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Translating the Orient
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"Sacountala" by John Schweppe; inspired by a sculpture by Camille Claudel.
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Translating the Orient The Reception of Sakuntala in NineteenthCentury Europe Dorothy Matilda Figueira STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK PRESS
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Disclaimer: This book contains characters with diacritics. When the characters can be represented using the ISO 88591 character set (http://www.w3.org/TR/images/latin1.gif), netLibrary will represent them as they appear in the original text, and most computers will be able to show the full characters correctly. In order to keep the text searchable and readable on most computers, characters with diacritics that are not part of the ISO 88591 list will be represented without their diacritical marks. Published by State University of New York Press, Albany © 1991 State University of New York All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information, address State University of New York Press, State University Plaza, Albany, N.Y., 12246 Production by Marilyn P. Semerad Marketing by Bernadette LaManna Library of Congress CataloginginPublication Data Figueira, Dorothy Matilda, 1955 Translating the Orient: the reception of Sakuntala in nineteenth century Europe / Dorothy Matilda Figueira. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0791403270. — ISBN 0791403289 (pbk.) 1. Kalidasa. Sakuntala. 2. Literature, Comparative—European and Indic. 3. Literature, ComparativeIndic and European. 4. European literature—History and criticism. 5. Indic literature—History and criticism. 6. India in literature. 7. Sanskrit language—Style. 8. Philosophy, Indic, in literature. I. Title. PN871.F63 1991 8939698 891'22—dc20 CIP 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Page v Am Ende ist alle Poesie Übersetzung. Ich bin überzeugt, dass der deutsche Shakespeare jetzt besser als der englische ist. Novalis to A.W. Schlegel, November 30, 1797
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Contents Acknowledgments
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I. Background and Theoretical Considerations
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II. Critical Reception and Methodology
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III. NineteenthCentury Translation Conventions
25
IV. An Introduction to the Sakuntala
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V. Analysis of the Text
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Act 5, Verses 13
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Act 5, Verses 46
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Act 5, Verses 2327
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VI. Errors in the Host Language: Grammatical Prejudices of the Sanskrit Language and the Horizon of the Text as a Nataka
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VII. Dramatic Adaptations
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VIII. Traduttore Traditore
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IX. India A Source of Inspiration or an Alibi for Despair
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Notes
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Bibliography
241
Index
255
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Acknowledgments The continued research for this book was made possible by a Mellon Foundation Postdoctoral Fellowship at Cornell University during 198688. I wish to express deep gratitude to Paul Courtright, Peter Jansen, Allen Thrasher and Peter Dembowski who, in their function as colleagues and mentors have counseled me when my wisdom failed. To Christian Dütschmann, who braved the obstacles of the German library system, I am profoundly grateful. I wish to thank Stephen Crimi for his help with the Index and the indefatigable proofreaders, typesetters and production staff for their exemplary efforts. To John Schweppe, my husband, who read every word of every draft and offered useful criticism, I owe much gratitude. I offer my most profound thanks to Professor Wendy Doniger for her expertise, generous advice, and savoir faire. I dedicate this book to my mother, Marion Gentile Figueira, whose example of devotion guides me in all my endeavors.
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Chapter I Background and Theoretical Considerations I With the "decoding" of languages such as Sanskrit, Oriental wisdom became a complement to the vision of the Renaissance. No less a commentator than Victor Hugo notes in his Journal that Oriental literature had become, for superior souls, what Greek literature had been for the savant of the sixteenth century. Moreover, the Orient authorized the European observer to pose, from a position of prestige, the question of difference. Not only was it different from the unique model of Western culture, it was also the locus of a multitude of European aspirations. Friedrich Schlegel, in the Athenaeum, could suggest: "Im Orient müssen wir das höchste Romantische suchen." 1 Both scholardilettantes and popular authors initially possessed a conception of the Orient generated from vulgarized texts. The body of scholarship fused images of grace or conceptions of love, both divine and mortal, with associations derived from medieval romances, travel literature, missionary accounts, universal mythology, and European Romanticism. The earliest knowledge that Europe possessed of India, its customs, philosophy, and religious affinities was transmitted by ancient Greek historians. Unfortunately, Alexander the Great, his associates and successors, like most Greeks of antiquity, took virtually no interest in "barbarian" languages. Medieval travellers to Indian, Hindu or Muslim courts, for all their Christian bias, were the first Europeans to comment seriously on the languages and literature. These voyagers' intel
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lectual baggage was light, because their major preoccupations were of a more practical nature—the danger and necessities of life left them little time for disinterested observation and the acquisition of knowledge. The Orient was emplotted by Europeans throughout the centuries in various forms. The medieval religious tradition portrayed it as a balmy garden. To the Crusaders, the Muslim Orient was a treacherous enemy. In Marco Polo's account, the Orient was a marvelous land of wonders and enchantments, a land which would remain obscure to the Renaissance literati whose attention was fixed on Greece as the seat of ancient culture. This "Orient," however little explored and understood, provoked comparisons. Europe, compared with the perceived elegance and refinement of "antediluvian" Eastern civilizations, was at a definite disadvantage. The Orient thus provided a shield to protect satirical authors from strict censorship. Fiction with an Oriental allure presented, in the most piquant and prudent manner, conceptions which the author strove to render in an acceptable form. This satirical mode was followed at the end of the seventeenth century by the adventure novel, histoire galante, in which the Orient was a pretext for local color, a cover for subversion and a reservoir of forbidden pleasures. As geographical space was investigated, so too the traces of early man were sought. The Orient, now thought to contain the secrets of the origin of the world and of religions, became a scientific domain. Montesquieu and many others studied its institutions. But toward what end? Paul Hazard 2 described the eighteenth century as wishing to escape from itself and from the burden of a thousand years of culture. Indeed, the search for the exotic implied an escape from banal and prosaic reality. This trend continued into the nineteenth century when a disdain for the "civilized" world and the revalorization of nature as it was found in exotic landscapes provided new decors, noble in their simplicity and uncorrupted by modern artificiality (Rousseau, Gessner, Bernardin de SaintPierre, Ossian). This Geistesbewegung, if it may be so termed, coincided with the first appearance of Sanskrit texts on the European literary scene.
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II It has recently become fashionable to discuss the literature growing out of the European encounter with the Orient almost exclusively in terms of political domination. Modern academic sleuths, assuming a selfconscious posture as cultural radicals, are advised ''cherchez l'impérialiste.'' Presentday scholars, themselves weighed down by their ideological baggage, impose a systematized coherence on the past which presupposes the political experience of the twentieth century. Edward Said's book, Orientalism, attempting as it does to view Western literary approaches to the East in terms of political discourse, is a case in point. The critical debate which he initiated centers on the following formula: The Orientalist's scholarly frenzy was nothing but a deliberate attempt at cultural hegemony. However, Said's fundamental premise, that Western writers, believing in the efficacy of their "imperial selves," 3 approached the Orient first as nationals and secondly as individuals,4 is highly questionable. Uninitiated readers may not recognize in such sweeping generalities a style which has come to characterize discussion of the scholarship and literature growing out of the European encounter with the Orient. Said's work, viewed as groundbreaking, is, in fact, the most recent avatar of this trend, which stands in sharp contrast to earlier scholarship in EastWest cultural studies. The study of exoticism has long interested national literature scholars (Carré, Martino, Jourda, Bies, Dufrenoy, El Nouty,).5 In such works, the exotic functions, to cite Mario Praz, as "a sensual and artistic externalization" of the artist who "invests remote periods and distinct countries with the vibrations of his own senses and materializes them in his imagination."6 As an alternative to exoticism, recent scholarship views EastWest artistic representations as primarily a function of imperialist political ideology. Orientalism exhibits "a proclivity to divide, subdivide, and redivide its subject matter without ever changing its mind about the Orient as being the same, unchanging, uniform, and radically peculiar object."7 As a "mode of apprehension and perception",8 it operates as a "selfvalidating closed discourse which is highly resistant to internal and external criticism."9
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One of the problems with such criticism lies in its concept of the exotic's objectification of the "Other." Unfortunately, the exotic, like art, does not present universal categories, but cultural categories that a given culture bestows upon objects that interest it and promise to nourish it. Western exoticism departs from the Greco Roman and JudaicChristian tradition in search of a new reality. By appropriating the accoutrements of fantasy, the exotic masks a quest involving the vital center of poetic feeling, and exhibits an artist's compulsion to make a reality for himself. In this respect, exoticism functions as a myth. However, in this process, the exotic effects a taxonomic shift; rather than celebrating the products of a foreign culture, it transforms that culture and its members into objects of art. This shift has prompted the critic of Orientalism, in his attempt to raise pertinent questions concerning race, sex, and hegemony, to view the exotic as an ideological artifact which the Orientalist collects and exhibits. As myth, the exotic mediates issues of race, eroticism, and power, although not in a clearly quantifiable fashion. Reduced to an artifact, the exotic becomes indistinguishable from racism. The problem with this critical equation of Orientalism is that the exotic's transformation of an aestheticized object into a fetish is not the same process that leads to genocide. This metaphorization of the exotic as racist and hegemonic informs the current criticism of Orientalism. Terribles simplificateurs judge exotic representations either as weapons of subversion and deliberate attempts at cultural hegemony (Said, Bernal), sexual displacement (Kabbani), or direct precursors of the worst abuses of the twentieth century. Even the highly readable masterpiece of this scholarly genre, Raymond Schwab's La Renaissance orientale, draws a direct line from the early philologists to modern racists and antiSemites. In Le Mythe aryen, Léon Poliakov identifies Germany's Indomania with antiSemitism. In a journalistic rewriting of world history, Amaury de Riencourt's The Soul of India asserts that the initial Sanskrit studies eventually bore the bitter fruit of Nazi crimes against humanity. Even in an introduction to a reedition of Friedrich Schlegel's Über die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier, a linquist has discovered the seeds of racism in early Indology.
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One can be suspicious of the hidden agenda of this theoretical stance. The criticism of Orientalism is singularly uninterested in the language, character (genre) and reception, of the texts (when, if at all, texts enter into the discussion) that they deconstruct. The politics of Orientalism arbitrarily links a text with certain cultural practices; it "colonizes" a text from the past by means of presentage discourse. Although such criticism is often fascinating, it relies on the political tenor of the audience and on facile political analyses whose referents are unsubstantiated generalizations. I question the virile compulsion to view the West's reception of the East solely in terms of possession, power, and control. Based, as it is, on a pessimistic reading of Foucault, the critics of Orientalism offer as an alternative to Orientalist discourse merely a different discourse incorporating another expression of power. Theoretically, it may be worthwhile to read a literary text in the light of historical events and see artistic endeavors as primarily implicated in power relations. However, in practice, the criticism of Orientalism is often unreflective, fragmentary, and anecdotal. The gravest criticism which can be leveled against this method is that it imposes an authorial intention upon the text, disregarding the testimony of a work's language, reception, and character as narrative, poetry, translation, scholarship, or artistic performance. By consigning to a secondary position the work of individual artists, a text becomes a commentary on a political situation rather than an expression of the motivations and desires that inspire the individual artist or scholar. However, I do not wish to assert that the literature arising out of the West's encounter with the East was apolitical. Rather, it was quintessentially political in the sense that it articulated the Western writers' political relation to their own society: their vision of themselves as individuals within that society and their sense of entitlement. The luxury of "finding oneself" in any culture other than one's own presupposes certain prerogatives. There is a freedom of play involved in such aesthetic or spiritual journeys. The unreflective vanity of the metaphorical traveller allows him, figuratively, to journey away from home and still take with him the unacknowledged assumptions, not only of class and race, but ultimately of a secure social iden
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tity. 10 These Western voyagers' metaphorical journeys East are necessarily weighed down by the baggage of their cultural and aesthetic tradition and prejudice. That humans are inextricably bound up in the entanglements of history is merely a banal assertion, if we do not examine how their prejudices initially open up a text, offering to readers points of identification and appeal. The Western European travellers' lack of a valid wirkungsgeschichtliches Bewusstsein does not obscure the significant fact that these metaphorical journeys often masked battles with their own culture. By their reduction of the foreign culture to a "cause," these Western devotees express their overriding sense of selfworth. The great paradox of such figurative journeys is this: Those to whom the fruits of Western culture are most available are those who most readily reject this same culture, seeking rejuvenation in their encounter with the East. They are ever unconscious of the fact that the very aspects of their culture which they seem to despise, its unchallenged cultural and intellectual superiority, empowers them.11 In fact, it animates their endeavors. Western culture's sophistication ensures a position of prestige and affords them the liberty to seek and pursue their need for compensatory spiritual and aesthetic discovery. Thus, educated and cultivated individuals, by means of a quasireligious encounter with the Orient, separated themselves from the crowd. Their hubris consisted in their belief that they had tasted all that their own culture had to offer and saw themselves worthy of some superordinate fulfillment. The phantom India becomes, for the metaphorical traveller, an exotic brothel. It promises to fulfill desire and legitimize roleplaying. This evocative analogy does not suggest that the nineteenthcentury European writer's quest Eastward in search of an aesthetic model was either vague or undefined. If fluctuated between contrasting modalities: Indian culture could be an ideal locus for Westerners pursuing inspiration and it rationalized a pessimistic apprehension of existence. Although European artists were primarily animated by the possibilities for positive inspiration, others flirted with the darker, and perhaps more seductive prospect, which was never absent from
