kvavik. K. H. Kvapil, J. 278,

188, 189, 201 224, 228, 235, 244 115, 278, 279, 282, 290 113, 123 290

Labhardt, A. 216 Labib, G. 216 Labov, W. 95,96,115 Lachmann, K. 5 Lafont, R. 315 Lakoff, R. 116 Lallemand-Rietkötter, A. 211 Landheer, R. 229, 244 Langacker, R. 116, 120 Lange, W.-D. 180 Längfors, A. 254 Laroche, D. 45, 71 Larochette, J. 49, 71 Lass, R. 100 Latin, B. 50 Laugesen, A. T. 258, 268 Laurent, J.-L. 56, 71, 72 Lausberg, H. 178, 179, 186, 189, 190, 199 de Lavallaz, L. 29, 36 Lavis, G. 50, 52, 66, 72 Lebek, H. 279, 290 Lechanteur, J. 41,45,52,53,55,72 Lecoy, F. 106, 123 Lees, R. B. 230 Legare, L. 111,125 Legge, M. D. 130,131,144,150,152,153, 161 Legros, E. 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 61, 65, 66, 68, 71, 72 Legros, G. 52, 55 Lehmann, R. 29, 36 Lehmann, W. P. 95, 115, 123 Lejeune, R. 45, 46 Lemaire de Beiges, J. 45 Lenghardt, M. 282, 290 Lenoble-Pjnson, M. 51 L6on, P. R. 110, 113, 123 Leonard, C. S. 114, 123, 124 Leonard, L. 54, 72 Lepschy, A. L. 139, 162 Lepschy, G. C. 135, 139, 162, 297 Lerch, E. 262 Lerond, A. 55, 72 Leroy, A, 47, 50 Leube, E. 178 Levelt, W. J. M. 226, 230, 244

Levy, A. K. 113 Levy, R. 130 Lewicka, H. 278, 279, 282, 290 Lewicki, T. 278,290 Libiez, A. 56, 72 Liebenhagen, W. 207 Liehr, U. 209 Linder, K. P. 205 Lindley Cintra, L. F. 7 Linskill, J. 130,131,162 Linthorst, P. 226, 227, 244 Liver, R. 19, 36 Lloyd, P. 109,113 Lobeck, K. 19, 36 LoCascio, V. 59,72,229,231,244 Löfstedt, E. 255, 268 Löfstedt, L. 255, 268 Lombard, A. 255, 268 Lommatzsch, E. 107, 181 Long,M. 116 Long, R. 116 L0nning, P. 253, 268 Lope Blanch, J. M. 109 Lopez Morales, H. 110 Louant, A. 45, 73 Lozinska, M. 279, 290 Lozovan, E. 257, 268 Luciani, V. 82 Lüdtke, H. 190, 191, 194, 213, 218, 219 Lüdtke, J. 211 Lujän, M. 113, 116, 124 Lurati, O. 16, 28, 31, 36 Luxt, L. I. 297, 302, 304, 312 Lyer, S. 282, 290 Maas, U. 199 Macaulay, R. K. S. 99, 124 Machiavelli, N. 281 Mackenzie, F. 148, 162 Mackey, W. F. 57 McMillan, D. 130, 141, 142, 145, 162 Macpherson, I. R. 135, 139, 144, 162 Maegaard, B. 265, 266, 268 Mahmoudian, M. 31,36-37 Mäher, P. 116 Maierhofer, I. 205 Mair, W. 180, 199 Makovskij, M. M. 310 Maldcot, A. 113 Maler, B. 254, 268 Malkiel, Y. 5, 22, 33, 85, 88, 89, 95, 96, 101, 109, 111, 112, 113, 115, 120, 123,

