Translation and Power 3631823118, 9783631823118

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Translation and Power

STUDIES IN LINGUISTICS, ANGLOPHONE LITERATURES AND CULTURES Edited by Robert Kiełtyka and Agnieszka Uberman Advisory Board: Réka Benczes (Budapest, Hungary) Zoltán Kövecses (Budapest, Hungary) Anna Malicka-Kleparska (Lublin, Poland) Sándor Martsa (Pécs, Hungary) Rafał Molencki (Katowice, Poland) Tadeusz Rachwał (Warsaw, Poland) Elżbieta Rokosz-Piejko (Rzeszów, Poland) Slávka Tomaščíková (Košice, Slovakia)

VOLUME 27

Notes on the quality assurance and peer review of this publication Prior to publication, the quality of the work published in this series is reviewed by the editors and members of Advisory Board of the series.

Lucyna Harmon / Dorota Osuchowska (eds.)

Translation and Power

Bibliographic Information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available online at http://dnb.d-nb.de. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A CIP catalog record for this book has been applied for at the Library of Congress.

This publication was financially supported by the University of Rzeszów.

Printed by CPI books GmbH, Leck

ISSN 2364-7558 ISBN 978-3-631-82311-8 (Print) E-ISBN 978-3-631-82831-1 (E-PDF) E-ISBN 978-3-631-82832-8 (EPUB) E-ISBN 978-3-631-82833-5 (MOBI) DOI 10.3726/b17222 © Peter Lang GmbH Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften Berlin 2020 All rights reserved. Peter Lang – Berlin ∙ Bern ∙ Bruxelles ∙ New York ∙ Oxford ∙ Warszawa ∙ Wien All parts of this publication are protected by copyright. Any utilisation outside the strict limits of the copyright law, without the permission of the publisher, is forbidden and liable to prosecution. This applies in particular to reproductions, translations, microfilming, and storage and processing in electronic retrieval systems. This publication has been peer reviewed. www.peterlang.com

Preface Like many other human activities, translation is related to different forms of power. It can be the ability to control and set the rules. With written translations of significant works of culture, it has often been the powerholders who supported and promoted or impeded them, depending on their own preferences or their understanding of the actual sociopolitical needs. The powerholders in question are individual or collective decision-makers at various levels of the sociopolitical hierarchy who determine the policies and allocate funds for approved projects. Topics related to the impact of this sort of power on translation are abundant in translation studies. However, in the last two decades, some less obvious aspects of power-related issues in translation attracted scholarly interest, without supplanting the abovementioned ones, for instance, the translator’s and writer’s gender in the light of male domination, hidden language manipulations as a translation challenge, translating and interpreting the languages of minorities, the translator’s and interpreter’s manipulation of power or interpretation in extreme situations. This collection of chapters is meant to illustrate the current trends in research on translation and power. The volume is divided into Introduction and three “corners”, according to the major thematic focus. The borderlines between them are blurred, though, and most chapters could be allocated otherwise. In the Introduction, Lucyna Harmon outlines the various relationships between translation and power for academic purposes, and endeavours to determine the research scope that falls under the umbrella title, Translation and Power. The Political Corner includes the chapters that illustrate the impact of politics on translation through examples of selected issues in a broad context. Lada Kolomiyets analyses the implementation of Russification in literary translation with reference to the works of Nikolai Gogol, Ethel Lilian Voynich and Jack London. Valentyna Savchyn describes the activity of a prominent Ukrainian translator Mykola Lukash in the face of a totalitarian system. Oleksandr Kanlychenko and Nataliia Kalnychenko present the Soviet translation policies in the light of the new function of translations as an instrument of consolidation in the Soviet Union republics around Russia. Jordi JanéLligé discusses the role of the Catalan publishing house Edicions 62 within the Catalan publishing world and some difficulties related to the translation of essays into Catalan through the example of the essay by Herbert Marcuse L’home unidimensional. Daniel Martín-González explores the retranslation of educational books for children from English into Judeo-Spanish, meant as teaching materials in a Protestant school. Iryna Odrekhivska highlights the role of translators in the Habsburg times as creators of a new “metalanguage” in the sense of restructuring and generating new codes of communication oriented towards their vernacular language. Antony Hoyte-West analyses the possible impact of EU recognition for Luxembourgish from a translation and interpreting-based perspective, taking

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into account issues such as the availability of suitable translator and interpreter training programmes. Marzena Chrobak attempts to answer the question of what power interpreters have and what power they are subjected to in a contemporary armed conflict. Vinai Kumar Donthula outlines the impact of power on translation practice in the history of translation. The Literary Corner contains the chapters that focus on the influence of power on writers, their work and literary life. Oleksandr Rebrii deals with the notion of sacralization as an artistic device in a dystopian novel, with emphasis on the linguistic-stylistic means of sacralization and specifics of their reproduction in translation. Maria Puri examines five translations of Arundhati Roy’s novel, The Ministry of Utmost Happiness, with focus on its political message. Ganna Tashchenko discusses the construction of gender identity in English-Ukrainian translation, based upon Cunningham’s novel The Hours. Neslihan Kansu Yetkiner and Ilgın Aktener discuss the means through which translation serves as an image-building tool with ideological and cross-cultural implications.Yulia Naniak analyses the perception of the characters in the Ukrainian, British and American translations of Goethe’s Faust. Mariia Bondarenko outlines the translation and critical reception of James Joyce’s prose works in 20th-century Ukraine. Monika Browarczyk presents a selection of Adam Zagajewski’s poems translated for the first time into Hindi, with a focus on institutional patrons in the process of translation. The linguistic corner accommodates the chapters that deal with the reflection of power relationships in language. Dorota Osuchowska illustrates the use of language as a manifestation of gender inequality through the example of the Polish translation of Tess Gerritsen’s novel Rizzoli and Isles Series. Iryna Frolova describes an experimental study that aims to test the usability of machine translation as an alternative to human translation. Nadiia Andreichuk explores the readjustment of chronosigns in the process of translational semiosis, which is discussed on the basis of the English translation of Ivan Franko’s “Moses”. Bogdana Stoika describes the shared and distinctive features of the representation of “powerful verbs” on government portals. Magda Kabiri examines self-presentation strategies in terms of self-presentemes and the translator’s role in their preservation. Marta Bołtuć discusses the relationship between the English-speaking world, the process of globalization and Global English. Olha Zhulavska and Alla Martynuk report the results of cognitive translation analysis revealing cognitive models and operations that underpin linguistic expression of 1000 English synesthetic metaphors from modern English-language fiction and their Ukrainian translations. Olesia Borysova deals with some grammatical issues in legal documents translation in the context of globalization, on the basis of the original version of the Association Agreement between the EU and Ukraine and its Ukrainian translation. Vladyslava Demetska argues that adequate translation of a pragmatic text is not possible unless it is adapted to the linguistic and cultural stereotypes of the target audience. Liudmyla Slavova looks at the use of linguistic, rhetoric and communicative means by politicians who

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implement their basic strategies, among them positive self-representation and discreditation of opponents. With this variety of topics and approaches, we hope to have covered a wide range of issues implied by the title of the present book. The Editors

Contents List of Contributors ...................................................................................................... 13 Introduction Lucyna Harmon How Does Translation Relate to Power within Translation Studies? .............. 17 Political Corner Lada Kolomiyets Translation as an Instrument of Russification in Soviet Ukraine ..................... 29 Valentyna Savchyn Translator’s Agency and Totalitarian System: A Case Study of Mykola Lukash .............................................................................................................. 45 Oleksandr Kalnychenko and Nataliia Kalnychenko Campaigning against the “Nationalistic Wrecking” in Translation in Ukraine in the mid-1930s ............................................................................................ 53 Jordi Jané-Lligé Translation of Essays in Francoist Spain: The Case of Edicions 62, a Catalan Publishing House .......................................................................................... 61 Daniel Martín-González Retranslation and Power: Attempts of Conversion of Sephardic Jews in the Ottoman Empire in the 19th Century by Scottish Protestant Missionaries through Retranslations from English Texts ................................... 69 Iryna Odrekhivska The Power of Translation in the Powerless Habsburg Galicia, or How the Ruthenian (Ukrainian) Identity Translated Itself until 1848 ....................... 79 Antony Hoyte-West Luxembourgish – the Next EU Language? A Translation and Interpreting-Based Perspective ................................................................................. 87

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Marzena Chrobak Interpreters in Wars of the 21st Century: Iraq, Afghanistan and Darfur ........ 97 Vinai Kumar Donthula Politics in Translation ...............................................................................................  105 Literary Corner Oleksandr Rebrii Sacralization in a Dystopian Novel: Literary, Linguistic, and Translation Implications ..........................................................................................  115 Maria Puri Are We Reading the Same Book? Multiple Iterations of Arundhati Roy’s Novel The Ministry of Utmost Happiness ...................................................  125 Ganna Tashchenko Gender Identity in Translation (Based on The Hours by M. Cunningham) ..  153 Neslihan Kansu Yetkiner and Ilgın Aktener Imagology in Rendering Çalıkuşu: A Micro-Level Approach .........................  161 Yulia Naniak Modifications in the Perception of the Characters in the Ukrainian and Anglophone Translations of J.W. Goethe’s Faust .......................................  171 Monika Browarczyk How to Tell Others about Beauty: Remarks on the Hindi Translations of Adam Zagajewski’s Poems .................................................................................  179 Mariia Bondarenko Agency in Translating James Joyce’s Short Prose in 20th-Century Ukraine .........................................................................................................................  195 Linguistic Corner Dorota Osuchowska Empowering Women: The Addressative Detektyw in the Polish Translations of the Rizzoli and Isles Series by Tess Gerritsen ..........................  205

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Iryna Frolova Types of Mistakes in Rendering Terms in Machine Translation ....................  221 Nadiia Andreichuk The Power of Temporality from a Semiotic Perspective: Translational Semiosis .......................................................................................................................  231 Bogdana Stoika “Powerful” Verbs: Semantics of Verbs Denoting Management in Different Lingual and Legal Cultures ...................................................................  241 Magda Kabiri Translating Identity through Self-Presentation: The CognitiveCommunicative Perspective ...................................................................................  249 Marta Bołtuć Global English and Power Relations in Translation ..........................................  259 Olha Zhulavska and Alla Martynyuk English-Ukrainian Translations of Synesthetic Metaphors .............................  271 Olesia Borysova Grammatical Issues in Legal Documents Translation in the Context of Globalization ..........................................................................................................  279 Vladyslava Demetska Pragmatic Texts of Political Discourse in Translation: Theoretical Perspective ..................................................................................................................  287 Liudmyla Slavova Discursive Strategies of Politicians through the Prism of Translation .........  297

List of Contributors Nadiia Andreichuk Ivan Franko National University of Lviv

Nataliia Kalnychenko V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University

Ilgın Aktener Izmir University of Economics

Oleksandr Kalnychenko V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University

Marta Bołtuć University of Rzeszów Mariia Bondarenko Ivan Franko National University of Lviv Olesia Borysova Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv

Neslihan Kansu Yetkiner Izmir University of Economics Lada Kolomiyets Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv Vinai Kumar Donthula Central University of Gujarat

Monika Browarczyk Adam Mickiewicz University

Daniel Martín-González Universidad Complutense de Madrid

Marzena Chrobak Jagiellonian University in Kraków

Alla Martynuk V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University

Vladyslava Demetska Kyiv National Linguistic University Iryna Frolova V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University Lucyna Harmon University of Rzeszów Antony Hoyte-West University of Rzeszów Jordi Jané-Lligé Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona Magda Kabiri V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University

Yulia Naniak Ivan Franko National University of Lviv Iryna Odrekhivska Ivan Franko National University of Lviv Dorota Osuchowska University of Rzeszów Maria Puri Independent researcher Oleksandr Rebrii V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University

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Valentyna Savchyn Ivan Franko National University of Lviv

Ganna Tashchenko V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University

Liudmyla Slavova Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv

Olha Zhulavska Sumy State University

Bogdana Stoika Lviv Academy of Arts

Introduction

Lucyna Harmon

How Does Translation Relate to Power within Translation Studies? Abstract: This chapter aims to outline various relationships between translation and power for research purposes. The point is to determine the research scope that falls under the umbrella title Translation and Power. Initially, censorship as a frequent topic in power-related translation studies will be tackled; this is well established a theme in translation studies. Then, the chapters included in the volume Translation and Power edited by Maria Tymoczko and Edwin Gentzler will be examined closely as the contents might inspire further research. The findings will be commented on regarding possible methodological or other difficulties that may hinder the practical realisation of the identified research options. Keywords: Translation, power, translation studies, research options, Tymoczko, Gentzler

1 Culture and Power André Lefevere, whose influence on the shape of translation studies cannot be overestimated, claims that “[t]‌ranslation needs to be studied in connection with power and patronage, ideology and poetics, with emphasis on the various attempts to shore up or undermine an existing ideology or an existing poetics” (1992a: 10). Elsewhere he observes that “[t]ranslations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate” (1992b: 14). Undoubtedly, this diagnosis applies to all professional and private individuals whose consciousness is formed historically and socially. For our purpose here, it is not necessary to elaborate on the notion of culture. Be it genetic, essentialist, or hybrid, culture dialectically interacts with power in that they generate and influence each other. Power is usually related with the authority to make binding decisions and/or the practical capability of imposing them on people, thus with its political dimension. Nowadays, it is mostly associated with national governments and their policies that serve, as rightly observed by Canetti in Masse und Macht (1960:  542), the only supreme purpose, namely that of the ruler’s self-preservation. The term also applies to a nation’s enforced domination over conquered peoples, as illustrated through the phrase imperial power. Since power is mostly connected with restriction and actual or potential oppression, it is generally perceived as a hostile agency. Therefore, it stands to reason that is quite easy to talk about power-related issues from the judgmental viewpoint, revealing a detrimental impact of power on

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a given phenomenon. What is more, for the sake of a fluent, convincing narrative, it is convenient to support the argument with radical examples of overt tyranny. The abovementioned easiness and convenience are not meant to imply that little effort is needed to construct such a narrative. They should only suggest that a critical approach, aimed at a revelation of harm, will render the analyst the comfort of being relevant and in concordance with general expectations. Those who wield power control the domains of social life of their choice, to the extent dictated by their own interests, including the production and distribution of culture that encompasses a considerable share of translations. Accordingly, as far as translation is concerned, its relation to power is often examined in research as a struggle with overt censorship in totalitarian regimes. There is a plethora of publications focused on this aspect of translation: in Franco Spain between 1939 and 1975 (e.g., Pérez 1984; Gomez Castro 2008; Rundle and Sturge 2010), in NaziGermany (e.g., Sturge 2004; Rundle and Sturge 2010; Lewy 2016; Andres, Richter and Schippel 2016), in the former Soviet Union (Kasack 1985; Bedson and Schulz 2015; Sherry 2015; Kamovnikova 2019), as well as China (e.g., Lorentzen 2014; Tan 2015). Another salient stream in research on translation in relation to power is postcolonialism-oriented investigations, particularly abundant in the 1990s. In this department, there is an inundation of thematic publications devoted to the lacking balance of power between cultures, emphasising the supressed, voiceless otherness of the colonialised who regained and expressed their subjectivity in a decolonialised world after being presented and re-presented in the coloniser’s language and from colonialist’s standpoint (e.g. Cheyfitz 1991; Robinson 1998; Bassnett and Trivedi 1999; Simon and St-Pierre 2000). Certainly, power is not restricted to the ruler’s control of groups and individuals. It suffices to consult a big dictionary of English to confirm a variety of established meanings of this noun, which are reflected in research interests of the scholars who focus on different power aspects and forms that influence translation, anticipating or following a direct claim for translation studies to consider divergent facets of power, not only the bad ones.

2 Research Questions and Method This chapter aims to establish some worthy research areas within the umbrella topic Translation and Power. For this purpose, the chapters included in Tymoczko and Gentzler’s edited volume Translation and Power (2002) will be examined for direct mentions of recommended research areas as well as for ideas which may imply them. Then, the practicability of the identified research options will be considered in terms of the needed methodology and corpus accessibility. So, the research questions can be formulated as follows: (1) What research options are directly mentioned in the chapters under investigation? (2) What research options can be retrieved from the chapters under investigation?

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(3) Are the identified research options practicable? The method of close reading and qualitative text analysis will be employed and supported through analogy and association.

3 Translation and Power by Edwin Gentzler and Maria Tymoczko In 2002, Edwin Gentzler and Maria Tymoczko published a collection of essays under the title Translation and Power. In their Introduction, referring to the trends in translation studies in the 1990s, they observe that in that period of time “[p]‌ower was typically seen as a form of repression, and those who wielded power did so at the expense of ‘the people’ ” (2002: XIX) and claim to challenge this prevailing position with their edited volume. In what follows, the chapters included in this collective book will be reviewed with the aim of explicating the newness they may suggest or imply. Alexandra Lianeri (ibid.:  1–24) compares several English translations of the original Greek definition of democracy and explains how they entered and informed the political discourse, supporting real forms of political rule. She demonstrates a variety of legitimate, translationbased interpretations of the essence of democracy as, (1) the government’s concern about the multitude rather than a few, (2) the government’s commitment to all people rather than the few, (3) the government administered for the many rather than for the few, and (4) the government of the many rather than the few. Obviously, they contain different implications regarding common people’s real participation in governing their community/country and the relation between the rulers and the ruled. Following this line, it appears advisable to scrutinise renditions of influential political writings, possibly their retranslations, in search for their interpretations of key concepts that determine political discourse and political action nowadays, and do so for different languages, cultures, and systems. In such an approach, the point is clearly not to evaluate translation but to determine its impact on social practice, in other words: the power of translation. Sabine Fenton and Paul Moon (ibid. 25–44) discuss the case of a distorted translation of the Treaty of Waitangi (1840) that has bearings on the mutual relations between Great Britain and New Zealand till the present day. The authors demonstrate the impact of intentional semantic changes and omissions on the real contents and consequences of this document. It is reported that the translation (importantly: from English into Maori) was made by the Anglican missionary and his son, and only read to indigenous chiefs who were to sign it. Based on this paper, it seems recommendable to pay attention to translations of legal documents, in the past and at present, from the angle of possible fraud, possibly at any level of social relations. It could be interesting to determine who is entitled to translate in different settings in various countries/cultures and if cheating through premeditated mistranslation is still possible in the practice of

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international relations. Translation services and the translator’s competences in international affairs of highest importance seem to deserve particular consideration. Michael Cronin (ibid. 45–62) claims more attention to interpreting that is carried out away from conference rooms. He emphasises the crucial role of orality in communication and points to the underestimated weight of interpreting, in both historic international encounters and individual people’s affairs that involve the use of a foreign language. The author explicitly suggests some areas for worthy research, like gender-related issues, immigration, and tourism. It should be observed, though, that the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), recently introduced in the European Union (EU) (2016, with binding power from 2018 on), means a serious legal hindrance for research corpus collection within interpreting studies. Rosemary Arrojo (ibid. 63–79) illustrates literary construction, deconstruction, and interpretation through the examples of Kafka’s The Burrow and Borges’s Death and the Compass to argue for the translator’s artistic licence to modify the original work. She does so with reference to Kosztolányi’s The Kleptomaniac Translator that features a talented writer who does not stand the temptation to change and improve a mediocre work in his translation. As in the case of Cronin’s paper, no actual translation samples are part of this chapter. This contribution is meant to illustrate the usability for translation studies of research into literary translator figures and translation-related contents that are likely to imply a translation theory. Besides, the translator’s power that is inherent in the advocated deconstructionist-interpretative approach appears as another object worthy of study. Adriana S.  Pagano (ibid. 80–98) presents the works by Julio Cortázar that involve translation as a theme, doing so with reference to the writer’s background as an immigrant and his experience as a translator. Special attention is paid to A Manual for Manuel (1973) that tells a story of Argentine immigrants to France who are eager to translate the news about their country, trying to decode the filtered press language and explain what they believe to read between the lines. The scholar perceives translation images in fiction as a valuable source of theoretical considerations. Once again, no translations of Cortázar’s texts are examined. The article suggests the option of investigating dépayesment-loaded exile literature in translation, as well as its location in the receiving culture. At the same time, it prompts that translator’s reports could be invited and processed with the aim to obtain first-hand information about the specificity of this type of translation. Christopher Larkosh (ibid. 99–121) introduces Victoria Ocampo (1890–1979) as a notable contributor to Argentina’s literary and translation industry. He provides information about her background as member of a rich family, educated at home by native French and English governesses, and thus translating from the languages that were not really foreign to her. The scholar postulates increasing the interest in translation studies in translators, who make themselves visible in their work. Special attention is paid to Ocampo’s personal meeting with the Bengali poet Tagore

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in 1924, interpreted by the scholar as an encounter of two colonialised subjects seeking direct communication without mediation of a coloniser’s language. This article can trigger research into the backgrounds and merits of distinguished translators and promoters of translation in general, and women who acted and still act as such in particular. Such a study would allow insight in power relations in translation business on a gender level. Moreover, the role of the power-connected patronage could be illuminated in the context of translation contingencies. Sherry Simon (ibid. 122–140) presents Madame de Staël and Gayatri Spivak’s views of translation in their similarities and divergences. She stresses the both authors’ shared concept of translation as a historically informed activity and their belief in its considerable general bearings on culture. Their dissimilar views of nation and national literature are pointed out as the major differences between them: de Staël realises the weight of translations for the formation of national literatures whilst Spivak, who aims to introduce India’s female writers to the Anglo-Saxon world, seems to value most the export of a suppressed voice to the coloniser’s soil so that it is heard. From there, the imperative can be inferred to study women’s role as translators and translation promoters, possibly with reference to the social classes they represent, and the paths that led them towards translation in historical circumstances, including, but not limited to, postcolonial context. Camino Gutiérrez Lanza (ibid. 141–159) examines the official, institutionalised censorship of film translation in Franco Spain as well as the criteria applied by these boards. He articulates the decisive influence of the Catholic church on the film distribution and manipulation of dialogues in dubbing that is referred to as an instrument of control with the possibility of distortion. Interestingly, this aspect of dubbing is rarely brought to the fore in research on audiovisual translation. Therefore, it might prove interesting to examine dubbed movies, particularly those of politically or morally sensitive contents for potential intentional distortions, rather than from the viewpoint of the viewer’s comfort, as is usually the case in research on audiovisual translation. Another topic directly connected with the foundations of this chapter is institutionalised censorship executed by film classification boards that apply different measures in different countries when admitting motion pictures for distribution. In most countries, these measures may include a total ban of a movie. Lin Kenan (ibid. 160–183) offers a brief history of translation and translation studies in China, with strong emphasis on political contingencies. She points to the general lack of interest in these issues in Western academia. She explains the dominant position of the West as well as China’s former articulated dependence on the Soviet Union. Special attention is paid to the recent boom of translations in China, in all departments of social interests and needs, which is due to the nation’s ambition to catch up with the most advanced economies in the world. This chapter implies and reinforces the need of complex research into the history of translation in relation to the considerable political and social transformations that they experienced. Carol Maier (ibid.184–194) describes her perplexities as translator of the Cuban exile poet Armand’s essay. She presents

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Armand’s concept of exile as a place of meeting and cooperation of the people who share this fate, to finally compare it with the condition of translation that she came to understand as dislocation. At the same time, she highlights her own, good emigrant’s experience at her uncle’s home, and sets the translator’s work in connection with their own personal history. Edwin Gentzler (ibid. 195–218) presents, in a critical approach, the impact of poststructuralism on translation and translation theory in the USA. With reference to Venuti’s concept of abusive fidelity, Levine’s subversive strategy and Spivak’s selective essentialism, he advocates a deconstructionist perspective, from which translation is viewed as a creative representation of a text and the translator makes his position visible, possibly through the application of paratexts. From this standpoint, it seems recommendable to approach translation from the viewpoint of the power exercised by the translators as creators, through their licence and ability to mediate foreign texts.

6 Discussion The research options directly suggested in the papers presented above or retrieved from them can be roughly divided into four groups, depending on their assumed location of power: in the external factors that accompany the act of translation, in the external factors that accompany the publication, in the translator or in the translation itself and its importance for human relations and progress. The researcher’s ambitions always faced and will face obstacles, some of them very difficult or impossible to overcome. For studies into interpretation proper, based on real spoken text and its adequate rendition, the future does not look good. The potential research corpus is and will remain, to a large extent, beyond the researcher’s reach, even more so in the light of the recent regulations about general data protection. The areas of utmost interest like criminal interrogations or world-governing political and economic negotiations will remain as confidential as they are and not open their gates for investigations. So, research in this department will have to remain restricted to external factors. Importantly, because of the abundance of material to be scrutinised, conclusive research into translation history, both in general and in relation to power, can be only conducted in a sensible way as a coordinated team project. It must not be forgotten that historical distance is needed for validation of the findings. It is vital to take into consideration that political power, regardless of its features and provenience, is not the only factor that decides the final shape of translation since trends and idiosyncrasies are always at work too. Undoubtedly, it may be interesting to learn about the translator’s background, especially if it offers an intriguing story. Another matter is the actual usability of such knowledge for a translation scholar. It seems recommendable to examine a distinguished translator’s whole work in search for the secret of its good quality and remember their name for the sake of decency and justice. It seems justified to seek in his or her life a key to their noteworthy translation solutions, for the sake of our cognition. But a translation scholar should rather

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be aware of shifting the focus from translation to a person, for the sake of translation studies as such.

7 Conclusion The papers discussed here were published 18  years ago, and considerable additional research has taken place since then. It is important to remember the voices that uttered claims for new perspectives in research on power-related translation issues in order to be able to recognise their direct or indirect echo in further works, including those presented in this volume. It seems important to remember that some areas of interest within this topic are less research-friendly than the others. Their confidential nature restricts a third party’s access to the text material needed for research into translation proper, so that the scholars will have to restrict their investigation to the factors which accompany translation rather than translation itself.

References Andres, Dörte, Richter, Julia and Schippel, Larisa (eds.) 2016. Translation und “Drittes Reich”: Menschen – Entscheidungen – Folgen. Berlin: Frank &Timme. Arrojo, Rosemary. 2002. “Writing, Interpreting, and the Power Struggle for the Control of Meaning: Scenes from Kafka, Borges and Kosztolanyi”. In Tymoczko, Maria and Gentzler, Edwin (eds.), loc. cit., pp. 63–79. Bedson, Tatiana and Schulz, Maxim. 2015. Sowjetische Übersetzungskultur in den 1920er und 1930er Jahren: Die Verlage Vsemirnaja literatura und Academia. Berlin: Frank &Timme. Bassnett, Susanand Trivedi, Harish(eds.) 1999. Post-colonial Studies: Theory and Practice. London: Routledge. Canetti, Elias. 1960. Masse und Macht. Hamburg: Claassen. Cheyfitz, Eric. 1991. The Poetics of Imperialism: Translation and Colonization from The Tempest to Tarzan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cronin, Michael. 2002. “The Empire Talks Back: Orality, Heteronomy, and the Cultural Turn in Interpretation Studies”. In Tymoczko, Maria and Gentzler, Edwin (eds.), loc. cit., pp. 45–62. Fenton, Sabine and Moon, Paul. 2002. “The Translation of the Treaty Waitangi: A Case of Disempowerment”. In Tymoczko, Maria and Gentzler, Edwin (eds.), loc. cit., pp. 25–44. Gentzler, Edwin. 2002. “Translation, Poststructuralism, and Power”. In Tymoczko, Maria and Gentzler, Edwin (eds.), loc. cit., pp. 195–218. Gomez Castro, Cristina. 2008. “Translation and Censorship in Franco’s Spain: Negotiation as a Pathway for Authorization”. In C. O’Sullivan

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(ed.) Proceedings of the 7th Annual Portsmouth Translation Conference. Portsmouth: University of Portsmouth, pp. 63–76. Gutiérrez Lanza, Camino. 2002. “Spanish Film Translation and Cultural Patronage: The Filtering and Manipulation of Imported Material during Franco’s Dictatorship”. In Tymoczko, Maria and Gentzler, Edwin (eds.), loc. cit., pp. 141–159. Kamovnikova, Natalia. 2019. Made under Pressure: Literary Translation in the Soviet Union 1960–1991.University of Massachusetts Press. Kasack, Wolfgang. 1985. “ Die sowjetische literarische Zensur”. Osteuropa, Vol. 35,Issue 2, 71–86. Kenan, Lin. 2002. “Translation as a Catalyst for Social Change in China”. In Tymoczko, Maria and Gentzler, Edwin (eds.), loc. cit., pp. 160–183. Larkosh, Christopher. 2002. “Translating Woman: Victoria Ocampo and the Empires of Foreign Fascination”. In Tymoczko, Maria and Gentzler, Edwin (eds.), loc. cit., pp. 99–121. Lefevere, André. 1992a. Translation/History/Culture: A Sourcebook. London: Routledge. Lefevere, André. 1992b. Translation. Rewriting and Manipulation of Literary Frame. London: Routledge. Lewy, Guenter. 2016. Harmful and Undesirable: Book Censorship in Nazi Germany. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lianeri, Alexandra. 2002. “Translation and the Establishment of Liberal Democracy in Nineteenth-Century England: Constructing the Political as an Interpretative Act”. In Tymoczko, Maria and Gentzler, Edwin (eds.), loc. cit., pp. 1–25. Lorentzen, Peter. 2014. “China’s Strategic Cenzorship”. American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 58, Issue 2, 402–414. Maier, Carol. 2002. “Translation, Dépaysement, and Their Figuration”. In Tymoczko, Maria and Gentzler, Edwin (eds.), loc. cit., pp. 184–194. Pagano, Adrians S. 2002. “Translation as Testimony: On Official Histories and Subversive Pedagogies in Cortázar”. In Tymoczko, Maria and Gentzler, Edwin (eds.), loc. cit., pp. 80–98. Pérez, Janet. 1984. “The Game of the Possible: Francoist Censorship and Techniques of Dissent”. Review of Contemporary Fiction, Vol. 4, Issue 3), 22–30. Robinson, Douglas. 1998. Translation and Empire. Postcolonial Theories Explained. Manchester: St. Jerome. Rundle, Christopher and Sturge, Kate (eds.). 2010. Translation under Fascism. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

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Sherry, Samantha. 2015. Discourses of Regulation and Resistance. Censoring Translation in the Stalin and Khrushev Era Soviet Union. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Simon, Sherry and St-Pierre, Paul (eds.) 2000. Changing the Terms: Translating in the Postcolonial Era. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press. Simon, Sherry. 2002. “Germaine de Staël and Gayatri Spivak: Culture Brokers”. In Tymoczko, Maria and Gentzler, Edwin (eds.), loc. cit., pp. 122–140. Sturge, Kate. 2004. The alien within. Translation into German during the Nazi Regime. München: Iudicium. Tan, Zaixi. 2015. Censorship in Translation: “The case of the People’s Republic of China”. Neohelicon, Vol. 42, 313–339. Tymoczko, Maria and Gentzler, Edwin (eds.) 2002. Translation and Power. Amherst and Boston: University of Massachusetts Press.

Political Corner

Lada Kolomiyets

Translation as an Instrument of Russification in Soviet Ukraine Abstract: In this chapter, I analyze the implementation of Russification in literary translation as one of the Communist Party’s basic assimilatory ideologies in Soviet Ukraine, such as Sovietization, Proletarianization, and Russification. The discussion is focused on lexical, syntactic, and stylistic differences between the earlier translations and the later retranslations into Ukrainian of the works of Russian and Western classics. A textual study of the later retranslations of the works of Nikolai Gogol, Ethel Lilian Voynich, and Jack London shows a drive towards Russification of the Ukrainian language. Throughout the chapter, I examine the sociopolitical reasons for such a tendency. Keywords: Russification, retranslation, Nikolai Gogol, Ethel Lilian Voynich, Jack London

1 Introduction: Assimilatory Ideologies in Soviet Ukraine In the early 1920s, Soviet Ukrainian press started circulating en masse. In order to hold political control over Ukrainian journalism, the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks encouraged translation. All the material for the leading Soviet newspapers came from Moscow in the Russian language and was translated into Ukrainian (Kardinalovskaia 1996: 97). From the mid-1920s, Sovietization was facilitated by the policy of Indigenization (korenizatsiia), which also fostered the proliferation of literary translations into indigenous languages. In 1923, the ruling Communist Party, concerned with the ways of strengthening its power in Ukraine, declared governmental support of the Ukrainian language and its usage in all domains of social, administrative, economic, scientific, and cultural life in the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic by launching the policy of Ukrainianization of the Republic’s bureaucratic apparatus and its major statefinanced institutions. The period of active Ukrainization lasted until 1929. Although aborted, the policy of Ukrainianization greatly influenced all areas of cultural life, and its favorable consequences survived until the late 1930s. Ukrainization resulted not only in the introduction of Ukrainian language into the high school and university curriculum, the chancery and official procedure, but it also greatly influenced the number of belle-letters, non-fiction, and media publications in Ukrainian. Among other public spheres, literary translation in the late 1920s–early 1930s experienced its heyday in Soviet Ukraine, when hundreds of translations were being issued including multi-volume and reprinted editions as well as a large body of publications in periodicals.

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General circulation of political literary magazines, such as the Kharkiv monthly Chervonyi Shliakh (The Red Path), reached up to 15,000 copies, and some of the government newspapers, such as the all-Ukrainian daily Visti VUZVK (The News of the All-Ukrainian Central Executive Committee), were printed in upwards of hundreds of thousands of copies. With a propagandistic purpose, the official Soviet newspapers, such as Visti VUZVK, posted verse translations on their pages, mostly from Russian and Yiddish, as the biggest minority languages in Ukraine. For instance, in the 1930s, the genius poet Pavlo Tychyna declared his loyalty to the regime by publishing verse translations in The Visti VUZVK, The Bolshevik Chernihiv regional newspaper, The Sotsialistychna Kharkivshchyna (Socialist Kharkiv Region) local newspaper, the daily Komsomolets Ukrainy (Member of the Young Communist League of Ukraine), The Proletarska Pravda (Proletarian Truth) newspaper (all translations were done from Yiddish, but most likely via Russian), also translations from Russian – in the all-Ukrainian newspaper Communist, and from Armenian – in Kharkiv children’s monthly Zhovtenia (A Little Octobrist). From the 1930s, translations serving a propagandistic purpose would also frequently appear in a large number of local press, such as the Kharkiv newspaper Kultura i Pobut (Culture and Life), the illustrated biweekly for school-age children Chervoni Kvity (Red Flowers), the weekly Literatura  – Nauka  – Mystetstvo (Literature – Science – Arts), and even in the sector-specific periodicals such as the journal Muzyka (Music), reaching the widest possible audience. Starting from the late 1920s, the Communist Party imposed the hierarchy of the texts to be translated, the list of which would become more rigid by the late 1930s. The priority was given to the works of Soviet Russian authors and to those Russian classics, who were included into Stalin’s canon of classical Russian literature. From the mid-1930s, the idea of Great Russia underlay the narratives of friendship of the Soviet peoples, hypocritically declared by Stalinist nationalities policy, and promoted the processes of rapid Russification in and via translation. In 1934, a persecution campaign against “nationalistic distortions” in translation was launched in the press (Kahanovych 1934). In the long run, the translators were guided to stick as close as possible to the Russian language – and not only while translating directly from Russian, but also when dealing with any other language.

2 From Indigenization to Assimilation: The Case of Nikolai Gogol Professor Oleksandr Biletsky noted in his review article that translated literature still occupied a non-ostentatious place in the year 1925, but in 1927 the picture started to change rapidly (Beletskii 1929/2011:  388). In the mid-1920s, the highquality translations of Russian poetry started to appear in print, for instance, An Anthology of Russian Poetry in Ukrainian Translations (ed. Borys Yakubskyi, 1925), which included translations done by the best Ukrainian poets Pavlo Tychyna and Maksym Rylsky, a collection of selected poems by Valery Bryusov (1925) in

Translation as an Instrument of Russification in Soviet Ukraine

31

translation by Mykola Zerov, Maksym Rylsky, and Pavlo Fylypovych, Selected Works of Aleksandr Pushkin, edited by Pavlo Fylypovych (1927). Nevertheless, the need for Ukrainian translations from Russian authors, and particularly the importance of translating the works of “proletarian” writers, especially the works of the most authoritative “proletarian” writer Maxim Gorky, remained still in question and had to be proven. Specifically, by way of illustration, the following episode can be mentioned. In his 1927 letter to Oleksa Slisarenko, the Editor-in-Chief of the Knyhospilka cooperative publishing union, Gorky negatively responded to a request to grant permission to translate his novel Mother into Ukrainian and thrice referred to the Ukrainian language as a dialect of Russian (“narechie”) (in Strikha 2006: 208–09). Yet, during the years 1927–1932 abundant translations of Russian prose appeared, including the multi-volume editions of the 19th-century classics. And eventually, translations of Gorky were plentiful: within the period from 1928 up to 1966 the number of Gorky’s books published in Ukrainian totaled 186 (Nyzovyi et al. 1967: 72–73). In 1930, literary scholar Yelizaveta Starynkevych summarized the recent gains in the field of translation and emphasized the appearance of numerous undoubtedly valuable translations in the years 1928–1929. This fact, in the view of Starynkevych, should compel the readers who remained skeptical about the reasons for translating the world classics, “whose works could well be read in Russian,” into a “common” and “humble” Ukrainian language, to admit how very wrong they had been (Starynkevych 1930/2011: 443). Since the early 1930s, Russian and Russian-language literature significantly prevailed among the translated books in Soviet Ukraine, not least as a result of Stalin’s policy of recognition of a multitude of cultural figures from the Tsarist regime and formation on this basis of the Soviet canon of classical Russian literature. These included Russian-language writers of Ukrainian background Nikolai Gogol, Nikolai Leskov, and Anton Chekhov, whose works were focused to a large extent on Ukrainian topics and reflected lexical and stylistic peculiarities of the Ukrainian language. An important literary critic of his time, Volodymyr Derzhavyn tried to shake the Russian canon in this regard and assign the abovementioned writers to the Ukrainian literary canon as well (Derzhavyn 1930b/2015). Multivolume Gogol and Chekhov have been translated by the best writers of the time – with an utter skill and in all their stylistic originality. In his review of the four-volume collection of Gogol’s works published during 1929–1932, Derzhavyn praises this edition as “an exemplary work of translated literature” (Derzhavyn 1929/2015: 164) and characterizes Gogol as “Ukrainian classic” (ibid.: 166), whose writing style was rooted in the Ukrainian national tradition, which is most evident from his early works. Gogol’s Ukrainianness in idiom and style becomes particularly recognizable thanks to the high-quality translation work in this collection done by the best team of writers and editors (the general editorship was done by distinguished literary critics Ivan Lakyza and Pavlo Fylypovych, the stylistic editing by acclaimed linguist Andrii Nikovskyi, and the translation work by the leading authors of the day – Maksym Rylsky, Mykola Zerov, Anton Kharchenko,

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Serhiy Tytarenko, Dmytro Revutskyi, et al.). Derzhavyn argues that from this edition Gogol will appear for the mass reader not as a translated classic, but as the Ukrainian one – because of the scrupulous translators’ and editors’ work resulting in stylistic fluency and racy flavor of the Ukrainian language in it. To demonstrate a drive towards Russification in idiom and style, which started gaining momentum in the mid-1930s, I will further compare a sample from Gogol’s early story Noch´ pered Rozhdestvom [The Night Before Christmas], translated by Maksym Rylsky for the 1929–1932 collection with the translation work of Antin Khutorian in the book Selected Works of Mykola Hohol (translators Antin Khutorian and Kostiantyn Shmyhovsky), printed by the Derzhlitvydav Ukrainy State Publishers in 1948 (see Tab. 1). At that time, a kind of superficial literalism became an unspoken norm in translations from Russian, and the 1948 book of Gogol’s works can serve as one of the most vivid examples of this general tendency towards Russification. In Tab. 1, the first seven sentences (each in a separate row) from Gogol’s story Noch´ pered Rozhdestvom (Gogol 1994) (first column) are given in translation by Rylsky (Hohol 1929) (second column) and Khutorian (Hohol 1948:  26) (third column). All in my Latin transliteration from Cyrillic. Table 1 shows a greater variance in word order between the first (Rylsky) and the second (Khutorian) translation than between the source (Russian) text and the Khutorian translation, while the Rylsky translation stands further from the source-text wording and represents a paraphrasing, restructuring strategy both at lexical and syntactic levels. At the same time, the Khutorian translation, which is, in general, nearer to the Russian-language syntactic patterns, reproduces certain collocations and phrases from the Rylsky translation: vyplyv na nebo; prybyralysia ta chepurylysia; azh os´; posunuv dym, etc. It can be admitted that the Khutorian translation refers to Rylsky’s one as its Russified retranslation, which tends to distort the natural flow of the living Ukrainian language and return to the source-text syntactic patterns (word order), grammatical forms, and lexical choices as close as possible without distorting, anyway, the existing literary norm. In the above sample, the identical word-order structures in Gogol and Khutorian are as follows: (1) (2) (3) (4)

Poslednii den´ pered Rozhdestvom proshel. – Ostannii den´ pered Rizdvom mynuv. Zimniaia yasnaia noch´ nastupila. – Zymova yasna nich nastala. Glianuli zvezdy. – Hlianuly zirky. Mesiats velichavo podnialsia na nebo posvetit´ dobrym liudiam i vsemu miru, chtoby vsem bylo veselo koliadovat´ i slavit´ Khrista. – Misiats´ velychno vyplyv na nebo posvityty dobrym liudiam ta vsiomu svitovi, shchob usim bulo veselo koliaduvaty i slavyty Khrysta. (5) Morozilo sil´nee, chem s utra; no zato tak bylo tikho, chto skryp moroza pod sapogom slyshalsia za polversty. – Morozylo duzhche, yak zranku; ale zate tak bulo tykho, shcho rypinnia morozu pid chobotom chuty bulo za pivversty. (6) Eshche ni odna tolpa parubkov ne pokazyvalas´ pod oknami khat; …. zagliadyval v nikh ukradkoiu, kak by vyzyvaia …. devushek vybezhat´ skoree na skrypuchii

Translation as an Instrument of Russification in Soviet Ukraine

33

Tab. 1: The beginning of the Russian-language story Noch´ pered Rozhdestvom by Nikolai Gogol in comparison with its Ukrainian translations by Maksym Rylsky (1929) and Antin Khutorian (1948) Noch´ pered Rozhdestvom [The Night Before Christmas], Russian

Nich proty Rizdva (translated into Ukrainian by Maksym Rylsky, 1929)

Nich pered Rizdvom (translated into Ukrainian by Antin Khutorian, 1948)

Poslednii den´ pered Rozhdestvom proshel.

Mynuvsia ostannii den´ pered Rizdvom.

Ostannii den´ pered Rizdvom mynuv.

Zimniaia yasnaia noch´ nastupila.

Pryishla zymova yasna nich. Zymova yasna nich nastala.

Glianuli zvezdy.

Zazorylosia.

Hlianuly zirky.

Mesiats velichavo podnialsia na nebo posvetit´ dobrym liudiam i vsemu miru, chtoby vsem bylo veselo koliadovat´ i slavit´ Khrista.

Misiats´ pyshno vyplyv na nebo posvityty dobrym liudiam ta vsiomu myrovi, shchob veselo bulo vsim koliaduvaty ta Khrysta proslavliaty.

Misiats´ velychno vyplyv na nebo posvityty dobrym liudiam ta vsiomu svitovi, shchob usim bulo veselo koliaduvaty i slavyty Khrysta.

Morozilo sil´nee, chem s utra; no zato tak bylo tikho, chto skryp moroza pod sapogom slyshalsia za polversty.

Moroz bravsia duzhche, yak izrannia; zate kruhom bulo tak tykho, shcho za nivversty chulosia, yak rypyt´ moroz pid chobit´my.

Morozylo duzhche, yak zranku; ale zate tak bulo tykho, shcho rypinnia morozu pid chobotom chuty bulo za pivversty.

Eshche ni odna tolpa parubkov ne pokazyvalas´ pod oknami khat; mesiats odin tol´ko zagliadyval v nikh ukradkoiu, kak by vyzyvaia prinariazhivavshikhsia devushek vybezhat´ skoree na skrypuchii sneg.

Shche zhoden hurt parubotskyi ne proiavliavsia popid viknamy; til´ky misiats´ zazyrav krad´koma do khat, movby vymaniuvav divchat, yaki prybyralysia ta chepurylysia, shchob khutchii povybihaty na rypuchyi snih.

Shche ni odna yurba parubkiv ne z’iavlialas´ pid viknamy khat; til´ky misiats´ zazyrav do nykh krad´koma, niby vyklykaiuchy divchat, shcho prybyralysia ta chepurylysia, khutchii vybihaty na rypuchyi snih.

Tut cherez trubu odnoi khaty klubami povalilsia dym i poshel tucheiu po nebu, i vmeste s dymom podnialas´ ved´ma verkhom na metle.

Azh os´ v odnii khati z komyna posunuv dym i khmaroiu pishov po nebi, a razom iz dymom verkhy na mitli vyletila vid´ma.

Azh os´ z dymaria odnoii khaty klubamy posunuv dym i pishov khmaroiu po nebu, i razom z dymom vyletila vid´ma verkhy na mitli.

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sneg.  – Shche ni odna yurba parubkiv ne z’iavlialas´ pid viknamy khat; …. zazyrav do nykh krad´koma, niby vyklykaiuchy divchat …. khutchii vybihaty na rypuchyi snih. (7) …. cherez trubu odnoi khaty klubami povalilsia dym i poshel tucheiu po nebu, i vmeste s dymom podnialas´ ved´ma verkhom na metle. – …. z dymaria odnoii khaty klubamy posunuv dym i pishov khmaroiu po nebu, i razom z dymom vyletila vid´ma verkhy na mitli. Out of the seven sentences in a row, thus, in five of them the word order is identical in Khutorian with the word order of the original, and in the remaining two sentences it is almost identical. As for the word choice, again, Khutorian gives priority to those of common root with Russian: nastupila – nastala (cf. Rylsky: pryishla); glianuli – hlianuly (cf. Rylsky: zazorylosia); velichavo – velychno (cf. Rylsky: pyshno); morozilo – morozylo (cf. Rylsky: moroz bravsia); tolpa – yurba (cf. Rylsky: hurt); vyzyvaia – vyklykaiuchy (cf. Rylsky: vymaniuvav); klubami – klubamy (cf. Rylsky: khmaroiu). The same tendency can be observed at the word form level:  slavit´  – slavyty (cf. Rylsky: proslavliaty); s utra – zranku (cf. Rylsky: izrannia); pod sapogom – pid chobotom (cf. Rylsky: pid chobit´my); pod oknami – pid viknamy (cf. Rylsky: popid viknamy); vybezhat´ – vybihaty (cf. Rylsky: povybihaty). In the above array of sentences, a rare occasion of Khutorian’s word choice that can be supposedly called dissociative from the Russian wording, is the lexeme svitovi in the phrase vsiomu svitovi (“to the whole world”), which corresponds to the phrase vsemu miru in Gogol. Contrary to Khutorian, however, Rylsky appropriately kept the lexical composition of this phrase intact: vsiomu myrovi (“to the entire community”). It was a conscious choice on the part of Rylsky, who understood that in the set phrase vsemu miru used by Gogol the Church Slavonic lexeme mir means “community,” rather than “the world.”

2 Soviet Policies of Retranslation: The Case of Ethel Lilian Voynich The ideology of proletarianization restricted translations into Ukrainian to politically correct ones. Proletarianization of Ukraine was enabled via narratives of the working peoples’ struggle against capitalism and helped by selective translation and retranslation. The Communist Party’s patronage and political censorship became ubiquitous. Translations from Western authors were considered mainly as an ideological weapon in the “class struggle” and formation of the soviet mass reader. The Marxist vulgar sociology prevailed over literary criticism even in the writings of the most educated and professional literary reviewers of their time. The best European classics became stigmatized by class-based ideology, for instance, George Gordon Byron received the label of a “declassed aristocrat” (Derzhavyn 1930a/2015: 186– 87). In this sociological rhetoric, an informed discussion of the norms and qualities

Translation as an Instrument of Russification in Soviet Ukraine

35

of translation, which had been held in the 1920s, became gradually replaced by a misty theory of socialist realism and the so-called realistic translation. In the Stalinism period retranslation had a double purpose: 1) heading away from lexical, grammatical, idiomatic, and stylistic differences of the literary Ukrainian language from Russian and 2) importing the Russian way of thinking and reflection into Ukrainian-language literary discourses. Relayed translations via Russian, guided by the Russian language patterns, became widespread and common. When it comes to concrete examples, a clear drive towards Russification of the previous translations can be traced. For instance, the novel by Ethel Lilian Voynich The Gadfly appeared in Ukrainian translation by Maria Lysychenko in 1929 under the Ukrainian title Gedz´. However, it was retranslated in the mid-1930s by Maria Riabova, and from that time on the novel became known under the Russified title Ovid (from Russian: Ovod). Abridged for high school students, Riabova’s translation appeared in print three times in the 1930s (1935, 1936, and 1938). And later her stylistically simplified version of the novel, with multiple omissions as well as stylistic and syntactical simplifications in comparison with Lysychenko’s version, would be repeatedly reprinted in Soviet and post-Soviet Ukraine (in 1955, 1979, 1985, and 2008).1 Further in the article, I  compare the Lysychenko translation with the subsequent one by Riabova, which substantially distorts the fluency and idiomaticity of Lysychenko’s narrative style. What is more, a massive stylistic awkwardness in Riabova originates from Russian wording as if the Russian text underlies the one by Riabova – to such an extent that it can be easily backtranslated into the Russian phrases underlying it. In contrast, the translation by Lysychenko solidly features the living Ukrainian narrative style, speech and idiomatic patterns. Because of this, it cannot be translated into Russian in a literalistic, word-for-word way without inflicting distortion in the fluency of Russian idiom. Riabova’s translation, vice versa, fits into the Russian wording almost ideally. A small wonder that Riabova’s translation appears closely imitative of Russian grammar and literary style. By the late 1920s, there had been at least 18 unabridged and numerous abridged Russian translations of The Gadfly (Literaturnaia 1929: 276–77), with the first one performed by Zinaida Vengerova and published as early as 1898 in the literary supplement to journal Mir Bozhii (The World of God). Eventually, The Gadfly formed the core of the Soviet literary canon, and in 1937 it was even published in the English original by Moscow Publishing Association

1 Voynich, Ethel Lilian. 1955. Ovid [Gadfly]. Tr. from English. Ed. by N. Tyshchenko. Kyiv, Molod´ [Youth Publishers]. Voynich, Ethel Lilian. 1979. Ovid [Gadfly]. Tr. from English. Ed. by N. Tyshchenko. Kyiv: Molod´. Voynich, Ethel Lilian.1985. Ovid [Gadfly]. Tr. from English. Ed. by N. Tyshchenko. Kyiv: Molod´.Voynich, Ethel Lilian. 2008. Ovid [Gadfly]. Tr. from English. Foreword by M. Sliusarevska. Kyiv: Shkola [High School] (Biblioteka shkil´noii klasyky) [Library of high school classics].

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of Foreign Workers in the USSR (Izdatelskoie tovarishchestvo inostrannykh rabochikh v SSSR). When a new Russian translation of the novel by Nataliia Volzhyna saw the light of day in the two-volume Selected Works of E. L. Voynich in 1958, it was officially considered the 23rd unabridged printing of The Gadfly in Russian. And afterwards, Volzhyna’s well-paced translation would undergo more than a dozen separate reprints until recently, in addition to those included in the secondary and higher school textbooks and anthologies. The novel has become one of the basic texts in the Soviet canon of foreign literature. Concurrently, the translator’s strategy was turned into an esthetic ideological tool helping to form the soviet reader’s tastes on the grounds of recognizable literary formulae and clichés. The Gadfly is still considered a highly important educational book in the 21st-century Russia. In the present-day paradigm of the Russian literary canon of foreign authors, Voynich belongs to children’s classics and The Gadfly is referred to as a children’s novel (see Voynich 2011). Further, in several randomly chosen excerpts (see Tab. 2), I will show a number of lexical and grammatical dissimilarities between the 1929 Ukrainian edition of the novel (column I) and the 1935 Ukrainian edition (column II), extending their comparison to my experimental backtranslation of the latter text into Russian (column III) and, eventually, adding to the table a canonical Russian translation of the novel by Nataliia Volzhyna, published in 1958 (column IV). Table 2, thus, shows dissimilarities of the 1929 translation by Lysychenko with the 1935 translation by Riabova and the latter’s similarities with lexical, grammatical, and syntactic patterns of the Russian language, also exemplified by Nataliia Volzhyna’s translation (all examples are given in the Latin transliteration from Cyrillic). The subsequent reprints of Riabova’s translation of The Gadfly during the postWWII period up to the early 21st century could serve as an articulate example of the Russian-language centripetal tendency, deeply rooted in the Soviet policies of translation that proved to be ignorant of both the author’s and the translator’s copyright. None of the four reprints showed the translator’s name in it. Nor was any mention of Russian as a relay language made. Instead, each one of the 1955, 1979, 1985, and 2008 editions referred to English as the source language for translation, though it was evidently not the case.

3 Russian as a Language-Mediator: The Case of Jack London In the 1930s, Soviet censorship managed to transform the works of certain Western classics, and those of Jack London in particular, into the Communist Party’s ideological weapon. Oswald Burghardt, the general editor of the complete 27-volume collection of the works of Jack London, published from 1927 through the early 1930s in Kyiv, comments in 1939 on the edition of London’s book of sociological

Translation as an Instrument of Russification in Soviet Ukraine

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Tab. 2: Examples from the Ukrainian translations of the novel The Gadfly by Ethel Lilian Voynich, done by Maria Lysychenko (1929) and Maria Riabova (1935), in comparison with my experimental backtranslation of Riabova’s translation into Russian and the Russian translation of the novel by Nataliia Volzhyna (1958). Gedz´ (Voynich 1929), Ukrainian

Ovid (Voynich 1935), Ukrainian

Experimental translation into Russian from Voynich 1935

Ovod (Voynich 1958), Russian

u knyhozbirni (lexical peculiarity)

u bibliotetsi

v biblioteke

v biblioteke

pysanykh zibran´ (lexical & grammatical peculiarity)

rukopysnykh propovidei

rukopisnykh propovedei

rukopisnykh propovedei

urvavshy na myt´ (idiomatic& syntactic peculiarity)

vidirvavsia na khvylynu

otorvalsia na minutu perestal pisat´ (partial omission)

promovtsia (lexical peculiarity)

oratora

oratora

oratora

provadyv dali svoiu pratsiu (idiomatic & syntactic peculiarity)

znov uziavsia do roboty

snova prinialsia za rabotu

prodolzhal prervannuiu rabotu

lin´kuvato linyvo (grammatical peculiarity)

lenivo

odnotonno (contextual synonym)

lepriavoho (lexical peculiarity)

prokazhenoho

prokazhennogo

prokazhennogo

oksamytnym krokom (lexical peculiarity)

m’iakym nechutnym krokom

miagkim neslyshnym miagkimi shagom neslyshnymi shagami

mene z hluzdu zvede (idiomatic & syntactic peculiarity)

dovela b mene do dovela by menia do bozhevillia sumasshestviia

dovela by menia do sumasshestviia

do materynoho pokoiu (lexical peculiarity)

u materynu kimnatu

v komnatu materi

v komnatu materi

prykliak navkoliushky (idiomatic & syntactic peculiarity)

opustyvsia na kolina

opustilsia na koleni

upal na koleni

tseluiu noch´

vsiu noch´

tsilisin´ku nich tsilu nich (grammatical peculiarity)

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essays The People of the Abyss (having emigrated from the USSR by that time) that “Soviet satraps do not admit any information about the real state of affairs in the West” (Burghardt 1939:  97). Drawing on his own experience, Burghardt gives a picture of the rampant and unrestricted violence of Soviet censorship in his commentary on the novel The Star Rover: “The censors would diligently cross out, even in translations, all the places that didn’t fit in the framework of idealistic outlook. And we, the authors and editors, for our part, had to keep this secret” (ibid). There’s a reason that Jack London happened to be the most repeatedly published Western author in the Soviet Union: his works tailored by the Soviet censorship, as The Gadfly was, constituted the core of the Soviet canon of foreign literature. Within the period from 1918 up to 1966 the number of his books published in Ukrainian totaled 102, which was several times higher than the number of the books of any other Western author (Nyzovyi et al. 1967: 85–88). The new Ukrainian editions of the classics, and of Jack London in particular, appeared to be largely re-translated from Russian. For instance, the Russian provenance of the 1959 edition of London’s dystopian novel The Iron Heel, which arguably features London’s socialist views, is graphically evident from an excess of clichés of Russian origin and idiomatic phrases literally rendered from Russian into Ukrainian in this book. In order to showcase how impoverished and crammed with Russian bookish clichés the literary Ukrainian language would become by the late 1950s, further I turn to some examples that illustrate the differences between the translation of the novel published in the early 1930s and the one from the late 1950s. Both editions were printed without mentioning the translator’s name, though the earlier book gave a reference to one Z. Barska as the reviewer of the translated text (most likely an alias of Yelyzaveta Zbarska, whose abridgments and adaptations of English-language authors were being published at that time). I assume the later edition was modelled on the Russian source. Or at least it demonstrates to what extent the Ukrainian language would become assimilated with Russian by that time. It is symptomatic that no mention of the translator’s or editor’s name(s) was made in this edition, which fact is itself an additional indicator that leads to Russian as a relay language for this book, as well as for the dozens of other (re)translations in the Stalinism period (early 1930s– mid-1950s). Even assuming the possibility that both publications were built on the same previous translation of The Iron Heel by Volodymyr Trotsyna, printed in Kyiv publishing house Siaivo in 1928 in the tenth volume of The Complete Collection of the Works by Jack London, large differences can be found between these two texts. In Tab. 3, I provide a comparison of several randomly picked phrases (in my Latin transliteration) from the 1933 and 1959 editions, together with my direct translation of the ones from the 1959 edition into Russian – to illustrate the later abridgments (simplification), additions (for political reasons), and general Russification of the Ukrainian language. Table 3, thus, shows the lexical and phraseological differences between the 1933 and 1959 Ukrainian translations of The Iron Heel, compared to the original and my experimental Russian translation of the 1959 version. The first column contains

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Tab. 3: Examples from the novel The Iron Heel by Jack London in two anonymous translations into Ukrainian, published in 1933 and 1959 respectively, in comparison with my experimental backtranslation of the 1959 Ukrainian translation into Russian. Zalizna P’iata (London 1933), Ukrainian

Zalizna P’iata (London 1959), Ukrainian

Experimental translation into Russian from London 1959

The Iron Heel (London 2018), English

raziv zo dva

odyn chy dva razy

odin ili dva raza

once or twice

sposterehla

zvernula uvahu

obratila vnimanie

I noticed

yak zablyshchaly yomu ochi

na iskorky v yoho ochakh

na iskorki v ego glazakh

the twinkle in his eye

navit´ zi svolokiv vashoii steli

------ z vashoho dakhu ------ s vashei kryshi

from your very roof-beams

ya sliz´my zaishlasia

sliozy pobihly z moikh sliozy pobezhali iz ochei moikh glaz

I burst into tears

vid obrazy i urazhenoii hordosty

vid takoi obrazy ------ iz-za takoi obidy ----- of mortification and hurt vanity

mov skalichenu koniaku

-----------------

na bytyi shliakh

na vulytsiu

na ulitsu

on the highway

shchob umyrav

vmyraty z holodu (addition)

umirat’ ot goloda

to die 

povahom

zadumlyvo

zadumchivo

intently

mirkuiuchy i zakhytav -----------------holovoiu

like a brokendown horse

for a moment, then went on

examples from the 1933 translation, the second column comprises the corresponding excerpts from the 1959 book, the third column displays an experimental translation of the examples from the second column into the Russian language, and the fourth column refers the reader to the English-language original. The third column demonstrates a great closeness of the words and phrases from the 1959 edition to the Russian language, as if the novel has been translated directly from Russian. For this reason, my experimental Russian translation of the above excerpts should be called backtranslation. It shows that the text in question intrinsically germinates from the Russian language and follows its highly officialized and standardized literary style. Because of the possibility of an almost total literal (back)translation of the 1959 Ukrainian text into Russian, it is obvious that clichéd Russian wording underlies the language and phrasing of this Ukrainian translation (for examples see Tab. 4).

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Tab. 4: Some more examples from the 1959 Ukrainian translation of the novel The Iron Heel by Jack London in comparison with my experimental backtranslation of these examples into Russian. Ukr. Rus.

один чи два рази звернула увагу на (…) іскорки в його очах – один или два раза обратила внимание на (…) искорки в его глазах

Ukr. Rus.

Ернест кидав виклик присутнім служителям церкви – Эрнест бросал вызов присутствующим служителям церкви

Ukr. Rus.

вміє тільки чванитися, бо здобув погану і зовсім недостатню освіту – умеет только кичиться, потому что получил плохое и совсем недостаточное образование

Ukr. Rus.

я швидко зробила висновки – я быстро сделала выводы

Ukr. Rus.

ви викинули його на вулицю вмирати з голоду – вы выбросили его на улицу умирать от голода

In Tab. 4, on a trial basis, the examples of Ukrainian phrasing from the 1959 translation of The Iron Heel are shown in comparison with their literal translation into Russian, which not only fully preserves the sentence and idiomatic structures of the Ukrainian text but at the same time represents the natural sentence flow and idiomaticity of the Russian language (idiomatic phrases with their pendants are marked in bold). And furthermore, the 1959 translation is devoid of colloquial words and phrases, which are an inseparable attribute of the living Ukrainian language, still amply existent in the 1933 version, such as vyklykav popiv na herts´ (cf. in 1959:  kydav vyklyk prysutnim sluzhyteliam tserkvy); pid mashkaroiu inteligentasamokhvala (cf. in 1959: pid maskoiu zaderykuvatoho polemista); pozdorovkatys´ (cf. in 1959: vitaiuchys´); vziala na rozum – (cf. in 1959: zrobyla vysnovky), and the like. For the most part, from the mid-1930s on, the role of Russian as a relay source language for Ukrainian translations, with a resulting Russian-centered superficial literalness of those translations, not only allowed for assimilatory rewriting of the existent translations, but it also led to the Russian censors’ preliminary corrections of the text, which would be translated into Ukrainian.

4 Conclusion Concluding the theoretical premises and illustrative material given in this chapter, I can assert that translations in Soviet Ukraine were driven to implement the basic assimilatory ideologies of Sovietization, Proletarianization, and Russification. Together with encouragement for translating from Russian as a relay language came the censorship policy of revising and rewriting formerly published translations to make them as close as possible to Russian lexical and grammatical patterns. The

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41

corrosive influence of Russian cultural expansionism and Russocentrism continued to gain momentum until the collapse of the Soviet Union, gradually turning Russian, which became a highly bureaucratized language, into a mono-Soviet gobbledygook. All translations and retranslations should ideally be done from Russian, or at least be read and sound as if they have been done from Russian. In post-Soviet Ukraine, translations from Russian, as the third language, of the works of popular Western authors remain commercially successful. That is why they are still considered by certain publishers as quite acceptable and by no means shameful. For example, one of the recent publications of the novel The Life and Strange Surprizing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe by Daniel Defoe was done by Kharkiv Book Club publishers “Family Leisure Club” in 2011 in the series “Adventure library” under the title Robinzon Kruzo. In the book description section, the publishers inform their readers that the translation has been performed from the Russian language by I. Chernova and adapted by A. Klimov. But more frequently a contemporary reader may come across an even worse situation  – a hidden Russian-mediated translation when the Russian-language provenance of the translated text is kept in secret, and instead the translation is pretended to be done by John Doe from a relevant Western language. In the worst of situations, anyway, the reader will not find the translator’s name at all. And again, such cases can be illustrated by the most recent publications of Defoe’s novel. In 2017, it appeared under the title Zhyttia i nezvychaini ta dyvovyzhni pryhody Robinzona Kruzo (Kyiv publishing house Znannia; book series “Treasures: Youth series”) and was reprinted in 2018 by the same publisher in another book series, “English library.” None of the above editions has ever mentioned the name(s) of the translator(s), or the source language for translation. The inertia of using Russian as a relay language for translations is still very strong in the Ukrainian literature and journalism. The present-day practice of relayed translations can only be defeated by addressing the root causes of this sociopolitical phenomenon.

References Beletskii, Aleksandr. 1929. “Perevodnaia literatura na Ukraine” [Translated literature in Ukraine]. Krasnoe Slovo [Red Word], No. 2: 87–96. Reprint in Kalnychenko, Oleksandr Anatoliiovych and Yulia Yuriivna Poliakova. 2011. Ukraiins’ka perekladoznavcha dumka 1920-kh – pochatku 1930-kh rokiv: Khrestomatiia vybranykh prats’ z perekladosnavstva do kursu “Istoriia perekladu” [Ukrainian translation studies of the 1920s – early 1930s: A textbook of selected works in translation studies for a course on the “History of Translation”], edited by Leonid Chernovatyi and Viacheslav Karaban. Vinnytsia: Nova Knyha, 376–391. Burghardt, Oswald. 1939. “Bolshevytska spadschyna” [The Bolsheviks’ heritage]. Vistnyk [The Herald], Vol. 1, Book 2:94–99. Derzhavyn, Volodymyr. 1929. [Retsenziia na kn.:] [Review of the book:] Hohol M. Tvory. T. 1. Vechory na khutori pid Dykankoiu: Povist’ vid pasichnyka

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Rudoho Panka [P. Kulisha] [Works. V. 1. Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka …]/M. Hohol; general editors I. Lakyza and P. Fylypovych; stylistic editor A. Nikovskyi. [Kharkiv: Knyhospilka, n.y.]. Krytyka [Criticism], No. 7–8: 218– 222. Reprint in Kalnychenko & Poliakova 2015. Volodymyr Mykolayovych Derzhavyn. Pro mystetstvo perekladu: Statti ta retsenzii 1927–1931 rokiv [On the art of translation: Essays and reviews of 1927–1931 years], edited by Leonid Chernovatyi and Viacheslav Karaban. Vinnytsia: Nova Knyha, 164–170. Derzhavyn, Volodymyr. 1930a. [Retsenziia na kn.:] [Review of the book:] Byron, G. G. Mazeppa, A poem; free translation from English by D. Zahul [Kharkiv: DVU, 1929]. Krytyka [Criticism], No. 1:132–136. Reprint in Kalnychenko & Poliakova 2015, 182–187. Derzhavyn, Volodymyr. 1930b. “Nashi pereklady z zakhidnykh klasykiv ta potreby suchasnoho chytacha.” (V poriadku obhovorennia. Redaktsiia) [Our translations from the Western classics and the needs of a contemporary reader. (For substantive discussion. Editorial office)]. Chervonyi Shliakh [Red Path], No. 10:160–168. Reprint in Kalnychenko & Poliakova 2015, 205–217. Gogol, Nikolai Vasilievich. 1994. “Noch´ pered Rozhdestvom” [The Night Before Christmas]. In Gogol, N. V.. Sobranie Sochinenii v deviati tomakh. T. 1. M.: “Russkaia kniga” [Russian book]. https://ilibrary.ru/text/1088/p.24/index. html. Accessed November 12, 2019. Hohol, Mykola. 1929. “Nich proty Rizdva” [The Night Before Christmas]. Tr. by Maksym Rylsky. In Hohol, Mykola. Tvory. T. 1. Vechory na khutori pid Dykankoiu: Povist’ vid pasichnyka Rudoho Panka [P. Kulisha] [Works. V. 1. Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka …], general editors I. Lakyza and P. Fylypovych, stylistic editor A. Nikovskyi. Kharkiv: Knyhospilka, (n.y.) http://exlibris.org.ua/text/nicz_proty_rizdva.html. Accessed November 14, 2019. Hohol, Mykola. 1948. “Nich pered Rizdvom.” In Vybrani tvory Mykoly Hoholia [Selected Works of Mykola Hohol], tr. by Antin Khutorian and Kostiantyn Shmyhovsky. Kyiv: Derzhlitvydav Ukrainy State Publishers. Kahanovych, Naum. 1934. “Natsionalistychni perekruchennia v ukrayins’kykh perekladakh tvoriv Lenina” [Nationalistic distortions in Ukrainian translations of the works of Lenin]. Movoznavstvo No. 2:9–24. Kardinalovskaia, Tatiana. 1996. Zhizn’ tomu nazad. Vospominaniia [A Life Long Ago. Memories]. Sankt-Peterburg: DEAN+ADIA-M. Literaturnaia entsiklopediia: v 11 t. [Literary Encyclopedia: in 11 v.] (1929). M., 1929–1939, T. 2 [V. 2], M.: Izdatelstvo Kommunisticheskoi Akademii [The Communist Academy Publishers]. London, Jack. 1933. Zalizna p’iata (roman) [The Iron Heel (a novel)]. KharkivOdesa: Molodyi Bilshovyk [Young Bolshevik].

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London, Jack. 1959. Zaliznap’iata [The Iron Heel]. К.: Derzhlitvydav Ukrainy [State Literary Publishers of Ukraine]. London, Jack. 2018. The Iron Heel. EBook #1164. Produced by Donald Lainson; David Widger. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/1164/1164-h/1164-h.htm Accessed November 10, 2019. Nyzovyi, Mykola Andriiovych, Mariia Ilichna Brezghunova, and Yurii Borysovych Medvediev. 1967. Presa Ukraiinskoii RSR, 1917–1966: stat. dovidnyk [The Press of the Ukrainian SSR, 1917–1966: Statistical Reference Book]. Kharkiv, (n.p.) Starynkevych, Yelyzaveta. 1930. “Problemy i dostizheniia v iskusstve perevoda: (K itogam ukrainskoi perevodnoi literatury za 1929–1930 g.g.)” [Problems and achievements in the art of translation: (To the outcome of Ukrainian translated literature in the years 1929–1930)]. Krasnoye slovo [Red Word], Kn. [Book] 3:111–118. Reprint in Kalnychenko & Poliakova 2011, 442–451. Strikha, Maksym. 2006. Ukraïnskyi khudozhnii pereklad: Mizh literaturoiu i natsiietvorenniam [Ukrainian Literary Translation: Between Literature and Nation-Making]. Kyiv: Fakt./Nash chas. Voynich, Ethel Lilian. 1929. Gedz’ [Gadfly]. К.: Chas [Time]. Voynich, Ethel Lilian. 1935. Ovid (roman) [Gadfly (a Novel)]. Kyiv-Odesa: Molodyi Bilshovyk [Young Bolshevik]. Voynich, Ethel Lilian. 1958. Ovod [Gadfly]. Tr. by N. Volzhyna. In Voynich, Ethel Lilian. Izbrannye proizvedeniia v dvykh tomakh [Selected Works in two volumes]. Edited by E.A. Taratuta. M.: Khudozhestvennaia literature [Fiction literature], 27–251. www.kkoworld.com/kitablar/Etel_Lilian_Voynich_Ovod_ rus.pdf. Accessed November 11, 2019. Voynich, Ethel Lilian. 2011. Ovod: roman [Gadfly: A Novel]. Tr. from English by N. Volzhyna. Moscow: Astrel’: Poligrafizdat [Astrel’: Polygraph Publishers] (Detskaia klassika) [Children’s Classics].

Valentyna Savchyn

Translator’s Agency and Totalitarian System: A Case Study of Mykola Lukash Abstract: The discussion of translator’s agency goes in line with a current tendency in Translation Studies to focus more on translators as people behind the text rather than the text itself or the very process of translating. As a “social practice”, translation is historically and socially determined, and thus certain political and ideological contexts bring the notion of agency to the forefront. The chapter examines the activity of Mykola Lukash (1919–1988), a top Ukrainian translator of the 20th century, through the lens of his agency, which he exercised in the face of totalitarian system. To elucidate all facets of his agency, both his translator’s activity proper (source text selection and translator’s strategies) and his civic stance have been discussed. Lukash’s agency manifested itself in his power to oppose the dominant culture in an effort to empower a local one, which was facing increasing subjection. His case exemplifies the clash between the personal translator’s agency and the institutionalized agency, which in a totalitarian society was used as a means of state control, power and coercion. Keywords: Translator’s agency, totalitarian system, Mykola Lukash, the Ukrainian language, Russification

The discussion of translator’s agency goes in line with a current tendency in Translation Studies (TS) to focus more on translators as people behind the text rather than the text itself or the very process of translating. This shift of emphasis within translation literature led Andrew Chesterman (2009) to reconsider Holmes’ classic map and recognize Translator Studies as a separate subfield of TS. According to his definition of this branch, Translator Studies covers research which focuses primarily and explicitly on the agents involved in translation, for instance on their activities or attitudes, their interaction with their social and technical environment, or their history and influence. (Chesterman 2009: 20)

Chasterman’s idea that in Translator Studies texts are secondary, while the translators themselves are primary (2009:  15), is consonant with the views of Anthony Pym, who stresses the importance of humanization of TS. His methodological principle “Study translators, then texts” challenges the traditional approach when scholars “reach for a text, to check its language, to compare it with a source or, more profitably, to compare translations with alternative translations” (Pym 2009:  30). When analysis is restricted to the level of the text, “we are really no closer to understanding why certain translations are the way they are, we have

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tremendous difficulty relating the textual to the social” (ibid.:  29), we overlook the issue of ethics and personal ideology as well as the decision-making activity pertaining to both selection of texts for translation and specific strategies. In other words, a plethora of issues of the translator’s agency are disregarded when the human dimension is missing in TS. The importance of the focus on translators becomes even more tangible when we view translation from a social perspective. Wolf (2007: 1–4) methodologically framed translation and its context as “a social practice”, the activity “carried out by individuals who belong to a social system” and “act in correspondence with their culturally connotated value systems and ideologies”. It follows that translators play a social role and manifest their agency, which cannot be neglected by translation scholars. Kaisa Koskinen and Tuija Kinnunen (2010: 4) regard agency as “a central concept in understanding the professional roles of translators and interpreters” but at the same time point to the broad and vague nature of this concept. For the purpose of this research, it is fundamentally important to conceptualize the notion of agency within the context of totalitarian society. The starting premise here is that agency is historically and socially determined. To understand the agents, one should consider the context they act in. Giddens (1979: 54, 202) locates human agency in time and space, and views these temporal and spatial characteristics not as the mere “environment” of a social activity, but as something integral to its occurrence. There is no denying that certain contexts, especially those laden with ideological or political tension, endow a translator with a status other than that in less, or non-, conflict-ridden situations (see, for instance, Baker’s Translation and Conflict, 2006). Totalitarian society, with all its methods of suppression, coercion, total control and restriction of freedom, brings the notion of agency to the forefront. This stems from the observation that “much of the experienced meaning of agency derives from its opposition to the notion of constraint” (Smith 2015: 4). By curtailing individual freedom1, which is “a defining condition of being a human” (ibid.), constraints become a driving force behind agency, and the scenario of an exponential relationship between them becomes plausible: the tighter the constraints are, the more agency is exhibited. Such a scenario highlights the issue of power, when in certain social and political contexts agency acquires distinctive features of resistance and opposition. In this chapter, I will use the definition of agency formulated by the participants of the 2008 Symposium “Translators’ Agency” held in Tampere, and test it in a particular historical setting. In a very laconic but comprehensive way, agency has been defined as the “willingness and ability to act” (Kinnunen and Koskinen 2010: 6) embracing, among others, such issues as intentionality, choice, strength and internal power. The theoretical framework within which the role and agency of translators in totalitarian societies will be conceptualized is postcolonial translation 1 The word constraint is defined by LDOCE as “something that limits your freedom to do what you want” (https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/constraint).