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their picture of India. The phantom India satisfied specific consequent demands of each modality. A cogent example of this tension between humanism and pessimism which characterized the European reception of India can be seen in a curious literary vignette. A particularly beautiful poem, written in the seventh century A.D. by the poet Bhartrhari, was among the first Sanskrit poems published in a European language. First translated into Portuguese and then into Dutch, it appeared in Abraham Rogerius' Open Deure tot het verborgen Heydendom of 1651 and in the book's German translation of 1663. 12 The German translation of Rogerius' work greatly impressed J. G. Herder, who refashioned the proverbs into didactic poems.13 The poem reappeared in German literature in 1806. Before taking her own life, the Romantic poetess Karoline von Günderrode left it as her epitaph. Leaving behing an Indian apologia for suicide was a strange and unimaginative final statement. It was also indicative of the darker impulses at work in Germany's Indian Schwärmerei. The appropriation of this poem, first by Herder to herald the hoped for riches of Sanskrit literature, and then by Günderrode as an emblem of despair, is a macabre and fascinating example of the fruits born from the literary meeting of East and West. How could one poem offer to one writer an ideal of spiritual strength and to another a rationale for death? The answer resides less in Indian thought than in tendencies inherent in the individual artist's will. III The India which nineteenthcentury European writers discovered was principally a phantom arising out of a confrontation with the self. If one did not lack imagination, "finding oneself" via India, indulgent as it may seem, addressed a multitude of aspirations and fantasies. Individual artists entrenched in their own historical tradition, might have been tantalized by the clichés of the "exotic," but the literary creations arising out of their metaphorical journeys suggest just how much a product of their imagination this East really was. What did these writers seek? Wilhelm von Humboldt, while editing Goethe's correspondence (February 5,
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1830), came across an error which he attributed to a scribe. He noted: "In einer Stelle, stehen Brahma und Roman. Was soll das sein?" Indeed, what did India mean to these artists? For Goethe, did Brahma enter into the fiction of the roman? We will never know. One thing is, however, certain: Through the early rudimentary translations from the Sanskrit, India was emplotted by the West. By this I mean that incomplete projections from a variety of sources were given a voice defined through narrative, and received the authority of signification. India brought to the imagination new forms and a propitious framework for the presentation of new ideas that corresponded to dominant aspirations of the time. If artists took part in a pilgrimage to India in search of their particular goal, they went not as fanatics, but under the banner of science. They could profit from the contributions of science without adopting the inadequate scholarly apparatus that characterized early European Sanskrit scholarship. 14 IV By the beginning of the nineteenth century, a limited body of Sanskrit texts was already known in Europe. In 1785, Charles Wilkins published his translation of the BhagavadGita, to be followed in 1787 by his translation of the Hitopadesa. In addition to the publication of the Sakuntala in 1789, Sir William Jones' translation of the Manava Dharma Sastra appeared in 1797. Meanwhile the French Bibliothèque Nationale (cidevant Royale) had accumulated a store of Indian manuscripts that no one could read. In 18011802, AnquetilDuperron published a Latin translation of DaraShikoh's Persian version of the Upanishads, with the title Oupnek'hat. These works provoked lively interest. The initial effect of Sanskrit literature on European audiences was tremendous. To study this Oriental renaissance would be a vast project doomed to only partial success at best. One must avoid the nowpopular method of loose association, relying upon a pastiche of European literary and artistic creations. Examination of Western constructs with an oriental allure can present no cogent body of work by which one can examine the West's encounter with the East. It is for this reason that I
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have chosen to emphasize the particular in lieu of the general. For this purpose, a single and paradigmatic "Eastern" text and its dissemination through translation, criticism, and adaptation has been chosen. This grounding in the specificity of a given text shall form the basis for a larger discussion of the religious, philosophical, and aesthetic dynamics of Indian exoticism. When the Westerner comes in contact with a serious Eastern work of art, is not his use, appropriation, and distortion of this product a more significant index of the phenomena of Orientalism than a critique of his own artistic creation? Sir William Jones' English translation of Kalidasa's Abhijnanasakuntala (1789) 15 had an immediate and enthusiastic reception in Germany, France and Italy, and announced the birth of Orientalism. It was the first complete text16 translated from the Sanskrit without a Persian intermediary, and the first Sanskrit drama available to the European reader. Jones' pioneering work inspired other scholars also to translate this text. To a great extent, the first translations of Sanskrit texts were so naively uninformed by linguistic analysis as to encourage a free play of the translator's creative imagination. This issue of free play shall be of central concern to our study. The discovery of Sanskrit literature, exemplified by the reception of the Sakuntala, provided translators with a screen upon which to both project and conceal specific cultural, psychological, and religious concerns. With so few pedagogical tools available, it was difficult to assimilate in any more than a rudimentary fashion this new and different literature. Later linguistic refinement overcame the distortions made by the first generation of Sanskritists and led to the loss of the "free play" which had characterized the Western appropriation of Indian thought. Whereas in the initial translations, the narrative process opened unlimited possibilities, with later perfection of linguistic tools, Sanskrit became an object of study. It gained a new authority as technology and lost the authority of multifaceted signification. Once the hidden significations were severed from the language, the multiple voices of the narrative were silenced. We will, therefore, examine the initial translations. Through their many voices and their inherent distortion, they shed considerable light on the nineteenthcentury European reception
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of Indian culture. How much of their distortion was part of an honest effort, given the limited knowledge of Sanskrit and the theories and ideologies of the time about Indian culture, to translate what they thought was in the text? By focusing our analysis upon the reception of a particular text, it is my hope to elucidate both the dynamics of this paradigmatic instance of EastWest literary reception and the distortion of the Indian reality which resulted.
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Chapter II Critical Reception and Methodology There is no canonical interpretation of a text; it stands open in a limitless way for evernew integrations. The task of the critic, adaptor, reader, and the audience is to articulate the fundamental concern they perceive as the motivation of the text. The reader is bound in the entanglements of history and prejudice. However, these prejudices, rather than cutting him off from the past, initially open it up to him. The hermeneutic demonstration ideally isolates the questions to which a text is an answer. In the case of the Sakuntala's reception, we might ask ourselves which expectations on the part of the nineteenthcentury reader were fulfilled, and which denied? What were the literary traditions and what were the historical and social situations with which the nataka 1 interacted? What was the meaning given to it by its first reception and which meaning was made concrete in the later history of its reception? It must first be acknowledged that the Sakuntala can be a paradigm for a hermeneutic demonstration only with considerable qualification. The Sakuntala heralded the discovery of a new literature whose relationship to other literatures was still a matter of speculation. The novelty of this work, its author, and Sanskrit literature in general placed the reader in a unique position. A reconstruction of the text's past was impossible, since it came from the pen of an unknown author working in an unknown age whose culture and history were enigmas. Ignorance of the Indian cultural, linguistic, aesthetic, and historical con
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text, combined with the virtual absence of a Sanskrit canon to which the reader might refer, further limited his understanding. Moreover, the temporal distance that the text had traversed could not be known. The reader could not guess, through an explicit separation of past and present horizons, how the meaning of the play unfolded historically. Nevertheless, the Sakuntala was received with such critical acclaim by its nineteenthcentury European audience that it engendered in the century following Jones' translation no fewer than fortysix translations in twelve different languages. The reception of the Sakuntala is a particularly interesting example of Western endeavors to understand the East. What was the nature of their curiosity? The failure of scholars of the time to find a truly universal and practicable idiom within the natural languages of the thenknown world had stimulated much speculation as to the nature of the Sanskrit language and, consequently, its literature. The Sakuntala encouraged nineteenthcentury Europeans to seek the broader path in their interests, and brought them into contact with the common spiritual and aesthetic movements of the time. In 1791, Georg Forster translated Kalidasa's play from Jones' English rendition. Its success was immediate: Friedrich Schlegel singled it out in a letter to his brother concerning a Leipzig book fair and noted "Die Sache hat Lärm gemacht." 2 Forster had sent a copy of his translation of the Sakuntala to Goethe, who was so entranced by the drama that he wrote his nowfamous epigram which appeared in the Deutsche Monatschrift of 1791. Willst du die Blüthen des fruhen, die Früchte des späteren Jahres, Willst du was reizt und entzückt, willst du was sättigt und nährt, Willst du den Himmel, die Erde mit Einem Namen begreifen Nenn ' ich Sakontala dich, und so ist alles gesagt.3
However, Goethe's interest in Sakuntala's India did not, as in the case of Persia, lead to a particular work such as the Westöstlicher Diwan. It was only in his correspondence and diary entries that he discussed Indian culture.4 It is there too that one
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learns what a unique place the Sakuntala held in Goethe's heart. 5 This work alone redeemed a culture for which he had great aversion. Although Goethe held Indian religion in contempt,6 he was able to dissociate this poetic work from Indian art, religion, and philosophy.7 Goethe singled out Kalidasa for his ability to free poetry from the snare of the unformed and the unordered.8 The Sakuntala was a rich source of archetypal values.9 The unparalleled enthusiasm which Goethe brought to Kalidasa's masterpiece did not fade with time. Throughout his life, the Sakuntala remained an important aesthetic and religious model.10 In fact, Heinrich Heine maintained that Goethe's ''Prolog im Himmel'' was inspired by the prologue from the Sakuntala.11 Herder appropriated Goethe's epigram as the motto for his essay "Über ein morgenländisches Drama." Much like Goethe, Herder's conception of art was based on a Greek norm. Just as Goethe disliked the formlessness of Indian art, Herder scorned the superfluity of religious symbolism. According to Herder, Hindu art could never liberate itself from the yoke of religion and it could not raise itself to an aesthetic level as Greek art had done.12 It was primarily with the appearance of Forster's translation of the Sakuntala that Herder was forced to reevaluate his conceptions of Indian art.13 Not all Hindu art, it seemed, was encumbered with religious weightiness. Perhaps there was some artistic value in the immense body of Sanskrit literature that was becoming available. Forster had sent him a copy of Kalidasa's play early in 1791. On November 14 of that same year Herder thanked Forster for the gift, characterizing the Sakuntala as "eine wahre Blume des Morgenlandes," a masterpiece such as appears once every two thousand years. Herder's Indic studies reached fruition in an unstinting devotion to the play. Even at the end of his life, Herder, who had not lost any of his enthusiasm for the Sakuntala, rhapsodized: Wo Sakontala lebt mit ihrem entschwundenen Knaben, Wo Duschmanta sie neu, neu von den Göttern empfängt. Sei mir gegrüsst, o heiliges Land, und du Führer der Töne, Stimme des Herzens, erheb' oft mich im Aether dahin.14
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Through its epic grandeur, the Sakuntala surpassed anything the Greeks, or any other nation, had to offer. 15 The lightness and poetry found in this play was ultimately more profound and provocative than anything Herder had read on India's religious philosophy.16 The Sakuntala was more valuable than all the "Vedas, Upavedas and Upangas" put together.17 The play's religious tone combined realistic situations and characterizations into a charming synthesis of all artistic expression.18 For Herder, India and the primitive world, the primitive world and nature, nature and poetry became synonymous and interchangeable.19 So entranced by the play, Herder desired to acquaint a larger circle with it. His comments took the form of an essay published in the fourth collection of Zerstreute Blätter.20 It was in the third letter of this collection that Herder presents his argument. The worth of the Sakuntala is investigated according to artistic and dramatic guidelines. Both in seriousness and in fun, Herder sets up a comparison between the Sakuntala and Aristotelian criteria. He does this primarily in response to a comment voiced by Forster in a letter to him on May 17, 1791: Ich schicke Ihnen meine "Sakontala," lieber und verehrter Freund, um mein Andenken bei Ihnen aufzufrischen. Es ist mir ein erfreulicher Gedanke, dass Ihrem Sinne für die Blüten orientalischer Phantasie, diese meine Pflegetochter ein paar schöne Stunden werde bringen helfen. Den Asiaten von subtiler Empfänglichkeit werden Sie gleich darin finden; aber was mehr wert ist, bei dieser Subtilität auch Wahrheit der Empfindung, und dies alles am Ganges, hundert Jahr vor unserer Zeitrechnung; O dass Lessing noch lebte!21
The import of the last statement is clear. Since the play comes from a "wholly foreign theater," it offers a good opportunity to test Lessing's interpretation of Aristotle's dramatic theory. For Lessing, Aristotle's dicta had a twofold advantage; they were authoritative and they justified a rigid system of generalization
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concerning various arts. A principle, established by abstraction from Homer's practice, became not only descriptive, but a mandatory injunction. Herder's theories were variations on Lessing's norm. Whereas Lessing had defended Shakespeare by explaining what Aristotle had truly said, while Gerstenberg had played into the hands of Gottsched's 22 followers by demanding the rejection of dramatic classifications, Herder sought the middle ground. He concluded that Homer, although the greatest Greek poet, possessed an authority limited to his language, time, and locality. Consequently, Aristotle's opinions on drama, based as they were on Sophocles, only have bearing on Greek drama.23 So Herder might read the Sakuntala "im indischen, nicht im europäischen Geist"24 and so challenge Aristotle's authority, he needed to measure the Sakuntala's form and intention against the Greek norm.25 By distinguishing certain dramatic elements in the Sakuntala which satisfy Aristotle's criteria for tragedy, Herder did substantiate the universality of, at least, part of Aristotle's system.26 However, in Aristotle's postulate of katharsis, he could find no Indian equivalent.27 Investigating further, Herder perceived further differences in intention and structure between the two systems.28 Herder's discovery of the Sakuntala enabled him to conclude that the Greek model was not absolute.29 Gupta India was not ancient Greece; different historical conditions were sufficient reason for a difference in creative personality and production. Each dramatist remains true to nature and treats action in one place and at one time. Like other authors of the century, Herder sought to emancipate himself from the yoke of Classicism. Toward that end, the Sakuntala served an important technical purpose. By presenting a different dramatic model, it challenged Aristotle's absolute authority. Through its unorthodox use of nature, sanctity, sentiment, and realism,30 it successfully defied the shibboleths of contemporary literary tradition and created a new horizon of expectation for drama as a whole. Shakespeare's plays and the Sakuntala31 served similar purposes for Lessing and Herder respectively: they elicited speculation on the poetic presuppositions of an unpoetic age. It was Herder's belief that anyone who desired to experience