Index of Names 124,221,232,297,312,313 Malmberg, B. 254, 265, 268, 269 Manczak, W. 278, 279, 281, 282, 290, 291 de Mandach, A. 25, 26, 37, 119 Manet, D. 53, 66 Mantou, R. 44, 45, 49, 50, 73 Manuzio, A. 146 Manzoni, A. 146, 147, 281 Maquet, A. 50, 57, 59 Marcos Marin, F. 4, 8 Marin, V. 313 Marshall, J. H. 131,162 Martin, J . W . 119,120,126 Martin, P. 113,123 Martin, R. 4, 8 Martinet, A. 10, 31, 94, 95, 112,114,119, 120, 124, 229, 263 Marx, K. 299 Marzys, Z. (Olszyna-) 19, 37 Massart, R. 44, 77 Massonnet, J. 54 Mattoso Cämara Jr., J. 120 Mätzler, M. C. 201 Mauriac, F. 253 Mayer, E. N. 119, 124 Mayer, H. E. 180 Mayerthaler, W. 186,195,211 van der Meerschen, J. M. 59 Meier, H. 179, 180, 190, 191, 192, 203. 208 Meiklejohn, M. F. 139, 143, 162 Meillet, A. 26, 27 Meisel, J. M. 206 Mejlax, M. B. 313 Melander, J. 254, 256, 268 Mel'cuk, I. A. 313 Mellor, G. 132, 162 Mendeloff, H. 86, 109, 119, 124 Menendez-Pidal, R. 4, 5, 113 Meney, R. 4, 8 Merimee, P. 149 Mertens, F. J. 49, 50 Merlo, C. 12 Messelaar, P. A. 50,51,73,233,244 Messner, D. 181,197 Mettmann, W. 190 Metzeltin, M. 13, 16 Meyer, P. 116, 244 Meyer-Hermann, R. 208 Meyer-Lübke, W. 9, 17, 26, 29, 93 Michael,!. 130,131,162 Michaelson, K. 255, 269

325

Migliorini, B. 128, 162 Mihäescu, H. 313 Militz, H. M. 190 Minguet, P. 66 Miron, P. 212 Mirska, H. 280, 291 Misrahi, J. 82 Mistral, F. 46 Mixal'ci, D. E. 296, 313 Mocanu, N. 312 Moestrup, S. 253 Möhle, D. 208 Mohren, F. 190 Moignet, G. 228 Mok, Q. 224, 226, 229, 233, 245 Mönch, W. 180 Mongeau, P. 120 Monnot, M. 113 Moors, J. 44 Morales, H. L. 110 Morawska, L. 278, 291 M0rdrup, O. 262, 266, 269 Moreau, M.-L. 47, 50, 73 Morf, H. 9 Morin, Y.-C. 116,124-125 Morpurgo, E. 245 Monier, R. 45, 63, 64, 73 Moss, H. K. 162 Moura, F. 59, 73 Mourin, L. 41, 44, 45, 46, 58, 59, 60, 65, 73 Mudimbe, V. 50 Muljacic, Z. 189 Muller, H. F. 90 Müller, B. 178, 195, 213, 214 Müller, K. L. 191,210 Müller, M. 19, 29, 37 Müller, W. 202 Munot, P. 48, 52, 53 Muraille, G. 41 Muret, E. 14, 15 de Musset, A. 148, 280 Nagel, R. 204, 219 Nandris,, G. 129, 162 Napoli, D. J. 116 Naro, A. 6 Narr, G. 179, 193 Navarro, J. M. 180 Nazarjan, A. G. 313 Nerlich, M. 178, 220 de Nerval, G. 51,253 Neubert, K. 203