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studies, which, as Tymoczko (2007: 190) put it, “focused on the powerful roles that translators have played in ideologically charged situations, either to promote cultural and political change or to consolidate power”. It can be assumed that in such situations translators exercise different types of agency on various levels:  both in their translator’s activity proper (e.g. source text selection, particular strategy, etc.) and in their civic stance. Therefore, to elucidate all facets of a translator’s agency, it is worthwhile going beyond their translations to examine their paratexts and margin notes as well. Personal correspondence and archive materials could also shed light on the translator’s agency. On the other hand, the interplay of translators and their professional environment and any potential hindrances to executing their agency are also instrumental in providing a more comprehensive picture of the issue in question. From such a perspective, let us consider the activity of Mykola Lukash (1919– 1988), a top Ukrainian translator of the 20th century and a man of phenomenal linguistic talents. He went down in the history of Ukrainian literary translation as a masterful translator of the best pieces of world prose, poetry and drama from 18 languages. His contributions include, inter alia, Faust by Goethe, Madame Bovary by Flaubert, The Decameron by Boccaccio, The Dog in the Manger by Lope de Vega, Don Quixote by Cervantes, The Tragedy of Man by Imre Madách as well as poetry by Paul Verlaine, Robert Burns, Guillaume Apollinnaire, Federico García Lorca, Julian Tuwim, Adam Mieczkiewicz and Friedrich Schiller. Despite this apparent linguistic, stylistic and thematic diversity, a thorough analysis reveals that Lukash was quite selective about what he translated. And this is where his agency was clearly manifested. Considering that translations could help fill a void in Ukrainian literature and keeping in mind the social and cultural contexts of the 1950s and 1960s, Lukash painstakingly selected the best samples of literary classics, which might significantly contribute to the enrichment of Ukrainian literature. To that end, the variety of genres, literary schools and trends, reflected in his translations, made up for the lack of similar trends in Ukrainian literature. A very characteristic feature of Lukash’s approach was that he did not deal with a writer’s entire writings but rather concentrated on one or two works at most. This was because of his desire to prove that Ukrainian was as good a language into which to translate as any other. This is exactly why he picked out only the best samples of world literature, which allowed him to demonstrate the rich potential of the Ukrainian language. In addition, Lukash opted for themes that were topical for the political reality of those times, thus expressing his tacit protest against Soviet rule. His translation of the Hungarian play Az ember tragédiája (The Tragedy of the Man) by Imre Madách is a telling example of this. It contains numerous allusions to the reality of communist rule, revealing its anti-national and anti-human nature. Lukash’s personal correspondence with his close friend Hryhoriy Kochur proves that he was fully aware that this translation might be frowned upon. In the letter of 20 January 1964, he expressed his doubts about the feasibility of its publication: “Meanwhile I am pondering whether it is worth getting down to it. How could I be certain that

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I will get it published at least in Vsesvit2, if not as a separate book?” (Kochur and Lukash 2019: 56; my translation). Four years later when the translation was nonetheless published and some reviewers enthused about its language and believed it could be made good theatre, Lukash ironically commented on this in his letter to Kochur: “So naïve he is… He does believe that this can be staged (in the next hundred years?)” (ibid. 2019: 136; my translation). On the other hand, Lukash selected such source texts which were rich in diverse linguistic means, as this allowed him to use the lexical and stylistic resources of the Ukrainian language in all their variety. And here comes the main aspect of his agency. To appreciate it fully, a brief aside is necessary. Lukash’s activity fell in the times when the Ukrainian language was methodically subjected to a Russification policy aimed at destroying the language itself and ultimately annihilating the linguistic identity of the Ukrainian people. Covertly implemented changes distorting pronunciation, spelling and lexical and grammatical norms were widely introduced into the Ukrainian language to facilitate its assimilation with Russian. On the other hand, authentic Ukrainian words and structures were marginalized, with their Russian counterparts taking over. Things reached the point where confidential lists of proscribed Ukrainian words were handed down to publishing houses and used as a censorship tool by editors. As a result, in addition to the ideological vetting of manuscripts before publication there was also a linguistic vetting. Consequently, literary translation also became the target of scrupulous attention. The attempts to standardize so-called language norms and purify the language from obsolete, dialectal, colloquial and other “artificial” elements turned into an assault on the language itself and threatened to deform its original structure. Soviet language purges were essentially different from the purification movements that took place in the history of other languages. As Masenko (2005: 34) keenly observed, the latter aimed to protect the languages from borrowings and foster their development on an authentic basis. In Soviet Ukraine, quite the contrary, the focus was on the inherent genuine part of the language, which was eloquent evidence of Ukrainian as a self-sufficient entity. No wonder that such a language policy went hand in hand with repressive measures targeting writers and translators whose works were not fit for the Procrustean bed of linguistic norms. They were the objects of fierce criticism in press and, not infrequently, lost their jobs and had no chance to publish their translations. In the light of the above, the translator’s deliberate decision to disregard the restrictions imposed by Soviet language policy is a clear manifestation of his “agency”. As to Mykola Lukash, the Ukrainian language was the spiritual epicentre of all his translations. According to him, not a single word should be lost in the course of time, neither should it be discriminated against on the basis of its status in the language. Lukash’s ultimate ambition was to revive Ukrainian and restore 2 Vsesvit is a Ukrainian literary journal that publishes literary translations of world literature.

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its deformed structure. Therefore, his translations abound in lexical elements of various registers and temporal and spatial layers, and they present Ukrainian in its entirety. Due attention was given to passive vocabulary, especially words and forms which “fell into oblivion” over time. Lukash was fully aware that the language of his translations would invite criticism, but was determined to stand his ground. For example, when talking about his freshly published translation of Boccaccio’s Decameron in 1964, Lukash made the importance of the linguistic aspects of his translation explicit by metaphorically describing the publication process as a field of battle: “I expected that many would turn their noses up at my Decameron. This is indeed a polemical translation. Well, we will fight for it yet! The fact that it is published this way is a great victory already (it is a good thing that spelling issues took the brunt – and even though they fell, they rescued the lexis, phraseology and syntax)” (Kochur and Lukash 2019: 89; translation and emphasis mine). The interim conclusion drawn from the above suggests that both source text selection and lexical choice were of primary importance for Lukash and serve as a clear manifestation of his agency. Lukash’s translations, as articulated by a contemporary Ukrainian translator Andrii Sodomora3, were not so much readeroriented, as anti-totalitarian. This premise is fundamental to understanding the overall translation strategy of Mykola Lukash. Lukash’s translations were not the only tool of his resistance to Russification policy. He adopted an uncompromising stance on language issues and openly demonstrated it. In 1959, Lukash signed the appeal to the Verkhovna Rada of the Ukrainian SSR4 to introduce Ukrainian as the language of instruction in vocational and training schools as well as in higher educational institutions and to promote its usage in the workplace. The appeal also voiced a request to reopen Ukrainian schools, libraries, theatres and newspapers in the areas of dense Ukrainian population in the territory of Russia, especially in Kuban, Siberia and the Far East. Lukash and two other people who signed this written request brought to the Ukrainian establishment’s notice the fact that the majority of Ukrainian cultural venues there – Moscow included – faced closure, resulting in a situation where Ukrainians were denied access to cultural products in their native tongue. This was particularly appalling, given the evident discrepancy between the situation of Ukrainians living in Russia and of Russians living in Ukraine, the latter having no lack of Russian-language media, schools, theatres, etc. The personal archive of Lukash contains statistical data from 1958 showing the distribution of schools in the larger cities of Ukraine, with Ukrainian and Russian languages of instruction5.

3 The idea was expressed during Andrii Sodomora’s talk to the students of translation department of Ivan Franko National University of Lviv on October 26, 2017. 4 The copy of the letter is preserved and kept in the personal archive of Lukash (Folder 455) housed in the National Museum of Literature of Ukraine. 5 Archive resource. Folder 762.

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All that points to the fact that Lukash examined the situation carefully before signing the appeal. In December 1958, he made a public statement at the Institute of Linguistics (Kyiv) in support of the Ukrainian language, where he mentioned 50 kinds of Russification in Ukraine6. His arguments aroused open criticism from those present, on the grounds that Lukash was trying to contrast two languages and two “brotherly” peoples instead of strengthening the policy of internationalism. Some of his opponents condemned Lukash as a nationalist and his speech as ideologically weak, that is, politically neutral, thereby effectively implying that his words were not in accord with the messages of the Communist Party. Lukash’s strong stance in the debate was indicative of his translator’s agency, which fully conforms to the definition stated above as “willingness and ability to act”. In his case, we can even pinpoint it as willingness and ability to oppose. This ability manifested itself to the full extent possible 15  years later, when Lukash openly declared his support of his colleague Ivan Dziuba, who was arrested in 1972 in connection with his work Internationalism or Russification? In this work, Dziuba showed the hypocrisy of the Soviet Union and its language policy in Ukraine, noting the huge difference between what was officially declared and the actual reality, which amounted to a camouflaged destruction of the Ukrainian nation as such. The regime did not tolerate this, and as a result Dziuba was accused of disseminating a libel against the “Soviet reality” and the national policy of the Communist Party and was sentenced to five years in prison. The verdict was announced on 16 March 1973, and a week later Mykola Lukash staggered his friends by a daring act. In the face of the ongoing repression against dissidents, he wrote a letter of protest against Dziuba’s imprisonment and offered to serve the sentence instead of him on the grounds of Dziuba’s failing health7. Two points in this letter are worth mentioning: 1) Lukash openly states that he fully shares Dziuba’s views on the issue, which does not exist, according to Soviet Union’s official narrative and 2) he cannot see any difference between being in or out of prison during this particular period with no end in sight. The latter claim quite explicitly projected the image of Soviet Ukraine as a prison. The letter was sent out to the highest authorities of the Ukrainian SSR – Verkhovna Rada, Supreme Court and General Prosecutor, with a copy to the Writers Union. This act cost Lukash dear. Shortly after, he was dismissed from the editorial board of the journal Vsesvit, expelled from the Writers Union and was allegedly threatened with forcible treatment in a special psychiatric hospital. For many years, he faced an outright ban on the publications of his translations as well as any mention of his name, thus becoming a persona non-grata in literature. The collection of his translations of Apollinaire, ready for publication, was withdrawn. Even the Dictionary of the Ukrainian Language (1970–1980) removed all the quotations from 6 Archive resource. Folder 760. 7 Archive resource. Folder 457.

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Lukash’s translations following his expulsion. Even though Dziuba was released from prison six months later, after pleading guilty to charges brought against him, it took years until Lukash got his name and social rights back. He was reinstated in the Union of Writers only 14 years later – on the wave of perestroika in 1987, when he was almost dying. Lukash’s case exemplifies the clash between the personal translator’s agency and the institutionalized agency, which in a totalitarian society was used as a means of state control, power and coercion. It also proved Tymoczko’s observation that “far from being invisible, postcolonial translators are almost inevitably prominent cultural figures, highly visible and publicly engaged in the creation of discourses and in the enactment of resistance to oppression” (2010: 16–17). Lukash was both willing and able to oppose the dominant culture in an effort to empower a local one, which was facing increasing subjection. His ability to act in conformity with his own disposition and system of values was demonstrated in various situations. Finally, free choice as an essential prerequisite of agency (cf. a classical treatment of agency by Giddens (1979: 56) according to which it is important that the agent “could have acted otherwise” at any point in time) was consistently exercised by Lukash in his translation activity and public life. All this testifies to Lukash’s “agency” as his power to resist, to foster cultural change in a situation of the asymmetry of power and the danger of linguicide, and even, in support of those goals, to act unpredictably. Therefore, his translations should be discussed and evaluated through the lens of his agency, rather than simply from the perspective of specific textual strategies.

Acknowledgement This publication is part of my research project “The Social Role(s) of Translators in a Totalitarian System” carried out at Stockholm University, funded by a Swedish Institute scholarship.

References Baker, Mona. 2006. Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account. London and New York: Routledge. Chesterman, Andrew. 2009. “The Name and Nature of Translator Studies.” HERMES - Journal of Language and Communication in Business 22(42): 13–22. Giddens, Anthony. 1979. Central Problems in Social Theory. Action, Structure and Contradiction in Social Analysis. London & Basingstoke: Macmillan. Kinnunen, Tuija and Kaisa Koskinen, eds. 2010. Translators’ Agency. Tampere: Tampere University Press. Kochur, Hryhorii and Mykola Lukash. 2019. Lystuvannia 1958-1971 rokiv [Personal correspondence during 1958-1971]. Commented by Maksym Strikha. Kyiv: K.I.C.

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Masenko, Larysa, ed. 2005. Ukrainska mova u XX storichchi: Istoriya linhvotsydu; Dokumenty i materialy [The Ukrainian Language in the 20th c.: The History of a Linguicide; Documents and Materials]. Compiled by Masenko et al. Kyiv: Vydavnychyi dim “Kyievo-Mohylianska akademiya”. Pym, Anthony. 2009. “Humanizing Translation History.” HERMES - Journal of Language and Communication in Business 22(42): 23–48. Smith, Roger. 2015. “Agency: A Historical Perspective”. In Annals of theoretical psychology. Constraints of agency: Explorations of theory in everyday life, edited by C.W. Gruber, M.G. Clark, S.H. Klempe, J. Valsiner, 3–29. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing. Tymoczko, Maria, ed. 2010. Translation, Resistance, Activism. Amherst and Boston: University of Massachusetts Press. Tymoczko, Maria. 2007. Enlarging Translation, Empowering Translators. Manchester: St. Jerome. Wolf, Michaela and Alexandra Fukari, eds. 2007. Constructing a Sociology of Translation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Oleksandr Kalnychenko and Nataliia Kalnychenko

Campaigning against the “Nationalistic Wrecking” in Translation in Ukraine in the Mid-1930s Abstract: The study deals with the Soviet translation policy into Ukrainian in 1933– 1935, when a gradual shift in official attitude towards translation took place and a new function of translations, the one connected with nationalities policy, emerged, as translations became considered an instrument of consolidation of the Soviet Union republics around Russia. Stalinist regime has been shown to have attempted to openly regulate literary expression in translated books, including not only the textual choices and source language, but even the translation methods. The study describes a campaign in media against “the nationalistic wrecking” in translation incriminating to translators a nationalistic distortion and counterrevolutionary actions toward separating the Ukrainian language from Russian (and not at all inaccuracy of translation!). The campaign has been displayed to have triggered plentiful relay translations as well as retranslations and revisions in order to near the texts to Russian. Keywords: Retranslation, Russification, Stalinist regime, translation policy, Ukraine

1 Introduction Following in the steps of Christopher Rundle’s view of translation history as an organic part of the history of political regimes in Europe (2011), we assume that the history of translation in Ukraine during the period of Stalinism (from the early 1930s to the mid-1950s), when the substance of the culture was identified with ideology, can give us a special insight into the nature of the Communist regime. In our opinion, the historians of translation in post-Soviet countries should ask themselves not what the pro-Soviet political regime tells them about the history of translation but what translation can say about the history of Communism in the 20th century. In the history of Ukrainian translation, the period from the mid-1930s to the mid-1950s is a period of declining translation activity and interest in translations from Western languages, of the emergence of numerous re-translations and revisions of recently published works, often without the mention of translators’ names (Kochur, 1968; Kolomiyets, 2015). By the end of 1930, all private publishing houses in Ukraine had been eliminated and the state became the only commissioner of translation, as well as the only owner and distributor of physical resources (money, premises, equipment, materials, etc.). A characteristic feature of

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the beginning of this period in Ukraine was the campaign against “nationalistic wrecking” in translation (from the late 1933 to the early 1935).

2 The Wave of Publications against “Nationalistic Translators” in Ukraine in 1933–1935 2.1. The political context of the campaign Stalin blamed Ukrainian nationalists on the fact that the Ukrainian peasantry resisted the forced collectivization of agriculture, which the Bolsheviks launched in 1929. Bolsheviks would assert that Ukrainization (a series of policies pursued by the Communist Party of Ukraine to enhance the national profile of the state and Party institutions and thus legitimize Soviet rule in Ukrainian eyes) had been hijacked by nationalists, who had exploited it against the Communist party, alienating the Ukrainian peasantry from Moscow and putting in danger the communist project in the countryside (Plokhy, 2017: 241–242). James E. Mace, an American historian, points out: [I]‌n March 1930, Moscow started a campaign against nationalist deviations in Ukraine. Soon the XII CP (b)  U Congress resolved that, although there may still be some problem with Russian chauvinism, in Ukraine the main enemy was and remained the Ukrainian bourgeois nationalism. Ukraine was embarked upon a tragic period of total Russification, where going over to Russian meant a demonstration of political loyalty to the regime (1996: 35).

The first distinct sign that Ukrainization was being abandoned came in 1929, when the OGPU, the secret police, began to arrest “older” Ukrainian intellectuals, on the charge of belonging to a bogus organization, the Union for the Liberation of Ukraine. At the trial, one of the first Soviet show trials which was staged in the Opera House in Kharkiv from 9 March to 19 April, 1930, and largely targeted the leadership of the Ukrainian intelligentsia which had been at the forefront of the Ukrainization drive, the OGPU uncovered the “wrecking” carried out by linguists who had actively participated in standardizing Ukrainian spelling and compiling bilingual and terminological dictionaries, and who were accused of separating the Ukrainian language from “the fraternal Russian” (Strikha, 2006: 147–149). The state-ordered Famine-Genocide of 1932–1933 that killed millions of Ukrainians and the widespread repressions against Ukrainian cultural activists marked the end of Ukrainization. 2.2. Bolsheviks’ turn to national Bolshevism The change of party policy to present non-Russian nationalism as the principal danger to the USSR was confirmed in January 1934 (Plokhy, 2017: 248), when Stalin in his “Report to the Seventeenth Party Congress” maintained that “the deviation towards Ukrainian nationalism” became “the chief danger” (1949: 362). No parallel references to Russian chauvinism were mentioned. The decisions made by Stalin and the party in the months following the congress showed that the party was prepared to rehabilitate some elements of prerevolutionary Russian

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nationalism (Plokhy, 2017: 248–249). In other words, it was the time of a radical shift in the Bolshevic party’s ideology: the departure from materialist proletarian internationalism, characteristic of the 1920s, to national Bolshevism as an ideology of Stalinism (the emerging cult of personality, Russocentric traditions, and the development of a state-oriented patriotic ideology reminiscent of tsarist “great power” (velikoderzhaviye)) (Branderberger & Dubrovskiy, 1998: 873). 2.3. Newspaper report on a meeting of literary translators: “From now on the publishing house shall collaborate only with the translators fully committed to the cause of the party” On November 17, 1933, the production sector of the Kharkiv Local Writers’ Committee held a conference with translators of fiction. That event was covered in the feature signed by the cryptonym A. Khm-kyi (1933: 4) in the issue of the Literaturna Hazeta [Literary Newspaper] of December 10. The author of the article claimed: The intensification of the class struggle, the fierce resistance to the policy of the Party and the Soviet power on the part of kurkul’ [well-off peasants] elements, was widely displayed in the cultural province, producing vivid manifestations on the linguistic front, especially in the area of translated literature. Undeniable are the facts of obvious wrecking, of fascist-nationalist attacks of the class enemy, and so are a number of ideological flops.1

Further, the author explained why the “class enemy” directed its blows on the field of translation, acting there openly and brazenly, as well as surreptitiously, “on the sly,” because “they rightly assessed the importance of translated literature as a powerful tool of uniting the working people on a worldwide scale” (Ibid.). The article goes on to quote separate speeches, and, in particular, that of the head of the translation sector of the LiM publishing house, comrade Ya. Olesich, who admitted to the facts of commissioning such individuals as Yefremov, Ivchenko, and Zahul (all under repression by that time) to translations, stating that “the bulk of work used to be commissioned to the people who ought to have been crossed off the list of translators” and pledging that “from now on the publishing house shall collaborate only with the translators fully committed to the cause of the party” (Ibid.). 2.4 Condemnations of “nationalist distortions” in Ukrainian translations of Lenin’s works The campaign against “nationalistic wrecking” in translation in Ukraine was launched by the Soviet “linguist” Naum Kahanovych in his article published in the academic journal Movoznavstvo (Language Science) in 1934, in which he accused the translators of the Ukrainian edition of Lenin’s works edited by M. Skrypnyk (Mykola Skrypnyk was a Ukrainian Bolshevik organizer who led the cultural Ukrainization effort) and published in 1929–1931 in attempts to separate the Ukrainian language from the Russian language: 1 All translations, here and throughout, belong to Oleksandr Kalnychenko and Lada Kolomiyets.

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Oleksandr Kalnychenko and Nataliia Kalnychenko The first edition of Ukrainian translation of Lenin’s works edited by Skrypnyk has been distorted and perverted by the nationalists. Nationalistic translators supported by Skrypnyk pursued the course of action aimed at the separation of the Ukrainian language [from Russian], at its artificial limitation, the course followed by the language of German and Polish fascists. The sense of Lenin’s works has been falsified. In this so called “work”, the linguists-nationalists based upon the formalist approach towards translation, the approach feeding bourgeois linguistic practice, in particular, the harmful practices of Ukrainian bourgeois nationalists (Kahanovych 1934: 11).

Kahanovych enumerated the methods of “wrecking”: distorted choice of synonyms, narrowing of the synonymic series (“nationalists deliberately impoverished the Ukrainian language”), extension of the synonymous series (“bypassing those common Ukrainian words which resembles Russian words”), and violation of graduation. His article served as a guide for practices of translating from Russian in the most literal, word-for-word way (Kalnychenko, 2017). Similar charges were brought in the article by A. Shevchenko (1935: 137) in the journal Pid Markso-Lenina praporom (Under the Marx-and-Lenin Banner): … [T]‌he nationalist wreckers deliberately falsified the content of these works in their translations, pursuing the course for the isolation of the Ukrainian language from the languages of the fraternal peoples of the USSR, orientating it towards the language of German and Polish fascists. The maiming of the Ukrainian language was one of the vehicles of counter-revolutionary work aimed at tearing Ukraine away from the Soviet Union and thus turning it into a colony of international imperialism.

2.5 “Nationalistic wrecking” in translations of Gorky’s works In the summer of 1934, a conference of translators and editors of Gorky’s works was held at the СP (b)U Central Committee. In its wake, the Literaturna Hazeta [Literary Newspaper], dated 12 August, published an editorial which severely criticized the recent translations of Gorky’s works into Ukrainian, and announced that they would be retranslated. Andriy Paniv (1934), the author, elaborated on the ways of the nationalistic wreckers, accusing them of deliberately avoiding the words that “are used in the live language of the broad Ukrainian working masses,” that “sound similar in Russian and Ukrainian,” and that, supposedly, “enter all the dictionaries.” The latter statement was not really true. The words given by Paniv as examples mostly mark the traits of Russification in the common speech of urbanized Ukrainian workers. For example, these are such morphological forms of Russian provenance as “staryk” (correct Ukr. “staryi,” [an old man]), “mohuchyi” (correct Ukr. “mohutnii,” [mighty]), or a Russified lexeme for the “city”: “hórod” (correct Ukr. “misto”). These lexemes could not enter the dictionaries as genuinely Ukrainian words. Some other words given by Paniv as an alternative to the translators’ choices do have common etymological origin with their Russian counterparts, but there are also peculiarly Ukrainian synonyms for them, such as “harnyi” for “krasyvyi” [beautiful], “shkodá” for “zhalko” [it’s a pity], as well as other synonyms from Ukrainian stock – the ones that the translators drew upon. The announced complete works

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of Maxim Gorky in 25 volumes in new Ukrainian translations did not see the light of the day, but two retranslations (the story The mother and the third part of his autobiography My Universities) were published in a little while (Kalnychenko & Zarubina, 2017). 2.6 Kasianenko on how Pylypenko “distorted” Sholokhov The following issue of the Literaturna Hazeta, dated 20 August 1934, featured an article on “How Pylypenko Distorted Sholokhov,” signed by a famous translator Ievhen Kasianenko (1934), who analyzed the unpublished Ukrainian translation of Sholokhov’s novel Virgin Soil Upturned. (By that time, the translator, Serhii Pylypenko, had been arrested and sentenced by the GPU to the firing squad for belonging to a fake counterrevolutionary Ukrainian organization). In his article, Kasianenko exposes the system of methods applied in “distorting” Sholokhov by Pylypenko, which, in his opinion, included misrepresenting the novel’s political content at certain points, belittling the main characters, and the introduction of “fictitious words,” such as “merezha” instead of “sitka.”2 Kasianenko also accused the translators of disseminating “rumours that the party forces them to do this, thus drawing the line towards Russification of the Ukrainian language” (ibid.). 2.7 The abrupt termination of the campaign In 1935, critical materials with the accusations against translators-wreckers ceased to appear. Henceforth, the repressed translators were transformed into Orwellian “non-persons”: they were no longer criticized and not even mentioned, their names were forbidden to be referred to, and the books translated by them were withdrawn from the trading network and libraries. However, not only the translators, who had been criticized for “nationalist wrecking” in translation, but also the campaign promoters and denunciators became the victims of Stalin’s repression and perished in Stalin’s GULAG.

3 Conclusions The campaign which incriminated to Ukrainian translators a nationalistic distortion and actions toward separating the Ukrainian language from Russian triggered plentiful relay translations as well as retranslations and revisions to near the texts to Russian. From the mid-1930s to the mid-1950s, the Soviet cultural, language, and translational policies hindered the free development of the Ukrainian language and caused the formation of a kind of parallel language, which could only have been the product of Russian coercion. The Soviet system established topdown control over the structure of the Ukrainian language and prohibited certain words, syntactic constructions, grammar forms, and orthographic and orthoepic 2 Both words mean “a fishing net”: “merezha” – “large mesh net”; “sitka” – “fine mesh net”, but “merezha” has no Russian word with a similar root while “sitka” has a corresponding Russian word “setka.”

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rules (Sheveliov 1989). On the one hand, the Bolshevik government attempted to reduce the usage of the Ukrainian language (e.g., excluding it from the technical and military spheres) and, on the other hand, to purify it from European elements, unknown in the Russian language, as well as to incorporate the bulk of specifically Russian words and structures, thus, transforming it into a regional “language for private life” (Strikha 2006). Retranslations and revisions of the republished translations were purged of “archaisms” (which harkened back to national history) and “alien” elements such as the vocabulary of Polish origin, which was dubbed “fascist.” The prohibited words and phrases were replaced by “internationalist” ones  – Russian-derived modern vocabulary and grammatical borrowings from Russian. Translations were to play the fundamental role in this process (Nahaylo & Swoboda, 1990: 78). Our comparison3 of the late 1920s Ukrainian translations with the retranslations of the 1930s–1950s (The Gadfly by Ethel Lilian Voynich translated by Maria Lysychenko (1929) and retranslated by Maria Riabova (1935), Martin Eden by Jack London translated by Dmytro Lysychenko (1930) and retranslated by Maria Riabova (1936), and The Iron Heel by Jack London translated by Volodymyr Trotsyna (1928) and anonymous 1959 retranslation) has proved the validity of the abovementioned suggestions. In the early 1920s, the official attitude towards translations in accordance with the internationalist spirit of the times and the prospect of “world revolution” was very commendable. But in the early 1930s, there was a gradual change in official views on translation, which brought about the decline in interest in translations from western European languages. However, translation obtained a new function related to nationalities policy as a tool for the consolidation of Soviet republics around Russia (Witt 2013). Since the mid-1930s, the number of Ukrainian translations from the languages of the peoples of the USSR, especially from Russian and via Russian, increased dramatically. Translations from Russian occupied the dominant position in Ukrainian literary polysystem of the period serving as a model for the generation of new “original” Ukrainian works. The Communists’ fighting with the Ukrainian translation school was an important part of the broader strategy of provincializing the Ukrainian literature and weakening the Ukrainian language until it reaches the level of otioseness.

References Branderberger, David and Aleksandr Dubrovskiy. 1998. “ ‘The People Need A Tsar’: The Emergence of National Bolshevism as Stalinist Ideology, 1931– 1941”. Europe-Asia Studies 5: 873–892.

3 It was made jointly with Lada Kolomiyets.

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Kahanovych, Naum. 1934. “Natsionalistychni perekruchennia v ukrayins’kykh perekladakh tvoriv Lenina” [Nationalistic Distortions in Ukrainian Translations of Lenin’s Works]. Movoznavstvo 2: 9–24. Kalnychenko, Oleksandr. 2017. “History of Ukrainian thinking on translation (from the 1920s to the 1950s).” In Going East: Discovering New and Alternative Traditions in Translation Studies, edited by Larisa Schippel, and Cornelia Zwischenberger. Berlin: Frank & Timme, 309–338. Kalnychenko, Oleksandr, and Zinaida Zarubina. 2017. “Povtorni pereklady v Ukraini u 1920-i–1930-i roky” [Retranslations in Ukraine in the 1920s–1930s]. Naukovi zapysky Kirovohradskoho depzhavnoho pedahohichnoho universytetu 154:336–343. Kasianenko, Ievhen.1934. “Yak Pylypenko perekruchuvav Sholokhova” [How Pylypenko Distorted Sholokhov]. Literaturna Hazeta, August 20:2. Khm-kyi, A. 1933. “Zabuta dilianka literatury: Narada perekladachiv khudozhnioii literatury, Kharkiv, 17 lystopada” [The Neglected Field of Literature: Conference of Fiction Translators, Kharkiv, November 17]. Literaturna Hazeta, December 10:4. Kochur, Hryhoriy. 1968. “Zdobutky i perspektyvy” [Achievements and Prospects]. Vsesvit 1: 92–97. Kolomiyets, Lada. 2015. Ukraiinskyi khudozhniy pereklad ta perekladachi 1920–30kh rokiv [Ukrainian Literary Translation and Translators in the 1920s–30s]. Vinnytsia:Nova Knyha. Mace, James E. 1996. “Socialist and Communist Models”. In Ukrainian Statehood in the Twentieth Century: Historical and Political Analysis, edited by Oleksandr Dergachev. Kyiv: Political Thought, 3–38. Nahaylo, Bohdan, and Victor Svoboda. 1990. Soviet Disunion: A History of the Nationalities Problem in the USSR. London: Hamish Hamilton. Paniv, Andriy. 1934. “Tvory O.M. Gorkoho ukraiins’koiu movoiu: Pro potrebu novykh perekladiv, vilnykh vid “natsionalistychnykh” perekruchen” [O.M. Gorky’s Works in Ukrainian: On the Exigency of Retranslations Free From “Nationalistic” Distortions]. Literaturna Hazeta, August 12:1. Plokhy, Serhii. 2017. Lost Kingdom: The Quest for the Empire and the Making of the Russian Nation. New York: Basic Books. Rundle, Christopher. 2011. “History through a Translation Perspective.” In Between Cultures and Texts: Itineraries in Translation History, edited by Antoine Chalvin, Anne Lange, and Daniele Monticelli. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 33–43. Shevchenko A. 1935. “Pro vydannia tvoriv Lenina ukraiins’koiu movoiu” [On the Publishing of Lenin’s Works in Ukrainian]. Pid Markso-Lenina praporom 5:137–139.

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Shevelov, George Y. 1989. The Ukrainian Language in the First Half of the Twentieth Century (1900–1941): Its State and Status. Cambridge: Harvard UP. Stalin, Joseph. 1949. “Zvitna dopovid` XVII z’yizdovi partiyi pro robotu CzK VKP(b): (26 sichnya 1934 roku)” [Report to the Seventeenth Party Congress on the Work of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks): January 26, 1934]. Tvory` v 13 tomakh [Works: in 13 volumes] 13:283–374. Strikha, Maksym. 2006. Ukraïnskyi khudozhnii pereklad: Mizh literaturoiu i natsiietvorenniam [Ukrainian Literary Translation: Between Literature and Nation-Making]. Kyiv: Fakt./Nash chas. Witt, Susanna. 2013. “Totalitarism i perevod: kontekst Dzhambula” [Totalitarism and translation: the context of Jambyl]. In Dzhambul Dzhabayev: Prikliucheniya kazakhskogo akyna v sovetskoy stranie [Jambyl Jabayev: The Adventures of Kazakh folksinger in the Soviet state], edited by K. Bogdanov, R. Nikolozi, and Yu. Murashov. Moscow: Novoye literaturnoye obozreniye, 267–286.

Jordi Jané-Lligé

Translation of Essays in Francoist Spain: The Case of Edicions 62, a Catalan Publishing House Abstract: Some Spanish publishing houses played a central role in challenging Franco’s regime from the 1960s – when the government introduced some measures promoting greater political openness – until the end of the dictatorship in 1975. In this chapter, I highlight the revolutionary role played within the Catalan publishing world by Edicions 62 by focussing on its diverse essay series, in all of which Marxist critique was by far the hegemonic ideological perspective adopted. Thereafter, I outline some difficulties related to the translation of essays into Catalan at that time and finally, I concentrate on the analysis of one single and representative translation, Herbert Marcuse’s L’home unidimensional (One-Dimensional Man), by taking a closer look at its path through censorship and the paratexts included in the edition. I base my analysis on the understanding of translated texts as “second-order observations”, a concept articulated by Theo Hermans, whose origins spring from Luhmann’s idea of communication found within his theory of social systems. Keywords: Spanish censorship, Catalan translation, Herbert Marcuse, Luhmann’s social systems, Billiani’s national textuality

1 Historical and Cultural Context During the Late Francoism The nearly 40 years that Franco’s dictatorship lasted have been divided into different periods by historians, according to distinct criteria while taking into account political, cultural, economic and sociological factors. One turning point within the history of the regime that has generally been acknowledged, however, is the celebration in 1964 of the so-called 25 years of peace (Castro: 2017), referring to the 25  years since the end of the Spanish Civil War. The main goal of this propaganda campaign was to show the whole world the benefits that Franco’s regime had brought to Spain in these 25 years in terms of economic growth, social peace, stability and modernisation to name a few. The undeniable improvement of standard of living in Spain during the 1960s, the increasing involvement of the country in international agreements and organisations as well in international trade, the growth of tourism and its impact on social habits were not really accompanied, however, by a process of social liberalization in politics, ideology, culture and art. Franco’s regime could not hide the

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strict control exercised over any political, ideological, cultural or artistic manifestation that questioned or challenged it, although it tried to offer an image of modernisation and tolerance to the world (Cazorla: 2017). In terms of culture, the passing of a new law for book publication in 1966 that changed the rules of censorship shows evidence of this new agenda (Muñoz: 2008). This law (Ley 14/1966 de Prensa e Imprenta) was theoretically very liberal:  the obligation of previous censorship was banned and publishing houses could in theory publish whatever they wished to. The only limit was to offend the principles on which the regime was based, a rule that was formulated in the law in a very general and ambiguous way. In practice, it did not make a big difference because censorship was applied later, once books were already published and distributed, following the same arbitrariness as always. In case of a negative verdict by the censors, when publications did not fit the concurrent unwritten censorship rules, they were prohibited and confiscated. The final consequence of the new law was therefore that publishing houses applied censorship internally to their own products, or even more frequently, they voluntarily sent publications to censorship authorities and hoped for an affirmative response1. In this context of implementing this new framework, sectors of the unofficial cultural scene, among them several engaged editors, started to challenge the rigid limits of the regime. Translation became an important tool within this process: it was the most important way to introduce new ideas in the country, especially through essays and novels, thus promoting aesthetic, social and ideological debate. Editing foreign authors was, moreover, less risky than trying to publish heterodox voices from inside the country. As I showed in my study about the failed attempts to publish Günter Grass’ controversial novels in Spain (Jané-Lligé: 2015), in these years there was a clash between, on the one side, the efforts of the government to liberalize censorship and, on the other, the established censorship system, which was much more reluctant to any sign of modernisation. Despite all this, during the 1960s, we have to assert that the Spanish cultural scene and the Spanish publishing world experienced a revolution. With regard to my topic I would like to limit my analysis to two main fields where the impact of changes was especially noteworthy:  translation of essays and translation of all kind of genres into Catalan. For the proper comprehension of the significance of this change for Catalan culture, this last component needs a short explanation. During the first four decades of the 20th century, actually starting in the 19th century, Catalonia underwent a growing assertion of its national identity and a growing demand for political acknowledgement and autonomy. Catalan language and literature experienced a feverish activity during these years and became the central symbol of Catalan identity. Concerning translation, we have to speak of 1 Cisquella, Erviti, Sorolla published already in 1977 a first list with the books that had been affected after the application of the law: prohibitions, confiscations, censored books with suppressions or modifications.

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a golden era for Catalan translation: importation of cultural goods, classical and modern, was seen as the most important way of modernising the country, which was in turn the central goal of the new activist movement. Franco’s military uprising against the democratic Spanish Republic in 1936 actually began as not only a reaction against Communism and Socialism, but also against Catalan and Basque national vindications. The implementation of Franco’s fascist regime therefore meant, for the Catalan culture, the immediate prohibition of the language in the public sphere as well as any presence of Catalan symbols. After a few years of dictatorship, however, the regime allowed some harmless traditional manifestations of the Catalan culture, especially related to religion (Catholicism) or folklore, hence trying to show a friendly side to the Catalan population. During the 1950s some editors obtained permission to publish in Catalan, with the restriction to publish exclusively Catalan authors, under strict control of censorship and in very limited editions, and so they started to bring some Catalan books to a fear-stricken market. Only in the 1960s did publishing houses get permission to edit translations. The first challenge for the editors was, however, to rebuild bridges with a potential Catalan audience, because the Catalan language had been banned from the educational system, the universities, the media and the public administration – fields where Catalan remained prohibited until the end of Franco’s dictatorship.

2 Edicions 62 and the Translation of Essays into Catalan In the setting described above, two idealistic – to many even far-fetched – young men, Ramon Bastardes and Max Cahner, founded a publishing house, Edicions 62 – named after its year of foundation – that has played a central role in the Catalan editing world for nearly the last 60 years. The main – and not very realistic – goal of these two young editors consisted of normalising and modernising the Catalan publishing world following the model of several prestigious contemporary European publishing houses, especially French and Italian, such as Gallimard, Feltrinelli or Einaudi. Consequently, they started to publish several collections, almost simultaneously, dedicated to different literary genres but focussing very much on essays – mostly political, sociological, economic and cultural essays – a genre that had previously been dismissed in Franco’s Spain, for obvious reasons. If reality, on the one hand, took upon itself the task of demonstrating that their adventure was too ambitious, leading them together with other investors into extremely serious economic troubles, history shows, on the other hand, that they managed to survive and that they created one of the most impressive catalogues that Catalan editing has ever seen, especially in essays (Edicions 62: 2012). Their enterprise would have been inconceivable, if Barcelona had not been, since the beginning of the twentieth century, the most important centre of Spanish editing – and therefore editing infrastructure and professionals were already available  – and if Catalan edition had not undergone great development during the first decades of the century, as already said.

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Seen from the perspective of Translation Studies, the publishing initiative of Edicions 62 offers a wide range of topics of the highest interest and very different nature. To name a few: – Gathering a wide ranging catalogue starting from scratch, with significant presence of translated works. – Creating, in a very short time, a team of professionals, to translate works into Catalan. – Editing in a language, Catalan, that was seen somewhat as subversive on its own, at least by great sectors of the regime. – Elaborating a linguistic model for the different genres, with different registers, without a solid and continuous tradition, and therefore taking foreign literary and linguistic models very much into account. – Dealing with power (administration and censorship authorities) from a very heterodox position: especially in terms of cultural discourse and importation of foreign ideas for debate. – Reconstructing the relationship with the public, to a large extent through translations. By trying to make reference to all these questions and to provide simultaneously a representative view of the role played by translation at that time in Spain, from the perspective of the Catalan literary system, I will focus my analysis on one of the most representative essays within the Western world of this period, The One-Dimensional Man, by Herbert Marcuse, and its translation into Catalan by Manuel Carbonell, published in one of the fundamental collections of essays in Edicions 62, “Biblioteca Bàsica de Cultura Contemporània”. In my description I will stress the role played by editor and translator using the concept of “second-order observation” introduced by the German sociologist Niklas Luhmann and adapted by Theo Hermans to Translation Studies (Hermans: 2007). To continue my analysis I will make a few remarks about the features of the translated text, in terms of translation and ideology (Munday: 2017). To conclude my chapter, I will make some references to the role played by censorship in order to defend certain values of a specific national identity using Billiani’s concept of “national textuality” (Billiani: 2007).

3 Herbert Marcuse in Catalan: The Role Played by the Editors and the Translator. The One-Dimensional Man In the context described above, building a catalogue that was intended to become a reference within the Catalan culture meant not only filling in gaps of an interrupted and very fragile (almost nonexistent) tradition, but also introducing the central issues of the concurrent cultural debate within the Western world and fulfilling the role of a heterodox voice within Spain. At the same time, as previously mentioned, one of the central goals of Edicions 62 was to build bridges with the Catalan public.

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The responsibility of putting together this modern catalogue, especially of essays, fell to Josep Maria Castellet, a man in his mid-30s but with great experience as an editor in some of Barcelona’s other publishing houses and also as a literary critic and writer. He also maintained frequent and fluent connections with the most influential European editing houses and acted as mediator between the Catalan and the Spanish culture scenes of the time – an often very tricky and difficult role. Castellet belonged to a politically well-connected family and to an influential social environment, as was the case for most of the first generation of critical intellectuals in Francoist Spain, and had therefore a good bond with the regime’s administration. The Catalan editor started three collections of essays in which the work of Herbert Marcuse was very much represented: – Biblioteca Bàsica de Cultura Contemporània, that included significant works of contemporary thought by influential authors like Bertrand Russell, Erich Fromm, Sigmund Freud, Antonio Gramsci, György Lukács, Simone de Beauvoir and Albert Einstein. This collection was very well edited and expensive; its target was a qualified, select audience. In this collection Marcuse’s L’home unidimensional appeared in 1968. – Llibres a l’Abast, a collection whose aim was to disseminate knowledge to a wide audience, following the model of the French collection Que sais-je, edited by the publishing house Presses Universitaires de France. The books were cheaper and of lower quality than the former collection. Here Marcuse’s Eros i civilització in 1968 and Filosofia i política appeared in 1971. – L’Escorpí contained short and controversial essays in a very manageable size and edition, promoting debate through inoculation of small amounts of venom, as the name of the collection suggests. Here Marcuse’s La fi de la utopia appeared in 1969 and Per a una nova definició de la cultura in 1972. Josep M. Castellet published here a brief introduction to Marcuse’s work, Lectura de Marcuse, in 1969. When analyzing the role of the editor from a systemic perspective, in the sense of Luhmann’s social systems, we have to take several aspects into account. Castellet not only chose the work of Marcuse for translation as one of the most representative voices of contemporary thought, but he also accompanied the editions of his books with several paratexts that introduced the author and his work to the Catalan readership. This kind of contextualization must be seen as indispensable in the Spanish context at that time, due to the lack of intellectual public debate, as already seen, but it obviously contains one particular interpretation of the author and his work. Conceiving any text, as Luhmann (1987: 191–241) does, as communication of a certain kind (in Marcuse’s example, a text belonging to the social system of philosophy), Castellet’s intervention influenced the Catalan audience, as a “second-order observation”, from his first reading and interpretation. Castellet’s prologue of The One-Dimensional Man covers 23 pages and offers a description of Marcuse’s intellectual evolution from his beginnings in Germany, associated with the famous Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research. The Catalan editor analyses the influence of Marcuse’s writings over contemporary

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political activism, avoiding apparently any references or reflections about the Spanish situation. This is a passage from his introduction2: This is an intellectual task, but the movement of thought, today, has inevitably a political content because it contradicts, from the outset, the established institutions. That is why the thought of Herbert Marcuse, located at the crossroads of the contemporary human’s options, concerns us and hits us so directly: not only does it reveal the alienations and temptations of advanced industrial society to us, but also –and from now on– it forces us to take positions against them. (p. 28)

It is difficult to overlook a veiled reference to Franco’s dictatorship in these words. Needless to say, as we will see immediately, that political analysis was permitted by censorship in Francoist Spain only if it was related to the foreign world and did not affect the internal one, which was a taboo. Besides this introduction, Castellet wrote and edited a volume exclusively dedicated to Marcuse in the collection L’Escorpí in 1969, which presents great similarities with the former prologue. This is a further sign of the importance attributed to the thought and influence of this author during these years. Analyzing this process from today’s perspective, we can state, however, that Marcuse’s reception in Catalonia and Spain was limited to a few years (between 1968 and 1972). Once the university protests that started in 1968 had calmed down, Marcuse lost his centrality in the international debate and disappeared from the Spanish cultural scene. The very fragile consistence of the ideological debate and the very fragile consistence of the editing initiatives in Spain meant that very few authors and books had a significant, actual, long-term influence. The other “second-order observer” in Marcurse’s reception process was Manuel Carbonell, the translator into Catalan of The One-Dimensional Man. Theo Hermans (2007) uses this term applied to translation meaning that the translated text is not a neutral re-formulation of a source text in another language carried out by an anonymous person, but the result of translational decisions taken by the translator after having interpreted the text in a certain way. Luckily, I could speak with Manuel Carbonell3 about his translation, which is already more than 50 years old, but also about his role as a translator in Edicions 62. He stressed the feverish activity carried out by Castellet in choosing authors and books under the pressure of the political circumstances in Spain. Carbonell remembered Marcuse’s translation very well because it was one of his very first translation orders, not to mention fascinating for a recently graduated student in philosophy and languages. Speaking about Edicions 62, he specifies that the publishing house had not only a literary editor, but also a language editor, Francesc Vallverdú, whose function was to assure consistency in the language used in the several collections of the publishing house. The very existence of this figure in a Catalan publishing house at that time 2 The original is in Catalan, translation done on my own. 3 The interview took place in Barcelona on the 26th of June 2019.

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is, under the already described circumstances, more than understandable. From a translatological perspective, however, it adds more complexity to the analysis of the agency in the configuration of translated texts. Jeremy Munday (2017) proves clearly that language in a translation is not free from ideology; Norman Fairclough (2010) underlines moreover that ideology can be recognized at very different levels of a text or discourse. In the case of Catalan translations at this time of history, we can state that: – The sheer language choice between Catalan and Spanish was at the time of Franco’s dictatorship an obvious matter of ideology. Translating into Catalan was a way to make evident a position in front of a regime that had prohibited and repressed the Catalan language and culture. – The linguistic model used in the translation was not exempt of ideological choices: the use of an extremely literary linguistic register, sometimes old-fashioned, was seen socially at that time as a sign of higher degree of commitment and loyalty to the language itself. – Although it could not be made explicit, Edicions 62 was ideologically very critical with Franco’s dictatorship, from a left-wing political position. The titles and authors included in its catalogue demonstrate this very clearly. In respect to the linguistic model dominant in Edicions 62, Manuel Carbonell explains that the linguistic editor, Francesc Vallverdú, insisted on the fact that the language in the translation had to be as neutral as possible, especially in essays, avoiding extreme formal or older linguistic forms that were not used socially. He stood clearly up for the modernization of Catalan in terms of adapting it to the current use in society. This position was seen from a traditional perspective in a very critical light. This is not the place to analyze the textual features of the Catalan translation, but the results will certainly not show ideological discrepancies between the source and the target text in this case, but more a certain level of insecurity in the use of some specific terms (especially vocabulary from social sciences or philosophy) in Catalan and a logical tendency to syntactic or structural calques (Carbonell was an inexperienced translator in a language in its process of standardization).

4 The Role of the Censorship As already mentioned, during Franco’s regime publishing books was under strict control. Censorship highlighted those who held power, but can be seen as well as a way to define a certain “national textuality”, using Francesca Billiani’s (2007) concept. Did books fit the concurrent morality, values and ideology of the Francoist regime, an ultra-nationalistic dictatorship? Censors had to answer these questions in every single file4 they wrote. They had to decide what was acceptable or not in the context of an integral Spanish culture. In the case of the translation L’home 4 The censorship files are accessible to the public in the General Archive for Administration (AGA) in Alcalá de Henares.

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unidimensional, the verdict of the censor, as we can see in the following translated quotation, was based on the argument of foreignism: Analysis of advanced industrial society, in reality criticising it, however without references to Spain or praise for communism, which is also criticized. No objections, since the study has been done on a universal scale5.

Note This chapter is part of the Grup d’Estudi de la Traducció Catalana Contemporània (GETCC) (2017, SGR 1155), recognised by the Agència de Gestió i Ajuts Universitaris de la Generalitat de Catalunya.

References Billiani, Francesca. 2007. Modes of Censorship and Translation: National Contexts and Diverse Media. Manchester: St. Jerome. Castro, Asunción; Díaz, Julián (coord.). 2017. XXV años de paz franquista. Sociedad y cultura en España hacia 1964. Madrid: Sílex Ediciones. Cazorla Sánchez, Antonio. 2017 “Delante del espejo: La España real de 1964.” In XXV años de paz franquista. Sociedad y cultura en España hacia 1964, coord. by Asunción Castro; Julián Díaz. Madrid: Sílex Ediciones, 25–47. Cisquella, G.; Erviti J.L.; Sorolla, J.A. 1977. Diez años de represión cultural: la censura de libros durante la Ley de Prensa (1966–1976). Barcelona: Anagrama. Edicions 62. 2012. Edicions 62, 50 anys. Catàleg general (1962–2011). Barcelona: Edicions 62. Fairclough, Norman. 2010. Critical Discourse Analysis (second edition). New York: Longman. Hermans, Theo. 2007. The Conference of the Tongues. Manchester: St. Jerome. Jané-Lligé, Jordi. 2015. “Literary Translation and Censorship: A Textual Approach.” In Bączkowska, A. (ed.) Perpectives on Translation. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 235–258. Luhmann, Niklas. 1987. Soziale Systeme. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp. Marcuse, Herbert. 1964. One dimensional man. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Marcuse, Herbert. 1968. L’home unidimensional. Barcelona: Edicions 62. Munday, Jeremy. 2017. “Translation and Ideology”, The Translator 13:2, 195–217. Muñoz Soro, Javier. 2008. “Vigilar y censurar: La censura editorial tras la ley de Prensa e Imprenta, 1966–1976”. In Ruiz Bautista, Eduardo (coord.) Tiempo de censura. La represión cultural durante el franquismo. Gijón: Trea, 111–141. 5 AGA, 21/19321, file 8882.

Daniel Martín-González

Retranslation and Power: Attempts of Conversion of Sephardic Jews in the Ottoman Empire in the 19th Century by Scottish Protestant Missionaries through Retranslations from English Texts Abstract: The Free Church of Scotland was an Evangelical movement from the 19th century that attempted to bring to Christianity different religious groups by means of establishing stations all over Asia. This research sheds light on the Mission to the Sephardic Jews located in Constantinople led by the Scottish missionary Alexander Thomson (1820–1899). This reverend retranslated educational books for children from English into Judeo-Spanish in order to use those texts as teaching materials in the Protestant school the mission had opened in the late 1840s in that region.The retranslated text underwent different editions from the 1850s to the 1880s. However, no major linguistic changes can be attested in the late edition, which proves ideological reasons over purely linguistic ones for retranslating this text. Unlike American Protestant missionaries, who rejected making explicit references to Christian ideology in their late works, the Free Church of Scotland changed their proselytizing strategy through the years by means of making their ideological intentions more overt, defying the agreed tactic among Protestants in Constantinople at the time. This research will prove to be useful in ascertaining the relation between power and retranslation, a recent acclaimed phenomenon in literature and translation studies. Keywords: Retranslation, Evangelicals, Judeo-Spanish, English literature, the Free Church of Scotland

1 Introduction Sephardic Jews, speakers of a language known as Judeo-Spanish or Ladino, are particularly known by their expulsion from the Iberian Peninsula in 1492. After numerous migrations, due to religious persecution, throughout Europe and the North of Africa, most of them ended up settling down in Constantinople, which was encompassed by what has been often referred to as “Sefarad 2” or “magna Sefarad” in the Ottoman Empire. Thus, Sephardic Jews were mainly attracted to this region due to the privileged social and linguistic status this community enjoyed there. This chapter specifically focuses on the study of the second half of the 19th century, when numerous Protestant missionaries arrived in Constantinople in order to convert Jews into Christians, taking advantage of the fact that

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their target was no longer enjoying the aforementioned thriving period. Besides, Christians were taking advantage as well of the famous Tanzimat period (1839– 1876), in which Ottoman authorities were open to the influence of countries like Great Britain and the USA for political purposes. This research sheds light on part of Alexander Thomson’s (1820–1899) production, a Scottish missionary belonging to the Free Church of Scotland, an Evangelical schism from the National Established Church of Scotland produced in 1843. Thus, this Scottish reverend, previously sent by his church to Pest (Hungary) in 1846, is sent again to Hasköy (a quarter in Constantinople known by its numerous Jewish inhabitants) a year later in order to lead the missionary Protestant movement previously set up by Wilhelm Gottlieb Schauffler (1798–1883), who belonged to the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Mission. Thomson’s main strategy to convert his target was an educational one, that is, through setting up schools and translating books from English into Judeo-Spanish to be used at his institution. Some of these translations were retranslated again a few decades afterward by the same missionary. In fact, we could divide the translator’s production into two main periods, that is, the 1850s, or initial translations, and the 1880s, or retranslations of the same texts. For this purpose, the main hypothesis undertaken in this research is both historical and linguistic. After the Russo-Turkish war (1877–1878), the presence of American missionaries became more and more prevalent in Turkey. However, they adopted liberal ideas, “known as Protestant Liberalism, which were increasingly common in Protestant Theology from the last quarter of the 19th century” (Kiskira 1999:  317). Since then, these Evangelical American missionaries were adherents to the Social Gospel and were reluctant to make explicit references to Christ in their production, putting thus more emphasis on the cultural mission “than on the conservative ideology ‘Christ not culture’ which had determined their work until this time” (Kiskira 1999:  317). Our hypothesis is that, unlike American Evangelical missionaries in the last quarter of the 19th century, Alexander Thomson, who was also from the same religious denomination and who had collaborated with those missionaries in multiple occasions, became bolder in the process of converting Sephardic Jews, which is manifested in a more overt reference to Protestant ideology in the late translated texts. The Scottish missionary thus will make more numerous and explicit references to Jesus Christ as the Savior of humankind in the retranslations than in initial translations. In the same line, we hypothesize that the missionary will probably omit Protestant interpretations found in the English source text in his initial translations in the 1850s but not in the retranslations in the 1880s. To illustrate this evolution, we will be addressing one of the most well-known translations carried out by Thomson, which is the book entitled Ele Toledot Bené Yisrael (1854), retranslated again in 1886, whose English source text was the famous Dr. Barth’s Bible Stories by the German author and translator Christian Gottlob Barth (1799–1862). But before delving into our data analysis, let us define retranslation as a theory and its connection to power.

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2 Retranslation and Power Retranslation has been a common practice and product held among translators since the Middle Ages (Van Poucke and Sanz Gallego 2019:  10). In very broad terms, it refers to a translation of a previously translated text (Zaro Vera 2007: 21). However, despite being such a quotidian issue, retranslation still remains fuzzy as a concept, as a theory, and even as a research field in Translation Studies. What all researchers seems to agree on with regard to retranslation is that it still needs further research and a more solid theoretical ground to sustain all the individual studies being carried out to shed light on the phenomenon of retranslation in the last two decades (Vanderschelden 2000: 1; Susam-Sarajeva 2003: 2; Brisset 2004: 41; Zaro Vera 2007: 21; Zaro Vera and Ruiz Noguera 2007: 9; Deane-Cox 2014: 1; Van Poucke 2017:  92; Van Poucke and Sanz Gallego 2019:  12). Retranslation is now experiencing a golden age due to the numerous investigations in “the form of case studies” (Van Poucke 2017: 92), as the one we present in this research, and which we are currently witnessing in Translation Studies. The definition of retranslation is still open, so we will adopt here one of the most traditionally ones found in literature, which is “toute traduction faite après la première traduction d’une ouvre” (Berman 1990: 1) into the same language. Moreover, linked to this phenomenon we have what has been known as an infamous claim, the so-called Retranslation Hypothesis. This can be oversimplified to the statement proposed by Chesterman, namely, “later translations tend to be closer to the source text” (2004: 8), probably because “over the course of time, these elements [the source text language and culture] can become much better known and understood by [target] readers” (Cadera, 2017: 5). However, most of the literature disagrees with such statement. For Cadera, it was Berman (1990) and Bensimon (1990) who proposed the Retranslation Hypothesis, which was later defined by Chesterman (2000) (Cadera 2017: 5). More recently Van Poucke has attributed the concept of Retranslation hypothesis, reformulated into Retranslation Theory in his writings, to Brownlie (2006, 2017: 94). Thus, the strong recent evidence against this hypothesis is compelling (Desmidt 2009; O’Driscoll 2011; Massardier-Kenney 2015; Cadera and Walsh 2017; Roca Urgorri 2017; Van Poucke 2017: 94). In any case, we will check whether this hypothesis agrees with our particular case study. The approach we endow this study with is the one proposed by scholars working within the RETRADES project (Studies on Cultural and Textual Interaction:  Retranslations) such as Dr.  Özlem Berk Albachten (Boǧaziçi University in Istanbul, Turkey), Dr.  Piet Van Poucke (Ghent University, Belgium), and Dr. Susanne Cadera (Universidad Pontificia de Comillas in Madrid, Spain), which links retranslations to context in order to provide insight on any translation or retranslation. In sum, their hypothesis is that “each new translation must represent a socio-historical change […] of the target culture” (Cadera and Walsh 2017: 1). In fact, the phenomenon of retranslation must be linked to the idea of power, and even more in our case. The mid-nineteenth century, which originated the second wave of European colonialism, witnessed the evolution of translation as the modus

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vivendi of missionaries (Rubel and Rosman 2003: 2), interested both in disseminating their values and languages among the different peoples they encountered and defining these to the European eyes without any sort of questioning. In this manner, English was used “as a means […] to not only impart a linguistically hegemonic transformation on the Judeo-Spanish language, but also to impose a new shaping of the Sephardic culture” (Kirschen 2013:  30). Furthermore, missionary activity crudely and invariably advocated a form of cultural supremacy (Tomalin 2012:  119), as “missionaries were agents of some of the most intimate forms of colonial power” (Errington 2008: 94). In this context, translation plays a key role in shaping target culture, since it “always implies an unstable balance between the power one culture can exert over another” (Álvarez Rodríguez and Vidal Claramonte, 1996: 4). Missionaries’ translations thus “played an important role and function in the Turkish modernisation process, as manifested in the form of the Westernisation starting in the mid-nineteenth century” (Berk Albachten 2006: 1). Finally, related to the role of context, it is important to highlight why retranslations are carried out. Leading experts on retranslation recognize two main reasons, namely, language aging (Berman 1990: 1; Venuti 2004: 25) and ideology (Brownlie 2006: 150). The former can be formulated as “language change and the need to update the wording and terminology used in earlier translations” (Hanna, 2006: 194). Therefore, we could understand Thomson’s retranslation as an attempt to update his target language, due to the fact that the missionary was not a native speaker but his competence in Judeo-Spanish could have improved after 30 years. Regarding the latter, the role of ideology as a reason for retranslations has not been properly studied (Van Poucke and Gallego 2019:  12). A  text’s acceptability by a group is signalized by social moves, which can help map ideologies in the target culture (Brownlie, 2006: 161). Venuti emphasizes extratextual factors as the main causes of retranslation, putting emphasis on texts that aim at deliberately inculcating identities that conform to religious values (2004:  26). In the case of Thomson’s retranslation, the later text could be a new attempt to proselytize his target audience more than a simple new edition which shows a more competent usage of Judeo-Spanish. These two main reasons will thus be contrasted in the following section.

3 Data Analysis This study will briefly illustrate how retranslations vary throughout decades in their content. For this purpose, we have selected to compare Alexander Thomson’s initial translation and retranslation of the English text Dr.  Barth’s Bible Stories (1851)1 into Judeo-Spanish, published under the name Ele Toledot Bené Yisrael 1 This English text was in turn a literal translation carried out by the same person, Christian Gottlob Barth (1799–1862), who originally wrote the German source text Zweymal zwey und funfzig Biblische Geschichten (1832).

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(Constantinople, 1854 and 1886), that is, a selection of 52 stories from the Old Testament. Contrary to what can be expected, as both Thomson and Barth were Evangelicals, numerous changes are to be read when contrasting these texts. First of all, we have discarded the aging hypothesis as a reason to retranslate the English text into Judeo-Spanish because García Moreno already notices that texts written by Thomson in the 1850s could not be properly considered as the prototypical Sephardic language (2013:  405). However, this scholar is still hesitant when ascribing a more Sephardic tinge to texts produced by Thomson in the 1880s (2018:  200). Therefore, we have understood an ideological (even proselytizing) interpretation of the retranslation of Ele Toledot Bené Yisrael in 1886. This train of thought can be illustrated by different additions and omissions in both the initial translation and its retranslation. Regarding the latter, Alexander Thomson omits the following English texts appearing in Barth, which he suspects to be disrespectful for his target audience due to Protestant interpretations of the text that link traditional Jewish stories with Protestant Messianic references2. We simply present a couple of them for the sake of space: By this promised Seed was meant the Lord Jesus Christ, who was to come into the world, and take on him the nature of man, that he might in the fall of man, as though he had defeated God’s designs; but in these words God gives a plain intimation that he should not finally triumph, but that a complete victory should be gained over him by the Seed of the woman (Barth 1851: 5). This was a more particular revelation of the Saviour who was to come than had been given before. It was now revealed, not only that Christ should come, but that he should be Abraham’s seed, and that all the nations of the earth should be blessed in him (Barth 1851: 22).

On the other hand, we now present some texts which have been added in the retranslation, not even appearing in the English or German source text, and which thus emphasize the more over proselytizing strategy adopted by Thomson in the 1880s. Once again for the sake of space, we merely provide a few illustrations of this case: Estas profecías son muy claras tocante a la persona del Mašíaḥ (Thomson 1886: 265)3. De este modo todos los profetas atestiguan con una ṿoź de la persona, la oƀra, los sufrimientos y la muerte del Mašíaḥ (Thomson 1886: 267)4.

2 In fact, Thomson decides to leave out 62 stories from Barth’s text, which deal with New Testament texts, that is, Jesus Christ’s stories as the Messiah. 3 These prophecies clearly point out the figure of the Messiah (my translation). 4 These prophecies thus attest in unison to the figure, work, sufferings and death of the Messiah (my translation).

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4 Conclusion Data shortly presented here have been successful at proving our hypothesis, that is, how Alexander Thomson’s ideological beliefs are even more numerous and more overt in late retranslations than in initial translations. In this line, Retranslation Hypothesis is confirmed in our case, as the retranslation is closer in meaning and intention to the source text than the initial translation, which tended to omit Evangelical information. However, we do not intent to prove this infamous idea as irrefutable, and we rather contend that this hypothesis can only be held true in certain specific contexts. Furthermore, when talking about reasons for the retranslation presented here, we have emphasized ideology over language aging as a motive to retranslate Dr. Barth’s Bible Stories, chiefly due to the fact that the language found in both texts is not significantly different. Thus, our main hypothesis has been confirmed, and we have witnessed an increment in the number of explicit references to the figure of Jesus Christ as the Messiah that Jews have always longed for. In this line, Thomson’s proselytizing strategy thus differentiates from the one practiced by other Protestant missionaries such as American Evangelicals. To sum up, we have been able to show how retranslation contributes to the spread of power and how Protestant missionaries made use of this phenomenon to attempt to impose their religious beliefs to the Sephardic community in the Ottoman Empire.

Note/Acknowledgment This chapter is a concise summary part of my ideological analysis of Alexander Thomson’s Ele Toledot Bené Yisrael (1854 and 1886) found in my dissertation entitled The Influence of Evangelical Theology in the Translation and Composition of Educational Books from English into Judeo-Spanish by the Reverend Alexander Thomson (1820–1899), funded by a predoctoral grant “UCM - Harvard University CT27/16-CT28/16”.

5 The prophecy is yet to be fulfilled, as children of Israel will remain without king, prince, sacrifice […] but none of the Jewish rabbis can foretell when this captivity will be put to an end because they do not confess the great sin of their nation, that is, rejecting the Messiah (my translation).

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References Álvarez Rodríguez, Román, and María Carmen Vidal Claramonte. 1996. “Translating: A Political Act.” In Translation, Power, Subversion, edited by Román Álvarez Rodríguez, and María Carmen Vidal Claramonte. Clevedon, UK/Philadelphia, PA/Adelaide, AU: Multilingual Matters, 1–9. Barth, Christian G. 1851. Dr’s Barth’s Bible Stories. London: The Religious Tract Society. Bensimon, Paul. 1990. “Présentation.” Palimpsestes 4: ix–xii. Berk Albachten, Ö. (2006). ““Translating the ‘West’ ”: The Position of Translated Western Literature within the Turkish Literary Polysystem.” RiLUnE 4: 1–18. Berman, Antoine. 1990. “La Retraduction Comme Espace de la Traduction.” Palimpsestes 4: ix–xii. Brisset, Annie. 2004. “Retraduire ou le Corps Changeant de la Connaisance: Sur l’Historicité de la Traduction.” Palimpsestes 15: 39–67. Brownlie, Siohban. 2006. “Narrative Theory and Retranslation Theory.” Across Languages and Cultures 7: 145–170. Cadera, Susanne. 2017. “Literary Retranslation in Context: A Historical, Social and Cultural Perspective.” In Literary Retranslation in Context (New Trends in Translation Studies), edited by Susanne Cadera, and Andrew Walsh. New York: Peter Lang, 5–18. Cadera, Susanne, and Andrew Walsh. 2017. “Introduction.” In Literary Retranslation in Context (New Trends in Translation Studies), edited by Susanne Cadera, and Andrew Walsh. New York: Peter Lang, 1–3. Chesterman, Andrew. 2000. Memes of Translation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Chesterman, Andrew. 2004. “Hypotheses about Translation Universals.” In Claims, Changes and Challenges in Translation Studies: Selected Contributions from the EST Congress, Copenhagen 2001, edited by Gyde Hansen, Kirsten Malmkjær, and Daniel Gile. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1–13. Deane-Cox, Sharon. 2014. Retranslation: Translation, Literature and Reinterpretation. London, UK/New York, NY: Bloomsbury Academic. Desmidt, Isabelle. 2009. “(Re)translation Revisited.” Meta 54: 669–683. Errington, James Joseph. 2008. Linguistics in a Colonial World: A Story of Language, Meaning, and Power. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. García Moreno, Aitor. 2013. “¿Ante el Primer Diccionario Monolingüe Judeoespañol?.” Sefarad 73: 371–408. García Moreno, Aitor. 2018. “Poemas Castellanos en Textos Sefardíes: Ejemplos en La Escalera a la Anṿeźadura (Constantinopla 1853 y 1888).” Sefarad 78: 149–200. Hanna, Sameh F. 2006. “Towards a Sociology of Drama Translation: A Bourdieusian Perspective on Translations of Shakespeare’s Great Tragedies in Egypt.” PhD diss., University of Manchester.

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Kirschen, Bryan. 2018. “Sociolinguistics of Judeo-Spanish.” Language and Linguistics Compass 12: 1–16. Kirschen, Bryan. 2013. “Language Ideologies and Hegemonic Factors Imposed upon the Judeo-Spanish Speaking Communities.” Mester 42: 25–38. Kiskira, Constantia. 1999. “American Christian Penetration of Constantinople Society in the Late 19th Century.” Balkan Studies 40: 309–325. Massardier-Kenney, Françoise. 2015. “Toward a Rethinking of Retranslation.” Translation Review 92: 73–85. O’Driscoll, Kieran. 2011. Retranslation through the Centuries: Jule Verne in English. Oxford, UK: Peter Lang. Roca Urgorri, Ana María. 2017. “Retranslations as a Reaction to Ideological Change: The History of Spanish Versions of Gay American Twentieth-Century Novels.” In Literary Retranslation in Context (New Trends in Translation Studies), edited by Susanne Cadera, and Andrew Walsh. New York: Peter Lang, 53–81. Rubel, Paula G., and Abraham Rosman. 2003. Translating Cultures: Perspectives on Translation and Anthropology. Oxford, UK/New York, NY: Berg. Susam-Sarajeva, Şebnem. 2003. “Multiple-Entry Visa to Travelling Theory: Retranslations of Literary and Cultural Theories.” Target 15: 1–36. Thomson, Alexander. 1854. Ele Toledot Bené Yisrael. Constantinople: A. B. Churchill Printing Press. Thomson, Alexander. 1886. Ele Toledot Bené Yisrael. Constantinople: A. H. Boyaciyan. Tomalin, Marcus. 2012. “And He Knew our Language”: Missionary Linguistics on the Pacific Northwest Coast. Amsterdam/Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins. Van Poucke, Piet. 2017. “Aging as a Motive for Retranslation.” Translation and Interpreting Studies 12: 91–115. Van Poucke, Piet, and Guillermo Sanz Gallego 2019. “Retranslation in Context.” Cadernos de Traduçao 39: 10–22. Vanderschelden, Isabelle. 2000. “Why Retranslate the French Classics?.” In On Translating French Literature and Films, edited by Myriam Salama-Carr. Amsterdam/Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1–18. Venuti, Lawrence. 2004. “Retranslations: The Creation of Values.” In Translation and Culture, edited by K. M. Faull. Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 25–38. Zaro Vera, Juan Jesús 2007. “En torno al Concepto de Retraducción.” In Retraducir: Una Nueva Mirada. La Retraducción de Textos Literarios y Audiovisuales, edited by Juan Jesús Zaro Vera, and Francisco Ruiz Noguera. Málaga: Miguel Gómez Ediciones, 21–34.

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Zazo Vera, Juan Jesús, and Francisco Ruiz Noguera. “Introducción.” In Retraducir: Una Nueva Mirada. La Retraducción de Textos Literarios y Audiovisuales, edited by Juan Jesús Zazo Vera, and Francisco Ruiz Noguera. Málaga: Miguel Gómez Ediciones, 9–17.

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The Power of Translation in the Powerless Habsburg Galicia, or How the Ruthenian (Ukrainian) Identity Translated Itself until 1848 Abstract: The present chapter posits that translation events in Habsburg Galicia embody significant shifts in its cultural history, displaying translation to be an effective instrument of change. Translators participated in the powerful acts that created the Galician culture and shaped its society, as well as set the terms through which the realities were brought into dialogue. I argue that Ukrainian (Ruthenian) translators in the Habsburg times became creators of a new “metalanguage,” that is they restructured and generated new codes of communication oriented towards their vernacular language. These processes were aimed at developing the capacities for a shift from translating oneself into the language of authority (German or Polish) into having the authority of a translating language, which led to the consolidation and empowerment of the Ruthenian cultural identity. Keywords: Translation, identity, power, Galicia, Ukrainian (Ruthenian) language

1 Introducing Galicia as a Field of Translational Forces Taking place across power differentials, translation has numerously been treated as not a mere act of faithful reproduction of the source message but rather, as aptly presented by Edwin Gentzler and Maria Tymoczko (2002: xxi), a “deliberate and conscious act of selection, assemblage, structuration, and fabrication – and even, in some cases, of falsification, creation of secret codes or refusal of information.” It is particularly so when translation takes place among communities that share the same territory, the same geographical and social references, so translational effects are particularly enhanced. In this line of reasoning, Galicia (Galizien, Galicja, or Галичина), the easternmost, the largest, and the most backward Habsburg crownland in the years 1772–1918, situated on the strategically crucial border with the Russian empire, is a pronounced example of heterogeneous multilingual space, or a translation zone, in Emily Apter’s terms (2006). In fact, language mediation and translation were the key to citizenship in Habsburg Galicia, which cannot be separated from the material, political, or any other conditions of their Lebenswelt; furthermore it represents their unfolding. Beyond any doubts, the languages were not similarly institutionally sustained, hence coexisted under unequal forces.

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The translational tensions reflected the forces “on the ground,” assigning to the languages different authority and – in this way – revealed human relations. With this in mind, I  argue that Ruthenian translators in the Habsburg times became creators of a new “metalanguage,” that is they re-structured and generated new codes of communication oriented towards their vernacular language. These processes were aimed at developing the capacities for a transition from translating themselves into the language of authority (German or Polish) into having the authority of a translating language. In the long run, it will be showcased how translation became an impulse and enforced the consolidation of the Ruthenian (Ukrainian) identity in the Habsburg realm before 1848. To configure the translational space of Galicia, it is important to mention that some 2.8 million individuals, including Poles, Ruthenians (Ukrainians), Jews, and a small community of Armenians, became Habsburg subjects in 1772. Ruthenians constituted a majority in Eastern Galicia, making about 64 percent of its population. Following the 1795 annexation of Western Galicia, the proportion of Poles and Ruthenians in Galicia became almost even, since each group made 45  percent of the province’s population, alongside with Jews constituting the remaining 10 percent. Religion was the primary means of distinguishing between the proximate communities. Thus in Austrian Galicia the scholarly and sacred languages of Latin, Old Church Slavonic, and Hebrew were complemented by secular Polish, Ruthenian, Yiddish, and German. Possessing a relative fluency in two or three languages was rather prevalent. After German replaced Latin as the official language of the empire in 1784, the high-prestige German-language cultural space was adopted as a model for writers, artists, and literati from every part of the empire who inspired to foster aesthetic development in their lingual areas. Until 1848, members of Galician elite learned and accepted German as the language of administration and higher education. Outside the official sphere they retained their native language and customs. On the daily basis, bureaucrats communicated with people who spoke Polish, Ruthenian, and Yiddish. In this scope, Ruthenian and Yiddish were in-group languages that declared the identity of the speakers just as much as they communicated the information. The Ruthenian speakers lived in vast numbers of agriculture in the countryside, consequently the Ruthenian language was assigned the marginal space of domestic communication. Clergy families formed the most representative group of Ruthenian-language elites. Old Ruthenian nobility predominantly assimilated to Polish culture and became largely Polish by language. As a result, the neglected cultural status and limited social reach of Ruthenian in relation to Polish and German made it, in the context of late 18th and early 19th century, a minor tongue. In other words, Ruthenian inhabitants of Galicia could speak Polish and Ruthenian, yet they used these languages for different purposes and on different occasions. The culture of self-translation was omnipresent in the province. In practical terms, a dialogue quite often meant a translation of a subordinate group into

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a dominant culture, while, for instance, a subordinate Ruthenian culture remained largely alien for the overpowering communities. Born into Ruthenian clergy families under the Habsburg rule, educated in schools with German as a language of instruction and communicating with peers most often in Polish, thus living constantly in translation, but still preserving a strong sense of justice and personal commitment to the Ruthenian origin, a new generation of young Ruthenian intellectuals sensed the need to break the isolation of their mother tongue and initiate the renewal of Ruthenian identity. Translation appeared to be a powerful lens through which they attempted to define their “cultural citizenship” in Habsburg Galicia.

2 First Ruthenian Translations and Language Grammars: Shifting Geometries of Power After 25 years of Galicia’s “invention,” in Larry Wolf’s terms (2010: 5), on the occasion of Emperor Franz’s 29th birthday the singing of the newly composed Austrian anthem by Joseph Haydn Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser took place around Galicia – first in German and Polish translation Boże zachowuj Cesarza immediately followed. This translational tandem was a gesture of dialogue and negotiated consent about the power configuration in Galicia. Obviously, there were a multitude of concessions of Polish side, yet the imperial newspaper Lemberger Zeitung was accompanied with Gazeta Lwowska, which often reprinted in Polish translation the articles from the German-language source. In 1812, Gazeta Lwowska announced the preparation of the bilingual German-Polish edition of the Galician poetic almanac by Waclaw Hann, which proved the cultural compromise of German and Polish languages and cultures. Only after 50 years of appearance of Habsburg Galicia on the map, namely, the year 1828 saw the first Ruthenian translation of Kaiser Anthem Боже! Францішка Кесаря Нам всім благого спаси, by Lorenz Leopold Haschka, Professor of Aesthetics of Theresian academy in Vienna (Мозер 2011:  312). It was published in Lemberg Stavropegium, a clerical publishing house. The Ruthenian translation appeared in two versions side by side – in Cyrillic and Latin alphabet. This case elucidates one very important point – Galicia was the junction of two civilizational areas – Slavia Latina and Slavia Orthodoxa, which resulted, among others, in the contested use of two alphabets (Latin and Cyrillic) for Ruthenian texts, especially the translated ones, in early and mid-19th century. To draw a similar example, in the year of Polish uprising of 1830, an appeal from Polish insurgents to the peasantry in Galicia was initially drawn up in Polish but achieved no support among the rural Ruthenian population. Then it was translated into Ruthenian but set in Latin script, which was very much criticized as an appropriative translation with slight acknowledgment of internal difference. Only later translation was transliterated into Cyrillic out of practical considerations – to win the hearts and minds of the locals and to engage them into the opposition.

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Obviously, in the 1820s it was rather common to simultaneously rely on parallel Cyrillic-Latin variants, as the Ruthenian language of the time did not have a fixed, formalized, and well-developed grammar with Cyrillic script, and was undergoing “translation.” The first grammar book of the Ruthenian, written in Ruthenian by Ivan Mohylnytskyi in the early 1820s, was censored from being published and appeared in an abridged version after few years in the Polish translation (Мозер 2011: 390– 391). Thus allowance to publish only the translated version led to a different inscription of this work – as an addendum to the force majeur, that is Polish, indicating intentional marginalization of the Ruthenian language, which served as an argument for “gente Rutheni, natione Poloni.” Around the same time (in the early 1820s) but independently, the Ruthenian clergyman Ivan Lavrovsky sought to compile a Ruthenian-Polish-German translation dictionary as a sort of summation of Galician language microcosm, conjoining the languages of different status. It never went to print. In 1834, the next grammar book of the Ruthenian language was published in German translation by Josyf Levytskyi. And in a decade – in 1845 – Ivan Vahylevych prepared a bilingual grammar book of the Ruthenian language (in Ruthenian and Polish). A year later, in 1846, the most prominent and widely accepted textbook of Galician Ruthenian was published again in Polish in Przemysl by Josyf Lozynskyi. There was also one interesting attempt to print Idiotykon, that is UkrainianGerman-Latin dictionary, yet it never materialized. It is noticeable that the compiler, Ivan Vahylevych, relied on the Serbian-German-Latin dictionary of 1818, following a similar pattern. What makes it noteworthy is the fact that it marks the move from Ruthenian to German and Latin (the elite languages) avoiding Polish, thus attempting to create a new circuit of cultural communication. Only in 1849, Yakiv Holovatskyi – the first professor of Ruthenian language and literature at the University of Lviv – printed the grammar of the Ruthenian language in Ukrainian. For imperial and Galician authorities, a series of “translational” publications of Ruthenian grammars could be justified as an indication of the desire to reconcile German, Polish, and Ruthenian elements in the province, or a sign of implementation of Austrian imperial “enlightening” project in backward Galicia. On the other hand, some authorities denounced the initiative, treating it as a mad attempt to resurrect the Ruthenian entity. Meanwhile, Polish intellectuals considered it rather as a means of active incorporation of the inferior idiom into the Polish linguistic space. Ruthenians envisioned such translational writing of textbooks, prepared by Ruthenians educated in German and fluent in Polish, as a potential vehicle to improve the perception, situation, and promise of the Ruthenian culture, “to name the unnamed,” or to give the new “worthiness” to the déclassé language. In the broader perspective, the translational writing of textbooks stimulated the shift for Ruthenians from translational assimilation, where one seeks to translate oneself into the dominant language of community and the accepted form (Latin script), to translational accommodation, where translation was used as a means of maintaining and framing the language of origin.