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"real" poetry had only to discover Indian drama. In Western European literary, political, and social history, the possibility of such a yearning was epochmaking, since it developed not only from Romantic literature but also from an ideal of the classless national state, an organic conception of culture, and hence a foundation for the radical movements of the nineteenth century. Just as "Ossian" could be used in Britain to validate the rights of the despised Scots, so the Sakuntala could be used to show how other nationalities had cultural values equal to those usually ascribed only to ancient Greece. Sakuntala's India could become the goal of those seeking a new Antiquity. Wer wünschte nicht am Berge Meru einen Parnass, auf Agra's Fluren ein Thessalien und an den Ufern des Ganga ein Asiatisches Athen zu finden? 32
The Sakuntala's discovery and translation was a literary event which would have significant repercussions. The Sakuntala opened up not only the boundaries of humanism, but also fostered a widespread revaluation of national literatures. The existence of the Indian masterpiece supported Herder's belief in the ability of all ethnic groups to produce great art. In the spirit of nascent Italian Romanticism, Giovanni Berchet,33 introduced the play in Italy and showed to what lofty heights such "folk" poetry could ascend, even if it neglected strict Aristotelian rules. Programs, such as that of the Conciliatore, sought to construct a new aesthetic ideal by freeing authors from the rigidity of Classicism and propagating indigenous art. However, chauvinistic pride, as creative as it may have proved to be in the valorization of Italian literature, had its uglier side in jingoistic nationalism. As the following comment by the critic Heyne34 suggests, appreciating the Sakuntala became a criterion for cultural ascendency. Wenn es als Vorzug unsrer Nation angesehen werden kann, dass wir Empfänglichkeit für die Werke des Geschmacks von jeder Nation, und Witzbegierde besitzen, welche uns antreibt, die Kenntnisse und Vorstellungsarten aller Völker und Zeiten zu sammeln, sie zu
Page 17 verbinden und unter eigne Gesichtspuncte zu bringen; (Eigenschaften, die dem Deutschen mit der Zeit vor andern voraus eine mehr umfassende, von Vorurtheilen freiere, philosophische Denkart geben müssen): so kann es uns nicht gleichgültig sein . . . ein indisches Drama zu erhalten. 35
For the most part, such comments were limited to a few German pedants. The vast majority of the Sakuntala's critics followed Herder's lead to seek in Kalidasa's play support for contemporary aesthetic theories. Alphonse de Lamartine's Cours familier de littérature, although journalistic (the articles were pièces de circonstance) rather than scholarly, did just that. Lamartine examined Kalidasa's play in light of the precepts of Sanskrit dramaturgy. The source of Lamartine's information on Sanskrit dramatic theory was, as with all of his non translated Sanskrit material, the Baron d'Eckstein,36 whose source, in turn, seems to have been the Rasadhyaya of the Natyasastra.37 Lamartine's information on the moral goals of drama38 and its rules,39 could only have come from Bharata, since the number of translated dramatic works at Lamartine's disposal was not sufficient even to suggest such conclusions. In his discussion of Sanskrit drama, Lamartine chose to emphasize a minor point concerning the theory of rasa.40 He does not choose to define this central issue of Sanskrit poetics nor tell how it is formed. Rather, he comments on a single mythological point, comprising three verses in Bharata, where each of the sentiments is given a specific color that relates to its mood and serves as a reinforcement.41 He reads into Bharata's comments a theory of "physical and moral" analogy between spiritual and visual impressions. These impressions conform completely to the harmony that nature establishes among bodily senses, colors, sounds, and literary styles.42 Of course, this is not the meaning of Bharata's passage. Bharata was simple listing the deities presiding over sentiments along with the colors associated with them, in much the same way that Cupid is associated with love and the color red in Western mythology. Lamartine was seeking analogies which Bharata
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did not intend. By so interpreting Indian poetic theory, he sought to make it conform to conceptions of the harmony between various senses and states of the soul, as in Baudelaire's theory of correspondence. In this fashion, Lamartine could discover in India the seeds of Aristotle's practice as well as claim the universality of modern French poetic theory. In this sampling of critical remarks, a pattern begins to emerge in the Sakuntala's reception. The Sanskrit masterpiece provided answers to many questions. The critics' reaction to the foreign beauty of the play revealed an underlying speculation on the text's distance from the European reader that resulted from the process of translation. In an early review, August Wilhelm Schlegel acknowledged the surprise and novelty which this text elicited, pointed to the nonEuropean tone of the work, expressed his enchantment with the drama's sensitivity, but questioned the faithfulness of the translation. 43 Es wäre zu wünschen, man wüsste, wie genau der erste Übersetzer sich an das Original gehalten hat; indessen beweist der durchaus fremde, nicht europäische Ton des Ganzen, dass er nichts hineingelegt hat, wenn auch vielleicht unter seinen Händen verloren gegangen ist. Die Scenen sind voll süssen kindlichen Geschwätzes, voll unschuldiger, naiver Koketterie; es herrscht eine feine Sensibilität darin, welche die zartesten Blüten des Genusses mit schönender Hand zu pflücken weiss.44
Even an nonSanskritist such as Angelo de Gubernatis speculated that the translations did not capture "la ingenuità e la poetica semplicità dell'originale."45 Ironically, his source was the Doria translation of a translation of a translation of a translation. The problem of translation was intractable. Goethe admitted the necessity of adequate translations and tried to gauge deviation from the original.46 Alle diese Gedichte sind uns durch Übersetzungen mitgeteilt, die sich mehr oder weniger vom Original
Page 19 entfernen, so dass wir nur ein allgemeines Bild ohne die begränzte Eigentümlichkeit des Originals gewahr werden. Der Unterschied ist freilich sehr gross, wie aus einer Übersetzung mehrerer Verse unmittelbar aus dem Sanskrit, die ich Herrn Professor Kosegarten [Sanskrit professor in Jena] schuldig geworden, auf's klarste in die Augen leuchtet. 47
In general, Goethe mentioned the possibility of three kinds of translations of poetical works:48 1. Prosaic, substanceoriented (e.g., the Shakespeare translation by Wieland). 2. Parodisch, free rendering in conformity with the translator's intention (e.g., Wieland's rendering of the Classics). 3. Artistic, parallel to the original, both in spirit and in texture (e.g., translations by Johann Heinrich Voss). Goethe advanced the third option for the Sakuntala and believed the time for such a translation had come.49 But translating the Sakuntala's prose and poetry was no mean task. The fledgling Orientalists were not capable of rendering poetically the refinement of the figures, the basic meanings and cultural values in Sanskrit vocabulary, and the surprising concision that appears in the text. Jones translated the Sakuntala into English prose, although eight years earlier he had rendered Shakespeare into Greek verse.50 Forster, in his retranslation of the Sakuntala, rendered the prologue into poetry, but after this effort opted to translate the rest of the play into prose. How much damage was wrought by prose translations of poetry? It has been said that the translator of prose is a slave and the translator of poetry is in competition with the original author. An interesting example of the latter was Friedrich Schlegel, who unwittingly sought to fulfill Goethe's dream when he went to Paris and tried to translate the Sakuntala there. In his notebooks of 1797, Schlegel referred to the Sakuntala as "ein
Page 20
herrliches fantastisches Gedicht. Viel Oriental [isch]es Fant[astisch]." His enthusiasm for the work and its idiom prompted him to begin the study of Sanskrit in the spring of 1803. 51 Schlegel was tutored in Paris by Alexander Hamilton, a British officer who was fortuitously forced to stay in Paris upon the breaking of the Treaty of Amiens. During this period of instruction (which lasted nine months), Schlegel frequently wrote his brother of his intention to publish a verse translation of the Sakuntala. What did come to fruition from these studies was the work Über die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier (1808),52 whose appendix contained Schlegel's translations of excerpts from the Laws of Manu, the Ramayana, the BhagavadGita, and the Sakuntala story from the Mahabharata. It is clear from a reading of these translations that Schlegel did not have a deep or comprehensive knowledge of Sanskrit.53 He must have realized this too, since his muchheralded translations of Kalidasa's Sakuntala never materialized. He explained this fact by noting that Kalidasa's play was too lengthy to be included in his proposed volume and that it contained too much Prakrit and prose.54 Since Schlegel's writings betray a fascination with the play and with Kalidasa's artistry, these are indeed feeble excuses. It must be remembered that it was Schlegel's intention to capture in German the evocative power of Sanskrit meter.55 His letters to his brother show that his primary interests in the play were to prove German a language capable of mirroring the spirit of the Sanskrit original and himself a poet capable of translating it. He wrote in distichs, hoping to imitate the Sanskrit sloka,56 but was not very successful.57 Yet while Schlegel seemingly set out to compete with Kalidasa, others became unwitting rivals of the Indian poet. Herder believed Forster's translation to be better than the original58 which was known to him only in Jones' "direct translation." This was quite a feat for Forster, as he had not even a Sanskrit dictionary to aid him in his translation! Such were the methodological problems. The paucity of the documentation left much to the translator's imagination. Forster, for example, cites the following works that helped him translate Kalidasa's Sakuntala:59
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1. (Nathanial Brassey Halhed's) Code of Gentoo Laws, or ordinations of the Pundits. London. 8. 1777. 2. The New Asiatic Miscellany. No. 1 and 2. Calcutta, 4, 1789. 3. The BhagvatGeeta, or Dialogues of Kreesna and Arjoon. By Charles Wilkins, Bath. 4, 1785. 4. The Heetopades of VeeshnoSarma. By Charles Wilkins. Bath. 8,1787. 5. Asiatic Researches: or Transactions of The Society instituted in Bengal for inquiring into the history and antiquities, the arts, sciences and literature of Asia. Vol. 1, Calcutta, 4, 1788 6. (Quintin Crawford's) Sketches chiefly relating to the history, religion, learning, and manners of the Hindoos. London. 8.790. 7. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Vol. 2. Edinburgh, 4, 1790, No. 13 of Part 2 (Remarks on the Astronomy of the Brahmins. By Mr. John Playfair.) 8. On the Chronology of the Hindoos, by William Marsden Esq. F.R.S. 4, 1790. (From the Philosophical Transactions for 1790.) We may marvel at the results achieved with so few tools. But Forster could only apologize for this, regretting rendering Kalidasa's poetry into prose and thereby losing its rhythmic coloration. Forster was not being modest in this assessment. Many of the lingual shades were ignored in both the primary and secondary translations: Pischel, in his critical edition of the Sakuntala cites twentyfour different meters and various Prakrit dialects subtly nuanced. Arthur Berridale Keith, in the preface to A History of Sanskrit Literature, judged the quality of these original translations. Though it was to Englishmen, such as Sir William Jones and H.T. Colebrooke that our earliest knowledge of Sanskrit was due, no English poet shared Goethe's marvellous appreciation of the merits of works known to him only through the distorting
Page 22 medium of translations. . . . The neglect of Sanskrit Kavya is doubtless natural. The great poets of India wrote for audiences of experts; they were masters of the learning of their day, long trained in the use of language, and they aim to please by subtlety, not simplicity of effect. They had at their disposal a singularly beautiful speech, and they commanded elaborate and most effective meters. Under these circumstances it was inevitable that their works should be difficult, but of those who on that score pass them by it may fairly be said ardua dum metuunt amittunt vera viai. It is in the great writers of Kavya alone, headed by Kalidasa, that we find depth of feeling for life and nature matched with perfection of expression and rhythm. The Kavya literature includes some of the great poetry of the world, but it can never expect to attain wide popularity in the West, for it is essentially untranslatable; German poets like Rückert can, indeed, base excellent work on Sanskrit originals, but the effects produced are achieved by wholly different means, while English efforts at verse translations fall invariably below a tolerable mediocrity, their diffuse tepidity contrasting painfully with the brilliant condensation of style, the elegance of meter, and the close adaptation of sound to sense of the originals. 60
Since Sanskrit verses have very strict and definite metrical forms, complex patterns of assonance and alliteration and qualities of rhythm and musicality, it is difficult to render them directly into another language. The difficulties of translation are complicated by the highly inflected nature of Sanskrit and its capacity for building very long nominal compounds. The concise inflectional structure adds, of course, to the emotional as well as the referential impact of the verse, which, when imitated, conveys a completely different impression to the reader. Sanskrit also has a wealth of synonyms. As Ingalls rightly mentions, the term "king" can have as many as one hundred and twenty synonyms.61 The choice is determined by the meter, euphony, and the harmonious structure sought. Other problems
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result from Sanskrit poetic conventions and attitudes. An epithet such as ''girl with the gait of an elephant'' or "maiden with breasts like the frontal lobes of an elephant" cries out for revision. Jones' pioneering version had to resolve numerous problems. He had to break down the samdhi combinations of the words to discover the constituent elements of complex conglomerates. In attempting to describe the local flora, fauna, and mythological terminology, he had to formulate his own Roman transliterations and, as in the case of any exotic translation, insert explanations into the text which were concise enough not to disturb Kalidasa's flow of words. Had the Sakuntala been a poem, he could merely have added notes. (Forster avoided such additions by appending a glossary to his translation.) Not disrupting the flow of poetry was particularly difficult with a poet such as Kalidasa, whose poetry is extremely colorful and sensuous. Moreover, Jones had to come to terms with some explicitly erotic passages. This he achieved with only relative success. Although Jones was a sophisticated intellectual, he often mercilessly blunted key phrases because of the unacceptability of their humor, and he emended sensuous passages, as he had done in his translation of the Gitagovinda, which he had treated as an allegory of the human soul's love for God. 62 It is clear that translating classical Sanskrit kavya is fraught with difficulties, some obvious, others quite subtle. Goethe could call for perfect translations and Friedrich Schlegel could aspire to produce them, but the difficulties of such endeavors were greater than anyone had dreamed. To highlight and examine these difficulties demands a methodology of some complexity. I have chosen a number of translations (of Kalidasa's Sakuntala), on which to base my study. These include primary translations directly from the Sanskrit63 and secondary translations from Jones or other European renditions.64 Jones used the Bengali recension for his translation of 1789. Two years later, Georg Forster translated Jones' work into German. Bruguière followed with a French translation of Jones' work in 1803 and Doria in 1815 with an Italian translation of Bruguière's rendition. Bergaigne (1884) also used the Bengali recension for his direct translation into French, as had Fauche (1854) and
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Chézy (1830). German direct translations of this recension were prepared by Gerhard (1820), and Hirzel (1833). Rückert (1855), Meier (1852) and Lobedanz (1854) followed the Devanagari recension. 65 The beginnings of Indology are generally associated with the birth of Jones' Asiatick Society in 1784 and his translation of the Sakuntala in 1789. It was precisely within the sixtyyear span that these Sakuntala translations cover that the science of Indology developed. These translations (with one or two minor exceptions) form the corpus of the Sakuntala translations made at that time. By about 1860, Indology as a discipline was firmly established: Sanskrit manuscripts had found their way into European university collections, chairs were established, and grammars and lexicons were made available. It is, however, the early translations that we shall examine, those from the period when Sanskrit translations were still very much a matter of fantasy and game. It was also during this period that European language renditions were influenced by rigid national translation conventions.