326

Index of Names

Paufler, H.-D. 197, 200, 206, 207 Pausch, O. 216 Pavel, T. 116 Pavlfkovä, S. 291 Pazuxin, R. V. 315 Pedersen, J. 253, 270 Pei, M. 90,112 Peirol 131 Peisker, R.-M. 205 Pelan, M. 145, 163 Pelchat, R. 111,125 Pellegrini, G. 115 Pelz, H. 217 Penny, R. J. 135, 140, 145, 163 Perl, M. 182 Perlmutter, D. 116 Peter, H. 190 Petrarch, F. 147 Petrova, N. V. 302, 307, 313 Petrucci, A. 245 O'Brien, R. 313 Peuser, G. 208 Ocampo Marin, J. 200 Pfister, M. 14,16, 19, 22, 25, 37,182, 220 Ochman, D. 280, 291 Offord, M. H. 137, 163 Piaget, A. 25 Pichois, C. 69 d'Offray, D. 206 Pichon, E. 261 Olbert, J. 178 Fiel, J. M. 180, 190, 191, 201, 202 Olsen, B. M. 257, 269 Pieltain, P. 47, 49 Olsen, C. L. 109, 113, 123 Pierce, F. 131,163 Olsen, H. 257, 270 Pierret, J.-M. 54, 55, 74 Olsson, K. 266, 269 Pike, K. 31 Olsson, L. 262, 269 Pinon, R. 56, 72 Ondräöek, J. 281,291 Piotrovskij, R. G. 297, 302, 307, 313-314 Oosterbeck, H. 223 Pire, F. 66 Oostendorp, H. T. 233, 245 Piron, M. 41,45,46,47,50,51,55,56,57, Orkin, M. M. 110, 125 61,74 Orr, J. 8, 33, 127, 141,142,147, 148, 154, Pirot, F. 47, 58, 74 155, 161, 163, 221, 310 Pivec, K. 180 Osträ, R. 278, 280, 291 Pizzinini, A. 199 Otero, C.-P. 97, 112, 116, 125 Plachy, Z. 279, 282, 291 Otten, M. 52 Plangg, G. 178, 179, 199, 201, 219 d'Outremeuse, J. 44 von Planta, R. 12, 13, 14, 15, 37 Ouweneel, G. R. E. 244 Plomteux, H. 59, 74 Owen, A. 152, 163 Pohl, J. 41, 47, 49, 50, 57, 58, 74 Poläk, V. 278, 280, 282, 291 Paff, T. 116 Politzer, R. L. 90, 109, 111, 112, 120 Paiva , . 7 Polivkovä, Z. 279, 291 Palmer, L. R. 129, 163 Pollak, W. 208 Panfilov, E. D. 313, 316 Poncelet, E. 44 Paquot, A. 109, 110 Pop, S. 58, 60, 75 Paquot, M. 49 Pope, M. K. 86, 128, 132, 152, 153, 154, Paris, G. 60, 150 163-164 Pascal, B. 143, 253 Popinceanu, I. 196 Patterson, G. 116 Porfirio Sanchez, A. 235 Pattison, D. G. 133, 145, 163 Newcombe, T. 131,162 Nexendzi, B. D. 297, 313 Nichols, S. G. 81, 125 Niederehe, H.-J. 202 Niekirk, P. J. 229, 245 Nies, F. 190 Nikolaeva, S. P. 309 Nilsson-Ehle, H. 262, 263, 269 N0jgaard, M. 253, 264, 269 Noomen, W. 236, 237, 245, 249 Nopere, R. 54 Norberg, D. 255, 269 Nordahl, H. 262, 263, 265, 269 Novak, L. 313 Noyer-Weidner, A. 177, 180 Nurmela, T. 254, 269 Nykrog, P. 253, 269 Nyrop, K. 257, 269

Index of Names Porzig, W. 260 Posner, R. 6, 8, 9, 33, 62, 110, 112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 120, 125, 128, 134, 135,136,138,161,164,186,221,297,310 Postal, P. 116, 125 Poston, L. 130 Potebnja, A. A. 295 Pettier, B. 110 Pourrat, H. 52 van Praag, J. A. 232 Prangsma - Hajenius, A. M. L. 236, 245 Prebensen, H. 265, 268, 270 Price, G. 129,130,136,137,139,147,148, 156, 164 Prinz, J. 202 Prior, O. H. 150, 164 von Proschwitz, G. 253, 270 Przestaszewski, L. 279, 191 Pujol, M. P. 167 Pulgram, E. 95, 115, 120, 125 Pullum, G. K. 135, 164 Pupier, P. 109,111,125 Quadri, B. 23, 37 Quemada, B. 130, 169 Quentin, D. 131 Quicoli, A. C. 116 Racine, J. 138, 168 Radford, A. 136, 139, 164, 165 Rädulescu, I. E. 147 Raether, M. 209 Raible, W. 216 Raimbaut de Vaqueiras 131 Raimon de Miraval 131 Raimon de Vidal 131 Ramat, P. 8 Ramsden, H. 135, 139, 165 Rankin, R. 116 Rasmussen, J. 253, 270 Rattunde, E. 215 Rauhut, F. 208 Raupach, M. 216 Read, M. K. 148, 165 Redenbarger, W. 116 Rees, J. W. 133, 144, 165 Reforovskaja, E. A. 297, 302, 306, 314 Regula, M. 189, 190, 262 Reichenberger, K. 203 Reichenkron, G. 179, 189, 194 Reichling, A. 228, 229 Reid, T. W. 132, 133, 137, 138, 142, 143, 144, 165