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It did reconfigure the power balance. When in the late 1830s the same clerical publishing house Lemberger Stavropegium published an edition with translations of the same anthem into seven languages, next to the German original were placed Polish, Hungarian, Czech, Italian, Latin, and Ruthenian translation, already in the Cyrillic script only. Moreover, in a decade, the imperial legal gazette  – the Allgemeines Reichsgesetz- und Regierungsblatt fuer das Kaiserthum Osterreich  – started to appear in ten languages of the empire, and among them – in Ruthenian translation. As a result of the first years of work, the terminological commission was set up with experts in Slavic languages, which emanated, among others, in Deutsch-Ruthenisch Separat Ausgabe (1851), German-Ruthenian legal translation dictionary. Soon the dynamics of translations into Ruthenian would start to be viewed by Polish neighbors as an intervention into the political environment and as a threat to the integrity of the region, yet at this point – to conclude this case, through translational writing (in German and Polish) of Ruthenian textbooks, the Ruthenian language became a translating language, “a language of translation” – sufficient enough to contain other “histories.” Quite significantly, in 1845 Грамматика німецького языка (Grammar of the German language) was published in Vienna in the Ruthenian language as a textbook for Galician Ruthenians in schools. However risky it may sound, from the present standpoint, these translational textbook initiatives radically challenge or expand the existent view of what constitutes a language, revealing that the present-day monolingualism is truly the translational concept.

3 Translating the Folk Antiquity in Galicia as a Path of Constructing Identities In the early 1830s, the Polish literary elites witnessed pan-European Herderian enthusiasm for folk antiquity, which manifested the creativity of ordinary people and allowed to bridge the societal gaps between the gentry and peasantry. Prominent Galician Polish intellectuals started to stress the importance of the shift in the translation culture from German, or German-mediated, Romanticist “borrowings” to Herder-inspired all-Slavic folk solidarity. In 1830, Walenty Chledowski published in Lviv a two-volume literary almanac Haliczanin, reinforcing in the very title the Galician provincial identity by translating it through the spelling into distinct Slavic tonality. Apart from the pronounced epigraphs from Schiller and Goethe, and some original writings, it included a tendentious selection of translations:  Ludwik Nabeliak’s Polish translation of ancient folk relic by Vaclav Hanka’s Rękopis królowodworski, some excerpts from Ovid and other ancient writers, and August Bielowski’s Polish renditions of Serbian folk songs from the famous collection by Vuk Karadzic. It received grand attention and positive reviews in all Galician press, claiming it to be the turning point in the Galician history. It was the most outstanding publication of all times that no collective volume had achieved before.

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Following the popularity of Polish translations of Karadzic’s Serbian “antiquity,” Waclaw Zaleski – who would later become the first governor of Galicia of Polish descent – published in three years (1833) a collection of Polish and Ruthenian folk songs of Galician people Pieśni polskie i ruskie ludu Galicyjskiego. Interestingly, it was the first provincial almanac that manifested the cultural complexity of Galicia with its Polish and Ruthenian aspects. Since these were the early 1830s, the Ruthenian songs were still transliterated into the Latin alphabet, thus de jure not translated into Polish, only creating the capacity of otherness within the Polish language through the use of Latin script. De facto they were approximated to the Polish pronunciation. Zaleski authored a specific introduction, stressing that he had mixed Polish and Ruthenian together, since in Galicia the Polish and Ruthenian people lived mixed together. The collection also received a positive review from Bielowski, a Polish translator of Serbian folk songs from Karadzic’s collection (Wolff 2010: 117–118). To create not an equal but an equally meaningful experience of translation, three Ruthenian students of the Greek Catholic seminary in Lviv, which was established by Joseph II, Markiyan Shashkevych, Ivan Vahylevych, and Yakiv Holovackyj decided to “translate” Chledowski’s model of the almanac Haliczanin into the Ruthenian “analogue version.” All of them were born already in the Habsburg Galicia and shaped by Austrian education and culture, yet they named themselves quite tellingly as Ruthenian triad. The first 1834 project – almanac under the title Зоря (A Star) – was submitted to censors but was not allowed for publication, claiming the Ukrainian folk songs combined with translations from Serbian provoke a political subtext. In a year’s time – in 1835 – Galicia celebrated Emperor Franz’s 67th birthday, and one of the students of the seminary was to deliver a public tribute in his honor. Obviously, the text was to be submitted beforehand to the rector. Shashkevych authored an inspiring text in Polish, provided it to the rector and, in fact, it was chosen for public delivery. Yet Shashkevych took courage, translated his Polish text of the speech and unexpectedly delivered it in Ruthenian, which was “anomalous” for a formal tribute of the time. Of course, the Ruthenian choice was not an uncomplicated one to follow. But Shashkevych realized that this translation would become a switch that could flip the cultural history in Galicia onto the new track. The title though did not describe the tribute as Ruthenian only as it ran under the title A Galician Voice in Honor of Emperor Franz I and was finished with a poem “Voice from Galicians.” It was later published in Ruthenian in one of the Lviv-based printing houses and gave a powerful sense of being Galician Ruthenian. In similar vein, Larry Wolff (2010: 120) mentions, “in fact, the newly articulated Ruthenian perspective was conditioned by a powerful sense of being Galician.” This episode of translation wrote a new chapter in the history of language relations in the region and was an index of cultural empowerment of Galician Ruthenians. So in 1837 – two years after Shashkevych’s challenging speech – the Ruthenian Triad made a second attempt to publish the almanac already under the changed title Rusalka Dnistrova with original folk songs and Ruthenian translations of

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Serbian songs and of some excerpts from Rukopis královédvorský in modern Ruthenian orthography. In contrast to the Polish edition of Haliczanin, it did not start with any prophetic epigraphs, but opened up with a very telling statement: Судило нам ся послђдним бути серед Славлянщини… (We are destined to be the last among the Slavic people…). To circumvent the Galician government censorship and heavy critique, the edition appeared in Buda, and in the end  – quite paradoxically – was permitted to circulate in the Habsburg monarchy but was prohibited in Galicia itself. Meanwhile, in Galicia in the same year (1837) the Polish-language almanac Haliczanin found its development in the collection Slowianin, including all Polish renditions from Serbian and Czech. Only in 1910 (after 70 years of initial publication), Rusalka Dnistrova appeared reprinted in Galicia. Even though it was published outside Galicia, it had a political significance:  it was reviewed in prominent Viennese newspapers, among them  in June issue of 1837 Allgemeine Theaterzeitung. Interestingly, as a source for this news the paper Serbskyi narodnyj lyst was used, and thus it testifies to the fact that the almanac reached the Habsburg audience in different provinces. As a continution of Rusalka, one of the Triad’s members Holovackyj in collaboration with his brother published in Vienna in 1847 the Ruthenian-language almanac Вђнокь Русинамь на обжинки, with the title translated on the cover page also into German as Kranz der Russinen zum Erntefest geflochen. As an introduction to the collection, the Ruthenian translation by Anton Luzeckyj (presented now only in Cyrillic script) of the song in honor of the Emperor Franz Ferdinand Segen des Oesterreich’s Hohem Sohne was printed. On the one hand, it could be treated as a gesture of respect and heartful reciprocity, enacting Ruthenian loyalty as Habsburg subjects. On the other hand, it is notable that in the last line of the translation, the concept of покрова that represents the Eastern Slavic Christian rite (symbolizing the protection of the Mother of God) was introduced: Нехай вь счастнђй рядить доли; Фердинанду покров будь! It explicitly signals the Ruthenian commitment to Eastern Rite Christianity, that is, Slavia Orthodoxa. Thus this translation frames the identity of Ruthenians as distinct from Polish, yet as loyal Habsburg citizens.

3 Conclusions Habsburg Galicia as a space of existing language inequalities clearly marked forced self-translation of Ruthenians (Ukrainians) into Polish or German, pointing generally to the hierarchical character of the “localized identity.” The new generation of Ruthenian intellectuals, born in clergy families already under the Habsburg rule, set out to alter such power imbalance and reconfigure the societal powers by empowering the Ruthenian language to be a viable instrument of expression for all aspects of intellectual endeavor. Moreover, they sought to position the Ruthenian language as a vehicle of their cultural memory. By translating the institutional symbols (anthem, songs to the emperor, and German classics), authoring textbooks of translation character, and translating folk songs, translators fostered

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a new image of the Ruthenian language, giving it authority to become a means of communication of foreign cultures. In such trajectory, the Ruthenian language was shaped by other languages through translation, simultaneously taking on the role of their “counter-language.”

Acknowledgement This chapter is a part of the project “Translating Ukraine: Languages, Cultures and Society under the Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy (1772–1918),” conducted by Iryna Odrekhivska during her residency as the 2019 Wayne Vucinich Visiting Scholar at the Center for Russian, East European and Eurasian Studies at Stanford University.

References Apter, Emily. 2006. The Translation Zone: A New Comparative Literature. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Gentzler, Edwin, and Tymoczko Maria. 2002. “Introduction.” In Translation and Power, edited by Edwin Gentzler, Maria Tymoczko. University of Massachusetts Press, xi–xxxviii. Мозер, Міхаель. 2011. Причинки до історії української мови. Вінниця: Нова книга. Wolff, Larry. 2010. The Idea of Galicia : history and fantasy in Habsburg political culture. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Antony Hoyte-West

Luxembourgish – the Next EU Language? A Translation and Interpreting-Based Perspective Abstract: The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is one of the European Union’s smallest member states, but nonetheless its size belies a rich multilingual tapestry, French and German predominate in administration and international affairs, with Luxembourgish largely relegated to domestic use. Yet, although currently not an official language of the EU, there is a small but growing movement which seeks this recognition for Luxembourgish. Having outlined its unique historical and sociolinguistic context, the possible impact of EU recognition for Luxembourgish will be analysed from a translation and interpreting-based perspective. Specific attention will be paid to the infrastructure for ensuring adequate translation and interpreting provision at the EU level, with particular regard to language acquisition. Hence, the relevant linguistic infrastructure for Luxembourgish will be examined, taking into account issues such as the availability of suitable translator and interpreter training programmes. Keywords: Luxembourgish, European Union, Luxembourg, translation, interpreting

1 Introduction As one of the founder members of the then European Economic Community (EEC) in 1958, Luxembourg has shared the European Union’s (EU) commitment to multilingualism as enshrined in the first Council regulation outlining the organisation’s language policy (EEC Council 1958: 385). For more than six decades, the EU has thus adhered to the principles of linguistic equality. In short, this means that each country is entitled to choose its official EU language(s), and also that citizens of the EU have the right to use any official language when communicating with the EU institutions, with the associated obligation that the institutions will respond in the same language (European Union 2019a). Successive enlargements have meant that, as EU official languages have multiplied in number from 4 to 24, traditional international languages such as English and French have been supplemented by smaller and less widely spoken official EU languages, including Irish and Maltese. In the case of the Republic of Ireland and Malta, both bilingual polities with English as an official language, there was clear political will to elevate Irish and Maltese to EU official status (Murphy 2008). However, as outlined in Hoyte-West (2019a), the small number of overall speakers has created difficulties in recruiting sufficient numbers of trained translators and conference interpreters. This has meant that both languages have been subject to derogations on their use in the

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EU institutions; with regard to Irish, this is scheduled to end in 2022 (European Parliament 2018). In the case of Luxembourg, recent media interest (Euractiv 2018) has focused on the potential elevation of Luxembourgish (Lëtzebuergesch), the country’s national language, to official EU status. Hence, this contribution – as part of a wider project examining the translation and interpretation practices of less widely spoken languages (Hoyte-West 2019a; Hoyte-West 2019b) – aims to analyse the impetus behind the initiative. This will be performed by providing an overview of the current context regarding Luxembourg and the Luxembourgish language. Subsequently, the current linguistic infrastructure for Luxembourgish will be analysed, focussing on the associated potential implications for ensuring adequate translation and conference-interpreting provision at the EU level.

2 Luxembourg and the Luxembourgish Language Located at the intersection of Belgium, France, and Germany, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is the second-smallest member state of the EU (European Union 2019b), both in terms of surface area (2586km2) and population (602,000) (European Commission 2019). Established as an independent state in 1839 (Fehlen 2002: 80), Luxembourg’s EU heritage is well-attested. One of the original six signatories of the Treaty of Rome in 1957, Luxembourg was also a founding member of the Schengen Area in 1995, as well as of the Euro area in 1999. In addition, many of the EU’s institutions are either based in the country or have a significant presence there (European Union 2019c). Luxembourg’s prosperity, combined with its small size, encourages a high degree of international interest; indeed, almost half of the country’s population consists of resident foreigners, with Portuguese, French, and Italian citizens representing the largest contingents (Grand Duchy of Luxembourg 2019a). This population is supplemented by a high level of cross-border traffic by the so-called frontaliers, commuters who reside in Belgium, France, or Germany but work in Luxembourg (Horner and Weber 2008: 69–70). Unsurprisingly, the country’s geographical location and cosmopolitan composition mean that multilingualism is a firm part of everyday life in Luxembourg. French, German, and Luxembourgish are the country’s three administrative languages, with the latter also being the sole national language (Grand Duchy of Luxembourg 2019b). Before 1984, however, Luxembourgish did not enjoy the status of either administrative language or national language. Hence, it did not have any official recognition at the time Luxembourg co-founded the EEC in 1958; and to date, the country’s government has not made a formal request for the language to be recognised as an official language of the EU. Luxembourg’s position on the linguistic border between the Germanic and Romance-speaking worlds means that, although Luxembourgish is closely related to German, it has been strongly influenced by language contact with French, the language of the nobility and middle classes, and which still endures as the country’s legislative language (Fernand 2002: 80–81). As with the other administrative languages, Luxembourgish

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is taught at school (Grand Duchy of Luxembourg 2019c), and its orthography was standardised by the Grand Ducal Regulation of 30 July 1999 (Grand Duchy of Luxembourg 2019d). In the media, the language is used primarily on radio and television rather than in newspapers (Grand Duchy of Luxembourg 2019b), but there is a small canon of literary works written in Luxembourgish (Grand Duchy of Luxembourg 2019e). This includes not only nineteenth-century comedies and poetry written in the language; since the 1980s, there has also been growing interest in Luxembourgish novels, as well as in other literary genres (Horner and Weber 2008: 105).

3 Research Questions and Methodology Given the preliminary overview outlined above, it was decided to investigate the possible impact on translation and interpreting provision in the eventuality of Luxembourgish acquiring the status of an official EU language. Accordingly, the following research questions were advanced: i. What is the current linguistic infrastructure for Luxembourgish? ii. What is the current translation and interpreting-based infrastructure for Luxembourgish?

Owing to the exploratory nature of the study, it was decided to conduct a literaturebased analysis, focusing on sources in English, Luxembourgish, and French. The resources consulted consisted primarily of documents published online by the government and other public institutions in Luxembourg, supplemented with relevant information from online media and the country’s professional association for translators and interpreters. As outlined previously in Hoyte-West (2019a), the limitations of a purely literature-based approach were also clearly evident. It would have been useful to supplement the findings obtained with interviews involving relevant officials and policymakers responsible for the promotion of Luxembourgish. Nonetheless, given the lack of previous research on the subject, as well as the innovative nature of the topic, it was felt that this approach would still provide a solid exploratory overview, thereby providing a good basis for further research.

4 Current Linguistic Infrastructure for Luxembourgish In terms of possibilities for translators and conference interpreters to acquire the necessary proficiency in the Luxembourgish language, an active programme of general and specialised Luxembourgish language courses from A1 to C1 levels of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) is taught at the Institut National des Langues (National Institute of Languages), a state institution created in 2009 and under the authority of the country’s Ministry of Education, Children, and Youth (Institut National des Langues 2019a). At the basic user level (CEFR A1 and A2), there are specific courses designed for speakers of German or Dutch,

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due to the similarity between those languages and Luxembourgish. A  course in Luxembourgish culture, civilisation, and literature is offered at the proficient user level (CEFR C1) (Institut National des Langues 2019b). Together with the University of Luxembourg, the Institut is also responsible for the Zertifikat Lëtzebuerger Sprooch a Kultur (ZLSK, Certificate in Luxembourgish Language and Culture), a continuing education qualification designed to train future teachers of the Luxembourgish language. The course celebrated its tenth anniversary in 2019 (Government of Luxembourg 2019) and comprises 120 hours of tuition over two semesters, with 60 hours of teaching practice, 30 hours of literature and culture, and 30 hours of linguistics. Admission to programme is via a dossier, with all candidates required to have completed their secondary education and possess native-level competence in Luxembourgish at a minimum of CEFR C1 level (Institut National des Langues 2019c). The Institut has also been instrumental in developing the Examen Lëtzebuergesch als Friemsprooch (Examinations of Luxembourgish as a Foreign Language), comprising a suite of independent qualifications ranging from CEFR A2 to C1 levels (Institut National des Langues 2019d). The testing procedures in Luxembourgish are underpinned by the Institut’s full membership of the Association for Language Testers in Europe (ALTE), an internationally recognised quality assurance organisation that audits language qualifications and ensures that standards are maintained across all member institutions (ALTE 2019). In terms of learning materials at the Institut, textbooks available include the A1 and A2 volumes of “Schwätzt Dir Lëtzebuergesch”, which have sold over 40,000 copies since publication in 2015 (Government of Luxembourg 2019), a significant number in a country of just 600,000 inhabitants. An older textbook, “Lëtzebuergesch fir all Dag”, is also used for basic and intermediate levels (CEFR A1 to B1), whereas the upper intermediate and proficient levels (CEFR B2 and C1) do not currently use textbooks (Institut National des Langues 2019e). In the wider world, Luxembourgish language resources have also been selling well, with the Assimil Luxembourgish-French phrasebook selling over 10,000 copies in its first year of publication illustrative of a growing demand among the wider populace (Euractiv 2018). The rising popularity of Luxembourgish language materials is reflected by increasing awareness of the importance and value of the language as a whole. The statistics, too, support this claim; after French, Luxembourgish is the second most popular language taught at the Institut, with its over 5,000 enrolments representing more than a third of the Institut’s total during the 2018/2019 academic year. Whereas the majority of students were participating in courses at the CEFR A1 and A2 levels, there were also more than 200 enrolments for CEFR B2 and C1 level courses (Institut National des Langues 2019f). There were also 12 successful graduates from the ZLSK teacher training course (Government of Luxembourg 2019), thus contributing to the wider diffusion of the language in the future.

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5 Current Translation and Interpreting-Based Infrastructure for Luxembourgish As outlined in Section 2, many of the EU institutions have a presence in Luxembourg. Of those, the European Commission and the European Parliament employ significant concentrations of translators, as do smaller institutions such as the European Court of Auditors (European Union 2019d). The Court of Justice of the EU has its own legal translation service, with over 600 lawyer linguists (Court of Justice of the European Union 2019a) as well as its own interpretation directorate, which employs around 70 staff interpreters (Court of Justice of the European Union 2019b). The Translation Centre for the Bodies of the European Union, which specialises in providing translation services for decentralised EU agencies, is also located in Luxembourg, employing around 100 staff translators (European Union 2019e). In addition, international professional organisations specialising in conference interpreting and institutional translation are also represented in Luxembourg. Twenty-six members of AIIC (the International Association of Conference Interpreters; AIIC 2019) and three members of the AITC (the International Association of Conference Translators; AITC 2019) are listed as having their professional domicile in the country. At the national level, the domestic professional organisation for translators and interpreters, the Association Luxembourgeoise des Traducteurs et Interprètes (Luxembourg Association of Translators and Interpreters, ALTI) lists 90 members covering 26 languages (ALTI 2019a). With specific regard to Luxembourgish, ALTI’s directory currently lists nine members working out of Luxembourgish into other languages, primarily French and German, but also English and Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian. In the other direction, 11 members are listed as working into Luxembourgish, again mostly from French and German, but also from English, Italian, Spanish, and Bosnian/Croatian/ Serbian. An examination of the online membership profiles of those linguists offering Luxembourgish shows that many received their training abroad, typically in France. Most were translators, although some also offered court or conference interpreting services. A notable feature was the large number of language pairs offered; it can be surmised that this is due to Luxembourg’s multilingual nature (ALTI 2019b). Interestingly, despite the prominence of translation and interpreting within the national context, ALTI publishes (in Luxembourgish) an awarenessraising document which informs domestic users of the difference between translators and interpreters, as well as the importance, even in a multilingual country, of using qualified professionals (ALTI 2019c). As such, the above illustrates that institutional translation and interpretation are well-established career sectors in Luxembourg. This is demonstrated not only by the fact that there is a vibrant domestic market at national level, but also given that the EU’s language services have already achieved considerable visibility and prominence at European and international level. It is conceivable, therefore, that

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the elevation of Luxembourgish to official EU status would be easily accommodated within the existing framework. Nonetheless, a further factor would be the requirement to develop dedicated translator and conference interpreter training programmes for Luxembourgish. The language services of the EU institutions are well-versed in providing linguistic support to candidate and accession countries – for example, the European Commission usually offers assistance involving translator training requirements, terminology, and the hosting of temporary trainees (European Commission 2006). The issue with Luxembourgish is perhaps best analogous to the situation with Maltese and Irish, as illustrated in Hoyte-West (2019a). The widespread use of an international language for professional purposes (in the case of Malta and the Republic of Ireland, English) meant that there was a distinct lack of demand for translation and interpreting services involving the domestic languages. As mentioned in the Introduction, despite the creation of the necessary translation and interpreting training courses to train Maltese and Irish linguists, derogations on the full use of those languages were required in the EU institutions, in part owing to the shortage of available translators and interpreters. Hence, in the case of Luxembourgish, it would be necessary to ensure that adequate training provision and recruitment procedures are initiated well in advance of any possible decision on EU official status.

6 Concluding Remarks As mentioned previously, moves to make Luxembourgish an official language of the EU are still very much at an embryonic stage. However, the analysis performed has illustrated that, in terms of both linguistic and translation and interpretingrelated infrastructure, the situation for the potential elevation of Luxembourgish are favourable. As shown by the wide-ranging initiatives implemented by the Institut National des Langues, Luxembourgish enjoys growing status as a language of study. This increase has been supported not only by the development of relevant courses, teaching materials, and a comprehensive teacher-training programme, but also by the implementation of an internationally recognised certification programme for the Luxembourgish language. With regard to the wider translation and interpreting-based implications of EU official status for Luxembourgish, the analysis has illustrated that the translation and interpreting professions in Luxembourg have a solid foundation. This is exemplified not only by the EU institutions, with their significant numbers of qualified linguists, but also by the active presence of national and international professional organisations such as ALTI, AIIC, and the AITC. It can be inferred, therefore, that EU status for Luxembourgish would fit well into this existing professional structure. However, there would be a need to develop specialist training programmes, together with the associated resources, to ensure a supply of qualified translators and conference interpreters with Luxembourgish.

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Despite the existence of solid linguistic and translation and interpreting-based infrastructure, previous experiences with Irish and Maltese have demonstrated that the necessary political will is also crucial. Current moves, as illustrated by the creation of a language commissioner for the Luxembourgish language, will doubtlessly aid the promotion of the language at the domestic level. There is, of course, a distinct element of conjecture – it remains to be seen if Luxembourgish will ever gain the full status as every other official language of the EU. What is clear, though, is that should this ever come to pass, there is a robust and well-established infrastructure ready to rise to the challenge of translating and interpreting Luxembourgish at the EU level.

References AIIC. 2019. AIIC interpreters in Luxembourg (LUX). Accessed November 22, 2019: https://aiic.net/directories/interpreters/city/902/luxembourg AITC. 2019. AITC Directory. Accessed November 22, 2019: http://www.aitc.ch/ modules.php?name=Annuaire&file=result2 ALTE. 2019. Our full members. Accessed November 22, 2019: https://www.alte. org/Our-Full-Members ALTI. 2019a. Association Luxembourgeoise des Traducteurs et Interprètes. Accessed November 22, 2019: https://www.traducteurs-interpretes.lu/ ALTI. 2019b. Annuaire des membres. Accessed November 22, 2019: https://www. traducteurs-interpretes.lu/annuaire/ ALTI. 2019c. Iwwersetzung-Maacht-et-richteg! Accessed November 22, 2019: https://www.traducteurs-interpretes.lu/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/ Iwwersetzung-Maacht-et-richteg.pdf Court of Justice of the European Union. 2019a. CURIA – Free-lance translators. Accessed November 22, 2019: https://curia.europa.eu/jcms/jcms/Jo2_10741/en/ Court of Justice of the European Union. 2019b. CURIA – Interpretation Directorate. Accessed November 22, 2019: https://curia.europa.eu/jcms/jcms/Jo2_12357/en/ EEC Council. 1958. Regulation No 1 determining the languages to be used by the European Economic Community, OJ 17, 6.10.1958, 385–386. Euractiv. 2018. Luxembourgish makes comeback, bid for EU approval. Accessed November 22, 2019: https://www.euractiv.com/section/languages-culture/ news/luxembourgish-makes-comebackbid-for-eu-approval/ European Commission. 2006. Translation in the Commission: where do we stand two years after Enlargement? Accessed November 22, 2019: https://ec.europa. eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/MEMO_06_173 European Commission. 2019. Population: Demographic Situation, Languages and Religions. Accessed November 22, 2019: https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/

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national-policies/eurydice/content/population-demographic-situationlanguages-and-religions-46_en European Parliament. 2018. Status of the Irish language in the European Union. Written answer, given by First Vice-President Timmermans on behalf of the European Commission. Accessed November 22, 2019: http://www.europarl. europa.eu/doceo/document/E-8-2018-004029-ASW_EN.html?redirect European Union. 2019a. EU languages. Accessed November 22, 2019: https:// europa.eu/european-union/about-eu/eu-languages_en European Union. 2019b. EU in figures. Accessed November 22, 2019: https:// europa.eu/european-union/about-eu/figures/living_en European Union. 2019c. Luxembourg. Accessed November 22, 2019: https:// europa.eu/european-union/about-eu/countries/member-countries/ luxembourg_en European Union. 2019d. Institutions and bodies. Accessed November 22, 2019: https://europa.eu/european-union/about-eu/institutions-bodies_en European Union. 2019e. Translation Centre for the Bodies of the European Union (CdT). Accessed November 22, 2019: https://europa.eu/european-union/ about-eu/agencies/cdt_en Fehlen, Fernand. 2002. “Luxembourg, a Multilingual Society at the Romance/Germanic Language Border.” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 23:1–2, 80–97. Accessed November 22, 2019. DOI: 10.1080/01434630208666456 Government of Luxembourg. 2019. Diplomiwwerreechung am INL: d’Laureaten vun der zéngter Promotioun vun der Formatioun “Zertifikat Lëtzebuerger Sprooch a Kultur” kruten hiren Diplom iwwerreecht. Accessed November 22, 2019: https://gouvernement.lu/lb/actualites/toutes_actualites/ communiques/2019/10-octobre/25-diplomiwwerreechung-inl.html Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. 2019a. Population and multiculturality. Accessed November 22, 2019: http://luxembourg.public.lu/en/le-grand-duche-sepresente/luxembourg-tour-horizon/population-et-multiculturalite/index.html Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. 2019b. Languages and Lëtzebuergesch. Accessed November 22, 2019: http://luxembourg.public.lu/en/le-grand-duche-sepresente/luxembourg-tour-horizon/langues-et-letzebuergesch/index.html Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. 2019c. Which languages at school? Accessed November 22, 2019: http://luxembourg.public.lu/en/le-grand-duche-sepresente/langues/utilisation-langues/ecole/index.html Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. 2019d. Lëtzebuergesch - the national language. Accessed November 22, 2019: http://luxembourg.public.lu/en/le-grand-duchese-presente/langues/letzebuergesch/index.html

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Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. 2019e. Luxembourgish writers – a short history of Luxembourgish writers and their works. Accessed November 22, 2019: https:// luxembourg.public.lu/en/society-and-culture/artistic-creation/luxembourgishwriters.html Horner, Kristine & Jean Jacques Weber. 2008. “The Language Situation in Luxembourg.” Current Issues in Language Planning, 9:1, 69–128, Accessed November 22, 2019. DOI: 10.2167/cilp130.0 Hoyte-West, Antony. 2019a. “On the road to linguistic equality? Irish and Maltese as official EU languages.” Discourses on Culture. 11, 99–111. Hoyte-West, Antony. 2019b. “Europe speaks Irish: Analysing the impact of EU official status for Irish on the interpreting profession in the Republic of Ireland.” In Organ, M. (ed.) Translation Today: Applied Translation Studies in Focus, Peter Lang, Frankfurt 97–106. Institut National des Langues. 2019a. Qui sommes-nous? Accessed November 22, 2019: http://www.inll.lu/institut/presentation/ Institut National des Langues. 2019b. Cours de langues - luxembourgeois. Accessed November 22, 2019: http://www.inll.lu/cours-de-langues/luxembourgeois/ Institut National des Langues. 2019c. Presentatioun. Accessed November 22, 2019: http://www.inll.lu/presentationzlsk/ Institut National des Langues. 2019d. Certification en langue luxembourgeoise. Accessed November 22, 2019: http://www.inll.lu/certifications-nationales-etinternationales/certification-en-langue-luxembourgeoise/ Institut National des Langues. 2019e. Manuels utilisés. Accessed November 22, 2019: http://www.inll.lu/cours-de-langues/manuels-utilises/#14857885404474daf7977-ff94 Institut National des Langues. 2019f. Donnés statistiques de l’Institut National des Langues. Accessed November 22, 2019: http://www.inll.lu/wp-content/ uploads/2014/12/statinl_siteweb_2019.pdf Murphy, Colin. 2008. “Sell the cows, rent out the farm.” The Dublin Review, 32. Accessed November 22, 2019: https://thedublinreview.com/article/sell-thecows-rent-out-the-farm/

Marzena Chrobak

Interpreters in Wars of the 21st Century: Iraq, Afghanistan and Darfur Abstract: On the basis of officers and interpreters’ accounts as well as some studies on war interpretation in the 21st century, I will attempt to answer the question of what power interpreters have and what power they are subjected to in a contemporary armed conflict. Based on new evidence, the research confirms that in war and conflict, interpreters have power and are subjected to power. They constantly experience dilemmas of identity and conflicts of interests. Keywords: Interpreters in war and conflict zones, history of interpretation, interpreters in Iraq, interpreters in Afghanistan, interpreters in Darfur I firmly believe that this lack of sufficient interpreters in all those places is the biggest danger of all and the reason for prolonged wars, their spreading and lack of peace, since matters understood wrongly or improperly contribute to disagreement. (translation mine) Fernández de Oviedo, a Spanish conquistador, 16th century (Chrobak 2012: 72)

1 Introduction Since the dawn of time, people fight wars and since the dawn of time interpreters are involved in them. They are mentioned in ancient documents, such as Anabasis by Xenophon, Gallic Wars by Julius Caesar or the Chronicle by Ramon Muntaner. I tried to collect them in my book (Chrobak 2012: 23–30, 34–36); I myself studied sources from the period of the conquest of America. There is a lot of information about La Malinche, an interpreter for Herman Cortes who conquered the Aztec Empire; only few words were written about thousands of others. They were mostly random people, captured and forced to act as agents in linguistic intermediation. The interpreters’ competence, their loyalty to the commissioning party and their objectification are still considered main issues 500 years later, in wars fought outside Europe in the 21st century.

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2 Iraqi Freedom Though the initial phase of Operation Iraqi Freedom that removed Saddam Hussein from power lasted for less than six weeks (20.03.2003–01.05.2003), it was followed by a long and difficult stabilization stage (2003–2011). The coalition of international military forces from 12 countries, initially greeted as the liberator who overthrew the gory dictator, quickly started to be perceived as the occupant and was forced to suppress the uprising of radical Shiites and fight insurgents. Approximately 130  000 of American soldiers and about 30  000 soldiers of other nations were stationed in Iraq. Since they hardly knew Arabic or any other local language, interpreters (called linguists in the U.S. Army) were necessary in all activities requiring contact with the local population, for example checkpoint controls all over the country, house searches, interrogation of prisoners, conversations with local elders and contacts with the Iraqi administration. The number of interpreters involved has been estimated at several thousand. A relatively small percentage of them were military interpreters, trained by the army; a lot of them were civilians, hired in the coalition countries or countries from the region1. Many of them were local nationals employed on the spot, Iraqis with basic or limited knowledge of English or other Western languages, lacking any substantial training as interpreters. Their power as intermediaries in communication was enormous. Sometimes they took advantage of it,2 for example the infamous interpreters from Abu Ghraïb. In some cases the local nationals worked for the both sides of the conflict. A Polish commander from the Diwaniya base recollects: We were under mortar fire in Diwaniya. Then somebody noticed an interpreter who climbed highly on a platform from which he could see the whole base. He was on the phone. He later explained that he wanted to talk with his family and could not reach them [from any other place]. We contacted our intelligence services, we got the transcript from the wiretap. The motherfucker was giving coordinates how to straddle the target! (Gazeta Wyborcza, 4.08.2008, after Tryuk 2012: 152)3

The commander understands it: I know why they do it. They are intimidated. When the Islamic paramilitary and the tribal militia know what they do and where their family live, the interpreters

1 For information about the U.S. Army policy towards linguists, see United States Department of the Army (2006: Appendix C). Linguist support. 2 In trivial matters such as raising prices of local products when purchased by American soldiers but also in matters of life and death such as identification of persons wanted by the authorities where interpreters translated wrongly, out of aversion, sometimes out of hatred for the agents of the overthrown regime. Guidère mentions numerous examples of this kind (Guidère 2008: 34–59) without referring to his sources, which is understandable but undermines the credibility of his evidence. 3 See also Nowak (2014: 204).

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cooperate with them out of fear, in order to protect their relatives. They have no choice. (ibidem)

Interpretation in the zone of an armed conflict entails stress and risk,4 especially for a native or a civilian. A Polish officer mentions two symptomatic situations in his memories. In 2004, in Karbala, Polish soldiers found themselves under enemy fire. A young civilian, a student, is seized by an uncontrollable panic attack: Shots are fired, hard to say from where, it’s dark, visibility is low. Our interpreter’s laying down, he jerks his arms and legs. There are no signs of blood, possibly he isn’t shot. It’s rather a panic attack. A young boy, a student of medicine. The shock of being under fire for the first time has to be enormous. (Kaliciak 2015: 133–4)

Another interpreter disappeared one day and his head was dropped into the base: We knew that some day he might disappear. He talked a lot about not taking any risks because he had a family. That is why his absence did not surprise us. Now before the final confrontation, the insurgents send out a warning signal to us. From a fast running car they throw a box over the fence of the base. The Thais secure the perimeter for fear of explosives. It turns out that the box contains our interpreter’s head. (ibidem: 127)

In the years 2003–2005 more than 500 interpreters were killed in Iraq. Some died during the attacks or suicide bombings at the side of soldiers; many of them were kidnapped by the insurgents, imprisoned, tortured and finally killed in a cruel way, by decapitation. The exact number of casualties is not known since many of them were not hired by the army but by civilian companies, Titan and DynCorp, with no obligation to reveal such information to the public. No other socio-professional group sustained such heavy casualties. Interpreters did because they operated in the first line of the front, side by side with commanders, they were often assigned to perform military actions on their own (Guidère 2008: 65–66) and, after they finished their work and went home, unarmed, they were easy and tempting targets for the insurgents aware of their vital importance for the mission of the coalition forces. Precautions were applied: camouflage (dark glasses, balaclavas and gloves); use of helmets and body armour and resettlement in Iraq. Actions were undertaken internationally: RED T organisation was established in 2010 in order to protect the rights of interpreters operating in dangerous conditions; the Council of Europe passed a resolution no 442 on the protection of interpreters in areas involved in military conflicts, similar to the one offered to Red Cross employees. Nota bene: the Polish representative in the Parliamentary Assembly in the Council of Europe did not sign it. Asked by the Polish interpretation scholar Małgorzata Tryuk to explain his decision, he stated that the majority

4 For an excellent analysis of risks in a war zone, see Pym (2016).

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of killed interpreters were of Iraqi nationality, not of the Polish one (verbal information from M. Tryuk). When military forces started to withdraw from Iraq, which was far from being stabilised, it seemed that the only form of protection for coalition interpreters was their evacuation along with the army and seeking asylum in countries for which they served. However, it turned out to be a complicated and difficult task, for many reasons. Interpreters had to face the power of state on many levels: political, administrative and bureaucratic.

3 Afghan Escape Room The media from various countries reported on the difficulties in offering help for host nation interpreters working for international forces. The most extensive coverage was provided by Brice Andlauer and Quentin Müller, in their richly documented book, Tarjuman. Enquête sur une trahison française, Bayard, 2019, the result of a journalistic investigation on Afghan interpreters working for the French contingent. The situation in Afghanistan uncannily resembled the situation in Iraq. In 2001, NATO forces overthrew the Taliban government. In 2004–2014 operation Enduring Freedom was implemented. The International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) was established by the UN to ensure peace, to conduct a stabilisation mission, to eliminate insurgents and to support the new government in rebuilding the country. The stabilisation process was constantly interrupted by terrorist attacks on civilians and armed attacks on NATO military forces. Interpreters, treated by the Taliban as traitors, were killed, intimidated and blackmailed; members of their families were kidnapped for ransom. In 2014 most ISAF forces were withdrawn, and Operation Resolute Support was initiated (training and consulting for the Afghan army and police without participating in fights with the Taliban). In July 2019 peace talks between the Afghan government and the Taliban began, also between the Taliban and the American army about the withdrawal of the American military troops (currently 14 000 soldiers), but they were cancelled in September 2019. The Taliban did not cease to attack government facilities and the civilians. In 2018 the Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project pronounced Afghanistan the most lethal conflict in the world for battle-related deaths; casualties among the civilians were enormous. In June 2019, Afghanistan was named the least peaceful place in the world by the Global Peace Index report (https://www.bbc.com/news/ world-asia-49662640, accessed on 28.09.2019). The Afghan government was against granting the interpreters political asylum in Western countries, for fear of losing young and educated citizens (Andlauer, Müller 2019:  118). Consequently, France offered them the so-called relocation (resettlement), that is a plane ticket from Kabul to France, accommodation, assistance in insertion and residence permit for 10 years (ibidem: 37). When in 2012 the French troops started to withdraw, the secret procedure of relocation assignment was initiated. It concerned solely currently employed persons, that is 200 out of

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800 PCRL, personnel civil de recrutement local, who worked for the French contingent since 2001. The quota, 35 (!) people, was set by the government, pressurised by the Ministry of Internal Affairs; it was doubled after the personal intervention of the French ambassador with the president, François Hollande. The selection was conducted by the commander of armed forces, the French ambassador, the consul and the military attaché on the criteria of knowledge of the French language, merits for the army, the level of risk if the individual stays in the country and the ability to assimilate. The result was often dictated by the subjective opinion of the military officials, for example “he took part in fire exchange four times”, but as “he is a practicing Muslim”, with “quite a religious vision of life and society”, it will be rather difficult for him to assimilate (ibidem: 148). In 2013, 73 selected interpreters along with their families flew to France. The remaining interpreters became deeply embittered. Other applications for visas (about 350) were no longer considered. Since February 2014 desperate interpreters manifested in front of the French embassy in Kabul. A French lawyer, Caroline Decroix, learnt about the manifestation by accident and mobilised a group of volunteer attorneys, threatening to sue the state avec en cause un devoir moral de l’Etat (ibidem: 165). Thanks to her efforts, the second edition of relocation took place. The priority in this selection was: the national security of France and the degree of danger to which a given individual was exposed to as a result of work for the French army; if somebody had an open Facebook account it meant that this person was not in a serious danger. The government departments multiplied problems and many mayors refused to receive Afghans (ibidem:  184). Although Emmanuel Macron, during his presidential campaign, declared that leaving Afghan interpreters behind was an act of treason, after being elected president, he returned to the issue only after a long time, pressurised by lawyers, organisations and political parties, which resulted in the third wave of relocation at the end of 2018. Another obstacle for Afghan interpreters in pursuing their rights was the type of employment agreement with the French Ministry of Defence. Before 2012 agreements were signed according to the French law and since 2012, according to the Afghan legal regulations (ibidem: 299). However, Caroline Decroix discovered the procedure of protection fonctionnelle: according to the act of the 13th of July 1983, each occasional employee of the state is entitled to obtain protection of the state (ibidem: 303). On the 24th of May 2018, the trial took place: an Afghan interpreter versus the French army, Basir Ibrahimi Mohammad versus the Ministry of Defence, claiming the lack of response to the application for protection fonctionnelle. Basir served in Force Lafayette. In summer 2015 he applied for a French visa but he was denied it. The denial was communicated to him in the following text message: “Ambasry will give back your passport because you was not selected for a visa. sorry” (ibidem: 249–258). In October 2015 he decided to get to France illegally together with a wave of immigrants. He left Afghanistan with the amount of 6000 Euro, his and his family’s savings, dedicated to pay the smugglers. At the end of

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December he reached Germany; due to closed borders he failed to reach France; he ended up in the Netherlands, exhausted and penniless. Arrested, sent to an immigration camp, transferred from one camp to another, he fled deportation and arrived in France, into a small town where his fellow interpreters lived, resettled in 2012. However, as he stayed in France illegally, his colleagues were afraid to host him. He lived in Red Cross tents, then in shelters for immigrants, constantly threatened with deportation. Though he received la croix du Combattant and le titre de la reconnaissance de la nation, he was denied the French visa again (ibidem: 313– 322). Fortunately, already after the publication of the book, on the 1st of February 2019, the Council of State issued a resolution, obliging the French state to guarantee protection fonctionnelle for its interpreters. A presidential advisor on diplomatic matters, Jacques Audibert, asked by Decroix whether he was not afraid that the French army would subsequently have any difficulties in recruiting interpreters in conflict zones, answered: “There will always be people who need money”. And a high-ranking officer commented: “But how would they get to know about it?” (ibidem: 168,170).

4 Heart of Darfur Darfur, a province in the western Sudan, since 2003, is engulfed by a civil war between the Arab nomads supported by the government and numerous rebel factions recruited from black African ethnic groups (primarily Fur, Zaghawa and Masalit) who defend the inhabitants of villages from violence and ethnic cleansing. Since 2007 it is a site of a joint peacekeeping mission of the UN and the African Union, as well as those of humanitarian aid organisations. Interpreters working for the Western media reporters are usually treated as enemies and traitors by all sides in the conflict. In the memories of one of them, Daoud Hari, The Translator: A Memoir, As told to Dennis Michael Burke and Megan M. McKenna, Random House, 2009, several aspects deserve attention. His first interpretation experience took place in the context of violence. When he was 13, a Sudanese military unit entered his Zaghawa village. Its commander forced him to translate: The commander had grabbed me and two of my cousins to be his translators, since he knew that we were of school age and that all students were forced to learn some Arabic, which is what he spoke. If they caught you speaking Zaghawa in the schools, or not knowing your Arab words, they would use camel whips on you. The  commander stood us up on the running board of his truck and made us say all his orders about giving up weapons. The women were crying and begging the soldiers to stop the beatings and let the children run away. (Hari 2009: 14)

Such experience seems to be common for bilingual children in conflict zones everywhere in the world. Hari mentions a training, organised by the International Commission of Inquiry investigating whether there was genocide in Darfur, for the local people employed

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as interpreters to gather information in camps for Sudanese refugees in Chad (ibidem: 77–82). Unfortunately, he does not give any details, which is a pity since I would like to know how natural interpreters are prepared for such a sensitive task. In 2006 Hari worked for the American journalist Paul Salopek, a two-time Pulitzer Prize winner. They reached Sudan illegally from Chad, in a Chadian car with a Chadian driver. They were arrested by Sudanese authorities, accused of spying, beaten, deprived of food, maltreated and finally they faced charges on espionage for Chad. In prison, Hari had to translate between the Sudanese military officials, Salopek and the Chadian driver, who did not understand the Sudanese variety of Arabic: They brought me back later when Ali was lying very hurt on the floor, beaten everywhere very seriously. They told me that I would need to translate some more. I told them that I was finished doing that. I said that I would translate if they would not beat him. They said they would beat him if I did not translate. (ibidem: 157–158)

Leaders of various countries, diplomats, editors of famous magazines, the public opinion and show business celebrities demanded to free the journalist. The Sudanese authorities agreed to negotiate, simultaneously stating that the trial over the Sudanese interpreter and the Chadian driver is solely at its discretion. Only the determination of Salopek who insisted on a joint trial resulted in the three of them being released. The evidence I  gathered is new, but the conclusions are not. They match the conclusions I drew while studying the conquest of America and those drawn by scholars studying modern wars. In war and conflict, interpreters have power and they are subjected to power. They constantly experience dilemmas of identity and conflicts of interests. They are continuously accompanied by mistrust from both sides of the conflict and suspicions or accusations of treason made by one of them. They often strive not only to save their faces but also their heads. After the completion of their task, they are discarded as useless tools. In clash with power, solidarity seems to play a major role.

References Andlauer, Brice, and Quentin Müller. 2019. Tarjuman. Enquête sur une trahison française. Montrouge: Bayard Éditions. Chrobak, Marzena. 2012. Między światami. Tłumacz ustny oraz komunikacja międzykulturowa w literaturze odkrycia i konkwisty Ameryki. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Guidère, Mathieu. 2008. Irak in translation, De l’art de perdre une guerre sans connaître la langue de son adversaire. Paris: Éditions Jacob-Duvernet. Hari, Daoud. 2009. The Translator: A Memoir, As told to Dennis Michael Burke and Megan M. McKenna. New York: Random House; 2018. Tłumacz z Darfuru. Wołowiec: Czarne. Translated into Polish by Hanna Jankowska.

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Kaliciak, Grzegorz. 2015. Karbala. Raport z obrony City Hall. Wołowiec: Czarne. Nowak, Jakub. 2014. “Wywiad z ppłk Krzysztofem Skowrońskim, uczestnikiem I zmiany PKW Irak w 2003 roku.” In Żołnierze z Pomorza Zachodniego w rejonie Zatoki Perskiej. Wspomnienia, relacje, refleksje, edited by Grzegorz Ciechanowski. Szczecin: Uniwersytet Szczeciński, 189–204. Pym, Anthony. 2016. “Risk analysis as a heuristic tool in the historiography of interpreters: For an understanding of worst practices.” In New Insights in the History of Interpreting, edited by Kayoko Takeda, Jesús Baigorri-Jalón. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 247–267. Tryuk, Małgorzata. 2012. ‘Ty nic nie mów, ja będę tłumaczył’. O etyce w tłumaczeniu ustnym. Warszawa: Wydział Lingwistyki Stosowanej Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. United States Department of the Army. 2006. Counterinsurgency. Washington, DC: Headquarters, Department of the Army. http://goo.gl/WkS1PA (accessed on 09.01.2020). Translated from Polish for the purposes of this publication by Łukasz Barciński

Vinai Kumar Donthula

Politics in Translation Abstract: If we look at the history of translation, the role of politics in translation can be clearly understood. After the Romans established their empire and started dominating, they translated the important works from Greek into Latin. They also translated the Bible into Latin. Coming to the Telugu-speaking region in India in South Asia, the translation/ rewriting of the Sanskrit epic Mahabharata into Telugu by the poet Nannayyabhatta, who has translated the first two parvans1 under the patronage of the King Rajaraja Narendra in the 11th Century AD, had a political motive. In the recent past, as Jeremy Munday says, the central intersection of translation studies and postcolonial theory is that of ‘power relations’. Likewise in several instances politics plays a major role in translation. Keywords: Bible translation, post-colonial theory, Bhakti movement, Indian tradition of translation

This chapter tries to highlight the role of politics in the translation of some of the important literary and religious works in the West and in India. It also gives a brief description of how translation theories and practices were used to shape a concept of nation in Prussia and how the German language evolved in around 400 years. Further, it gives an account of how Indian translation tradition is different from the Western tradition of translation and discusses two case studies in translation, where Venuti’s two diverging concepts of translation – ‘foreignization’ and ‘domestication’ – are used. Ever since ‘Translation Studies’ has become a multidisciplinary study, the term ‘translation’ can be defined in many ways, depending upon one’s perspective. There are different theories of translation based on different perspectives of the scholars. Apart from linguistics, many other disciplines like literary theory, anthropology, sociology, cultural studies, history, philosophy, cognitive psychology, political science, etc. have contributed towards the understanding of ‘Translation Studies’. Translation, to be more precise, inter-lingual translation deals with a source text written in a source language and a target text written in a target language. It deals with the clash between two cultures. As Alvarez and Vidal say: Contemporary studies on translation are aware of the need to examine in depth the relationship between the production of knowledge in a given culture and its transmission, relocation, and reinterpretation in the target culture. This obviously has to

1 The epic Mahabharata has 18 Parvans. They are like chapters.

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do with the production and ostentation of power and with the strategies used by this power in order to represent the other culture. Translation is culture bound. It makes us ponder, as Edward Said would put it, how knowledge that is non-dominative and non-coercive can be produced in a setting that is deeply inscribed with the politics, the considerations, the positions and the strategies of power. The translator can artificially create the reception context of a given text. He can be the authority who manipulates the culture, politics, literature, and their acceptance (or lack thereof) in the target culture. (1996: 2)

Going by Ludwig Wittgenstein’s famous remark: “Die Grenzen meiner Sprache bedeuten die Grenzen meiner Welt,”(=‘The limits of my language mean the limits of my world’), we could describe translation as a builder of bridges. As Juliane House says, one can overcome the lingua-cultural barriers through translation. Translation mediates between different societies and cultures which speak different languages. It gives readers access to a message which already exists. There is always an orientation backwards to an existing previous message of the original text and an orientation forwards to how texts in a corresponding genre are composed in the target language in translation. Translation is a major means of constructing representations of other cultures. The questions concerning who wrote the text, when, why, for whom and who is now reading it, for what purpose, etc. help the translator understand the situational context. All these questions are reflected in how the text is written, interpreted and read (House 2014: 2–3). One should also try to understand the politics of translation. Without politics, there is no policy and indeed no translation. If we look at the history of translation, the role of politics in translation can be clearly understood. After the Romans established their empire and started dominating, they translated the important works from Greek into Latin. They also translated the Bible into Latin. One can find several instances of politics and power involved in translation. The politics involved in the translation of the Bible and several other important works prove this point. The translation of the Bible has witnessed lot of atrocities. Many translators lost their lives. Decades after his death, John Wycliffe’s bones were exhumed and burnt and then scattered in the river. William Tindale was burned at stake, as he has translated the New Testament based on Lutheranism (Bassnett 2013: 10). Etienne Dolet was also burned at stake after he was condemned by the theological faculty of the Sorbonne University, apparently for adding the phrase rien du tot (‘nothing at all’) in a passage about what existed after death. The Roman Catholic Church was preoccupied with the ‘correct’ established meaning of the Bible to be transmitted. Any translation diverging from the accepted interpretation was likely to be deemed heretical and to be censured or banned. Martin Luther translated the Bible into East Middle German dialect, which later became the standard German version. He was heavily criticized by the Church for adding the word allein (‘alone/only’), as there was no equivalent Latin word in the ST. He defended his translation in his

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famous Sendbrief vom Dolmetschen (‘Circular Letter on Translation’) of 1530. His famous quote extolling the language of the people reads: You must ask the mother at home, the children in the street, the ordinary man in the market (sic) and look at their mouths, how they speak, and translate that way; then they’ll understand and see that you’re speaking to them in German. (Munday 2001: 22–23)

The writings of the scholars like Cicero, Horace and St. Jerome on translation had an influence on the translation of scriptures. Especially the translation of the Bible was a battle ground of conflicting ideologies for well over a thousand years in western Europe. The Reformation was a very turbulent period regarding translation. Translation became a state affair and a matter of religion. With the rise of nation states during the period, a number of monarchs who wanted to establish their absolute rule contributed to the Reformation. They did not like revenues of the country going to the Papal treasury. They seized the opportunity offered by Luther and established the Protestant churches in their country. They knew that these new churches will depend on them and accept their political authority. As Lawrence Venuti says, translation theories and practices have been used to shape a concept of nation in Prussia during Napoleonic Wars. After Napoleon defeated Prussia, Schleiermacher in his sermons urged the congregations to resist French occupation and articulated a concept of the German nation. Schleiermacher felt that German language would be a key factor in this nationalist agenda and felt that it could be improved through translation. He argued that German language could most vigorously flourish and develop its own strength only through extensive contacts with the foreign (Venuti 2013: 126). If we look at the evolution of medieval German, it has evolved into a literary language with the assistance of Latin in around 400 years – from 11th century to 14th century. Literary German had evolved into a comprehensive communicative system covering all areas of human activity and interest by 15th century. Clerics as well as educated laymen wrote in Latin or in German or in both. For instance, Johann Geiler von Kayserberg, the most popular 15th-century preacher, drafted most of his German sermons in Latin. As German gradually emancipated itself from Latin literary tradition, translations, parallel texts, compilations, adaptations and paraphrases, especially of literature for special purposes warranted the continuing contacts between the two cultures. Eventually, autochthonous German texts covering specific areas of knowledge were translated into other European languages including Latin in the 15th century. In the recent past, as Jeremy Munday says, the central intersection of translation studies and post-colonial theory is that of ‘power relations’. Post-colonial theory of translation gives us a framework to assess the dynamics of political power between languages and also the position of translations in a given linguistic/cultural context. To quote him further:

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Spivak’s work is indicative of how cultural studies, and especially post-colonialism, has over the past decade has focussed on issues of translation, the transnational and colonization. The linking of colonization and translation is accompanied by the argument that translation has played an active role in the colonization process and in disseminating an ideologically motivated image of colonial peoples. (2001: 134)

Post-colonial theory moves away from the framework of the Western translation theories. It is sceptical about the ideology of the colonizer. However, some of the Western scholars like Peter Conrad, Ernest Gellner, Russell Jacoby and John MacKenzie express strong reservations about the works of Said, Bhabha and Spivak. Indian tradition of translation is very distinct compared to the Western or European tradition. Indra Nath Chouduri in his paper “Towards an Indian theory of translation” states that [t]‌he ancient Indian view that translation is nothing but repetition also means that translation is clarification, interpretation which is obtained by repetitive utterances and therefore to an Indian society, steeped in an oral literary tradition of smriti and shruti, differing versions were the norms, not exceptions. The method of producing the authentic and ‘pure’ text perpetuated in Europe particularly during the period of colonial domination by the Europeans was an alien notion for Indians. To an Indian mind translation is rebirth where ‘atma’ the invariant core remains constant but other things take a new form. (2010. “Towards an Indian Theory of Translation”. Indian Literature, Vol. 54, No. 5. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/23348221)

In Indian context almost all the translations/rewritings of literary works were done from Sanskrit into other vernacular languages. Instances of translators translating literary works from the vernacular languages into Sanskrit are very rare or almost nil. Like the Latin in the West, Sanskrit was the language of elite or the educated upper class. Earlier in the Sanskrit dramas in India, the characters spoke variety of dialects apart from Sanskrit. While the upper-caste men and ascetics spoke Sanskrit, women spoke Prakrit. The other inferior characters spoke a variety of dialects like Magadhi, Pali and Sauraseni. In the 6th century, the Bhakti movement spread from south India to other parts of India. It originated in Tamil Nadu in south India among Vaishnava Alvars, and it was a reaction to the hegemony of upper castes in Hinduism. During that time rigid caste system and untouchability prevailed in Hinduism. Knowledge and power were the privileges of the upper-caste elites. The saint-poets of the Bhakti movement tried to bring God down to the masses. They wanted to eliminate the middle men in the path of salvation. They sang in the language of the common man so that even the illiterates could understand. They opposed the elaborate rituals existing in Hinduism and emphasized on simple bhakti or devotion. The works of these poets were in local languages as opposed to Sanskrit (https://nptel.ac.in/ courses/109104050/pdf_version/lecture2.pdf).

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Coming to the Telugu-speaking region in India in South Asia, the translation/ rewriting of the Sanskrit epic Mahabharata into Telugu by the poet Nannayyabhatta, who has translated the first two parvans2 under the patronage of the King Rajaraja Narendra in the 11th century AD, had a political motive. N.C. Narsimha Acharya in his paper titled “The Andhra Mahabharatamu” says that The translation was undoubtedly the outcome or the Brahmanical reaction that set in the wake of the extermination and extinction of Buddhism and Jainism in the Telugu country. All Telugu literature prior to Nannayabhatta perished. There is no trace of the Buddhist and Jaina Bharatas now. Possibly Nannayabhatta’ s rendering in the Kävya style was in answer to those that prevailed prior and upto his time, which were conceived as Buddhist or Jaina versions of the Mahäbhärata. If that was so, then it admirably answered the purpose. (1941. “The Andhra Mahabharatamu”, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 22, No. 1/2. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/i40079365.)

The translation of Omar Khayyam’s Rubaiyat by Edward FitzGerald into English and by Harivansh Rai Bachan into Hindi are apt examples of manipulation. Harivansh Rai Bachan’s translation “Madhushala”, which literally translates as ‘house of wine’, has become very popular in Hindi. FitzGerald took lot of liberties in his translation. His target audience were the English readership. He translated for his domestic readers and his was a free translation. He paraphrased many of the quatrains. Following is an extract from a letter written to E. B. Cowell in 1857 by Edward FitzGerald: It is an amusement for me to take what liberties I like with these Persians, who (as I think) are not Poets enough to frighten one from such excursions, and who really do want a little Art to shape them. (Lefevere 1992: 80)

Talking about the politics involved when the literature of the Third World gets translated, Gayatri Spivak in her article titled “Politics on Translation” gives the following instance: Let us consider an example where attending to the author’s stylistic experiments can produce a different text. Mahasweta Devi’s “Stanadāyini” is available in two versions. Devi has expressed approval for the attention to her signature style in the version entitled “Breast-Giver.” The alternative translation gives the title as “Wet-Nurse,” and thus neutralizes the author’s irony in constructing an uncanny word; enough like “wet-nurse” to make that sense, and enough unlike to shock. It is as if the translator should decide to translate Dylan Thomas’s famous title and opening line as “Do not go gently into that good night.” The theme of treating the breast as organ of labor-poweras-commodity and the breast as metonymic part-object standing in for other-asobject – the way in which the story plays with Marx and Freud on the occasion of the

2 The epic Mahabharata has 18 Parvans. They are like chapters.

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woman’s body – is lost even before you enter the story. In the text Mahasweta uses proverbs that are startling even in Bengali. The translator of “The Wet-Nurse” leaves them out. She decides not to translate these hard bits of earthy wisdom, contrasting with class-specific access to modernity, also represented in the story. In fact, if the two translations are read side by side, the loss of the rhetorical silences of the original can be felt from one to the other. (1993: 182–183)

Out of his concern for the problem of unequal power relations between cultures, Venuti came up with the concepts of ‘foreignization’ and ‘domestication’ based on the two alternative methods posited by Schleiermacher in his lecture in Berlin in 1813 – either to bring the text to the reader or to take the reader to the text (Bassnett 2013: 47). I would like to give a brief account of two of the three case studies I have used in my PhD thesis with respect to domestication and foreignization strategies. The book titled jarman jaanapada kathalu translated by P.  Srinivas Reddy and others published by Peacock Classics, Hyderabad, has come up with the translations of 17 stories by Brothers Grimm into Telugu. It is not known whether the stories are directly translated from German into Telugu. It is believed that they are indirect translations from English. The stories have been adapted to the target language (Telugu) culture. Especially most of the cultural images – names of the characters, animals and food items – have been adapted to suit the Telugu culture. They no longer read as German stories, but as Telugu stories. It can be said that these stories are domesticated into Telugu. Another text that is taken for case study is the German story titled “Reise im Boot”, which is a translation of the English translation by Percy Eckstein of “Padava Prayaanam”, a Telugu short story written by Palgummi Padmaraju. The story is basically about a boat journey of a couple belonging to the lower middleclass society. Their names are “Paddaalu” and “Rangi”. In the German story, the word “maridi” (=‘brother-in-law’) is translated as “brother”. It may be because of the difference in the cultural connotations associated with the word “maridi” in the source and target culture. The translations of the stock details are omitted in the German story. It is translated as tamarind and other goods. The word “kanduvaa” (= ‘a piece of cloth, which is folded and worn on onside of the shoulder by men’) is translated as “Tuch” (=‘towel/cloth/scarf’). The word “magajiira” (=‘manlike voice’) is translated as “Baβnote” (=‘bass note’). The swear word “lanja” (=‘bitch’), used several times, is translated as “Miststück” (=‘bitch’); “Schlampe” (=‘slut’); “die Tochter einer Hündin” (=‘daughter of a bitch’); “Lügnerin” (=‘liar’); “die dreckige Hündin” (=‘dirty bitch’) and “Gaunerin” (=‘female rogue’). We can say that foreignization strategy was used in the German translation. Therefore, I would like to say that ‘politics’ plays an important role in translation and that both are interrelated, as the present-day political discourse is heavily dependent on translation with around 195 countries in the world having different national/official languages for correspondence.

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References Alvarez, Román and M. Carmen-Africa Vidal (eds.) 1996. Translation, Power, Subversion. Clevedon, Philadelphia and Adelaide: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Bassnett, Susan. 2013. Translation. London and New York: Routledge. Choudhuri, Indra Nath. 2010. “Towards an Indian Theory of Translation”. Indian Literature, Vol. 54, No. 5. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/23348221. House, Juliane. 2014. Translation: A Multidisciplinary Approach. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. Kumar, Vinay D. 2015. Translation of German Proverbs into Telugu: Issues in Translation. Hyderabad: EFL University. Lefevere, André (ed.) 1992. Translation History Culture: A Sourcebook. London and New York: Routledge. Moore-Gilbert, Bart, Gareth Stanton, and Willy Maley (eds.) 2013. Postcolonial Criticism. London and New York: Routledge. Munday, Jeremy. 2001. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application. London: Routledge. Narsimha Acharya, N. C. 1941. The Andhra Mahabharatamu, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 22, No. 1/2. Retrieved from https:// www.jstor.org/stable/i40079365. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravarty. 1993. Outside in the Teaching Machine. New York and London: Routledge. Venuti, Lawrence. 2013. Translation Changes Everything: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Routledge.

Literary Corner

Oleksandr Rebrii

Sacralization in a Dystopian Novel: Literary, Linguistic, and Translation Implications Abstract: The chapter deals with the notion of sacralization as an artistic device in a dystopian novel. The main emphasis is on the linguistic-stylistic means of sacralization and specifics of their reproduction in translation. Sacralization of a dehumanized futuristic society’s ruler is regarded as a prototypical feature of the dystopian genre as it is present in such classics as 1984 by George Orwell, Brave New World by Aldous Huxley, and We by Eugene Zamiatin. The comparative analysis allowed to single out a number of means typical for expressing sacralization by different authors, such as: strong biblical allusions found in the characters’ portraits, actions, and speech; juxtaposition of some aspects and facts of dystopian reality with those from the history of Christianity and its rituals; and finally, representation of the rulers as God-like entities. All these means present considerable translation difficulties that should be correctly interpreted and accurately reproduced in a target linguistic and cultural environment. Keywords: Dystopia, linguistic and stylistic means, sacralization, translation difficulty

1 Introduction Reproduction of specific genre features of a text in translation traditionally draws attention of many scholars who, together with Vilen Komissarov, believe that genre attribution can have an impact on the course of translation process and require from translators the use of particular methods and techniques thus stipulating stylistic characteristics of a translated text as a combination of means peculiar to the given genre in a target language (Komissarov 1990: 109).

My focus is on the dystopian genre whose linguistic peculiarities remain underinvestigated in the aspect of English-Ukrainian translation. Partially, it can be explained by ideological causes – dystopia as a genre was banned in the Soviet Union where the belief in ‘the bright future’ was one of the main communist mantras. Dystopia was dangerous, firstly, because it drew a very gloomy picture of a human decay and, secondly, because in its negative predictions it exploited heavily many real aspects of totalitarian societies among which the USSR was an undeniable favorite. As a result, Soviet – including Ukrainian – readers got a chance to read dystopian novels much later than the Western ones. Ironically, the novel We that lay the foundation of a dystopian canon was written in the USSR and its author Eugene Zamiatin knew all too well what he was writing about.

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It can also be assumed that the first translations of dystopian novels that were made into Russian satisfied readers’ demand for some time and thus blocked the necessity to translate them into other languages of the post-Soviet world. Take, for instance, George Orwell’s 1984 that was first translated into Russian by Viktor Golyshev as early as in 1989 (during the period known as Perestroika) and three years later retranslated by Dmitriy Ivanov and Viacheslav Nedoshyvin. For comparison, the first Ukrainian translation by Viktor Shovkun was only published in 2015!

2 Methodology I intend to conduct a twofold comparative analysis of the three milestone dystopian novels of the 20th century: We by Eugene Zamiatin (1921), Brave New World by Aldous Huxley (1932), and 1984 by George Orwell (1948). Firstly, I  want to compare the novels among themselves in order to see if sacralization of the Ruler is indeed their common artistic feature and can thus be relevant for the dystopian genre in general. Secondly, I  want to compare the originals of the novels with their translations in order to see what strategies and techniques were employed for reproducing stylistic and linguistic means of this feature’s embodiment. The notion of sacralization comes from philosophy and theology where it is defined as acquiring holiness by objects, phenomena, or people. Nicola Righetti emphasizes the procedural aspect of sacralization intending it as “the process that transforms profane things into sacred things” (2014: 136). According to Kenneth I. Pargament and Annette Mahone, sacralization occurs when “an individual either (a)  perceives an object to be a direct manifestation of one’s images, beliefs, or experiences of God; (b) attributes qualities to an object that are typically associated with the divine; or (c) does both” (2005: 187). Sacralization has been closely associated with leadership and power since the very dawn of human civilization which turns it into an ideological concept, or ideologeme (Bakhtin 1975: 144–145). Rethinking great Bakhtin’s legacy, I come to the conclusion that ideologeme can be understood in a more applied linguistic sense as an ideologically charged linguistic unit or expression. Thus, dystopia is the genre where artistic/literary ideologemes meet with linguistic and/or stylistic ones. In other words, sacralization presents interest not only as an artistic/literary phenomenon but also as a combination of linguistic and/or stylistic means comparing which in the source and target texts I can trace down the logic of the translator’s decisions revealed in his/her strategies. Power in dystopia is dehumanized but at the same time personalized in the figure of the Ruler outlined in all major dystopian novels. Thus, it can be taken as a basis for literary and linguistic analysis of sacralization and its reproduction in translations. The image of the Ruler is always in the background of a storyline but its influence on the plot and the fate of the main characters cannot be underestimated. The Ruler’s sacralization is essential for dystopia as a genre based on the transformation of power in society. Consequently, sacralization acquires a

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status of translation dominant whose reproduction is among the translator’s top priorities.

3 Analysis Zamiatin’s novel We is the first in the triad of great dystopian novels of the 20th century, and it sets the trend of portraying the leader of the futuristic society as a divine entity. The Ruler in the novel has no name in a common sense and instead is called ‘Благодетель’ which is a regular compound coined from two stems ‘благо’ and ‘де(я)тель’ which put together get the meaning ‘someone who does good.’ Though in the modern Russian language ‘Благодетель’ is labeled as slightly archaic, at the time of writing the novel it was devoid of such a connotation and was used to express a sheer admiration and respect for a person. Thus, the author unequivocally indicates this character’s role through his name. In the Englishlanguage translation due to which Zamiatin’s novel discovered itself to the world the name is reproduced with a regular equivalent Well-Doer: “Да здравствует Единое Государство, да здравствуют нумера, да здравствует Б лагодетель!” (Zamiatin 1989: 549) “Long live the United State! Long live the Numbers!! Long live the Well-Doer!!!” (Zamiatin 1952: 4)

The weak point of Gregory Zilboorg’s variant is that it does not express the adoration peculiar to the Russian original and is closer in its meaning to the ‘benefactor’ or ‘philanthropist’ which does not fit the dystopian context at all. In Zamiatin’s novel all important news is delivered to the people ‘от имени Благодетеля’ which can be literally translated as ‘on behalf of the Well-Doer.’ Instead, Zilboorg makes a substitution in favor of ‘in the name of the Well-Doer’ which is perceived as a transformed variant of the well-known Trinitarian formula ‘in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit’ that is a symbol of Christian religion. This simple decision creates a strong Christian reference and intensifies the divine essence of the Well-Doer. In many cases, Zamiatin resorts to literary rather than linguistic devices for sacralization of the Ruler. In particular, he employs strong biblical allusions. The novel’s plot itself can be seen as an allusion to the myth about the expulsion from the Garden of Eden. The Well-Doer’s antagonists are described as a mysterious group of rebels known as ‘Мефи.’ There’s no doubt that this name is a shortened form of ‘Мефистофель’ – ‘Mephistopheles’: “Нет, подожди  – а ‘Мефи’? Что такое ‘Мефи’?  – Мефи? Это  – древнее имя, это – тот, который… наши или, вернее, – ваши предки, христиане, поклоня лись как Богу. А мы, антихристиане, мы…” (1989: 640). “Wait a minute! ‘Mephi,’ what does it mean?” – “Mephi? It is from Mephisto. You remember, there on the rock, the figure of the youth? Our, or rather your ancestors, the Christians, worshiped entropy like a God. But we are not Christians.” (1952: 54).

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The events described in the novel take place in the 32nd century when Christianity and its values are long forgotten. Trying to explain the name of the organization, the author limits himself to mentioning ‘the ancient name’ while the translator opts for a direct source of the allusion. In the same passage, the speaker calls people of his time ‘антихристиане’ – ‘anti-Christians’ while the translator opts for the transformation of antonimization which seems like an absolutely erroneous decision since ‘anti-Christians’ and ‘not Christians’ are two absolutely different ideas. Let me switch to the Well-Doer’s portrait, which makes a somewhat eclectic impression since it suits more some pagan ancient God, someone inconsistent with Christianity. Yet, this decision is quite justified as it enhances the reader’s impression of a superhuman entity: ‘А наверху, на Кубе, возле Машины – неподвижная, как из металла, фигура того, кого мы именуем Благодетелем. Лица отсюда, снизу, не разобрать: видно только, что оно ограничено строгими, величественными квадратными очертаниями. Но зато руки… Так иногда бывает на фотографических снимках: слишком близко, на первом плане поставленные руки – выходят огромными, приковывают взор – заслоняют собою все. Эти тяжкие, пока еще спокойно лежащие на коленях руки – ясно: они – каменные, и колени – еле выдерживают их вес…’ (Zamiatin 1989: 574) ‘On the top of the Cube, next to the Machine, the motionless, metallic figure of him whom we call the Well-Doer. One could not see his face from below. All one could see was that it was bounded by austere, magnificent, square lines. And his hands…. Did you ever notice how sometimes in a photograph the hands, if they were too near the camera, appear to be enormous? They then compel your attention, overshadow everything else. Those hands of his, heavy hands, quiet for the time being, were stony hands-it seemed the knees on which they rested must have ached in bearing their weight.’ (Zamiatin 1952: 44)

One can see that all the stylistic devices (mainly epithets and metaphors) are diligently reproduced by the translator. The Well-Doer’s figure is described as ‘неп одвижная’ (motionless) and ‘как из металла’ (metallic); face as ‘строгое’ (austere) and ‘величественное’ (magnificent); and hands as ‘огромные’ (enormous), ‘тяжкие’ (heavy), and ‘каменные’ (stony). Returning to proper linguistic means of sacralization employed by Zamiatin, I  would like to take a closer look at what may be called ad hoc modifications of phraseological units. Formally, these units are sacred appeals to God but in fact they have long been profaned and turned into emotive exclamations used in everyday communication with no particular religious reference. Zamiatin filled these expressions with a new meaning substituting ‘God’ for ‘Well-Doer’; at the same time, their biblical allusions are easily read by any attentive reader. The fact that both Russian and English versions of these phraseologisms come from one source allows the translator to employ the method of loan translation with excellent results:

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“Мы же – слава Благодетелю – взрослые, и игрушки нам не нужны.” (1989: 612) “We, on the other hand (glory to the Well-Doer!), we are adults, and we have no need of toys.” (1952: 109)

The next object of analysis is Aldous Huxley’s novel Brave New World that depicts the dystopian society whose citizens worship the God by the name Ford. Ford is very different from Well-Doer as he is not a human being but an abstract sacred entity, a holy embodiment of a real person  – an American entrepreneur Henry Ford. This choice of a prototype is not accidental, taking into account that Ford was one of the most popular heroes of British and American satiric literature of the 1920s–1930s. This literature together with Ford’s own books My Life and Work (1922) and My Philosophy of Industry (1929) helped to create the image of Detroit oracle. Similar to real religions, Fordism has its ‘high priest’  – Mustapha Mond whose full title is ‘Resident World Controller of Western Europe.’ In the novel, Mond acts as the real Ruler and is addressed as ‘your fordship’ which is a contamination of ‘Ford’ and ‘lordship,’ but in the Ukrainian translation by Serhiy Marenko this form of address is reproduced in two different ways: “Controller! What an unexpected pleasure! Boys, what are you thinking of? This is the Controller; this is his fordship, Mustapha Mond.” (Huxley) “Головний Контролер! Що за приємна несподіванка! Хлопці, уявіть собі! Це ж Головконтр - його фордність Мустафа Монд!” (Huxley) “Go away, little girl,” shouted the D.H.C. angrily. “Go away, little boy! Can’t you see that his fordship’s busy?” (Huxley) “Забирайтеся звідси, – сердито накричав на дітей Директор. - Ідіть геть! Хіба не бачите, що заважаєте його фордейству.” (Huxley)

Such strategy aptly labeled as ‘translator’s dispersion’ is absolutely unacceptable in this situation as it may lead the reader to some erroneous conclusions, for instance, that different forms of address are used towards different people. Similarly to the previous novel, Brave New World is also filled with ad hoc modifications of profaned biblical phraseologisms. And the translator likewise copies the author’s strategy and modifies the Ukrainian equivalents on the basis of the method known as loan translation: “Oh, for Ford’s sake, be quiet!” he shouted. (Huxley) “Замовкни, Форда ради! - скрикнув він.” (Huxley)

Another interesting sacralization technique is quasi-phraseologisms, that is, word combinations that are persistent in the eyes of the language-bearers in the novel but not in the real world. Quasi-phraseological status of a phrase can be established on the basis of several factors such as (1)  the author’s comment, (2)  the personage’s comment, and (3) referential or associative correlation with a regular phraseological unit that serves as a structural and semantic prototype of a quasiphraseologism and can be implicated or explicated by the recipient. Most typically,

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quasi-phraseologisms are coined in the form of proverbs, sayings, or aphorisms that add depth to the alternative reality: ‘The ringing of the telephone bell interrupted him. “Ford in Flivver!” he swore.’ (Huxley) ‘Задзвонив телефон.  – Форд усемогутній! – вигукнув Гельмгольц.’ (Huxley)

I ascribe quasi-phraseological status to the expression ‘Ford’s in his flivver’ on the basis of its recurrent appearance in the text as well as semantic analysis. The matter is that it is used as a separate utterance the meanings of whose components (Ford is the name of God; flivver is a designation of a cheap automobile) do not correlate between themselves and with a situational context. Function-wise, this expression is used as a means of emotive discharge. In his choice of an equivalent, the translator is oriented towards the function rather than the form and uses a modified Ukrainian phraseologism that somewhat weakens the recipient’s impression as compared to the original. Another interesting case of sacralization is demonstrated by the event called in the novel ‘massed Community Sings.’ It is interesting how this combination of words is reproduced in Ukrainian. The translator drifts away from literal translation (‘масовані Громадські Співи’) and opts for ‘масові фордовідправи’ as if trying to emphasize the sacred character of the event (‘відправа’ – ‘service’): ‘The President made another sign of the T and sat down. The service had begun. The dedicated soma tablets were placed in the centre of the table. The loving cup of strawberry ice-cream soma was passed from hand to hand and, with the formula, “I drink to my annihilation,” twelve times quaffed. Then to the accompaniment of the synthetic orchestra the First Solidarity Hymn was sung. “Ford, we are twelve; oh, make us one, Like drops within the Social River, Oh, make us now together run As swiftly as thy shining Flivver.” (Huxley) ‘Президент знову осінив себе знаком Т й сів. Відправа почалася. Посеред столу лежали освячені таблетки соми. Любовна чаша суничного морозива з сомою переходила з рук у руки і з неї дванадцять разів пили, примовляючи: “Я п’ю за свою загладу”. Потім під акомпанемент синтетичного оркестру заспівали Перший Гімн Солідарності. Нас дванадцятеро, Форде, Злий в єдиний нас потік, Щоб летіли й мерехтіли, Як авто твоє вовік.’ (Huxley)

The whole situation is filled with numerous markers of sacralization. The first is the ‘sign of the T’ similar to the Christian cross. Though in the original, the President ‘made the sign,’ in translation he ‘осінив себе,’ which is a closer reference to a Christian ritual. ‘Dedicated soma tablets’ (‘освячені таблетки соми’) take place of communion bread, and the cup is filled with ‘strawberry ice-cream

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soma’ (‘суничне морозиво з сомою’) instead of wine. Twelve people present at the event obviously symbolize twelve apostles as they sing ‘First Solidarity Hymn.’ The hymn itself is composed in a typical protestant manner with the help of exclamations (‘oh’), symbols (‘river’, ‘fivver’), epithets (‘shining’), and archaic pronouns (‘thy’). Put together, all these markers make a perfect satire of the future society desperately trying to find the sense of its existence in a new belief. In general, the translator reproduced ‘massed Community Sings’ quite accurately using almost everywhere direct equivalents of the original markers. The only exception is the ‘First Solidarity Hymn’ reproducing which Serhiy Marenko deviated from the original. In particular, he omitted the exclamations and archaic pronoun and thus somewhat reduced the parody in the source context. Finally, the third novel – 1984 by George Orwell – offers the sacred image of Big Brother, the eternal Ruler of Oceania who is depicted as an iconic sign since his face looks at you from the thousands of portraits, posters, and screens. By depicting Big Brother as a modern icon, Orwell reflects his idea of similarity between religion and totalitarianism and Big Brother’s image is a core element of this plan. Similar to Zamiatin’s ‘Благодетель,’ Big Brother can hardly be called a proper name in a common sense, it is rather a title or a post and spelling it with capital letter does not violate the norms of English orthography. But Orwell goes even further:  in most cases he capitalizes two words completely and with this simple move creates the so-called loudness effect that intensifies the character’s significance and adds to his sacralization. Big Brother’s name is used as part of the expression ‘Big Brother is watching you’ that is associated with the Christian symbol of an all-seeing eye of God (‘the eye of Providence’) and in this sense can make a claim for the status of a new dystopian prayer. ‘The black-moustachio’d face gazed down from every commanding corner. There was one on the house-front immediately opposite. BIG BROTHER IS WATCHING YOU, the caption said, while the dark eyes looked deep into Winston’s own.’ (Orwell 1981: 6) ‘З кожного помітного місця вулиці на людей дивилося позначене чорними вусами обличчя. Один із плакатів висів на будинку, що якраз був навпроти. СТАРШИЙ БРАТ ПИЛЬНУЄ ЗА ТОБОЮ  – проголошував плакат, і справді, чорні очі з портрета пронизливо вдивлялися в очі Вінстона.’ (2015: 7)

Big Brother’s maxims formulated in a paradoxical manner of oxymoron turn into new commandments written on the tables of half-ruined London, forever crippled by devastation and despair: From where Winston stood it was just possible to read, picked out on its white face in elegant lettering, the three slogans of the Party: WAR IS PEACE FREEDOM IS SLAVERY IGNORANCE IS STRENGTH (Orwell 1981: 7) Звідти, де стояв Вінстон, можна було прочитати три гасла Партії, викладені на фасаді елегантними літерами:

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ВІЙНА – ЦЕ МИР СВОБОДА – ЦЕ РАБСТВО НЕУЦТВО – ЦЕ СИЛА (Orwell 2015: 8)

Oceania’s rulers manipulate people’s consciousness by sending them into a trance close to religious ecstasies. Look at the following passage explicitly labeled by such markers of sacralization as Saviour (‘Спаситель’) and prayer (‘молитва’): ‘The little sandy-haired woman had flung herself forward over the back of the chair in front of her. With a tremulous murmur that sounded like ‘My Saviour!’ she extended her arms towards the screen. Then she buried her face in her hands. It was apparent that she was uttering a prayer.’ (Orwell 1981: 17) ‘Маленька русява жінка перехилилася через спинку стільця, що стояв попереду неї. З тремтячим шепотінням, на кшталт “Мій Спасителю”, вона тягла руки до телеекрана. Потім затулила ним и обличчя. Скидалося на те, що вона читає молитву.’ (Orwell 2015: 21).