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Chapter III NineteenthCentury Translation Conventions Sir William Jones studied languages as a key to culture, his major interest as a humanist scholar. Lord Teignmouth, in his biography of Jones, testifies to his subject's knowledge of twentyeight languages. Every aspect of human civilization interested Jones, as can be seen from the broad range of his published works: belles lettres, philosophy, religion, law, mathematics, science, art, and music. A lawyer, Jones was appointed to a vacant judgeship in the British court at Calcutta in 1783. Jones began to study Sanskrit so that he might translate the Manava Dharma Sastra. With the translation of this legal treatise available, the Indian people might be justly ruled according to "their own prejudices, civil and religious, and suffered to enjoy their own customs unmolested." Jones wanted to see in India a British government true to the Whig principles, yet ruled in accordance with Indian law. In the short period of three years (17841788), Jones mastered Sanskrit and immersed himself in its literature. Out of this study came some of the first AngloIndian poetry ("A Hymn to Camdeo," "A Hymn to Narayana," and the "Enchanted Fruit or the Hindu Wife''). These texts are cluttered with footnotes and allusions to geography, local foods, and religious customs, all of which were to find their way into his translations. The quality of this poetry suggests why Jones is no longer quoted in anthologies of British Verse. 1 Jones began his translation of the Sakuntala in August 1787.2 It was his belief that Kalidasa could be judged by Euro
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pean standards and that the Sakuntala would charm the Western reader with its complex and cultivated style. 3 His translation was to serve practical ends. Even before he undertook an initial reading of the text, Jones wrote to Lord Spencer of his desire to offer the royalties from the translation to insolvent debtors.4 Jones initially translated the Sakuntala into Latin, "which bears so great a resemblance to Sanskrit, that it is more convenient than any other modern language for a scrupulous interlineary version." He then rendered it "word for word" into English; "without suppressing any material sentence, [he] disengaged it from the stiffness of a foreign idiom and prepared the faithful translation."5 Jones' original Latin translation is not extant. In the Preface to the English translation, Jones offers his reasons for rendering the text as faithfully as he could: On the characters and conduct of the play, I shall offer no criticism; because I am convinced that the tastes of men differ as much as their sentiments and passions, and that, in feeling the beauties of art as in smelling flowers, tasting fruits, viewing prospects, and hearing melody, every individual must be guided by his own sensations and the incommunicable associations of his own ideas.6
The fact that he was one of the first Europeans to attempt a translation from Sanskrit, and was renowned as England's greatest Orientalist, afforded Jones a certain freedom in his work. His translation is surprisingly good when one considers that he was a Sanskritist by avocation and could work at it only during his vacations. Moreover, unlike his immediate successors, he learned Sanskrit in India primarily from the texts and from Panini's grammar. Of the translations examined in this study, Jones' work is the one most marked by the translator's own complex character: as a poet entranced with the East7 and as a judge representing a colonial government. As we have noted, the Sakuntala translations considered in this study date primarily from the first half of the nineteenth century. From midcentury onward, the approach to Oriental literature in general became increasingly philological, focusing chiefly on the mechanics of translation rather than on anything
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identifiable as literature. Jones himself disparaged this method in the Preface to his Grammar of the Persian Language. 8 There were two fundamental aspects to his own approach: a recognition of the prestige of Eastern literature and a conviction of the moral significance of literature in general. Translations embodied for Jones the classical concept of translation, a transferal of learning of one tradition to another. Jones declared: If the language of the Eastern nations were studied in our places of education, where every other branch of useful knowledge is taught to perfection, a new and ample field would be open for speculation; we should have a more extensive insight into the history of the human mind, we should be furnished with a new set of images and similitudes, and a number of excellent compositions would be brought to light, which future scholars might explain, and future poets might imitate.9
In his letters, Jones expands his theory of translation to include rendering a moral message and the unique experiential and dictional character of a poem.10 Jones' concept of translation, understood as the transferal of knowledge, differed radically from the German translations of his time. For the most part, German translations were characterized by an accurate and literal rendering of the original. However, one suspects this fidelity was due less to a respect for the Sanskrit original than to a desire to demonstrate the superiority of the German idiom. Both impulses appear to motivate the German translator's effort. Georg Forster's translation (1791) from Jones' English version was the first complete translation of a Sanskrit literary work to be published in Germany. Jones could expect his English readers to be familiar with India through the publications of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, of which he was the president. Forster, however, could not; he wished his readers to be hospitable to the new culture he was opening for them. By appending to his translation a lexical commentary (compiled from English sources), Forster hoped to enable the German reader to understand India better. That Forster was motivated
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by sentiments just as noble as Jones' can be seen in the introduction to his translation. Forster argues that the European remains culturally impoverished if he limits himself to European art. In a manner reminiscent of Herder, Forster, displaying convictions worthy of his Jacobin sympathies, wrote: Jedes Land hat seine Eigenheiten, welche auf die Geisteskräfte und auf die Organisation der Einwohner zurückwirken. Aus diesen sehr verschiedenen Individualitäten, wenn wir sie vergleichen und das Allgemeine vom Lokalen absondern, entwickeln wir den richtigen Begriff der Menschheit . . . . Hier öffnet sich unserem Gefühl und unserer Phantasie ein ganz neues Feld, eine vorzüglich schöne Individualität des menschlichen Charakters. . . . Die Billigkeit fordert wohl, dass man es deutlich auseinandersetzte, wie die Verschiedenheit in der indischen Mythologie, Geschichte und Sitten, von der griechischen zum Beispiel, den Kunstwerken jenes Landes eine uns ungewohnte Gestalt und Maschinerie verleihen müsse, wie aber das Interessante eines solchen Werks gar nicht darin bestehe, ob es fünf oder sieben Aufzüge habe, sondern dass die zartesten Empfindungen, deren das menschliche Herz fähig ist, sich so gut am Ganges und bei dunkelbraunen Menschen wie am Rhein, am Tiber, am Ilissus bei unserem weissen Geschlechte äussern konnten. 11
In one breath, Forster echoes Herder's Humanität, in another he projects German nationalistic fantasies. The German translator is the only true mediator of genius. Germany possesses the impartiality to present to the world foreign fantasy and beauty. Her geography, political situation and eclectic character lend themselves to the task of ordering the genius of other cultures and building new creations from them.12 On the more personal level, such mediation is an application of the individual's presence in the world (Hierseyn). Germany's unique receptivity allows her people (as would be impossible for Italians, French, or English) to assume another mode of thinking or feeling.13 Unlike Jones, who sought through translation to
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communicate knowledge from one tradition to another, Forster expropriated the foreign wisdom and claimed to improve upon it. Jones, too, possessed the freedom to improve upon the Sanskrit masterpiece. In the Preface to his translation, he wrote: The piece might easily be reduced to five acts of a moderate length, by throwing the third act into the second, and the sixth into the fifth; for it must be confessed that the whole of Dushmanta's conversation with the buffoon, and the great part of his courtship in the hermitage might be omitted without any injury to the drama. 14
That Jones did not actually make these changes is of little importance. What is significant is that such changes were common in French translations. Bergaigne wrote: Quelques redites dans l'acte IV, au milieu d'une pastorale d'ailleurs charmamte, et deux passages d'assez mauvais goût dans les actes III et VI pouvaient fatiguer inutilement le lecteur.15
The difference between these two approaches was that in Jones' case the decision was made according to his own taste, while Bergaigne's decision was dictated by French demands for délicatesse. A French translator's editorial freedom differed significantly from that of Jones. In French translation, the reader, to a certain degree, determined the text: "la grande règle de toutes les règles est . . . . de plaire au lecteur français." A translation was judged in and of itself, as an independent work unrelated to the original. This attitude is exemplified by Le Tourneur, who was to become famous for his "cleaned up" versions of Shakespeare. In the preliminary discourse to his Nuits d'Young, Le Tourneur explained the standard method of translation into French: Mon intention a été de tirer de l'Young anglais un Young français, qui pût plaire à ma nation, et qu'on
Page 30 pût lire avec intérêt, sans songer s'il est original ou copie. Il me semble que c'est la méthode qu'on devrait suivre en traduisant les auteurs des langues étrangères, qui, avec un mérite superieur, ne sont pas des modèles de goût. Par là, tout ce qui'il y a de bon chez nos voisins nous deviendrait propre, et nous laisserions le mauvais que nous n'avons aucun besoin de lire ni de connaître. 16
In other words, the French do not welcome what is not French and the reader must never be offended or overwhelmed by the foreign. The French translator sought, therefore, in his rendering of the original to establish order, to cut away superfluity, and to correct characteristics. To "accomoder à la française" not only meant removing foreign elements that would impede comprehension but also perfecting the original. Faithful translations rendered a disservice not only to the author but also to the reader, who expected an agreeable reading experience in which he need not question nor be surprised by the text. A French translator's task was to neutralize any elements of the work that were too natural or individualized. Such emendations could be made in both form and content. French injunctions of délicatesse demanded, therefore, representations that were only of the most general nature. The mot bas, the particularized locution, the improper metaphor or unusual ornament were rejected by the translator who was, after all, a man of taste.17 By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the notions of "traduire" and "franciser" had become more clearly defined. Mme. de Staël, for example, insisted on the former in her Biblioteca italiana of 1816. She encouraged the Italians not to translate according to the French method, which consisted "à transformer les choses étrangères de telle sorte qu'on n'y voit rien de leur origine."18 Translations should, rather, introduce new ideas, and this would be impossible if the new elements were eliminated. Mme. de Staël articulated this point in De l'Allemagne: Les nations doivent se servir de guide les unes aux autres, et toutes auraient tort de se priver des lumières qu'elles peuvent mutuellement se prêter.19
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Mme. de Staël's cosmopolitan vision was a far cry from the ethnocentric view of a few decades earlier. Yet at the time Sanskrit was first being translated into French, the verbs traduire and franciser still meant pretty much the same thing. That freedom in translating and délicatesse allowed Jones and Bergaigne to delete portions of the original from their versions surprised a German translator such as Georg Forster. He wrote: Wenn das grösste Verdienst dieses Stückes für Europäer in der Sittenschilderung und Bekanntschaft mit dem Geschmack des Hindus in Absicht der literarischen Produkte besteht, so sind die Stellen, wovon oben die Rede ist, für den Leser immer von einigem Wert, wenn sie gleich auf der Bühne entbehrlich oder gar zweckwidrig sein sollten. 20
German translations on the whole attempted to be as faithful as possible to the original. The aims of translating into German, as promulgated in the Deutsche Schaubühne, sought to reproduce the dramatic pattern of the original (French classical drama in this instance), and its poetic content. The difficulty with Gottsched's reform was that it inevitably demanded neutralizing unfamiliar styles and structures. General accuracy rather than complete fidelity was sought. Making what was "foreign" intelligible to German spectators encouraged a pedestrian style and idiom that did not go unnoticed by critics such as Lessing.21 Apart from the necessity for accuracy, the demands of highly emotive language were often not met in such translations. Another aspect of the problem of fidelity was the issue of verse rendition versus accuracy. Should verse be rendered as verse, usually involving a less faithful adherence to meaning, or should fidelity be of utmost concern? Lessing advocated the latter alternative,22 although the choice was not a happy one: Denn hier kommt es blos darauf an, unter zwey Uebeln das kleinste zu wählen; entweder Verstand und Nachdruck der Versifikation, oder diese jenen aufzuopfern.23
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The issue which Lessing initially raised was taken up with vigor by Herder in his Volkslieder and Von deutscher Art und Kunst. With Herder a turning point was reached in the polemics over fidelity versus form. The desirability of the translator's reproducing form as well as content gained ground from the mideighteenth century onwards. With a growing awareness of historical distinctions, form and language became increasingly important. The translation of Ossian into German hexameter inspired Herder's pronouncement on the problem: Haben Sie es wohl diesmal bedacht. . . "was die Auslassung Eines, der Zusatz eines andern, die Umschreibung und Wiederholung eines dritten Worts; was mir andrer Accent, Blick, Stimme der Rede durchaus für anderen Ton geben könne?" Ich will den Sinn noch immer bleiben lassen; aber Ton? Farbe? die schnelleste Empfindung von Eigenheit des Orts, des Zwecks?—Und beruht nicht auf diesen alle Schönheit eines Gedichts, aller Geist und Kraft der Rede?—Ihnen also immer zugegeben, dass unser Ossian, als ein Poetisches Werk so gut, ja besser, als der Englische sey—eben weil er ein so schönes Poetisches Werk ist, so ist er der alte Barde, Ossian, nicht mehr; das will ich ja eben sagen. 24
Thus quite early the debate on the limits of faithful translation began in Germany, where questions, that the English and the French ignored were hotly debated. At the time when German translations from the Sanskrit were being composed, the role of the translator was not that of the practical intermediary offering examples of good taste; rather, he was an interpreter making every effort to transmit the flavor of the foreign original to his own nation. The paradigm for such faithful translations was, of course, the German rendering of Shakespeare. When A. W. Schlegel began to compose a verse translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, he was confronted with the dilemma that Lessing had pointed out thirty years earlier. Dissatisfaction with his first attempts led to further experiments and a final form that was the outcome of Herder's doctrine of
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translation—the principle of fidelity to form and meaning. This resulted in a line for line translation in which internal changes in the original pattern, as well as that pattern itself, were faithfully reproduced in a form that also accurately rendered its meaning. This standard, set by the SchlegelTieck translation of the works of Shakespeare, could not be disregarded when it came time to translate the masterpiece of his fratello indiano. At first glance two stylistic traits make a faithful translation from Sanskrit into German (or any other European language) difficult. That high caste men spoke Sanskrit while women and the lower castes spoke various Prakrits posed particular difficulties for translators. Rückert, for example, ignored this peculiarity and rendered the entire text in high German. The belief that Germans were superior in making faithful translations is clearly seen in Rückert's appraisal of Jones' success in rendering a faithful translation: Im Sinne der Engländer mag sie das sein, in dem unsrigen ist sie es nicht. . . . Diese Engländer haben keine Philologie im rechten Sinne, d.i. keine Liebe zum Worte, sie halten sich an das Materielle des Inhalts. 25
Rückert also passed judgment upon Chézy's and Hirzel's translations.26 He valued Chézy's rendition as a ''philologischästhetische Arbeit," while Hirzel's was only an aesthetic rendition.27 Rückert himself sought to make his translation of the Sakuntala philologically literal ("philologisch Wortgetreu") and thus tried to translate both the form and the content of the original as correctly as possible. By deciding to follow the prose and verse format of the original, Rückert found his own solution to metered rendering. Eine Übersetzung in unserem Sinne muss dieses Grundverhältnis vor allem ins Auge fassen und treu wiedergeben und kann es auch ganz leicht.28
Hirzel had attempted to imitate in German the multiform Sanskrit meter. Although Rückert believed it possible to imitate syllable for syllable the Sanskrit meter in German, he thought it was not worth the bother, since the individual qualities of
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Sanskrit meter and its inner rhythm could be neither felt nor appreciated by the German reader. 29 Rückert had the following plan: Metra zu substituieren . . . nämlich einfach jambisch oder trochäisch, auch wohl einmal daktylisch oder anapästisch, fortgehende Zeilen von einer den Sanskritzeilen ungefähr entsprechenden Ausdehnung und Silbenzahl, die Zeilen selbst aber nach dem Sanskritprinzip, je zwei gleiche, oder wenn man untertheilt, je vier gleiche, oder fast gleiche, zu einer Strophe zusammenstellen.30
He thus put greater value on the "innere Form des Gedankens, die Satzgliederung, die noch wichtiger ist als die äussere des Verses." From these comments it is clear what Rückert, the most gifted of the German Sanskrit translators of this period, meant by fidelity in the philological sense of the term. . . .es gilt hier eben, die Pole umzudrehen, es dahin zu bringen, dass man bei Wendungen, Fügungen, Färbungen der Rede, die uns ungewöhnlich sind, empfinde, dass sie eben deswegen die dort gewöhnlichen seien, und umgekehrt, das uns Gewöhnliche das dort Ungewöhnliche, z. B. wenn der indische Dichter einmal absichtlich einen nach unserer Art zerlegten Satz bringt.31
This preliminary discussion of various translators' designs and the translation theories prevalent in their countries at the time their Sakuntala translations appeared, suggests not only the theoretical concerns, but the individual aesthetic considerations that influenced these translations. Let us now turn our attention to the text itself.