327

Reiner, E. 207 Reinheimer-Ripeanu, S. 308 Remacle, L. 45, 47, 49, 51, 53, 55, 61, 75, 218 Remacle, M. 52 Remouchamps, J. M. 53, 65 Remy, P. 42, 46, 75 Renard, E. 44, 45, 46, 56, 71, 75, 76 Renard, R. 48, 58, 75 Renart, J. 145 Renchon,H. 48, 75 Rensch, K. H. 194, 200 Renson, J. 46,51,58,76 Repina, T. A. 297, 298, 314 Rettig, W. 212 Rey, A. 113 Reynolds, B. 147, 165 Reynvoet, J. P. 49, 50 Rheinfelder, H. 179, 180, 183 Rhys, S. D. 147 Richter, E. 90, 125 von Richthofen, E. 180 Rickard, P. 129, 133, 136, 138, 144, 160, 165, 166 Ricketts, P. T. 119, 122, 131, 133, 160, 161, 166 Ricken, U. 190 Rico, F. 124 de Rijk-Tasmowski 49, 52 Rimbaud, A. 51 Ringenson, K. 264, 269 Ritchie, R. L. G. 136, 155, 166 Rivero, M.-L. 116 Robertson, J. 297 Robinson, S. 110, 126 Robson, C. A. 130, 132, 133, 134, 135, 142, 143, 145, 147, 161, 166 Roca i Pons, J. 82 Röchet, B. 85,86,95,100,109,111,112 Rohlfs, G. 21, 179, 180, 181, 182, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 192, 193, 194, 199, 200, 204 Rohr, R. 181, 194 Rohrer, C. 178,181,211,213 Roizenblit, R. B. 311 Rokseth, P. 253, 270 Roldän, M. 116 Romeo, L. 94, 95, 115, 120, 125 Rommel, A. 190 Ronsjö, E. 254, 262, 270 de Rooy, F. C. 245 Rosenblat, A. 109 Rosetti, A. 308

328

Index of Names

RoSka, F. J. 302, 309, 314 Ross, D. J. A. 144, 166 Roth, W. 191, 195 Rothe, W. 189, 209, 212, 215 Rothwell, W. 138,139,140,142,143,144, 145, 151, 152, 153, 154, 166, 167, 168 Roudil, J. 245,246 Roulet, E. 13,31,37 Roumanille, J. 58 Rousseau, F. 70 Rudnyokyj, J. B. 110, 125 Rudolph, E. 208 Ruelle, P. 43,44,46,47,48,49,50,52,54, 55,56,57,61,76 Ruggieri, R. M. 8 Ruhl, E. 180 Riihl, K. 180 Ruiz i Calonja, J. 82 Runkewitz, W. 196 Runnalls, G. A. 132, 167 Ruppert, H. 204 Russell-Gebbett, P. 133, 140, 167 Ruwet, N. 41, 116, 181 Rychner, J. 13, 25, 26, 29, 30, 37, 43, 76 Sabrsula, J. 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 291, 292 Saciuk, B. 97, 116, 121, 125 Saint-John Perse 51 Salinas, P. 59 Sallager, E. 180 Saltarelli, M, 97,98,116,125 Salverda de Grave, J. J. 225, 232, 234, 235, 246 Salviati, L. 146 Salvioni, C. 9, 12, 13, 17 Sammet, D. 205 Sampson, R. 133, 167 Sanchez de Zavala, V. 4, 8, 116 Sandfeld, K. 257, 258, 259, 270 Saporta, S. 120 Sas, L. F. 90 Saunders, H. 138, 167 Saumjan, S. K. 295, 302, 314 de Saussure, F. 10, 30, 31, 32, 60, 186, 276 Sävborg,T. 255,270 Saxmatov, A. A. 295 Scaglione, A. 82, 109 Scerba, L. V. 295, 314 Schalk, F. 177, 178, 190, 205 Schane, S. A. 85, 97, 116, 120, 125, 135 Scharlau, B. 216