In the above situation, the means of sacralization are once again reproduced by Viktor Shovkun almost literally which seems like a totally justified strategy. The translator closely follows the original not trying to increase the level of expressiveness of the source text or infuse it with his own impressions and explications and thus remains largely invisible.

4 Conclusions Though the limited character of this contribution does not allow to analyze all the selected samples that can be referred to its object – the sacralization of the Ruler in a dystopian novel – I was able to demonstrate how the most prominent representatives of the genre not only pursued the same idea but also implemented it with a set of almost identical literary, linguistic, and stylistic devises. Here, I should mention strong biblical allusions that are found in the characters’ portraits, actions and, of course, speech; juxtaposition of some aspects and facts of a dystopian reality with those from the history of Christianity and its rituals; and finally, representation of the Rulers as God-like entities. All these devices make considerable translation difficulties as they should be correctly interpreted and accurately reproduced in a different linguistic and cultural environment. I should also add that the research proved my hypothesis that sacralization of the Ruler can be seen as a distinct dystopian feature and as such it deserves a special attention from the translator and requires extensive background knowledge in such fields as history, political and cultural studies, theology, etc., as well as considerable creative efforts.

References Bakhtin, Mikhail. 1975. “Slovo v romane” [“A word ion a novel”]. In Voprosy literatury i estetiki. Issledovaniya raznykh let [Issues in literature and esthetics.

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Research from different years]. Moscow: Khudozhestvennaya literature, 72–233. (in Russian) Huxley, Aldous. Brave new world. Accessed November 2, 2019. https://gutenberg. ca/ebooks/huxleya-bravenewworld/huxleya-bravenewworld-00-h.html Huxley, Aldous. Prekrasnyi novyi svit [Brave new world]. Accessed November 2, 2019. https://www.ukrlib.com.ua/world/printit.php?tid=2934 (in Ukrainian). Komissarov, Vilen. 1990. Teoriya perevoda (lingvisticheskiye aspekty) [Theory of translation (linguistic aspects)]. Moscow: Vysshaya shkola. (in Russian). Orwell, George. 1981. 1984. New York: A Signet Classic. Orwell, George. 2015. 1984. Kyiv: Vydavnytstvo Zhupanskoho. (in Ukrainian). Pargament, Kenneth I., and Annette Mahoney. 2005. “Sacred Matters: Sanctification as a Vital Topic for the Psychology of Religion.” The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion 15 (3):179–198. Righetti, Nicola. 2014. “The Sacred in Current Social Sciences Research.” Italian Sociological Review 4 (1):133–163. DOI: 10.13136/isr.v4i1.77. Zamiatin, Ievgueni. 1952. We. New York: E. P. Dutton. Zamiatin, Yevgeniy. 1989. My [We]. In Izbrannyye proizvedeniya. Povesti, rasskazy, skazki, roman, p’yesy [Selected works. Long and short stories, fairy tales, a novel, plays]. Moscow: Sovetskiy pisatel, 547–680. (in Russian).

Maria Puri

Are We Reading the Same Book? Multiple Iterations of Arundhati Roy’s Novel The Ministry of Utmost Happiness Abstract: The political nature of Arundhati Roy’s writings, both fiction and non-fiction, and ‘her commitment to a critical politics’ (Dillet and Puri 2016: 50) have made ‘her very existence a sort of affront to a certain strata of Indians’ (Chaudhury 2012). ‘Antinational’, ‘secessionist’, ‘rouble-rouser’, ‘activist butterfly’ and ‘hate merchant’ are only some of the names she has been called over the years. While the novel (and there are now two of them in her oeuvre, The God of Small Things of 1997 and The Ministry of Utmost Happiness of 2017) ‘however political it may be (and it is), allows her to remain an outsider’, in her ‘essays she becomes very much an insider, someone who is deeply involved and unashamed of baring her partisanship’ (Dillet and Puri 2016: 50). A translator approaching her writings must therefore bear in mind the social, political and cultural context in which they were born and in which they function, as well as their intertextuality. Though certain concerns of Roy’s texts, viewed here as key cultural texts, might not carry the same political import for the global audience as they might have for the Indian reader, it is still imperative those be brought out in translation. This chapter proposes to look at six iterations of her last novel, The Ministry of Utmost Happiness, namely the original English text and the Polish, Russsian, Hindi, Urdu and Punjabi translations. I start with the shaping of the physical appearance of the book, move to discuss its title, then take a look at some specific issues concerning translation and translators. I end with brief analysis of its short, one-page long prologue to see how different translators have dealt with it and its political message. Primary consideration is given to the two recent translations, the Hindi and the Urdu, in order to compare strategies used by the Hindi and Urdu translators with those of the Polish translator, and evaluate factors such as translator’s habitus, translator’s agency, linguistic competence, editorial intervention and patronage in the framework of power relations. Keywords: Arundhati Roy, The Ministry of Utmost Happiness, key cultural text, Hindi, Urdu, Punjabi, Polish, translator’s habitus, translator’s agency, competence, editorial intervention, patronage, power relations

Arundhati Roy’s entry onto the global literary scene coincided with the publication of her debut novel, The God of Small Things (1997), which swept the critics and the reading public off their feet. Alice Truax, reviewing the book for the New York Times, wrote, ‘quality of Ms. Roy’s narration is so extraordinary—at once so morally strenuous and so imaginatively supple—that the reader remains enthralled all

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the way through to its agonizing finish’ (1997). Another reviewer, recalling the moment some 20 years later, notes, Within months, it had sold four hundred thousand copies and won the Booker Prize, which had never before been given to a non-expatriate Indian—an Indian who actually lived in India—or to an Indian woman. Roy became the most famous novelist on the subcontinent, and she probably still is, which is a considerable achievement, given that, after “The God of Small Things,” she became so enmeshed in the politics of her homeland that, for the next two decades, she didn’t produce any more fiction. (Acocella 2017).

She then adds, ‘[n]‌ow, finally, the second novel has come out, and it is clear that her politics have been part of its gestation’ (Acocella 2017). The much awaited second novel, The Ministry of Utmost Happiness (2017), invariably compared with the earlier novel and viewed through the lens of Roy’s nonfictional, politically engaged writings, was, in turns, criticised for being ‘a collection of political and social essays in the form of a novel’ (Iwanek 2017); praised as ‘a polyphonic protest’ and ‘the ultimate love letter to the richness and complexity of India—and the world—in all its hurly-burly, glorious, and threatened heterogeneity’ (Felicelli 2017); acclaimed as ‘a scarring novel of India’s modern history’ (Acocella 2017); applauded as a ‘a political novel per se’ (Khair 2017); grudgingly called ‘a magnificent experiment on the form of the novel’ (Pinto 2017); dubbed ‘fascinating mess’, its very form questioned, ‘Is novel the right word, though? I hesitate’ (Sehgal 2017) and ran down as ‘frustratingly rambling’, ‘shockingly uneven in its register’, ‘a gargantuan handbook to modern India and its injustices’ (Ghoshal 2017). The Hindi translator, Manglesh Dabral quipped, ‘Some reviewers even assumed that it was a journalistic novel’ (Mathew 2018). Unable to detach themselves from wanting Roy’s latest narrative to conform to their views of what a novel should be, the reviewers, possibly reading against time and with a deadline in sight, had problems with the book right from ‘its hyperbolic title to its cumbersome expanse’ (Ghoshal 2017). They wished the novel to be more ‘literary’, for as one of the reviewers writes, At times, the overt political focus detracts from the literary quality of the novel. Roy seems less interested in portraying her characters’ inner feelings than in using them to develop a polemic against what she sees as the dark side of contemporary India— increasing religious intolerance, casteism, and human rights violations. (Kabir 2018)

On the publication of the Polish translation of the novel, the Polish critics welcomed the novel almost without caveats, with Krzysztof Umiński (2017) providing probably the most insightful review. Displaying great sensitivity, in the course of his article he highlighted the three short texts preceding the narrative proper: the dedication, the motto and the prologue, from which he also quotes. This particular gesture found resonance in my own reading of Roy’s novel, where I saw the short, one-page prologue as a sort of summing up of the author’s views about people’s (lack of) informed engagement with the world around them. A number

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of English reviewers drew the attention of the reader to the italicised prologue.1 Quoting the very same passage as Umiński, Pallavi Sareen wrote, ‘And with that prologue, I was sold. Such a profound and robust message about how capitalism was destroying the world while people remained indifferent’ (Sareen 2019). It is telling that the most incisive, reader-oriented write-up on the novel written in Polish came from the pen of a translator, and that, too, not unfamiliar with India or its Anglophone writers. Though both The God of Small Things and The Ministry of Utmost Happiness have been translated into Polish by Jerzy Łoziński, Umiński had translated Roy’s Broken Republic as well as Rohinton Mistry’s A Fine Balance (1995), making it his business to educate himself about India and things Indian.2 It is indeed rightly said that translators are the most attentive of readers. Hence, a small diversion. While preparing the first draft of this chapter, I stayed with my sister, a teacher of English and an avid reader. She had just finished Anne Proulx’s Pulitzer winning novel, The Shipping News (1993), which had appeared a year earlier in Polish translation, and which she found extremely readable. As I did not know the book, I picked it up and read a few pages – in Polish, of course. Barely done with the first few paragraphs, my professional instincts took over and I  was already fuming when I came across the young protagonist eating kartofle z masełkiem and suffering pain w brzuszku (Proulx 2018). There being no diminutives in English, I wondered what did the original text have instead: I downloaded a sample on the Kindle and checked: there were spuds with butter and wind in the stomach. No sign whatsoever of diminutives, no adjective ‘little’ before the nouns and no infantilization of the protagonist in any way. This made me think again how great indeed was the power of the translator who could actually create an alternative text and sell it to the reader as the original. Having thus obliquely clarified my own position as a reader and a translator – both roles not being as innocent as they seem – I turn now to Arundhati Roy and the subject at hand. To recapitulate: Arundhati Roy (b. 1961) is an Anglophone Indian writer best known for her novel The God of Small Things (1997), which won the Man Booker 1 Kathleen Rooney of Chicago Tribune wrote in similar vein, ‘The opening single-page vignette alone—about the unintended poisoning of white-backed vultures as a side effect of the widespread use of diclofenac, aka “cow aspirin,” to accommodate India’s increasingly dairy-hungry palate—is worth the price of the book.’ ‘Not many noticed the passing of the friendly old birds,’ she notes in this passage’s wise and ironic final sentences. ‘There was so much else to look forward to’ (Rooney 2017) (italics mine). 2 Umiński’s translation of both books are appended by insightful postscriptums; postscriptum to A Fine Balance/Delikatna Równowaga (2014), titled ‘Świat opowieści i jego języki’/‘The World of the Story and Its Languages’ addresses multilingualism in Indian context and tries to explain how the Indian novel in English deals with the matter of presenting multilingual speech of its protagonists through the one language in which the story is narrated, namely English. This very subject is also at the centre of Arundhati Roy’s novel and she speaks about it in her Sebald Lecture (2018) as well as in numerous interviews.

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Prize for Fiction in 1997 and became the biggest-selling book3 by a non-expatriate Indian author; a political activist involved in human rights and environmental causes; and the author of over 20 books, all, except two, nonfiction. By the time her much awaited second novel was about to be published Roy had become an international celebrity and a bestselling writer. As is the practice with bestselling writers of such stature, even before the English original of The Ministry of Utmost Happiness was officially launched on the 6th/7th June 2017, numerous translators all over the world had begun working on the text, and soon, tens of published translations followed.4 The Lounge, or the Saturday edition of the Delhi paper Mint, dated 26th May 2017, devoted a big chunk of space to the soon-to-belaunched novel. It carried, for example, a two-page write up on the forthcoming translations, ‘Around the World, in 30 Countries’, showcasing different publishing houses already engaged in translating the novel. Polish publishing house Zysk, represented by Andrzej Zysk, head of rights, shared with Indian readers the name of the translator (Jerzy Łoziński) and the prospective publication date (October 2017)  as well as the fact that they have had earlier published The God of Small Things and The Algebra of Infinite Justice, the first selling 30,000 copies. According to the report, the Portuguese, the Italian and the Dutch editions were to appear on 6th June (the first two) and 9th June (the third), respectively, to coincide with the English launch, followed closely by the German and the Chinese (in Taiwan) in August, then the Swedish and the Norwegian in September, the Spanish (October), the Croatian (November), then the Estonian, the Icelandic, the Czech, the Greek and others later on. As of now, there are 50 published translations5; and as one can see, all the translations have been furnished, no doubt, as a part of a well-thought out plan, possibly authorial control of the paratextual packaging doubling now as marketing strategy, with almost identical covers, making us, the readers, feel we are all reading one and the same book. Or almost the same book. For a close scrutiny of the covers6 reveals the presence of slight variations between different language editions that may be viewed as symbolic embodiments of the variations brought into the text through the act of translation. The internet issue of the 26.4.2017 Mint, devoted to the novel, has two small articles on book covers. The first, ‘Why a mysterious Delhi tomb adorns the cover of Arundhati Roy’s new book’, features Mayank Austen Soofi, a journalist ‘who 3 Apparently around 8 million copies of the book have been sold. 4 On Polish translations preceding publication of original English novels of Rushdie cf. Monika Browarczyk (forthcoming) ‘Glossed “Otherness” – Glossaries in Polish Translations of Salman Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children and The Satanic Verses.’ 5 Apparently, translation number 51, into Nepali, is under way. 6 The dustjackets and book covers of different language editions vary only in small details, e.g. the placement of the rose (which also differs in size and position from edition to edition) else the stamp-like emblem. For example, the Russian edition has on the front of the dustjacket both the rose and the stamp, while most other editions have the stamp at the back.

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explores and photographs the city and its people (…) for his website The Delhi Walla’ (Kuruvilla 2017a), and is the author of the photo used on the cover. Soofi provides some interesting insights into Roy’s involvement in fashioning the physical appearance of the book, Roy gave instructions, both precise and indeterminate: She wanted a tomb, or a stone surface that looked like a tomb. “But it should not look like anything in particular. Just like the cover photograph of The God Of Small Things, which was water, but not a stream or (any other water body),” says Soofi. (Kuruvilla 2017a)

He confesses he took virtually hundreds of photographs of graves in different locations, starting with the dargahs7, keeping in sight ‘not the main graves, but the secondary ones that nobody cares about’ (Kuruvilla 2017a). This is how he recalls the moment he stumbled on the perfect one, “I still remember this particular grave,” says Soofi. “It had started raining, it was looking so beautiful, and there was a rose on it.” He remembers wanting to take a photograph, but being nervous because water had collected around the grave. (…) “But it was so beautiful that I took many, many, many pictures that day from all angles… Did you notice the fly?” He passed on to Roy hundreds of photographs of the decrepit marble grave—a withered red rose against its white background, a dead fly hanging at the edge blackened with age—and it clicked with both her and the bookcover designer David Eldridge. (Kuruvilla 2017a)

The other article, ‘A visual translation of Arundhati Roy’s novel’ (Kuruvilla 2017b), links the present cover to the cover of Roy’s earlier novel, invokes its iconic status and introduces David Eldridge, the graphic designer, who had a hand in the making of both. There are books that have remained perennial reader favourites, but there are very few books with covers that have become iconic. Memorable ones that immediately spring to mind are two:  the airplane and a madcap uniformed man dancing over Joseph Heller’s name on the cover of Catch-22 (1961), and the bowler hat-clad man with one cogwheel eye on Anthony Burgess’ A Clockwork Orange (1962). Then there is Arundhati Roy’s The God Of Small Things, the original cover of which used its publisher Sanjeev Saith’s close-up of lotus leaves and a pink flower on a murky water surface. So enduring has been this cover, designed by David Eldridge of the Londonbased design firm Two Associates, that several subsequent editions of the novel have not strayed from the lotus motif. (Kuruvilla 2017b)

Much before the two Mint articles appeared, the penguin.co.uk website had put up an interview with David Eldridge,8 which outlined, in lucid language accompanied 7 Dargah is a shrine built over the grave of a revered religious figure, often a Sufi saint. 8 David Eldridge had designed the cover for the UK edition of The God of Small Things back in 1998. The original Indian edition brought out by IndiaInk a year earlier featured a photograph by Sanjeev Saith who recalls the making of the cover of The God

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by beautiful illustrations, the process of designing the cover and Roy’s involvement with it. Asked, ‘What is the most important element of this cover for you?’, Eldridge replied: ‘I like the fact that, on closer inspection, the objects of beauty are in fact in the process of decay. Also, there’s a tiny fly caught in time on the front of the book—I like him very much’. Keeping in mind the attention Roy has given to the making of the covers, and the fact of this attention being further foregrounded and disseminated after being augmented with tit-bits relating to covers’ physical production and their role in the metaphysical meaning-making, it is surprising that the issue has attracted such scant attention of the translators working with the text, the translators being probably more susceptible to images conjured with words than beheld by the eye. In spite of the breathless anticipation, there was no talk of translating the novel into Indian languages prior to the actual launch of the English original probably as a precaution against possible market leaks of the text. It was only during a panel discussion at a function to mark the 69th foundation day of Rajkamal Prakashan, a Hindi-language publishing house, on the 28th February 2018, that Arundhati Roy disclosed the plans for the Hindi and the Urdu versions. Less than a year later she launched the translations at the Delhi Book Fair, an annual event held at the beginning of the year. Both translations being released simultaneously and by the same publisher, Rajkamal Prakashan, probably the biggest and most reputable Hindi publisher in India, with a monopoly on publishing Arundhati Roy in Hindi, made the case even more interesting as both the editions would have shared editorial inputs and editorial control engendered by the same set of people and within the same time frame. Editorial control might have been the catchword here for Rajkamal Prakashan does not publish books in Urdu and Roy’s novel was as far as I know the first ever Urdu book published by them.9

of Small Things. ‘Arundhati Roy wanted an image of water—and the team went to Kerala, where the book is set, searching for the perfect picture. Finally, they ended up using a photograph— pink water lilies in a grey pool—that Saith had shot at the India International Centre in Delhi as a sample illustration before they began their search’ (Singh 2010). In an interview given on 5 April 1997, at the British Council, New Delhi, in reply to the question, ‘How was IndiaInk launched,’ Arundhati Roy said, ‘I was talking to Sanjeev about how to work on the cover. We took the pictures together and it started evolving. I quickly realised that any publisher that I worked with in India would become completely fed up with me. There was going to be this big nuisance factor of me breathing down their neck at the press and Sanjeev said, ‘why don’t I do it? I’ll raise the money.’ I don’t know anyone else who is as obsessive as I am, he is actually more obsessive about small things and I thought, that this was a chance to have some fun. (…) I never thought I’d be happy with how my book looks because I am so finicky, but I just love it. They have done a brilliant job.’ India50 website accessed 26.1.2020. 9 One would assume that most of the sales of this particular book would be online.

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The Hindi translation was prepared by Manglesh Dabral, a well-known Hindi poet based in Delhi.10 The Urdu version was the work of Arjumand Ara, professor of Urdu at the University of Delhi. Numerous interviews with the translators provide fascinating insights into the process of translation. However, what might be of greatest interest here is the fact that probably for the first time ever Arundhati Roy had directly involved herself with the translation of her book to such an extent and in such a concerted manner. According to Rajkamal Prakashan, her publisher, she ‘played an active role in the process of its translation and has spent lengthy hours with the respective translators Manglesh Dabral and Arjumand Ara’ (Suman 2019).  Reporting on Roy’s involvement, Saket Suman, presumably quoting Roy, writes, She said that the translated works remain faithful to the original text and [were] translated with a keen attention to the reading experience that the novel presents in its original avatar. The process was not easy as the distinct difference between the literal language and the local street language that some of her characters speak became evident in the first few days of the process. There were also many words in the original text for which a suitable word wasn’t around in the language it was being translated into. It was a process of “negotiations”, not “contradictions” and a “protocol” was developed between the writer and the translator(s) so that “The Ministry” retained its original bliss. (2019)

One of the things visible to a scholar of translation at a glance is the striking difference in the translatorial treatment of the title by the Indian and the non-Indian language publishers/translators. Even most superficial scrutiny of the covers available on the internet reveals that all the titles in Roman script (and some others) carry the word ‘ministry’ in an almost unchanged form, with this and other words always placed in a similar manner and position on almost identical covers, the title in green and the name of the author in red. The four Indian editions as well as the Arabic carry also the name of the translator though in smaller font.11 Virtually all Western languages (and the Arabic) use the word ‘ministry’ in one and the same sense, ‘a government office or agency’ – hence ‘ministerstwo’ in Polish, ‘das ministerium’ in German, ‘le ministére’ in French, ‘el ministerio’ in Spanish, ‘ministerstvo’ in Czech, ‘vizārat’ in Arabic, ‘ministerstvo’ in Russian and so on. The three Indian languages I can read have something else in its place.12 In the Hindi

10 Incidentally, Manglesh Dabral is a great lover of modern Polish poetry, with special liking for Ewa Lipska, whose poems he is translating at the moment. 11 For more on the politics of translators’ names being placed/omitted from the book covers see Constantine (2019). 12 The Marathi language publisher, Mehta Publishing House, Pune, has opted for keeping the English title albeit using Marathi script (a version of Devanagari) probably for the sake of publicity. The name of the translator, Supriya Vakil, is mentioned on the cover.

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title we have gharānā—residence, home, abode, but also:  clan, fraternity, lineage. The Urdu title has mamlikat—domain, realm, state, kingdom. The Punjabi translator brings in darbār–court, a word loaded with meaning in Punjabi. Though darbār is a word common to all three languages under scrutiny, in Punjabi, besides denoting, in its quotidian meaning, ‘the seat of temporal power’ and ‘the space where the ruler interacts with his subjects’, it is also used to describe the place where the Holy Book of the Sikhs is enshrined hence may stand for ‘the court of the Guru/God’ (in both physical and the metaphysical sense) or even the Sikh temple.13 Moreover, all the three titles, the Hindi, Urdu and Punjabi, privilege not merely the agency dispensing happiness but also the space within which the dispensation takes place. Overtly innocuous the title is thus made to scathingly denounce the deceptive tranquillity of the private space of the everyday that is incessantly invaded by the politics of the public dominated by the predatory state and its agents. Probably for this reason, in none of these three language renderings is the English word ‘ministry’ conflated with a word denoting a ‘department of government’ or a ‘government agency’ or any of its activities, in fact, such an affiliation is consciously eschewed, though might be nonetheless inferred if one wishes to do so, and then probably as an ironic subtext. A distinct and possibly divergent rendering of the keyword of the title in the case where the target audience might be directly invested in the story and intimately familiar with the backdrop against which it is played calls for a pause. There can be no doubt that the title of the novel and how it is rendered in Hindi or Urdu were of greatest importance to the author playing the home field. Let us then take another look at the dictionary meaning of the vexatious word. A cursory search throws up a number of meanings beyond the obvious: Ministry (noun) 1. the  ministry for foreign affairs:  government, department,  department, bureau, agency, office. 2. he’s training for the ministry: holy orders, the priesthood, the cloth, the church; the job of being a (religious) leader. 3. the life and ministry of Jesus: teaching, preaching, evangelism. 4. Gladstone’s first ministry: period of office, term (of office), administration, incumbency. (Lexico.com 2019)

The English title of Arundhati Roy’s novel might partake of all these meanings but a translation of the title in a particular language considerably narrows the field. For reasons unknown the matter caused no concern to the author but in India, in

13 Punjabi, besides being the language spoken in Punjab, both in India and Pakistan (though written in different alphabets on different sides of the border), is also the language of the Adi Granth or the Holy Book of the Sikhs. Sikhs comprise around 60 % of the population of Indian Punjab.

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Indian languages. Though writing in English Roy is not devoid of the sensibilities of other Indian languages, be it Malayalam, Hindi or Urdu,14 and going by the care she took as to what the cover should look like, there is no doubt she wanted to shape the Hindi and Urdu titles to reflect her personal worldview as closely as possible. Manglesh Dabral confesses: ‘The title in itself had lot of conflicts. Arundhati liked the world “Gharana”15 after discussing over many such words like sultanate etc. for Hindi translation of the word ministry’.16  Arjuman Ara, in an interview conducted by Faiyaz Ahmad Wajeeh, sub-editor at The Wire Urdu, and available on YouTube, explains the matter in yet greater detail. Apparently, right till the end of her translatorial work the title she had for the novel was Bepānah śādmānī ki vizārat,17 with vizārat18 used here in its standard meaning of ‘ministry’ as ‘department of government’. However, while revising the final draft, she begun to think of all other possible connotations of the English term. These reflections, coupled with the conversations she had with Arundhati Roy, made her reconsider the title to include other shades of meaning present in the English word namely ‘ministry’ as ‘religious service’ (in the Christian sense of the word) and ‘the area where this religious service or any type of service is performed or conducted’19. Keeping this in mind, she then dropped vizārat as overburdened with mundane connotations and opted for the less politically loaded mamlikat or ‘realm, kingdom, abode; polity’, with the title now changed to Bepānah śādmānī kī mamlikat or The Realm of Endless Happiness. Both the Hindi and the Urdu renditions of the title resort to standard grammatical construction involving a postposition (kā/kī/ke), with the ‘ministry’ or gharānā/mamlikat appearing at the end. The Punjabi title, on the other hand, unexpectedly takes recourse to a Persianate construction belonging to Urdu by using enclitic izāfat20 to couple two nouns. As Schmidt explains, 1 4 Arundhati Roy speaks eloquently of her linguistic heritage in Sebald lecture (2018). 15 In Hindi ‘gharana’ denotes ‘family, kinship, lineage’ but also gives the sense of a well-rooted place. In another interview, Manglesh Dabral clarifies that the title was Arundhati’s idea, ‘There was a lot of confusion for the title of the book and finally the word Gharana was suggested by Arundhati herself instead of Ministry’ (http://www. millenniumpost.in/features/i-have-always-been-a-writer-never-an-activist-335725). 16 Unattributed article ‘Arundhati Roy Launches “Apaar Khushi Ka Gharana” and “Bepanah Shadmani Ki Mumlikat” ’ on IndiaDiarylibrary website 3.2.2019. 17 Bepanah – endless; śadmani – happiness, joy; vizārat – ministry; hence: Ministry of Endless Happiness. 18 Incidentally the word vizārat is used in the title of the Arabic translation. 19 In her Sebald lecture (2018) Roy, speaking of the role of religion in the pro-Hindi movement as part of nationalist discourse, calls Hinduism an ‘evangelical religion,’ and its activists ‘evangelists,’ using vocabulary from the Christian missionary discourse. 20 The enclitic izāfat – ‘increase,’ ‘addition’ is an enclitic short vowel, pronounced in Urdu as short e which joins two nouns or a noun and an adjective (Schmidt 1999: 271). The construction is used for denoting either possession (1) or description

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Often the possessive construction with izāfat and the possesstive with kā have different connotations. For example, hukūmat-e-pākistān is a proper noun: the Government of Pakistan in its official capacity; while pākistān kī hukūmat is a common noun and refers to the sitting government at the time of speaking. (1999: 271)

This is exactly the mechanism that is at work in the Punjabi translation of the title. The unexpected though totally legible grammatical construction allows to place the word darbār/‘court’ in the initial and thus primary position (replicating the positioning in the English title) while at the same time, through its very uniqueness, it draws the attention of the reader to this particular ‘court’ of ‘endless happiness’ or Darbār-i-khushīā͂ bepānah, posing an unuttered question which actually needs no answer: veritably, endless happiness can be found only at the court of the True Emperor21 or God. Further, this conjoining immediately brings to mind one of the most popular hymns from the Guru Granth Sahib, the Holy Book of the Sikhs, ‘lakh khusīā pātisāhīā je satguru nadir karei…’ (‘Abundant, princely happiness is one’s for the taking if the True Guru bestows His Glance of Grace…’) (GGS 44)22, invoking an involuntary, strong emotional response from the reader. Similar translatorial strategy was employed earlier for rendering into Punjabi the title of Roy’s first novel, The God of Small Things, through the use of the set phrase, Nitāniyaā͂ dā tān, or [The Place of] Refuge of the Helpless, as in the epithet of God, borrowed again from the Sikh storehouse of prayers, here the supplication called ardās.23 As the titles of the books in translation are often arrived at through a consensus between the author or her agent, the publisher, the editor and the translator, so though important, the titles do not give us much to go on as far as the translator’s agency is concerned. However, the case is totally different when we consider the text. Well-known and entrenched translators virtually shape the text according to their own dispositions as we have already seen earlier. Before going on to the specific examples, let me outline the methodology I  followed here. While comparing the texts  – the original and the

(2). In the first case, there are two nouns and the word preceding the izāfat is possessed by the word following it (like in our Punjabi title of the book); in the second, there are a noun and an adjective, with the word following the izāfat describing the word preceding it (e.g. Mug̲h̲al e āz̲am). 21 In the Sikh Holy Book God is invoked as sace pātiśāh or the True Emperor. 2 2 GGS stands for Guru Granth Sahib or the Holy Book of the Sikhs. The pagination is standardised across all editions, both printed and online, each page referred to as a͂ g or ‘limb, member, body’. 23 Ardās – request, supplication – is a prayer recited before undertaking a task, after completing a task, and on many other ritual occasions. The part from which the lines are taken runs thus: ‘Honour of the honourless, Power of the powerless, Shield of the shieldless, our true Parent, Vaheguru, the Wonderful Guru!’ (italics mine) (Singh 2019: 141).

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translations – I started with the reading of the original. A couple of months later I read the Polish translation – as if it were the original text – and referred to the English version whenever in doubt – trying first back translation and then turning to the source text. When the Hindi, the Urdu and the Punjabi texts were published, I  read them against each other, checked with the original and then looked up certain issues, brought up earlier by the Polish translation, to see how did the translators who shared the cultural habitat with the author fare vis-a-vis a translator from a different cultural milieu. It is not possible here to analyse all aspects of the comparative study so I restrict myself to just a few. However, while addressing the role of the translator and the power invested in him/her, I would like to keep in mind the following points: the pragmatics/logistics of translation (Levy 1967); the politics of translation (Spivak 2012); the ethics of translation – to what extent do the translators invest themselves in the translation and is it possible to translate ‘against the grain’ (Washbourne 2019b); and human factor and the translatorial habitus as factors defining the translated text (Simeoni 1998: 32). Let me start by quoting my favourite passage from Levy: From a teleological point of view, translation is a PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION: the objective of translating is to impart the knowledge of the original to the foreign reader. From the point of view of the working situation of the translator at any moment of his work (that is from pragmatic point of view) translating is a DECISION MAKING PROCESS: a series of a certain number of consecutive situations—moves, as in a game—situations imposing on the translator the necessity of choosing among a certain (and very often exactly definable) number of alternatives. (1967: 148) (capital letters after the original).

I find Levy’s definition, formulated sometime in the 1960s, very expedient in discussing translations of iconic texts of culture24 which are also works of fiction, globally read and globally translated, with translations birthed under most diverse of circumstances. The definition is tailor-made to allow for different translatorial moves be they related to strategies (e.g. some translators read the whole text and make notes before translating, others translate on-the-go25), language competence or even time constrains. In the case of the text under scrutiny, it is probably the

24 For translation and the iconic texts of culture, see Malmkaer, Şerban and Louwagie 2018. 25 I find the issue of extreme interest, myself strongly believing in reading and interiorizing the text before actually getting on with the translation. I find myself querying the translators at every opportunity and have enough data to state that most professional translators do not read the whole book beforehand (this group includes the Hungarian translator of The Ministry of Utmost Happiness) while those who choose their own texts to translate (and try to convince the publishers to publish them) always read them, often a number of times.

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cultural divide that created most of the translatorialy challenging situations. Here, I would like to discuss just one I have come across in the Polish text but which apparently has no parallels in texts in other languages. I call it an example of an error in translation brought about by the native-language specific background. Below are the same passages in English, Polish, Hindi, Urdu, Punjabi and Russian. One morning, while she read the newspaper aloud to him, the old imam, who clearly hadn’t been listening, asked—affecting a casual air—‘Is it true that even the Hindus among you are buried, not cremated?’ (Roy 2017a: 9) Pewnego ranka, kiedy czytała mu na głos gazetę, stary imam, który najwyraźniej nie słuchał, spytał, udając nonszalancję: – Czy to prawda, że u was nawet hidźry się grzebie, a nie kremuje? (Roy 2017b: 9) ek subah jab vah akhbār paṛhkar sunā rahī thī, būṛhe imām ne, jo bilkul bhī kān nahī͂ de rahe the, ittefākan pūchne kā dikhāvā kiyā, ‘kyā yah sac hai ki tum logõ mẽ hinduõ ko bhī dafnāyā jātā hai? jalāyā nahī͂ jātā?’ (Roy 2019b: 15) ek subah jab vah akhbār paḍhkar sunā rahī thī, būḍhe imām, jo ẕāhir he kuch nahīn sun rahe the, ravāravi main puch baiṭhe, “kya yah sac he ki tum jo hindu hote hain vah bhī dafnāye jāte hain, jalāe nahin jāte?” (Roy 2019a: 21) ik din ūh savkhate bol ke aḵẖbār paḍ rahī sī ate bedhiānā buzurg imān sun rihā sī. Imān ne sarsarī puchiā, “ih sac a’ai bhalã ki tuhādhe vich hindū hī murdiā͂ nū͂ dāg̲ den dī thā͂ dafnāū͂de ne?” (Roy 2019c: 3) Odnazhy utrom, kogda ona, kak obychno, chitala staromy imamy vslyh gazety, on, ochebidno, ne slyshaya, sprosił kak by mezhdy prochim:  “Istinno li, chto dazhe nekotorych induistov ne szhigayut, a horonyat v zemle?” (Roy 2017c: 13)

I stumbled upon this example while reading the Polish translation. Let me give you some idea of the context: one of the main protagonists – a strange loner living in a graveyard – is a hijra or a member of the transgender community (though we do not know this yet when we read the cited exchange as the word ‘hijra’ and the fact of the protagonist being one are introduced only in the next chapter, on page 12, while at this moment we are still on page 9). Obviously such a community would have people from different religious backgrounds, hence both Muslims (who bury their dead) and Hindus26 (who cremate them). In the passage quoted above both the transgender narrator (‘she’ of the text) and the interlocutor or the old imam (Muslim cleric) are Muslims, that we know from their names. The nosy question posed by the latter (who is a visiting outsider and not a hijra) tries to ascertain what do the hijras do with their dead and if those of them who are Hindu by birth are buried like the Muslims. The context holds no riddles for an Indian reader, probably an inquisitive English-language reader with access to Uncle Google either. Lack of any ambiguity is borne out by the three Indian-language translations as well. The native speakers with different language backgrounds (German, French, Italian, Hungarian, Russian and Chinese) at the sessions devoted 26 Hindu (pl. Hindus) is the follower of Hinduism.

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to the translation of this novel reported no significant divergence from the original in the translations published in their own languages (as attested also in the Russian translation quoted above). The Polish one seemed to be the one out. Why? Let me translate the offending Polish sentence, ‘Czy to prawda, że u was nawet hidźry się grzebie, a nie kremuje?’, back into English: ‘Is it true that among you even the hijras are buried and not cremated?’ The original English sentence, devoid of the word ‘hijra’, runs however thus, ‘Is it true that even the Hindus among you are buried, not cremated?’ (I have added the italics here to point out the shift in meaning.) The referent here is the community of hijras (the hijras), with Hindus being some of its members – this is the meaning offered by the original English sentence. Those Hindu members are buried as all the hijras are buried, irrespective of the fact that had they been non-hijra Hindus, they would have been cremated. The Polish sentence changes the meaning by actually stripping it of meaning altogether and making it gibberish. Addressing a Muslim hijra, who being a Muslim would have been buried in any case, it asks: ‘Is it true that among you even the hijras are buried and not cremated?’ The likehood of the translator having had a problem here is attested by the fact that probably troubled by the lack of clarity, he returned to the sentence at some later point and introduced the word ‘hijra’ when he came across it a couple of pages further into the text and made the connection. Why this confusion, given such a seemingly uncomplicated context? And here is the crux of the matter: in Polish an Indian (a citizen of India, a native of India, an inhabitant of India), irrespective of religious allegation, is called ‘Hindus’ with the capital H (like ‘Polak’ for a Pole, etc.). There is no separate word for a Hindu Indian (an Indian follower of Hinduism) to mark the difference between citizenship and religion, though some scholars of South Asia in Poland propose ‘Indus’ for ‘Indian’ and ‘hindus’ (with small ‘h’) for ‘Hindu’.27 The error in translation (probably by confusing ‘Hindu’ – plural ‘Hindus’ – in the original with ‘Hindus’ – ‘Indian’ due to Polish usage) made the sentence logically untenable though grammatically correct; but as this was not one of those sentences on which the narrative turns, it did not make much difference to the story. Probably even went unnoticed till a scholar of South Asia decided to read it. However, the inconsistency should have been detected by the editor especially as this book (like most of books from the exotic cultural milieu) has had a consultant responsible for straightening the cultural knots and providing footnotes for embedded foreign words or baffling contexts.28

27 Of late, Polish printed media began using ‘Indus’ instead of ‘Hindus’ for ‘Indian.’ Recently, I took part in a heated discussion on Facebook regarding this issue, finding myself defending the usage of ‘Indus’ vis-a-vis ‘Hindus’ from frenzied attacks by Polish language purists quoting published dictionaries – obviously not yet updated to the new and more sensitive usage. 28 The copyright page carries this information: ‘Indological Consultation and preparation of footnotes Krzysztof Iwanek.’

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Speaking of translating texts from different (read exotic) cultural milieus for global readership, in the case quoted by her, a text authored by a woman, Spivak (2012: 202), calling translation the ‘most intimate act of reading’, underlines the need for personal engagement and culturally sensitive approach, ‘The politics of translation from a non-European woman’s text too often suppresses this possibility (of bringing about love – MP) because the translator cannot engage with, or cares insufficiently for, the rhetoricity of the original’. The important phrases here are ‘lack of engagement’ and ‘insufficient care for (…) the rhetoricity of the original’. Arundhati Roy’s way with words coupled with her very extensive and involved engagement with the translators working on the Hindi and Urdu versions suggest the type of cultural/linguistic sensitivity Spivak considers essential for a good translator. Though Hindi and Urdu have different scripts and certain amount of vocabulary or usage which are specific to each language, they share the grammatical structure and at the spoken level there is almost no difference between the two.29 An Urdu text read out to a Hindi speaker (who cannot read it himself/herself because of the alphabet) or vice versa would be totally eligible to the listener, especially when the text in question is a piece of contemporary fiction. For this very reason it was an opportune turn of events that both the Hindi and the Urdu version were produced and published at the same time. It is quite likely that the author herself considered it an excellent opportunity to be able to interact, either together or within the same time frame, with the translators working with both language versions thus having a say in shaping her novel in those languages to her liking. With translations being prepared concurrently there would have been a limit to the amount of direct influence or borrowing, which happens when translations are published in succession, while at the same time there being a far reaching unity in rendering the key concepts, controversial passages or even the title.30 Indeed, in one of the interviews, Manglesh Dabral, the Hindi translator, besides acknowledging his love for the novel, reveals a fact supporting this assumption: Arundhati Roy’s magnum opus is one of my most favourite novels. Its intense poetic narrative overwhelms me whenever I open the book. So, it was my dream to translate her new novel The Ministry of Utmost Happiness into Hindi. Arundhati too was looking for someone to render her book into Hindi in a way that it could be an authentic version and serve as the basis for translations in other Indian languages. (Mathew 2018)

29 The closest analogy could be Serbian and Croatian, now using different scripts, once dubbed Serbo-Croatian, somewhat the way the lingua franca of North India, before splitting to Hindi and Urdu, was known as Hindustani. 30 The Urdu and the Hindi versions of the title use the same grammatical involving a postposition kā though Urdu could have used an izāfat construction like the one used by the Punjabi version, making it thus, Mamlikat e śādmānī bepānah. However, the translator and the editor/publisher decided for a more neutral construction.

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Such an approach, of creating a standard translation (in this case Hindi) to serve as a roadmap for other translators is not unheard off. First example that comes to my mind is Maureen Freely and her English rendering of Orhan Pamuk’s novel Snow. In a very insightful essay devoted to this venture she writes how on finishing the first draft, she handed it over to Pamuk and once he read it, they met to ‘argue our way through the draft, sentence by sentence’ as ‘we both knew that the English translation would form the basis for most translations into other languages (almost forty in number then, and now more than sixty)’ (Freely 2013: 120). From the same essay we know that this particular translation was Freely’s first translatorial venture undertaken on the specific behest of the author whom she knew since her childhood spent in Turkey. She writes: Before trying my hand at translation, I had worked for twenty-five years as a novelist, journalist, and university lecturer. (…) When he [Pamuk] wrote to me in 2002 to ask if I would consider translating Snow, my first response was terror. (2013: 118)

The three translators working on turning Roy’s book into Hindi, Urdu and Punjabi are not professional translators either. Manglesh Dabral is a poet with abiding interest in poetry written in obscure languages whose poems he reads in English and then recreates in Hindi. Arjuman Ara is a university professor who entered the field of translation through the back door by translating into Urdu the autobiography of the great British scholar of Urdu, Ralph Russell. She is also the moving force behind recently launched quarterly, Zamīn, devoted to world literature in translation and brought out in Hindi. Daljit Ami is primarily a journalist and a documentary filmmaker who has, however, translated a couple of books from English to Punjabi. Translating Roy’s novel was for him an act of love. A newspaper reports: Ami didn’t want Punjabi readers to be denied (…) the experience of reading Roy’s brilliant and layered work, once he had savoured the last page of the novel. For more than 18  months, Ami conversed, played, experimented, fought and lived with words to bring Darbar-I-Khushiyan to life and gift his readers an ‘original’ piece of work. “My readers must feel where it is coming from, it is imperative that emotions get translated. Translation is my language and I translate to gain something more, for I have got an opportunity to narrate to you the politics of the language,” shares Ami, whose work was released last month. (Parul 2020)

The venue and the moment chosen for the launch are telling and differ much from the venue where the Hindi and Urdu versions were launched, namely India International Centre in Delhi, on the occasion of the book fair. Pawanjot Kaur, a journalist with The Wire, begins her write-up thus: Every year at the beginning of November, progressive writers, thinkers and activists  – young and old  – come together at the ‘Mela Ghadari Babian Da’31 in this Punjab

31 ‘Festival of the Revolutionaries’ is a two-day fete (mela) organised to pay homage to the heroes of the Ghadar movement (see note below).

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city32 to pay homage to the revolutionaries who had laid down their lives as part of the Ghadar movement33 during India’s struggle for freedom. This year, the 28th ‘Mela Ghadari Babian Da’ commemorated the centennial year of the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre34 as well. The three-day event began with the release of the Punjabi translation of Arundhati Roy’s latest novel, The Ministry of Utmost Happiness, by author and journalist Daljit Ami. Members of the National Federation of Indian Women (NFIW)35 addressed the gathering after Roy spoke on her book. The NFIW also released a fact-finding report from Kashmir on state brutality against minors.36 (Kaur 2019)

I have chosen to quote this lengthy passage in its entirety to bring attention to the fact how highly localised was the context of this particular launch and how many footnotes were required to explicate it to a non-Indian, non-Punjabi readership here. Neither the choice of the venue nor the occasion were a coincidence. Roy, who has a long history of association with Punjabi poets famous for their dissident verses, chose to share the stage with women presenting a report on human rights violation in Kashmir.37 The author, the translator and the NFIW representatives had one thing in common: passionate commitment to upholding human rights in face of the often brutal force of the state and its agents, and speaking for those who cannot speak for themselves. Roy’s novel, born out of the author’s prescient disquiet about the situation in Kashmir, was an excellent fit. Its publication, two years before the Kashmir crack-down,38 was uncanny. Speaking of both Kashmir and her novel at the launch, Roy said:

3 2 Jalandhar. 33 Ghadar movement refers to the activities of Ghadar Party, founded in 1913 in USA, against the British government in India. Ghadar means ‘revolt,’ ‘rebellion.’ 34 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre took place on 13 April 1919, when Acting BrigadierGeneral Reginald Dyer ordered troops of the British Indian Army to fire into a crowd of unarmed civilians in Jallianwala Bagh (Garden) in Amritsar, Punjab, killing at least 400 people and injuring 1000. 35 National Federation of Indian Women – a woman’s organisation founded in 1954 with aim of fighting for women’s rights as part of human rights campaign. 36 With heavy deployment of Indian Army in Kashmir, minors (including young children) get often wounded with pallets shot to disperse crowds else are taken into custody. 37 For the interaction of Arundhati Roy and Daljit Ami on the occasion of the book launch, see the facebook of Tadbir Prakashan – on 31.10.2019 it streamed the event from the venue in Jalandhar. It is interesting to see how Daljit Ami speaks almost exclusively in Punjabi. Questions are posed in Punjabi with Arundhati Roy, who obviously understands the language, responding in Hindi and in English, this exchange providing an interesting example of a multiple language use, so common in India. 38 On 5 August 2019, the Government of India revoked the special status, or limited autonomy, granted under Article 370 of the Indian Constitution to Jammu

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The only truth you can tell about Kashmir is in fiction. Fiction is truth… There are many things you can’t say in non-fiction. For 30  years people have fought, negotiations have happened. The air is full of terror. You cannot tell this story through reports of journalism, human rights reports, end notes or foot notes. (…) More than half of the book is about Kashmir. The book wasn’t a product. It is a way for me to make sense of the world. An army officer’s light banter and conversations with the locals are laden with terror. When he jokes, they have to laugh. For them jokes are scary, mistakes and gifts are scary. These aren’t human rights violations. Only through fiction can this vulnerability be projected. (Banerjee 2019)

Daljit Ami’s professional profile prohibits us from viewing this particular event merely as a translator’s stunt aimed at ‘professional consecration’ (Bourdieu 1993) or a gimmick ‘to provide visibility and status (…) before a wide (…) audience’ (Constantine 2019: 95). Which brings us to the field of ethics. Washbourne identifies seven ethical ‘contact points’ related to translation:  choosing a text; translating a text; editing, revising, or retranslating a text; contracting a text; marketing a text; teaching a text and evaluating a text (Washbourne 2019:404-409). Ami’s role in choosing, translating and then promoting this particular text is indeed geared to promoting visibility of the translator and the text, however, only as a part of a larger agenda of his social/political activism. His choice of other books for translation, namely Amandeep Sandhu’s Roll of Honour (2012)39 and Nivedita Menon’s Seeing Like a Feminist (2012),40 the first, taking up the two fraught with contention issues of the traumatic events of 198441 and the sexual abuse of boys in an all-boys school, the other, providing a Punjabi reader with a contemporary feminist text couched in accessible language, speaks for itself. In a conversation I had a couple of years back with Piotr Sommer, the editor of Literatura na Świecie,42 the point he made in reference to texts published in his journal was that a text chosen for translation should enrich the target language and its literature by bringing in something that was not there before  – a new language, a new issue and a new viewpoint. Ami’s translation of Roy’s novel, as I see it, is not merely a translation of a fictional

3 9 40 41 42

and Kashmir. The government was dissolved, state legislative assembly disbanded, the territory divided into two entities under direct rule of the central government. Among the Indian government actions accompanying the revocation was the cutting off of communication lines in the Kashmir Valley, including the internet services, for over three months. Translated into Punjabi as Gawah de fanah hon to pahle (Sandhu 2014). Translated into Punjabi as Nārīvādī nazrīā: ik vacan to͂ bahu vacan (Menon 2018). The year 1984 marked the Indian Army attack on Golden Temple, the main Sikh Temple, in Amritsar and the anti-Sikh riots following the assassination of Indira Gandhi, the then prime minister of India. Literatura na Świecie/ Literature in the World is a monthly literary journal devoted to publishing world literature in translation, appearing since 1971 from Warsaw. Piotr Sommer, a well-known Polish poet and translator, is its long-time editor.

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narrative (which it is) but a means of introducing into Punjabi language and Punjabi literary discourse idioms (as manner of speech, choice of word, phrasing, new coinage, fresh way of looking at things, etc.) which were not there before, all through a struggle with a powerful text resisting efforts at translation. Discussing the link between translation and ethics Washborne touches also on a number of other issues, like translating texts of writers with whom one does not share the worldview. This might have been pertinent in case of Roy’s novel in view of its tumultuous reception discussed at the opening of this chapter, and indeed one of the book’s translators (who is a professional translator), in a private conversation, admitted to not liking it much. It is, however, impossible for me to judge if this had affected his translation in any way as I do not speak the language he translates into. Washborne writes, ‘[s]‌omething in the very nature of translation commands attention to ethics. Fundamentally, translation contends with the spectre of appropriation, the issue of who can speak for another, how translation may speak, and whether translation is a speaking for or a speaking with’ (2019: 399). In case of Ami and Roy, like with the other authors Ami chose to translate, there is no question of translating ‘against the grain’ or not ‘enlisting into an author’s worldview’ (Washbourne 2019: 401). The writer and the translator are here of the same mind, and the aim was not to usurp the voice, not to speak for but speak with. However, even if the worldviews of the author and the translator do concur, each is handcuffed to his/her own distinct idiolect. Drawing on my personal experience I strongly believe that ‘translatorial habitus’ built up of little block that make up the translator-as-(s)he-is leaves unmistakable traces on the translated text and is engendered by a variety of factors, definitely all those hinted at above, but also by some others that can be put down simply to personal preferences, and likes and dislikes. This is very clear, for example, in the linguistic choices of the Hindi and Urdu (and some cases also Punjabi) translators, where the languages share large part of the vocabulary and grammatical structure, hence at least in the choice of tenses in the translated sentences one would expect a high proportion of overlap, which is not the matter at all.43 Then, there is the case of choosing particular words. For example, in the title of the first chapter, ‘Where do old birds go to die?’ all three translators used three different words for ‘bird’ – the Hindi translator used parindā, the Urdu translator used ciṛiyā and the Punjabi translator, pãkherū. All the three words can be understood by the speakers of all three languages, with parindā being basically an Urdu word of Persian origin used also in Hindi and Punjabi, ciṛiyā a Hindi word used in Urdu and Punjabi (and the most common of all the three words above), with the collective noun pãkherū (derived from Sankrit pakṣalu – birds) appearing regionally in Hindi, Urdu and Punjabi. Thus all the three translators were driven here by their very subjective compulsions as each one of them could have used any of the three words without any loss of meaning. 43 Analysis of this aspect of the translations of the novel under scrutiny will be the subject of a separate article.

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Let us now take a look at a few words from the short prologue to see how different translators, both in India and elsewhere, dealt with them. In the very first two sentences there are two different words to describe one and the same creature: a flying fox and a bat. English (like Polish) dislikes repetition hence probably the switch. Both Hindi and Urdu translator employ one word to denote both  – cimgādaṛ – as Hindi and Urdu do not shy from repetition, in fact like it and often indulge in it. The Polish translator has ‘rudawka’ for ‘flying fox’ and ‘nietoperz’ for ‘bat’. I ran a spot test on a friend, herself a scholar of languages and a native speaker of Polish. I read to her the first two sentences aloud and asked, what is this ‘rudawka’. Without giving it a thought she immediately replied, ‘probably some sort of bird’ (the context would support it – there is a tree and those creatures are flying out of it). The English original suggesting, of course, something else, we ran a quick Google search and found out that ‘rudawka’ is actually a ‘fruit-eating bat’ and thus a perfect match for ‘flying fox’. The only problem is that few readers know that. At the translation workshop mentioned earlier both of us ran the same test on other participants. We found, for example, that in Russian, the word used, both for ‘flying fox’ and ‘bat’ here was ‘krylan’ rather than ‘letychaya mysh’/‘flying mouse’ which is the common word for bat apparently.44 A  quick search of the internet, however, reveals a precedent as this term, ‘krylan’, appears in the title of Gerald Durrell’s Russian translation of the book, Golden Bats and Pink Pigeons (1977) or, Zolotye krylany i rozoviye goluby (1981),45 where the exact name of the specimen in search of which the author travelled to Mauritius and other tropical islands needed to be preserved. This was not, however, the case of Durell’s Polish translation which used the more common ‘nietoperz’ (Durrell 2001). On the whole, however, it transpired that half of the published translations employed for ‘flying fox’ a word which might have been perfect from the dictionary point of view but was unfamiliar to our native speakers, all of them well read, all of them linguists, all of them engaged in translation. The question here would thus be, is it better to sin on the side of legibility or be a stickler for translatorial precision? The other example, from the same passage, has sparrow as its protagonist. Roy speaks how the sparrows and vultures had almost totally disappeared.46 The issue is well known and Roy’s casual mention of it here is actually a matter of global concern. Polish and other language versions like Italian, German and French had no problem with the word or the issue highlighted here. But Hindi and Urdu did. The commonness of sparrow in North India let to it being called simply ‘bird’/ciṛiyā. The Hindi translator used, therefore, the word gauraiyā which also denotes a

44 I would like to thank Dr. Guzel Strelkova, Moscow State University, and a participant at the Manfa workshop for her inputs. 45 Apparently, Gerald Durrell was one of much translated authors in Soviet Russia, with his books being very popular, especially with younger readers. 46 In August 2012, house sparrow was declared ‘the state bird’ of Delhi, though even before that, since 2010, 20th March was celebrated as the ‘sparrow day’.

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sparrow, but the choice of the Urdu translator who opted for gharelū ciṛiyā reflecting exactly the dictionary meaning of ‘house sparrow’ did not allow the issue to stand out enough. The adjective gharelū, derived from ghar or ‘house/home’, made the meaning drift to ‘domestic’ or ‘domesticated’, thus diluting the issue at the heart of the discourse – the disappearing of sparrows as a global catastrophe, or rather, a small manifestation of the global environmental crisis. The last example of this section again concerns an animal, this time ‘buffalo’. Buffalo is one the most important domestic animals in India and a source of milk. Hindi and Urdu had no problem with rendering it as bhaĩs. Polish translator has here ‘byk’ which denotes a bull (gender: masculine) and hence fares badly as a substitute in the English phrase, ‘milk-producing cow or buffalo’, even making allowance for the fact that there is no grammatical gender in English. To get out of the predicament the Polish translator rendered the phrase thus, ‘dająca mleko krowa czy też byk’, or if one translates this back, ‘a milk-producing cow else/or a bull’ substituting bull for buffalo and then detaching the bull from the cow as a member of the cohort of milkproducing animal, all in the service of grammatical gender, with ‘byk’ being in Polish male. For reasons unknown the translator did not opt for ‘bawół’ (male buffalo) or its female version ‘bawolica’, which would have gone perfectly with the feminine ‘krowa or ‘cow’and which was exactly how the Russian translator dealt with the issue using ‘buivolica’ (Roy 2017c: 9). This might be close to knit-picking but is none the less interesting. I close the presentation of the specific examples by analysing the last two sentences of the prologue seen by me (and all the discussants at the workshop) as not only the summing up of the preceding text but an introductory warning of what is in store for us next, both in the narrative world and the one around us. As Dwivedi (2017) points out, everything about the book ‘presents itself at first in extremities’: The title announces the maximum quantity of an elusive quality, happiness. But the first sight is of death, a cool grave reposing under a recently plucked rose. The dedication is made out “to the unconsoled,” the kind of beings who endure in bereavement, on the edge between their life and someone’s death. For whom the rhythms of life hardly stop and who in turn refuse to get with it. The first words are “at the magic hour when the sun has gone but the light has not,” a teetering cusp from which come revenants of missing creatures. (2017)

Yet another reviewer notes, ‘[e]‌ven the beginning paragraph in the prologue hints at an incipient social undercurrent’ (Larsen 2017). Seen thus, the closing sentence is important as well. Below are the translations of two last sentences in all four languages (the italics are mine). Surprisingly, the whole one page prologue is missing in the Punjabi edition of the book, which I put to publishing error,47 hence cannot cite it here. 47 I speak from experience. While overseeing the publication of one of books co-translated by me I found, to my utter horror, that the editor’s copy about to be

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Not many noticed the passing of the friendly old birds. There was so much else to look forward to. (Roy 2017a: 6) Nieliczni zauważyli kres tych przyjaznych starych ptaków. Tak wiele innych rzeczy zaprzątało uwagę.(Roy 2017b: 7) in būṛhe dostānā parindõ ke guzarne par bahut logõ ne gaur nahī͂ kiyā. gaur karne ke liye aur bhī bahut kuch thā. (Roy 2019a: 11) in meharbān qadim parindon ke jāne par kuch zyāda logon ne tavaju nahin dī. ākhir itnī cize thī jo āne vāle dinon main dekhne ko bāqi thī. (Roy 2019b: 17)

When I  read these sentences for the first time soon after the book came out, their phrasing and their subtext reminded me very strongly of lines from Adam Zagajewski’s poem ‘Apes’, on the Hindi translation of which I worked a couple of years back with Monika Browarczyk.48 Speaking of life under an oppressive regime (here communism), Zagajewski writes: ‘One day apes made their grab for power…/ Deeply involved in our other pursuits/We didn’t notice: someone read Aristotle/ someone else was wholly in love…./Apes, it seems, made their grab for power’49 (1991: 60). It is uncanny to see Roy express the same type of lack of concern for what is going on in almost the same words, ‘Not many noticed (…) There was so much else to look forward to’. When we look closely, there appears to be a slight difference between the Hindi and the Urdu translations, the Urdu rendition carrying the sense of ‘looking forward’ with the phrase ‘āne vāle dinõ maĩ’/‘in the coming days’ pointing to the future, while the Hindi, just like the Polish, merely indicating: there were so many other things claiming our attention. The Russian version says, ‘U lyudei tak mnogo drugih zabot’ (Roy 2017: 9) – ‘People have so many other chores’. The drifting of meaning of this particular sentence while travelling between languages is interesting – after all Roy did not write, ‘There were other things to claim their/people’s attention’, but, ‘There were many things to look forward to’. I would like to sum up by giving voice, in turn, to Arundhati Roy and two sets of reviewers, American and Indian. Roy speaks of the novel’s language; the readersas-reviewers, of the novel’s context. The first excerpt is from Roy’s lecture (Roy 2018) intriguingly titled ‘What is the Morally Appropriate Language in Which to Think and Write?’ in which she addresses issues such as English as her language of choice, her (and India’s) multilinguistic background and the coexistence of different idioms in her novel, subjects which are of great concern to the translators as

sent to the printer did not have one of the chapters. It was a pure stroke of luck that I was at the publisher’s and noticed the omission. 48 A volume of selected poems of Adam Zagajewski in Hindi translation under the title, Parayi sundarta main (Zagajewski 2011). 4 9 Polish text: ‘Pewnego dnia po władzę sięgnęły małpy/…Nie zauważyliśmy tego, gdyż pochłaniały nas/ inne zajęcia: ktoś czytał Arystotelesa/ ktoś inny przeżywał właśnie wielką miłość/…Wydaje się, że po władzę sięgnęły małpy.’ (Zagajewski 1990:60)

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well and which lead to the multiplications of paratexts in the form the footnotes, glossaries, prefaces and postscripts. Although I am tempted to say more about the pleasures and difficulties of translating The Ministry of Utmost Happiness  into other languages, more than the “post-writing” translations, it is the “pre-writing” translation that I want to talk about today. None of it came from an elaborate, pre-existing plan. I worked purely by instinct. It is only while preparing for this lecture that I began to really see how much it mattered to me to persuade languages to shift around, to make room for each other. (Roy 2018) (italics mine)

Complementing this statement is her answer to a question poised in a recent interview, ‘Some would call The Ministry of Utmost Happiness multilingual because of your experimentation with language. Even English appears in variants. Why?’ She said: In Delhi, we live in several languages every day. The Hindu right’s crusade of one language, one religion, one country—Hindi, Hindu, Hindustan—is a fake idea. We are not that. We are an ocean of a people with thousands of dialects and languages; you can’t boil down our myriad cultural and actual vocabulary into a simple sludge. The Ministry of Utmost Happiness has been translated into around 51 languages. The Hindi translator had to retain the Urdu idiom in the parts about Anjum and old Delhi. Then there are places where you use different idioms of Hindi. Many characters in the book don’t speak the same language and often translate things inventively for each other. (Dasti 2019) (italics mine)

However, besides her linguistic choices, Arundhati Roy’s singular way of telling her fragmented, ‘shattered story’ (Roy 2017a 442) resulted apparently in a narrative some found baffling. One blogger, who gives the novel a high 4/5, nonetheless writes, The Ministry of Utmost Happiness is no easy read and I had to take several breaks to digest the quantity of information put forth in each page. Not that I have any regrets about reading the novel because this is like a quick bullet list of the present political developments in India. The book almost feels like a student’s revision notes and the author fails to go deep into any of the issues. The reader has to be satisfied with the superficial layers or resort to research on their own to expand the various points fleetingly mentioned in the book. (…) Since so many real-life characters were fictionalized in the book, often I found myself stumbling over the actual fictional characters and trying to google them out in case I was less informed of the political scenario—This was a frustrating task indeed. (Susan 2017)

Another reviewer was totally disoriented with ‘too many shifts of focus, too many sub-plots and digressions, too much chopping from one time to another, too many characters, often with several names apiece’. She says it was, ‘just too hard to keep track: it’s terribly un-PC, I know, but at times I found myself longing for The Raj Quartet’50 (McLeod 2017). 50 This word ‘longing’ catapults us right into the middle of the debate about ‘exoticism’ and the need to gently ‘orientalize’ the East to facilitate the consumption of

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The reaction of the Indian reader is diametrically different. I inwardly wished, for a moment, while reading this book, that I were not an Indian. That I didn’t know and feel the wounds Roy blatantly evokes, that are forever etched on the flesh of my motherland. That I didn’t know what happens across the country— in Kerala, or Andhra Pradesh, Kashmir, or Delhi; that I could read Roy’s second outing as just what it is, a Great Story. But, perhaps, if I weren’t an Indian, I wouldn’t have been able to smell the dusty streets of Old Delhi which flow with blood on Eid, nor recognise the Himalayan forests, with its Chinars on fire, nor understand fully how Tilo felt when she had to flee the horrific ordeals of Kashmir only to end up feeling utterly out of place in the capital’s diplomatic enclave. (Saxena 2017)

Writing of Orhan Pamuk’s novel The Museum of Innocence, published in 2008, a couple of years after Pamuk received the Noble Prize for Literature (2006), so at a time when it would have been correct to surmise that his novel would be widely translated hence could (should?) have been written with the global reader in mind, Freely writes how the novel which its original language reader could ‘understand in the most visceral way’ (italics mine), resolutely refused ‘the marginalizing labels accorded to their history and culture by most of the rest of the world, and most particularly in the West’. In other words, it refused ‘to see itself through Western eyes’ (this and the preceding two quotes, Freely 2013: 117). Roy’s English language, India-centred novel refused that as well though its translated versions did to some extent, through the translatorial act, mediate it for the non-English reader, a reader aware of the fact that the novel was written in a language not his/her own and hence with lesser expectation of what the novel should have been like, less entitled to expect Roy to cater to his/her own tastes than some of those reading it in the original.

Notes/Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge the inputs of the scholars who took part in the Modern Hindi Translation Workshop at Manfa, Hungary, July–August 2019, where we discussed the Hindi translation of the novel and compared it with other published translations in the native languages of the participants – German, French, Italian, Russian, Hungarian, Polish, and Chinese. I would like to thank Prof. Maria Negyesi of ELTE University, Budapest, for inviting Greskovits Endre, the Hungarian translator of The Ministry of Utmost Happiness, to share with us the secrets of the translator’s craft.

a non-Western text, viewed here as ‘oriental.’ The Raj Quartet is a quintessential text of the last days of British rule in India viewed through a nostalgic lens. It was turned into a TV series, Jewel in the Crown, called so after the first volume of the quartet.

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References Acocella, Joan. 2017. “Arundhati Roy Returns to Fiction in Fury.” The New Yorker, 29.5.2017. Banerjee, Aparna. 2019. “Kashmir Resonates on Day 1 of Mela Ghadri Babeyan Da.” The Tribune, 1.11.2019. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1993. The Field of Cultural Production. New York: Columbia University Press. Burgess, Anthony. 1962. A Clockwork Orange. London: William Heinemann. Chaudhury, Shoma. 2012. “The Shape of the Beast” shomachaudhury.com 2.10.2012. Constantine, Peter. 2019. “Professionalisation of Literary Translation and the Publishing Market.” In: Washbourne, Kelly and Van Wyke, Ben (eds.). The Routledge Handbook of Literary Translation. Taylor and Francis. Kindle Edition. Dasti, Muhammad Sheeraz. 2019. “Interview: “I’m Seditious at Heart”—Arundhati Roy” Dawn 18.8.2019. Dillet, Benois and Puri, Tara. 2016. The Political Space of Art. London: Rowman and Littlefield International. Durrell, Gerald. 1977. Golden Bats and Pink Pigeons. London: Simmon & Schuster. Durrell, Gerald. 1981. Zolotye krylany i rozoviye goluby, transl. by. Moskva: Izdet. Durrell, Gerald. 2001. Różowe gołębie i złote nietoperze, transl. by. Ewa Horodyska. Warszawa: Prószyński i spółka. Dwivedi, Divya. 2017. “The Poetic Realism of Arundhati Roy”. The Wire, 2.7.2017. Esther, Allen and Bernofsky, Susan (eds.). 2013. In Translation: Translators on Their Work and What It Means. New York: Columbia University Press. Felicelli, Anita. 2017. “Outside Language and Power: The Mastery of Arundhati Roy’s “The Ministry of Utmost Happiness.” Los Angeles Review of Books, 21.7.2017. Freely, Maureen. 2013 “Misreading Orhan Pamuk.” In: Esther, Allen and Bernofsky, Susan (eds.). In Translation: Translators on Their Work and What It Means. New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 117–126. Ghoshal, Somak 2017 “Book Review: The Ministry of Utmost Happiness by Arundhati Roy.” huffingtonpost.in, 2.6.2017. Guru Granth Sahib, online edition. Heller, Joseph. 1961. Catch-22. New York: Simon & Schuster. Interview with David Eldridge “First look at The Ministry of Utmost Happiness by Arundhati Roy.” penguin.co.uk, 25.1.2017, accessed 19.1.2020. Iwanek, Krzysztof. 2017. “The God of Great Things, India’s Arundhati Roy Returns With a New Novel.” The Diplomat, 6.7.2017.

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Kabir, Altaf. 2018. “The Ministry of Utmost Happiness: A Look into the Underbelly of Modern India.” www.brownpundits.com, 24.4.2018, accessed 21.1.2020. Kaur, Pawanjot. 2019 “In Punjab, the Legacy of the Ghadar Movement Continues to Inspire the Fight for Justice.” The Wire, 26.12.2019. Khair, Tabish. 2017. “What Magic Reveals, What Magic Hides.” The Hindu, 10.6.2017. Kuruvilla, Elizabeth. 2017a. “Why a Mysterious Delhi Tomb Adorns the Cover of Arundhati Roy’s New Book.” Mint, 26.5.2017. Kuruvilla, Elizabeth. 2017b. “A Visual Translation of Arundhati Roy’s Novel.” Mint, 26.5.2017. Larson, Charles. 2017. “Review: Arundhati Roy’s “The Ministry of Utmost Happiness”.” Counterpunch, 16.7.2017, access 20.1.2020. Levy, Jiry. 1967. “Translation as a Decision Process.” In: Jiry Levy (ed.) To Honor Roman Jakobson: Essays on the Occasion of His Seventieth Birthday II. The Hague: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 1171–1182. Lexico.com. 2019. Thesaurus. Oxford University Press. Malmkær, Kirsten, Şerban, Adriana and Louwagie, Fransiska (eds.). 2018. Key Cultural Texts in Translation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. McLeod, Marion. 2017. “Arundhati Roy and the Misery of That Difficult Second Novel.” The Spinoff, 12.7.2017. Menon, Nivedita. 2012. Seeing Like a Feminist. New Delhi: Penguin India. Menon, Nivedita. 2018. Nārīvādī nazrīā: ik vacan tõ bahu vacan, transl. into Punkabi by Daljeet Ami of Seeing Like a Feminist. Kharar: Tadbir Prakashan. Mistry, Rohinton. 1995. A Fine Balance. London: Faber and Faber. Mistry, Rohinton. 2014. Delikatna równowaga, transl. into Polish by Krzysztof Umiński, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Drzewo Babel. Mathew, Ashlin. 2018. “Being a Poet Helped Me Decode Such Narration: Manglesh Dabral on Translating Arundhati Roy’s Book.” National Herald, 15.4.2018. McLeod, Marion. 2017. “Arundhati Roy and the Misery of That Difficult Second Novel.” Spinoff, 12.7.2017, accessed 24.1.2020. Pamuk, Orhan. 2004. Snow, transl. into English by Maureen Freely. London: Faber and Faber. Pamuk, Orhan. 2009. The Museum of Innocence, transl. into English by Maureen Freely. London: Faber and Faber. Parul, 5.2.2020, “Translation is my language.” The Indian Express. Accessed online 10.02.2020.

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Pinto, Jerry. 2017. “Arundhati Roy’s ‘The Ministry of Utmost Happiness’ Is a Hideous, Beautiful Story.” Mint, 1.6.2017. Proulx, Anne. 1993. The Shipping News. New York, London, Toronto, Sydney: Scribner. Proulx, Anne. 2018. Kroniki portowe, transl. into Polish by Jędrzej Polak. Poznań: Wydawnictwo Poznańskie. Rooney, Kathleen. 2017. “The Ministry of Utmost Happiness: Arundhati Roy’s Long-Awaited New Novel Is Grand and Perplexing.” The Chicago Tribune, 19.6.2017. Roy, Arundhati. 1997. The God of Small Things. New Delhi: IndiaInk. Roy, Arundhati. 2001. The Algebra of Infinite Justice. New Delhi: Penguin India. Roy, Arundhati. 2007. Nitāniyaā͂ dā tān, Punjabi transl. of The God of Small Things by Parminder Singh and Ravinder. Chandigarh: Unistar Books Pvt. Ltd. Singh Mohalli. Roy, Arundhati 2011 Broken Republic New Delhi: Penguin Random House. Roy, Arundhati. 2014. Indie rozdarte, Polish translation of Broken Republic by Krzysztof Umiński and Marta Umińska. Warszawa: Wielka Litera. Roy, Arundhati. 2017a. The Ministry of Utmost Happiness. New Delhi: Penguin Random House. Roy, Arundhati. 2017b. Ministerstwo Niezrównanego Szczęścia, Polish transl. of The Ministry of Utmost Happiness by Jerzy Łoziński. Poznań: Zysk i Sp. Roy, Arundhati. 2017c. Ministerstvo naivysshaego schastia, Russian transl. of The Ministry of Utmost Happiness by Aleksander Anvarev Izdatelctvo. Moscow: ACT. Roy, Arundhati. 2018. “What is the Morally Appropriate Language in Which to Think and Write?” W. G. Sebald Lecture on Literary Translation, the British Centre for Literary Translation and the National Centre for Writing; the British Library, 5.6.2018. Roy, Arundhati. 2019a. Bepānah shādmānī kī mamlikat, Urdu transl. of The Ministry of Utmost Happiness by Arjumand Ara, New Delhi: Rajkamal Prakashan. Roy, Arundhati. 2019b. Apār khushī kā gharānā, Hindi transl. of The Ministry of Utmost Happiness by Manglesh Dabral, New Delhi: Rajkamal Prakashan. Roy, Arundhati. 2019c. Darbār-i-khushīā͂ bepānah, Punjabi transl. of The Ministry of Utmost Happiness by Daljeet Ami, Kharar: Tadbir Prakashan. Roy, Arundhati. 2020. Da minisṭrī āf aṭmost happiness, Marathi tr. of The Ministry of Utmost Happiness by Supriya Vakil. Pune: Mehta Publishing House. Sandhu, Amandeep. 2012. Roll of Honour. New Delhi: Rupa Publications. Sandhu, Amandeep. 2014. Gawah de fanah hon to pahle. Mohali: Unistar Books Pvt Ltd.

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Sareen, Pallavi. 2019. “Ministry of Utmost Happiness by Arundhati Roy.” Hooked to books, 10.5.2019. Saxena, Aakanksha 2017 “The Ministry of Utmost Happiness is a Sublime Metaphor for India’s Political Climate” Verve Magazine 1.07.2017. Schmidt, Ruth Laila. 1999. Urdu: An Essential Grammar London and New York: Routledge. Scott, Paul. 2007. The Raj Quartet, Vol 1 and 2. London: Everyman’s Library. Sehgal, Parul. 2017. “Arundhati Roy’s Fascinating Mess.” The Atlantic, July/ August 2017. Simeoni, Daniel. 1998. “The Pivotal Status of the Translator’s Habitus.” Target 10 (1): 1–39. Singh, Deepali. 2010. “The Cover Story.” The Telegraph, 5.9.2010. Singh, Nikky-Gurinder Kaur. 2019. The Hymns of the Sikh Gurus. New Delhi: Penguin. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravarty. 2012. “The Politics of Translation.” In: Gayatri Chakravarty Spivak. Outside in the Teaching Machine.New York and London: Routledge, first Indian reprint, 2012, pp. 200–225. Suman, Saket. 2019. “Of longing, Companionship and Homecoming: Arundhati Roy to Launch ‘The Ministry…’ in Hindi and Urdu.” N.newsd, 31.1.2019. Susan, Resh. 2017. “The Ministry of Utmost Happiness by Arundhati Roy – Is Happiness Relative?” The Book Satchel (blog), 14.7.2017, accessed 25.1.2020. Truax, Anne. 1997. “A Silver Thimble in Her Fist.” New York Times, 25.5.1997. Umiński, Krzysztof. 2017. “Wyklęty lud Delhi.” dwutygodnik.com 10/2017. Washbourne, Kelly. 2019. “Ethics.” In: Washbourne, Kelly and Van Wyke, Ben (eds.) The Routledge Handbook of Literary Translation. London: Taylor and Francis. Kindle Edition. Washbourne, Kelly and Van Wyke, Ben (eds.). 2019. The Routledge Handbook of Literary Translation. London: Taylor and Francis. Kindle Edition. Zagajewski, Adam. 1990. “Płótno.” Zeszyty Literackie, Paryż. Zagajewski, Adam. 1991. Canvas, transl. by Renata Gorczynski. New York: Benjamin Ivry, and C. K. Williams, Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Zagajewski, Adam. 2011. Parayī sundartā mẽ, transl. into Hindi by Monika Browarczyk and Maria Puri. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi.