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Chapter IV An Introduction to the Sakuntala Kalidasa is probably India's most famous author. 1 He, alone among classical Sanskrit authors whose work is extant, wrote plays as well as poems. Living in the age of the Gupta Dynasty, Kalidasa wrote in a very traditional and antiindividualistic medium, and his genuis is thought to be one of balance, combining convention with originality, reason with emotion, the mystical with the worldly, all in exquisite harmony.2 Kalidasa's Sakuntala3 has been and is considered by Indians to be among the best, if not the best, Sanskrit drama. In the Sakuntala, as well as in his other works, Kalidasa sought idealistic characterizations that presented a noble and ideal way of life. The heroes and heroines are not what they are but rather what they should be, infused with a high sense of morality. They are models and, in Kalidasa's time, their nature had already been circumscribed by the poetic theorist Bharata. In the Natyasastra, Bharata compiled a compendium of rules for drama. Unlike the Aristotelian model, Sanskrit drama sought to depict neither action nor conflict. Its purpose was to create a mood (rasa). Furthermore, Indian literary theory demanded portrayal of wellfixed types rather than individuals. Minimizing individuality in favor of universal types was believed by Indian theorists to facilitate the aesthetic experience of rasa. The hero of Kalidasa's play, King Dusyanta, epitomizes the traits established by Bharata for a superior male character.4 In the First Act, Dusyanta displays the qualities of honor, duty, bravery, intelligence, and cultivation commensurate with his type. The play opens with the king, introduced in full hunting
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garb, poised to shoot an antelope. An ascetic, coming upon the scene, prevents him from doing so, informing the king that the animal belongs to the hermitage into which Dusyanta has inadvertently wandered. The antelope must not be harmed lest the sanctity of the hermitage be violated. The king is then invited to receive the hospitality of the hermitage. Although Kanva, the leader of the community, is absent, his daughter Sakuntala is present to welcome guests. Upon entering the hermitage, Dusyanta's right arm throbs, indicating good luck. The king then sees three lovely young women watering plants and shrubs. Charmed by their beauty 5 and surprised to find such loveliness in the forest, Dusyanta hides himself behind a tree so that he might unabashedly eavesdrop. He thus learns Sakuntala's identity and expresses to himself his interest in her.6 The king's nascent desire is momentarily checked by a worldly concern. What is Sakuntala's caste? Is she born into Kanva's caste and hence unapproachable? While Dusyanta is ruminating over the lawfulness of his infatuation, a bee flies toward Sakuntala's face. Under the pretext of shooing it off, the king appears on the scene. Without disclosing his identity, he converses with her. Dusyanta thus learns, through a few cleverly worded questions, the story of Sakuntala's demidivine birth and of her unmarried state. Sakuntala is the daughter of the nymph Menaka and the ascetic Visvamitra. Visvamitra's powers through his austerities were so great that the gods were envious. They sent Menaka to seduce him and to sap the strength which he had accumulated through continence. Through her father's caste, Sakuntala would be a fitting bride for the king. Dusyanta has several wives already but is without progeny. Dusyanta, smitten with Sakuntala, offers her his ring. The shouting of nearby soldiers in the king's entourage disturbs this pleasant idyll and the girls retire. Sakuntala, under the false pretext of having her dress caught in briars, turns around and longingly looks at the king.7 She, too, is obviously charmed. Like Dusyanta, Sakuntala is an ideal heroine. Being of high birth, she represents one of the four classes of heroines identified by Bharata. Throughout the play, her behavoir conforms to Bharata's definition of a superior female character who ''has a tender nature, is not fickle, speaks smilingly, is free from
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cruelty, attentive to words of her superiors, bashful, goodmannered, has natural beauty, nobility, and such other qualities, and is grave and patient. 8 The Second Act introduces the king as altogether lovesick. A vidusaka, Madhavya,9 is trying to soothe him and divert his attention. However, Dusyanta cannot contain his passion for Sakuntala.10 While trying to develop some ruse to remain in the vicinity, the king is approached by several ascetics. They request that he stay and insure the safety of their sacrificial rites, which, in the absence of Kanva, are being disturbed by evil spirits. Dusyanta readily accepts. The king sends the vidusaka back to the capital after denying his lovelorn state. Dusyanta is afraid that Madhavya might foolishly complicate matters at home by imprudently mentioning the hermit girl. In the interlude between Acts Two and Three, Sakuntala has fallen in love with the king. Act Three opens with her friends ministering to her lovesickness. Kalidasa's description of love's awakening presents a tour de force of the variety of moods that ideal characters should then exhibit. In the Natyasastra, for example, Bharata stipulates that the heroine should show the ability to display an emotion (bhava) in a nature previously exempt from it, to move the eyes and the brows betokening the awakening of love (hava), and to show still greater manifestations of being in love. She must possess characteristics inherent in her nature: the brilliance of youth and passion, the added touch of loveliness given by love, sweetness, radiance, courage, dignity, and selfcontrol.11 Throughout Act Three, Sakuntala is consistently true to her type. With Dusyanta eavesdropping, Sakuntala charmingly confesses her love for him. Encouraged by her friends, she timidly writes a love letter, carving her message of love with her fingernail upon a lotus leaf. She then reads aloud this letter, exciting Dusyanta to such an extent that he reveals himself and declares his love, promising to honor her. When Sakuntala's friends discretely withdraw, she becomes shy and embarrassed. Dusyanta tenderly restrains her from leaving, while she expresses her helplessness in response to these new emotions she feels for him. When Dusyanta proposes a gandharva marriage,12 Sakuntala's shyness prevents her from immediately consenting.
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In the interval between the Third and Fourth Acts, Dusyanta and Sakuntala have married according to the gandharva rite. Dusyanta has promised to send a suitable escort to bring his new bride to the capital and has left to attend to the governing of the realm. Sakuntala is alone; she can only think of her nowdistant husband. Lost in her thoughts, she inadvertently fails to offer hospitality to an irascible sage, Durvasas, who has come to the hermitage. He curses her, saying that whomever she is thinking of will completely lose his memory of her. Sakuntala is so rapt in her thoughts that she does not even hear this, but her friends do, and plead on her behalf for leniency. They obtain the concession that the curse will dissolve on the showing of some token of the king's love for her (the token of remembrance referred to in the title). The girls, thinking not to worry Sakuntala, foolishly say nothing about the curse to her. All these events are related in the interlude to the Fourth Act, which forms the beginning of the loveinseparation motif. The rest of the Fourth Act prepares the ground for this curse to bear fruit. Kanva, Sakuntala's father, returns to the hermitage; he knows of Sakuntala's marriage through his special powers and approves of it. 13 Since Sakuntala is beginning to show signs of pregnancy, the hermitage prepares for her leavetaking from her home of many years. She bids farewell to her family, friends, and every plant, creeper, and animal bound to her by ties of affection. This episode is, perhaps, for Indian taste, a gem. To the Western reader, it is also very poignant. But such a leavetaking is often felt more strongly within Indian families where the young woman truly leaves her own to enter her husband's family, coming under the often harsh jurisdiction of her motherinlaw. In the past, marriage was, in this sense, more of a transference of a houseworker from one family to another, than a union of love. In the sharp contrast to the somber note on which Act Four closes, Act Five begins with a description of Dusyanta's frivolous palace life amid his other wives. This Act opens with Hamsapadika's enthralling song. She sings: You are greedy for everfresh honey; but having kissed the mango blossom with such passion, you are now finding blissful happiness in the
Page 39 sheer company of the lotus; how could you forget the mango blossom, O Bee? 14
The allusion to the bee, the mango blossom and the lotus in the song is obvious. Hamsapadika accuses Dusyanta of having wandered like a bee in the garden of life. Just as he tasted the mango blossom—Hamsapadika—and left her with the memory of passionate love, now he has sauntered away in search of fresh honey. Hamsapadika believes that he has turned to another wife, the lotuslike Vasumati. But it is not only the heart of Hamsapadika that sings this song; Sakuntala also seems to speak through this song. This can be seen in Dusyanta's reaction. In perhaps the most beautiful lines Kalidasa ever wrote, Dusyanta explains how the song creates an inexpressible yearning in him, although he has no consciousness of a separation from the beloved. Dusyanta is here, as elsewhere, represented as a bee, full of passion, but callous, a selfish lover, hasty and passionate, enraptured only by the prospect of sweet honey. The play suggests that Sakuntala changes him. Dusyanta's court stands in marked contrast to the new isolation of Sakuntala, the child of nature. Sakuntala arrives at the palace escorted by the ascetics. They request to see the king and are admitted by Dusyanta who is totally unaware of the nature of their mission. After the exchange of greetings, one of the ascetics, Sarngarava, congratulates the king on his marriage and invites him to accept his nowpregnant wife as queen. The king's utter surprise and avowal of ignorance in the matter infuriate the ascetics. Gautami, Kanva's wife, suggests that Sakuntala unveil her face. Dusyanta is so struck by her beauty that he says nothing. Sarngarava taunts him and the king denies knowing Sakuntala and certainly cannot accept her, pregnant as she is, as his wife. An argument ensues in which Sarngarava calls the king a robber.15 Another ascetic, Saradvata, intervenes and advises Sakuntala to respond to the king's repudiation. She reminds him of his noble family and cites his present behavior as unrighteous. Although the king chastises her for behaving improperly, Sakuntala does not lose her temper. Dusyanta believes that the entire episode is a joke on the part of the ascetics. Since Sakuntala cannot produce the ring
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that she says the king gave her, Dusyanta accuses her of being a conniving woman. It appears that she lost the ring while bathing but only realizes this when she tries to show it as a token of recognition (abhijñana) to the king. The king now taunts Sakuntala and disparages her mother's honor. At this point Sakuntala loses her temper and calls the king an ignoble (anarya) hypocrite. Dusyanta cites his unblemished past, and it appears that Sakuntala has lost the argument. She begins to weep. Saradvata, seeing no further point in arguing, motions for the hermitage delegation to leave, abandoning Sakuntala to the mercies of a husband who has repudiated her. Dusyanta suspects that their leaving is a final ruse. The ascetics may believe that Dusyanta, tempted by Sakuntala's beauty, will secretly accept her once they have left. He avows to them once more that any acceptance by him of a pregnant woman as his wife would be unrighteous. Dusyanta is saddled with a moral dilemma. He does not remember marrying Sakuntala and, although tempted, cannot take a woman who thus appears to him to belong to someone else. The king asks the ascetics what they would do under the circumstances. They do not suitably answer. Throughout this scene the character and patience of both the king and Sakuntala are carefully delineated. During the confrontation with Sakuntala and the ascetics, Sarngarava levels very grave charges against Dusyanta. He calls the king powermad, a liar, one who flaunts moral duty and arrogance. He describes the king as a robber, who violently seized a sage's daughter. 16 Dusyanta permits this outrageous talk and rather than silencing the ascetic, proceeds to vindicate himself; this speaks for his fairness. He treats his subjects as his own children and works for their welfare, even at the cost of his own pleasures.17 Kalidasa asserts his ideal of kingship in this scene. Dusyanta's character is tested under unjust accusations and performs nobly. The ascetic party can not be blamed for its reaction, nor can Dusyanta. By making ironic reference to Sakuntala's credentials and insulting women as a whole, the king is refusing (in a rather vulgar way, to be sure) to be duped. What is stressed repeatedly is Dusyanta's good character and moral virtue. Confident that there is nothing unethical in his behavior, he is per
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forming his duty by resisting a moral evil and by punishing it in others. 18 He must love his subjects19 and, at the same time, punish wayward conduct.20 He is obliged, as a king, to administer dharma.21 Therefore, he refains from looking at the pregnant Sakuntala, who must be someone else's wife. This is especially meritorious, since Sakuntala is really irresistible. Dusyanta adopts a correct moral stand by first appealing to her sense of moral virtue: Silence this evil [talk], he says, why do you wish to drag the good name of your family into the mud, and pull me also along with you?22
Dusyanta formulates the crux of the whole problem, when he says: Maybe I am infatuated; maybe this lady is lying. Would you wish me to repudiate my wife, or be defiled by contact with another man's wife?23
This is a problem of knowledge, not of will. Dusyanta must choose between two moral evils—abandoning a wife (Sakuntala) or accepting someone else's wife (Sakuntala) as his own. In this instance Dusyanta shows righteous grace by bending before Sarngarava and seeking the ascetic's judgement in solving this dilemma. Kalidasa's Dusyanta is a noble character. This act concludes with Sakuntala being spirited away to heaven by her celestial mother after being so shamefully repudiated and insulted. The king and his courtiers are astonished, unable to comprehend this supernatural turn of events. In the following pages, I have chosen to examine this scene more closely, as it is central to the meaning of the play. The repudiation scene forms the basis of the Sakuntala's tragedy. With the discovery of the ringtoken of recognition, the king is released from the curse and the carefree lover must pause and reevaluate the significance of his love. The tragedy of his repudiation of Sakuntala consists in his selfinflicted childlessness. The conscious recognition of his childlessness checks his playboy existence and causes him to seek real happiness.24 The
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transformation of the bee does eventually take place, as can be seen from the reunion with Sakuntala in the Seventh Act and the rush of parental love that he shows toward their child. The final meeting of Dusyanta and Sakuntala is to be the permanent union of two loving hearts. 25 This reunion supposes a complete transformation, not attributable merely to separation and suffering. The ultimate picture of noble love cannot be lopsided. Sakuntala cannot be noble and innocent, if Dusyanta is an unsteady lover. With the play's plot and a sense of Kalidasa's moral and ideological perspective in mind, let us now turn to the various translations. I have analyzed the corpus of translations for grammatical and lexical errors and cultural distortions. A pattern of translation errors has emerged from my analysis of the play in each translation. I present in the following pages the repudiation scene for close analysis. This excerpt is extensive enough to exhibit the pattern of distortion already suggested for the play as a whole. The excerpt consists of a continuous passage from the Fifth Act. This selection has been chosen for reasons other than its importance to the plot. Stylistically, its dialogue is more or less uniform in the two recensions available to European translators. The Bengali recension is the basic text for our analysis. The shorter Devanagari version, when it differs from the Bengali, is supplied in brackets above the text.26 Since more characters are present in the plot of the Fifth Act than any other, the text is both in Sanskrit and in Prakrit. Due to the variety of Prakritspeaking characters, the translators had to contend with a variety of Prakrits. For this reason, the Fifth Act in general presented more problems to the translator than the rest of the play. No complete chaya, or translation of the Prakrit sections into Sanskrit, was available to the translators at that time. An incomplete chaya of the Third Act could be found in the Bibliothèque Nationale. It may have been used for some of these translations, but would not have helped decipher the Fifth Act. The combination of thematic significance, characters, the variety of Prakrits and their alternation with the Sanskrit, the absence of the chaya, and the uniformity between recensions all render this excerpt particularly fruitful for analysis. Grammatical and cul
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tural errors found in this paradigmatic sampling have been grouped into trends and patterns. In the case of translations, particularly when the idiom is not fully understood, difficult passages bear the stamp of the translators' preconceptions and interests in the form of omissions, additions, distortions, and emphases. I have, therefore, devised a method whereby these emendations can be easily identified. I have also supplied my own literary translation, which the reader may compare with the others. Each translation's fidelity to the original as well as its characteristic revisions are encoded. Thus the textual explication may be read on two levels. Linguists may examine the patterns of intentional and unintentional errors stemming from idiosyncrasies peculiar to Sanskrit or to the host languages. Students of literature may scan the explication to determine the fidelity of individual translations or translations in a particular language to the original. The analyses that follow the explications (with the exception of this author's own literary translation) highlight the linguistic and cultural distortions. As has been noted, Sakuntala's story touched Europeans' lives in many different ways; her story was translated, adapted, parodied, sung, and danced. In the same way that criticism and popular commentary reflect biases with which writers perceive this play, the translations mirror translator's preconceptions and interests. The text is no longer itself, but is transformed by prejudice. This transformation of the text in translation will be the object of the following chapter.