Schecker, M. 217 Scheel, H. L. 219, 220 Scheuermeier, P. 9, 13, 27, 37 Schifko, P. 208 Schlack, S. 200 Schlieben-Lange, B. 208, 214 Schleyer, J. D. 191 Schlyter, B. 254, 270 Schmid, A. 201 Schmid, H. 14, 15, 18, 22, 37 Schmidt-Knäbel, S. 209 Schmitt, C. 189, 190, 193 Schneider, B. 178 Schneider, E. 201 Schneider, K. D. 199, 214 Schneider, K. H. 180 Schobben, J. M. G. 236, 246 Schogt, H. G. 95,125, 224, 225, 226, 228, 229, 246 Scholler, H. 205 Schön, I. 195 Schöneweiss, H. G. 202 Schorta, A. 13, 15, 37, 38 Schrader, L. 178 Schreurs, F. 71 Schroeder, K. H. 209, 210, 219 Schroten, J. D. W. 231,246 Schuchard, B. 191 Schuchardt, H. 27, 90, 91, 187, 206 Schuh,H. M. 217 Schule, E. 11, 12, 19, 22, 38 Schule, R. C. 29, 38 Schulten, C. M. 234, 246 Schultink, H. 230, 231, 246 Schumacher, de Pena, G. 191 Schunck, P. 180 Schurr, F. 194, 195, 200 Schütz, A. 193 Schütz, H. 220 Schwarze, C. 211 Schwerteck, H. 203 Sciarone, A. G. 227, 230, 233, 246 Sebeok, T. A. 8,125, 126 Sechehaye, A. 9, 13, 28, 30 Sekvent, K. 280, 292 Sempoux, A. 46, 50, 59, 76 §erban, F. 308 Sergievskij, M. V. 295, 314 Sestäk, A. 279, 292 Sganzini, S. 9, 12 Shirt, D. J. 138, 167 Short, I. 152, 167 Shyirambere, S. 47

Index of Names Sieczkowski, A. 279, 292 Sigarevskaja, N. A. 297, 314 da Silva Neto, M. 6 Simon, H. 56, 76 Simon, H. J. 199 Simonis, A. G. P. 233 Simonis, F. 204 de Simpel 54 Siämarev, V. F. 295, 296, 314, 315 Skaarup, P. 258, 270 Skousen, R. 85, 109, 116 Skrelina, L. M. 297, 299, 304, 306, 314, 315 Skultety, J. 278, 280, 282, 292 Skvorcova, O. 312 Sletsj0e, L. 258, 270 Smeets, J.-R. 236, 246 Smificky, L. 281,292 Smith, C. C. 130,131,142,167 Smith, D. 110, 126 Smrökovä, J. 278,280,281,292,293 Sneyders de Vogel, K. 227, 232, 236, 246 Sneydersde Vogel, Jr., K. 247 Snyder, E. 111 Södergaard, O. 254 Soff, I. 195 Soll, L. 190, 202, 212, 214, 219 Soltmann, H. 262 Sonet, J. 43, 44, 76 Sor, E. N. 305, 315 Sorbalä, V. S. 316 Stfrensen, H. 270 Spang-Hanssen, E. 264, 266, 268, 270 Speer, M. 5, 8 Spence, N. C. W. 120,129, 130, 134,137, 142, 144, 167, 168 Spiele, I. 247 Spiess, F. 12, 19, 38 Spitaels, J. 51 Spitzer, L. 91 Spitzovä, E. 282, 293 Spoerri, T. 25 Spore, P. 258, 270 Sprissler, M. 219 Stammerjohann, H. 212 Stan, I. T. 312 Stavinohovä, Z. 279, 293 Stefenelli, A. 180, 190, 205 Stefenelli-Fürst, F. 205 Steiger, A. 9, 13, 25, 113 Stein, G. 208 Stempel, W. D. 180, 197, 203, 204, 215 Sten, H. 258, 260, 262, 270, 271