Ganna Tashchenko

Gender Identity in Translation (Based on The Hours by M. Cunningham) Abstract: The chapter focuses on the construction of gender identity in the EnglishUkrainian translation. It considers gender as a concept which is both constructed by the society and transforms the social standards owing to its fluidity. The research is aimed at exploring manifestations of the search for gender identity in the style of a literary text. The identities of the characters depicted by M. Cunningham are shattered due to the expectations imposed on the three women by the society which determines who they are supposed to be and who they are allowed to love. The entire novel is closely interwoven with the post-modern tradition characteristic of the literary work by Virginia Woolf, which served as a source of inspiration for The Hours. A complex interplay of ideas, intertextual connections, and imagery employed by M. Cunningham in his novel emphasizes the fragmentation of the true selves the women are unable to piece together. Keywords: Gender, identity, source text, style, target text

1 Introduction Translation Studies has recently given considerable attention to the concept of identity, including that of the author, the character(s), the translator, and the text itself. Gender identity is the key element of M. Cunningham’s novel The Hours, a story of three women written by a man and translated by a woman. The term “gender” was introduced in order to distinguish biological sex from gender as a sociological concept. It was readily adopted for the purposes of linguistics and later Translation Studies. Currently, gender is defined as follows: ‘A system of values, standards and characteristics of male and female behavior, lifestyle and way of thinking, roles and relations of men and women acquired by them as personalities in the course of socialization as modeled by the society and supported by social institutions which is primarily determined by the social, political and cultural context and fixes the image of a man or a woman depending on their gender’ (Melnyk 2004).

The researcher emphasizes the relevance of the society as a factor forming the gender identity of a person. The way gender is constructed heavily depends on the social standards and even stereotypes imposed by a specific society in a specific period of time. Identity of a person always presupposes a certain degree of adaptation to social requirements; however, realization and fulfillment of one’s gender identity is crucial for personal fulfillment as a whole.

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2 Theoretical Background The Hours by M. Cunningham describes three women connected through time and a book – Mrs Dalloway written by Virginia Woolf, read by Laura Brown, and lived by Clarissa Vaughn. They live in different eras but all of their stories are marked by the gap between who they are and who they wish to be, between what is socially acceptable and what they desire deep down. The issue of sexuality is of supreme importance since the women’s identities and the conflicts they face with themselves as well as with their spouses, partners, and children are deeply rooted in the social constraints. Artistic richness and semantic complexity of the book impose a need for insightful and creative steps of the translator when constructing the images of the three women in the Ukrainian-language text. Any literary translation requires analyzing the relevance of various syntactic, linguistic, and sometimes even morphological units engaged in creating the general imagery of the text and, at a lower level, the images of individual characters. M.  Cunningham resorts to numerous intertextual connections – as the entire novel is a reference to a work by Virginia Woolf – and extensive imagery reflecting the internal search for identity. Woolf’s modernist writing remains very genuine for understanding the fluidity and multiplicity of life becoming, a concept that Cunningham continues, imitates, paraphrases, and partially transforms by extending and improvising on Woolf’s exploration of the fragmentation, complexity, and multiple nature of the self (Schiff 2004: 371).

Reproduction of the stylistic devices employed by the author plays an important part in the successful reconstruction of the images of the three characters. One more specific feature of The Hours is fragmented syntax, which not only follows the post-modern tradition but also accentuates the inner struggles of the women. Various repetitions allow for emphasizing the principal emotions and events in the lives of the characters. Thus, the gender-related dimension of the Translation Studies opens a new direction of research dealing with the depiction of the male and female images in various historical, cultural, and other contexts. Notably, the novel is mostly based on representation of thoughts and inner conflicts of the characters which, nevertheless, give a broad perspective of the crucial events in their respective stories. Their daily routines are virtually omitted to be superseded by the memories and illusions haunting them every single day. ‘The Hours” explores the efforts of these three women to negotiate their everyday, domestic roles as mother, wife, hostess and/or carer, with their personal aspirations and sense of self’ (Sim 2005: 61).

3 Results and Discussion Virginia Woolf, a writer who will be remembered for decades if not centuries to come; Laura Brown, a housewife and a mother infinitely loved by her husband; and

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Clarissa Vaughn, a successful professional living happily with her partner – seemingly living lives some would only dream of, they are desperately trying to bring together their fragmented identities to no avail. One of them will commit suicide, another one will attempt and fail, but the third woman will not only remain alive, she will live a full life having thrown off the shackles of all the stories but her own. Having ended up in a heterosexual marriage, Virginia Woolf and Laura Brown go against their true nature, losing themselves in the family life that places them under social roles they have to perform. Going down the stairs in the morning, Laura is trying to remind herself that it is her family, her husband and her son waiting for her, loving her and still: …she is again possessed (it seems to be getting worse) by a dreamlike feeling, as if she is standing in the wings, about to go onstage and perform in a play for which she is not appropriately dressed, and for which she has not adequately rehearsed (Cunningham). Її знову охоплює якесь каламутне, схоже на сон відчуття (щось сильніше), наче вона стоїть за лаштунками й ось-ось мусить вийти на кін грати у виставі, не маючи підхожого одягу й не вивчивши як слід ролі (Cunningham 2017: 48).

The metaphor constructed by the author beautifully emphasizes the theatrical nature of Laura’s entire life, her split identity that she cannot piece together because of all the constraints and frames the society makes her fit in. The translator recreates the idea of a performance. But the expression “go onstage” in English is reproduced as “вийти на кін” in Ukrainian which provides for combining the metaphor of theater and the metaphor of gambling. Though it was never the author’s intention to compare Laura’s life to gaming, the translator’s decision does not distort the general message as the woman was putting her own integrity at stake every time she was coming to play the role of a mother and wife. Virginia Woolf is also losing her true self in her marriage. Being a writer, she creates herself for others to see and to accept. Conquered by the mental disorder, she is trying to remember who she is, who she used to be, consciously or subconsciously understanding that her shattered identity results from the social canons she has to comply with but is unwilling to. This is the idea M. Cunningham meant to convey. Nevertheless, the translator distorts it by rendering the word “impersonation” by “перевтілення.” This suggests to the reader that Virginia seeks a transformation, but, in fact, she aspires to find herself, to become whole in order to fight the pain. …she pauses to remember herself. She has learned over the years that sanity involves a certain measure of impersonation… (Cunningham). …Вірджинія зупиняється, щоб пригадати, хто вона така. Багаторічний досвід навчив її, що від жінки при здоровому розумі обставини вимагають певного перевтілення… (Cunningham 2017: 86).

However, the overwhelming suffering she experiences is consuming her, making Virginia afraid even of her own reflection in the mirror. She refuses to think that

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it is her, feeling that there is a different person watching her out of the glass, someone scary, someone who embodies all the pain and sorrow she feels. Laura Brown can hardly tolerate her own reality as well. Her marriage was not one of her choice. The society seems to have made this decision for her. Laura used to be a quiet young girl, an avid reader who desired nothing else. But then Dan returned from the war, he courted her, and eventually made a proposal: …the bookworm, the foreign looking one with the dark, close-set eyes and the Roman nose, who had never been sought after or cherished; who had always been left alone, to read. What could she say but yes? How could she deny a handsome, good-hearted boy, practically a member of the family, who had come back from the dead? (Cunningham). Його обраниця була страшенною книголюбкою, схожою на іноземку, з темними, близько посадженими очима та римським носом. Коло неї ніхто ніколи не смалив халявок і не впадав; зазвичай її залишали на самоті  – читати. Хіба могла вона відповісти «ні»? Хіба могла відмовити симпатичному добросердному хлопцеві, майже членові родини, воскреслому з мертвих? (Cunningham 2017: 46).

The rhetorical questions vividly describe the reasons for the step she was forced to take. The epithets referring to Laura (“foreign looking” – “схожа на іноземку,” “dark, close-set eyes”  – “темні, близько посаджені очі,” and “Roman nose”  – “римський ніс”) and Dan (“handsome”  – “симпатичний” and “good-hearted”  – “добросердний”) are meant to show the drastic difference between their characters and even appearances. The imagery of the message seems to be asking: How could Laura desire a better match? Here, the translator employs the strategy of domestication, using a Ukrainian-language idiom “смалити халявки” to reproduce neutral vocabulary of the original (“sought after”), even the stylistically elevated epithet “cherished” is rendered as diminutive “впадати.” The cleavage between true identities of Laura and Virginia is caused by the fact that they cannot live their sexuality the way they choose. The moments when they discover their lesbian inclinations are the moments when they feel whole. For Virginia that kiss with Vanessa was something she could not fully comprehend, and still, it was love, the love she was seeking in London, the love she wanted to create when writing. The kiss was innocent  — innocent enough  — but it was also full of something not unlike what Virginia wants from London, from life; it was full of a love complex and ravenous, ancient, neither this nor that (Cunningham). То був невинний, досить пристойний поцілунок, але Вірджинія вбачала в ньому те, чого й не сподівалася від Лондона та життя взагалі; у тому взаємному дотику губ була любов, складна й ненаситна, задавнена та незбагненна (Cunningham 2017: 204).

Her perception of love is described with numerous epithets, which allow the reader to see how acute that new feeling was for Virginia, how much she was

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willing to surrender to it (“complex” – “складна,” “ravenous” – “ненаситна,” and “ancient”  – “задавнена”). The translator decides to extend the range of epithets rendering “neither this nor that” as “незбагненна,” which becomes an integral part of the metaphorical description of love by M. Cunningham. Laura’s lesbian identity is revealed in her kiss with her neighbor, Kitty. That single kiss lingers in her mind, showing Laura a different self, something she has been looking for a long time, something she thought was missing. The imagery of the original is preserved in the target text, though slightly transformed, possibly to sound more natural in Ukrainian. Laura desires Kitty. She desires her force, her brisk and cheerful disappointment, the shifting pink-gold lights of her secret self and the crisp, shampooed depths of her hair (Cunningham). Лору тягне до Кітті, до її жвавого, енергійного відчаю, до її миготливого золотисто-рожевого внутрішнього сяйва та духмяної прошампуненої глибини її волосся (Cunningham 2017: 142).

The figurative description of this feeling which is so new to Laura abounds with epithets which seem to refer to Kitty, but indirectly they characterize Laura herself. This new attraction starts a new stage for her, and Laura discovers a part of her identity which remained hidden from her; however, it does not change anything in her life. Laura is still chained to her role. The only moment in time free of obligations or responsibilities, that Laura lives, is in a hotel room she hires for a couple of hours. Virginia’s escape is London. She feels that this city, its atmosphere, and its buzzing streets can help her fight her demons, fight the pain that possesses her. One day Virginia’s demons will become stronger than her, one day she will commit suicide, but at the moment her husband agreed to move back to London, she believed in healing, in living a long life as her real self. Laura’s shattered identity also led to an attempt to commit suicide and when it failed, she left her family, marking the entire destiny of her son, Richard. Unwilling to remain alive, she lives when her husband, her younger daughter, and eventually her son have died: Here she is, then; the woman of wrath and sorrow, of pathos, of dazzling charm; the woman in love with death; the victim and torturer who haunted Richard’s work. Here, right here in this room, is the beloved; the traitor (Cunningham). Ось вона  – жінка нестримного смутку й чуттєвої, сліпучої краси; жінка, залюблена в смерть; примарна мучениця й мучителька з Річардових творів. Ось вона, у цій вітальні, – улюблениця і зрадниця (Cunningham 2017: 219).

The author constructs the image of this woman through metaphors and epithets which, interestingly, depict a positive, rather than a negative character. He does not reproach her, possibly, once again accentuating that the reasons for her actions are rooted in the roles the society imposed, depriving Laura of the choices that were only hers to make. She never meant to hurt Richard and still did because she

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was unable to love him the way a mother should, because she did not manage to give him the confidence he needed. Therefore, her image is full of contradictions, reflecting both the suffering that she experienced and the suffering she inflicted. Reproducing the author’s message, the translator seeks to preserve the imagery of the source text, even enhancing it with a certain play of words uncharacteristic of the original: the antithesis of the “victim” and “torturer” is rendered on the basis of the cognate words “мучениця й мучителька” that perfectly matches the original idea. At the same time, the translation partially erases the parallel structures the message starts from, intermingling the images that were supposed to be as distinct as only possible:  “woman of wrath and sorrow, of pathos, of dazzling charm” is transformed into “жінка нестримного смутку й чуттєвої, сліпучої краси.” Unlike Virginia and Laura carrying the burden of the social norm that leads them to suicide or an attempt of it, Clarissa is different – she is an ordinary woman in love with life. She is free to live her sexuality but is still torn apart by the two worlds: being in a relationship with her lesbian partner and still attracted to her former lover Richard. Nevertheless, life is her greatest love. Clarissa is acutely aware of her desire to live, even though she has to arrange a party for Richard who is dying of AIDS. The author describes her feelings using vivid imagery, which is partially neutralized in translation: What a thrill, what a shock, to be alive on a morning in June, prosperous, almost scandalously privileged, with a simple errand to run (Cunningham). Яка ж насолода, яке ж диво – бути такого червневого ранку живою, успішною, майже непристойно заможною і бігти в дрібних справах (Cunningham 2017: 16).

The epithets such as “prosperous” (“успішна”) and “scandalously privileged” (“не пристойно заможна”) are rendered rather successfully, actualizing an image of a self-sufficient, confident woman who has no reason to be unhappy. However, the means of verbalizing Clarissa’s emotions chosen by the author are muffled to a certain degree, since “thrill” and “shock” are translated as “насолода” and “диво.” Thus, the intense feeling of excitement and an acute anticipation of a new day are replaced by the idea of peace and enjoyment. Repetitions, which are so widespread in M. Cunnigham’s work, only strengthen the image of a woman who appreciates life above everything else as well as form powerful antitheses as illustrated in the following example: She loves Richard, she thinks of him constantly, but she perhaps loves the day slightly more. She loves West Tenth Street on an ordinary summer morning (Cunningham). Вона ж любить Річарда, повсякчас думає про нього, але, мабуть, цей день любить усе ж таки трохи більше. Любить оцю Західну Десяту вулицю в розпал звичайного літнього дня (Cunningham 2017: 17).

The verb “love” is repeated to reveal a striking contrast:  her love for Richard is strong; however, her love of the streets of her city, of this, of every day prevails.

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Still, she feels that she is supposed to be somewhere else, to be with someone else. She lives with Sally, a partner of her own choice. At the same time she cannot stop thinking about a life she might have had with Richard. However, when Richard has passed away, deep inside Clarissa realizes that a certain period in her life is over. For the better or for the worse, she loses that second self. There is no one to call her Mrs. Dalloway again. Richard gave her that name and, without knowing, a certain destiny. However, after his death, Clarissa’s identity is restored. Unlike, Virginia and Laura, who have never actually regained their integrity, Clarissa is left to live her life as her true self whatever she is going to make of it. And here she is, herself, Clarissa, not Mrs. Dalloway any more; there is no one now to call her that. Here she is with another hour before her (Cunningham). А ось і вона сама  – Кларисса, а не місіс Делловей. Більше нема кому так її називати. Ось вона… і ще одна година попереду (Cunningham 2017: 219).

In translation, unlike many other instances, this idea is expressed in a fragmented structure “Here she is with another hour before her” is rendered as “Ось вона… і ще одна година попереду.” Punctuation in the target text explicitly shows the long way ahead of her.

4 Conclusion As can be seen, artistic images of the three characters attempting to bring together pieces of their lost selves and to regain new ones are constructed through extensive use of metaphors, epithets, antitheses, and other stylistic devices quite successfully recreated in translation. Identity for the author is always fluid and never absolute, repetitions as well as broken syntax are employed to describe the inner fragmentation of the women’s perception of themselves and their respective realities. Possibly, due to the language asymmetry or personal preferences of the translator, the syntactic specifics of the target text follows the original less closely. On the other hand, it may be due to the fact that postmodernism as a literary movement with its characteristic techniques has not developed in Ukraine to the extent it did in the Western countries. Consequently, intertextual connections and the nature of The Hours as a collage are not taken account of to a sufficient degree.

References Cunningham, Michael. 2017. Godyny [The Hours]. Kharkiv: Vivat Publishing. (in Ukrainian). Cunningham, Michael. The Hours. Accessed October 15, 2019. https://kupdf.net/ download/cunningham-michael-the-hours_5985909edc0d609206300d19_pdf. Melnyk, Тetyana. 2004. G`ender yak nauka ta navchal`na dy`scy`plina. [Gender as a Science and Academic Discipline]. In Foundations of the Gender Theory. Kyiv: K.I.C Publishing, 10–29. (in Ukrainian).

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Schiff, James. 2004. Rewriting Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway: Homage, Sexual Identity, and the Single-Day Novel by Cunningham, Lippincott, and Lanchester. In Critique. In Studies in Contemporary Fiction, 45: 363–82. Sim, Lorraine. 2005. No ‘Ordinary Day’: The Hours, Virginia Woolf and Everyday Life. In Hecate, 31.1: 60–70.

Neslihan Kansu Yetkiner and Ilgın Aktener

Imagology in Rendering Çalıkuşu: A Micro-Level Approach Abstract: Drawing on the relationship between translation and imagology, the overarching aim of the present study is to explore the means through which translation serves as an image-building tool with ideological and cross-cultural implications. In doing this, this study descriptively examines the Turkish author Reşat Nuri Güntekin’s novel Çalıkuşu (1922/2014) and its translation into English entitled The Autobiography of a Turkish Girl (1949) by the British army general Sir Wyndham Deedes. The aim is to investigate Deedes’ microlevel translation choices, and their contribution to the building of an image of Turkishness to be presented to the British audience. The aforementioned translation is deemed fruitful for such examination in that, as pointed out by Deedes (1951), it is the first Turkish novel to be translated into English. The examination particularly focuses on several categories, namely, proper names, code-switching and loanwords, addressing terms, idiomatic expression, and culture-specific references. Deedes furnishes the image of Turkishness in a hybrid text in which he emphasizes the geographic, ontological, and linguistic in-betweenness of the story. Consequently, this study establishes that a new hybridity constructed by the translator in the translated text, which encapsulates both the familiar and the alien, foregrounds the concept of translation as engagement rather than transfer or encounter, and paves the way for a liminal perspective instead of holding rigid domestication versus foreignization binarism. Keywords: Çalıkuşu, hybrid translation strategies, imagology, literary translation, microlevel translation choices

1 Introduction The productive merging of imagology with Translation Studies is among the recent innovative contributions in the area of comparative literature, in which the act of translation opens up new vistas as blockage, propagation, and (re)creation of national images (Flynn, Leerssen and van Doorslaer 2015; Kuran Burçoğlu 2000; Tymoczko 1999). Every act of translation encapsulates cross-cultural negotiations, implying a covert power struggle which is: […] not simply an act of faithful reproduction but, rather, a deliberate and conscious act of selection, assemblage, structuration, and fabrication – and even, in some cases, of falsification, refusal of information, counterfeiting, and the creation of secret codes (Tymoczko and Gentzler 2002:xxi).

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In this respect, it would be shallow to define translation as an act of transfer between two languages. On the contrary, being aware of the fact that every text is anchored in a specific culture, which metonymically attached to wider culturespecific issues, one can immediately assume that act of translation can open up new avenues for the building of cross-cultural perceptions and images, and for transferring attitudes, stereotypes, and prejudices that create the discursive representation of one’s own imagology, and that of others. Hence, the driving force behind this study is the idea that terms or issues with source text-specific functions and connotations would constitute a critical index on national characterization and decision-making process on representation. Accordingly, drawing on the concept of imagology (Beller 2007; Leerssen 2007), this study aims to shed light on the relationship between translation studies and imagology, underlining the ways in which image-building through translation transcends ideological borderlines, and thus encapsulates cross-cultural negotiations. With this purpose, this descriptive study examines an original and its English translation, namely Reşat Nuri Güntekin’s Çalıkuşu (1922/2014), which presents a critical picture of the last days of the Ottoman Empire and its national image, and The Autobiography of a Turkish Girl (1949) by Sir Wyndham Deedes. As the first novel translated into English in the aftermath of the establishment of Turkish Republic, The Autobiography of a Turkish Girl can be considered to exemplify a view of the East seen through the lenses of the West. Written by Reşat Nuri Güntekin, an author of the earliest period of Republic of Turkey, Çalıkuşu (‘Wren’) was published in the early 1920s, a decade which witnessed the fall of Ottoman Empire and the establishment of a secular, modern, and forward-looking Turkish Republic. The novel tells the story of Feride, a young, energetic Turkish girl, who differs from the archetype of the Turkish woman of the time. Upon learning that her cousin/fiancé Kamran cheated on her, Feride flees her aunt’s house in İstanbul and embarks on an adventure as an idealistic teacher in Anatolia, against the backdrop of the declining Empire. Interlingually translated into English under the title The Autobiography of a Turkish Girl in 1949 by Sir Wyndham Deedes, a British army general known for his sympathy for and interest in Turkey, its language and its people (Presland 1942; Deedes 1951), the novel is important for several reasons. As mentioned above, the novel was written during the final years of the Ottoman Empire immediately preceding the establishment of the Turkish Republic. In this sense, it is a transition period novel, offering a glimpse of the collapsing Ottoman Empire’s endemic social, political, bureaucratic, and educational problems, and foreshadowing the establishment of a young and secular republic and its reforms by legitimatizing their necessity through reflection on the aforementioned problems. Crucial to this process, Feride represents the soon-to-be-proclaimed secular Turkish Republic, and also is a means of creating a new Turkish image that is modern and Western. Feride also serves for the new Republic, as an influential literary figure, and an idealistic teacher willing to experience desolate and poverty-stricken places in Anatolia. Not surprisingly, this figure, thus, became a role

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model in the task of building the new nation, and ensuring the success of its educational and social reforms. She encouraged young, idealistic, republican women to go “to remote corners of Anatolia to educate the poor and disenfranchised children of the young nation” (Seyhan 2008: 67) during the early years of the Turkish Republic. Apart from being a pioneering novel in terms of opening a passage to Ottoman/ Turkish culture, an oriental world, for the British reader through Deedes’ translation, it has a resonance across modern Turkish society as evident in its intersemiotic translations such as various TV series and movie adaptations. Among these is a popular TV series adaptation, dated 2013 and 2014, which indicates the continuing significance of the novel. Within this framework, this study delves into the textual-linguistic norms evident in the translation of Çalıkuşu into English. The aim is to elucidate the interpretive choices at work in dealing with culture-specific issues, which are critical during the image-building process of the Turkish nation within British context. In examining Deedes’ microchoices, that is, translation choices and strategies contributing to image building, the present study comparatively analyzes the two works on lexical and sentence levels through different categories; namely, proper names, code-switching and loanwords, terms of addressing, idiomatic expression, and culture-specific references.

2 Proper Names Being a major source of challenge in literary translation, proper names can function as culture markers which index different properties, ranging from sex, age, and geographical origin to connotative meanings and word play. As for the translation of proper names, our analyses display the prevalence of hybrid translation strategies which results in a kind of pluralized, hybridized text. In Turkish source text, for instance, there is retention of Turkish referents, such as proper names with a clear transliteration process for adaptation to English phonologic and orthographic convention, as in Tab. 1. Tab. 1: Translation of Turkish proper names Source Text

Target Text

Besime (p. 18)

Besimé (p. 18)

Necmiye (p. 25)

Nejmiye (p. 25)

Cafer (p. 175)

Jafer (p. 175)

Şahmeran (p. 177)

Shahmeran (p. 159)

French proper names adapted into Turkish through naturalization are converted into their original French versions as illustrated in Tab. 2.

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Tab. 2: Translation of French proper names Source Text

Target Text

Mişel (p. 41)

Michelle (p. 41)

Piyer For (p. 227)

Pierre Fort (p. 204)

Kristiyan (p. 227)

Christine (p. 204)

Tab. 3: Translation of geographical names Source Text

Target Text

Kozyatağı (p. 30)

Kozyatak (p. 29)

Tekirdağı (p. 364)

Tekirdagi (p. 319)

İzmir (p. 302)

Smyrna (p. 267)

Hastalar Tepesi (p. 267)

Hastalar tepesi/Invalids’ Hill (p. 239)

The plot of the novel is constructed within distinct Turkish settings, with images of İstanbul symbolizing civilized and advanced lifestyle in Ottoman territory, on the one hand, and small, isolated villages of Asia Minor, where villagers suffered from poor living conditions, on the other. The existence of varying degrees of Turkishness, supported by strong cultural Turkish motifs, shows the translator’s intention to highlight otherness of the source culture. Geographical names (names of cities, districts, and villages) are either adopted to English orthography or replaced by an existing English version. As the third option, Deedes occasionally employs direct translation, providing both the original and translated versions in the target text (Tab. 3).

3 Code-Switching and Loanwords The French-educated protagonist Feride frequently codeswitches in her diary entries and interactions with her classmates and family members. Code-switching between Turkish and French, together with the use of the French loanwords in the novel reflect varied language uses prevalent in early 20th-century Ottoman society. A  European model was considered as the solution to massive military losses, and economic regression from the 17th century onward, when the Ottoman rulers launched a Westernization process. Inevitably, Western languages, but mainly French, became substantive as the linguistics means of advancement. French, for instance, was the most frequent source of loan words after Arabic and Persian (Büyükkantarcıoğlu 2004). Auer (1988) proposes that code-switching can

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be analyzed as a contextualization cue through which listeners could infer social meanings in conversations. In this respect, code-switching is used as a language choice to negotiate interpersonal and social relationships. Feride is generally reluctant to speak French, but as it is considered as an indication of European style education, she is able to use it to acquire a symbolic power in the immediate and wider social context in the novel. Hybrid translation strategies are prevalent in the treatment of French words during the production of target text. For instance, some French words/phrases are transliterated to adapt to Turkish orthography and phonology, and these are translated into proper French words in English target text as in “La Dam O Kamelya” (p.  53 in ST)  – “La Dame aux Caméllias” (p.  53 in TT), “bonjur” (p.  91 in ST)  – “bonjour” (p. 83 in TT). However, some are directly translated into English (“Şoko” (p. 47 in ST) – “chocolate” (p. 45 in TT) and “römark” (p. 50 in ST) – “brief observation” (p. 47 in TT)). In addition, some italicized French words in the source text are reproduced in the English target text, as in the case of “souvenir de’amour” (p. 54 in ST) – “souvenir de’amour” (p. 51 in TT).

4 Forms of Address Forms of address signal the relationship between language and society, mirroring how interlocutors in a specific society place the addressee on the matrix of power and solidarity. This is because they provide sociolinguistic information on the formality of the situation, social relationship between the interactants, the politeness or deference that they extend to each other (Taavitsainen and Jucker 2003; Braun 1988). Forms of address in the Turkish context are idiosyncratically different, and culturally discrepant, and thus, constitute a problematic area in translation. The novel provides a rich selection of deferential or solidarity indicating forms of address, consisting of honorific titles (Hanımefendi, Hanım, Bey, and Küçükhanım); occupational titles (doktor hanım/bey, Gülmisal Kalfa); kinship terms for nonrelatives (abla, amca, dayı, and bacı); endearment terms (canım, cicim, and kuzum); and diminutives (anneciğim as in anne+DIM+1st person possessive suffix) (Bayyurt and Bayraktaroğlu 2001). Mixed pattern in translation strategies is pervasive. Some of these (Abla, bey, efendi, and hanım) are glossed at the beginning of the target text, and are additionally paraphrased within the text itself. The translator prefers to retain the cultural markedness of forms of address in different ways, as in hanim, bey, and their derivatives hanimefendi and beyefendi. These words are either translated through an orthographic adaptation, as separate words as in “hanımefendi” (p. 103 in ST) – “Hanim Efendi” (p. 93 in TT), or through purely French loanwords, as in “hanımefendi” (p. 103 in ST) – “Madame” (p. 93 in TT). Attached to a proper name or occupational titles, hanım, bey, and efendi usually take the posterior position, which are commonly retained in the target text, such as Rejep Efendi, Feride Hanim, and Doctor Bey.

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5 Idiomatic Expressions Translating idioms and fixed expressions from one language into another requires a good command of both languages and cultures. The main problems that idiomatic expressions pose in translation relate to two main areas:  the ability to recognize and interpret an idiom correctly; and the difficulties involved in rendering the various aspects of meaning that an idiom or a fixed expression conveys into the target language. (Baker 1992: 68)

Regarding the proper transference of idioms, strategies are situated along the axes of faithful and free translation. While the former refers to faithfully transferring the meaning of the original and preservation of the original style, at the risk of producing an unconventional text, the latter reproduces the matter without the manner, that is, the content without the form, of the original. In this respect, faithfulness brings about some bizarre-sounding expressions in English. For instance, “ayağının tozuyla mektebe gider” (p. 134 in ST) is literally translated as “She goes to the school with the dust on her shoes” (p. 121 in TT). This idiom actually underlines the agent’s speed in the accomplishment of successive actions. Similarly, many idiomatic expressions are rendered literally with no concern for connotative meaning as in “dut yemiş bülbüle dönmek” (p. 236 in ST) – “to turn into a nightingale that had eaten its fill of mulberries” (p. 211 in TT), “aynı yastığa baş koyduk” (p. 142 in ST) “we laid our heads on the same pillow” (p. 129 in TT), and “Ben bunları yutar mıyım?” (p. 205 in ST) – “Do you think I am going to swallow all that?” (p. 184 in TT). In contrast to these examples, Deedes occasionally attempts to produce effects for the English reader as close as possible to those obtained for the readers of the Turkish text through free translation, by seeking cultural equivalence, as in “Dil otu mu yedin?” (p. 254 in ST) – “What have you done to make yourself so entertaining?” (p. 227-in TT), “Yüzün sapsarı” (p. 199 in ST) – “Your face is as white as a sheet” (p. 199 in TT), “mal meydanda ne hacet?” (p.  208 in ST)  – “The evil’s there for all to see” (p.  187 in TT), and “size az yüz verdiler mi astarını istersiniz” (p. 236 in ST) – “Give you an inch and you will take an ell” (p. 211 in TT). This hybridity moves from one extreme point to another so marginally that we can observe both faithful and free translation of an expression on the same page. For instance “Dinsizin hakkından imansız gelir” (p. 223 in ST) is translated as “A swine like that needs bullying” (p. 200 in TT), reflecting a parallel idiomatic expression in English. Towards the end of the page, the same statement is rendered through a literal interpretation of the words “It takes a man without religion to deal with a man without faith” (p.200 in TT).

6 Culture-Specific References Venuti (2000: 468) proposes that “translation never communicates in an untroubled fashion because the translator negotiates the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text.” Cultural references in source texts are, indeed, among the

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common problems of non-equivalence in a translation activity, which problematize not only the notion of equivalence for the culture-specific items, but also the issue of the cultural competence. Tab. 4: Translation methods in culture-specific items Source Text

Target Text

Nargile (p. 134)

Narghile (hubble-bubble) (p. 121)

Zemzem (p. 201)

Pour water from Mecca (p. 177)

Kalpak (p. 10)

Astrakhan fez (p. 11)

Tambur (p. 250)

Guitar (p. 223)

Tekke (p. 201)

A chapel of dervishes (p. 181)

In the English version, for the translation of culture-specific items, Deedes cultivates an experimentalism through retention of hybridity as a global translation strategy. Analyses revealed two main strategies to render these culture-bound references into the target text:  transcription and substitution. Words denoting objects and concepts of source culture, and thus totally alien to another, are either transliterated and italicized within the target text, as with “yashmak” (p. 9) and “raki” (p. 223), or explained outside of the text as in the form of an extratextual gloss (Abla, bey, çarşaf, efendi, Fatma, hadji, hanim, imam, kalfa, muhtar, narghilé, pasha, and yoghourt). In addition to these, also employed within the text are different kinds of substitution strategies imposing strong domestication, ranging from adaptation, paraphrasing, and functional equivalents to approximation, as illustrated in Tab. 4. Substitution, the replacement of marked source-text cultural elements by unmarked cultural target elements, results in reduced local colors in the target text.

7 Conclusion Drawing on the concept of translation as an effective medium of engagement, rather than transfer, this study foregrounds the idea that source text–specific functions and connotations serve a critical index on national characterization and decision-making process on representation. The general outlook of translation methods employed by the translator hints at a growing source text-orientation, consequently a massive employment of “foreign,” ranging from extratextual and intratextual gloss, and italicized referents, to transliteration, loanwords, calque, and repetition, all of which highlight new horizons of transcultural representations. Deedes’ overall translation strategy, however, holds a position which cannot be located between the axes of foreignization and domestication, because he produces a hybrid text projecting the geographic, ontological, and linguistic in-betweenness of the task of translation. With an implicit,

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wider range of commitment to the principle and solidarity in the representation of “other” across different cultural zones, Deedes is reflective of the situation in the late Ottoman Empire as both the insider and outsider of an exotic story, rather than putting strong emphasis upon the disparities and differences between East and West. More explicitly, as a member of Anglophone society and an experienced observer of Ottoman culture, his hybrid locus is well represented by his merging of translation strategies and textual and cultural norms in his translated text. This gives rise to a liminal perspective, the coexistence of familiar and the alien in the translated text. Consequently, the act of translation transforms into a cultural interaction, a new hybrid construct that embraces both the known and unknown.

References Auer, Peter. 1988. “A Conversation Analytic Approach to Code-Switching.” In Codeswitching: Anthropological and Sociolinguistic Perspectives, edited by Monica Heller. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 187–213. Baker, Mona. 1992. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation. London and New York: Routledge. Bayyurt, Yasemin and Arın Bayraktaroğlu. 2001. “The Use of Pronouns and Terms of Address in Turkish Service Encounters.” In Linguistic Politeness Across Boundaries: The Case of Greek and Turkish, edited by Arın Bayraktaroğlu and Maria Sifianou. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing, 209–40. Beller, Manfred. 2007. “Perception, Image, Imagology.” In Imagology: The Cultural Construction and Literary Representation of National Characters: A Critical Survey, edited by Mafred Beller and Joep Leersen. Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, 3–16. Braun, Friederike. 1988. Terms of Address: Problems of Patterns and Usage in Various Languages and Cultures. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Büyükkantarcıoğlu, Nalan. 2004. “Sociolinguistic Analysis of English in Turkey.” International Journal of Sociology of Language 165:5–32. Deedes, Wyndham. 1951. “Foreword.” In Afternoon Sun, written by Reşat Nuri Güntekin. London: William Heineman, v–vii. Flynn, Peter, Leerssen, Joep and Luc van Doorslaer. 2015. “On Translated Images, Stereotypes and Disciplines.” In Interconnecting Translation Studies and Imagology, edited by Luc van Doorslaer, Peter Flynn and Joep Leerssen. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing, 1–18. Güntekin, Reşat Nuri. 1949. The Autobiography of a Turkish Girl [translated by Wyndham Deedes]. London and Melbourne: Allen and Unwin. Güntekin, Reşat Nuri. 1922/2014. Çalıkuşu. İstanbul: İnkılap Kitabevi.

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Kuran Burçoğlu, Nedret. 2000. “At the Crossroads of Translation Studies and Imagology.” In Translation in Context: Selected Contributions From the EST Congress, Granada, 1998, edited by Andrew Chesterman, Natividad Gallardo San Salvador and Yves Gambier. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing, 143–52. Leerssen, Joep. 2007. “Imagology: History and Methods.” In Imagology: The Cultural Construction and Literary Representation of National Characters: A Critical Survey, edited by Mafred Beller and Joep Leersen. Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, 17–32. Presland, John. 1942. Deedes Bey: A Study of Sir Wyndham Deedes, 1882–1923. Bassingstoke: Macmillan. Seyhan, Azade. 2008. Tales of Crossed Destinies: The Modern Turkish Novel in Comparative Context. New York: MLA. Taavitsainen, Irma and Andreas Jucker. 2003. Diachronic Perspectives on Address Term Systems. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Tymoczko, Maria. 1999. Translation in a Postcolonial Context. Early Irish Literature in English Translation. Manchester: St. Jerome. Tymoczko, Maria and Edwin Gentzler. 2002. “Introduction.” In Translation and Power, edited by Maria Tymoczko and Edwin Gentzler, Amherst and Boston: University of Massachusetts Press, xi–xxviii. Venuti, Lawrence. 2000. The Translation Studies Reader. London and New York: Routledge.

Yulia Naniak

Modifications in the Perception of the Characters in the Ukrainian and Anglophone Translations of J.W. Goethe’s Faust Abstract: The chapter is aimed at providing examples and analysis of modifications in the perception of the characters that were introduced in the Ukrainian, British and American translations of J. W. Goethe’s tragedy Faust. The process of translation of this work into target cultures and its publication was influenced by different cultural, religious and sociopolitical factors in these countries. This also includes censorship of the translations to fit into the social and political norms in the countries they lived and self-censorship of the translators because of their aesthetic and religious beliefs. Keywords: Translation, Translation Studies, individualization, Goethe, Faust

This chapter is focused on the modifications in the perception of the characters of J.  W. Goethe’s Faust in Ukrainian (translated by Ivan Franko, Dmytro Zahul, Mykola Ulezko and Mykola Lukash) and Anglophone (by Anna Swanwick, Charles Brooks, Bayard Taylor, George Priest and Anthony Klein) translations. The reason for the analysed changes introduced to the speech was mainly the censorship to the translations because of the social and political norms in the target countries and self-censorship of the translators because of their aesthetic and religious beliefs.. Censorship was manifested differently in Ukrainian and Anglophone translations of the tragedy by J.  W. Goethe’s Faust. In Ukraine, censorship had mainly political reasons and came from authorities, excluding self-censorship (except for aesthetic preferences of D. Zahul, who foregrounded his principles in his works on stylistics). It was focused on the usage of Ukrainian language, ideological persecutions of translators and desire to avoid spreading of “dangerous ideas” (as considered by the Soviet authorities). One of the side effects of political censorship was the fact that M. Ulezko had to write in the foreword to his translation that any kinds of religious beliefs expressed in the tragedy are result of the folklore superstitions and his contemporary, modern people could not believe this kind of things (it was presupposed by the fact that atheism was an important part of communist ideology). This preface is difficult to analyse today, because in addition to analysing the work itself, the translator sharply criticized all religious movements, especially Christian ones. We cannot say for sure whether this was really the views of M. Ulezkо, or this article was necessary for the translation to be published under the historical and political conditions of that time. In the preface to the translation of Faust by M. Ulezko, M. Johansen wrote about another translation by D. Zahul:

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The attempt of Zahul is on the verge between the new time and the old. Zahul carefully avoided “gross”, “ugly” places of the original, making sharp placed softer because of the usage of the Ukrainian literary language’ … This translation is ‘in agreement with the tone of the old Ukrainian literature, liberal, bourgeois, a bit revolutionary and a little bit atheistic (Йогансен, 1926: 4).

In Britain, self-censorship on religious reasons was quite popular in the early translations of the tragedy (translators omitted the abstracts and ideas that were considered not proper for a religious person, and those who were the first to render all the fragments even had to set themselves right with the critics), and in the USA translation of famous writings was viewed as the political project of national development. Although USA proclaims itself a religious country, no traces of religious censorship were found, even though some translations were performed by priests. The first fragment to illustrate the modifications introduced to the character via translation is the scene where Valentine is dying while expressing his last will and his thoughts about the latest events to Gretchen, his sister, in the street in front of the crowd of citizens. Valentine is a minor character, but he still plays an important role in the culmination of the tragedy. His actions and words are the reason Faust escapes from the city and does not know about the tragic fate of Gretchen, who is left and condemned by everyone and who remains alone with a great burden on her soul – she blames herself for the murder of her mother who did not wake up after a sleepy potion, now even in the death of her brother, and later in the murder of her child. Valentine exacerbates Gretchen’s heartache, because before his death he strongly condemns her and even wishes her to suffer for the rest of her earthy live: Mein Gretchen, sieh! du bist noch jung, Bist gar noch nicht gescheit genung, Machst deine Sachen schlecht. Ich sag dir’s im Vertrauen nur: Du bist doch nun einmal eine Hur, So sei’s auch eben recht! (Goethe, 1969: 240).

Such acute public accusations of his previously beloved sister are caused by the fact that Valentin’s thinking is deeply patriarchal. Despite the rigid patriarchy of his beliefs and deep internal condemnation, accusation of Gretchen in front of the whole city and talking to her as if she is a pariah seems strange, because not long before he fought for her honour. It is by this account of events that, by putting such words into Valentine’s mouth, J. W. Goethe individualizes his speech on the cognitive level (since he used pejorative lexis about Gretchen to show his perception of social and moral norms). When rendering this passage, all translators convey the content of what is said, but at the same time change the image of Valentine. A. Swanwick transforms the image at the communicative level:  ‘Since thou the path of shame dost tread,/Tread it with right good will!’ (Goethe, 1928: 151).

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The word “shame” means ‘the uncomfortable feeling of being guilty and embarrassed that you have when you have done smth wrong and you feel that the people will no longer respect you’ (Longman, 2000: 1310), that is, this replica is simply transformed, but at the communicative level, the intensity of the speech changes dramatically: firstly, according to what he pronounced in this translation, Gretchen only embarked on the path of shame and should follow it on good will, but as she only started to follow that path, she may come down from it. Secondly, the charge is no longer as acute as the original, and therefore its effect will be weaker. Other translators have not dramatically transformed this image. M. Lukash slightly reinforced this phrase with sarcasm: ‘То хоч на всю блуди!’ (‘Then fornicate at full length’) (Гете, 2013: 167). Valentine’s wholeheartedly believes that he is the victim in that situation as he viewed his sister’s honour as his own achievement and virtue. Da du dich sprachst der Ehre los, Gabst mir den schwersten Herzensstoß. Ich gehe durch den Todesschlaf Zu Gott ein als Soldat und brav.(Stirbt.) (Goethe, 1969: 241).

It is understandable from this replica how he perceives himself in the world: the self-characterization of “brav”, which means ‘brave, glorious’ (Duden, 2003: 313). In addition, it can be understood that the character is a religious person and believes in God. In the translation of D. Zahul this element is lost, and one cannot make conclusions about Valentine’s religious beliefs: ‘Я в гріб і честь свою беру,/І чесним вояком умру (I take my honour to my grave, and I die a fair soldier)’ (Ґете, 1919: 113), that is, individualization at the cognitive level is lost (concerning religious beliefs). In contrast, M. Lukash reinforces the individualization of this element: ‘До тебе, Вишній Судія,/Іду солдатом чесним я (To you, Highest Judge,/I am going as an honest soldier)’. “Вишній Судія” is a solemn address to the deity, the comment “ecclesiastical” in the Ukrainian comprehensive dictionary indicates that this is a characteristic appeal to God in Christianity (CУM: v.1, 544). Nevertheless, Valentine’s perception of Christianity is quite specific; he is firmly convinced that for the murder of a sinner he would fall straight to Heaven: Könnt ich dir nur an den dürren Leib, Du schändlich kupplerisches Weib! Da hofft ich aller meiner Sünden Vergebung reiche Maß zu finde» (Goethe, 1969: 241)

‘Could I but reach thy wither’d frame,/Thou wretched beldame, void of shame!/Full measure I might hope to win/Of pardon then for every sin’ (Goethe, 1928: 152) – A. Swanwick reproduces this phrase, maintaining individualization at the cognitive and pragmatic levels, as well as the attitude of forgiveness (Longman, 2000: 1696). ‘Коб ще я міг тя в руки взяти,/Звіднице, скіпо ти проклята,/Чей, заслужив би я зза того/Гріхів всіх прощення у бога! (If only I could take you in my hand,/Procuress,

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you are cursed damnly,/I would deserve because of that/The forgiveness of all sins from God!)’ (Ґете, 1978: 317).

I. Franko weakens the pragmatic aspect of the phrase because he does not fully reproduce the threat, and therefore the intent of Valentine is transformed. D. Zahul follows I. Franko’s example, although the intent here is more transparent: ‘Коли б я міг лиш до кісток твоїх,/Огидна бабо-зводнице, добутись,/То думаю, що всіх гріхів своїх/Я міг би зараз тут позбутись (If only I could get to your bones,/ Disgusting old pimp,/So I  think of all my sins/I could get rid of right now)’ (Ґете, 1919: 113).

M. Ulezko reproduced it metaphorically, though fully adequately: ‘Зміг я-б кістяк твій зсохлий простягти, –/Зведениця! Срамная бабо ти!/То я за всі гріхи вже – маю віру –/‘дпущення заробив-би в повну міру! (If only I was able to stretch your withered skeleton, -/Procuress! Shame on you old hug!/Well, for all my sins already - I have faith -/‘I’d have earned the full allowance)’ (Ґете, 1926: 242).

English-speaking translators G.  T. Brooks (‘Could I  get at thy dried-up frame,/ Vile bawd, so lost to all sense of shame!/Then might I hope, e’en this side Heaven,/ Richly to find my sins forgiven’ (Goethe, 1856)), G. M. Priest (‘Could I but reach thy withcr’d frame,/Thou wretched beldame, void of shame!/Full measure I might hope to win/Of pardon then for every sin’ (Goethe, 1941)) and A. Klein (‘If I could destroy your withered body,/Shameless, bawd, I’d hope to see/A full measure of forgiveness/For me, and all my sinfulness’ (Goethe, 2003: 164)) have also reproduced it, preserving the characteristics of the character at the cognitive and pragmatic levels. The next fragment to illustrate the modifications introduced to the character via translation is the song of Gretchen that she is singing alone being imprisoned and is the first thing Faust and Mephistopheles hear from her after they left the city because of the fight with her brother Valentine. The song is not accidental in this place of the tragedy. Its text reminds us that Gretchen killed her child and may be accusing her parents for the current mental state and problems. Meine Mutter, die Hur, Die mich umgebracht hat! Mein Vater, der Schelm, Der mich gessen hat! Mein Schwesterlein klein Hub auf die Bein An einem kühlen Ort – Da ward ich ein schönes Waldvögelein, Fliege fort, fliege fort! (Goethe, 1969: 261).

On the one hand, this passage can be regarded as an asemantic speech act, which, from the point of view of pragmatics, is reproduced precisely at all levels, and on

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the other hand, such a song indicates a psychological fracture, that is, Gretchen is opposed to her previous self. She sings a song from a German folk tale about a girl who was killed by an evil stepmother:  ‘Meine Mutter, die Hur’ (Goethe, 1969: 261). M. Lukash translates “die Hur” as “ледащо” (sluggard), although other translators used vulgarisms “курва” (І. Франко (Ґете,1978: 344) та Д. Загул (Ґете, 1919:  131–132)) і “шлюха” (М. Улезко (Гете, 1926:  281)), which are dictionary correspondences. M. Lukash could not follow the example of the other translators, because for him it would mean a complete change of the image of Gretchen, which he depicted in the entire first part. That is why in his translation we read ‘Моя мати, ледащо’ (Гете, 2013: 199). Despite the fact that in the dictionaries it is stated that in the Ukrainian language, this word can be used as a derogative (compare. СУМ:v.4,467; Словарь української мови:v. 2, 352), this correspondence still has a less expressive loading than the others do. Anglophone translators have chosen two options: “the harlot” in A. Swanwick and C. Brooks translations and “the whore” by G. Priest and A. Klein. The meaning of these words is the same, only the first version is obsolete, and this can be explained by the time of translation. The line ‘Die mich umgebracht hat’ is different in all the translations analysed. G.  Priest translated it as ‘She has murdered me’, but the meaning of the word “murder” includes the intention: to kill someone deliberately and illegally (compare. АУС, т. 1, с. 749; Longman, 2000: 938). In translation by E. Klein is the word “to kill” (‘She killed me’), so it is the most neutral. In translation by A. Swanwick: ‘She took me and slew’. “To slay” is a word that means to kill someone, a synonym for the word “murder”, it is a neutral literary word and is often used in newspaper messages, which is why it is a rather unsuccessful option. In the version of Ch. Brooks “strung me up”, that is, killed through hanging, which is not quite logical. I. Franko and M. Lukash also clarified the method of the murder: ‘Зарізали мя!’, ‘Зарізала мене!’ respectively (which means ‘stabbed to death’), and in I. Franko’s translation we see a short form of the pronoun ‘мя’, indicating the colloquial style, as well as pluralia majestaticus, that is, in this translation the worldview of Gretchen is built in the way that it is necessary to use a honourable plurality addressing parents, even if they have used a rather unscrupulous word before. D. Zahul and M. Ulezko also have similar variants: ‘згубила мене’ and ‘Загубила мене’, respectively. These variants are synonymous and one can conclude that the mother did not necessarily kill her, but caused it. The word “der Schelm” in two versions (G. Prist and E. Klein) is translated as “rogue” ˗ ‘a person who is dishonest and has a bad character’ that corresponds to the meaning of the original. A.  Swanwick and Ch. Brooks used words with the same meaning:  “scoundrel” and “varlet”  – ‘a bad or dishonest person’ (compare Longman, 2000: 1276; Longman, 2000: 1588; АУС:v.2,305; АУС:v.2, 624). In Ukrainian translations, the differences begin with the words “Mein Vater” – the emotional colouring is different:  “А мій тато” (I. Franko) is colloquial and “Мій батько” (M. Lukash and M. Ulezko) is neutral. D. Zahul, “Шельма батечко мій”, that is, the translator used the suffix, which is used to create diminutive words.

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The words “шельма” in the translation performed by D.  Zahul and “шельмак” by M. Ulezko are adequately corresponding with the original, both in sound and meaning (comp. РУС:v.3, 689; СУМ:v.11, 439; Словарь української мови:v.4, 491; Duden, 2003:  1368). I.  Franko, for the expression and the greater contrast, after the word “тато” uses addition  – “злодій” (thief), which was one of the worst accusations for the time and region where he lived. M. Lukash persistently continues to build his image and, after the mother, “ледащо”, her father is “гультяй”, which has a very similar meaning and is less powerful than the original: a man who leads a life of reckless drinking, promiscuity, and self-indulgence, loves to have fun and does not want to work: debauchee, rake (СУМ:v.2, 193). The line “Der mich gessen hat” is translated almost literally: ‘He has eaten me’ (G. Priest), ‘Hath eaten me too’ (A. Swanwick) and ‘That ate me up’ (Ch. T. Brooks). A.  Klein emphasized the horror of that situation:  ‘He gnawed me’:  “to gnaw”  – ‘chew something predominantly solid’. The real culmination in the development of the image of Gretchen in the tragedy is the fragment: Wo ist er? Ich hab ihn rufen hören! Ich bin frei! mir soll niemand wehren. An seinen Hals will ich fliegen, An seinem Busen liegen! Er rief: Gretchen! Er stand auf der Schwelle! Mitten durchs Heulen und Klappern der Hölle! Durch den grimmigen, teuflischen Hohn Erkannt ich den süßen, den liebenden Ton. (Goethe, 1969: 262–263).

This “frei” is deeply metaphorical, because it means not only free with respect to the walls of the prison, but also echoes with the final word of the first part of the tragedy  – “Saved!” In the translation of A.  Swanwick there is an inversion: ‘Free am I!’, which is much more expressive in English than in Ukrainian. Yet, still, M. Lukash also selects that stylistic device to emphasize the emotionality of the moment: ‘Вільна я!’ In addition, such translation options retain the rhythmic picture of the original. The other Ukrainian and English translators have chosen neutral options: ‘Я вільна!’ та ‘I am free!’ In addition to adequate reproduction of each individual character utterances, it is important to preserve the characteristics of the image throughout the work to avoid internal contradictions, if they were not present in the original. Translators sometimes do not reproduce the image, but recreate it (as Gretchen in the translation by M. Lukash), though, if the whole image is sustained throughout the text of the work and possesses the same power of expression, such a translation may be considered successful. Translators were trying to reproduce the imagery of the tragedy by J. W. Goethe Faust to the best of their abilities. Because of the fact that the translations are performed not only into languages, but also into cultures, some modifications in the images are inevitable. However, sometimes they appear not because of the

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cultural differences, but because of translator’s conscious or subconscious desire to clarify or to intensify the meaning of the original. In the cases when these translations are as powerful in the target cultures as the original in the source culture, producing the similar effect on the reader, these modifications are absolutely justified.

References Duden Deutsches Universalwörterbuch. 2003. 5-te überarbeitete Auflage, Dudenverlag, Mannheim – Leipzig – Wien – Zürich. Goethe Johann Wolfgang 1856. Faust. Transl. by Charles T. Brooks. Accessed September 1, 2018. http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14460 Goethe Johann Wolfgang 1912. Faust. Trans. by Bayard Taylor. Cleveland, New York. Goethe Johann Wolfgang 1928. Faust. Transl. by Anna Swanwick. London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd. Goethe Johann Wolfgang 1941 Faust. Transl. by George M. Priest. Accessed September 4, 2018. http://www.publicappeal.org/library/goethe/faust/index. htm. Goethe Johann Wolfgang 1963. Faust: A Tragedy: Transl. by Bayard Taylor. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin company. Goethe Johann Wolfgang 1967. Faust: A Tragedy: Parts I and II. Transl. by Bayard Taylor. New York: Washington Square Press. Goethe Johann Wolfgang 1969. Faust. Gesamtausgabe. Leipzig: Insel-Verlag. Goethe Johann Wolfgang 2003. Faust. Transl. by Anthony S. Kline. Accessed September 10, 2018. https://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/German/ Fausthome.php. Longman dictionary of contemporary English, Pearson Education Ltd. 2000. АУС 1996. Англо-український словник: У 2 т. К.: Освіта,. Ґете Йоганн Вольфганг 1919. Фауст. Траґедія. І частина, з нім. мови вірш. переклад Дмитра Загула. Київ-Відень: Вернигора. Ґете Йоганн Вольфганг 1926. Фауст. Трагедія. І частина, перек. з нім. мови Микола Т. Улезко. Держ. вид. України. Ґете Йоганн Вольфганг 1978. Фавст. Перекл. Іван Франко. Іван Франко. Зібрання творів у п’ятдесяти томах. Т. 13. К.: Наук. думка. 174–424. Ґете Йоганн Вольфганг 2013. Фауст: трагедія. з нім пер. Микола Лукаш. К.: Вид-во Жупанського. Йогансен Михайло 1926 Передмова до перекладу. Ґете Й. В. Фауст. Трагедія. І частина, перек. з нім. мови М. Т. Улезко. Держ. вид. України.

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РУС 1968. Російсько-український словник: у 3 томах Інститут мовознавства ім. О. О. Потебні АН УРСР; гол. редактор І. К. Білодід. Київ: Наукова думка. Словарь української мови. 1958. Упор. Борис Грінченко: в 4-х т. К.: Вид-во Академії наук Української РСР. СУМ 1970–1980. Словник української мови: В 11 т. АН УРСР. Інститут мовознавства. Київ: Наукова думка.

Monika Browarczyk

How to Tell Others about Beauty: Remarks on the Hindi Translations of Adam Zagajewski’s Poems Abstract: Adam Zagajewski is one of the most recognized contemporary Polish poets, praised for his meditative, aesthetic and yet ironic verses. He often touches upon his intellectual and aesthetic encounters, to discuss art in its various forms, be it music, architecture, art or, perhaps foremost, poetry. Being concerned with power and its consequences Zagajewski often delves deep into the process of writing and defends the need for poetic sensitivity in the contemporary world. Maria Puri and I co-translated a selection of Zagajewski’s poems into Hindi; the bilingual collection titled W cudzym pieknie/Parāyī sundartā mẽ was published in 2011 by Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi. It was the first ever edition of Zagajewski’s poems translated directly from Polish into Hindi and the current chapter examines this particular project with a focus on institutional patrons in the process of translation. Keywords: Adam Zagajewski, Hindi translation, Polish poetry, institutional patron

An introvert intellectual, admirer of poetry, literature, philosophy, architecture, art and classical music of Europe, Adam Zagajewski is one of the most recognized contemporary Polish poets. His reflective, epiphanic and yet subtly ironic verses pertain to a wide range of subjects. More often than not, they are eloquently referential and ruminate on nature, with particular fondness for birds, and “the beauty created by others”  – that is, art in its various forms, be it music, architecture, or, perhaps, foremost, poetry  – and often centre on his intellectual and aesthetic encounters.1 His poetry encapsulates the idea of poetic aesthetics of minimalism, and expresses evolved views about the not-yet-so-evolved world. In his verses, as well as in his prose, Zagajewski repeatedly probes the process of writing and defends poetic sensitivity as a force capable of redeeming the contemporary world, the world he himself, in one of his well-known poems that I will refer to again further on, calls “mutilated”. He muses over the devastating by-products of history and politics, over the wars and migrations, and other disastrous outcomes of changes in power equations. The poems talk often about the cities and places he

1 A poem “W cudzym pięknie” published originally in a collection List. Oda do wielości in 1982 was translated into English by Renata Gorczyński as “In the Beauty Created by Others”, and Clare Cavanagh rendered the title as “Another Beauty”. Cf. Adam Zagajewski, Tremor: Selected Poems, transl. by Renata Gorczynski, New York, 1985, 60.

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visited, lived in or left behind, with uprooting and travelling a common leitmotif resurfacing time and again. Maria Puri and I  co-translated a selection of Zagajewski’s poems into Hindi, subsequently published as a bilingual volume under the title W cudzym pięknie/ Parāyī sundartā  mẽ after the poem of the same title. The book was brought out in 2011, in New Delhi, by Sahitya Akademi, or India’s National Academy of Letters, an independent institution established in 1954 by the Government of India to promote literature in Indian and foreign languages.2 W cudzym pięknie/Parāyī sundartā mẽ was the first ever edition of Zagajewski’s poems translated directly from Polish into Hindi and was initiated and carried out under the auspices of the Department of Culture of the Embassy of the Republic of Poland in India. Present chapter examines this particular translation project with a focus on the institutional patrons, that is, institutions representing the Polish and Indian states, as actors in the process of translation. However, by way of introduction, I would like to begin with a brief presentation of Zagajewski’s life and writings to put his work in context, this to be followed by a short review of the translations of Polish poetry for the Hindi readership. Adam Zagajewski, a household name of Polish culture, is at present one of the most eminent and recognized Polish poets worldwide and has received numerous international awards.3 His poetry came into the international spotlight when the translation of his poem “Try to Praise the Mutilated World” appeared on the final page of The New Yorker immediately after the attack on the World Trade Center in 2001.4 Clare Cavanagh, the poem’s translator, recollecting how in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks on the USA many Americans saw these verses as a poetic manual of hope and life after the trauma of 9/11, writes: It is, perhaps, not so surprising that a Polish poem should have been chosen to commemorate this national tragedy. Miłosz, Herbert, Szymborska: among other things, all

2 Though an independent institution, Sahitya Akademi functions under Ministry of Culture. 3 To illustrate this point, Zagajewski has been recurrently named “one of Poland’s most famous contemporary poets,” “Poland’s greatest living poet,” and “one of Poland’s most famous contemporary poets”, quotes, respectively, from: https://poets.org/ poet/adam-zagajewski, Accessed 04.01.2020; https://www.mml.cam.ac.uk/polish/ news/zagajewski, Accessed 04.01.2020; https://www.dacamera.com/poet-adamzagajewski-houston-exile-love-music/. Accessed 04.01.2020. 4 Clare Cavanagh, “Lyric and Public. The Case of Adam Zagajewski.” World Literature Today, May-August 2005: 18: “The New Yorker’s poetry editor, Alice Quinn, has remarked that this poem, written long before the terrorist attacks in Manhattan and Washington, was pinned to bulletin boards and refrigerators throughout New York City in its aftermath. As its translator, I received e-mails from across the country after it appeared.”

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are masters at converting the anguish of modern Polish history into meditations, at once personal and universal, upon the nature of human suffering and survival.5

The poem, “Try to Praise the Mutilated World,” speaks of violent displacement (“the abandoned homesteads of exiles”; “the refugees heading nowhere”; and “the executioners [who] sing joyfully”) and the importance of constant efforts to overcome the sense of despair, with the persuasive, repetitive lines: “Try to praise the mutilated world”; “You must praise the mutilated world”; and “You should praise the mutilated world” acting as the rallying cry.6 Poetry is positioned thus as the fundamental space of refuge and Zagajewski continues to validate its importance, or to quote his own words, to “defend a fundamental gift of human nature, that is, our capacity to experience the world’s wonder, to uncover divinity in the cosmos and in another human being, in a lizard, in chestnut leaves, to experience astonishment and to stop still in that astonishment for an extended moment or two”. Susan Sontag, in her foreword to the English translation of Zagajewski’s volume of essays, Another Beauty, equates his defence of poetry with “a defence of the idea of literary greatness”.7 In a manner reflecting to some extent life trajectories of many other Poles who in the 19th and the 20th century were forced to emigrate or chose emigration because of political, economic or personal reasons, Zagajewski, too, has had his share of displaced life. In an interview at a poetry reading, when asked how the title of the program, “Exile and Return”, related to the pieces he had chosen to read, he replied: “Exile and Return are a major pattern in my life. It’s easy for me to choose poems that talk about that. I  lived for many years in Paris and then returned to Poland, to Cracow. I could write a treatise on the subject”.8 Zagajewski was born in 1945, in Lviv. Lviv, at present the largest city of western Ukraine, was an integral part of Poland right from the 13th century till 1772 when the first partition of Poland took place. In the aftermath of this and the subsequent partitions (1793, 1795), it served as the capital of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, then a part of the Austro-Hungarian empire, to be returned to Poland only in the period between the First and the Second World War. However,

5 Cavanagh, “Lyric,” 17. 6 Cavanagh (“Lyric,” 19) observes: “This poet invites us instead to join in his efforts to confront the world’s large-scale sufferings and—more difficult still—to praise its small, ephemeral joys. The self that writes invites the self that reads to stay awake at all costs, despite awareness almost past bearing, and to sustain itself in its labors through the private store of lyric recollections that each of us carries within. The poet’s indirect invitation is persuasive not least because he himself perceives all too well the difficulty of the task he undertakes (…).” 7 Adam Zagajewski. Another Beauty, transl. By Clare Cavanagh, forwarded by Susan Sontag, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2002. 8 Cf. https://www.dacamera.com/poet-adam-zagajewski-houston-exile-love-music/. Accessed 04.01.2020.

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following the Yalta agreement of 1945, it was detached from Poland again and handed over to the USSR. That is why in 1945, when Zagajewski was just four months old, his family was forced to leave Lviv and settle in Gliwice, a town once Habsburg, then Prussian and German, but ultimately transferred to Poland by the terms of the Potsdam agreement (1945). The German inhabitants were expelled from the town and Poles, exiled from the formerly eastern parts of Poland, among them Zagajewski’s family, resettled there. Zagajewski’s father, a professor of engineering at the Technical University of Lviv, like many of his fellow academics who migrated to the post-1945 Poland, joined a Polish institute of higher learning, pioneered teaching and research, in his case, at the newly established Technical University of Gliwice. Zagajewski grew up in Gliwice and lived there with his parents till he graduated from high school. Thereafter, in order to pursue higher education, he moved to Kraków, a sister-city of Lviv. During the period when Poland was partitioned and disappeared from the map of Europe, both Lviv and Kraków were important centres of the Galicia region of the Habsburg Empire with Kraków often standing in for Lviv in Zagajewski’s writings. Once in Kraków, Zagajewski studied psychology and philosophy at the Jagiellonian University and later found employment as a lecturer at the University of Science and Technology there. Working as an editor of cultural and literary magazines, Zagajewski debuted in the late 1960s. His first poetry collection, Komunikat (Communiqué), was published in 1972. He was 27 years old and soon to become a distinguished poet of the New Wave, which included, among others, Stanisław Barańczak and Julian Kornhauser. In 1975, along with other Polish intellectuals, he signed the so-called Letter of 59, an open letter of protest against the intended changes in the Constitution of Poland proposed by the ruling communist party.9 In response, the communist regime banned Zagajewski from publishing, with ban enforced from 1976 to 1978. In these circumstances, Zagjewski opted for emigration, though, by his own admission, the decision he made was dictated not so much by political as personal reasons. This confession should be seen, perhaps, in the light of Zagajewski’s choice of reclaiming an individual voice and refusing to being projected as a voice of a mass political protest. His book of essays, Solidarność i samotność (Solidarity, Solitude: Essays), published in 1986 by Zeszyty Literackie, an emigre Polish press in Paris, speaks at length of the hard choice, of choosing solitude of poetic contemplation over political engagement.10 In Zagajewski’s own words: “I had to take step back from the avalanche of History. This is not easy; in my language, in my

9 The Polish United Worker’s Party, the ruling communist party, intended to engrain its permanent allegiance to the Soviet Union, along with the everlasting loyalty of Polish citizens to socialism and to the political regime controlled by the Soviets, by introducing changes in the constitution of Poland. 10 Adam Zagajewski, Solidarność i samotność, Paryż: Zeszyty Literackie 1986; Adam Zagajewski, Solidarity, Solitude: Essays, transl. by Lillian Vallee, New York: Ecco Press 1990.

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culture, historicity is God”.11 Cavanagh, who extensively translated Zagajewski’s writings into English, commenting on the complicated relation of Zagajewski with the political, attests to (…) seriousness with which poets of the so-called Generation of ‘68, or New Wave, adopted their inherited role as the conscience of an oppressed nation. The place of lyric poetry in modern society has thus been at the heart of Zagajewski’s writing from the start. (…) It was Zagajewski, though, who chose to depart most radically from the collective obligations of both his generation’s and his tradition’s poet-bards in the mid-1980s. Zagajewski has exchanged his “collective subject” for a mere “lyric speaker” (…) “I have the urge to become a dissident from dissidents,” Zagajewski writes in Solidarity, Solitude, as he declares his newfound allegiance to “unusual, singular, exceptional things, such as a giraffe’s neck.”12

In 1981, after a two-year stay in West Berlin, Zagajewski moved to France and lived there for the next two decades. In the course of his sojourn in Paris and later, after his return to Poland in 2002, he was invited to teach creative writing and literature, at first at the University of Houston, and then at the University of Chicago, living thus a life straddled between two continents. This prompted Shallcross to write “(…) Zagajewski can be justifiably viewed as a perennial transient in search of a home”.13 At present he lives and works in Kraków. In A Defence of Ardour, a collection of essays of 2002 (English translation was published in 2004), the opening piece has Zagajewski musing over his multiple exiles: From Lvov to Gliwice, from Gliwice to Krakow, from Krakow to Berlin (for two years); then to Paris, for a long while, and from there to Houston every year for four months; then back to Krakow. My first trip was involuntary, forced by the international treaties that ended World War II. The second was simply the result of an ordinary thirst for education (…). The impulse behind the third was curiosity about a different, western world. The fourth was motivated by what we’ll discreetly call “reasons of a personal nature”. And finally, the fifth (Houston) was spurred both by curiosity (America) and by what might cautiously be termed economic necessity.14

11 Adam Zagajewski, Two Cities. On Exile, History and the Imagination, transl. by Lillian Vallee, Athens: The University of Georgia Press 1995, 122. 12 Cavanagh, “Lyric,” 16. 13 Bożena Shallcross, “The Divining Moment:  Adam Zagajewski’s Aesthetics of Epiphany,” The Slavic and East European Journal, Vol. 44, No. 2 (Summer, 2000), pp. 234–252, 243. 14 Adam Zagajewski, A Defence of Ardor. Essays, transl. by Clare Cavanagh, New York: Farrar, Straus and Girous, 2004, 3. Please note, inconsistency in spelling of Lviv/Lvov, my intention was to opt for an English transliteration that at present seems to be accepted by native speakers of Ukrainian as correct.

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Zagajewski has published numerous volumes of poetry, a couple of novels and a few volumes of essays.15 After his writing was banned by the communist regime, many of his works were published and distributed outside the official, state-controlled book market, namely by the underground presses in Poland and the Polish émigré publishing houses abroad. Zagajewski has been widely translated and is thus well known to poetry lovers all around the world including India, where the Indian Englishspeaking readers are familiar with his verses in their English renditions while the speakers of regional languages know him from some indirect translations.16 Polish poets and their works are not totally unknown to Hindi readers. Polish poetry has been translated into Hindi and other Indian languages, both through the medium of English and directly from the source language. It has a wide readership in the circles of Hindi poets and poetry admirers, which group does not, however, embrace all of Hindi speakers, a fact of life true of any language. The league of Polish poetry translators includes, amongst others, acclaimed Hindi poets – for instance  – Kunwar Narain, Manglesh Dabral, Gagan Gill, Vishnu Khare, Ashok Vajpeyi and Geet Chaturvedi, none of whom, though, know Polish; academics, like Harimohan Sharma, Maria Kszysztof Byrski, Renata Czekalska and Monika Browarczyk; and literary translators, Agnieszka Kowalska-Soni and Maria Puri.17 Translations bearing their names have appeared in various literary magazines, anthologies of poetry and also in stand-alone volumes; but as already indicated, some translations have been done indirectly, that is, through English, others jointly by the native speakers of Polish and Hindi.18 15 Poetry collections: Komunikat, 1972; Sklepy mięsne, 1975; List. Oda do wielkości, 1983; Jechać do Lwowa, 1985; Płótno, 1990; Ziemia ognista, 1994; Trzej aniołowie, 1998; Pragnienie, 1999; Powrót, 2003; Anteny, 2005; Niewidzialna reka, 2009; Wiersze wybrane, 2010; Asymetria, 2014; Lotnisko w Amsterdamie, 2016; and the most recent one, Prawdziwe życie, 2019. Collection of essays:  Świat nieprzedstawiony, 1974 [co-authored by Julian Kornhauser]; Drugi oddech, 1978; Solidarność i samotność, 1986; Dwa miasta, 1991; W cudzym pięknie, 1998; Obrona żarliwości, 2002; Poeta rozmawia z filozofem, 2007; Lekka przesada, 2011; Poezja dla początkujących, 2017. Novels: Ciepło, zimno, 1975; Słuch absolutny, 1979 and Cienka kreska, 1983. 16 Arundhathi Subramaniam, herself an established English Indian poet, writer and journalist, while anchoring a well-attended meet with Zagajewski at the Jaipur Literature Festival in 2011 had welcomed the audience by saying she had been an ardent admirer of Zagajewski’s poetry. 17 Most of Ashok Vajpeyi’s translations are co-authored by Renata Czekalska. Harimohan Sharma, the scholar of Hindi literature from Delhi University, had spent a couple of years in Poland as a visiting professor at Warsaw University. Agnieszka Kowalska-Soni and Maria Puri graduated from Warsaw University and are experts in Indian studies and Hindi language and literature. 18 Collections of Polish poetry rendered into Hindi in chronological order: Adhunik poliś kavitaẽ ,̄ transl. and ed. by Harimohan Sharma, New Delhi: Rajkamal Prakashan 1999; Vishnu Khare, Do Nobel puraskār vijetā kavī. Mere chehre ke nukush: Czeslaw Milosz. Kisī ko haṭānā hogā yah malbā: Wislawa Szymborska, New Delhi: Vani Prakashan

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While sharing his thoughts on direct and collaborative translations from Polish into Hindi versus translations done through English, Kunwar Narain, an eminent Hindi poet, who has worked with Polish native speakers on numerous renditions of Polish poetry into Hindi (e.g. poems by Anna Świrszczyńska, Tadeusz Różewicz and Zbigniew Herbert), but has also translated many foreign poets such as Walt Whitman, Constantine Cavafy, Rainer Maria Rilke, Bertold Brecht, Jorge Luis Borges, Pablo Neruda, Derek Walcott and Ted Hughes into Hindi from English, observes that the collaborative translation offers “a closer glimpse into the structure of the original Polish poems, vis-a-vis their English translations”.19 He also underlines syntactic and semantic compatibility between Polish and Hindi and declares that “it was easier to find emotive idioms in Hindi that seemed nearer to Polish originals than identical English expressions”.20 Drawing from Venuti’s observations on power relations between hegemonic and non-hegemonic languages and cultures and their impact on the process of translation, and Tejasvini Niranjana’s remarks on asymmetrical relations of cultures and languages they represent, I have already touched elsewhere upon the interesting dynamics of translations from Polish into Hindi as neither of the two is a dominant language representing a dominant culture and both coexist with languages in hegemonic position, that is, English for Hindi, and French, German, English and Spanish for Polish.21 2001; Tadeusz Różewicz, Jivan ke bicȭbīc/W środku życia, ed. and transl. by Ashok Vajpeyi, Renata Czekalska, New Delhi: Vani Prakashan 2001; Zbigniew Herbert, Antahkaraṇ kā āyatan/Obszar pamięci, ed. and transl. by Ashok Vajpeyi, Renata Czekalska, New Delhi: Vani Prakashan 2002; Czesław Miłosz, Khulā ghar/Otwarty dom, ed. and transl. by Ashok Vajpeyi, Renata Czekalska, New Delhi: Vani Prakashan 2003; Wisława Szymborska, Koī sīrṣak nahĩ/̄ Może być bez tytułu, transl. by Ashok Vajpeyi, Renata Czekalska, Vani Prakashan, New Delhi 2004; John Paul II, Tryptyk rzymski/Roman tṛpṭī, transl. Ashok Vajpeyi, Renata Czekalska, Kraków:  Unum 2011; Adam Zagajewski, Parāyī sundartā mē̃/W cudzym pięknie, ed. by Prabhakar Shrotriya, transl. by M. Browarczyk, M. Skakuj Puri, New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi 2011; Ryszard Krynicki W źrenicy kamyka/Ret ke ek kaṇ mẽ, transl. by Ashok Vajpeyi, Renata Czekalska, Delhi: Vani Prakashan 2017. 19 Renata Czekalska. Wartości autoteliczne w kulturze symbolicznej na przykładzie indyjsko-polskich spotkań literackich. Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka, 2013, 149. Some of Narain’s translations were published in a separate volume, cf. Kunwar Narain Na sīmāẽ na dūriyā̃. Viśva kavitā se kuch anyvād. Dillī: Vāṇī prakāśan 2017. 20 Czekalska, Wartości, 149. 21 Cf. Lawrence Venuti, The Scandals of Translation: Towards an Ethics of Difference. London:  Routledge 1998; Tejasvini Niranjana. Siting Translation. History, Poststructuralism, and the Colonial Context, Berkeley: University of California Press 1992. Cf. Monika Browarczyk, “Gālisyā kī kathāẽ: on Rendering Andrzej Stasiuk’s Tales of Galicia into Hindi.” In: Michał Organ (ed.) Translation Today: Literary Translation in Focus. Berlin: Peter Lang 2019, 17–18: “Polish has a fairly big number of speakers if one looks at the European statistics, but from the perspective of cultural influence it is a minor European language, not considered to culturally rival other dominant

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In these literary exchanges between non-hegemonic languages institutional patrons have a pivotal role, and Tymoczko writes on translations as “primary facts of a source culture when the source culture itself sponsors translation as part of its political program”.22 She refers here to the practices of the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China but in the case of the post-1989 renditions of Polish literature into other European and non-European languages, institutionalized support of translations from Polish and its publications abroad has been growing at a very slow pace.23 Indeed, promotion of Polish literature abroad has become a small yet ever present element of the state’s agenda aimed at entrenching Polish culture in the (Western) world. In the communist times, state-sponsored programs of translating literatures of the Soviet bloc countries into numerous languages of its allies were to create a sense of cultural, and perhaps ideological, unity or even uniformity. However, post-transformation renditions of Polish literature into other languages were dictated by the political agenda of (re)rooting Poland in the cultural heritage of Europe and the Western world. Yet, as in the cases discussed by Tymoczko, the decision as to which writers and whose translations to support and whose publications to promote becomes political as it may be dictated by programs of political parties in power. Informed by Tymoczko’s reflections on “the importance of patronage as a determinant of translation practice” I would like to examine the involvement of institutional patrons in this particular project of publishing a volume of selected poems by Zagajewski into Hindi.24 While describing contemporary patrons, Tymoczko indicates mechanisms that influence and shape the process of translation: Patrons—once wealthy aristocrats—now take the form of presses and publishing houses, universities and granting agencies, which are in turn dependent on such

European languages i.e. English, German, Spanish or French. State supported projects of translation of Polish literature into other European and non-European languages form a part of a wider campaign of promoting Poland’s culture abroad and as such constitute a component of state’s cultural policy with an institution, the Book Institute, established to facilitate translations and their publications. Consequently, the cultural policy of state-supported translation is to a great degree shaped by the agendas of political parties in power.” 22 Maria Tymoczko, “Translation, Resistance, Activism: An Overview.” In: Translation, Resistance, Activism, edited by Maria Tymoczko, Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press 2010, 20. 23 The Polish Book Institute provides a good example of this ‘soft power’ cultural policy. It is an institution designated by the Polish Ministry of Culture and National Heritage in 2003 “to promote Polish literature worldwide and to popularize books as well as reading within the country” (https://instytutksiazki.pl/en/about-uscontact,11,mission,41.html). Accessed 04.01.2020. 24 Maria Tymoczko, “Post-colonial writing and Literary Translation.” In:  Susan Basnett, Harish Trivedi (eds.). Postcolonial Translation:  Theory and Practice, New York: Routledge 1999, 31.