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Chapter V Analysis of the Text: Act 5 A. Act 5, verses 13 [Act 5, verses 105,107] B. Act 5, verses 46 [Act 5, verses 106, 108, 109] C. Act 5, verses 2327 [Act 5, verses 124127]
Code
Word order
numbers (1, 2, 3, . . .)
Omissions
asterisk (*)
Additions
underlined
Grammatical
bold
or lexical error
where meaning is
lost
Translator's
CAPITALIZED
error where
meaning is
retained
Meaning sufficiently
CAPITALIZED BOLD
retained to suggest
the translator's
understanding of the
grammatical structure;
the lexical choice dependent
less on error than on
translator's desired effect.
Devanagari recension bracketed
([ ])
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Analysis. For both dramatic and humorous effect, Kalidasa opens the Fifth Act with the threnos of the old chamberlain. Jones heightens the dramatic element by the addition of an adjective such as ''decrepit.'' The irony of the chamberlain's situation is for the most part lost in translation. This is largely due to Jones' grammatical problems with 1.12 which is carried through all the secondary translations. The irony underlying the Sanskrit consists of the following: The chamberlain undertook, as a young man, the supervision of the harem; the symbol of his authority is now used as a crutch. This lightening of effect is lost in translation. In 2.2426, Jones transforms the thaumasmos into a general rule of human experience; this shows his tendency to "philosophize" the Indian material. His rendition of 2.2737 seems to force a simile more subtly expressed in the original. The sloka itself is heightened by Jones' choice of vocabulary ("luminous," "involved"). Kalidasa's simile is extremely subtle; the old man's mind, like a lamp, flickers and plays tricks. The clarity of the Sanskrit is lost in Jones' verbiage. The theme of the darkness of death, suggested in the Sanskrit, becomes explicit in this translation. As is often the case in translation, the compact nature of the Sanskrit original is lost in Jones' version of the third passage, which is wordy, pedestrian (3:10,12,17), and repetitive through additions that do not particularly elucidate the mean
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ing. The metaphor of kingship is emphasized by the combination of two similes (3.58, 3.18, 20, 13, 14) which the Sanskrit separates. The translation of tantrayitva (3.9) as "attending" tells us something about Jones' vision of kingship. In 3.13, 14, and 17, the analogy between the king's people being like the elephant's herd is lost. This is compounded by the loose translation of 3.5 and 6 as "people" and "family,'' rather than ''subjects" and "children." Jones, with his liberal English views, seems impelled to render the Sanskrit in this way, recoiling at the idea of referring to the Indian people metaphorically either as a herd or as children.
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Analysis. The negative connotations that Jones gives to old age are further heightened by Forster's rendition of 1.610: "wie bin
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ich doch so alt und hinfällig geworden." This distortion is further seen in the false translation of 1.2123: "entkräftet von der Menge verlebter Jahre." Other errors also seem to follow Jones, as in the inability to render properly the gerundive of 2.6,7 or the erroneous additions in 2. Forster takes great care with his lexicon. In 1.18, for example, he chooses the euphemism Zimmer for avarodha. Similarly, the choice of leichtem Herzen for santamana (3.11) is curious. What to the Sanskrit reader signifies the becalmed soul of the king who knowingly fulfills his dharma is here seen as the soul unburdened from the cares of the world. This image of the world weary soul will reappear elsewhere in many German translations.
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Analysis. Bruguière avoids many of the problems that plague the Jones and Forster renditions by simply omitting confusing passages. A significantly long addition, conforming to French dramatic norms, introduces this section. The tone is for the
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most part more solemn and more formal than the original ("je ne dois pas différer," "j'instruise") or tends toward Cartesian formulations (2.37 ''les facultés intellectuelles''). A tendency toward poeticizing the vocabulary, perhaps to mitigate the prose translation, can also be seen in the choice of the double negative 2.28: praBUDHaya as "ne brillent plus que". and "lueur vacillante" for 2.34. More significant deviations based on Jones' translations appear in passage 3, as in the rendition of 3.11 as "avec un coeur satisfait et tranquille" or the addition of "se retire sous un ombrage . . . pour échapper à la chaleur qui l'accable." The simile found in 3.1320 is lost, as is the parallelism of 3.6 with 3.13 and 3.9 with 3.14. The meaning of the sloka, that a good king keeps a regular schedule, is for the most part lost; instead, Bruguière discusses the right of kings or elephants to certain compensations for their labors, e.g., rest.
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Analysis. The difficulty in translation 1.12 is responsible for the omissions in the Doria passage. All the irony of the chamberlain's threnos is thereby lost. For the most part, however, Doria faithfully follows his source in Bruguière. 2.25 reaches its furthest melancholic extension with Doria's rendering: "quanto è mai passagiera la nostra vita!" In passage 3, Doria follows the Bruguière translation up until 3.12, whereupon the passage
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in Doria ends. He completely omits the simile of the king resembling the elephant whose herd is like the king's subjects. Of all the translations, Doria's seems to be the least complete, omitting passages of description and effiguration that are not only beautiful, but important to the dhvani (allusion) and the rasa (mood) of the text.
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Analysis. Bergaigne adds the curious title "L'Affront" to this scene, presumably announcing the repudiation with which the Fifth Act concludes. The translation is heightened by addition ("est pesante," "la vieillesse maligne," ''alourdit"). Bergaigne seems to have had difficulties as Jones and his followers did with 1.2123 and the compound 1.27, since he did not translate them. With the omission of 1.8,10,11, Bergaigne also changes the meaning of the original which makes no evaluation of old age, Bergaigne, on the contrary, makes a negative, albeit universal and rational, judgment. In passage 2, Bergaigne offers a greatly simplified version of the text, qualified by a series of clarifying epithets ("des religieux," "des disciples"). He thus destroys the conversational tone of the original. The sloka of passage 2, a tight metaphor in the original, becomes a rambling tautology to which the element of night's fatal allure is added. This nocturnal image fits into a larger picture suggested in the third passage, which presents solitude not as spiritually beneficial, but rather as a form of escapism. This vision of an escape into death, or into darkness, is further enforced by the ambiguous verse following 2.33. The suggestion that man's existence is unsettled is further strengthened by 2.2426, which transforms the image of life's wonderful irony into a frightening riddle. Bergaigne's translation of passage 3 is couched in an elegant legalistic language completely absent from the original. 3.9 is mistranslated as "juger" and glossed by "a montré le devoir." The ideas of both judgment and duty have already been suggested in Bruguière. In addition, the idea of the king's relationship to his subjects, like that of a father to his children, has been given a uniquely Christian flavor ("comme un père
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à la multitude"). The recueillement du soi theme of the Sanskrit becomes escapism in the addition following 3.6 and 3.15, 16/19. This image of the alluring night presented in passage 2 is repeated in passage 3. If Bergaigne is equating night with death, as 2.2835 seems to suggest, the image is mystified in the third passage. Sleep is sought in the woods into which light cannot enter. This sleep is, in fact, a discouraged postChristian death precluding rebirth in an afterlife; whether it be Christian or Hindu.
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Analysis. Significantly, Fauche uses the Sanskrit term, kanchouki, in 1.3 and then is forced to gloss it. The most logical explanation for this procedure would be his desire to keep the reader steeped in exotic images evoked by foreign "poetic"sounding words. Although Fauche correctly translates the locative absolute (1.2123), he then flounders on a simple locative plural expression in 1.19 and the gerundive 2.6. 2.6/8 may arise from yavan niyogam anutisthami found in several manuscripts. It should be remembered that Fauche's was a "primary" translation (direct from the Sanskrit). This raises the question of the extent to which the authors of direct translations relied on the work of others, particularly Jones. Fauche's general faithfulness to the original is carried over into the translation of the third passage. Even 3.9 (TANTRAYA) is correct, since the Sanskrit can have the meaning "to provide for." The solitude (3.12), if not more objective, certainly becomes more meditative in this translation and hence more in keeping with the original meaning ("les douceurs de la rétraite"). A grammatical error appears in the mistranslation of (3.14) samcarya. This mistake probably stems from an alternate meaning of CAR as "to walk about" with the prefix sam, meaning ''together."
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Analysis. Chézy's French is flowery and rhetorical. He presents a rather subjective vision of old age, as in the following: "A quelle époque fâcheuse de la vie me trouvéje parvenu!" Additions following 1.3,16 and 14 tend to be explanatory; the phrase following 1.22 may, in fact, be a mistranslation of 1.27 as prastha or "top of a mountain," hence "sur ma tête." In the second passage, the errors are, for the most part, errors in tone. The impression of an old man talking to himself in momentary confusion, which Kalidasa achieved very economically with 2.1,4,9 is totally lost. Mistakes found in other renditions appear also here in 2.68. The vocabulary is heightened: "une vive lueur," "les plus profondes ténèbres." Such heightening continues in passage 3 ("aussi cher à ses yeux." "l'esprit satisfait et tranquille") as does epexegesis ("paraît se disposer à prendre à l'écart quelques moments."
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''qui ne se retire quelques instans . . . qu'après avoir longtemps bravé les feux ardens pour assurer au nombreux . . . un pâturage abondant"). Although thus obfuscated, the similes, that form the bases of the two sections remain intact. The minimal translation of the Sanskrit, when compared with this Chézy translation, shows the true dimension of Kalidasa's economical artistry. It is even more curious that the simile of the first phrase (the king, with tranquil heart, visits solitude), a theme common to European poetry, is neither recognized nor conveyed in this translation.
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Analysis. Hirzel's translation of passage 1 is formal. Decorum probably dictates the omission of 1.18. The maintenance of the periodic sentence structure of the Sanskrit adds to the formal and oratorical tone of this rendition. However, local color is
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not ignored, as can be seen with the addition to 1.17. Hirzel deals adequately with difficult grammatical constructions. He correctly translates the locative absolute construction of 1.2123 and adequately renders the sloka, striving for the tone of the original through a verse translation. 1 The major distortion of passage 2 is the addition "mit dem Tode ringt," which parallels 2.2930. Before Hirzel's translation this image of death had only been suggested in European translations. Hirzel creates a very unIndian image of the soul's extinction in corporeal death. Hirzel's translation, and that of Gerhard, are the only examples presented here of German translations directly from the Bengali recension. Both these authors chose to translate prajah (3.5) as Volk. Sanskrit has no equivalent for the term "Volk". In India, social structure was understood in terms of geographical territory, but it did not extend beyond the village. Perhaps Hirzel, writing pre1848, referred to inhabitants of patrimonial states (similar to those in India) and not necessarily citizens of a nationstate. Nevertheless, the prominence of the term Volk in these translations is noteworthy. Indian religious texts view man as the subject of ethical conduct, a being defined by action (karmabhumi) as opposed to other states of passive enjoyment of the fruits of action (bhogabhumi's). This Indian concept of man in relation to other beings is thoroughly different from the Western concept of man and, in particular, the German vision of Volk.
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Analysis. The most striking feature of Gerhard's translation, as exemplified in these passages, is that it is rendered in blank verse (with few if any irregularities). This makes it sound as much as possible like a Schiller play (or the Schlegel/Tieck version of Shakespeare)! Gerhard's translation begins much like Bruguière's with an introduction and scenic breakdown. Old age is given its customary negative connotation ("und schwach") with the worldweary tone added ("Da mich die Last der Jahre niederbeugt"). The mistranslations of 1.12 and 1.15 add a sense of duty to the tone of transiency. Qualifying adjectives, ("weisen Kanna,'' "so licht, so hell"), rhetorical heightening ("nicht eben so''), and cultural distortion ("mit leichter Brust") fail to enliven the generally pedestrian tone. The addition "Er kommt vom Richterstuhl" appears in some manuscripts.