329

Stendhal 149 Stepanov, G. V. 297, 298, 299, 301, 310, 315, 316 Stepanov, J. S. 299, 302, 315 Stevenson, C. H. 129, 168 Stimm, H. 65, 177, 180, 190, 192, 199, 203, 205, 216 Stobitzer, H. 217 Stockwell, R. P. 99,119,124,126 Stone, L. W. 154, 168 Storey, C. 130, 168 Storing, H. 202 Storost, J. 190, 196 Strack, W. 210 Straka, G. 6, 107, 110 Studemund, M. 180, 220 Studer, P. 133, 150, 152, 153, 168 Stuip, R. E. V. 236, 247 Suggett, H. 151, 168 Sulhan, J. 281,282,293 de Sully, M. 130 Suner, M. 116 Suprun, A. 315 Sutherland, D. R. 138, 142, 168 Suxacev, N. L. 309 Svenson, L.-O. 255, 271 Svoboda, J. 281,293 Szabics, I. 279, 280, 293 Szabo, R. 116 Tagliavini, C. 189 Tamäs, L. 277,280,281,293 Tanase, E. 310 Tanquerey, F. J. 150, 168 Tappolet, E. 29 Tausch, A. 200 Taylor, A. 113 Techtmeier, B. 210 Teilhard de Chardin, P. 50 Telegdi, Z. 221 Terlingen, J. H. 234, 247 Teschner, R. V. 110 Tesniere, L. 51 Thele, J. 190 Thiele, A. 265 Thierbach, A. 203 Thimonnier, R. 48 Thiry-Stassin, M. 43, 77 Thisquen, J. 44, 77 Thomas (author of Romance of Horn) Thomas, J. 43, 45, 50, 77 Thomas of Kent 152 Thomas, W. 147

152

330

Index of Names

Tichy, . 279, 281, 282, 293 Van Nuffel, R. 46, 59, 77 Tiefenthaler, E. 179, 201 Väscenco, V. 316 Tilander, G. 255, 271 Vasil'eva, N. M. 298, 316 Tobler, A. 9, 107, 181 Vasil'eva (-Svede), O. K. 297, 298, 316 Togeby, K. 120, 251, 253, 258, 260, 261, Vasiliu, E. 120 262, 263, 264, 271 Vassilieva, A. K. 297, 314 Veenstra, H. D. 227, 247 Tolomei, C. 146 Venckeleer, T. 50, 77 Tomsovä, H. 282, 293 Vennemann, T. 100 Tomuja, L. 309 Vercauteren, F. 70 Topsfield, L. T. 131, 168 Vercruysse, J. 45, 77, 78 Toussaint, G. 56 Verdoodt, A. 57, 78 Trend, J. B. 129, 168 Verhuyck, P. E. R. 236, 247 Trethewey, J. 148 Verlaine, P. 51 Trettner, U. 204 Trinon, H. 66 Verlee, P. 50, 78 Vermeer, H. J. 214 Trissino, G. 146, 160 Vermeer-Pardoen, J. M. 237, 247 Trousson, R. 77 Vermes, C. 54 Trubetzkoy, N. S. 295 Vermeylen 58 Truszkowski, W. 280, 293 Verna, A. 120, 121 Tuaülon, G. 4, 8 Vernay, H. 180, 181 Tuchel, H. G. 202 Verschoor, J. A. 228, 247 Tuttle, E. F. 113 Vicente, A. Z. 109 Tyssens, M. 43, 45, 77 Victorio, J. 58 Vidos, B. E. 22, 33, 189, 223, 224, 232, Uc Faidit 131 233, 234, 235, 239, 247, 248 Udler, R. J. 297,302,309,311,315-6 Vieu-Kuik, H. J. 234, 248 Uhlenbeck, E. M. 228, 230, 247 de Vigny, A. 148, 149 Uhlif, V. 278, 279, 292, 294 Vikner, C. 265, 266, 268, 271 Uitti, K. 81, 126 Vilde-Lot, I. 309 Ulleland, M. 263, 271 Ullmann, S. 29,136, 138, 140, 148, 168-9 Villon, F. 238 Vinaver, E. 131, 133, 169 Ulrich, J. 25 Vinay, J.-P. 110, 126 de Unamuno, M. 59 Vincent, A. 56, 78 Vincent, E. R. 146, 169 Väänänen, V. 254, 255 Vinogradov, V. V. 311 Vachek, J. 225, 247 Vinteler, O. 302, 313 Vaksman (Vacsman), B. I. 299, 316 Vising, J. 254 de Valdes, J. 147 Vivier, R. 46, 78 Valdman, A. 111, 113, 114, 116, 126 Vlasäk, V. 279, 294 Valery, P. 51 Vogel, I. 205 Valesio, P. 86, 109, 116 Voillat, F. 28, 38 Välikangas, O. 262, 271 Vol'f, E. M. 297, 302, 303, 312, 316 Valkhoff, M. 234, 235, 247 Volox, M. G. 309 Van Bever, P. 59, 77 van der Vorst, P. 47 Vance, E. 83, 109 Vossler, K. 28, 91, 127 Van Deyck, R. 43, 45, 46, 65, 77 Van Deyck-Bauwens, R. 46, 65 Wace 130, 234 Vanek, A. L. 112 Wagner, M. L. 21,181,182,189,190,195, Van Hoorenbeck, M. 47, 65 209 Van Hout, G. 50, 77 Wahlberg, E. 254, 271 Van Lerberghe, C. 51 Wahlund, C. 254 Vannerus, J. 56, 70 Wais, K. 180 Vanneste, A. 47, 52, 57, 77