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groups as a readership, a critical establishment or government officials. Patrons determine the parameters of what is translated just as they determine parameters of what is published; that the effects of patronage are currently achieved largely through self-censorship does not invalidate the point. Studies of translation are increasingly alert to the circumstances under which books are chosen for translation and translations are published, and similar questions are relevant to postcolonial writing.25

There were two institutions that cooperated in the publication of the said translation of Zagajewski into Hindi, the Embassy of the Republic of Poland in India and Sahitya Akademi. The cultural section of the Polish diplomatic mission intended to support publications of contemporary Polish literature to make it available to Hindi readers through indirect else collaborative or direct Polish translations. Prior to the Zagajewski collection, four volumes of poetry were published with this aim, all edited by Ashok Vajpeyee and Renata Czekalska, and in parts translated by them.26 The chronological scrutiny of the volumes gives an insight into how the concept of these renditions evolved from the indirect to direct and collaborative translation, with the two initial volumes of Tadeusz Różewicz’s and Zbigniew Herbert’s collected poems rendered into Hindi by cohort of different translators and the two latter ones, namely of Czesław Miłosz and Wisława Szymborska, translated exclusively by Czekalska and Vajpey. To illustrate, the very first volume, of Różewicz, contained poems the majority of which have been translated indirectly, from the published English versions into Hindi, and by numerous translators. Some might have already been published earlier in literary journals or presented at poetry readings or seminars. Out of 71 translated compositions only 12 were rendered directly from Polish in the collaborative assignments between Polish and Hindi speakers, that is, Agnieszka Kuczkiewicz-Fraś and Kunwar Narain; Renata Czekalska and Ashok Vajpeyee; Maria Krzysztof Byrski and Kamlesh.27 The authors of indirect translations from English into Hindi were Hindi poets and critics: Nilabh, M.S. Patel, Prayag Shukla, Somdatt and Asad Zaidi. Interestingly, the publication appeared with the joint financial support of Mahatma Gandhi Open University and the Polish Embassy in New Delhi in time to mark the 80th birthday of Różewicz.28 On the other hand, the two last collections were made up exclusively of poems translated jointly by Czekalska and Vajpeyi. All four volumes were published by a well-established,

2 5 Tymoczko, “Post-colonial”, 31. 26 Namely, Różewicz, Jivan ke; Herbert, Antahkaraṇ; Miłosz, Khulā ghar; and Szymborska, Koī sīrṣak. 27 Renata Czekalska, “Różewicz w języku hindi.” In:  Tadeusz Różewicz. Jivan ke bicȭbīc/W środku życia, edited by Ashok Vajpeyi, Renata Czekalska, New Delhi: Vani Prakashan 2001, 249. 28 Ashok Vajpeyii. “Khiṛkī ke andar khiṛkī.” In: Tadeusz Różewicz. Jivan ke bicȭbīc/W środku życia, edited by Ashok Vajpeyi, Renata Czekalska, New Delhi: Vani Prakashan 2001, xxii.

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Delhi-based Hindi publishing house, Vani Prakashan, and with financial support of the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, within which all Polish diplomatic missions operate, which was acknowledged in the paratext of the volumes.29 All the four volumes were bilingual and paratextually followed similar template: biographical introduction, list of works, translators’ reflections, etc. The Polish embassy envisioned further translations from Polish into Hindi and in search of an institutional partner with a view to its recognized status within the structures of the Indian state institutions, and an eye on sharing the expenses of publication and distribution with the said Indian partner, in 2006 it signed an agreement with Sahitya Akademi that aimed at the publication of Zagajewski’s volume. India’s National Academy of Letters is an institution funded by the central government of India through the Ministry of Culture with the objective of supporting Indian literatures. In this capacity, it facilitates translations from the 24 Indian languages recognized as the literary idioms and bestows literary awards that support literatures in these regional languages of India and Indian writings in English. It also facilitates translations from Indian languages into other Indian languages and English, runs its own publishing house that publishes Indian creative and critical writings, brings out literary magazines and operates its own distribution system with a chain of bookshops spread all over India.30 As an agency of the central government of India, Sahitya Akademi is also in charge of literary exchanges with other countries, and therefore, officials of the cultural section of the Polish diplomatic mission were probably directed, through proper channels, to cooperate with this particular institutional partner.31 29 Renata Czekalska “Poezja i przenikanie kultur,” in:  Wisława Szymborska. Koī sīrṣak nahĩ/̄ Może być bez tytułu, transl. by Ashok Vajpeyi, Renata Czekalska, Vani Prakashan, New Delhi 2004, 207. 30 Sahitya Akademi introduces itself on its official website (http://sahitya-akademi.gov. in/aboutus/about.jsp) in the following words: “Sahitya Akademi, India’s National Academy of Letters, is the central institution for literary dialogue, publication and promotion in the country and the only institution that undertakes literary activities in 24 Indian languages, including English. Over the 64 years of its dynamic existence, it has ceaselessly endeavored to promote good taste and healthy reading habits, to keep alive the intimate dialogue among the various linguistic and literary zones and groups through seminars, lectures, symposia, discussions, readings and performances, to increase the pace of mutual translations through workshops and individual assignments and to develop a serious literary culture through the publications of journals, monographs, individual creative works of every genre, anthologies, encyclopedias, dictionaries, bibliographies, who’s who of writers and histories of literature. It has so far brought out over 6000 books, the present pace of publication being one book every 19 hours.” (I have taken a liberty to correct a misprint.) 31 The role of Sahitya Akademi in international literary exchanges between India and other countries is spelled out in a further write-up on its official website (http:// sahitya-akademi.gov.in/aboutus/about.jsp) that contextualizes regional diversity of

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Though Sahitya Akademi is an independent institution of culture, its workings are informed by the political parties in power though probably much less than its Polish counterparts. Dr. K. Shrinivasa Rao, at the time of the publication of the Zagajewski volume in 2011 the Deputy Secretary (Administration) at the Akademi, showed personal interest in the whole process of translation and publication meeting a number of times with the translators and even looking into the proofs. He remains at the helm of the Akademi in spite of political changes at the centre, and was in fact further elevated, to the post of Secretary (in other words, the chief executive officer) of the Akademi, in 2013. He holds this post even today, in spite of the change of the government at the centre, providing institutional continuity to the literary projects and the working of the whole institution. In case of both state-run and state-controlled institutions, political interference in the process of selection and support of a potential translation project from Polish into Hindi is probable. Plausibly, in the present political scenario, Zagajewski’s translations might have not found support from the Polish state institutions as the poet is very vocal in his public criticism of the present government. Similarly, it seems likely that the Indian institutional partner could possibly try to exert influence on the selection of the Indian author to be translated into Polish in the process of a reciprocal translation. After signing the agreement with Sahitya Akademi, the officials of the Polish diplomatic mission in New Delhi approached us, the translators. Between 2006 and 2010, Maria Puri and I first selected and later translated the poems we had chosen into Hindi. There was no interference from the officials of either institution as to the content of the volume to be designed by us. Therefore, we opted for poems from different collections of Zagajewski to make the first direct Hindi translation of his verses representative of the body of his lyrical works, adding a bunch of poems from the poetry volume which appeared while the translation work was in progress. Thus, the Hindi translations of the poems taken from Zagajewski’s poetry collection Niewidzialna Ręka (Unseen Hand), which was published in Polish in 2009, are probably the first translations into any foreign language and predate the English translation by a couple of months.32 Indian literatures and their deep cultural ‘unity’ with the circulation of various literatures in world’s literary scene: “Sahitya Akademi is aware of cultural and linguistic difference and does not believe in forced standarisation of culture through a bulldozing of levels and attitudes. At the same time, it is also conscious of the deep inner culture, spiritual, historical, and experimental links that unify India’s diverse manifestations of literature. This unity seeks an international species-dimension through the Akademi’s Culture Exchange Programes with other countries on the globe.” (I have taken a liberty to correct some misprints in the original text.) 32 Hindi translation was completed in 2010 and appeared in print in January 2011 to coincide with Zagajewski’s visit in Delhi as the guest of the Sahitya Akademi and Jaipur Literary Festival in Jaipur later in the same month. Clare Cavanagh’s translation came out in May of 2011. Cf. Adam Zagajewski, Niewidzialna Ręka,

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Apart from this strategy, we had devised three other guidelines regarding the selection. Firstly, taking into account the fact that the so-called encyclopaedical knowledge of an average Hindi speaker regarding European culture – that is, its classical music, art, architecture, geography, topography, poetry and religious heritage – is not very extensive we cherry-picked poems with limited references to Polish or European history or particular towns and historical places, musical compositions and art pieces, else geography or topography of Europe. We wanted to make the translated verses approachable to a regular Hindi reader without the necessity of in-depth cultural awareness that would require footnotes, glossaries or other paratextual devices. Eventually, a few footnotes were included as suggested by the Hindi editor of the completed volume. A short detour here. Zagajewski’s poetry is rich in allusions to art, architecture, geography and topography of Europe and to a lesser degree of the United States that he frequently visited. Shallcross, in her study of Zagajewski, Herbert and Brodsky, contextualizes the fondness for cultural peregrinations in the Western world common to those three poets from eastern parts of Europe and traces it to the political exclusion and marginalization they had experienced under the political regimes in their countries, respectively, in the communist Poland and the Soviet Union. In this reading, the weightage and admiration for the cultural affiliations with Western world’s heritage become an important cultural link, an assertion of belonging, or in other words, they turn into political statements: In their longing for the West’s forbidden fruit, they traveled to its artistic sanctuaries, not to restitute the aesthetic utopianism of modernity and its religion of beauty but to observe art for themselves in its natural setting and to embrace the rich visual heritage of such places. Their travels resulted in their inner transformations.33

To return to the rationale behind selection of Zagajewski’s poems, the second one was dictated by a desire to include some more poems from recent and, at that time, the most recent collections of Zagajewski’s lyrics. Hence, the bilingual Polish-Hindi volume includes four poems from collection Jechać do Lwowa i inne wiersze (Travelling to Lviv and Other Poems, 1985); nine poems from Płótno (The Canvas, 1990); ten poems from Ziemia ognista (The Fiery Land, 1994); six poems from Pragnienie (Desire, 1999); two poems from Powrót (Return, 2003); twelve poems from Anteny (Antennas, 2005); and no less than sixteen poems from Niewidzialna ręka (Unseen Hand:  Poems, 2009). In this way, poems from Unseen Hand, published in Hindi, as already mentioned earlier, were not available yet in their English translation by Cavanagh, which came out later in 2011. Hindi readership for once was in an

Kraków:  Znak 2009. Adam Zagajewski, Unseen Hand:  Poems, transl. by Clare Cavanagh, New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux 2011. 33 Bożena Shallcross, Through the Poet’s Eye. The Travels of Zagajewski, Herbert, and Brodsky, Illinois: Northwestern University Press Evanston, 2002, xv.

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earlier possession of Zagajewski’s poems from his last collection, taking an advantaged position. Thirdly, and last but not least, in our selection we included poems which were to our personal liking, and hence certain preference for poems with autobiographical motifs, poems on the art of writing and poetry and poems which resonated personally with either of the translators for generational (with Maria Puri a generation older than me) or personal reasons. In 2010, in the final stages of completing translations Maria Puri and I had a meeting with Zagajewski in Krakow, as we wished to discuss few uncertainties and intended to ask him to expand on his understanding of certain metaphorical phrases. Zagajewski refused to give us any sort of explication, telling us instead that he trusted our implicit understanding of his poetry and explaining further that his Polish readers were not provided with such a helping hand by him, so why should we. Kunwar Narain, the already mentioned well-known Hindi poet, read through our Hindi renditions to provide poetic revision, and Prabhakar Shrotriya, literary historian, critic and the in-house editor of one of the literary journals published by Sahitya Akademi, edited them and wrote the foreword to the volume. Upon publication of W cudzym pieknie/Parāyī sundartā mẽ, the institutional patrons were also supportive in promotion of the published translations within their regular modus operandi. The Polish embassy in New Delhi organized Zagajewski’s visit to India between the 19th and 28th January 2011. A  book launch of the Hindi translation of his selected poems was organized by Sahitya Akademi at its Delhi premises on the 20th of January. The event was chaired by Prof. Satinder Singh Noor, the vice-president of the Akademi, a well-known Punjabi poet and translator of Polish poetry into Punjabi. Zagajewski was also invited to take part in the Jaipur Literature Festival (from the 21st to the 25th January 2011), an annual gathering attended by writers and readers from India and all over the world. He actively participated in two events there, a meet-up dedicated exclusively to him and his poetry and a discussion on English as an ‘imperial language’ (John Coetzee, the Nobel laureate; Ahdaf Soueif, a British writer of Egyptian origin and Hindi-English woman writer Mrinal Pande were also on that panel). To conclude, in his writings Zagajewski is constantly engaged with the ‘wisdom project’, to recall Sontag’s phrase from the introduction to a collection of his essays or Another Beauty, of scrutinizing the memory or post-memory of the nation; the memory or post-memory of his own generation; fragmentary reminiscences of his individual life, which was shaped by the war experiences of the previous generation and finally, his own record of political oppression, exile and migrations. As a poet, he defends literature and poetry above all as a space of refuge in the world mutilated by wars, political regimes, newspeak and terrorism. While studying translation projects that include institutional patrons, one must keep in mind their political context, which might be more or less pronounced but is nevertheless present throughout, which brings to mind reflections of Susan

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Bassnett and Andre Lefevere on the importance of context and history of any given translation or the ‘lack of innocence’ of any text, including a translated one.34 To end with words somewhat incongruent for the text on translation, let me quote the subtly subversive but at the same time highly reassuring reflections of Zagajewski himself. Returning to his musings on writing, writing in any given language, writing which creates a space of refuge, the sole criteria by which the worth of a text may be ultimately judged, according to Zagajewski, is not the fact of it being composed in a native tongue or in an acquired tongue or else translated, but its own inherent quality: But ultimately, does it really matter what language we write in? Isn’t every language, as long as it is used well, capable of opening the door to poetry, of revealing the world to us? People who write usually sit alone, facing a blank sheet of paper or a dim computer screen that stare back at them insolently. They are alone, despite the fact that they are writing for others and not for themselves. Both inspired and encumbered by tradition, by that great tumult of dead voices, they attempt to look into the future, which remains silent. The thoughts they want to express don’t seem to belong to any language; they roar inside like an additional element to fire, wind and water.35

References Adhunik poliś kavitaẽ .̄ 1999. Transl. by Harimohan Sharma, New Delhi: Rajkamal Prakashan. Bassnett, Susan and AndréLefevere. 1990. Translation, History and Culture, London: Cassell. Browarczyk, Monika. 2019. “Gālisyā kī kathāẽ: on Rendering Andrzej Stasiuk’s Tales of Galicia into Hindi.” In: Michał Organ (ed.) Translation Today: Literary Translation in Focus. Berlin: Peter Lang, 13–28. Cavanagh, Clare. 2005. “Lyric and Public. The Case of Adam Zagajewski.” World Literature Today, May–August, 16–19. Czekalska, Renata. 2001. “Różewicz w języku hindi.” In: Tadeusz Różewicz. Jivan ke bicȭbīc/W środku życia, edited by Ashok Vajpeyi, Renata Czekalska, New Delhi: Vani Prakashan, 247–252. Czekalska, Renata. 2004. “Poezja i przenikanie kultur”. In: Szymborska, Wisława. Koī sīrṣak nahĩ/̄ Może być bez tytułu, transl. by Ashok Vajpeyi and Renata Czekalska, Vani Prakashan, New Delhi, 206–209.

34 Susane Bassnett and Andre Lefevere (ed.). Translation, History and Culture, London: Cassell 1990, 12. 35 Adam Zagajewski, Two Cities. On Exile, History and the Imagination, transl. by Lillian Vallee, Athens: The University of Georgia Press 2002.

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Czekalska, Renata. 2013. Wartości autoteliczne w kulturze symbolicznej na przykładzie indyjsko-polskich spotkań literackich. Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka. Herbert, Zbigniew. 2002. Antahkaraṇ kā āyatan/Obszar pamięci, edited by Ashok Vajpeyi and Renata Czekalska, New Delhi: Vani Prakashan. John Paul II. 2011. Tryptyk rzymski/Roman tṛpṭī, transl. by Ashok Vajpeyi and Renata Czekalska, Kraków: Unum. Khare, Vishnu (ed.). 2001. Do Nobel puraskār vijetā kavī. Mere chehre ke nukush: Czeslaw Milosz. Kisī ko haṭānā hogā yah malbā: Wislawa Szymborska, transl. by Vishnu Khare, New Delhi: Vani Prakashan. Krynicki, Ryszard. 2017. W źrenicy kamyka/Ret ke ek kaṇ mẽ, transl. by Ashok Vajpeyi and Renata Czekalska. Delhi: Vani Prakashan. Miłosz, Czesław. 2003. Khulā ghar/Otwarty dom, edited by Ashok Vajpeyi and Renata Czekalska, New Delhi: Vani Prakashan. Narain, Kunwar. 2017. Na sīmāẽ na dūriyā̃. Viśva kavitā se kuch anyvād. Dillī: Vāṇī prakāśan. Niranjana, Tejasvini. 1992. Siting Translation. History, Post-structuralism, and the Colonial Context, Berkeley: University of California Press. Różewicz, Tadeusz. 2001. Jivan ke bicȭbīc/W środku życia, edited by Ashok Vajpeyi, Renata Czekalska, New Delhi: Vani Prakashan. Shallcross, Bożena. 2000. “The Divining Moment: Adam Zagajewski’s Aesthetics of Epiphany.” The Slavic and East European Journal 44:234–252. Shallcross, Bożena. 2002. Through the Poet’s Eye. The Travels of Zagajewski, Herbert, and Brodsky, Illinois: Northwestern University Press Evanston,. Szymborska, Wisława. 2004. Koī sīrṣak nahĩ/̄ Może być bez tytułu, transl. by Ashok Vajpeyi and Renata Czekalska, New Delhi: Vani Prakashan. Tymoczko, Maria. 1999. “Post-colonial writing and Literary Translation.” In: Susan Basnett, Harish Trivedi (eds.). Postcolonial Translation: Theory and Practice. Routledge: New York, 19–40. Tymoczko, Maria. 2010. “Translation, Resistance, Activism: An Overview.” In Translation, Resistance, Activism, edited by: Maria Tymoczko, Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1–22. Vajpeyi, Ashok. 2001. “Khiṛkī ke andar khiṛkī.” In: Tadeusz Różewicz. Jivan ke bicȭbīc/W środku życia, edited by Ashok Vajpeyi, Renata Czekalska, New Delhi: Vani Prakashan, xviii–xxxii. Venuti, Lawrence. The Scandals of Translation: Towards an Ethics of Difference. London: Routledge 1998. Zagajewski, Adam. 1985. Tremor: Selected Poems, transl. by Renata Gorczynski, New York.

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Zagajewski, Adam. 1986. Solidarność i samotność, Paryż: Zeszyty Literackie. Zagajewski, Adam. 1990. Solidarity, Solitude: Essays, transl. by Lillian Vallee, New York: Ecco Press. Zagajewski, Adam. 1995. Two Cities. On Exile, History and the Imagination, transl. by Lillian Vallee, Athens: The University of Georgia Press. Zagajewski, Adam. 2002. Another Beauty, transl. by Clare Cavanagh, forwarded by Susan Sontag, Athens: University of Georgia Press. Zagajewski, Adam. 2004. A Defence of Ardor. Essays, transl. by Clare Cavanagh, New York: Farrar, Straus and Girous. Zagajewski, Adam. 2009. Niewidzialna Ręka, Kraków: Znak. Zagajewski, Adam. 2011a. Parāyī sundartā mē̃/W cudzym pięknie, edited by Prabhakar Shrotriya, transl. by Monika Browarczyk and Maria Skakuj Puri, New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. Zagajewski, Adam. 2011b. Unseen Hand: Poems, transl. by Clare Cavanagh, New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

Mariia Bondarenko

Agency in Translating James Joyce’s Short Prose in 20th-Century Ukraine Abstract: The chapter attempts to sketch an outline of translation and critical reception of James Joyce’s prose works in 20th-century Ukraine (specifically, in the 1920s–1990s) focusing on the agency and agents influencing the positioning of the novelist’s artistic oeuvre in the Ukrainian literary field. Specifically, the study aims to (1) contextualize the production and circulation of the Ukrainian translations of Joyce’s prose as well as surrounding paratexts and metatexts on the Ukrainian lands under the reign of Poland (1921–1939) and the USSR (1921–1991); (2) investigate the role of periodicals and literary circles as agents of translation/reception of modernist literature in Ukraine, and (3) trace the development of the ideas concerning Joyce’s creative method. Last but not least, the following questions are to be answered: How did the translations of James Joyce’s prose stimulate the development of modernist narrative in the Ukrainian literary field? How did agents of translation manifest themselves in the translated texts? Keywords: Agency, agents of translation, literary translation, James Joyce

1 Introduction: Agency in Translation (Studies) This chapter aims to outline the cultural value of undertaking the translation of Joyce’s prose as an act of cultural and social importance. I argue that discovering the principles of choosing the texts for (non-)translation as well as determining the factors influencing the choice of the text, the translator, the publishing platform, and the translation strategy, as well as critical response to the publications of the texts, may uncover the tendencies of establishment and development of the modernist narrative in the target culture. In addition to the review of the platforms for publication and circulation of Joyce’s texts in 20th-century Ukraine, the comparative Translation Studies (TS) analysis of three retranslations of a short story Eveline (by I. Cherkavskyi (1933), M. Semchyshyn (1936), A. Kostetskyi, and Ya. Stelmakh (1972)) will illustrate the change of linguistic and extralinguistic conditions of writer’s reception on the Ukrainian lands in different periods and under various ideological influences. The theoretical backbone of the chapter draws on the definition of agency as “willingness and ability to act”1 (Kinnunen and Koskinen 2010: 6); and agents of

1 The definition was collectively formulated by the participants of a symposium Translators’ Agency hosted by the University of Tampere (Finland) in 2008.

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translation as “translators patrons of literature, Maecenas, salon organizers, politicians or companies which help to change cultural and linguistic policies they may also be magazines, journals and institutions” (Milton and Bandia 2009: 1). Following Kinnunen and Koskinen (2010: 6), willingness to act is described as a psychological category “linked to consciousness, reflectivity, and intentionality, and it is not without some moral and ethical undertones.” Thus, this constituent calls for studying the translator’s personal and social habitus2. In turn, ability to act is the category of power(lessness) (ibid. 2010: 6), that is, what choices the agent may (not) make under certain conditions. On the other hand, irrespective of the position of the agent in the society, the ability to exercise any amount of power (for example, starting from translator/critic getting the opportunity to publish their works to choosing the text for translation/analysis, linguistic means of expression or platform for publication) may lead to the conclusion that the agent involved in power relation is not only influenced by but also him/herself influences power distribution. Such an assumption is supported by Giddens who understands power as two-way relations: “However subordinate an actor may be in a social relationship, the very fact of involvement in that relationship gives him or her a certain amount of power over the other” (1979: 6). Therefore, this study rests on the view of a translator as a social actor and translation as a social and cultural activity. Tyulenev (2016) suggests that the translator’s model of behavior depends on the translation/interpreting agency. The scholar argues that historically and sociologically oriented TS research cannot focus primarily on a human translator. If doing so, the research risks to overemphasize the translator’s freedom from social constraints, as translation/interpreting agency is always socially constructed. In turn, Tyulenev claims that the translation’s function – the main constituent of translation agency – should be a primary aspect of the investigation; based on it, the role of the translator in the reception of a certain text can be discussed (Tyulenev 2016: 6). In order to trace whether and how translating James Joyce’s prose “made difference” in the Ukrainian literary polysystem, I rely on Tyulenev’s conceptualization of the research into translation/interpreting agency and follow the suggested procedure: (1) investigate the agency of the source text (ST) in the source culture, (2) outline social and cultural conditions of the reception of the ST in the target culture (TC), (3)  study contribution of human and non-human agents into the reception of the ST in the TC, and (4) examine the influence of translation of the ST on the development of the TC literary narrative. Last but not least, translation/tor agency cannot be static but only changeable over time and space “being a continuous flow of conduct” (Giddens: 1979, 55). Thus, it would be productive to trace the agency of translating James Joyce’s prose in Ukraine within three periods: 1) 1920s–1930s, 2)1930s–1960s, and 3) 1960s–1980s. 2 See Simeoni, Daniel. 1998. “The Pivotal Status of the Translators’ Habitus”. Target 10:1, 1–39. DOI 10.1075/target.l0.1.02sim.

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2 James Joyce’s Prose in Western versus Eastern Europe: Why So (Un)popular? Having occasionally been banned, strongly criticized, manipulated, and even used for the sake of propaganda, Joyce had never been completely ignored in Europe and America. Joyce’s creative method had influenced many world-renown writers, namely V. Nabokov, V. Wolf, W. Faulkner, A. Camus, etc. The discussion of Joyce’s oeuvre in the European literary circles began almost immediately after the publication of his first works. The public interest was supported by both patronage of American and European agents (e.g., E. Pound, Th. Eliot, S. Beach, and H. Weaver), publications in modernist-oriented journals and publishing houses (e.g., Little Review, The Egoist, Shakespeare and Co.), and Joyce’s own efforts. For instance, in 1921 Joyce got acquainted with V. Larbaud3, who soon lectured about Ulysses and A Portrait calling Joyce “the greatest currently living writer of English language, the equal of Swift, Sterne and Fielding” (Leernout: 2004, 10). Simultaneously, Larbaud put a particular emphasis on the importance of Joyce’s figure in the Irish national and cultural revival. That made Joyce particularly interesting for both “mature” European nations and “budding” ones. In the early 20th century, France and Germany were considered to be culture centers (unlike English-speaking countries). That is why translation and critical reception of Joyce’s works was often mediated by French and German languages, which, in addition to Italian, became the first languages into which Joyce’s prose works were translated. Moreover, as Leernout states, until after WWII almost all English-language works were firstly mediated via French – either through textual translation or through critical articles (Leernout, 2004: 12). Practically, the popularity of Joyce among the European readership may be explained by his geographical proximity (the writer lived, wrote, and published his works in Europe – Paris, Rome, Trieste, and Zurich) and writer’s extensive social capital. The early reception of Joyce in western Europe was partly motivated by personal preferences and literary tastes of the agents – patrons and critics, who were, in fact, translators. Later, it was largely fueled by the poststructuralist movement and further publication of Joyce’s complete biography by R. Ellmann (ibid. 2004: 20). Joyce’s artistic method had a great influence on the writers in the countries, where modernism blossomed; though it was much less spread in the countries where modernism was suppressed at the state level (ibid. 2004: 13). The reception of Joyce’s works in eastern Europe, where communist ideology determined cultural policy on the official level, was generally slower than in western European countries. The input of literature from “bourgeois” countries was strictly controlled by the party, which “silenced” the unwelcome translators

3 Valerie Larbaud is a French poet, writer and critic, who was claimed to be “a tastemaker among the French literary circle, whose seal of approval was eagerly sought by young authors and by publishers” (cited in Leernout 1992: 29).

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and critics, and shouldered publications of the acceptable ones. The Ukrainian Joyce traveled a similar path, which, however, was marked by the number of the characteristic features.

3 Joyce in Ukraine: The Case of Eveline Noteworthy was the Ukrainian literary modernism being markedly different from the “classic” European tradition, sparked by the desire for moving away from traditional “peasantry” motifs in the Ukrainian literature (so-called narodnytstvo, its localism and pathetic moods) and focused on the promotion of the European-style intellectual poetry and prose. Ukrainian literary modernism was reluctant to the image of Europe promoted in the works by European modernists  – depressed, disappointed, exhausted by war, social and economic crises. Though calling for the necessity to turn to “the new literary trends developing in Europe” (here and father  – quotes are provided in my translation), the Ukrainian poet M.  Voronyi warned against excessive straightforwardness, vulgarity, and brutality squinting towards esthetic modernism – Goethe, Heine, Meterlink, Ibsen, Baudelaire, and Po (Pavlychko 1999: 97). M. Khvyliovyi’s4 course for “psychological” Europe followed a similar line. So, the vision of Europe outlined by the Ukrainian intellectuals in the early 20th century left no place for Joycean modernism for being too pessimistic, gray, and hopeless. However, Joyce’s personality and creativity were not completely ignored by both Soviet literary critics and Poland-based Ukrainian culture-makers5. Specifically, in 1927, the literature scholar Oleksandr Leites published his article entitled James Joyce in Culture and Life (Kultura i Pobut)  – the supplement to the Kharkiv-based Newsletter of All-Ukrainian Union of Proletarian Writers (VUSPP). The latter acted as a mouthpiece of the communist party promoting social realism. Mistakenly identifying London as the setting of the novel, the critic quite neutrally described the artistic method of Joycean grotesque – precise, even photographic, description of a single day in a life of a little man. Nevertheless, the article introduced Joyce as an example of a decadent Europe that no longer can create a true “great”  – not burlesque  – literature (Leites, 1927:  4). The same year, Joyce was introduced to the potential readership of western Ukraine: the translation of the essay Der Homer Unserer Zeit: Über James Joyce6 was published in the Lviv-based 4 M. Khvyliovyi (poet, inspirer of the Free Academy of Proletarian Literature (VAPLITE)) and M. Voronyi (poet, translator, a founding member of the Ukrainian National Theater) can surely be called Ukrainian “tastemakers”. For a detailed study of Ukrainian modernism see Pavlychko (1999). 5 In the 1920s–1930s, the territories of modern Ukraine were divided between Poland (Western Ukraine) and USSR (Central and Eastern Ukraine). 6 Yvan Goll was a French-German poet and critic, a close friend of James Joyce and translator of Ulysses into German. Firstly, the mentioned article was published in the influential German newspaper Die Literarischen Welt.

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literary journal Vikna. Clearly, the essay exemplified the west European modernist critical narrative. Several notes were also published in a Lviv-based newspaper Dilo in 1930–1940s. Notably, one of the notes (Joyce Continues his Experiments) was dedicated to his most intricate novel Finnegans Wake, which was in progress at that moment. Thus, the scene set for the west Ukrainian reader’s reception of Joyce was qualitatively different from the one in Great Ukraine, that is, clean from control and influence of communist ideology and social realism. Additionally, due to geographic and, in a way, spiritual proximity to European countries, west Ukrainian critics had easier access to foreign (namely, French and German) publications and translations. That is why the Ukrainian readers of Halychyna got acquainted with the works of Joyce much earlier than their fellowmen from Great Ukraine. The first Joyce’s piece to be translated into Ukrainian was the short story The Boarding House published in Vikna in 1928 with no translator indicated and no commentaries provided. The translation of the short story Eveline was published in another Lviv journal Dzvony in 1933. The translation was followed by the short comment of the translator – I. Cherkavskyi, who compared the literary style of Joyce’s Dubliners to the one of Vasyl Stefanyk (Joyce 1933: 277). Interestingly, both periodicals had markedly different purposes: the publication of Vikna was initiated by the Western Ukrainian wing of the Communist Party, aimed at the promotion of “proletarian” writers; in turn, Dzvony had anti-Soviet orientation and was published in 1933–1939 by the Catholic parish with Yosyp Slipyi as the head of the editorial board. Translating Joyce aimed at creating two opposite images of the writer: one acted as a singer of degrading Europe and, therefore, served as a propaganda tool; the other – as a Catholic writer, spiritually and artistically close to the Ukrainian writers, who may benefit from his artistic method. Another translation of Eveline was published in 1936 on the pages of the newspaper Novyi Chas funded by the Ukrainian diaspora in Canada and the USA. The name of the translator was shortened – М. С-ин. The historian Vasyl Gabor attributes this translation to Myroslav Semchyshyn – a Ukrainian philologist and journalist, who lived in Lviv at that time. Both Eveline and The Boarding House addressed sensitive social problems, that is, emigration from the country and the position of a woman in society. First attempts to render Eveline were done by amateur translators (though Cherkavskyi was also known for translating Mauriac and Saint-Exupéry; Kolomiets 2015: 117) and published on the pages of local newspaper and journals, which were hardly accessible for readers from Great Ukraine. Translations were marked by numerous mistakes and calques. For instance: Even now, though she was over nineteen, she sometimes felt herself in danger of her father’s violence. She knew it was that that had given her the palpitations. When they were growing up he had never gone for her like he used to go for Harry and Ernest, because she was a girl (Joyce, 2012: 31).

Joyce does not directly specify what kind of father’s violence Eveline is afraid of – mental, physical or both. Cherkavskyi explicated a physical abuse and rendered

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the excerpt as “hrozyla jij dekoly nebezpeka batkovoho pobyttja” (tr. – sometimes she was afraid of being beaten by her father) (Joyce 1933: 278). Semchyshyn, however, omitted the mention of violence and rendered the excerpt neutrally as “vse ŝe taky bojalasja batka” (tr. – she was still afraid of her father) (Joyce: 1936: 105). There are also several word-for-word renderings in both early translations, that is, expressions “te dovodylo jiji do byttja sertsja” and “distavala byttja sertsja” (that had given her the palpitations) do not sound natural in Ukrainian. Notably, a phrasal verb to go for specifically stands for “to make a physical or verbal attack on” and “to like a particular type of person or thing” (Macmillan Dictionary). Cherkavskyi and Semchyshyn rendered the lexeme as “nikoly ne interesuvavsia neju” (tr. – was never interested in her) and “ljubyv” (tr. – loved). Translators distorted the key idea of the story, that is, the weak position of a young woman in the Irish society, suffering from domestic abuse. The spelling of the names in the early Ukrainian translations allows one to trace the orthography rules existing at various stages of the development of the Ukrainian language. Thus, Semchyshyn adapted the spelling of the Irish surnames Miss Hill and Miss Gavan mentioned earlier in Eveline to the colloquial Ukrainian language spoken in the territory of western Ukraine. The suffix -ов used in the Ukrainized Irish surnames, such as Ґованова, Гілльова, point to woman’s belonging to a man  – father or husband. Thus, in Semchyshyn’s translation, a woman is depicted as a subordinate though not abused. After 1934, the Communist party reconsidered its attitude to Joyce: at the Congress of Soviet Writers, the communist writer Karl Radek labeled Joyce as “a man scrutinizing a hip of dung with worms under a microscope” (Pervyj Vsesojuznyj Sʹezd Sovetskikh Pisatelej, 316). Notably, Radek blamed Ulysses  – “an 800-page book with no commas and full stops”  – for being incomprehensible for readers (ibid.). Due to such unjustified stereotypes (stemming from inaccessibility of the ST) and governmental interventions, the reception of Joyce in Ukraine and other parts of the USSR was suspended for a few decades; translators and men-of-letters were repressed. In the 1960s–1970s, however, the interest in Joyce revived: the translation of several episodes of Ulysses appeared in Vsesvit journal (1966) – one of the most influential Ukrainian-language literary journals of the time. Retranslations of the short stories Eveline and The Boarding House (1976) by Ya. Stelmakh and A. Kostetskyi were published in Vitchyzna journal – another big platform for publication of the Ukrainian and translated foreign literature. Stelmakh and Kostetskyi were children writers and budding translators at that time. The need for a new translation of Eveline was obvious:  early renderings were probably lost and outdated. Stelmakh and Kostetskyi’s translation was more stylistically proficient and polished. Interestingly, the phrasal verb “to go for” was rendered with the Ukrainian verb “zajmaty” that means both physical and mental abuse: (1) to attack, (2) to pick on somebody, and (3) to offend verbally (Slovnyk Ukrajinskoji Movy 1972: 133). The word spelling in the later translation was also adapted to the standard Ukrainian language; no dialectal words were used.

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4 Concluding Remarks As one can see, journals and almanacs became the only platform for publication of Joyce in 20th-century Ukraine. In the early stages of the reception, mostly west Ukrainian periodicals and amateur translators took interest in Joyce. The input of west European criticism firstly allowed the west Ukrainian reader to get acquainted with the European vision of Joyce as a trendy modern writer. It may be suggested that acquaintance with Joyce was the attempt of the west Ukrainian intellectuals to keep up with the times. Interest to Joyce’s short prose may be explained by its relatively traditional European form; content, however, might have scared away the Ukrainian culture makers for its being suitable neither for social realistic paradigm nor Ukrainian modernism. Availability of propaganda-driven criticism of the USSR and long absence of textual translations obviously hindered the adequate reception of Joyce. Additionally, rumors and fears circulating among literary critics about the complexity of Joyce’s works and, thus, its irrelevancy for “an average Soviet reader” were other possible reasons for the relatively late reception. The second half of the 20th century, though, could be considered as a qualitatively new level of reception. The professional translators finally embarked on translating writer’s novels; Vsesvit and Vitchyzna as the largest platforms for publishing foreign literature welcomed Joyce. Though translations were accompanied by social realism–oriented critical articles, it may be suggested that the latter functioned as a guise for publication of Joyce’s prose in Soviet Ukraine. Though translators’ position was still relatively weak, undertaking a translation of a revealing, experimental prose could be considered as the act of cultural resistance.

References Giddens, Anthony. 1979. Central Problems in Social Theory: Action, Structure, and Contradictions in Social Analysis. Berkley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Joyce, James. 1933. Eveline. Translated by Ivan Cherkavskyi. Dzvony, 6/7, 277– 280. Joyce, James. 1936. Evelina. Translated by M. S-yn. Novyi Chas, 105–106, 105. Joyce, James. 2012. Dubliners. Richmond: Alma Books Ltd. Kinnunen, Tuija and Koskinen, Kaisa. 2010. “Introduction.” In Translators’ Agency, edited by Tuija Kinnunen and Kaisa Koskinen. Tampere: Tampere University Press, 4–10. Kolomiets, Lada. 2015. Ukrainskyj Khudozhnij Pereklad i Perekladachi 1920–30kh Rokiv. Vinnytsia: Nova Knyha. Leernout, Geert. 1992. The French Joyce. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

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Leernout, Geert. 2004. “Introduction”. In The Reception of James Joyce in Europe. Volume I: Germany, Northern and East Central Europe, edited by Geert Lernout and Wim Van Mierlo. London and New York: Thoemmes Continuum, 3–13. Leites, Oleksandr. 1927. “James Joyce”. Kultura i Pobut, 27. Macmillan Dictionary, s.v. “To go for”, accessed July 1, 2019, https://www. macmillandictionary.com/dictionary/british/go-for Milton, John and Bandia, Paul. 2009. “Introduction: Agents of Translation and Translation Studies.” In Agents of Translation, edited by John Milton and Paul Bandia. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1–18. Pavlychko, Solomiia. 1999. Dyskurs Ukrainskoho Modernizmu. Kyiv: Lybid. Pervyj Vsesojuznyj Sʹezd Sovetskikh Pisatelej. Stenograficheskij Otchet. Moskva: Gosudarstvennoe Izdatelʹstvo “Hudožestvennaja Literatura”, 1934. Slovnyk Ukrajinskoji Movy: v 11 tomakh. Tom 3. Kyiv: Naukova Dumka, 1972. Tyulenev, Sergey. 2016. “Agency and Role.” In Researching Translation and Interpreting, edited by Claudia V. Angelelli and Brian James Baer. London and New York: Routledge, 17–31.

Linguistic Corner

Dorota Osuchowska

Empowering Women: The Addressative Detektyw in the Polish Translations of the Rizzoli and Isles Series by Tess Gerritsen Abstract: To translate ‘well’, a translator has to figure out what a word they have come across in the original text represents for the author. The associations the occupational title detective had for Agatha Christie are not identical to those we can propose for a contemporary bestseller author Tess Gerritsen. An analysis of her Rizzoli and Isles Series that touches on the issue of occupational sexism brings into mind a body of research that demonstrated a close correlation between the use of such gender-opaque generic terms and the discriminatory practices Gerritsen describes in these books. Translating it ‘well’ would entail preserving its property to conceal the identity of the referent, whereas translating it by means of a gender-transparent equivalent interferes with Gerritsen’s intentions to remind her readership, both at home and abroad, that combatting gender inequality presupposes changing the way we speak. Keywords: Translating fiction, linguistic relativity, gendered language, occupational sexism

1 The Study’s Background The Apprentice (Pol. Skalpel) happened to be the last part of the Rizzoli and Isles Series by Tess Gerritsen I read; since, as in the case of the previous 11 books, this one is also a classic page-turner, my major concern was following the plot which, simultaneously, meant little time left for pondering the language she uses. And yet, somewhere close to the middle of the book, it was something about the use of language that forced me to stop reading. The source of my confusion was the addressative detektywie! (Eng. detective) – a form speakers of Polish would normally reach for while addressing a male detective. I suppose my discomfort must have been great indeed, as I even went a few pages back to make sure that the person being addressed was – as I had originally assumed – detective Jane Rizzoli and not one of the male detectives who also take part in the conversation. Later on, when I was in the middle of this study, I discovered a few more places in which the English detective used with reference to detective Rizzoli has been translated by means of this male, gender-obscuring variant. But back then, when I was reading this scene, I was pretty sure this is not the form that the six Polish translators of other parts of the series normally used. In what follows, I start with a brief discussion of whether the use of this particular variant when addressing a female is in full conformity with the norm of

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the Polish language. Then I present the results of my inquiry into all ‘background knowledge’, by which I understand the knowledge concerning the use of generic occupational titles that Gerritsen had a chance to acquire by living in a setting in which the empowerment of women has, for the past few decades, been a widely discussed – and a widely publicized – issue. As I argue on the basis of the evidence I collected, for all those who listened carefully, detective is not just any word – it is a form whose persistent use by speakers of English has resulted in the highlighting of certain distinctions in their minds, in the consequence of which they may be experiencing considerable discomfort at the sight of a woman who does not want to follow traditional prescriptions concerning the suitability and/or appropriateness of women work in occupational domains that are seen as typical men’s jobs. In the analytical part of the study, I  present all variants of the addressative detektyw the six Polish translators of the Rizzoli and Isles Series decided to employ every time the referent is Jane Rizzoli. As the analysis has shown, a gendertransparent variant prevails over the gender-opaque one which might be counter to the author’s intentions. Granted we are right in assuming that Tess Gerritsen wants her books to act as a catalyst of social change, both at home and abroad, this gender-transparent variant which predominates in the 12 parts of the series that were translated into Polish does not help produce the ‘seeing male’ effect that may, in the absence of disambiguating contextual clues, be experienced by readers of the original; and this may, in turn, reduce the chances of transmitting – intact – the message that the author wants to deliver to her readership.

2 Which Variant? The Morphological Forms of the Polish Noun Detektyw and the Choice They Put before a Translator Native speakers of Polish know that when the noun detektyw (Eng. detective) is used in the first of the seven Polish cases, the nominative, it can refer to individuals of either sex. Accordingly, if we construed a short dialogue (see Example 1) containing no suitable contextual clues, a casual witness to such a fictional conversation would have no way of knowing if the detektyw talked about is a man or a woman. Example 1:  A:  –Kto pojedzie? B: –Detektyw [M&F]. [A: –Who’s going? B: –Detective [M&F].]  

In the next five cases, the genitive, the dative, the accusative, the instrumental and the locative, creating such an ambiguity would not be possible. As clearly visible from the last two columns of Tab. 1, the morphological endings added to detektyw referring to a male differ from those assumed by the same noun referring to a

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Tab. 1: Sex-disambiguating morphological endings the noun detektyw assumes in the genitive, the dative, the accusative, the instrumental and the locative case Case

Meaning

Male

Female

1. The genitive (case) (Pol. dopełniacz)

E.g. Whose absent? (Pol. Kogo nie ma?)

detektyw-a

detektyw

2. The dative (case) (Pol. celownik)

E.g. Who am I looking at? (Pol. Komu się przyglądam?)

detektyw-owi

detektyw

3. The accusative (case) (Pol. Biernik)

E.g. Who did you see? (Pol. Kogo detektyw-a widziałeś?)

detektyw

4. The instrumental (case) (Pol. narzędnik)

E.g. Who are you going with? (Pol. Z kim idziesz?)

detektyw-em

detektyw

5. The locative (case) (Pol. miejscownik)

E.g. Who are you talking about? (Pol. O kim mówisz?)

o detektyw-ie

o detektyw

Tab. 2: Morphological forms the noun detektyw can assume in the vocative Case

Meaning

Male

Female

6. The vocative (case) (Pol. wołacz)

Used when addressing a person

detektyw-ie!

detektyw! or detektywie!

female. As a result, even if sex-transparent contextual clues are not provided, the endings added to detektyw leave the reader or listener in no doubt as to the sex of the referent. Regarding the last, seventh case, the vocative, it does stand out in one respect, namely that when the person addressed is a man, only one form, detektywie!, is possible (see Tab. 2). However, when the person addressed is a woman, the speaker can choose between a gender transparent detektyw! which has a zero morphological ending and detektywie! – the same form they would be using while talking to a male detective. In a vast majority of cases, the potential ambiguity about the sex of the referent that might arise if the speaker decided to use this last, gender-opaque detektywie is resolved by words that appear before – or after it. These contextual clues can assume the form of the referent’s last name (compare Detektywie Kowalski [M]‌! vs. Detektywie Kowalska [F]!). If the referent’s surname contains no ending pointing to his or her sex, the honorific Pan/Pani (Eng. Sir/Madam) or the verb’s ending (or both) perform the same disambiguating function (compare Detektywie Nowak, niech Pan spocznie vs. Detektywie Nowak, niech Pani spocznie or Detektywie Nowak, zaparzył/zaparzyła Pan/Pani kawę?). Occasionally, however, if the immediate context contains no disambiguating clues of this kind  – or if one fails to

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notice these clues (e.g. when one is reading a fascinating book and all one wants is to learn what happens next), one may (temporarily) be deluded in the same way I once was. Which of the two variants should a translator choose? The permissibility of both in their native idiom implies that more often than not, they will be reaching for any of them without much deliberation. Both are permitted and in common use (at least in more colloquial exchanges, as between, say, colleagues at work who know each other and are on more familiar terms), so both may be reached for somewhat automatically. However, as I contend below, a careful analysis of the entire frame1 – the book, its overall message, what the term may symbolize for the source readership and so on – might push them towards this second, gender-opaque variant with far greater frequency than – as my analysis has shown – we witness in the 12 Polish translations of the series under analysis.

3 Language, Thought and Behaviour The discriminatory practices Gerritsen’s character, detective Jane Rizzoli, is exposed to at work have, for many decades, been explained by language having a causal impact. As results from a detailed analysis of subsequent parts of the series I conducted, this broad, all-encompassing category ‘language’ can be said to encompass a number of subcategories Gerritsen alludes to, including: (a) Continued use of generic forms (he; -man; man; detective) that have been blamed for producing the ‘seeing male’ effect2 in the consequence of which women like Jane Rizzoli who are trying to function in male-dominated

1 I use this term, frame, in the same sense as the one proposed by Gregory Bateson (1955/1972). According to a rewording provided by Tannen (2006: 347), framing is ‘the way speakers communicate what they think they are doing in a particular interchange, and therefore how to interpret what they say.’ For instance, if they want their interlocutors to interpret the word genius sarcastically rather than literally, they will use different tone of voice or intonation to signal this. This intonation or tone of voice constitutes a metamessage that signals how the utterance is intended. In the case of an ordinary book – e.g. a novel by Agatha Christie that I mention at the beginning – the word detective retains its literal meaning and the message it conveys is reduced to what is proposed in a standard dictionary definition of this word; in the case of a book with a clear feminist slant, this message or literal meaning is topped with a metamessage that could be, at the simplest, formulated as: ‘if women are still discriminated against, this is, among other reasons, because of the continuing use of masculine genera like detective’. The chapter by Tannen’s is recommended here as a succinct introduction to Bateson’s proposal, but interested readers can also retrieve and read the original which is available on the Internet. 2 The workings of this ‘seeing male’ effect have been demonstrated in many studies carried out mainly by psychologists. The underlying assumption of the experiments

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occupational areas are treated as a deviation that should be eliminated at the earliest possible occasion; (b) Stereotypical utterances that girls (impersonated by Jane Rizzoli) start being exposed to early on in life and by means of which they (and their brothers)3 are socialized into believing that the only jobs suitable for a woman are those that are a natural extension of her other sex roles;4 (c) (Language-transmitted) stereotypes according to which a woman is only allowed to display communal/warmth features5 and be compliant but never assertive that make many people consider a woman like Jane Rizzoli, who they were conducting was that if genera indeed had gender-neutral connotations, the human subjects in their experiments would – upon exposure to words such as man, politician, and so on – be equally likely to produce imagery representative of both sexes. However, as demonstrated by Schneider and Hacker (1973) such an effect could only be recorded for their control group, primed with more inclusive vocabulary such as ‘Industrial Life’. The experimental group, presented with a caption reading ‘Industrial Man’, selected illustrations (this was the task they were set) that included predominantly male individuals. Both this, as well as other well-known studies in this category such as Harrison (1975) lead to the conclusion that the picture genera evoke in the minds of language users is that of a male and not males and females; viewed from the perspective of feminist scholars – experiments of this kind provide ‘rather convincing evidence that when you use the word man generically, people do tend to think male, and tend not to think female’ (Miller and Swift 1976: 21). Put differently, even though a language user knows of these words’ dual referential value (i.e. that a sentence starting with a doctor can stand for either a male or a female doctor) and has come across countless female doctors during his or her lifetime, this knowledge is ‘cancelled’ by the linguistic form in common use, in the consequence of which when they come across a female detective or a female doctor, their brain ‘tells them’ this is not the way things ought to be. Numerous anecdotal (often jocular) accounts of unhealthy agitation some language users experience at the fact of being caught and fined by a female policeman or their refusal to be examined by a female doctor is only a visible manifestation of this ‘seeing male’ effect genera produce, the other one being the discomfort many experience seeing a female enter an occupational domain (e.g. the military; the police) that the vocabulary tells them to treat as a typical man’s job. 3 Impersonated by Jane’s brother Frankie, a prototypical sexist, the other two male characters from the series that strongly subscribe to such views include Jane’s father, Frank Rizzoli and her colleague, detective Darren Crowe, who does everything he can to make her life difficult. 4 These ‘other sex roles’ are being a wife and a mother – while the jobs that they would be ‘allowed’ to do on the application of this logic include – according to the Penguin Dictionary of Sociology (sv. ‘sex roles’) – ‘working as teachers, nurses, secretaries to male managers, or serving in shops and restaurants’. 5 Research into the contents of gender stereotypes groups, under ‘communal/warmth’ traits, such features as being nice, caring, and generous. By contrast, the agentic/ competence traits men should display include, e.g. being efficient, agentic, and assertive.

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protests when her male colleagues are trying to take all credit for the work she has done as quarrelsome and un-cooperative – shortly, a ‘bitch’; (d) (Language-transmitted) stereotypical views explaining her behaviour by referring to internal (i.e. body-related) causes expose her to countless allusions to approaching menstruation as – apparently – an obvious reason for her irritability;6 (e) Having grown up in a heavily gendered language7 that predicts that women will marry early and most likely without a high school diploma  – in short,

6 The fictional illustration of this Gerritsen provides in the series consists of a number of seemingly innocuous scenes in which Rizzoli is advised to take Midol – a medicine recommended to women who suffer from the PMS syndrome. It is not certain whether Gerritsen’s insistence on repeating this scene in a few parts of the series is deliberate – all we can posit with certainty is the one-to-one correspondence between this fictional representation of this issue and research (for an overview, see e.g. Brescoll and Uhlmann 2008) on different explanations people offer in reaction to displays of anger in the workplace. As evident from this body of work, men not only have their irritability attributed to external causes, in opposition to women, whose anger is typically explained in terms of something internal; their bouts of (workplace) anger meet with understanding, while a female employee is stereotypically expected to display only positive emotions: to be modest, communal, kind, and nurturing (making coffee for her colleagues would be treated as an indication of this). This different emotion politics, i.e. different standards applied to men and women’s displays of emotion are commonly treated as one of the markers of sexism at work; when the emotions she expresses are not consistent with her co-workers’ beliefs about gender appropriate behavior, her status (usually measured in terms of being awarded or denied promotion) and wages may suffer (Brescoll and Uhlmann 2008). Jane Rizzoli is not afraid to display anger towards her superiors (e.g. lieutenant Marquette) and does not conform to stereotypical expectations; in fact her behavior is highly atypical (see Domagalski and Steelman 2007) for women, which – predictably – earns her a reputation of being a ‘bitch’. 7 A heavily gendered language like Italian is a language in which the biological distinctions are reflected in this language’s system of nouns and pronouns. This effect brought about by growing up in a heavily gendered language is demonstrated by means of the life story of Jane’s mother, Angela Rizzoli, but it is also possible that her fate is a reflection of the fate of many women Gerritsen, who is of Chinese origin, was surrounded by in her childhood. It is interesting to note at this point that many studies investigating the correlation between speaking a gendered language and such visible social outcomes as women’s participation on the labour market (including the possible obstacles to their greater participation) were conducted not by linguists but by economists. Seeing that certain measures have failed to bring the expected results – e.g. that the gender gap in education is still considerable in spite of the empowering effect of economic development – they turned to certain linguistic structures for explanation. The results obtained confirm the major assumptions forwarded within the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis – in the case of this particular aspect – that ‘some portion of educational gender inequality is linked

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they will end up being ‘family- and home-centered, caring and nurturing of children and husbands either not working outside the home at all or working part time so as to accommodate their domestic responsibilities’.8 What seems particularly significant from our point of view is that this knowledge concerning how language affects cognition and how it eventually translates into the discriminatory practices women experience at work is not something only experts are aware of. On the contrary, gender discrimination (including its causes) is such a widely publicized issue in countries such as the USA that hardly a week goes by without it being raised either during a television debate or in a press article.9 Importantly, too, the argumentation forwarded is frequently to highly stable linguistic structures and, thus, may persist even as countries develop’ (Davis and Reynolds 2016: 4; emphasis mine). Another fact worth mentioning here is that – by contrast to research on LRH conducted by linguists, studies conducted by economists such as Davis and Reynolds operate on very large datasets: in the case of this particular one, a ‘dataset of over 76,000 women speaking 34 languages, residing in 70 countries, and belonging to 99 distinct country-language groups’ (Davis and Reynolds 2016: 2). Other work in this category (gendered language) whose findings predict the incidents from the series under analysis include, e.g., Gay, Santacreu-Vasut and Shoham (2013), who demonstrated that speaking a more heavily gendered language ‘associates positively with marriage by age 18’ (p. 23), Gay, Hicks, Santacreu-Vasut and Shoham (2015), who proved that ‘female immigrants to the U.S. who speak a language with sex-based grammatical rules exhibit lower labor force participation, hours worked, and weeks worked’ (p. 1) or Hicks, SantacreuVasut and Shoham (2015), whose research shows that speaking a highly gendered language also translates into the gendered division of labour in the household (p. 1), again exemplified by what we observe in the Rizzoli household. 8 Citation after the Penguin Dictionary of Sociology (sv. ‘sex roles’). 9 To exemplify, one may mention an article by Jim Tankersley, readers browsing through an online version of The New York Times could see in August 2018 and that contained a reference to a 2018 study by Charles, Guruyan and Pan. Those who followed this lead to the publication in question would get a succinct introduction into how language, thought and behavior work together. As the three authors contend, without the medium of language, its users would not be able to transmit the ‘negative or stereotypical beliefs concerning the ability or appropriateness of women engaging in market work rather than home production’ (Charles, Guruyan and Pan 2018: 1), their ability or appropriateness to occupy professional domains previously reserved for men (on grounds that their capacities are inferior to men’s), beliefs that the family must inevitably suffer when she engages in activities outside the home or that (Charles, Guruyan and Pan 2018: 1) ‘men and women should occupy specific, distinct roles in society.’ Language, thus, plays a key role in the formation of certain attitudes; and these may, eventually, translate into specific behavior on the part of its users. And, as the authors just cited demonstrate, females who had been exposed to and internalized such norms during childhood, i.e. in their formative years, will continue to be haunted by them also in adult life. An American woman born in a region in which the levels of what the scholars term as ‘background sexism’ are

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supported with references to studies that demonstrate the correlation.10 Headlines such as ‘Does Your Language Shape How You Think’ or ‘Using “She” and “He” Reinforces Gender Roles and Discrimination of Women’ illustrate this tendency well,11 eventually leading to two inevitable conclusions:  firstly, that it would be virtually impossible for someone who, like Tess Gerritsen, spent her entire life in such a setting not to have come across these countless research-based allusions to language, thought and (discriminatory) behavior being tightly interwoven.12 Secondly, though she had never specified what precisely she means by ‘education and

high will, later on, be less willing to bargain for higher wages than a woman born in an area in which background sexism is less pronounced, even if both have, in the meantime, moved to the same, less sexist place and do similar work. Her willingness to work for less is not the only outcome this study’s authors observed: her labour force participation, the age she will marry or the ages of childbearing – incidentally, the fictional incidents from the life of Angela Rizzoli – will be affected, too. 10 The first studies – as well as the debates the public in the Western world had a chance to witness – date back to the 1970s – a point in time when feminist authors started paying close attention to the role language plays in perpetuating sexist views. 1 1 The first headline comes from an article by Guy Deutscher which has been published by the New York Times Magazine, on August 26, 2010. Regarding the second title cited above, it has been reproduced from a short online article by Davis and Maviskalyan, the two scholars published in March 2018 in The Conversation. Though this article does not specify the studies evoked, its readers could easily locate them, e.g. by following the link to the author. As she explains in another study she co-authored, ‘when choosing between two job candidates, agents that speak a gendered language may often represent their choice accordingly: Shall I choose him or her? […] This can matter […] if she [i.e. the interviewer] assigns high credence to men are better at the job than women’. No effect of this kind will be observed in ‘speakers of gender-neutral languages [who] may conceptualize the decision in a way that does not so distinguish: Shall I choose this person or that person?’ (Mavisakalyan and Weber 2018: 921). Other studies confirming this finding include Mavisakalyan (2015) or Pérez and Tavits (2016). 12 Needless to say, Gerritsen’s exposure to such ideas and research is not limited to the aforementioned media accounts, though these probably continue to play a significant role, especially in the case of an individual who once admitted to reading four newspapers a day. One may also assume she may have been encountering allusions to certain linguistic forms’ unacceptability in brochures distributed by the schools her children attended and – earlier – her university (it is a custom at such institutions to issue guidelines reminding that discrimination on the basis of sex is unacceptable and how not to reinforce discrimination by means of linguistic forms that exclude gender-based reference. Importantly, too, she has herself experienced this capability of words to delude, e.g. in one of the essays she posted to her blog (http://www.tessgerritsen.com/writers-and-secret-identities) she recounts the times when her coworkers admitted to her that when they were told about a new doctor, Terry (her given name) Gerritsen coming soon, they were always imagining a blonde Scandinavian guy.

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constant reinforcement’ she sees as the only way to combat occupational inequity,13 when one considers her life experience – as well as explicit hints to sexist language she left in the series in question – it is hard to avoid the impression that one of the ‘lessons’ she would like her readership to take home concerns the necessity to change the way we talk. Generic nouns seem to play a special role in her ‘educational scheme’. In two parts of the series under analysis she even included two short scenes in which the reader is invited to stop for a while and reflect upon how these forms connect with the treatment Rizzoli receives from her male colleagues. In the first of them, Gerritsen makes a nine-year-old comment on the absurdity of Rizzoli identifying herself as a policeman and not a policewoman (or police officer). In the second scene, the reader witnesses Rizzoli fall victim to the ‘seeing male’ effect genera produce, when she assumes that the teacher or the master she is about to interrogate is a female. Importantly, since Polish is an inflectional language, a Polish translator of Gerritsen’s series will not experience any problems recreating the message the author is delivering on those two occasions. In Example 2, which is a Polish translation of the first fragment discussed, the reader is confronted with the opposition between policjant [M]‌ and policjantka [F], which preserve the sense of the original intact. In Example 3, the two masculine forms the translator has used contrast with what the reader will see a few lines later, when the ‘male teacher’ – this is what language made him and Rizzoli assume – turns out to be a female teacher: Example 2:  – Dlaczego nie ma pani munduru? – Bo detektywi nie muszą ich nosić. Ale naprawdę jestem policjantem. Przecież jest pani kobietą. – No dobrze, policjantką. [Eng. “How come you don’t have a uniform?” “Because I’m a detective. We don’t have to wear uniforms. But I really am a policeman.” “But you’re a woman.” “Yeah. Okay. Policewoman …]14   Example 3.  – Czy możemy porozmawiać z właścicielem?  – spytała Jane.  – Sifu Fang jest w pokoju w głebi, udziela prywatnej lekcji.  – Jak się pisze to imię? Powiedziałaś Szi… – Sifu to nie imię – prychnęła Bella. – To chińskie słowo określające mistrza lub nauczyciela. Zwrot wyrażający szacunek. – Wobec tego możemy rozmawiać z

13 As evident from one of the interviews she gave on May 15, 2017, to Affinity magazine. In this interview Gerritsen, when asked on how to promote more equity, contends: ‘I don’t know that there is a way to resolve the issue [occupational sexism] other than education and constant reinforcement.’ 14 The Polish translation cited after Grzesznik (The Sinner), p. 106. The English fragment cited from: https://read-any-book.com/online/565888, accessed 1 August 2019.

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Dorota Osuchowska tym mistrzem? – spytała […] Jane. […] W przeciwieństwie do młodziutkiej Belli Li Chinka, która wstała z krzesła, aby ich przywitać, poruszała się wolno… [Eng. “May we speak to the owner?” asked Jane. “Sifu Fang is in the back room, teaching a private student.” “How do you spell that name? You said it was She—” “Sifu isn’t a name,” Bella retorted. “It’s the Chinese word for ‘master’ or ‘teacher.’ A term of respect.” “Then may we speak to the master?” Jane snapped […] Unlike lithe young Bella Li, the Chinese woman who rose from her chair to greet them moved slowly …]15   

Needless to say, though the allusion to language as one of the reasons for Rizzoli’s problems at work seems clear enough, not every Polish reader will pick up the clue. Generally speaking, we can assume that getting the message across will be more difficult here (in Poland) than in the USA, where the issue of the interrelation between sexism and language receives much more publicity. Recreating the ‘seeing male’ effect a few more times would increase the chances and the English nouns such as agent, doctor or detective that the series abounds in offer such a possibility.

4 Gender-Transparent and Gender-Opaque Translations of detektyw in the Polish Translations of Gerritsen’s Series The 12 parts of the series that had been translated into Polish contain, together, 165 occurrences of the noun detektyw used with reference to detective Jane Rizzoli. A total of 157 (95 %) of them constitute examples of the gender-transparent variant. This feminine variant detektyw, characterized by a zero morphological ending, would allow the reader to guess the sex of the referent even if the noun would be used without further contextual clues listed below: (1) (2) (3) (4)

Pani detektyw (116 occurrences); Pani detektyw Rizzoli! (3); Panno detektyw (1); detektyw Rizzoli (37)

In eight cases, Rizzoli is addressed by means of the masculine variant, detektywie occurs eight times. In two out of these eight, the masculine form is followed by the last name of the referent (detektywie Rizzoli). The bare detektywie occurs on six occasions only and – if the reader fails to notice the disambiguating clues as to

15 The Polish translation cited after Milcząca dziwczyna (The silent girl), pp. 71–72. The English fragment cited from: https://read-any-book.com/online/6761809, accessed 1 August 2019.

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the referent’s identity – they may erroneously assume that the person addressed was a man. But, if the number of referential two-in-ones may not suffice for a reader to form a mental connection between the discriminatory practices described in the series and language as one of the reasons why the gender divide still exists, then at least its distribution across characters faithfully reflects how widespread such forms still are. The male detektywie has been used by men and women alike, characters well-known for their sexism as well as those who do not subscribe to sexist views. Their level of education also does not matter in this respect.16 Indeed, if we put these few instances of detektywie side by side with the names of characters who used them and provided the reader with a brief ‘who is who’ for each of them, they would be justified in concluding that this is still a form virtually everyone uses – including (see Examples 2 and 3 above) women who are the victims of work-related gender discrimination.

5  Concluding Remarks It is a well-known fact – almost a truism – that translation can act as a catalyst for social change. What is more, contemporary translators seem well aware of this. According to Chenxin Jiang, a Singapore-born translator who decided to accept a commission for Tears of Salt: A Doctor’s Story by Dr. Pietro Bartolo, the major reason for which she did this was to ‘make the perspective of the refugees accessible’ to as many people out there as possible. But, as she admits, informing the readers worldwide of what it is like to be a refugee is by no means all she was hoping for: the translation she helped produce could, ‘hopefully, provoke a response and maybe even make some of them think of some practical way in which to help’.17 16 The form was put into the mouths of Erin Volchko – a lab technician and Rizzoli’s colleague whom she likes and respects; an anonymous (male) crime scene technician; Darren Crowe – Rizzoli’z colleague and a prototypical sexist; a former soldier Joe Roke, as well as an archeology professor (Quigley) and Anthony Sansone, a cultured, well-educated man. 17 Citations in this paragraph come from an essay by Jiang posted at https://lithub.com/ the-political-power-of-translation/. The post starts with a description of a feeling of powerlessness Jiang was experiencing in the summer of 2015 when, upon her brief visit to Berlin, she found herself glued to the TV screen to ‘watch the news and read about Syrian families and other refugees streaming into German train stations’. As she recalls, the sheer number of ‘refugees in Berlin alone’ seemed too great for ‘one person’ to even dream of contributing in any meaningful way. This changed when Jiang received an offer ‘to translate a book written by an Italian doctor [Pietro Bartolo] running a clinic on the island of Lampedusa’. At this point, Jiang is still not thinking about the career choice she has made – being a literary translator – as, in fact, a ‘political act’, in that by deciding on what commissions to accept, a literary translator ‘makes particular texts accessible to particular readers by transporting them across linguistic boundaries’ and, thus, automatically advocating for the authors and the causes they consider important.

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However, this power to initiate change is not just a property of entire books. Single words can perform in the same function. An average American reader who has purchased any of the part of the Rizzoli and Isles Series by Tess Gerritsen will immediately classify it as a series with a clear feminist slant. An ‘ideal’ American reader – one who has been actively following the decades-long debate concerning the discriminatory practices women are exposed to  – should, upon a moment of reflection, be able to discover a causal link between incidents of occupational sexism depicted by the author and the fact that speakers of English are still not ready to change the way they speak. One linguistic structure in particular seems to translate into the reluctance with which the male colleagues of detective Jane Rizzoli react to her as the only female detective of the Boston police department:  masculine genera such as the occupational title she holds. Extensive psychological research has clearly shown that this reluctance can partly be explained by the ‘seeing male’ effect genera evoke. However, whereas this knowledge about genera an ideal reader of Gerritsen had a chance to accumulate by simply living in a setting in which sexism is so widely publicized can be activated by virtually any occurrence of detective which appears in a setting devoid of contextual clues on the referent’s identity, a Polish reader stands the greatest chance of realizing this if the translator manages to delude him as to the referent’s identity. For this to take place, a gender-opaque variant would have to be employed but – as demonstrated above – most of the times Rizzoli is addressed by means of a set of forms that leave no doubt as to her identity.

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Sing, Aishvarya. 2017. ‘Interview with Bestselling Author Tess Gerritsen’. Available from: http://culture.affinitymagazine.us/interview-with-bestsellingauthor-tess-gerritsen/, accessed March 7, 2019. Tankersley, Jim. ‘How sexism follows women from the cradle to the workplace’. The New York Times. August 19, 2018. Available from: https://www.nytimes. com/2018/08/19/business/sexism-women-birthplace-workplace.html, accessed February 22, 2019. Tannen, Deborah. 2006. ‘Language and culture’. In Ralph W. Fasold and Jeff Connor-Linton (eds). An Introduction to Language and Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 343–372.

Books Analyzed 1. Chirurg [The Surgeon 2001]. Translated by: Jerzy Żebrowski. Polish ed. copyright 2017; Polish translation copyright 2002. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Albatros. 2. Skalpel [The Apprentice 2002]. Translated by: Zygmunt Halka. Polish ed. copyright 2017; Polish translation copyright 2008. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Albatros. 3. Grzesznik [The Sinner 2003]. Translated By: Jerzy Żebrowski. Polish ed. copyright 2017; Polish translation copyright 2004. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Albatros. 4. Sobowtór [Body Double 2004]. Translated by: Jerzy Żebrowski. Polish ed. copyright 2017; Polish translation copyright 2005. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Albatros. 5. Autopsja [Vanish 2005].Translated by: Zygmunt Halka. Polish ed. copyright 2017; Polish translation copyright 2008. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Albatros. 6. Klub Mefista [The Mephisto Club 2006]. Translated by: Jerzy Żebrowski. Polish ed. copyright 2017; Polish translation copyright 2007. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Albatros. 7. Mumia [The Keepsake 2008]. Translated by:// Zbigniew Kościuk. Polish ed. copyright 2017; Polish translation copyright 2010. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Albatros. 8. Dolina Umarłych [Ice Cold/The Killing Place 2010]. Translated by: Krzysztof Obłucki. Polish ed. copyright 2014; Polish translation copyright 2011. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Albatros. 9. Milcząca dziewczyna [The Silent Girl 2011]. Translated by: Anna Jęczmyk. Polish ed. copyright 2017; Polish translation copyright 2012. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Albatros. 10. Ostatni, który umrze [Last to Die 2012]. Translated by: Jerzy Żebrowski. Polish ed. copyright 2014; Polish translation copyright 2013. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Albatros.

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11. Umrzeć po raz drugi [Die Again 2014]. Translated by: Jerzy Żebrowski. Polish ed. copyright 2017; Polish translation copyright 2017. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Albatros. 12. Sekret, którego nie zdradzę [I Know a Secret 2017]. Translated by:/Andrzej Szulc. Polish ed. copyright 2017; Polish translation copyright 2017. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Albatros.

Iryna Frolova

Types of Mistakes in Rendering Terms in Machine Translation Abstract: One aspect of the growing power of translation in the modern globalized world is the emerging of machine translation systems. Specific technologies of the online services ensure translation from/into supported languages and thus promote integration and facilitate sharing knowledge. However, the use of such technologies is known to result in numerous faults of the target texts. This prompted the idea of analyzing the mistakes in rendering terms – the key units of specialized texts – in machine translation. The experimental study involved nine specialized source texts in English. At the first stage, these texts were translated into Ukrainian by semi-professional translators; at the second stage, Google translator was employed. The comparison of human and machine translation of terms gives ground to conclude: (1) over 50 % of all terms were rendered by Google Translator correctly and (2) the mistakes fall into minor (mainly grammatically or stylistically wrong language units) and bad (semantic) ones. Minor mistakes hinder readability, while bad mistakes distort the content of the target text. The ratio of the types of machine translation mistakes varies in different spheres of knowledge. Keywords: Machine translation, mistakes, specialized texts, terms

1 Introduction One aspect of the interconnection and interrelation of translation and power is the growing importance of translation in the modern globalized world. As Bassey E. Antia observes, Translation is attached more and more importance particularly thanks to globalization, rising international trade as well as the development of technologies (2001: 16).

As a result, throughout the 20th century, a gradual swing from translation of literary works to that of specialized texts was observed. The boom of the latter has taken place in the latest decades due to the emergence of machine translation systems. At first, a rather optimistic idea of the prospect of total substitution of human translation by online services prevailed. Later on, it gave way to the understanding of machine translation of specialized texts as a very useful supplement but not a substitution of human translation, as the use of online services is known to result in numerous faults in the target texts. Nevertheless, online translation services are widely used today and play an important role in strengthening the power of translation. They ensure translation of specialized texts from/into supported languages and thus facilitate sharing

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knowledge and promoting integration, which manifests their scientific and sociopolitical value. However, is it always worth employing this type of translation? Will it be informative enough for specialists? These problems seem timely today. This circumstance has prompted the idea of analyzing the mistakes in machine translation of specialized texts, in particular, the mistakes in rendering terms – the key lexical units that embody the main content of these texts. In the first part of this chapter, I concentrate on the relevant theoretical issues, and in the second part on the experimental data and procedures, while the third part presents the results of the experimental study and their discussion.

2 Specialized Texts and Their Terminology in Machine Translation Perspective Specialized texts are described as the production of non-literary character, pragmatically designed for use in a specific field or discipline, such as science, technology, healthcare, business, administration, or tourism (Understanding Bilingual…). Specialized texts are opposed to literary texts, as “unlike literary texts, specialized texts are more closed, more objective and concise” (Costeleanu). Another essential feature of specialized texts is that they usually contain terminology and concepts characteristic of the field and often follow conventional formats (Understanding Bilingual…). With regard to linguistic study, terms are the keywords of such texts that embody their main content and are linked to a number of concepts, relevant to a certain field. Also, terms are conventional labels of some elements of conceptualized scientific knowledge, and these labels can be either internationally recognized or linguoculturally specific. Besides, in some cases the same conceptual element can be proper to both scientific and everyday consciousness and can be embodied in a language in the same way or in different ways. This is the case with “native words” presented in English by a combination of two everyday words and in Ukrainian («питома лексика») or Russian («исконная лексика») by specific terminological units. Structurally, terms fall into one-component, two-component, three-component, and multi-components units (Karaban 2004). Today, with the expansion of knowledge, terminology also develops, changes, becomes richer, and more than one-component terms appear in growing numbers. Thus, one of the main challenges for translators of specialized texts is to render the meaning of their key elements – terms. It is common knowledge that such translators need sufficient knowledge in the specialized domain, a high competence both in the source and the target language together with the competence in these languages for special purposes. All these requirements are easy to meet when a translator is only involved in working within one specialized domain. However, even in this case a translator cannot be as knowledgeable as a professional, not to mention the fact that in most cases translators do not restrict themselves to one field only.

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Seeing specialized translation as an uneasy enterprise for these reasons, translators in many cases choose to employ online services. Those who resort to computer translation programs share the belief that electronic “brain” is much more powerful than the human one. According to this viewpoint: machine translation is almost as precious as human translation since its merits are far from substituting words in one language for another. Machine translation does often provide a solution in those situations in which the amount of material needed in different language versions is too vast for people to handle (Costeleanu).

However, this is only one side of the coin, while the other also needs taking into consideration, namely: … when dealing with simple, individual words, things are easy and clear. But when it comes to complex, intricate sentences, most programs cannot cope with the simplest grammatical structures (Costeleanu).

The experiment reported here aims to demonstrate that the problems and errors appear not only with grammatical structures, but also with rendering terminology, including more than one-component terms.

3 Research Design Subjects and Acknowledgments In all, there were eight subjects in the experiment, all of them students working towards their Bachelor’s Degree, that is, in their final (fourth) year of study. The experiment was based on the material of their course papers which required translating an English text into Ukrainian and analyzing the translation. Thus, the subjects in the experiment were the ones described in translation studies as “semiprofessional translators” (Kussmaul and Tirkkonen-Condit 1995), but as their translations were checked by tutors, they can be judged as correct, at least as far as terminology is concerned. All the students appeared to be very enthusiastic, concerned, and hardworking. This, and the fact that they kindly allowed me to use the results of our work for my project, makes me feel very grateful to them. Namely, I would like to express my gratitude to Darya Dorovska, Viktoria Moskalets, Danylo Pimshyn, Vlada Yavduk, Valeria Len, Angelina Lyholyot, Alina Uhlievata, and Anna Chugueva.

Data and Stages The data sample includes terms from specialized texts. These texts were the students’ choice, but they were to meet the following requirements: ● The length of each (one text or more) was to be about 20 000 signs. ● Every text should belong to a specialized field or domain of knowledge.

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Most students chose a text or several texts belonging to one field, but one of them (D. Pimshin) decided to work with two texts from different fields: one belonging to the field of astronomy and the other to ichthyology. Altogether, the specialized texts subject to analysis embrace nine different fields, namely: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

agriculture; astronomy; bacteriology; criminal psychology; ichthyology; law; medicine; philology; and psychology.

Three students retrieved their texts for translation and analysis from different electronic sources while the other five used TED Talk scripts. After choosing the texts, the students translated them from English into Ukrainian, discussed their translation with their tutors, and performed other tasks presupposed by the course papers. That was the preliminary stage of the experiment, after which the three main stages followed. Stage 1. Machine translation of the text(s). Though I did not recommend an online service, all of the students used Google Translate, which suggests that it must be the most popular one today. After the participants in the experiment used Google Translate, they were asked to arrange the data in three columns – (1) original text, (2) their own translation of the original text, and (3) machine translation of the original text. Stage 2. Establishing the ratio of the terms rendered correctly/incorrectly by Google Translate. The first step here was to select all the terms from the original text, find their Ukrainian equivalents in both versions of translation and mark them in bold. The second step consisted in making absolute and percentage calculations on the terms rendered correctly or incorrectly in machine translation. As mentioned before, I assume that in human translation, the terms were all rendered correctly. Therefore, it was possible to judge the machine translation of terms as correct/incorrect on the basis of comparing it with human translation. The analysis also allowed to establish a correlation between the ratio of the terms translated correctly/incorrectly with regard to the specific field the text under analysis belongs to. Stage 3. Classifying the mistakes of machine translation. Rendering the content of the original text, (human) translators, according to L. Chernovatyi (2009), can make mistakes that come in three varieties:

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(1) the mistakes that do not influence the content of the target text; (2) the mistakes that may influence the content of the target text; and (3) the mistakes that distort the content of the target text. In so far as it concerns translation of terms, which must be precise, clear, and informative, I  find mistakes of the second type not quite relevant. Accordingly, the classification used in the experiment includes two types of mistakes, namely: (1) errors that make it impossible to understand the content fully and clearly; (2) minor mistakes which allow to understand the content though not always fully and clearly. At this stage, the participants of the experiment were to take the following steps: – classify all the mistakes in machine translation into the two types and – analyze the mistakes of each type and describe their varieties.