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Analysis. Rückert has translated 1.12 as poorly as the other translators. He has a tendency to translate verbs prepositionally (1.2127). However, even with several mistakes, Ruckert's work is the most faithful of the translations from the Devanagari recension. His mistakes tend to be minor, as in the reading of 3.15 as modifying 3.17 when it obviously modifies 3.20. For the most part, the economy of the Sanskrit verse is retained. Rückert exploits very well the capacity of the German language for compound formation in his verse translation of the sloka (3.520). Rather than translating 3.11 (srantamana "being exhausted" of the Devanagari recension), the Devanagari recension translators chose the Bengali reading of santamana ("having a tranquil spirit"). Finally, one can only wonder why, after having translated 3.5 (prajah) with the customary German distorted meaning Volk, Rückert should translate 3.6 (prajah) as Gesind, probably meaning "members of the household." The Sanskrit is not a tautology, but a highly suggestive metaphor equating Dusyanta's subjects with children he does not possess.
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This is an excellent example of Kalidasa's use of dhvani and an equally good example of the translator's failure to recognize the Sanskrit poet's use of suggestion.
Analysis. Lobedanz's version of these passages, also in blank verse, differs from the other renditions in the extent of its omissions.
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There is a marked tendency to poeticize the vocabulary ("bekleide," "Königsburg") and to universalize the image ("so geht es, wenn man alt wird"). These passages present only the bare skeleton of the original and tend to equate duty with happiness (the additions "für seines Volkes Glück,'' 3.7 and the omissions of 3.6, 8, 1320). The original is less emotional in its presentation of happiness.
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Analysis. Meier's blank verse translation of these passages is quite faithful to the original. Even the translation of 1.12, although not grammatically literal, suggests the investitural connotation of the Sanskrit. Meier exploits the German language's ability to form compounds with a correct translation of the Bengali reading for 3.11 as Herzensruh. Similarly, the vision of the noble monarch is reinforced by his translation of 1.26 as dienen rather than besorgen.
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Analysis. Jones successfully translated this passage with few errors or emendations. A transformation from a static verbal form to a more active one can be seen in the Sanskrit passive participles that are translated actively (1.36 and 2.44). Often words will be replaced by the negative of their antonyms (1.25). Jones avoids retaining Sanskrit words or proper names like Sesha (1.32), ''throne of dharma" (1.8), or dharma (1.41). It appears
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that he sought to avoid those concepts which he could not readily explain with a minor emendation. The omission of dharma (1.41) is interesting. Dharma means "what serves as the norm to support (DHR) human behavior," or, in short, "the norm of action" or ''the rule of conduct.'' Further, dharma means "usage," "customary observance," "the thing to be done," or "duty." In the course of time, this norm of individual behavior for the realization of morals was raised to the position of the Absolute. For Jones, a word signifying both Absolute law, the individual's law unto himself, and law in the sense of society's expectations was, perhaps, too complicated a concept to translate. Although Jones, the translator of the Manava Dharma Sastra, was loath to deal with the concept of dharma in his translation of the Sakuntala, he shows himself to be quite at home in eighteenthcentury legalese. The addition following 2.12 introduces the concept of justice. The Sanskrit merely mentions a "request." Jones' emendation necessitates the subsequent omission of 2.1920, since the goal is no longer personal gain but justice. An idealistic vision of kingship is suggested by significant additions following 2.16, which mention concepts such as duty, sacrifice, and conscientiousness, for example, the passages that refer to rulers "who perform the duties conscientiously" and declare that when it is firmly established, "the cares of supporting the nation incessantly harass the sovereign." The Sanskrit sloka is particularly pregnant with meaning and exemplifies Kalidasa's compact use of language and dhvani: just as the business of protecting the kingdom torments one, as stated in the second pada, (the fourth part of a stanza) so the business of holding the parasol (which symbolically protects the kingdom) is exhausting. But this exhaustion is expressed in Sanskrit by means of a pun: the umbrella which should alleviate the exhaustion caused by the sun, itself brings on exhaustion by its use. Unfortunately, the sense of the simile is lost in Jones' translation, as is the humor of the pun and the concept that the king's dharma is meant to protect others. Just as Kalidasa's dramas indicate a thorough knowledge and recognition of the rasa theory as formulated by Bharata,
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similarly one can assume that the dhvani theory or an incipient form of it was known to the poet. The desire to deepen the meaning of a Sanskrit verse through suggestion explains several peculiarities of Sanskrit poetry. It explains the wide use of punning, an example of which is found in 2.3546. The pun is just one of the techniques used to achieve suggestive power. From the point of view of the Sanskrit critic, the utility of the dhvani theory is clear. Abhinavagupta points out that even when matters of fact are suggested the composition is given more distinction (vailaksanya). 2 Anandavardhana3 states that such suggestion conveys a charming meaning that cannot be conveyed by ordinary speech. Through suggestion, such ideas are conveyed in a compact manner with great verbal economy.4 Moreover, through suggestion the poet may communicate the incommunicable or communicate innumerable ideas at the same time. The European translators' ignorance of the theory of dhvani and its use by Kalidasa causes problems not only in literal translation but also, as will become only too apparent, in the figurative use of language. Jones' interpretation of passage 3 reveals more stylistic distortions (3.615, 25, 26, 28) than grammatical mistakes. Jones imposes a rhetorical style, e.g., before and after 3.10, which can become rather Biblical in tone by bringing in the question of the soul. To a certain extent, Jones grasps Kalidasa's vision of kingship. His failure inheres in too simplistic a reading of the poet's idealistic world view. Kalidasa's approach to life called for living in the cruel harsh world while maintaining a vision of goodness (dharma). Since man is ideally in union with nature, the life of action and the life of beauty do not diverge. Kalidasa's play upon the divergence of human aims is presented as both conservative and innovative:5 the contemplative life (nirvrtti laksana dharma) and the active way of life (pravrtti laksana dharma). When things become too painful, tiresome, or boring, there is always the contemplative alternative, which Kalidasa presents as Sakuntala's way of life in the hermitage. This is Kalidasa's "antidote" to court life. The misinterpretation by many of the translators of this dichotomy between the active and contemplative lifestyles will soon become apparent.
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Analysis. Forster differs from the Jones source in that he does not omit the concept of dharma; he does, however, distort it. With the rendering of 1.41 as Mühe, Forster introduces a worldweary tone to the passage which is further suggested by the reference to rest in the addition following 1.9. In his version of the second passage, Forster emends the text slightly. What the king protects is not his accession to the throne but the people. It is becoming apparent that references to the Volk are never absent from Dusyanta's life as his German translators perceive it. Forster's rendition of passage 3 is significant in that its conclusion is more or less correct, avoiding the pitfalls of his English source. This indicates that, although dependent upon Jones' work, Forster did not follow it slavishly.
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Analysis. The reader is immediately struck by Bruguière's poetizing Jones' prose. Jones' simple addition in the zeugma 1.2430 ("breathes") is rendered "luimême ne cesse de rafraîchir les airs avec son haleine parfumée." Similar heightening can be seen in additions such as "pourraientils goûter.'' A second substantial amplification following 1.40, that the king "doit à
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leur exemple, travailler sans relâche," develops the theme of the monarch's conscientiousness introduced by Jones. Bruguière chooses to omit the problematic concept of dharma (1.41). The translation of 2.10 is interesting. By rendering nirupya (miming) as "paraissant," Bruguière addresses the reader; his drama is to be read! Kalidasa, however, addresses the producer. In passage 2, Bruguière's distortions tend toward the Machiavellian rather than the sentimental. His translation of pratistha becomes "le désir . . . de commander aux autres," and "that which is gained" is rendered "quand leur but est atteint, quand leur puissance et leur domination sont fermement établies.'' Passage 3 introduces the idea of a god presiding over the actions of the king (following 3.16). In addition, the theme of the king protecting his subjects, which was lost in Jones' translation, is reinstated here.
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Analysis. Doria must have in part used Jones' translation since his rendition follows it up to 1.29. From this point on, he follows Bruguière's French translation. His additions are for the sake of explanation. In passage 2, Bruguière's wordiness and dramatic use of language is further heightened in Doria's flowery Italian ("Del tutto tranquilli e soddisfatti," "L'ambizioso desir di commandare agli altri è sovente la fonte d'infinite pene"). The addition
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encircling 2.12 introduces (as do the additions following 2.16, 33 and 29) a modern concept of kingship focussing on formal administration and control rather than presenting Dusyanta as a dharmic lord (see 2.17) dispensing favors (addition following 2.16), and a diligent monarch loved by his subjects (as in 3.12). Doria translates loka, as "amati tuoi vascalli", suggesting the inhabitants of an Italian prince's citystate rather than Dusyanta's subjects.
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Analysis. Bergaigne offers a most original rendition of passage 1, greatly heightening what is retained from the original ("the yoked horses" become "l'attelage ardent qui le traîne") amplifying ("wind" is now "vent ou brise, brûlant ou frais, l'air souffle sans reprendre haleine"; "continuously'' becomes ''demain comme aujourd'hui"). The errors in the final two couplets typify the problems of this translation. The penultimate couplet introduces the concept of the abyss from which Sesha (32) supposedly protects man.
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This image is alien to Sesha's mythology. Sesha is presented as providing shelter with his thousand heads for Visnu during his sleep between creations; as king of the Nagas, he supports the seven Patalas and the celestial regions above them, i.e., the world. The final couplet is equally misleading from the omission of the important idea of dharma. The flowery prose, seen elsewhere in the Bruguière and Doria renditions of passage 2, is wholly surpassed by Bergaigne who, after an excellent beginning, sacrifices meaning for a beautiful rhymed rendition of the sloka: Et l'on sent ce qu'il pèse, Souvent on voit fléchir sous le royal bandeau La tête la plus forte; La parasol est moins un abri qu'un fardeau Pour celui qui le porte.
Passage 2.1923 tends toward the philosophical, especially in the addition "les plus brillants honneurs sont bien vite obscurcis." The taking of power (minimal 2.1920: "obtaining his object"), ideally seen as the king's duty, is given the negative connotation of ambition. This translator resorts to paraphrase in order to maintain his own poetic style and intent, as in the addition following 2.41. Such a tendency illustrates the sovereignty of the French translators' will to françiser the material over any injunction toward faithfulness to the original. This tendency is also evident in passage 3, which becomes almost impressionistic through its ample omissions. Two concepts exist by implication in Bergaigne's rendition of this passage. The first, which Jones created, is the idea that fate is somehow at work in Dusyanta's behavior. The second is the idea that the Indian king somehow fits the model, culled perhaps from the histoire galante and travel accounts, of the selfmortifying Indian ascetic ("pour toi la peine est un jeu"). The king is thus described in mockheroic terms.
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Analysis. The Fauche translation is quite faithful to the intent of the original, although several previously mentioned problems remain. He has resolved neither the recurrent problem of conjunctions (1.15, 16) nor the European translators' stylistic tendencies to express thoughts by litotes (1.25, 26, 28; 2.34, 35, 39) and to render the Sanskrit passive verbal forms actively (1.36). Fauche does, however, for the first time in any translation correctly translate 1.8 as the "throne of Justice" and dharma (1.41) as "devoir." In addition, he retains the Sanskrit proper name Cesha and clarifies it easily with explanatory additions (''que le serpent, sur sa tête"). For passage 2, Fauche's version is, as we often find the French translations to be, poeticized ("request," 2.13, is rendered "l'objet de ses désirs," "happy," 2.14, becomes "goûte de la satisfaction,'' "torments," 2.29 becomes "apporte avec elle des soucis"). There is ample use of metonymy and figuration (2.40: "le sceptre" and "le trône" instead of "royalty"; see also 2.28,31,32). Fauche retains the Sanskrit terms for 2.4 and 3.2, and his amplifications are for clarity. He extends the metaphor of the king who is like a tree with the repetition of a previous metaphor of the king functioning as a parasol shading his people. Here, the tree is a parasol, hence like the king. But these writers were obviously unaware of the metaphor's double meaning: not only does the king protect like a parasol, but the parasol is itself a symbol of royalty in India. Here, too, the king is selfsacrificing. Rather than "calming," this monarch actively "defends" his subjects (3.27).
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Analysis. In passage 1, Chézy ignores the rich expressions of the Sanskrit language: 1.8: "throne of dharma" becomes "salle de conseil" with the important omission of ''dharma"; "protectors of the earth" (1.20/21) is rendered ''les rois." At the same time, Chézy arbitrarily heightens through an artificially conversational tone ("Mais pourquoi cette crainte? Les rois doiventils connaitre le repos.") and through negative construction (1.25). In the end he resorts to pure invention ("le Dieu des Vents remplit l'univers de son haleine vivifiant"). It is also interesting to note how this translator personifies Sécha, rendering him a Sisyphean character, tormented and enchained ("ne fait trêve à ses fatigues") as is our noble king ("le monarche qui n'existe qu'en prélevant . . ."). However, the image of the king as a willing servant to his dharma is lost. In passage 2, Chézy abstracts Dusyanta's toils on the throne of justice to assert a general statement on the human condition ("Tout homme"). The phrase "supremacy merely extinguishes" (2.26,27,28) is rendered "cette renommé dont ils sont avides ne les récompense que faiblement des efforts qu'ils ont fait pour l'acquérir et que ne leur en coûtetil pas ensuite." As in other versions, the concluding simile is lost, but here it is obfuscated by numerous additions: "Semblable à celui qui pour abriter les autres supporte avec peine le poids d'une vaste ombrelle; c'est à une fatigue sans cesse renaissante plutot qu'à un doux repos que s'attendre le chef d'un vaste empire." The original articulates the simplicity of the subject's gratification as posed to the complexity of the king's satisfaction (2.824). This simple message is lost in Chézy's complicated version. Perhaps here too, the Sanskrit message was felt to be too simple to be artistic for the European reader. The translator dramatizes and embellishes it and in the process of trying to give it a more poetic reading, distorts the text. Most of the additions are extraneous. The realism, irony, and humor of 2.3446 in the original are completely lost. Such "poeticizing" continues in Chézy's version of passage 3 with its initial and final additions, adjectival amplifications ("majestueux,". . . "vaste,". . ."paisiblement"), license with vocabulary ("those
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seeking protection," (3.30, becomes "le voyageur"; "experiences," 3.21 becomes "essuie'') and reversals of the original's antonym: "jouit (instead of ''calms") paisiblement de la plus delicieuse fraicheur (instead of "heat")."