Index of Names Walker, D. C. 86, 95, 100, 109, 117, 126 Walravens, C. J. H. 236, 248 Walter of Bibbesworth 152 Wandruszka, M. 180, 210, 213, 217 Wandruszka, U. 209,211 Wang, M. C. 98, 116, 121 Wanner, D. 85,98,109,116,125 Warland, J. 53 Warnant, L. 42, 48, 49, 53, 54, 55, 57, 78 von Wartburg, W. 9,13,14,15,16,19,21, 22, 23, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38, 46, 54, 177, 179, 180, 233 Waters, E. G. R. 131, 132, 133, 152, 168, 169 Wathelet-Willem, J. 45 Watkin, M. 155, 169 Weber, K, 215 Weerenbeck, B. H. J. 225, 248 Weidhase-Sengle, R. 211 Weinreich, U. 95,115 Weinrich, H. 176, 179, 190, 194, 207, 215 Weinsberg, A. 280, 294 Weiss, R. 25, 38, 146, 169 Weller, F.-R. 220 Welslau, E. 202 Wenker, G. 186 Weynen, A. A. 234 Wexler, P. J. 130, 142, 169 Whinnom, K. 142, 149, 169 Whitehead, F. 130, 131, 132, 142, 169 Whitfield, J. H. 139, 144, 169 Widlak, S. 278, 281, 294 Widmer, A. 19, 38 Wieter, W. 200 van Wijk, H. L. A. 232, 234, 235, 248 Wilhelm, J. 65, 177, 180, 190 William of Briane 152 Williams, E. B. 119, 126 Wilmet, M. 41,47,48,49,78 Wilmotte, M. 42, 60

331

Wilshere, A. D. 161 Wilson, R. M. 150, 169 Wind, B. H. 225. 227, 234, 236. 248 Windisch, R. 195 Winkelmann, O. 181,219 Wittoch, Z. 280, 281, 294 Woledge, B. 137. 170 Wolf, H. J. 180, 196 Wolf, L. 181, 204 Wolf, S. 190 Woll, D. 190 Wood, R. 129, 159 Woodhouse, J. R. 146, 170 Worth, D. S. 230 Wright, R. 135, 143, 170 Wüest, J. 19, 25, 39 Wuilmart, C. 48, 75 Wulff, F. 271 Wunderli, P. 12, 25, 30, 39, 217, 220 Xol'max, L. V. 316 Yans, M. 44, 56, 78 Zahn, J. M. 214 Zamora Vicente, A. 110 Zastrow, D. 204 Zawadowski, L. 279, 294 Zeli, R. 19, 29, 39 Zichovä, M. 279, 294 Zima, J. 279, 294 Zimmer, R. 215 Zirmunskij, V. M. 113.313 van Zoest, A. J. A. 237, 248 Zumthor, P. 227, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 249 Zvegincev, V. A. 297, 310 Zwaenepoel, R. 43, 65, 77 Zwanenburg, W. 226, 229, 231, 233, 244, 249