4 Results and Discussion The results of the second stage of the experiment give grounds to argue that in most (but not all) cases the number of terms rendered with mistakes by Google Translate exceeds that of the terms rendered correctly; however, this ratio demonstrates certain differences in the translation of texts belonging to different specialized domains, as shown in Fig. 1. As can be seen, in some cases the percentage of terms rendered by the online service correctly/incorrectly does not differ greatly, though incorrect equivalents prevail in the translation of texts in agriculture, ichthyology, and law. In others, this difference is more noticeable, as in texts in bacteriology, medicine, and psychology. At the same time, the number of terms rendered correctly exceeds the number of those translated with mistakes in the texts in astronomy, criminal psychology and, most significantly, philology. At the third stage of the experiment, the mistakes were further subdivided into serious and minor ones. Serious mistakes fall into:  (1) wrong translation and (2)  unclear/noninformative translation. Wrong translation involves either choosing a wrong lexical/semantic variant (1–3) or perceiving the structure of the term in the wrong way, for example: (1) We tracked two different species in the jungle, one in Vietnam, one in Costa Rica, and then we sequenced the DNA from their stool.

Ми прослідкували за двома різними видами мавп з джунглів:  одна з В’єтнаму, інша з Коста Рики, і потім ми дослідили ДНК з їхніх фекалій. Ми відстежували два різних види в джунглях, один у В’єтнамі, один у Коста-Ріці, а потім ми прослідковували ДНК з їх стільця.

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correct 70

57

60 50 40

incorrect

66

43

54

63 52

46 34

48

49 51

47

66

61

53 37

34

39

30 20 10 0

Fig. 1: Percent ratio of correct\ incorrect machine translation of terms in the texts in different fields

In sentence (1), the term stool is rendered by the online service by the Ukrainian word meaning chair which does not reveal the terminological meaning (a discharge of fecal matter). (2) We are not concerned with how a text uses tense-forms to refer to an immediate microcontext.

Ми не зацікавлені в тому, як текст використовує часові форми для посилання на безпосередній мікроконтекст. Ми не зацікавлені в тому, як текст використовує напружені форми, щоб посилатися на безпосередній мікроконтекст.

Here the first component of the term is translated in the wrong way: tense is rendered by the Ukrainian word напружений that denotes a feeling of state marked by strain or suspense, not by the word часовий that denotes a form of a verb expressing time or duration, thus altering the meaning of the term on the whole. (3) The penalties under Sharia law favor corporal and capital punishments over incarceration.

За законами шаріату в якості мір відповідальності пріоритетними постають тілесні покарання та смертна кара, а не ув’язнення. Штрафні санкції в відповідно з законом шаріату в користь тілесних покарань і капіталу більш ув’язнення.

In this sentence, the term capital punishment is translated incorrectly, as its first component (capital) is rendered by the Ukrainian equivalent denoting a stock of

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accumulated goods, money, thus referring it to the domain of finance and suggesting that the punishment described is not death penalty but some kind of fine. Occasionally, the wrong translation of a term was not so much of semantic, but of lexical/grammatical nature, for example: (4) The spinal cord had breaks.

У спинному мозку утворилися розриви. Спинний мозок перервав.

In this case, the term break is rendered in machine translation not as a noun but as a verb, which deprives the Ukrainian utterance of any meaning. Bad mistakes in some cases also result from a wrong translation of proper names, as in the sentence given below: (5) … Lombroso’s work is deemed a precursor to the Nazi ideology of the Ayran race.

… робота Ломброзо вважається ганебним передвісником нацистської ідеології арійської раси. … робота Ломброзо розглядається як збентеження і вважається попередником нацистської ідеології раси Айран.

Here the online service translated the term Ayran race by the Ukrainian word combination, the first component of which is the equivalent of the word race and has the meaning almost identical to the English one, while the proper name Ayran is transcoded, which makes the meaning of the whole term unclear. Minor mistakes include those in style or grammar that hinder the text readability while the content is quite clear as shown in sentences (6–9). (6) My lab got our first indication of this when actually we were studying non-human primates.

У моїй лабораторії ми вперше зіткнулись з цим, коли вивчали нелюдиноподібних приматів. Моя лабораторія отримала перше свідчення про це, коли насправді ми вивчали не-людських приматів.

In (6), the online service rendered the first component of the term non-human primates in the way that makes the meaning of this component (and the term on the whole) quite clear, though the equivalent used differs from the correct one in terms of style. (7) Modernising (modernisation) – highlighting the modern-day relevance of the text by using modern language.

Модернізація (модернізація)  – виділення актуальності тексту за допомогою сучасної мови. Модернізація (модернізація)  – висвітлення актуальності сучасності тексту за допомогою сучасної мови.

In this case, the term modern-day relevance should be rendered by the Ukrainian equivalent актуальність (actuality) meaning both relevance and modern-day. The

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variant given by Google Translate combines the word актуальність with another one – сучасність, meaning modernity which is, in fact, equal to modern-day. Thus, the meaning of the term is correct in principle, though stylistically inadequate (tautological). In sentences (8–9), there are grammatical mistakes in machine translation (wrong case endings, which are underlined): (8) Tumor cells can travel through the blood vessels.

Клітини пухлини здатні проходити через кровоносні судини. Пухлинні клітини можуть проходити через кровоносні судина.

(9) At that time, I  was really interested in neuroscience  and wanted to do a research project in neurology – specifically looking at the effects of heavy metals on the developing nervous system.

На той час я дуже цікавилась неврологією та хотіла займатися проектом у цій області, зокрема вивчати вплив важких металів на розвиток нервової системи. У той час я дійсно зацікавився неврологією і хотів зробити дослідницький проект в неврології  – спеціально вивчивши вплив важких металів на розвиток нервову систему.

These mistakes, quite obviously, do not influence the meaning of the terms.

5 Conclusion Research results give grounds to argue that the use of online services in the translation of specialized texts cannot be judged as adequate because of numerous mistakes in rendering terms – the key language units for understanding the content of the text. Overall, in the texts subject to analysis, the number of the English terms translated into Ukrainian incorrectly exceeds the number of those rendered correctly. At the same time, this ratio varies, ranging from the highest proportions of incorrectly translated terms in the texts on bacteriology, medicine, and psychology to smaller proportions in the texts on agriculture, law, and ichthyology. The number of correctly translated terms in the texts on astronomy and criminal psychology is insignificant, while in the texts on philology, on the contrary, it is quite significant. This prompts the idea that the problems in translating terms by online services are dependent on the special field and its terminology rather than on this field belonging to humanities/non-humanities. The mistakes in rendering terms by the online service Google Translate come in two varieties: serious mistakes and minor mistakes. Serious mistakes result in making the meaning of a term wrong or unclear, which prevents the reader of the target text from understanding it properly and fully. In most cases, serious mistakes involve choosing a wrong lexical/semantic variant as an equivalent for a term or one of its components; this can lead to

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misunderstanding of the content. Also, these mistakes arise from choosing a wrong part-of-speech meaning or transcoding a proper name instead of supplying its equivalent, which in both cases makes the meaning of the terms unclear. Minor mistakes include faults of stylistic or grammatical nature which negatively affect the text’s readability but do not prevent the reader of the target text from understanding its content. The experiment reported in this chapter is the first (and preliminary) stage of a larger project aimed at analyzing the productivity of using online services in the translation of specialized texts by comparing its adequacy (and time limits) in groups of students employing (1) human translation and (2) machine translation and target text editing.

References Bassey, Antia E. 2001. “A competence and quality in the translation of specialized text: investigating the role of terminology resources”. Quaderns. Revista de traduccib, 6:16–21. Chernovatyi, Leonid. 2009. “Problema otsiniuvannia pysmovykh robit maibutnikh perekladachiv [Assessment of Written Papers Submitted by Students Majoring in Translation].” Visnyk Kharkivskoho natsionalnoho universytetu imeni V.N. Karazina [V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University Messenger], 848:257–262. (in Ukrainian) Costeleanu, Mirela. Difficulties in Translating Specialized Texts. Diachronia. Accessed March 2, 2019. http://www.diachronia.ro>details>pdf. Karaban, Viacheslav. 2004. Pereklad anhliiskoi naukovoi i tekhnichnoi literatury. Hramatychni trudnoshchi, leksychni, terminolohichni ta zhanrovostylistychni problem [Translation of English Scientific and Technical Literature. Grammar difficulties, Lexical, Terminological and Genre-stylistic Problems]. Vinnytsia: Nova Knyha. (in Ukrainian) Kussmaul, Paul, and Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit. 1995. “Translation Studies.” TTR: traduction, terminologie, reduction, 8(1):177–199. t Understanding Bilingual Translation of Specialized Texts. Accessed March 5, 2019. http://www.language.dk>conference.

Nadiia Andreichuk

The Power of Temporality from a Semiotic Perspective: Translational Semiosis Abstract: Temporality is viewed from a semiotic perspective, namely as a particular ‘temporal code’ establishing correspondence between thought and reality. Methodological approach suggested for the semiosic research of chronosigns is based on defining three dimensions of semiosis: code, informational, and cultural. It is claimed that the analysis of these dimensions is an effective tool for explaining actions of chronosigns in lingual-and-cultural spaces of SL and TL. Readjustment of chronosigns in the process of translational semiosis is discussed on the basis of the English translation of Ivan Franko’s “Moses” authored by Vera Rich. Attention is paid to the recoding of ‘temporal codes’ in translation and enabling the target audience to feel the power of chronosigns. Keywords: Temporality, chronosign, dimensions of semiosis, Ivan Franko, Vera Rich, translational semiosis Sit fausta quae labitur. May the hour be favorable. Нехай буде сприятлива година, котра минає.

1 Temporality from a Semiotic Perspective We can change our spatial location with ever-increasing efficiency and speed but we are absolutely powerless when it comes to temporal location. We cannot revisit past ‘nows’, except in our imaginations. And the only way to visit future time locations is to wait until we arrive at them. But this metaphysical fact can be discussed, that is, we can talk about time and temporality and this ‘talk’ demands semiotic approach and constructing a ‘temporal code’. The latter is an inherent part of communicative processes and its ‘power’ can and should be rendered in translation. In this context lexical means that serve to signify our ideas and concepts of time – chronosigns – are of special importance. The aim of this chapter is to cover three relevant issues: a) temporality from a semiotic perspective, b) methodological approaches applicable for semiosic research of chronosigns (based on dimensions of semiosis), and c) case study of the translational semiosis of chronosigns based on the English translation of Ivan Franko’s “Moses” authored by Vera Rich. The key role temporality plays in the accomplishment of interactional processes stems from the fact that it is basic for all human actions and experiences. Every

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philosophy

normative science

logic (semiotic)

phenomenology

ethics

speculative rhetoric

aesthetics

critical logic

normative science metaphysics

logic

methodeutic

Fig. 1: Peircean view of philosophy

lived moment is a fleeting, continuously renewing present. It is never self-contained, but an ever-moving, non-locatable, ephemeral point of continuous transition of immediate future and lived present into past (Husserl 2019). The starting point of this research is the conviction that what is past, what is present, and what is future is basically a semiotic problem. A  semiotic approach is suggestive for understanding of how people interpret temporality as it offers a productive lens through which to study how the semiotic resources are involved in ontology. As a first approximation, ontology is the study of what there is. Many classical philosophical problems are ontological: the question of God, the existence of universals, etc. These are problems in ontology that deal with the existence or nonexistence of a certain entity. Ontology is usually also taken to encompass problems about the most general features and relations of the entities which do exist (Hofweber 2017). Philosophers claim that there is a striking similarity between the most general forms of thought and the most general features of what there is: the form of the thought corresponds to the structure of the fact in the world. If there is an explanation of this correspondence to be given, it seems it could go in one of three ways: either the form of thought explains the structure of reality (a form of idealism), or the other way round (a form of realism), or maybe there is a common explanation of why there is a correspondence between them, for example, a form of theism where God guarantees a match (Hofweber 2017). To study the most general forms of thought is the task of logic. Trying to substantiate the continuum of concerns that bring together ontology, logic, and semiotics we will specify how Charles Sanders Peirce defined logic and look at a variety of themes that are apparent in his views on logic. In Peircian view philosophy is divided into three broad cases of study: phenomenology, normative science, and metaphysics. He includes logic into normative science. For Peirce logic is synonymous to semiotic and much of his sign theory can be found in speculative rhetoric (Fig. 1). Our minds function in the universe ‘perfused with signs’. Therefore, we have a mind whose thoughts have a form which mirrors the structure of the facts

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that make up the world. And ontologies are what comes into existence with the dynamics of signification1. It is the crucial feature of Peirce’s sign structure that sign is fundamentally a process concept. The clearest way of seeing this is that Peirce treats the three elements of a sign: representamen, object, and interpretant – as essentially connected. If we take into consideration translational and developmental aspects of the interpretant, we can see that signs and signification are processive. Professor Albert Atkin2, from the Department of philosophy, believes that signs are part of a developing process of information and understanding attached to particular objects (2016: 131–132). This semiotic process of the sign in action is called semiosis. The sign in Peirce’s definition is never static, thus, semiosis is an act, a particular action in the real world. The sign is fundamentally mediative as it connects the object and the interpretant. For Peirce, there are actually two objects: ‘the dynamical object’ and ‘the immediate object’. The first is the real object of reference (includes real objects, fictions, and concepts), and the second is the object as the sign presents it (perception or mental image). Signs mediate our interpretative relation to the world, and the interpretant is by far the most complex notion. In his Letters to Lady Welby in 1906 Peirce explains that: there is the Intentional interpretant, which is a determination of the mind of the utterer, the Effectual interpretant, which is a determination of the mind of the interpreter; and the Communicational interpretant, or say the Cominterpretant, which is a determination of that mind into which the minds of utterer and interpreter have to be fused in order that any communication should take place. This mind may be called the commens3. It consists of all that is, and must be, well understood between utterer and interpreter, at the outset, in order that the sign in question should fulfill its function (‘Commens’).

1 Here and further ahead highlighted by the author of the article. 2 Albert Atkin is a philosopher based at Macquarie University in Sydney. He is a member of the Department of Philosophy and the Centre for Agency Values and Ethics. He specialises in the Philosophy of Race, and Pragmatism (especially the work of C.S. Peirce) and has additional interests in the Philosophy of Language, Epistemology, and Feminism. His book Peirce, kindly sent by him to the author of this article, is an invaluable source for semioticians. 3 This term gave the name to The Commens Digital Companion that provides resources and tools for students and scholars of Charles S. Peirce. Commens contains a new type of online publication platform, consisting of a unique quotation dictionary, that was used by the author of this article, an encyclopedia of original research articles, a new working papers series, and a bibliographical database. Commens also publishes news pertaining to Peirce research and related fields of inquiry. Mode of access: http://www.commens.org

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primary interpretant

notional interpretant

cultural interpretant

leads to the immediate object

leads to the dymanical object

leads to the value judgement

Fig. 2: Triadic nature of interpretant

This classification of interpretants is not the only one suggested by Peirce. He also uses other terms: Immediate – Dynamical – Final or Normal; Immediate (Emotional) – Energetic – Logical. The pertinent goal of this research is to substantiate the conviction that defining the dimensions of semiosis should be based primarily on the interpretant4, which is triadic and presents an inseparable unity of primary, notional, and cultural interpretants (Fig. 2). The suggested substantiation of the dimensions of semiosis is based on the following convictions: (a) semiosis generates the interpretant and (b) it is the agency of the sign itself rather than the agency of an interpreter. The interpretation of the latter can be regarded as the perception of the meaning exhibited by the sign itself through the interpretants it generates. Joseph Ransdell argues that meaning creation and change “is never due solely or primarily to what we do: man proposes but the sign disposes” (1989). Thus, the process of semiosis is self-governing: the sign has a power of generating interpretants.

2 Approaches to Translational Semiosis Analysis Proceeding from the suggested triadic nature of the interpretant three levels and three dimensions of semiosis can be substantiated. The dimension of the relation of interpretant and sign vehicle is the code dimension of semiosis, since primarily the interpreter perceives the sign vehicle as a unit of code. The second dimension of semiosis is shaped through the relation of sign vehicle and notional interpretant. Notional interpretant provides the reference of the identified object to the dynamical object. The concept is the component of sign and correlates with the notional interpretant for the dynamical object. This makes possible to single out two basic characteristics of the latter:  1)  mental nature (is localized in the consciousness and is a mental projection of an object) and 2) affiliation to knowledge as a set of relatively stable, objective, and collective notional interpretants. Since knowledge

4 For more details on the author’s standpoint regarding the triadic nature of interpretant and defining dimensions of semiosis see Andreichuk (2018).

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primary interpretant

notional interpretant

cultural interpretant

perceptive level

referential level

evaluative level

code dimension

informational dimension

cultural dimension

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Fig. 3: Levels and dimensions of semiosis

turns into information in the process of transference, it is suggested to call the second dimension of the action of sign the informational dimension of semiosis. The third dimension of semiosis is associated with cultural interpretant and correlates with the system of evaluations and values in the mind of the interpreter. Thus, the triadic nature of the interpretant forms the basis for singling out three dimensions of semiosis (Fig. 3). Awareness of time is reflected in a variety of verbal signs and can be studied applying the suggested dimensions of semiosis. Marcy Brink-Danan from the Department of Sociology and Anthropology (The Hebrew University of Jerusalem) calls discourse about names highlighting an awareness of time (in particular past times) ‘chronomastics’ (Brink-Danan 2010:  385) and comments that this neologism builds on the noun onomastics, the study of names and their meanings, while focusing attention specifically on names as social objects that articulate contemporary and past classifications. Studying chronomastics draws our attention to the issue of semiosis that is the action of signs which we will call chronosigns – the units of a ‘temporal’ lingual code. Language speakers manipulate various dimensions of temporality (e.g., duration, speed, frequency, and timing) using chronosigns which convey various social messages (e.g., about priority, importance, commitment, respect, intimacy etc.). Proceeding from the suggested dimensions of semiosis it seems logical to suggest three methodological approaches to translational semiosic research based on code, informational, and cultural dimensions: 1) formal or codosemiosic approach, 2) cognitive or infosemiosic approach, and 3) communicative or sociosemiosic approach (Fig. 4). Thus translational semiosis refers to translation as: a) a semiotic or sign-based process and b) semiosic or sign-action centered process. The latter can contribute to the understanding of the creative process of signification and interpretation in translation and offers a new paradigm of research in translation studies based on a general theory of signs and theory of semiosis.

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codosemiosic

infosemiosic

sociosemiosic

code dimension

informational dimension

cultural dimension

nature and systemic organization of sign-vehicles

information processing

culture-bound interpretation

Fig. 4: Translational semiosis analysis

3 Case Study The case study is based on Ivan Franko’s most famous poem “Moses” and its English translation by Vera Rich5. Ivan Franko is a rare example in the global context and a unique case in Ukrainian history of a universal genius, an extremely gifted and harmoniously creative personality: a versatile writer, scholar, political activist, and public figure. The poem “Moses” was written by Ivan Franko in six months, from January until July of 1905. The English translation was authored by Vera Rich and was first published by the Shevchenko Scientific Society in 1973. Other known English translations of “Moses” were done by Volodymyr Semenyna (1938), Adam Hnid (1987), Bohdan Melnyk (2002), and Roman Karpishka (2014). The translation of Vera Rich “stands out due to its rendition of the philosophical essence and poetic exquisiteness of the original” (Tykholoz 2017: 38). The schema of semiotic relations between chronosigns in translational semiosis encompasses three levels. At the perceptive level the researcher deals with the nature and systemic organization of sign-vehicles − the code dimension of semiosis. For example, the chronosign година is quite regular in Ukrainian when we want to indicate time: Котра година? In English in this context What’s the time? is used. And in many ‘temporal contexts’ hour (година) will serve to substitute English code time:  ранкова (наддосвітна, зарумʼянена) година; пізня година, важка година, чиста година (“дай мені чисту годину”). Among those hours one is quite special – the hour of passing away which sooner or later comes. The tower bell on the city hall in the center of Lviv reminds us about it. And who does not understand its voice should read the inscription: Vigilate! Nescitis enim horam! (Watch, because you do not know the hour!).

5 All the excerpts for analysis are taken from the book published by Ivan Franko Lviv National University to commemorate 160th anniversary of its patron’s birth. This book contains Franko’s most famous poem “Moses” in the original and in its English transaltion by Vera Rich (Franko 2017).

Chromosigns from Translational Semiosis Perspective

Бо вже близька година моя, Та остання, незнана, А я мушу, я мушу дійти До межі Канаана (Franko: 141)

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For already my last, unknown hour Is waiting to claim me, Yet I must, yet I must still win to The borders of Canaan (Franko: 140

The translator used the same code and the cultural interpretant is the same. But another example shows the difference in coding: І почулися тихі слова: “Бідний, бідний, мій сину! Ось що з тебе зробило життя За маленьку часину!” (Franko: 179)

And he heard quite words speaking to him: “My poor son, all dismayed now! See what in a short span of time This harsh life has made you! (Franko: 178)

Informational interpretant is the same but cultural interpretant of Ukrainian часинa (часинка, часиночка) as a poetic word is actually lost. The semiotic relations between the temporal and the social can be discovered at the microlevel of interpersonal relations and also at the macrolevel of cultural space. Using the English–Ukrainian pair for the case study of translational semiosis, one can discover that ‘temporal contrasts’ are used to substantiate and accentuate social (conceptual, cultural, and political) contrasts in ethno-symbolic space. When we speak about the last day it usually refers to some socially conditioned events: Ще не йшов Авраам з землі Ур На Гарранські рівнини, А я знав всіх потомків його До останньої днини (Franko: 207).

“Before Abraham from Ur to Harran Began his migration, I knew all his progeny down To the last generation! (Franko: 206)

The translator substituted the chronosign до останньої днини with the chronosigns having the same informational interpretant but cultural interpretant was not fully preserved as днина in Ukrainian denotes the ‘light’ or ‘white’ period – серед білої днини –when nothing is hidden, everything is lighted because the sun is shining. This interpretant is preserved in some other chronosigns, for example, щоднини: Мало б сонце даремно мій сок Вигрівати щоднини? Мого плоду даремно шукать Око звіра й людини? (Franko: 105)

“Must the sun vainly drink up my sap And parch it dry daily, Must the eyes of men and of dumb beasts Seek for my fruit vainly? (Franko: 104)

The coding is different (prefix in Ukrainian, suffix in English) but the cultural interpretant (the light period) is not so vivid.

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Semiotic mediation of human consciousness is reflected in one more Ukrainian chronosign through which Ukrainians perceive the reality: хвилина, хвиля. It vividly demonstrates the connection of spatial and temporal codes: І Датан зміркувався як стій: “Забирайся в тій хвили! Щоб ми кровʼю твоєю під ніч Своїх рук не сквернили!” (Franko: 125)

Dathan instantly grasped how things stood. “Begone this very moment! Lest our hands should be stained with your blood, Before this night’s coming!” (Franko: 124)

Хвиля (‘a short span of time’) possesses a cultural interpretant different from the neutral moment and renders the interplay of spatial, temporal, and cultural context. Хвиля (‘wave’) is metaphoric and brings together space and time:  the water rises and falls and disappears forever. The perception of time is certainly culturally conditioned, which means that in different cultures time may be experienced – perceived, conceptualized, and evaluated – in diverse ways. The distinction between past, present, and future seems to be a universal phenomenon, but the relations of these categories may be drastically different in different cultural codes (Uspenskij 2017: 230). Прийми ж цей спів, хоч тугою повитий, Та повний віри; хоч гіркий та вільний; Твоїй будущині задаток слізьми злитий, Твойому генію мій скромний дар весільний (Franko: 69).

So, then accept these words, verse swathed in sorrow, Yet full of faith, bitter yet free, I bring it, An earnest, washed in tears, of your bright morrow, A bridal gift for your indwelling spirit (Franko: 68)

Code dimension of будущинa is characteristic of Ukrainian nouns denoting historical periods: панщина, гетьманщина, etc. Franko often uses it to denote future periods, as well as corresponding adjective будущий. The cultural interpretant has some archaic flavor for Ukrainian readers. All the cultural patterns which are transformed into chronosigns are guided by a common pragmatic imperative: they must be easily interpreted by all the members of the ethnic community thus “eliminating the real “flow” of irreversible personal experience by translating it into symbols reflecting stability)” (Valsiner 1994: 31). Choosing the chronosign morrow the translator achieves the same pragmatic effect. Thus, proceeding from the conviction that semiotic study, following Peirce, actually consists in analyzing the sign’s action, that is, semiosis, the author claims that the starting point for determining dimensions of semiosis is the interpretant − the integral element of sign and the outset of semiotic inference. The triadic nature of interpretant is substantiated and three types of interpretants ‒ primary, notional, and cultural ‒ are singled out. It is brought to light that each type of the interpretant ‘works’ on a different level of semiosis: perceptive, informational,

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and evaluative, correspondingly. Three dimensions of semiosis  – code, informational, and cultural – are applicable to translational semiosis analysis and allow to differentiate three approaches to the analysis: codosemiosic, infosemiosic, and sociosemiosic. Though the power of temporality lies in the fact that we cannot put time into the cage of words, we still can analyze how the attempts to do this differ in different ethno-cultural spaces applying these approaches.

References Andreichuk, Nadiia. 2018. “Perechytuiuchy Ch.Morrisa: perehliad vymiriv semiozysu” [Rereading Ch Morris: revising dimensions of semiosis]. In Luibov’ k slovu: filologicheskiye zametki v chest’ yubileya professora V.A.Kuharenko [Love to word: philological notes to honour the jubilee of professor V.A.Kukharenko]. Edited by I.M. Kolehayeva. Оdessa: КP ОHT: 22–36. Atkin, Albert. 2016. Pierce. London, New York: Routledge. Brink-Danan, Marcy. 2010. “Names that show time: Turkish Jews as “Strangers” and the semiotics of reclassification”. In American Anthropologist 112(3): 384–396. ‘Commens’. Term in The Commens Dictionary: Peirce’s Terms in His Own Words. Edited by M. Bergman, S. Paavola. Retrieved from http://www.commens.org/ dictionary/term/commens. 22.03.2019. Franko, Ivan. 2017. Moses: Poem. Lviv: Ivan Franko National University of Lviv. Hofweber, Thomas. 2017. “Logic and Ontology”. In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2018 Edition). Edited by Edward N. Zalta. Retrieved from: https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2018/entries/logic-ontology. 15.04.2019. Husserl, Edmund. 2019. The Phenomenology of Internal Time-Consciousness. Edited by Martin Heidegger, trans. by James S. Churchil. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Ransdell, Joseph. 1989. Teleology and the Autonomy of the Semiosis Process. Retreived from: http://www.iupui.edu/~arisbe/menu/library/aboutcsp/ransdell/ AUTONOMY.HTM. 05.03.2019. Tykholoz, Bohdan. 2017. ““Moses” by Ivan Franko: The author’s conception, the history of the text and the editorial principles of the new edition”. In Ivan Franko. Moses: Poem. Lviv: Ivan Franko National University of Lviv: 14–30. Uspenskij, Boris. 2017. “Semiotics and culture: The perception of time as a semiotic problem”. In Sign Systems Studies 45(3/4): 230–248 Valsiner, Jaan. 1994. “Irreversibility of time and the construction of historical developmental psychology”. In Mind, Culture and Activity 1(1−2): 24–42.

Bogdana Stoika

“Powerful” Verbs: Semantics of Verbs Denoting Management in Different Lingual and Legal Cultures Abstract: This chapter deals with the semantic groups of verbs containing the semantic feature “manage” in English and Ukrainian. The possible senses of verbs are studied taking into consideration their functioning on the government portals of Ukraine and the United Kingdom. It is claimed that through the public administration discourse effective models of state power can be realized. The chapter focuses on the shared and distinctive features of the representation of “powerful verbs” on the government portals. Keywords: Semantic group, the public administration discourse, state power, government portals

1 Semantic Fields of Words Words in the language do not exist in isolation. They make up microsystems of lexical units brought together by common meanings. Each word has a definite position in its microsystem and its significance is determined by this position, because semantic meaning of the word is specified by the relations which are formed in a grid of oppositions of this word to other words in this microsystem. In this chapter “semantic field” is defined as the extensive organization of related words and expressions into a system that shows their interrelations. The components of the semantic fields are joined together by some common semantic component known as the common denominator of meaning – the archseme. Several terms are alternatively used in linguistics for ‘semantic field’:  ‘semantic group’: ‘lexical field’: ‘lexical set’, ‘semantic domain’, ‘lexico-semantic group’. In this paper preference is given to the term ‘semantic group’ which is most commonly defined as “a set of lexemes which cover a certain conceptual domain and which bear certain specifiable relations to one another” (A.  Lehrer) or as a “named area of meaning in which lexemes interrelate and define each other in specific ways”. (Potiatynyk 2014, 108–9).

Uliana Poyiatynyk form Ivan Franko National University of Lviv puts it in simpler terms and defines a semantic group as a group of words whose members are related by meaning, reference, or use. The vocabulary of the language is essentially a dynamic and well-integrated system of lexemes structured by relationships of meaning. These relationships are both syntagmatic and paradigmatic. Paradigmatic relationships include synonymy

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and antonymy; hierarchical, general-particular, and part-whole relationships; and also relationships of sequences and cycles. In this chapter, I will stick to the conviction that any semantic group possesses the following properties: 1. Native speaker intuitively understands semantic group, which is a psychological reality for him. 2. Semantic group is autonomous and can be distinguished as an independent subsystem of language. 3. Units of a semantic group enter different systematic relations. 4. Each semantic group is connected with other semantic groups of the language and together they make up a lexical system of the language.

2 Principles of the Contrastive Analysis of the Semantic Groups The goal of this research is to discover similarities and differences in the semantic groups of verbs containing the semantic feature “manage” in English and Ukrainian. I choose to apply the following guidelines for cross-language Ukrainian and English verbal systems comparison: (1) Considering current tendencies in intralanguge theoretical interpretations of verbs with the necessity in many cases to “adapt” them to the chosen research methodology, (2) Ensuring the principle of consistency which is extremely important for crosslanguage comparison, (3) Applying bilateral approach to comparison, the value of which is that compared language get equal status, so one can avoid the research of other language(s) and culture(s) in the light of native language, (4) Substantiating the choice of tertium comparationis (basis of comparison) relevant to the research object. To compare semantic groups, it is necessary to answer at least two problematic questions: (1) What do we focus on to compare? (2) How can semantic groups be compared? The first problem is based on the a priori consistent statement about the comparability of languages as well as variability of compared units. The comparability of languages is conditioned by the human cognitive capacity, which does not depend on cultural specificity of language communities. The answer to the key question “How language units can be compared?” is more complicated. The scholars have been discussing on the advantages of unilateral or bilateral comparison, and the choice of the tertium comparationis. The choice is usually predetermined by the subject matter and expected research results. Comparing the semantic groups of verbs in the Ukrainian and English languages, it is necessary to proceed from the understanding of the language:

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(a) As the primary means of communication, closely related to social production and cognitive activities of people, (b) As sign system that mediatively expresses the relation of the objects of reality and their reflections in the speakers’ minds. For the purpose of this research, I have chosen a generalized semantic category “process” to serve as the tertium comparationis. This category is an “umbrella notion” (a term that provides a super-set of grouping of related semantic aspects) expressing semantic characteristics of the compared Ukrainian and English verbs. This category is believed to be theoretically well-grounded in terms of linguistic ontology and is qualified as a generalized abstract model having integral nature and two aspects of representation − lexical semantics of verbs and a set of grammatical (morphological, derivational, and syntactic) categories. The second aspect will not be discussed in this report. Semantic aspects of the category “process” chosen as tertium comparationis for contrastive analysis of Ukrainian and English verbs of “power” are considered to have the following basic distinctive features: (1) proper intralanguage theoretical explication, (2) generalized nature of the concept that is different from the subject matter, and (3) ensuring the comparability of the studied Ukrainian and English semantic groups. In this research, I will deal with the synonymic relations as represented in the groups under study.

3 The Semantic Relationship of Synonymy Proceeding from the statement by M.  Pokrovskiy that the meaning of words can be understood only when we study it in connection with synonymic words (Pokrovskii 2019), we will proceed with discussing the synonymic relations in the semantic groups of “powerful verbs.” Different attempts have been made to conduct contrastive analysis of semantic groups represented by synonymic rows. Synonymy is a phenomenon that is widely spread in both English and Ukrainian. It is defined as “two or more lexical items which have the same meaning if they can replace each other without any change in the meaning of that context” (Lyons 1968, 448). At present, synonymy remains a problem in terms of its identification and delimitation. Moreover, the relative size of synonymy in English as compared to Ukrainian has not been investigated yet. It is widely accepted that synonyms can be classified into four types: 1) complete and total synonymy; 2) complete, but not total; 3) incomplete but total; and 4) incomplete and not total (Lyons 1968, 448). Complete and total synonymy which is often called “absolute” or “real” synonymy is an extremely rare occurrence, a luxury that language can ill-afford. Many linguists, Ullmann and Lyons among them, argue that this type of synonymy can be obtained if the complete semantic equivalence and total interchangeability are displayed (1962). The second type requires the equivalence of both cognitive and emotive senses while the third type refers to all synonyms which are interchangeable in all contexts. Finally, the fourth type represents a partial objection to the phenomenon of synonymy.

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Thus, meaning is distinguished by the potential presence of the semantic features which words do not have in common. As a consequence, two words may be absolutely synonymous as far as their conceptual symbolic content is concerned, but they are never such if we consider the above factors which depend on the speaker and the structure of the language. So, Ullman states that the cognitive sense allows absolute synonymy while a cluster of additional stylistic values do not allow it (1962, 251).

4 Research Procedure 1. Selecting dominant verbs Verbs “manage” and “керувати” have been chosen as dominant verbs of the synonymic group under study and their semantics has been analyzed. 2. Making lists of synonyms Proceeding from the archisemes “manage” and “керувати” the verbs making up the synonymic groups in both languages have been formed. To select verbs for analysis the following dictionaries have been used: Oxford English Dictionary. Second Edition (Simpson 1989) and Etymological Dictionary of Ukrainian Language (Melnychuk 1985). All the synonyms of “manage” and “керувати” have been selected. English synonymic row of verbs with the archiseme “manage” in English consists of 29 verbs: 1. to manage, 2. to be in charge of, 3. to run, 4. to be head of, 5. to head, 6. to direct, 7. to control, 8. to preside over, 9. to lead, 10. to govern, 11. to rule, 12. to command, 13. to superintend, 14. to supervise, 15. to oversee, 16. to administer, 17. to organize, 18. to conduct, 19. to handle, 20. to take forward, 21. to guide, 22. to be at the helm of, 23. to regulate, 24. to check, 25. to discipline, 26. to have authority over, 27. to reign over, 28. to order, and 29. to be in power over. Ukrainian synonymic row of verbs with the archiseme “керувати” in Ukrainian consists of 26 verbs:  1. Керувати; 2.  Правити (керувати); 3.  Розпоряджатися, давати розпорядження, наказ; 4.  Урядувати  – керувати; 5.  Старшувати (старшинувати) керувати, начальствувати; 6.  Ве рховодити  – розпоряджатися; 7.  Орудувати  – керувати, розпоряджатися, правити; 8. Правувати – мати владу над, розпоряджатися; 9. Порядкувати - очолювати, керувати, командувати; 10. Начальникувати; 11. Провадити перен. Керуватию; 12. Кермувати перен керуватию; 13. Радити - давати кому-небудь пропозицію, вказівку, як діяти в яких-небудь обставинах; 14. Царювати- розм. повноправно порядкувати, самовільно керувати ким-, чим-небудь; 15. Завідувати; 16. Адмініструвати; 17. Відати; 18. Очолювати; 19. Стежити неперех., за ким—чим, також із спол. щоб. здійснювати контроль, нагляд; 20. Регулювати; 21. Водити  –очолювати; 22. Командува ти; 23. Давати вказівки, розпорядження; 24. Бути керівником установи; 25. Держати уряд; 26. Бути на чолі.

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3 Analysis of Functioning of the Selected Synonyms on the Government Portals of UK and Ukraine gov.uk (styled on the site as gov.uk) is a United Kingdom public sector information website, created by the Government Digital Service to provide a single point of access to HM Government services. The site was launched as a beta on January  31,  2012, following on from the Alphagov project. It officially replaced by Directgov and the online services of Business Link on October 17, 2012. The website was planned to replace the individual websites of hundreds of government departments and public bodies by 2014. By May 1, 2013, all 24 ministerial departments and 28 other organizations had their URLs redirecting to gov.uk. Government portal of Ukraine is the only webportal of executive bodies of Ukraine. The portal is owned by the Secretariat of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine. The project is implemented by Eastern Europe Foundation and State Agency for E-Governance of Ukraine within the framework of the international technical assistance program “E-government for accountability of authorities and community participation” (EGAP), with financial support of the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation. English version of the Government portal is available at https://www.kmu.gov.ua/en. The structure of both portals is different as the structure of power, authorities, and government is different and their names, functions, and quantity as well. The functioning of the selected synonyms on the portals has been analyzed by frequency and combinability. We research different word forms of the synonyms within the period from 01.01.2017 to 01.06.2019. It has been discovered that on the English portal the most commonly used word is “manage” and its different forms (24,371 cases). The second most frequently used word is “administer” and its different forms (1,843 cases). The forms of the word “reign” occur in 19 cases. These numbers reflect not only the form of English governance system but the use of the selected synonyms in different areas and quantity of these cases. For example, the word forms of “manage” are used: (1) Find out how to manage pension schemes you’re the administrator of and tell HMRC about retirement annuity or deferred annuity contracts you wish to manage (Published June 4, 2018). (2) Community managed libraries: good practice toolkit. This good practice guide, produced by the Libraries Taskforce, (with contributions from community managed libraries) is for people who are running, or considering establishing community libraries (Published June 5, 2018). (3) Committee on Radioactive Waste Management (CoRWM):  programme of work, 2017 to 2020 (Published January 2, 2018). The word “administer” and its forms are used: (1) HM Courts & Tribunals Service is responsible for the administration of criminal, civil and family courts and tribunals in England and Wales (From HM Courts and Tribulal Service-About us).

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(2)  MQ5: Investment by Insurance Companies, Pension Funds and Trusts: October to December 2017 Investment choices of insurance companies, self-administered pension funds, investment trusts, unit trusts and property unit trusts. Includes quarterly balance sheet data for short-term assets and liabilities, quarterly income and expenditure data for insurance companies and self-administered pension funds. (3)  Antimicrobial prophylaxis: Administering to bomb blast victims. Guidance on administering antimicrobial prophylaxis to bomb blast victims (May 26, 2017). The word forms of “reign” are used: (1)  PM congratulates the Queen on her Sapphire Jubilee Prime Minister Theresa May, on behalf of the nation, congratulated Her Majesty the Queen on her 65-year reign (February 6, 2017). (2) Launch of Great British High Street Awards 2019 Competition launches in reigning high street champion Crickhowell  – nominations are now open (Published May 23, 2019). (3)  UK steps up role as the fight against Daesh evolves. UK forces deployed at Al Asad Air Base will train further forward and provide increased force protection for UK personnel in and around coalition bases as Daesh continues its retreat across Iraq and Syria. Defence Secretary, Sir Michael Fallon, said: “The fight against Daesh’s reign of terror is not over and as the nature of the Coalition campaign changes, the role we play must adapt too. By training Iraq forces we are helping with the long-term stability of the country and our own security here at home” (Published October 23, 2017). On the Ukrainian portal the most frequently used synonyms are “керувати” and “управляти.” The word “керувати” and its word forms were found in 133 texts. The word “управляти” and its word forms occur in 117 texts. The verb “адмініструвати” and its word forms are used in 13 cases. For example, the different forms of the word “управляти”: (1) Сучасні державні службовці мають володіти лідерськими якостями та ефективно управляти змінами. Уряд вдосконалює систему навчання державних службовців [Служба Міністра Кабінету Міністрів України, опубліковано 03 грудня 2018 року] (2) Якщо громада хоче розвиватися, залучати інвестиції, створювати робочі місця і якісні умови для своїх людей, управляти соціальними об’єктами і територіями, то вона потребує управління земельними ресурсами. Коли земля передається повністю в управління громади є розуміння, яким чином управляти тим податком і збільшити надходження до місцевої громади [Служба Віце-прем’єр-міністра України, опубліковано 04 квітня 2018 року] (3) За тиждень розпочнуться українсько-американські морські навчання «Сі Бриз  – 2018», які стануть іспитом для Морського командування

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на сумісність з кращими флотами світу і спроможність управляти багатонаціональним з’єднанням. [Міністерство оборони України, опубліковано 01 липня 2018 року] The examples below illustrate the functioning of the word forms of “керувати” on the Government Portal of Ukraine: (1) “У Дніпропетровській ОДА бізнесменів навчатимуть керувати персонал ом.” [Дніпропетровська ОДА, опубліковано 24 травня 2019] (2) “Ми переходимо на європейську модель, коли діагностикою та лікуванням керує сімейний лікар, терапевт чи педіатр.” [Міністерство охорони здоров’я України, опубліковано 24 квітня 2019 року] (3) “Це нова генерація військових керівників, які є учасниками бойових дій і на фронті із 2014 року. У найважчі часи для України вони керували підрозділами та давали відсіч агресору”,  – сказав Степан Полторак. [Міністерство оборони України, опубліковано 28 березня 2019 року] The word forms of “адмініструвати” are used: (1) “Держенергоефективності та ЄБРР закріпили співпрацю у сфері сертифікації енергоефективності будівель в Україні …адмініструвати бази даних сертифікатів та енергоаудиторів.” [Державне агентство з енергоефективності та енергозбереження України, опубліковано 18 вересня 2018 року] (2) “Міністерство фінансів переходить до активної фази запровадження Єдиного казначейського рахунку ДФС для сплати митних платежів. На даний час уже збільшено граничну чисельність ДФС для створення підрозділу, який адмініструватиме ЄКР, та підписано Протокол обміну інформацією між ДФС та Казначейством.” [Міністерство фінансів України, опубліковано 10 липня 2018 року]

4  Defining Pragmatic Senses of “Powerful Verbs” The analysis shows that the verb “manage” in the texts on the Government Portal of UK is mostly used to signify the process of giving different instructions, thorough explanations, often meaning “cope with,” for local authorities or individuals. Otherwise the word “administer” is used to signify the process of “supervision,” “control,” and “state assistance.” The verb “reign” means the process of having power over either monarchy or territory. In most cases this is power of a monarch, but also it is used as power of some elemental force too. Ukrainian verb “керувати” and its forms in the texts on the Government Portal of Ukraine in most cases denote the process of “control” and “supervision”; thus its function corresponds to the function of “manage” in the semantic groups under study. In case of the forms of the word “управляти” it only partially corresponds to English “administer.” The use of the word “reign” corresponds to Ukrainian

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“правити,” “царювати” which are not used on the Government Portal of Ukraine but concerning elemental force it is used “царювати.” The word “адмініструвати” is used in the sense of the process of supervising, assisting, controlling, etc., that partially corresponds to English word “administer.”

5  Conclusion Verbs denoting the process of excercising power differ semantically and pragmatically in English and Ukrainian. Synonyms within the semantic groups of these groups are not coextensive.

References Lyons, John. 1968. “Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics”. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Melnychuk, Oleksandr. 1985. “Etymological Dictionary of Ukrainian Language”. Edited by Oleksandr Melnychuk. Kyiv: Naukova dumka. Pokrovskii, Mikhail, 2019. “Izbrannyie raboty po yazykoznaniiu” [The Selected Works on Linguistics]. Moscow: Yurait. Popiatynyk, Uliana. 2014. “All About Words: An Introduction to Modern English Lexicology”. Lviv: PAIS. Simpson, John. 1989. “The Oxford English Dictionary: second edition”. Edited by John Simpson and Edmund Weiner. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Ulmann, Stephen. 1962. “An Introduction to the Science of Meaning”. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Web Portal of the Government of the United Kingdom. https://gov.uk. Web Portal of the Government of Ukraine. https://www.kmu.gov.ua.

Magda Kabiri

Translating Identity through SelfPresentation: The Cognitive-Communicative Perspective Abstract: This chapter addresses the notion of “identity” as a phenomenon, analyzed in translation studies. In particular, the study focuses on one of its realizations, namely, via self-presentation strategy. An important component of translating identity is self-presentation strategy realization through the translation of self-presentemes – utterances meant to identify the speaker, provide personal information, that is, their personal, individual, situational characteristics or evaluation of these characteristics. The power of translation here manifests itself in preserving the cognitive basis and the aims of self-presentemes in the target text, which is possible to reach via rendering or adaptation. Rendering is successful in case of linguo-cultural similarity, while adaptation is more appropriate in case of linguistic and/or cultural differences, which makes translators look for ways of adapting utterances-self-presentemes to the standards of the target linguoculture. Keywords: Adaptation, cognitive basis, identity, linguoculture, rendering, selfpresentation, strategy

1 Introduction Originally, the term “identity” comes from Western philosophy and has much shorter antecedents in psychology and social psychology (On Identity). In philosophy, a distinction is made between qualitative identity, which requires a certain degree of sameness, and numerical identity, which “requires absolute, or total qualitative identity, and can only hold between a thing and itself” (Nooan, Curtis 2014). In this sense, identity has a long history going back to ancient philosophy. The nature of quantitative and qualitative identity and the problem of identity over time (and space) can be glimpsed in such notions as the spirit of the original (Hostova 2017). In the last six decades, since E. H. Erikson made his path-breaking contributions to psychoanalytic theory and character pathology, elevating the term to a theoretical concept, “identity” has been given many interpretations (On Identity www). The researcher first proposed the term “ego identity,” which he referred to as an enduring and continuous sense of who we are. The ego identity allows a person to merge all the different versions of oneself (the parent self, the career self, and the sexual self) into one cohesive whole (1956).

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The direct correlation between identity and translation is surely one of the main reasons why, in the last two decades and a half, the interest of translation studies of identity has risen. Another reason is the popularity of the concept of identity in social life and social sciences and humanities in general. A  deeper consideration of these international position-takings by translation studies and other disciplines would have not been possible without investigations into language and power and the gap between the sign and the world that allowed to move away from essentialism and positivism. Overcoming essentialism and structuralism is a prerequisite of creating the present conceptualizations of translation between languages or different media. An important factor that has made the concept of identity interesting for translation studies in the past twoand-a-half decades is the internal development of the discipline – the so-called cultural turn of the 1980s which opened translation studies to a more explicit and intense interest in culture, society, politics, and individuals involved in the process (Hostova 2017). The changing nature of identity in its local and global manifestations is examined as well as the manner in which an identity may be “translated” for the consumption of a specific market (Hostova 2017). Identity is a multifaceted phenomenon that accounts for varieties of its manifestations in discourse. Self-presentation is an obvious one among these varieties; it is the one that this chapter focuses on.

2 Self-Presentation Strategy as a Part of Identity Manifestation: Linguistic and Translation Perspectives Self-presentation is a polycodal phenomenon as far as it is implemented via both verbal and nonverbal codes. Verbal implementation of self-presentation turns it into an object of linguistic research. The term “self-presentation” became part of the discourse of social psychological studies in 1959 due to E. Hoffman, who considered self-presentation as a permanent process that changes its character depending on the goals of the “actor” and circumstances, that is, as a general feature of social behavior (Goffman 1956). Psychological scientists E. Jones and T. S. Pittman provide a taxonomy of selfpresentation strategies such as: • ingratiation, used to evoke interpersonal attraction or liking; • self-promotion realized when individuals call attention to their accomplishments to be perceived as capable by observers. • exemplification realized when individuals go above and beyond what is necessary or expected to be perceived as committed or hardworking. • intimidation realized when individuals project their power or ability to punish to be viewed as dangerous and powerful. • supplication realized when individuals present their weaknesses or deficiencies to receive compassion and assistance from others (Jones, Pittman 1982).

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This research proceeds from understanding self-presentation as the speaker’s verbal identification, realized by the perception of general context and situational factors, the formation of causative stimulus and the support of I-conception. The aim of self-presentation is to produce on the addressee the impression which seems desirable to the speaker (Kabiri 2018). In terms of frame modeling, this allows to present the frame of SELF-IDENTIFICATION as a situation, the components of which appear, on the one hand, to establish the identity of an individual and the search for means and methods of constructing and expressing their own “I,” and on the other hand – a unity of conditions and circumstances that create a certain environment (Kabiri 2018). Approached in a narrower sense than in the quoted papers, self-presentation can be regarded as a discourse strategy, within the framework of T.  van Dijk’s theory, where the structure of discourse strategies is described as a hierarchy of a global strategy, a number of local strategies, and speech strategies. Thus, selfpresentation can be interpreted as a local strategy. As for the communicative strategy of self-presentation, there are much fewer of its definitions and interpretations. Some of them conclude that the communicative strategy of self-presentation involves creating a certain impression about the speaker and socially acceptable behavior. Others note that the strategy of selfpresentation is realized under any conditions of communication as an auxiliary strategy. But in some cases, the strategy of self-presentation is both basic and auxiliary. These are situations where self-presentation is the primary purpose of the speaker (Kovrigina 2010: 76; Issers 2008: 74). As our previous research has shown, self-presentation is a local strategy, realized by the means of such speech strategies as: metaspeech (tactic of establishing contact); informative (tactics of announcing, reminding, and asserting); and evaluative (tactic of establishing contact). All of these involve utterances-self-presentemes, the mental basis of which is the cognitive model I am NAME/QUALITY/ROLE. In its turn, this local strategy refers to a range of global strategies, such as: COOPERATIVE APPROACHING, COOPERATIVE DISTANCING, CONFRONTATIVE DISTANCING, PERSUASIVE strategy (mainly in such its variety as RATIONAL ARGUMENTATION, seldom – in EMOTIONAL ARGUMENTATION and SUGGESTION), and MANIPULATIVE strategy.

3 Translating Self-Presentemes: Rendering or Adaptation In the aspect of translation, in particular, the translation of feature movies and fiction, the main task is to reveal the cognitive model underlying it and the strategic nature of self-presenteme, that is, which speech strategies it involves and what is the global purpose of implementing the local strategy of self-presentation in each particular case. When translating utterances-self-presentemes the main task of a translator is to preserve all these components. This task might be completed in two ways: rendering or adaptation.

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Rendering is appropriate in cases where there are no linguo-cultural differences. Looking at the Ukrainian translation of such self-presentemes, we can see that translators used the vocabulary correspondences of the lexical units, having preserved the syntactic structures, as it is shown in the data samples below: (1) I’m pure. White. Beautiful. Like an angel. (Brown, The Da Vinci Code)

Я чистий. Білий. Прекрасний. Як ангел. (Kamyanets’ 2010, Kod Da Vinchi)

In this situation, a member of a secret religious community having received a new task to commit a murder uses self-presentemes-approvals for persuading himself that he was a righteous person. This self-presenteme is formed on the basis of the cognitive model I am QUALITY and realizes the global strategy of SUGGESTION, represented by such markers as repetitions, implemented via parallel syntactic constructions, while positive self-evaluation is embodied in the meaning of the lexical units (pure, white, and beautiful) and the metaphoric comparison like an angel. In translation the cognitive model is preserved and the strategic aim of suggestion is rendered through the use of the same syntactic structures, while self-approval – by the use of the corresponding Ukrainian lexical and stylistic means. The reason to render this self-presenteme in translation is that the language units in both languages are positively marked. (2) I’m old. I’m sick. (House MD, Informed Consent)

Я старий. І хворий. (Doktor Haus, Ofitsiyna Zhoda)

In this example an old-aged medical scientist comments upon his losing consciousness and being hospitalized, using utterances that function as informative self-presentemes-remindings, which implement the global strategy of RATIONAL ARGUMENTATION, based on the same cognitive model (I am QUALITY). As these utterances do not show either linguistic or cultural differences in any aspect, they are rendered in translation with the same syntactic structures and the corresponding lexical means. (3) I’m your wife. (Desperate Housewives, The Thing that Counts in What’s Inside)

Я – твоя дружина. (Vidchaudushni Domohospodarky, Holovne – Sho Vseredyni)

Beth, using an informative self-presenteme-reminding, formed on the model I am ROLE, means to draw her husband’s attention to the fact that they had to take all crucial decisions, in particular buying a house, together. Here the global strategy of RATIONAL ARGUMENTATION is implemented. Employing rendering here is accounted for by the cultural and linguistic factors: in the Ukrainian culture the implicit meaning is quite transparent, as decision-making in Ukrainian families is also an enterprise involving both parties. This accounts for the use of an identical syntactic structure and the use of the lexical correspondence (wife – дружина). (4) Um, I’m a doctor, but I’m not Katie’s doctor, so I’ll go get him for you. (Grey’s Anatomy, A Hard Day’s Night)

Я – лікар, але не її лікар, але піду приведу його. (Vechir Vazhkoho Dnya)

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In this data sample, the informative self-presenteme-assertion, which has as its mental basis the cognitive model I am ROLE, is used to realize the global strategy of COOPERATIVE DISTANCING. As there are neither cultural nor linguistic differences here, rendering is also employed quite successfully. (5) – You don’t introduce yourself?

– Sorry, I thought you were waiting two hours. Didn’t know you wanted to chat. Hi, I’m Greg (House MD, Fools for Love). Привіт, Я Ґреґ. (Doktor Haus, Kokhannia Vsyoho Yoho Zhyttia)

Doctor Gregory House meets a patient sitting and waiting for him for a long time. Using the utterance-self-presenteme, formed on the cognitive model I am NAME, that functions as a metaspeech one, the speaker implements the global strategy of MANIPULATION: he deliberately chooses the form of introducing himself that is not appropriate in this (official) situation. In doing so, House intends to present himself not as a man who violates the social etiquette norms, but as an effective person, and to impose on the addressee the impression that the latter says foolish things. In rendering this self-presenteme the translator has preserved all its verbal characteristics and thus managed to preserve the cognitive model underlying it and its metaspeech function. However, the global strategic aim is lost, as the representatives of the Ukrainian linguoculture, even in case they perceive correctly the stylistic value of using the first name, would hardly treat it as inappropriate in an official situation, being unaware of the social etiquette norms of the source linguoculture. So, rendering here cannot be judged as successful as in the previous cases, though the translator had no other choice. (6) I’m her girlfriend. (Grey’s Anatomy, Invest in Love)

Я – ее подруга. (Anatomiya Grey, Viddavayte Liubov)

This informative self-presenteme-reminding, formed on the basis of the cognitive model I am ROLE, implements the global strategy of RATIONAL ARGUMENTATION and is translated by rendering. On the one hand, similarly to the previous data sample, that was the only possible choice, as there is no other equivalent for the English word girlfriend in the Ukrainian language but the one used (подруга). On the other hand, preserving both the mental basis of the self-presenteme and its strategic value, the translator has lost the content element: in the source text it is “sexual partnership” (a variant of meaning the English word girlfriend possesses), while in the target text it is “someone with whom I’m on friendly terms” (the only variant of meaning of the Ukrainian word подруга). Adaptation is employed in case utterances-self-presentemes bear certain specific for the source linguoculture features, which requires certain transformations of their structure and content. The data samples given below reveal the nature of such transformations.

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(7) The last thing I am is a disappointment. I get straight A’s. I run the student council. I basically am the school paper. I tutor kids with reading problems. I’m every parent’s dream come true, including yours. (Grey’s Anatomy, Invest in Love)

Уж что-что, а разочарование тут ни при чем. Я – круглая отличница, председатель совета, редактор школьной газеты и занимаюсь с отстающими детьми. Я  – мечта любых родителей и ваша тоже. (Anatomiya Grey, Viddavayte Liubov)

Parents come to the hospital to visit their daughter, who got there after having been seriously injured in a state of intoxication. The girl believes that this unfortunate accident should not spoil her completely impeccable reputation. To share this idea with her parents, the girl uses a self-presenteme, formed on the basis of the cognitive model I am ROLE (the roles mentioned are associated with positive evaluation). In the strategic aspect this self-presenteme of the informative type (reminding) implements the global strategy of SUGGESTION. While the strategic aim of this self-presenteme can be rendered by the use of the same syntactic structures (parallel constructions), problems arise in reproducing the cognitive model, that is, in the use of the language means describing the roles. Here the translator uses adaptation, so that the roles should be described as socially approved in the target culture and described with the words and expressions proper to this culture (underlined in the data sample). (8) –Well, you see, I care, sweetie. I don’t… I don’t know what’s been going on with you, I mean, with your weird outbursts and your terrible style, but it ends now. Okay? I run this school, and no one takes a class or kicks a ball or plays a fuckin’ clarinet without my say-so. (Bad Moms) – Ну, розумієш, мені не байдуже, люба. Мені… Я гадки не маю, що з тобою коїться, ці твої нападки і жахливий одяг, але тепер цьому кінець. Ясно? Я керую цією школою, і ніхто тут не бере додаткових уроків, не кидає м’яча і не грає на клятому кларнеті, доки я не дозволю. (Pohani Matusi)

The informative self-presenteme-reminding, formed on the basis of the cognitive model I am ROLE, is used by the speaker to emphasize her higher status, and thus the global strategy of this self-presenteme is CONFRONTATIVE DISTANCING. As in the previous case, to preserve the cognitive and strategic features of the self-presenteme, the translator has to substitute certain language units for the ones proper to the target linguoculture, thus employing adaptation. (9) I’m bad at search parties, and I’m bad at sitting around looking nervous, doing nothing. (House MD, Paternity)

Я не вмію когось шукати, або знервовано сидіти і чекати. (Doktor Haus, Bat’kivstvo)

In this data sample the self-presentemes of the cognitive type I  am QUALITY realizes the function of disapproval and the global strategic aim of EMOTIONAL ARGUMENTATION (House is annoyed at the prospect of being involved in the search of a run-away patient and argues that he is bad at the enterprises of

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such kind). In order to preserve the cognitive and strategic features of this selfpresenteme in the target text, the translator has to change to syntactic structure of the utterance altogether and partly its lexical elements. Thus, here adaptation is not of lexical nature as in (7) and (8), but of both syntactic and lexical character. (10) My name is Joan Watson. (Elementary, Pilot)

Мене звуть Джоан Ватсон. (Elementarno, Pilot)

In this data sample, the self-presenteme, based on the model I  am NAME performing the metaspeech function and implementing the strategy of COOPERATIVE APPROACHING, is adapted in the same way as in example (9). The translator uses a speech etiquette formula proper to the target linguoculture, which involves changes of both syntactic structure and the lexical means. (11) Today I’m jailbait, but in 22 weeks anyone can do anything to me. (House MD, Lines in the Sand)

Сьогодні я неповнолітня, а через 22 тижні зі мною можна буде робити все, що заманеться. (Doktor Haus, Linii na Pisku)

This informative self-presentemes-assertion, formed on the cognitive model I am QUALITY, implements the global strategy of COOPERATIVE APPROACHING (a young girl is eager to have an affair with a middle-aged man). The necessity for adaptation here arises from linguo-cultural differences:  the word jailbait has no correspondence, as in the Ukrainian language there is no lexical unit describing a female considered in sexual terms as the one under the age of consent. However, the transformation of the lexical character, employed by the translator, seems quite successful:  the Ukrainian word неповнолітня (underage) used in the context of self-presenteme as a whole as well as in the situational context allows to fully reveal the content. (12) I’m not his assistant. I’m a sober companion. (Elementary, The Rat Race)

Я – не зовсім помічниця. Коротше, ми весь час разом, бо я живу у нього вдома. (Elementarno, Shuryachi Perehony)

Here adaptation is used in the translation of the second self-presenteme (I’m his sober companion). Built on the basis of the cognitive model I am ROLE, this selfpresenteme is of informative character, performing the function of announcing and implementing the global strategy of COOPERATIVE DISTANCING. In the process of adaptation, the translator employs transformation of syntactic and lexical type, which results in preserving the mental basis and the strategic value but absolutely deforms the content. This suggests that the translator has failed to grasp the meaning of the American realia sober companion (someone who sees to it that somebody gets rid of an addiction, drug addiction in particular). Instead, the translator used the language means meaning “spend all the time together” and “share a dwelling” that prevent from understanding the content of this self-presenteme, although descriptive translation was quite possible here.

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(13) Well, I’m big enough to admit, when I’m wrong. (Elementary, While You Were Sleeping)

Припустимо, в цьому я помилявся. (Elementarno, Poky Ty Spala)

In the data sample (13) the self-presenteme of the source text, formed on the cognitive model I am QUALITY, performs the function of approving and realizes the global strategy of COOPERATIVE APPROACHING. In the target text, all these features are lost as the translator, using adaptation, missed the utterance-self-presenteme (instead of I’m big enough to admit in the English text, the word Припустимо (supposing) is used), while this selfpresenteme could be easily reproduced in the target text with the help of syntactic and lexical transformations (e.g., Я здатен визнати (I’m able to admit)). It is quite obvious that adaptation can be successful or not quite successful/ unsuccessful, but, unlike rendering, the unsuccessfulness here is of rather subjective than objective character.

4 Conclusions Translating identity is seen as a problem showing a steady rise in importance at the present-day period. Identity reveals its nature in many different ways, including the use of a natural language. The latter, presented in fiction, and analyzed in terms of the translation studies, needs a consideration that involves both cultural and language differences. This is the case with the translation of self-presentemes – the utterances based on the cognitive model I am X, performing a certain speech aim and a global task in discourse. Quite evidently, self-presentation is the most simple and transparent way of position-taking or of identifying oneself. The study of self-presentemes English-Ukrainian translation allows to basically conclude that there are two basic choices: rendering or adaptation. Rendering is successfully employed in case of no linguocultural differences, although in some cases, faced with limited (or no) choice translators fail to preserve the global strategic aim or the context of a self-presenteme. Adaptation is necessary in case there are differences of linguo-cultural nature and is aimed at preserving the mental base, content, and aim of a self-presenteme in the target text, introducing lexical and/or syntactic transformations. This makes adaptation successful, while in other cases translators, without any reasonable grounds, provide equivalents that lack in adequacy in terms of mental base/content and/or function.

References Erikson, Erik H. 1956. “The problem of ego identity.” Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 4:56–121. Goffman, Erving. 1956. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Monograph No. 2. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Social Sciences Research Centre.

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Hostova, Ivana. 2017. Identity and Translation Trouble. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Issers, Oksana S. 2008. Kommunikativnyie strategii i taktiki russkoy rechi [Communicative Strategies and Tactics of the Russian Speech]. Moskva: LKI (in Russian)] Jones, Edvard E. and Thane S. Pittman. 1982. “Toward a General Theory of Strategic Self-Presentation.” Psychological Perspectives on the Self. Hillsdale, NY: Lawrence Erbaum, V. 1: 231–262. Kabiri, Magda H. 2018. Samoprezentatsiya yak strategiya anglomovnogo diskursu [Self-Presentation as a Strategy of English-language discourse]: Abstract from Dissertation for the Degree of Candidate of Philology, 10.02.04 “Germanic Languages”. V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University. (in Ukrainian)] Kam’yanets, Anzhela. 2010. Kod da Vinchi [The Da Vinci Code]. Accessed July 20, 2018. https://www.e-reading.club/chapter.php/1053920/42/Braun_-_Kod_da_ Vinchi.html (in Ukrainian) Kovrigina, Elena A. 2010/ Kommunikativnaya strategiya samoprezentatsii v diskurse internet-intervyu [Self-Presentation Communicative Strategy in the Discourse of Internet-interview]: Dissertation Candidate of Philological Sciences: 10.02.19 “Theory of Language”. Kemerovo. (in Russian)] Noonan, Harold and Ben Curtis. 2018. “Identity.” In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2014 Edition), ed. by Edward N. Zalta. https://plato. stanford.edu/archives/sum2018/entries/identity/. Accessed March 14, 2019. On identity: from a philosophical point of view. Accessed February 28, 2019. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3751052/.

Marta Bołtuć

Global English and Power Relations in Translation Abstract: This chapter discusses the relationship between the English-speaking world, the process of globalization and Global English. Global English, World English, Common English, General English or International English is the collection of different varieties of English spoken throughout the world, but it can also be perceived as one language (as the movement towards an international standard use of the English language). In regard to the globalization processes and Global English, I will also raise the concept ‘content translation’, which is a tool that allows editors to create translations right next to the original texts. The second part of the chapter discusses the question of power relations in translation and the role of a translator in translating different genres, and journalistic genre in particular. Finally, I will try to answer the following question: Is the impact of Global English or English visible in translation? Keywords: English-speaking world, globalization, Global English, content translation, power relations in translation

1 The English-Speaking World It seems that much of the dissemination of the English language has evolved in a natural way. According to Edge (2003), there has been some enforced spread of English – military invasions, for example. It is roughly estimated that out of the world’s approximately 7.6 billion inhabitants, over 2 billion speak English, which is nearly 25 % of the Earth’s population.1 However, most of those people are not native speakers of English. It is estimated that about 425 million people speak English as their first language2, which means that the remaining ones are second or foreign language speakers of English. The United States of America is the largest Englishspeaking country with 300 million native speakers. There are also 60 million native speakers in the United Kingdom, 29 million in Canada, over 25 million in Australia, 4.9 million in New Zealand and 4.7 million in the Republic of Ireland. In the European Union, English is one of 24 official languages and is used by various institutions. It is also the most commonly studied foreign language, the third largest language by number of native speakers and the most widely spoken 1 This information and the information provided in this section is mostly based on Wikipedia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English-speaking_world). Also, David Crystal (2012) gives the same numbers. 2 See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English-speaking_world.

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language worldwide. The major varieties of English are American English, British English, Canadian English, Australian English, Irish English, New Zealand English and their sub-varieties – they are spoken in the so-called anglosphere countries. But counties such as South Africa, India, Nigeria, the Philippines, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago also have millions of native speakers of English ranging from English-based Creole languages to standard English. English is also the primary native language in the countries and territories of Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, the British Indian Ocean Territory, the  British Virgin Islands, the  Cayman Islands,  Dominica, the Falkland Islands, Gibraltar, Guam, Guernsey, Guyana, the Isle of Man, Jersey, Montserrat, the Pitcairn Islands, Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan de Cunha, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, the Turks and Caicos Islands and the United States Virgin Islands.3 In some countries English is the official language, despite the fact that it is not the most-widely spoken language in these countries.4 There are also countries where, as a result of English and American colonization, English became the co-official language in some part of their territory, for example:  China’s Hong Kong and Nicaragua’s Mosquito Coast. India is said to be the world’s second-largest English-speaking country. According to Crystal (2004a), combining both native and non-native speakers, India has more people who speak or understand English than any other country in the world. There is research, however, that disputes this claim (Crystal 2004b). English is also the second official language in Pakistan – Pakistani English, making it the only Islamic country in which English is official. Despite the fact that English is not the official language of most countries, it is the most often taught foreign language and is often referred to as the ‘world language’ or the ‘lingua franca’ of the modern era (Crystal 2003, 2013). It is also one of the official languages for aeronautical and maritime communications, as well as many international organizations, including the United Nations and the International Olympic Committee. The perception of the usefulness of English among Europeans is 67 percent in favour of English ahead of 17 percent for German and 16 percent for French (as for 2012).5 In 2012, apart from the native speakers, 38  percent of the Europeans

3 See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English-speaking_world. 4 These countries are: Botswana, Cameroon (co-official with French), Eswatini (Swaziland), Fiji, Ghana, India, Kenya, Kiribati, Lesotho, Liberia, Malta, the Marshall Islands, Mauritius, the Federated states of Micronesia, Namibia, Nigeria, Pakistan, Palau, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, the Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Sudan, South Africa, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. 5 See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English-speaking_world.

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claimed that they could speak English, with 90 percent in the Netherlands; 89 percent in Malta; 86 percent in Sweden and Denmark; 73 percent in Cyprus, Croatia and Austria; 70 percent in Finland and over 50 percent in Greece, Belgium, Luxemburg, Slovenia and Germany. In the sciences, English is the most commonly used language; the Science Citations Index reported, as early as in 1997, that 95 percent of its articles were written in English and only half of them were written in the English-speaking countries. English books, magazines, journals and newspapers are available all over the world. Thirty percent of web content and 28 percent of the world literature was published in English in 2011. The global predominance of the use of the English language has influenced many languages giving rise to ‘language shifts’6, ‘language death’7 and ‘linguistic imperialism’8 (Crystal 2000). It is noteworthy that English itself has become more vulnerable to language shift as different regional varieties of English arise (Jambor 2007).

2 Global English and Content Translation It is not easy to define the concept of ‘Global English’ since it may be viewed from different perspectives and is present in different areas of human activity. The fact that English is so widely spoken all over the world gave rise to the emergence of many different hybrid forms of English. Global English, World English, Common English, General English or International English is the collection of different varieties of English spoken throughout the world, but it can also be perceived as one language (as the movement towards a standard international use of the English language).9 Crystal (2012) says that a language has a global status if it achieves a special role that is recognized in every country. I would amend it slightly and say that a global language should have a special role in most of the world countries. It is noteworthy that according to some critical linguists like Mahboob (2011), English in some standard form, as a global medium of communication, is not a neutral or an innocent instrument – some examples of this are given in Section 4 of this chapter. 6 Language shift, transfer, language replacement or language assimilation, takes place when a community of speakers of a language shifts to speaking a completely different language. It usually happens over an extended period of time. Often, languages that are perceived to be of higher status stabilise and/or spread over time at the expense of other languages that are perceived by their own speakers to be of lowerstatus (see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_shift). 7 ‘Language death’ occurs when a language loses its last native speaker. 8 ‘Linguistic imperialism’, or language imperialism, can be defined as the transfer of a dominant language to other people due to imperialism. This transfer is the demonstration of military or economic power. Some aspects of the dominant culture are usually also transferred (see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_imperialism). 9 See https://www.acclaro.com/blog/what-is-global-english/.

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The phenomenon of Global English may influence other languages in the ways leading to:  language maintenance, bilingualism and language shift (Paulston 1994: 3). The first possibility means that nations and groups stress the differences between their languages and the dominant language to prevent changes. As far as bilingualism is concerned Myers-Scotton (2002: 52) notes that ‘there is always a power differential between languages involved’ and it is usually so that the more influential/powerful language is used for higher level functions. Language shift in turn occurs when nations borrow some linguistic forms from the dominant language and the traditional standard language changes under the influence of the dominant language. Oakes (2001: 21) refers to this phenomenon as ‘convergence’. In relation to Global English, we can also talk about a new tool in translation – ‘content translation’ (see https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Content_translation), which allows editors to create translations right next to the original texts. It automates such steps as copying a text across browser tabs, looking for corresponding links and categories, etc. This tool also saves translators’ time, contributes to their productivity and enables them to create high-quality content that reads naturally in their language (ibid.). This tool makes it possible to transfer and adapt the content from an existing text/article to a new one in a different language. Editors can reuse as much or as little content for their initial versions to later edit it with their usual editing tools. Content translation integrates tools such as dictionaries or machine translation services and is still in development to support more and more languages (ibid.). Consequently, one has to know how to write ‘Global English’ for ‘content translation’. It is advised to follow 3 ‘C’s’ to save time and money in the future when translating into other languages (see https://www.acclaro.com/blog/what-isglobal-english/). Three ‘C’s’ mean: 1. being clear – to lower the risk of translation error; 2. being concise – when writing in fewer words the cost will be lower and 3. being consistent – with consistent vocabulary and tone, assets can be reused (see ibid.). To write in a clear, concise and consistent way, keeping in mind the needs of an international audience, the writers are recommended to use short sentences, fewer ‘mini-words’ and to avoid too many negatives. To justify these pieces of advice, see the following clarifications (ibid.): Short sentences give international readers confidence and minimize the risk of cross-cultural misunderstandings. Long sentences tend to be difficult to accurately translate, obscure the main point, and cause confusion and create anxiety in people who don’t read English fluently. Limit sentence length to 20 words in international business documents. For advertisements, direct marketing documents and instruction manuals, use even less, like 16 words maximum. Also, unlike native English speakers, who read in phrases, international readers may read slowly, one word at a time, so their short-term memory is strained by long sentences. Mini-words are those short connector words (a, at, the, and) that make English flow together. But many of these all in one cluster – especially when used in conjunction

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with colloquial expressions (e.g., come off it)  – confuse international readers, and during the translation process may cause discrepancies in character length. Negative questions are often impossible to translate. Example: You don’t have the courage to acknowledge that your allegations have no factual basis whatsoever, do you? Double negatives are doubly difficult for international readers. In English, two negatives make a positive. In some other languages, two negatives emphasize the negative. Additionally, some cultures regard negative language as insulting, embarrassing or shameful. A sentence like ‘Hate saving time and money? Don’t click here.’ is both confusing to your translation team and to international English readers.

Globalization processes have influenced the world economy and the role of translation in the modern world. Together with the widespread use of the internet, they are evidently responsible for the rise of translations in many different languages and cultures. Anthony Giddens (1990:  64), a leading theorist of globalization, characterizes globalization as ‘the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa’. He also stresses that contemporary globalization has three most important features: 1. perceptual (the world is now perceived as one global entity), 2. institutional (many international institutions take coordinated efforts to fight with poverty, catastrophes etc.) and 3. economic (nowadays business operates at a global level in real time). They are responsible for the geographical extent and the speed of impact of globalizing forces, which are now greater than at any other time. Finally, it can be said that, on the one hand, Global English can be viewed as a collection of different varieties of English used throughout the world, especially in the official contexts of use, but, on the other hand, it can also be perceived as a tendency towards the rise of one international or standard use/variety of the English language.

3 Power Relations: Domestication and Foreignization Analysing power relations in translation, including the role of the translator, can lead to a new ‘conceptual positioning of translation studies’, which gives rise to power turns or paradigm shifts across the discipline, ‘the power turn’ in translation studies being one of them (Bednárová-Gibová 2018:  17).  Power relations in translation can be understood in at least two opposing ways. They can be viewed as domestication (or ‘acculturation’)  – in the sense of cultural adaptation  – or as foreignization  – in the sense of the foreign element being visible in translation. Usually one or the other strategy is predominant in translation depending on which cultural elements (foreign or domestic) seem to be more important for the translator, the target reader or in a specific text or context. Venuti (1995) claims that domestication can be perceived as a kind of violence against the original text and its cultural source. For him foreignizing translation – into a dominant world language like English – can be treated as a more ethical approach: ‘a form of resistance against ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism

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and imperialism in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations’ (ibid.:  20). This approach may be appropriate in regard to the translation of literature, but not necessarily for the translation of some other genres. According to Bassnett (2005: 123), ‘acculturation is essential in news reporting’ and ‘technical, legal, science translation acculturates as best practice’. One may argue that the foreignizing approach could result in the difficulties in comprehending some kinds of texts or contexts for the target readers. With reference to news translation, Holland (2017: 335) puts forward the following claim: If the translator aims to domesticate, then he/she must have a clear sense of those for whom he/she is domesticating, but in the age of globalization this issue is problematic  – especially, perhaps, if he/she is translating news into a ‘global language’ like English. The audience for such a translation could be in Birmingham, New York, Auckland, Sydney, Montreal or Des Moines – to say nothing of countries (like India) where English has a range of important institutional functions, or places in the non-English-speaking world where it might be picked up by local English-speaking journalists and re-translated for use in domestic news broadcasts.

In the example above, the readers of the translation are geographically scattered and culturally heterogeneous. Consequently, Bielsa and Bassnett (2009 cited in Holland 2017) suggest that in this case the skopos theory could be appropriate for news translation. It concentrates on the purpose of a given translation in the target culture and not on the ‘domestic’ or ‘foreign’ transference into the target language (Vermeer 2000, Nord 2017). All in all, Holland (2017) seems to be right when he says that in the context of news or media discourse ‘equivalence of effect’ in the target culture situation is of primary importance. In the situation discussed above, however, one may count on the global distribution of news through localization – where news is localized for specific groups of people (Orengo 2005). Gambier (2006) in turn suggests that news providers such as CNN could be described as the phenomenon of ‘global parochialism’.10 It is also beyond any doubt that these days, in the age of the internet and globalization processes, it is very often difficult to identify the nature of media audiences or recipients. Not to mention that many countries around the world now have their own English-language news channels.

4 Power Relations in Mass Media Translation Holland (2017: 342) notes that news journalists and linguists often have different objectives:

10 Global parochialism can be defined as overruling global interdependence by nationalistic tendencies.

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It seems to me that news journalists and linguists often ‘speak different languages’ in this particular respect: the former a language of impartiality and objectivity; the latter one of discursively constructed representations, wherein the very possibility of objective discourse may be called into question.

On the same page Holland (2017) also observes that while many journalists may truly aim at impartiality, taking into account the inevitable gain and loss involved in any translation, translators have to make constant decisions about what to ‘lose’ and what to ‘gain’ to convey a text/message across languages or cultures. Holland (ibid.) adds that the situation gets even more complicated when a ‘grab’ from a longer text needs to be selected as translators or journalists need to decide what is most important for the target audience. Holland (ibid.: 344) concludes his chapter with a quote from Schäffner (2004: 120): It is through translation that information is made available to addressees beyond national borders; and it is very frequently the case that reactions in one country to statements that were made in another country are actually reactions to the information as it was provided in translation.

The above observation shows how much power and responsibility translators have. By choosing some specific expressions or by omitting some words or text/ message fragments, they can influence or manipulate the target language audience. Whether this is done intentionally or not, consciously or not, depends on many factors like ideology, censorship, time limitation, individual or subjective judgements or preferences of a translator. The last issue that needs to be discussed in this section concerns the influence of Global English or English on the mass media texts translated into different languages, and Polish in particular. The research findings suggest that cultural filtering can often be suppressed in mass media translation into Polish or German, which may result in linguistic interference or English textual norms to ‘shine through’ (Bołtuć 2016: 187, House 2009: 82). For example, in the case of National Geographic headlines English new or creative metaphors (the most frequent rhetorical figures in National Geographic headlines) are most often translated into Polish as new or creative metaphors; they also remain related in meaning to the source metaphors (Bołtuć 2016: 187). In other words, Global English as dominant lingua franca seems to influence some communicative preferences and discourse norms in Polish through language contact in translation. This tendency may be attributed to foreignization11 or even globalization processes or universalism12, the hegemonic position of English language, especially visible in mass media language, and unequal power relations between English and other languages.

1 1 Venuti (1995) discusses foreignization and domestication processes. 12 Esselink (2003) and Assmann (2010) discuss globalization, localization and universalism.

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This is also visible in the Polish translations of some English extraposed linking constructions13, both absolute linking constructions or words (Viewed differently, for example), as well as English extraposed prepositional phrases (In particular, for example). These translation instances occur in the Polish edition of The Economist (Bołtuć 2020). In most cases, they seem to be translated literally and remain in the sentence’s initial position, which may reveal their unnecessary and often unjustified influence on the Polish texts in question, resulting in deliberate or nondeliberate interference of the English language. In consequence, Polish sentences begin with words such as Ale (‘but’), Dlatego też (‘also for this reason’) or Ponieważ (‘because’), which is quite uncommon, not very grammatical in Polish and certainly sounds colloquial. In English journalistic or popular-science texts, colloquial style is more acceptable than it is in Polish texts that belong to the same genre. This may be due to the fact that English evolves more quickly, thus accepting more colloquial expressions, because it is much more widespread and much more commonly used. Generally, the number of Polish extraposed linking constructions in the translation of The Economist is surprisingly high and can possibly be treated as the trace of the English language influence on Polish mass media discourse norms. Extraposed linking constructions are more efficient and reader-oriented as they seem to be beneficial for readers’ processing efforts. They require less processing time than embedded linking constructions, which are frequently used in Polish language. In other words, one of the main reasons why Anglo-American expressions (including terminology, but also linking constructions, which are often translated in a literal way) can be, in some sense, absorbed into other national languages, including Polish, is that they can be more efficient and easier to understand for a broader audience.

5 Conclusions It is evident that English is the world’s most important language and most often studied foreign language. Due to historical reasons – the triumph of British imperialism  – it has also spread all over the world and is used in the most distant places on Earth. Globalization processes, connected with the use of the Internet, widespread travel and easy access to information, news or technology and other research results, contribute to the fact that English is perceived as a Global Language. English is the language of the internet, science and technology after all. The predominance of English is also connected with the leading economic and

13 The function of extraposed linking constructions is to set the theme/scene of the clause that follows ‘as it were the peg on which the message is hung’ (Halliday 1970: 161), while the theme setting acts like a frame (Goffmann 1974, Gumperz 1982). This kind of framing in discourse has a strong cohesive effect, and it can enhance readers’ comprehension, as well as clarity of the message.

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political position first of Great Britain (in the 19th century) and of the United States (in the 20th century). Crystal (2003) comments that without a strong power-base – political, military or economic – no language can become an international medium of communication. In other words, there is a close link between language dominance and economic, technological, military, ideological and cultural power. Time will show whether the present situation will change in the 21st century and if Asian countries, especially China, will become the most dominant countries in the 21st century. Will China win the trade wars with the rest of the world, and the United States in particular? Many economists think that this will be the case in the near future. If this happens, it may also mean some linguistic and cultural shifts in the world, with the Anglo-Saxon culture, language and ideologies gradually losing their current position. As has already been mentioned, Global English, World English, Common English, General English or International English can be treated as the collection of different varieties of English spoken throughout the world. It can also be perceived, however, as one language  – the movement towards a standard, international use of the English language. Global English has also influenced the need for translation and translation processes as such. As a result, we can talk now about ‘content translation’, which is an internet tool that makes it possible to transfer and adapt the content from an existing text/article to a new one in a different language in an easy and quick way. With the emergence of Global English, the strategies of foreignization and domestication have also become more problematic since one starts to think if power relations should be observed in translation or not, and if so, in what sense and to what degree and in what genres or text types. Is observing power relations ethical after all? Finally, the global spread of English has had some ideological implications or consequences that are often denied by applied linguists (Pennycook 2000). It seems that the language initially promoted as a liberalizing and equalizing force, at the same time, could have increased various social, cultural, political, economic and linguistic imbalances or other inequalities of different sorts. The world does not have equal access to English education and the knowledge of English seems, in some sense, to guarantee or, at least, enhance economic success. Ideologically speaking, Global English also seems to be responsible for the spread of capitalist market-driven economy. I  would also like to quote the words of David Crystal (2012:xiii) to show that there are some undeniable advantages of the existence of Global English: I believe in the fundamental value of a common language, as an amazing world resource which presents us with unprecedented possibilities for mutual understanding, and thus enables us to find fresh opportunities for international cooperation.

To sum up, there seems to be a tendency towards a more uniform type of Global English, especially in the mass media context. This is also visible in the suppression of the cultural or even of the linguistic filter in the translation of mass media or journalistic discourse from English into some other languages (House 2009).

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References Assmann Jan. 2010. “Globalization, Universalism and the Erosion of Cultural Memory.” In Memory in a Global Age, edited by Aleida Assmann and Sebastian Conrad. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 121–137. Bassnett Susan. 2005. “Bringing the News Back Home: Strategies of Acculturation and Foreignization.” Language and Intercultural Communication 5(2), 120–130. Bednárová-Gibová Klaudia. 2018. “More Recent Avenues of Research in Contemporary Translation Studies.” In: Translation Studies across the Boundaries, edited by Lucyna Harmon and Dorota Osuchowska. Berlin: Peter Lang, 15–30. Bielsa Esperanca and Susan Bassnett. 2009. Translation in Global News. London: Routledge. Bołtuć Marta Izabela. 2016. Lost in Translation: Linguistic Creativity in PopularScience Text as Illustrated by National Geographic Heads. Rzeszów: Rzeszów University Publishing House. Bołtuć Marta. 2020. “Power Relations or Language Interference: Extraposed Linking Constructions in the Polish Translation of The Economist.” [in progress]. Crystal David. 2000. Language Death. Cambridge: Cambridge university Press. Crystal David. 2003. English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Crystal David. 2004a. The Language Revolution. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Crystal David. 2004b. “Subcontinent Raises Its Voice.” The Guardian 19 November 2004. Crystal David. 2012. English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Crystal David. 2013. How English Became the Global Language? New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Edge Julian. 2003. “Imperial Troopers and Servants of the Lord: A Vision of TESOL for the 21st Century. TESOL Quarterly 37, 701–709. Esselink Bert. 2003. “The Evolution of Localization.” available at http://www. intercultural.urv.cat/media/upload/domain_317/arxius/Technology/Esselink_ Evolution.pdf. 03.12.2019. Gambier Yves. 2006. “Transformations in International News.” In Translation in Global News, edited by Kyle Conway and Susan Bassnett. Coventry: University of Warwick Centre for Translation and Comparative Studies, 9–21. Giddens Anthony. 1990. The Consequences of Modernity. CA: Stanford University Press. Goffmann Erving. 1974. Frame Analysis. New York: Harper & Row. Gumperz John. 1982. Discourse Strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Halliday Michael A.K. 1970. “Language Structure and Language Function.” In New Horizons in Linguistics. edited by John Lyons. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 140–160. Holland Robert. 2017. “News Translation.” In The Routledge Handbook of Translation Studies, edited by Carmen Millán and Francesca Bartrina. London and New York: Routledge, 332–346. House Juliane. 2009. Translation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Jambor Paul. 2007. “English Language Imperialism: Points of View”. Journal of English as an International Language 2, 103–123. Mahboob Ahmar. 2011. “English: The Industry”. Journal of Postcolonial Cultures and Societies 2(4), 46–61. Myers-Scotton Carol. 2002. Contact Linguistics: Bilingual Encounters and Grammatical Outcomes. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Nord Christiane. 2017. “Functionalism in Translation Studies”. In The Routledge Handbook of Translation Studies, edited by Carmen Millán and Francesca Bartrina. London and New York: Routledge, 201–212. Oakes Leigh. 2001. Language and National Identity: Comparing France and Sweden. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Orengo Alberto. 2005. “Localizing News: Translation and the ‘Global-National’ Dichotomy.” Language and Intercultural Communication 5(2), 186–187. Paulston Christina Bratt. 1994. Linguistic Minorities in Multilingual Settings: Implications for Language Policies. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Pennycook Alastair. 2000. “English, Politics and Ideology”. In Ideology, Politics and Language Policies, edited by Thomas Ricento. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 107–120. Schäffner Christina. 2004. “Political Discourse Analysis from the Point of View of Translation Studies”. Journal of Language and Politics 3(1), 117–150. Venuti Lawrence. 1995. Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation. London: Routledge. Vermeer Hans. 2000. “Skopos and Commission in Transactional Action.” In The Translation Studies Reader, edited by Andrew Chesterman (trans.). London: Routledge.

Internet Sources https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English-speaking_world. 02.12.2019. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_shift. 02.12.2019. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_imperialism. 02.12.2019. https://www.acclaro.com/blog/what-is-global-english/. 02.12.2019. https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Content_translation. 02.12.2019.

Olha Zhulavska and Alla Martynyuk

English-Ukrainian Translations of Synesthetic Metaphors Abstract: This chapter reports the results of cognitive translation analysis revealing cognitive models and operations that underpin linguistic expression of 1000 English synesthetic metaphors from modern English-language fiction and license their Ukrainian translations. Quantitative data show that in 51 % of Ukrainian translations cognitive models of English synesthetic metaphors are reconstructed, in 35 % they are lost, and in 14 % they are substituted by other models. This substantial loss/substitution of synesthetic metaphors suggests that in spite of the universal biological nature of synesthetic sensory-motor experience that motivates its linguistic expression, translation of synesthetic metaphors is powerfully influenced by the specificity of the sociocultural experience entrenched in the English and Ukrainian synesthetic metaphorical models, which license some specific use of language and limit translators’ options. Keywords: Cognitive model/operation, synesthetic metaphor, translation

1 Introduction The aim of this chapter is to reveal cognitive models that underpin English synesthetic metaphors and their Ukrainian translations, that is, linguistic units, representing some particular senses in terms of other senses. In multimodal linguistics, senses are treated in terms of modes, which we understand in Charles Forceville’s (2009: 22) interpretation as “a sign system interpretable because of a specific perception process,” which “refers each of the modes to the five senses.” Thus, five different modes (taste, sight, touch, smell, and sound) are distinguished. In cognitive linguistics senses are discussed in terms of basic domains, that is, irreducible realms of experiential potential grounded in our bodily experience (Langacker 1987: 148): SPACE (visual system; sensors of skin, muscles, and limbs; and vestibular system, located in the hearing channel that takes care of movement and balance), COLOR (visual system), PITCH (auditory system), TEMPERATURE (tactile system), PRESSURE (sensors of pressure on skin, muscles, and limbs), SMELL (olfactory system), and others. Synesthetic metaphors, as any other metaphors, are products of mappings, that is, cognitive operations in which one conceptual structure (the target domain) is identified in terms of another conceptual structure (the source domain) (Kövecses 2002: 6; Lakoff 1993: 210). However, while in a typical conceptual metaphor the target is usually represented by a nonbasic (abstract) domain and interpreted in

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terms of a basic source domain, in a synesthetic metaphor the source and target are both basic domains; for example, TASTE is TOUCH (The drink was sharp with lemon); SMELL is TASTE (bittersweet aroma)/TOUCH (greasy scent)/TEMPERATURE (hot scent). Although synesthetic metaphors constitute a rather attractive object of cognitive translation research since they combine universal biological aspects of our sensory-motor experience with culturally specific ones, up to now they have not been investigated in this framework. Our chapter aims at breeching this gap.

2 Methodological Design of the Research The research data includes 1000 synesthetic metaphors from modern Englishlanguage fiction and their translations into Ukrainian. The metaphors are extracted from Joanne Harris’s novel Chocolate and its translation performed by Volodymyr Polyakov, and George Martin’s series of novels Game of Thrones and their translation made by Vyacheslav Brodovyj. The methodology of the research is based on the embodied cognitive approach to translation, viewing it as an experiential, cultural act (see more about it in Risku 2013). Within this framework translation analysis is done on the level of experience-based, culturally specific “units of thought” called cognitive/mental models that govern linguistic units functioning and define their structural and semantic features. Basic domains, engaged in a synesthetic metaphor, are one type of such cognitive models, alongside with frames, image schemas, and mental spaces (Kövecses 2017). Cognitive models are engaged in cognitive operations, that is, “mechanisms that our minds use in order to store and retrieve information” (Ruiz de Mendoza and Galera 2014: 85). We use the algorithm of cognitive translational analysis, suggested in Kovalenko and Martynyuk (2018: 193–194). The first step involves revealing basic cognitive models that underpin linguistic instantiations of English synesthetic metaphors under analysis and classifying them on the grounds of the source and target domains they recruit. The second step presupposes discovering cognitive operations that license Ukrainian translations of these English metaphors in terms of: reconstruction (the original and translation are licensed by the same cognitive model or its specification), loss (a literal linguistic unit is used instead of a metaphorical one), and substitution (the original metaphorical model is substituted by another metaphorical model in the translation).

3 Results and Discussion: Strategies of English-Ukrainian Translations of Synesthetic Metaphors The results of cognitive translation analysis yield the following cognitive models of the original synesthetic metaphors TASTE is TOUCH/SMELL/TEMPERATURE,

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SMELL is TOUCH/TASTE/TEMPERATURE, HEARING is TOUCH/ORIENTATION IN SPACE/COLOR (SIGHT), COLOR (SIGHT) is TOUCH/ORIENTATION IN SPACE/TASTE/SMELL/TEMPERATURE/SOUND (HEARING), and TOUCH is TASTE/TEMPERATURE. The results of quantitative analysis show that in 51 % of Ukrainian translations cognitive models of English synesthetic metaphors are reconstructed, in 35  % metaphors are lost, and in 14 % they are substituted by other metaphors. Cases of reconstruction. The most persistent are TASTE mappings, which are reconstructed in 75 % of translations, for example: The drink was sweet and sharp with lemon and nutmeg. (Harris 2007)  – Воно приємне, з гострим присмаком лимона й мускатного горіха [It [is] pleasant, with sharp flavor of lemon and nutmeg]. (Harris 2015)

The original text contains a TASTE is TOUCH synesthetic metaphor, expressed by a predication in which the attribute-predicative sharp ascribes the quality it names to the referent-subject drink in this way interpreting a gustatory sensation in terms of a haptic one. The translator reconstructs the cognitive model of this synesthetic metaphor, preserving the basic grammatical structure of the original but extending it to add a lexical component присмак [flavour], using descriptive translation technique. SMELL synesthetic metaphors are reconstructed in 68  % of translations, for example: The darkness seems to have intensified it so that for an instant the smell is the darkness folding around me like a rich brown powder, stifling thought. (Harris 2007) – Темрява немов підсилює його, так що на мить здається, начебто цей запах і є темрява [[The] darkness as if intensifies it so that for an instant [it] seems as if this smell really is [the] darkness]. (Harris 2015)

The original text represents a SMELL is SIGHT synesthetic metaphor, which is expressed explicitly (the wording actually fills in the classical metaphorical model A  is B). The translator preserves the metaphor employing the word-per-word translation technique. Mappings of COLOR/SIGHT synesthetic metaphors are reconstructed in 66 % of translations, for example: I feel their eyes upon us as I turn to buy a galette from the vendor. (Harris 2007) – Я відчуваю на собі їхні погляди, коли повертаюся до вуличного торговця, щоб купити вафлю [I feel upon myself their looks, when [I]‌turn to the street vendor to buy a galette]. (Harris 2015)

The original sentence contains a SIGHT is TOUCH synesthetic metaphor, which maps seeing/feeling someone looking at us in terms of a haptic sensation: under somebody’s eye we feel as if we were being touched. The metaphor is preserved through the literal translation technique with an element of grammatical

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transformation: the translator changes the order of objects and substitutes eyes by погляди [looks] losing the metonymy BODY PART instead of FUNCTION. Cognitive models of synesthetic metaphors with the HEARING target domain are reconstructed in 37 % of translations, for example: Magister Illyrio’s words were honey. (Martin 1996) – Слова Магістра Ілліріо були солодкі як мед [[The] words [of] Magister Illyrio were sweet like honey. (Martin 2012)

The original instantiates a rather widely spread synesthetic metaphor HERAING is TASTE, which maps the sensation of hearing pleasant words in terms of tasting honey. In the translation, the metaphorical meaning is preserved though the translator employs grammatical transformation licensed by the A is like B model of a simile, which replaces the A is B metaphorical model. His tone was silken with dislike. (Harris 2007)  – Його єлейний тон пронизаний ворожістю [His unctuous tone [is] pierced with hostility]. (Harris 2015)

In the original sentence, hearing sensation is described in terms of a haptic one, the sound of voice is mapped as a feel of silk. The author uses this metaphor to show the ambiguous nature of one of the characters, priest Reynaud, his haughty attitude to the main character of the novel Vianna and his attempt to disguise his real feelings and sound humble. The translator, substituting predicative use of the adjective silken with the attributive one, employs its contextual synonym єлейний. This Ukrainian adjective has a literal reading “oily” which is enough to recruit the TOUCH source domain and reconstruct the metaphor, and also a figurative reading “insincere, godly and meek” (Akademichnyj Tlumachnyj Slovnyk Ukrayinskoyi Movy 1971: 497–498). Thus, the translator manages to reconstruct the metaphor and to convey all the connotations of the original. Besides, the translator applies grammatical transformation using the present tense instead of the past, which makes the narrative more vivid and emotional. In general, reconstructing synesthetic metaphors, both translators opt for communicative equivalence, rather than structural-semantic equivalence strategies, attempting to render the exact contextual meaning of the original metaphor in such a way that both content and language are acceptable and comprehensible to the readership. Cases of loss. Most frequently, we come across the loss of HEARING mappings that occur in 59,3 % of translations. The HEARING is ORIENTATION IN SPACE mapping (specifically, sensation of HEIGHT) is practically always lost in translation, for example: Actually leaving him,’ she repeated in a low, wondering voice. (Harris 2007)  – Посправжньому  піти,  – повторила вона тихо, зі здивуванням у голосі [Really leave, – repeated she quietly, with surprise in [her] voice]. (Harris 2015)

In the original, a character’s voice is described as low. The translator uses grammatical transformation:  instead of the [adjective (low) + noun (voice)] structure he employs the [verb (repeated) + adverb (quietly)] structure, which performs the

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same function, that is, describes the quality of the character’s voice. The corresponding adverb тихo [quietly] qualifies the sound of the voice literally, so the metaphor is lost. Peter Newmark (1988) calls such cases collocations, that is, predictable lexical fillers of certain grammatical structures. Since in this case English and Ukrainian collocations do not coincide, the synesthetic mapping is lost, but connotations are still there. The translation is communicatively adequate. Synesthetic metaphors of SMELL are lost in 31,9 % of translations, for example: The air smells sharp as new-cut wood. (Harris 2007) – Повітря наповнене пахощами свіжої деревини [[The] air is filled with smells of fresh wood]. (Harris 2015)

The author talks of SMELL in terms of TOUCH, specifically a haptic sensation of SHARP SURFACE. The metaphor is expressed by a predication in which the referent-subject air is ascribed such a quality as being sharp by the predicative. In the translation, this cognitive model is lost. The translator employs grammatical transformations and omits the adjective that recruits the metaphor. Together with the metaphor the translation loses the description of the quality of smells as experienced and described by the author of the original. Yoren had a twisted shoulder and a sour smell. (Martin 1996)  – Цей Йорен мав зігнуту спину і зловісний вигляд [This Yoren, had [a]‌twisted back and a sinister look]. (Martin 2012)

In the original, the author employs a SMELL is TASTE synesthetic metaphor in order to create a negative image of a character. In the translation, this synesthetic metaphor is lost as the translator choses to render the phrase literally and describe how the character looks instead of how he smells to convey the general sinister impression he produces. The translator realizes a free translation strategy:  he deviates from the original. Synesthetic metaphors mapping SIGHT/COLOR are omitted in 27,7  % of translations, for example: No, she was one of mine, gods love her, black hair and these sweet big eyes, you could drown in them. (Martin 1996) – Та ні, то була одна з моїх, бережіть її боги, таке чорне волосся, а у величезних очах можна потонути [But no, that was one of mine, save her gods, such black hair, and in enormous eyes possible [to] drown]. (Martin 2012)

The author describes a character’s eyes as sweet creating a SIGHT is TASTE synesthetic metaphor. In the translation, this adjective is omitted and the metaphor is lost. Together with this synesthetic metaphor, the translation loses the connotations of pleasure one can experience looking into the woman’s eyes. It can be of interest that we have observed no omission of synesthetic metaphorical mappings of TASTE and TOUCH. To sum up, loss of synesthetic metaphors can stem from the lexical-grammatical structure of the target language, which compels the translator to sacrifice the metaphor, but in most cases, it is the matter of the translator’s free choice to opt for free rather than close to the original translation. The outcome of such strategies

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can be different, depending on the translator’s skills but in any case, some of the accents and connotations of the original are predictably lost together with the metaphors. Сases of substitution. We observed substitution of one metaphorical model with another in translations of synesthetic metaphors with the SMELL, SOUND, SIGHT (COLOR), and TOUCH target domains, for example: The smell of sickness clung to him day and night, a hot, moist, sickly sweet odor. (Martin 1996) – Запах хвороби огортав його день і ніч, гарячий, вологий та хвороб ливий присмак [[The] smell [of] sickness] wrapped him day and night, [a]‌hot, moist and sickly flavor]. (Martin 2012)

The original text instantiates three synesthetic metaphors: SMELL is TEMERATURE (a hot ordor), SMELL is TOUCH (a moist ordor), and SMELL is TASTE (a sickly sweet ordor). Though the translator preserves the [adjective + noun] grammatical structure of the metaphor, he substitutes the noun ordor with the noun присмак [flavor], thus recruiting TASTE mappings instead of SMELL ones:  TASTE is TEMPERATURE (гарячий присмак – [hot flavor]) and TASTE is TOUCH (вологий присмак [moist flavor]). However, he loses the SMELL is TASTE metaphor omitting the adjective sweet. Apart from this omission, the translation is communicatively adequate since TASTE and SMELL are very close sensations and substitution allows the translator to convey all the connotations of the original. The mingled scents of chocolate, vanilla, heated copper and cinnamon are intoxicating, powerfully suggestive; the raw and earthy tang of the Americas, the hot and resinous perfume of the rainforest. (Harris 2007) – У ніс б’є дурман, п’янить суміш запахів шоколаду, ванілі, розпечених казанів і кориці – терпкий грубуватий дух Америки, гострий смолистий аромат тропічних лісів [… [the] acerbic, rough smell [of] America, sharp, resinous aroma [of] tropic forests]. (Harris 2015)

The original text recruits the SMELL is TOUCH/SIGHT and SMELL is TEMPERATURE mappings. One metaphor is expressed by the attributes raw and earthy, which ascribe the corresponding qualities to the referent tang and in this way interpret an olfactory sensation in terms of a haptic and visual one and the other – by the attribute hot, which ascribes this quality to the referent perfume speaking about smell in terms of temperature. In the translation, the SMELL is TOUCH/ SIGHT mapping is partly preserved, being evoked by the adjective грубуватий [a bit rough] and partly substituted by the SMELL is TASTE mapping, recruited by the adjective терпкий [acerbic], while the SMELL is TEMPERATURE mapping is substituted by the SMELL is TOUCH one (specifically, a haptic sensation of a rough surface), triggered by the adjective – гострий [sharp]. The translator uses contextual lexical substitution technique, which allows him to render all the connotations of the original through close synesthetic metaphorical models. All in all, we should underline that, recruiting different basic domains, substitutions mostly highlight similar features of the metaphorized entities. Differences stem from cultural specificity of experience embodied in culturally

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specific synesthetic metaphors. For, example, English writers tend to conceptualize spicy smells in terms of temperature – as hot, while Ukrainian translators – in terms of touch – as sharp.

4 Concluding Remarks The quantitative correlation between reconstructed and lost/substituted synesthetic models suggests that in spite of the universal biological nature of synesthetic sensory-motor experience that motivates linguistic expressions, translation of synesthetic metaphors is powerfully influenced by the specificity of the sociocultural experience entrenched in the English and Ukrainian synesthetic metaphorical models. And this specificity licenses some specific use of language and limits the translators’ options. However, this conclusion only holds good if translators choose the literal translation strategy, closely following the original and trying to achieve structural-semantic adequacy. In case of opting for free translation strategy, omitting a metaphor is translators’ free choice and whether they manage to compensate for the metaphorical connotations by some other means depends on their professional skills.

References Akademichnyj Tlumachnyj Slovnyk Ukrayinskoyi Movy: Tom 2. [Academic Dictionary of the Ukrainian Language: Volume 2]. 1971. Kyyiv, Ukraine: Naukova Dumka. (in Ukrainian). Forceville, Charles. 2009. “Non-Verbal and Multimodal Metaphor in a Cognitivists Framework: Agendas for Research.” In Multimodal Metaphor, edited by Charles Forceville and Eduardo Urios-Aparisi. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 19–42. Kovalenko, Liudmyla and Alla Martynyuk. 2018. “English Container Metaphors of Emotions in Ukrainian Translations.” Advanced education 10, 190–197. Kövečses, Zoltan. 2002. Metaphor: A Practical Introduction. 2d edition. New York: Oxford University Press. Kövecses, Zoltán. 2017. “Levels of Metaphor”. Cognitive Linguistics 28(2), 209–370. Lakoff, George. 1993. “The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor.” In Metaphor and Thought, edited by Andrew Ortony. New York: Cambridge University Press, 202–251. Langacker, Ronald. 1987. Foundations of Cognitive Grammar. Vol. I. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Newmark, Peter. 1988. A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai: Prentice Hall International.

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Risku, Hanna. 2013. “Cognitive approaches to translation.” In The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, edited by Carol A. Chapelle. Accessed August 2, 2019 [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0145]. Ruiz de Mendoza, Francisco and Alicia Galera. 2014. Cognitive Modeling. A Linguistic Perspective. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Primary sources Harris, Dzhoann. 2015. Shokolad [Chocolate]. Translated by Volodymyr Polyakov. Kharkiv: Knyzhkovyj Klub “Klub Simejnogo Dozvil’ya”. (in Ukrainian). Harris, Joanne. 2007. Chocolate. London: Black Swan. Accessed November 15, 2018 [https://royallib.com/book/Harris_Joanne/Chocolat.html]. Martin, George R. R. 1996. A Song of Ice and Fire (A Game of Thrones). New York: Bantam Books. Accessed March 25, 2019 [https://royallib.com/ book/R_Martin_George/a_game_of_thrones.html] Martin, Dzhordzh. 2012. Pisnya L’odu Ta Vohnyu (Gra Prestoliv) [A Song of Ice and Fire (A Game of Thrones)]. Translated by Vyacheslav Brodovyj. Accessed March 25, 2019 [http://ice-and-fire.in.ua/page/agot/]. (in Ukrainian).

Olesia Borysova

Grammatical Issues in Legal Documents Translation in the Context of Globalization Abstract: This chapter deals with some grammatical issues in legal documents translation in the context of globalization. The research was conducted on the basis of the original version of the Association Agreement between the EU and Ukraine and its translation in Ukrainian. The chapter contains some peculiarities in translating legal texts in general: from the linguistic point of view, the text of this document can be characterized by standardized, precise, and laconic language. It also reveals the specifiers of the document from the grammatical perspective, and it shows some typical ways of solving these translation problems. As for morphological issues, characteristic feature of legal text translation is the replacement of the different parts of speech, different ways of modal verbs rendering, and changing passive voice into active in the translation. Examining syntactical traits of the legal documents discourse in two languages, we can say that there is typical usage of sentences with participial complexes and subordinate clauses. Keywords: Legal text, grammatical issues, translation, parts of speech

Translation plays a very important role in the process of globalization. It helps countries to cooperate and develop. Ukraine has signed many international treaties, contracts, and conventions between itself and other countries at a diplomatic level. It leads to the necessity to provide high-quality translations from Ukrainian into English and in the opposite direction. Translation per se is already a complex process that involves so many specific skills. However, translating legal documents is more exacting, as the ramifications of even the slightest of mistakes will involve a complex legal process, notwithstanding the financial costs, for it to be reversed. Legal translation involves the translation of one legal system into another. Unlike just science, law remains a national phenomenon. Each national law constitutes an independent legal system with its own terminological apparatus, emphasizing the structure of concepts and rules of classification, sources of law, methodological approach, and socioeconomic principles. The foregoing has a significant effect on legal translation when communication is made in different languages, in different cultural environments, and in legal systems. Translation allows different cultures to connect, interact, and enrich one another. Any translator, when working with a legal text, must take into account the requirements of the usage (the linguistic habits of native speakers of the text), without violating the usual perception of the right document. The main purpose of the translator is to create a communicatively equal translation text that will

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match the original text. The source text is structured to follow the legal system that conforms to its own legal language and culture. The target text, on the other hand, will be read by another person familiar with another language and legal system. The notion of “communicative equivalence” of the texts is extremely important for understanding the mechanism of foreign language text rendering. For the communicator, the two texts act as equal forms of existence of the same message; they are equal in their functional and structural-semantic identification. In the process of legal translation, the achievement of such adequacy is possible only when the translator himself has legal knowledge, both in foreign and in his native languages (Danet 1985: 273–291). The target text must reproduce the content of the legal instructions of the source text as accurately as possible, and it should be so legally reliable and relevant that both the original and the translation are authentic texts with equal legal force. Under these conditions, literal translation is common. According to Gibbons, the main requirements for translation of international agreements are accuracy, conciseness, transparency of content, and compliance with the rules of the language of translation (1994: 476). It should be remembered that the linguistic structures of the source language might not have direct equivalents in the target language, and thus it is the responsibility of the translator to find a suitable language structure that is similar to the source text. Nowadays, the most topical and controversial international legal document in Ukraine is The Association Agreement between the EU and Ukraine (hereinafter the Association Agreement). This document is the highest possible form of cooperation between the EU and the non-member State. From the linguistic point of view, the text of this document can be characterized by standardized, precise, and laconic language. This agreement has many lexicological questions to deal with, but the issues which are not recently explored much and also cause many questions in the process of translation are the ones from the grammatical level:  in particular, morphological and syntactical. It is necessary to pay attention to the translation of constructions with verbals, passive voice constructions, modal verbs and tenses, and non-conjunctive attibutive constructions. The biggest problem that arises is the inability to find, in some cases, an accurate, adequate translation version. The linguistic analysis of the Association Agreement shows that the present tense of the verb and the passive constructions are the most commonly used in the source language, but they are not typical for the target language. There is also a large number of modal verbs that express the ability, possibility, necessity, and likelihood of action, which need appropriate equivalents in the target language. A characteristic feature of legal text translation is the replacement of the different parts of speech. Usually they are rendered with the same part of speech, but there are also some cases where the translation equivalent belongs to another part of speech. This is due to the fact that the Ukrainian and English languages have differences in the traditions of the language, that is, there are some in discrepancies in the formation of the sentence structure, some imbalance in the parts

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of speech sets, the words have slightly different combinations, and each language has distinctive stylistic features. Replacements can be as simple as changing the part-of-speech status of one word, or complicated – replacing two or more parts of speech. One of the typical and common substitutions encountered in the comparative analysis of the original text and the translation was the replacement of the infinitive with a noun. Example 1:  They have applied unsuccessfully to the holder of the patent or of the plant variety right to obtain a contractual licence (Government Portal. n.d., Art.222,12, a). Вони безрезультатно зверталися до власника патенту чи власника права на сорт рослини з метою одержання договірної ліцензії (Uryadovyy portal. n.d., ст.222, 12, а).  

Analysis of this type of examples shows that the infinitive can perform a variety of syntactic functions: subject, nominative compound predicate, object, attribute, adverbial modifier, and parenthesis. The translation of the infinitive depends largely on its syntactic function in the sentence; it can be transmitted as a verb, verbal, simple and compound verb predicate, and adverb. In our study, the noun is the most common way of rendering the infinitive. Cases of infinitive translation with the Ukrainian infinitive are less common, but still happen. Example 2:  The Parties agree to facilitate further EU-Ukraine judicial cooperation in civil matters on the basis of the applicable multilateral legal instruments (Government Portal. n.d., Art.24,1). Сторони домовилися розвивати подальше судове співробітництво між Україною та ЄС у цивільних справах на основі відповідних багатосторонніх правових документів (Uryadovyy portal. n.d., ст.24,1).   

In addition to the infinitive, gerund is also common among the transpositions of speech parts in the process of translation, especially after prepositions in case of, and in the event of, subject to, etc. The combination of prepositions with gerund is translated into Ukrainian as:  1) у випадку, за умови + noun; 2)  у випадку, якщо+ verb, за умови, що + verb. Among the grammatical transformations of the parts of speech transpositions in the translation of the Association Agreement, the following ways of preposition+gerund constructions translation were identified: 1) preposition + noun and 2) conjunction + verb. They are illustrated in Examples 3 and 4, respectively. Example 3: To this end, in applying those measures to particular persons, goods, services or establishments of the other Party in specific cases (Government Portal. n.d., Art. 285). З цією метою: при застосуванні цих заходів до окремих осіб, товарів, послуг або установ іншої Сторони у окремих випадках (Uryadovyy portal. n.d., ст. 285).   

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Example 4: However, before seeking the assistance of or consulting with relevant experts and stakeholders, the mediator shall consult with the Parties (Government Portal. n.d., Art.331). Проте, перш ніж звернутися за допомогою або за консультаціями до відпові дних експертів та заінтересованих осіб, посередник проводить консультації зі Сторонами (Uryadovyy portal. n.d., ст. 331).  

The Association Agreement is also characterized by the transpositions of adverbs into adjectives; it makes the translation sentence more natural and helps to keep all the norms of the target language. Example 5: … aid to facilitate the development of certain economic activities or of certain economic areas where such aid does not adversely affect trading… (Government Portal. n.d., Art. 262). … допомога для сприяння розвитку певної економічної діяльності або певних економічних сфер, якщо така допомога не має несприятливого впливу на умови торгівлі (Uryadovyy portal. n.d., ст. 262).  

In addition to the abovementioned transpositions, there are also substitutions of the 1) prepositional noun phrase (of+noun) for the adjective-attribute (act of the law – юридичний акт); 2) adjective+noun word combination (monetary administration – введення грошової політики); and 3) Participle I and Participle II can be rendered with the help of the noun (increasing – зростання, increased – збільшення). Transpositions of the one part of speech into the other is a relatively common occurrence in legal translation, but substitutions should be consistent with the target language. Substitutions should be accurate, and translations should be equivalent, adequate, concise, standardized, and stylistically consistent. Other grammatical difficulties that occur in the process of the Association Agreement translation also contain a number of modal verbs, which express the ability, possibility, necessity, and likelihood of implementation and enforcement of the agreement. Modal verbs in order to fulfill the stylistic requirements, and words combinability and usage sometimes need transformations or sometimes there is just transposition of the parts of speech or the transformation of addition. Example 6: The arbitration panel may give a preliminary ruling within 10 days of its establishment on whether it deems the case to be urgent (Government Portal. n.d., Art. 310). Третейська група може ухвалити протягом 10 днів після свого призначення попередню постанову щодо того, чи вважає вона справу терміновою (Uryadovyy portal. n.d., ст.310).  

The verb may most often has the meaning of a quite plausible assumption, and it is translated with words може бути (lexicalized word combination with the meaning of modality) or можливо (Ukrainian modal adverbial modifier).

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Example 7: Where the arbitration panel considers that it cannot meet this deadline, the chairperson of the arbitration panel shall notify the Parties and the Trade Committee in writing… (Government Portal. n.d., Art.310). Якщо третейська група вважає, що цього строку недостатньо, Голова трете йської групи повинен письмово повідомити про це Сторонам та Комітету з питань торгівлі… (Uryadovyy portal. n.d., ст. 310).  

Often the modal verb is used in the legal texts of various regulations, declarations, documents, contracts, etc. It expresses compulsion and obligation, which is why in the English version of the Association Agreement the word shall is found in almost every sentence. In the Ukrainian language, this modal word is often translated as повинен, but is often omitted at all. If removed, then the sentence is built in the present tense. Example 8: The expenses of such participation shall be borne by the participating Party” (Government Portal. n.d., Art.71, c). Витрати на таку участь несе Сторона, що ініціювала участь” (Uryadovyy portal. n.d., ст.71, с).  

There are various ways to translate the means of expressing modality when translating from English to Ukrainian. In order to achieve maximum equivalence, the translator should take into account the stylistic features of a particular text. In our case, it is the Association Agreement, one of the characteristics of which is the use of modal words that indicate the terms and conditions to be fulfilled. In the process of the Association Agreement between Ukraine and the EU analysis (from the grammatical point of view), it was noticed that the English passive constructions are usually replaced in the process of translation into an active one, since the passive voice is used much less frequently in the Ukrainian language. There are many ways to render it, such as: 1) impersonal verb with suffix -ся (-сь); 2) verb in active voice; and 3) the Ukrainian past participle passive voice. Examples 9, 10, and 11 illustrate these cases, respectively. Example 9: Moreover, the following may be considered to be compatible with the proper functioning of this Agreement… (Government Portal. n.d., Art. 262). Крім того, наступне може вважатися сумісним з належним виконанням цієї Угоди… (Uryadovyy portal. n.d., ст.262).  

In this example, the passive voice of the verb “be considered” is translated with an active impersonal verb вважатися, namely a verb with a suffix -ся.

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Example 10: The Parties agree that a Party shall not be held liable for an interruption or reduction pursuant to this Article where that Party is in an impossibility to supply, transit or transport energy goods … (Government Portal. n.d., Art.276, 3). Сторони погоджуються, що Сторона не повинна нести відповідальності за пе реривання або скорочення постачання відповідно до цієї статті, якщо Сторона немає можливості постачати енергетичні товари… (Uryadovyy portal. n.d., cт. 276).   Example 11: In the case of medicinal products for which paediatric studies have been carried out, and the results of those studies are reflected in the product information, the Parties shall provide for a further six-month extension of the period of protection referred to in paragraph 2 of this Article (Government Portal. n.d., Art. 220). У випадку лікарських засобів, для яких були здійснені педіатричні дослідження та результати таких досліджень відображені в інформації стосовно продукту, Сторони надають додаткове шестимісячне продовження періоду захисту, що згаданий у пункті 2 цієї статті. (Uryadovyy portal. n.d., ст. 220)  

In this example, the passive construction are reflected is translated with the Ukrainian participle in plural as відображені. The passive voice can also be translated with the combination of the verb бути and impersonal Ukrainian verb forms with suffixes -но, -то; the combination of the verb бути and Ukrainian past participle passive voice; the verb in the active voice in impersonal sentence; and if there is a subject of the action in the sentence with a verb predicate in the passive voice, it can be translated into Ukrainian as a personal sentence with the verb predicate in active voice. The area of the passive voice implication in English is far more boarder than in Ukrainian, because in English the number of different verbs that can be used in passive voice is much more than in the target language. It explains the fact that any English object (direct or indirect) can be a subject in any passive voice complex. In Ukrainian it can be performed only by the direct objects. Among grammatical issues it is also necessary to highlight some syntactical peculiarities and difficulties that they cause in the process of translation. A special standard is observed in the construction of sentences, manifested by the use of simple complicated sentences with homogeneous terms and long sentences with complex syntactic structures. Example 12: The EU Party and Ukraine may only provide that a design is refused for registration or declared invalid after registration on substantive grounds in the following cases: d) if the design is in conflict with a prior design which has been made available to the public after the date of filing of the application or, if priority is claimed, the date of priority of the design, and which is protected from a date prior to the said date by a registered design or an application for a design;

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e) if a distinctive sign is used in a subsequent design, and the law of the Party concerned governing that sign confers on the right holder of the sign the right to prohibit such use (Government Portal. n.d., Art.215,1). Україна та Сторона ЄС можуть лише передбачити умови щодо відмови у реєстрації промислового зразка або визнання його недійсним після реєстрації на суттєвій підставі у таких випадках: д) якщо промисловий зразок конфліктує з більш раннім промисловим зразком, що був доведений до загального відома після дати подання заявки або, якщо заявлено пріоритет, після дати пріоритету, і який охороняється з дати, що передує зазначеній даті, як зареєстрований зразок або як заявка на зразок; е) якщо у більш пізньому промисловому зразку використано розрізняльне позначення, і законодавство відповідної Сторони щодо такого позначення надає власнику права на позначення право забороняти таке використання (Uryadovyy portal. n.d., cт.215).  

This example uses logical structures with the meanings of condition and reason. Sentences with such complex constructions are informative, and it is important to convey the sense and information of the sentence completely in order to exclude any possibility of their ambiguous interpretation. Example13: With a view to facilitating the effective application of their respective competition laws, the competition authorities of the Parties may exchange information including on legislation and enforcement activities, within the limits imposed by their respective legislations and taking into account their essential interests (Government Portal. n.d., Art.259, 3). З метою сприяння ефективному застосуванню свого законодавства про конку ренцію, відомства Сторін з питань конкуренції можуть обмінюватися інформа цією, в тому числі щодо законодавства та правозастосовчої діяльності, з ураху ванням обмежень, передбачених їхнім відповідним законодавством, та беручи до уваги їхні суттєві інтереси (Uryadovyy portal. n.d., ст.259, 3).  

In addition, at the syntactic level of the Association Agreement discourse, there is typical usage of sentences with participial complexes and subordinate clauses. To sum up, in general legal document translation is such a demanding task. It requires professional legal translators that have the right academic background, and are backed by years of legal translation expertise. Grammatical difficulties in translations are based not only on the difference in the grammars of two languages, but also on the difference of the national legislations. Among the most frequent grammatical translation problems were defined the following: transposition of the parts of speech, rendering modality, and active and passive voices. As for the perspectives in this research direction, the importance of translation activity in Ukraine and in the world is increasing, because of consequent national legal system integration in the European legal space and necessity of national legislation adjustment to international law EU legislation.

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References Danet Brenda. 1985. “Legal discourse”. In Handbook of Discourse Analysis, vol. 1, edited by van Dijk T. A., 273–291. London: Academic Press. Gibbons John P. 1994. Language and the Law. London: Longman. Government Portal. n.d. “Association Agreement between the European Union and Ukraine”. Accessed May 11, 2019. https://www.kmu.gov.ua/en/ yevropejska-integraciya/ugoda-pro-asociacyu Uryadovyy portal. n.d. “Uhoda pro asotsiatsiyu”. Accessed May 11, 2019 https:// www.kmu.gov.ua/diyalnist/yevropejska-integraciya/ugoda-pro-asociacyu

Vladyslava Demetska

Pragmatic Texts of Political Discourse in Translation: Theoretical Perspective Abstract: This chapter provides an approach according to which the adequate translation of a pragmatic text is not possible unless adapted to the linguistic and cultural stereotypes of target audience. In this case, the correlation between applied reproductive and adaptive strategies depends on the pragmatic potential of definite discourse/type of text in source linguoculture and target one. Thus, translation adaptation does not contradict reproductive translation being an associative strategy. The main purpose of adaptive strategies lies in both the transference of pragmatic potential of discourse/type of text and orientation to the linguistic and cultural stereotypes of the target audience in translation. For highlighting the typological structural and functional characteristics of pragmatic texts, the analysis of theoretical research issues set out to studying the pragmatic texts on macro and microlevel. The analysis results in the supposition that beyond the scholars’ interests are the problems concerning the functioning of culturally biased elements (realias, symbols, and concepts) which define the adaptive and pragmatic potential of the text, and also the problem of the system of methods relevant to distinguish the cultural specificity of the text under translation. Keywords: Adaptive/pragmatic potential, adaptive strategies, reproductive strategies, discourse, type of text, translation, adaptation

Introduction The appearance of the “linguistic interpretation of a human being” in the end of the 20th century led to the growth of interaction of linguistics with other anthropocentric disciplines and the further penetration of linguistic information into the other spheres of experience. This process furthered the updating of such linguistic approaches as: text linguistics, semiotics, linguopragmatics, theory of communication (intercultural especially), theory of translation, theory of discourse, which methodological bases are built in compliance with such extralingual factors as the development of communicational means, connections, informational technologies, globalization, universalization, and others (Belova, 1997). It is obvious that such a paradigm of approaches demands solving of the number of theoretical and practical tasks, connected with the differentiation of conceptual framework, the description of methodological and linguistic bases, and the development of conceptual and terminological metalanguage. Integrative essence of linguistic theory of the text, communication theory, discourse linguistics (Revzina, 1999), and the theory of translation in our case demands the determination of the

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key objects of the research, and in particular the determination of the term “discourse.” The aim of the chapter is to prove the relevancy of applying the translational adaptation to pragmatic texts/discourses, taking into consideration the following factors: cultural asymmetry, the image of target audience, and national and cultural component of original text along with its ideological layer.

Methods and Results The chapter suggests the linguistic, cultural, and methodological reasons for applying the translation adaptation to pragmatic texts. The comprehensive analysis of the adaptation as a notion represents the hierarchy of the typological structural, functional, cognitive, and comparative methods of discourse/text analysis. An adaptive potential of discourse/text is defined within the framework of intralinguistic and interlinguistic comparison of pragmatic texts, which grounds the adaptive translation models of pragmatic texts under analysis. Comparative cultural and cognitive analysis resulted in pointing out the main tendencies in redistribution of information from one type of the text to another within one and the same discourse. The defining of the main transpositions while transcoding from one type of text to another one within one linguoculture points out the dominant transformations, which in their turn serve for working out the adaptive translational model for definite discourse/text. The complex research of the notion of linguistic and cultural adaptation requires the selection of general scientific methods (observation, analysis/synthesis, and induction/deduction), as well as special linguistic methods including linguocultural analysis, differential method, thesaurus method and method of componential analysis, and contextual method. Special attention has been given to the frame-based comparative translation analysis, which implies the right choice of translation strategies. The adequate reproduction of pragmatic potential of the source text for another cultural and linguistic tradition is possible under the condition of the application of the adaptive translation models to the text.

Discussion The term “discourse,” having appeared for the first time in the context of pragmatic description of the language functioning in the second half of the 20th century, was interpreted with the consideration of different theoretical approaches, thus obtaining its further amplification. Nevertheless, even now there is no common definitive parameters for “discourse,” which could fully enlighten its complex cognitive hierarchy and communicative specificity. The founder of the modern theory of discourse is the Dutch researcher Teun. van Dijk, who, based on works of Lakoff (1973) and Searle (1970) in the sphere of linguistic pragmatics, determined the existence of not only the connected sequence

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of sentences as the semantic macrostucture of the text, but the connected sequence of speech acts as the pragmatic macrostructure of the text (van Dijk 1985). As a matter of fact, T. van Dijk pointed the integral connection of the language – speech (the text as its material consequence) – communicative situation and its recipient, addressee. Perhaps, the existence of social context and communicative situation as the basic criteria of the discourse identification does not raise doubts in the frames of the modern approach to this phenomenon research. That is why the discourse is understood as the complex communicative phenomenon, which includes in addition to text such extralingual factors as: knowledge about the world, opinions, attitudes, and addressant aims, which are needed for the understanding of the text (Arutunova 1990, pp. 136–137). Thematic justification of our research touches the description of specificity of not only the pragmatic text, but of the text created in the light of conventions of one national culture, which contains the definite degree of implicit cultural content, and, by extension, is common to the representatives of the culture. Any original text presents the definite type, and the knowledge of these types of texts is comprised to the common knowledge of the addressee. According to this it can be stated that the text is characterized not only by the code and the message, and by the orientation onto the certain type of memory (Bakhtin, 1986; Lotman, 1987). Thus, the source text executes its function in the primary communicative situation and in the culture of the original language’s society. This leads to the conclusion that the higher is the degree of asymmetry of the cultures, the more significant become the problems of differentiation of conceptual spheres of the types of texts and the more understandable becomes the aim of adaptation. The process of adaptation of linguistic and cultural aspect is analyzed on the case study of fiction in the researches of linguists and translation scientists (Boldyrev, 2001; Cherednichenko, 2007; Denisova, 1998; Donez, 2001; Hymes, 1964; Koptilov, 1971; Likhatchev, 1994; Lotman, 1987; Petrov, 1991; Shveyzer, 1994; Vereschagin, Kostomarov, 1983; Vinogradova, 2001; Vorobjov, 1997; Wierzbicka, 1992; Zorivchak, 1989). For the aim of our research it is important to find out the role of the concept as the means of objectification of the author’s worldview, and, hereby, as the criteria of evaluation of equivalency/adequacy of the original text to the target one. The approach to the analysis of the text from the point of view of contextual components gained the great theoretical development, resulting in the implementation into scientific space of the notion of the concept. The notion of the concept in the modern researches is understood as: “the basic entity, which allows to connect the sense with the used word” (Zalevskaya, 1999); “mental constitution, reflecting objects of both the material (physical) and ideal worlds and being the unit of the collective consciousness, which is kept in the collective memory of the language (native) speakers, and which is characterized by the multidimensionality and the discretization of the sense” (Karasik, 2004; Likhatchev, 1994; Stepanov,

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1995; Wierzbicka, 1992). The approaches to the research of the concept are mainly based on its cultural dominant. The verbalization of the cultural concepts in the text forms so-called set of semantic primes (Wierzbicka, 1992, p. 112) or the basis of the substantial structure of the text, which gives the opportunity for presenting the text as the dynamic phenomenon, correlating with historical and cultural peculiarities of its creation. Thus, logically presented is the choice of definite concepts from the point of view of both a discourse and source and target cultural traditions, which allows to argue about cultural specificity of one or another pragmatic text. Thus, for the political discourse the verbalization of the following concepts seems to be relevant: ‘vlast’ (“power”), ‘vybory’ (“elections”), ‘lider/liderstvo’ (“leader”, “leadership”), ‘politika’ (“politics”), which have their equivalents in the English tradition  – “power,” “elections,” “leader/leadership,” and “politics.” Having analyzed the notion of the concept, we need to answer the following question:  Which aspect of the concept is to be presented while translating the pragmatic types of text? Cultural semantics of the concept is reflected in associations, which in its turn is realized in the lexical elements with evaluative semantics, which express explicitly/implicitly positive/negative connotations and in such a way “convoys” the concept in the text, building up around it the evaluations, emotions, and circle of associations, which in their significance for the definite culture sometimes do not have the textual or verbal realization, but, at the same time, are understood by the source audience. What happens, for example, with the lexical unit “politician” while transporting from one type of text to another within the frames of political discourse, if we are interested in the semantic structure of this lexical unit or more definitely – in its cultural component? In the vocabulary entry the lexeme “politician” is a term as far as the main function of the dictionary is informative. For the textbook on political science the “politician” is not the term, but rather the notion, as far as it does already include the associations and that is why possesses the cultural connotation. Such a shift from the term to the notion is explained by the implicit orientation of the teaching type of text onto the formation of the political preferences and hence onto the programming of ideological view of the society as a whole. From the point of view of the text, such transformations are interconnected with the changes of the dominant in the system of functions that is in foregrounding of the directive or voluntative function of the type of text. In the political speech, the lexical unit “politician” is inclined to be the concept. Pragmatic and communicative perspective of political speech supremely actualizes the cultural component of the lexical unit “politician” with the help of the wide presentation of not only the cultural associations, but also the evaluation of all types of “affective evaluation” (Telia, 1988, p. 6). In the advertising type of text the lexical unit “politician” cannot be verbally realized, but the usage of all verbal means of evaluation with the explicitly expressed positive/negative connotations along with the realias, symbols, and political concepts finally confirms that the lexical unit “politician” is

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comprehended on the level of a concept. At the same time, we can also observe the shift of the dominating functions to the side of the single-valued either directive or expressive. In such a way, the pragmatic degree of the type of text is proportional to the frequency of functioning of the language units with national and cultural components. Thereby, both the frequency of usage and hierarchy of culturally depended units influence the specificity of functioning of the type of text not only in the frames of a discourse, but in the frames of the linguocultural tradition. For the translator it means that he deals with two types of information in the text – properly factual and evaluative one. In the process of transcoding of the discourse/text the different types of information define the algorithm of translational actions either to the reproductive translation or to the adaptive one. No matter how paradox it is, this statement is of the most significance while dealing with the texts of close linguocultures. Let us, for example, examine the educational type of text – a textbook. Everything concerning factual information is of no small concern to a translator, but, when the conversation drifts to the evaluative information in translation one should accept the challenge of “culture censorship.” And culture censorship is to be especially “tough” when speaking about joint historical experience of both cultures (for example, the ideological evaluation of the Ukrainian Cossacks in Ukraine and in Poland). Historical persons of both sides are evaluated differently, from different positions and different conceptions, which leads to the fact that any evaluation is incurred to the censor. In this case, the textbook of Ukrainian linguocultural tradition actualizes the emotive function (to arise the sense of proud), and the type of emotions arises the type of evaluation. From this point of view it is obvious that the closer the cultures are the stronger is the reaction on the evaluation (what type of evaluation possesses these facts in the Poland textbooks). In other words, the evaluation is censored in one or another way: it may be omitted, or there may be added some new evaluation (adscript), or (in most situations) the replacement occurs (generalization – the other’s evaluation is erased, concretization – personal evaluation is added) and the development of meaning (the main meaning is saved, but the evaluative, connotative meaning is either erased or added). The seeming cultural affinity leads to the situation, when axiology is easy to understand, but hard to translate in the cases, when cultures are historically close to each other, which arises the need of adaptation on the level of evaluation. That is why the adaptive potential of the discourse/text is a potential ability of one or another discourse/text to adaptation in translation and sometimes to its necessary adaptation. The aptitude for adaptation depends on the distance between languages and cultures, making contact, and absolute priority of pragmatic function during translation. In such a way we can state that the necessity of translation-adaptation can be explained not so much by language differences, as cultural ones. Adaptation is a type of translation with dominating pragmatic orientation onto expectation stereotypes of a bearer of the target language and culture. The degree of affinity or distance from the source text can vary for different types of adaptive texts.

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All foregoing in our opinion demonstrates theoretical statement: that functional appropriation of the text is determined by the choice of translational strategy and in such a way can presuppose also the complementarity of translational and adaptive strategies. Adaptive strategies of translation suppose:  1) the usage of target language and cultural models and 2)  a distinct pragmatic orientation of the translational texts onto its target language and target cultural audience. We have already tried to describe the potential variants of translation choice depending on several parameters, which could be reduced to the following ones: the aims of intercultural translation, the forecasting of readers’ reaction, and the distance between two cultures. It is easy to notice that all mentioned variants in some ways belong to macrolevel and, accordingly, presuppose the involvement of macro-strategies in translation. The open question is about the microlevels, which seem for us to be the linguistic contexts. It was generally accepted that implicit information is realized through the markers, which could be referred to the different textual levels. In research papers with the description of the functioning of lexical elements with cultural component it is frequently stated that the process of adaptation of the fragments of evaluative experience of the separate linguistic and cultural community comes to the process of elimination of the gaps of different types. However, when choosing the mean of translation of specific national and cultural language units we should orient to a greater extent onto the recipient (Terekhova, 2005). As a matter of principle, the discovery of the gaps may be considered as one more possibility or a technique for the zone of misunderstanding discovering, in which we can distinguish some “microtechniques” for reducing of this zone – “formats” of fulfilling and compensation. In other words, the saving/not saving of the realities, symbols, and concepts while transcoding depends on a translator, who consciously uses the means of increasing of misunderstanding zone or a partial understanding with the purpose to achieve the desired pragmatic effect. However, as we have already mentioned, conscious or unconscious contextual, functional, and typological shifts during translation can produce inadequate identification of a type of text/discourse under the conditions of target linguoculture. Every type of text (and a discourse in a whole) is characterized by the definite set and hierarchy of culturally biased elements, whose functioning defines the place of this type of text in a paradigm of pragmatic texts. In such a manner, cultural asymmetry determines not only the principal divergence in the paradigm of texts, but also determines the system of dominating functions of the discourses, which saving in translation furthers the adequate perception of one or another type of discourse – that is its adequate identification and interpretation.

Conclusions To get things straight, the degree of affinity or distance from the source text, under the conditions of dominating orientation on the language and cultural

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references of a recipient, can vary for the different types of adaptive texts. In this case, the main meaning acquires the conscious choice of translator to the advantage of creative or adaptive strategies. In all cases, where the point is about the orientation on all native speakers (or on the non-specialists), the algorithm of translational actions shifts towards adaptive strategies. Moreover, in cases dealing with the influence on the audience, a translator has to choose between two complementary types of translation. A translator can accept it during the work with one type of texts and deny it while working with other, but anyhow he makes a conscious decision, forecasting the possible reaction of the target audience. It goes without saying that pragmatic and, accordingly, adaptive potential of a type of text directly depends on the frequency of cultural dependent lexical elements. In other words, the verbalization of one type of text obtains the peculiarities of a complex, contradictory process, when it is referred to the analysis of the lexis, which is used in ideologically determined discourses such as political and religious, in which we see the great perspective for the following research.

References Arutunova, Nina. 1990. Diskurs [Discourse]. Lingvisticheskiy entsiklopedicheskiy slovar’. Moscow: Sovetskaya ensiklopediya, 136–137. Bakhtin, Mikhail. 1986. Literaturno-kriticheskie statyi [Critical literary issues]. Moscow: Khudozhestvennaya literature. Belova, Alla. 1997. Lingvisticheskie aspekty argumentazii [Linguistic aspects of argumentation]. Kyiv: Izd-vo KNU. Boldyrev, Nikolay. 2001. Antropozentrichnost’ yazyka s posizii rasnych kul’tur [Language anthropocentricity within different cultures]. Mater. III Mezhdunar. konf. “Filologia i kultura” (I). Tambov: Izd-vo Tambov. Un-ta, 15–21. Cherednichenko, Oleksandr. 2007. Pro movu I pereklad [About the language and translation]. Kyiv: Izd-vo Lybid’. Denisova, Galina. 1998. Problemy perevoda kul’turologicheski obuslovlennoy lexiki [The problems of translation of culturally-biased lexis]. Moscow: Izd-vo MGIMO. Donez, Pavel. 2001. Osnovy obshey teorii mezhkulurnoy kommunikacii: nauchnyi status, ponjatiynyi apparat, yazykovoi I neyazykovoi aspekty, voprosy etiki I didaktiki [The basics of the theory of intercultural communication: Scientific status, terminology, linguistic and non-linguistic aspects, the questions of ethics and didactics]. Кharkiv: Izd-vo “Shtrich”. Hymes, Dell. 1964. Language in Culture and Society: A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Karasik, Vladimir. 2004. Yazykovoi krug: lichnost’, koncepty, diskurs [Linguistic circle: Personality, concepts, discourse]. Moscow: Izd-vo “Gnosis”.

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Koptilov, Viktor. 1971. Aktualni pytannya ukrains’kogo chudozhn’ogo perekladu [Major aspects of the Ukrainian literary translation]. Kyiv: Dnipro. Lakoff, George. 1973. “Hedges: A Study of Meaning, Criteria, and the Logic of Fuzzy Concepts”. Journal of Philosophical Logic 2, 458–508. Likhatchev, Dmitriy. 1994. Kultura kak celostnaya Sistema [Culture as an entire system]. Journal “Novyi mir” 8, 3–8. Lotman, Yuriy. 1987. Yasyki kul’tury I problem perevodimosti [Languages of culture and the problems of translability]. Moscow: Izd-vo “Nauka”. Petrov, Mikhail. 1991. Yazyk, znak, kultura [Language, sign, culture]. Moscow: Izd-vo “Nauka”. Revsina, Olga. 1999. Yazyk I diskurs [Language and discourse]. Vestn. Mosk. Un-ta. Filologiya, (1), 25–33. Searle, John. 1970. Speech Acts. London: Cambridge Univ. Press. Shveyzer, Aleksandr. 1994. Perevod I kul’turnye tradicii [Translation and cultural traditions]. In journal “Perevod I lingvistika teksta”. Moscow: Vserossiyskiy centr perevodov. Stepanov, Yuriy. 1995. Al’ternativnyi mir. Diskurs. Fakt I princip prichinnosti [Alternative world. Discourse. Fact and the principle of causality]. In journal “Yazyk i nauka konca 20 veka”. Moscow: Izd-vo RAN, 34–71. Telia, Veronika. 1988. Ekspressivnost’ kak projavlenie susubjektivnogo faktora v yazyke I ejo pragmaticheskaya orientaciya [Expressiveness as a manifestation of subjective factor in the language and its pragmatic orientation]. In journal “Chelovecheskiy factor v yazyke: Yazykovye mechanizmy ekspressivnosti”. Moscow: Izd-vo MGU. 5–12. Terekhova, Svetlana. 2005. Osonennosti nacional’no-ku’turnych sredstv yazyka v perevode (na material angliyskogo, russkogo I ukrainskogo yazykov) [The peculiarities of national and cultural linguistic means in translation (case study of the English, Russian and Ukrainian languages)]. Mater. VI Mezhdunar. nauch. conf. po perevodovedeniju “Fedorovskie chtenija” (6). St. Petersburg: Izd-vo SPbGU. 424–431. Van Dijk, Teun A. 1985. Discourse and Communication. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Vereschagin, Evgeniy & Kostomarov, Vitaliy. 1983. Yazyk I kultura. Lingvostranovedenie v prepodavanii russkogo yazyka kak inostrannogo [Language and culture. Culture-oriented linguistics in Russian as a foreign language training]. 2nd ed. Moscow: Russkiy yazyk. Vinogradova, Tatiana. 2001. Kartina mira i nekotorye aspekty mezhkul’turnoy kommunikacii [The world-view picture and some aspects of intercultural communication]. In journal “Filologia I kultura” (2). Tambov: Izd-vo Tambov. Un-ta. 127–129.

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Vorobjov, Vladimir. 1997. Lingvokul’turologia (Teoria i metody) [Cultural Linguistics (Theory and Methods)]. Moscow: Izd-vo RUDN. Wierzbicka, Anna. 1992. Semantics, Culture and Cognition: Universal human concepts in culture-specific configurations: New York: Oxford Univ. Press. Zalevskaya, Aleksandra. 1999. Psicholingvisticheskyi podchod k analizu yazykovych yavleniy [Psycholinguistic approach to the analysis of linguistic phenomena]. Journal “Voprosy yazykoznania” 6, 31–42. Zorivchak, Roksolana. 1989. Realiya I pereklad (na materiali anglomovnych perekladiv ukrains’koyi prosy) [Realias and translation (case study of English translations of Ukrainian prose)]. Lviv: Izd-vo Lviv. Un-tu.

Liudmyla Slavova

Discursive Strategies of Politicians through the Prism of Translation Abstract: This chapter highlights the problem of determining linguistic personalities and their functioning in a discursive perspective, their communicative strategies and tactics through the prism of translation. Politicians use linguistic, rhetoric, and communicative means to implement their basic strategies, among them positive self-representation and discreditation of opponents. Reproduction of discursive strategies is predetermined by linguistic (presence of equivalents in the target language) and pragmatic (the clarity of the translation for the audience; the ability to convey the necessary content and imagery by means of a target language) factors as well as by translators’ cultural and social background. The primary task of the translator is to create a translation that would have the same communicative function and influence on the recipient and be equivalent to the original text at a pragmatic level. Keywords: Discursive strategies, linguistic personalities of politicians, pragmatic adaptation, translation techniques

1 Political Discourse from the Translation Perspective The anthropocentric orientation of linguistic researches highlights the problem of linguistic personalities functioning in the discourse, their communicative strategies, and tactics. The basic two strategies that are implemented are positive selfrepresentation and discreditation of opponents. Political leaders create a certain image, so as to be easily recognized by the audience. Hilary Clinton is perceived as a woman-leader, who serves her own country. As for her discourse it can be characterized as an emotional one. According to the media, Trump’s speeches are known for their lack of clarity and logic, and sharp changes in topics; they mainly consist of ambiguous expressions and hints. Media contribute a lot to the creation and perception of politicians’ images, and stereotypes play here a significant role. The media play an important role in conveying opinions of politicians. Some studies have illustrated how media discourses transport ideological meanings in many different countries and cultures (Wodak 1995). Vehmas-Lehto (2002) points out that there are “different expectations of translation in different cultures.” She suggests that in the culture area a theory of translation should have the following features in order for the translator to achieve good results: communicativeness, connection to the extralinguistic world, functionality choice and hierachization taking the receptor of the translation into account and

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textuality. In such terms, political discourse turns out to be the fruitful material for the investigation from the translation perspective. The perception of D. Trump’s speeches is based on the linguistic features that are represented there. One of them is the abundance of newly coined words and expressions to denote certain notions and phenomena. Those of them used in mass media have been registered in dictionaries, for example, trumpista: “a follower or supporter of Donald Trump” (Macmillan Dictionary) and trumpkin “a pumpkin carved to look like Donald Trump” (Macmillan Dictionary). As for the thesaurus of H. Clinton’s linguistic personality, it is full of metaphoric images and expressive means that verbalize them: CLINTON: Yeah, well, let’s start the clock again, Lester. We’ve looked at your tax proposals (The First Trump-Clinton debate transcript). The expression start the clock (‘відлік часу’) was originally used in the field of medicine: “a term of art used in the context of NHS targets for the timely diagnosis of cancer and the moment that the patient received the first therapeutic intervention. The clock starts on the day of forward referral for a diagnostic workup for possible invasive cancer (Medical Dictionary). But in the discourse of Hillary Clinton the phrase start the clock turns into expressive rhetoric tool, which draws attention of both the audience and the opponents. Among lexical innovations in Hillary Clinton’s neologism deplorable has the following meanings: “individual Trump supporter. According to Hillary Clinton; one that deserves strong condemnation”; a group of low-life, die-hard Donald Trump supporters who are on the fringes of society, like racist KKK members who support Trump (Urban Dictionary). To render such a neologism into Ukrainian, the translator can resort either to explanation (мерзенний, твердолобий маргінал, що підтримує Дональда Трампа) or substitutional translation. The latter means a way of rendering a neologism, when a common word in the target language which is not a neologism is used (Drabov 2015: 179): You know, to just be grossly generalistic, you could put half of Trump’s supporters into what I call the basket of deplorables (Clinton’s full remarks).  – Знаєте, якщо говорити дуже узагальнено, то можна помістити половину прихильників Трампа в те, що я називаю корзиною для безнадійних. Speaking about the function of the translator in disseminating the ideas of leaders and media, M. Baker’s ideas (2006) about narratives are true for political discourse in general, “translators through text production contribute to the creation and promotion of politically-charged narratives.”

2 Reproduction of Discursive Strategies Translation as a type of intercultural communication is a creative tool which determines appropriate perception of structural, semantic, and functional features of linguistic means in the definite type of discourse by the target audience.

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Reproduction of discursive strategies is predetermined by linguistic (presence of equivalents in the target language) and pragmatic (the clarity of the translation for the audience; the ability to convey the necessary content and imagery by means of a target language) factors as well as by translators’ cultural and social background. The discursive self-representation of politicians is carried out mainly in two ways: to represent themselves in a favorable light by resorting to self-promotion and positioning the positive features or discrediting political opponents. The latter is one of the frequently applied techniques in the political discourse: The guy (Joe Biden) who keeps making outrageous statements thinks he has a shot at being president? Guy makes outrageous statements. He’s going to be president? He doesn’t have a shot (Fortune). Хлопець, який продовжує робити скандальні заяви, думає, що він має шанси в президентській гонці? Хлопець робить скандальні заяви. Він буде президентом? У нього немає жодного шансу. Discrediting involves undermining confidence of the opponents, diminishing their authority, and distributing negative information about them. Therefore, the primary task of the translator is to create a translation that would have the same communicative function and influence on the recipient and be equivalent to the original text at a pragmatic level. Pragmatics reflects interrelationship between the writer, the reader, and the translator. Pragmatic potential of the text lies in the ability to make a relevant influence on the recipient of the information, that is, to cause certain feelings, emotions, etc. Since the original and translation receptors have generally different linguistic experience and different backgrounds, achieving a communicative goal in translation requires taking into account social, cultural, and other differences of the source text (source culture) and the translation (target culture). The role of the translator can be described metaphorically as working with text with a filter (the translator presents only what will be understandable to the target audience), a magnifying glass (translation of what may remain unnoticed by the recipient due to the specific features of the linguistic and conceptual pictures of the world), and the transformer (transfers into the necessary cultural and linguistic space elements of text that the recipient cannot understand and or adequately perceive) (Nuriev 2003). Such manipulations of the original text to provide a better understanding of translation receptors is called pragmatic adaptation. According to A.  Shveitzer, pragmatic adaptation is the transformation of the original expression, taking into account the transmission of its pragmatic meaning, that is, the specific perception of the information contained in the speech utterance by different recipients (Shveitzer 1988). The most common factors which cause adaptation in translation are mentioned by Mona Baker and Gabriela Saldanha (Baker, Saldanha 2011: 41): • “cross-code breakdown” (there are no lexical or any other kinds of equivalents in the target language);

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• “situational or cultural inadequacy” (contexts and views of a source text cannot be properly applied to the target text); • “genre switching” (a need to switch from one genre to another); • “disruption of a communication process” (a need to address a different type of readership). Pragmatically, predetermined transformations are carried out in the text of the translation in order to convey two basic functions: communicative (transmission of essential information) and expressive (transmission of emotional layers hidden under factual information). Pragmatic adaptation is applied to modify those source text elements which “would not work properly in the target language” (Vehmas-Lehto 2002: 101). To reach the pragmatic effect of the message, a translator creates equivalent effect. It means that the effect produced by the translation on its audience should be as close as possible to the effect the original had on the recipient in the source language (Ju Mao 2000: 197). I’m different, because I’m going to win states that no one else can. And when I can focus on Hillary, as I say “Crooke Hillary”… she will go down faster than any of the people that we just beat (Los Angeles Times 2016). Я не такий, тому що збираюсь отримати більшість голосів в тих штатах, в яких не зможе жоден інший кандидат. А потім я займуся Гілларі, або як я її називаю Безчесною Гілларі. І з нею ми впораємося навіть швидше, ніж з усіма тими, кого ми вже перемогли (Radio Svoboda). Pursuing the aim of preserving pragmatic adaptation as one of the main tools for rendering discursive strategies, the translator can use excessive explication in the target text, compensating for the loss using different translation strategies. The latter includes syntactic and semantic changes and substitutions. To preserve the expressive and communicative potential of the strategies of the source text, a translator can resort to such strategies as neutralization, amplification, and stylistic enhancement. The translator may also resort to empathizing as a tool to overcome the fundamental differences between the target text and the source one. The necessity of applying transformations is conditioned by the asymmetry between the relative means of expression in the systems of the source language and the target language, which can be explained not only by the difference between the structures of the texts, but also by the differences between the two linguistic and conceptual pictures of the world personified by the author and translator. It is also important that political communication with all its strategic potential is targeted at a specific target audience. Translation of political texts requires from the translator broad background knowledge, understanding the expectations of the author and the audience. In the political discourse, amplification is one of the main strategies of pragmatic adaptation. Amplification as a translation technique adds new elements in the target texts: He is a tool of Chuck Shumer, and, of course, the MS-13 lover Nancy Pelosi (CNSNews).

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Він є інструментом Чака Шумера і, звичайно, захисниці банди головорівзів “МС 13» Ненсі Пелосі. Due to the use of the amplification technique the target text preserves its informative and expressive loading. Hillary Clinton is set to launch a full-fledged attack Thursday on a newly evolving group that’s embracing the Trump candidacy: the so-called “alt right.” (Alt right).  – Хілларі Клінтон готується розпочати в четвер повномасштабну атаку на групу, яка знову набирає обертів, представляючи кандидатуру Трампа: так званих альт-райт (альтернативних правих, групи осіб з різними ультраправими, часто расистськими поглядами, що є особливо активними у мережі Інтернет). The most used rhetorical tool in D.  Trump’s communication is irony. According to O.P.  Ermakova, irony is “the use of a word or expression in a sense that contradicts the primary meaning (most often the opposite) for the purpose of mockery” (Ermakova 2005). Irony is often realized through stylistically neutral linguistic means, which acquire high emotional and evaluative perlocutionary effect. Various linguistic and rhetorical means can be used to create irony: lexical (metaphors, neologisms, and hyperbole); syntactic (repetitions, puns, and various emphatic constructions); epithets; allusions, etc. In translation linguistic means should be carefully selected to create the original pragmatic effect. It is necessary for the translator to not only reproduce the implicit meaning of the utterance, but first of all to identify it in the politician’s speech. Incorrect identification of the author’s intention and strategy by the translator may pose serious problems and lead to significant distortions of the source message without preserving the pragmatic effect. Let us consider the Ukrainian translation of D. Trump’s ironic statement regarding Senator Rand Paul, who became his opponent during the Republican candidates’ debate. After Paul accused Trump of not being able to behave decently and offending people all the time (including Paul himself), he replied: “I never attacked him on his look and believe me there’s a lot of subject matter there…” (New York Daily News 2016). The interpreter who translated simultaneously resorted to anticipation, trying to predict, on the basis of the first part of the phrase, the content and general intention of its continuation. Most likely, it seemed to him that in the first part of the message, the speaker implements self-defense tactics, trying to deny his own inappropriate behavior. An error in defining the speaker’s main strategy led to a complete distortion of the content of the original message:  “Я ніколи не нападав на нього через його зовнішній вигляд і, повірте мені, я ніколи не хотів його образити…”. In fact, Donald Trump used a tactic of mocking and he did not only want to justify himself for all his insults, but also wanted to humiliate his opponent once again. Such translation would be more appropriate: Я ніколи не критикував його за зовнішній вигляд, але, повірте, приводів для критики там вдосталь…” Incorrect definition of the discursive strategy and tactics in the source text may distort its communicative and expressive function and, as a consequence, affect the pragmatic potential in translation.

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Thus, the investigation of politicians’ strategies through the prism of translation presupposes discourse analysis of the texts produced by politicians from different perspectives. This allows singling out basic goals, aims, and functions of a particular type of communication, its strategic organization, to see the images of linguistic personalities and the ways they perceive and conceptualize different sociocultural phenomena and culture-specific elements. Translators’ task is to preserve equivalent and pragmatic effects in the target texts resorting to adequate means, techniques, and strategies.

References ‘Alt right’ conservative movement embraces the Trump campaign. 2016. FoxNews. : https://www.foxnews.com/politics/alt-right-conservative-movementembraces-the-trump-campaign. Accessed August 25, 2016. Baker, Mona. 2006. Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account. London and New York: Routledge. Baker, Mona, Saldanha, Gabriela. 2011. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies. New York: Routledge, 2011. Clinton’s full remarks as she called half of Trump supporters ‘deplorables’. 2016. Los Angeles Times. URL: https://www.latimes.com/nation/politics/trailguide/ la-na-trailguide-updates-09102016-htmlstory.html. Accessed September 10, 2016. CNSnews. 2019. URL: https://www.cnsnews.com/news/article/cnsnewscom-staff/ trump-dubs-nancy-pelosi-ms-13-lover. Accessed April 29, 2019. Drabov, Natalia. 2015. To the problem of translation of English neologisms. Topical Issues of Humanitarian Science 13: 176–181. (in Russian). Ermakova, Оlga. 2005. Irony and Its Role in the Language Life. Kaluga: Publishing House of KSPU named after K.E. Tsiolkovsky. (in Russian). Fortune. 2018. URL: https://fortune.com/2018/03/22/donald-trump-joe-biden-fight. Accessed November 1, 2019. Ju, Miao. 2000. The limitations of ‘equivalent effect’. Perspectives 8: 197– 205, DOI: 10.1080/0907676X.2000.9961388. Los Angeles Times. 2016. URL: https://www.latimes.com/politics/essential/la-polca-gop-convention-htmlstory.html. Accessed April 29, 2019. MacMillan Dictionary. URL: https://www.macmillandictionary.com. Accessed November 10, 2019. Medical Dictionary. The Free Dictionary. URL: https://medical-dictionary. thefreedictionary.com. Accessed November 10, 2019. New York Daily News. 2016. URL: https://www.nydailynews.com/news/ politics/donald-trump-hits-rand-paul-gop-debate-article-1.2363485. Accessed November 28, 2019.

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Nuriev, Vitaliy. 2003. Adequacy of translation as a linguistic problem. Bulletin of VSU, Series “Linguistics and Intercultural Communication” 1:80–87. (in Russian). Shveitzer, Aleksander. 1988. Translation Theory. Status, Problems, Aspects. Moscow: Nauka. (in Russian). The First Trump-Clinton debate transcript. 2016. Washington Post. URL: https:// www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2016/09/26/the-first-trumpclinton-presidential-debate-transcript-annotated. Accessed September 26, 2016. Trumpo-lution: Trump believes in victory despite breaking up with the Republican Party. 2016. Radio Svoboda. URL: https://www.radiosvoboda. org/a/28050712.html Accessed October 13, 2016. (in Ukrainian). Urban Dictionary. URL: https://www.urbandictionary.com. Accessed November 10, 2019. Vehmas-Lehto, Inkeri. 2002. Kopiointia vai kommunikointia? Johdatus käännösteoriaan [Copying or communication? An introduction to translation theory]. Helsinki: Oy Finn Lectura Ab. Wodak, Ruth. 1995. Critical linguistics and critical discourse analysis. In J. Verschuren, J.O. Ostaman & J. Blommaert (Eds.), Handbook of Pragmatics: Manual. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 204–210.

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