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Analysis. The German language lends itself to a faithful, poetic rendering of the various compounds that are so frequent in Sanskrit. Hirzel exploits this linguistic trait nicely in passage 1 ("Weltbeschützern," 1.20/21, "Düfteweher," 1.30). In 1.36 there is yet another example of passive participles being transformed into their active finite construction. The Hirzel translation of passage 2 is wordy ("durch Angst und Wirren nur erringt sich der Herrscherglanz ja"). It should be noted that here as elsewhere the subtle simile of the original is accentuated with the direct analogy expressed by "gleichet" (2.42). However, Hirzel does succeed in imitating the evocative pun (2.35,37,39) as well as the sloka's simile. Perhaps encouraged by his success with the pun of the second passage, Hirzel renders the sloka of passage 3 in rhymed verse. The result is successful, for his translation contains few errors. Nature (srsti) is seen as an active rather than a passive force, a common transformation in these translations, and prevalent also in the distorted treatment of the terms atman (breath, soul, life, self, essence, or nature) and dharma. Furthermore, Hirzel heightened his imagery with adjectival ("er müdende," "belaubeter," "drückende") and substantive additions (die Strahlen der . . .Gluth,'' "der fluchtend im Schatten").
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Analysis. Gerhard's translation is considerably less accurate than Hirzel's rendering. Gerhard amplifies by means of adding relative clauses ("weil er der Ruhe bedarf") not suggested in the
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original. Further amplifications are for the sake of explanation ("Strahlenrosse," "Schlangenfürst") and to mitigate problems caused by poorly rendered conjunctions. Here, too, passive verbs in the original are rendered in the active mood. Like his predecessors, Gerhard has also avoided those expressions dealing with the concept of dharma, glossing it with the final addition in the first passage, "und folglich muss . . . in gleichem Maasse rastlos sich bemühen." A forced formality in tone sets the Gerhard translation of passage 2 apart from the other translations. Almost twice as long as the original, this version is legalistic. For example, "request" (2.13) is translated "gerechten Urtheilspruch . . .entlassen worden." The concept of dharma is given a psychological force (2.19/20: "seine Pflichten gewissenhaft erfüllt"). The portrayal of the selfsacrificing monarch and the glorification of his hard work become melodramatic ("Quält unablässig ihn die schwere Sorge, Um seines Volks Erhaltung und Gedeihn"). The concluding verse shares many problems found in other translations, including the loss of the simile tree/those seeking shade and king/subjects. This translator makes affirmative the negative constructions ("not desirous," 3.9, becomes "verschmähest mit ernsten Blicken"; "you are afflicted," 3.10, becomes "zu beglücken sinnest du väterlich"). Positive terms are rendered negatively, as in ''nie den erquickenden Schatten versagt,'' and "experiences" (3.21), is rendered "verachtet." Such alterations may have been thought to "poeticize" Kalidasa's misunderstood simplicity. Finally, the first part of this translation is in blank verse, the conclusion in trochaic tetrameter, a popular form in the early nineteenth century for lyric poetry. Schiller similarly uses trochaic tetrameter in songs that occur in some of his plays (e.g., Maria Stuart, 3.1). Gerhard here may be either consciously or unconsciously influenced by Schiller's metric style.
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Analysis. The subtle character of the sloka in passage 1 is rendered oblique by Rückert's verses. The omission of 1.34 makes the third pada meaningless, as does the omission of 1.38 in the fourth pada. For once Rückert's economies are illconceived. Dharma is not best translated as "Looss." The ease with which Sanskrit Bahuvrihi 6 compounds lend themselves to German translation is apparent in the literal translation of sasthamsavrtter as "Sechstheilessers Looss" (1.39, 40). In passage 2, Rückert tries again for the proper tone and effect through an imitation of Sanskrit word order. He fails, however, to render faithfully the compact irony of the concluding verse. Rückert is more successful with his rendition of passage 3. Sukha (3.8) is well translated by "Lust," which at that time meant "gladness." It appears that Rückert is the author of the pun in 3.30. The Sanskrit is quite clearcut ("those seeking protection''). Rückert translates this as "untergebende,'' meaning "those coming under the jurisdiction of" or, if broken down into components, "those giving themselves under." He literally suggests those people are under the tree's protection (unterGEBEN), and figuratively ties the simile together by referring to the king's jurisdiction over his subjects (untergeben). However, the subjects that he refers to in 3.12 are not the people, but the universalized vision of the world ("Welt"). Nevertheless, Rückert's use of dhvani here surpasses even that of Kalidasa.
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Analysis. In passage 1, Lobedanz transforms the loose analogy between the endless toil of the sun/wind/Sesha/king into a direct equivalence through the use of clarifying amplifications (for example, in the addition following 1.35). The loose association suggested in the Sanskrit is, in large measure, an element of its beauty, and here this beauty is lost. The problematic simile comparing the protection of the king to that of a tree (1.3842) is entirely omitted. In passage 2, Lobedanz seeks to mirror the compactness of the original and omits what might appear as melodramatic to his German reader ("torments" becomes "Beschwerlich ist's"). His use of metonymy ("die Krone" for rajyam 2.40) and alliteration ("halb Linderung, halb Last") does not achieve the same effect as the homonymic pun of the original. The sense of passage 3 is conveyed even though Lobedanz heightens the tone of his rendition ("leidest . . . um des Glückes irrender Menschen," "brennt . . . schmerzvoll . . . schenket kühlenden Schatten ... welcher verschmachtend sich naht"). The use of "Glück" rather than "um . . willen" (3.11: hetoh) suggests a Western notion of the people's right to happiness. Happiness enters the Indian context through the stress placed upon the benefit subjects receive as the result of the king's proper execution of his own dharma. The king's dharma is to further not only the subjects' objective wellbeing (sukha) but even their subjective happiness (sukha). The king is supposed to please his subjects: ''raja lokarañjanat Ramo lokabhiramah.''
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Analysis. In passage 1, Meier attains a exactitude similar to Rückert's with the translation of gandhavahah as "Düfteträger" (1.30).
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Where Rückert fails to adequately render the third pada, Meier succeeds admirably. However, he completely avoids the problems that the vocabulary and compact word order of the fourth pada present, sidestepping these with a bland simile. The translation never grasps the subtlety of Kalidasa's poetry. The first line is expressed by the negative of its antonym, a common practice in all the translations. In unnecessarily complicating the imagery, these translators consistently misjudge the evocative simplicity of Kalidasa's art. Equally disappointing is their inability to replicate the subtlety of the poetic contrivances, as here in the alamkara found in this verse, srutyanuprasah, and alliteration of consonants from the same class. The beauty of the Sanskit lies in the fact that the metaphor is never presented in such a pat fashion and is expressed with the use of dhvani. The sun's horses are "but once yoked," Sesha "always" has the weight, the verbs "travelling forth'' and ''bearing weight" do not modify "him whose dharma. . .". The Sanskrit, contrary to Meier's translation, presents the king as loosely associated (eva hi) with these natural forces without being identified with them or brought into direct analogy. Meier's choice of vocabulary in passage 3, while not always exact, often expresses quite well the intent of the Sanskrit. For example, the word "Krone" (3.23) for "top" or "head" effects an interesting play on words suggesting the simile king/ tree which is otherwise lost in this translation.
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Analysis. Jones' translation of passage 1 begins with a serious error. ''Not pretended'' (1.5 avibhramah) simply cannot be rendered "inconsistent with female decorum," nor can "forest dwelling" become "the rusticity of her education." Part of his problem stems from the jumbled word order. Jones completely misconstrued Kalidasa's vision of the relationship between man and nature, living as one in harmony. In descriptions of nature, Kalidasa not only followed poetic conventions (kavisamayas) in matters of detail but initiated new traditions in literary form. Alone among classical Sanskrit poets whose work is extant, Kalidasa conceived of nature as the central symbol and theme of his works. In the Meghaduta, for example, a cloud becomes the hero whose role is to reunite a parted couple. In other words, poetic aspects of the sun, moon, stars, wind, rivers, hills, trees, creepers, flowers, birds, and animals are lyrically emphasized.
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Praise of nature is, however, common in Sanskrit literature. It begins perhaps with the Rg Veda hymn to Dawn (10.127). In the epic literature, nature is drawn into a relationship with the spiritual condition of the hero. In the Ramayana, after Rama has lost his throne, he seeks consolation for his misfortune in the beauties of nature (2.85). His suffering upon Sita's abduction is only intensified by nature (4.1ff.). A feeling for nature had, therefore, developed in Sanskrit literature before Kalidasa came to portray it in his own distinctive fashion. The Sakuntala opens with a brief description of summer. The sirisa blossoms with tender filaments are sucked by bees (1.4). The navamallika vine woos the mango tree. Dressed in bark garments and adorned with flowers, Sakuntala excells the maidens of the royal harem with all their artificial adornment, just as the sylvan vines (1.15) are more charming than the vines of a wellmaintained garden. Sakuntala is like a vine (1.18); her lips and slender arms are the red blossoms and tender boughs. Blooming youth pervades her limbs just as fragrant flowers do the vine. Later, on the occasion of her departure from the hermitage, she appeals to Kanva to send news of the doe's imminent delivery. When she leaves the forest, the deer whom she has raised sorrowfully drops the grass from its mouth and obstructs her path. Sakuntala is likened to the deer in gentleness and vulnerability. She relates to Dusyanta the story of the thirsty fawn when she attempts to awaken his memory. The fawn would only take water from her hands and not from those of the king. Dusyanta remarked that the animal and Sakuntala were both forest animals, hence the fawn's faith in a member of his own clan. Sakuntala is portrayed as a daughter of nature. The entire background of her life is the flora and fauna of the hermitage. The bonds of affection between nature and Sakuntala are so great that Kanva at first requests that nature give its parental consent and allow Sakuntala to leave for her husband's palace (4.9). The trees of the hermitage bless her (4.9) and present her with ornaments (4.4), clothing, and lac. The hermitage itself actually sheds tears at her departure (4.1113). In the hermitage life of Sakuntala, man and nature exist in perfect harmony. 7 It is important to note the juxtaposition between life in the her
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mitage (aranya, forest) and in the king's palace (nagara, town). This dichotomy signifies much to the Indian reader. The movement of the action in the Sakuntala is from wild nature, through nature subdued by and for man, to manmade nature (i.e., the paradox of culture). Nature and man live in a relationship of intimate union (samavayasambandha) and they are ideally not to be separated. Moreover, Sakuntala is defined in terms of her relationship to nature. For this reason, Jones commits a serious error when he misses the subtle way in which Kalidasa develops the image of Sakuntala as being inextricably bound to nature. Because Sakuntala is a pure product of her natural environment, her anger is genuine and without guile. Jones, on the other hand, implies that Sakuntala's naturalness (seen here as a character flaw) makes her angry and unfeminine. Nothing could be further from meaning of the Sanskrit. Jones' failure of understanding shows itself again in his translation of 1.13,14, which signify not anger, but, once again, the lack of coquetry; here her eyes are moving in a flirtatious fashion. This whole description (1.1325) is a fairly conventional conceit for love poetry in its depiction of the lover spurned and angered. A similar mistake can be seen in 1.36,41,42. Here again we find a conventional poetic description of precise physical manifestations of the angry female dramatic type. Had Jones been more familar with kavya or aware of Bharata's treatise, such a misunderstanding would not have arisen. 2.19 continues in the same mistaken vein; it would be impossible, in Kalidasa's world view, for Sakuntala to deceive by means of feigned simplicity (2.3). A correct translation of the Sanskrit suggests that her natural behavior justly calls into question the king's misperception of her. After so many misunderstandings in the translation of this passage, one gets the sense that Jones finally gave up, omitting several phrases (2.1027,3942). What remains (2.28,29,32) has no meaning because of these omissions. These distortions of this translation will be imitated by Forster, Bruguière, and Doria. Most important for them, Jones' cultural prejudices in mistranslating 1.3,4 impose a value judgment and tie Sakuntala to a vision of etiquette which is wholly Western. Jones' refusal
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to attribute anger to his heroine suggests his concerns for English conceptions of proper feminine behavior. The rendition of 1.310 imposes a similar value judgment: rather than seeing Sakuntala as a character type in the context of Indian drama, the translator judges her behavior according to his own societal norms. It was the opening section of passage 3 which D. Raychaudhuri 8 referred to in his dissertation on Jones' translation of the Sakuntala. He maintained that it presented the most faulty translation to be found in the entire work. If Jones' version of Sakuntala's speech is compared to the Sanskrit original in the Bengali recension, there is certainly some truth to Raychaudhuri's thesis. Either this is the one instance where Jones nods or there is another less immediately apparent reason for loose and inaccurate rendition. The latter appears to be the case. In the article entitled "The Original Sakuntala," the eminent Sanskrit scholar S.K. Belvalkar9 cites a reading not found in any of the printed editions. He is loath to attribute its authorship to anyone but Kalidasa. Sakuntala's response, in several disregarded manuscripts, does seem to be more in keeping with the nature of the daughter of fiery Visvamitra. Belvalkar does not quote the Prakrit, but gives a translation of it: Think ye then that men alone have the right to pose as judges of truth or to ascertain what is conducive to the welfare of the world; and that woman—the modest and lowly woman—has no right to know thereof?
We can safely assume that Jones' manuscript did carry this reading, not because it is available to us (which it is not), but because Jones was too good and faithful a translator to make this kind of mistake. Such an alternate reading partially explains the large addition that begins Jones' rendition of the passage. Other mistakes in the remaining sections of this passage warrant further examination. 3.20 appears to be omitted for decency's sake, which also explains the alteration in 3.1618 from "went into the hands" to "received the hand." Several
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additions alter the intended meaning of the original. "Insufferable mutability" (3.2627) refers not to the king's humor but rather to weak human nature in general. Therefore, the addition "of the king's temper" is false. Sarngarava speaks from his position of ascetic superiority. What frivolity burns (3.28) is the hearts of those who indulge in it; hence there is no need of "wrath.'' Translating 3.2930 in the third person imperative is correct; it is a future passive participle which can take an imperative meaning. Not a third person plural imperative, 3.31 is rather, a gerundive (kartavyam). The translation of 3.53 is distorted: The king asks if he is to be blamed, not whether he is to be made to commit crimes. Jones' transformation of the original (adhiksipatha, "do you revile?") into the causative form ("force me to commit an enormous crime'') is indicative of the tendency in all the translations to present the protagonists as dynamic actors. In passage 4, Jones is given an opportunity to criticize what he saw as a sad inconsistency in his own profession as a judge, that those immersed in dishonesty are daily called upon to pass judgments honestly, noncynically, and without prejudice. This most likely explains the vehemence of Jones' additions and emendations to the Sanskrit passage. He runs into initial difficulty with 4.5,6, which he omits; in doing so, he changes and blunts Kalidasa's suggestive use of these terms. One might reasonably consider that, with the term "upside down," Sarngarava is not only denying the king's distortion of Sakuntala's honesty, but is also alluding to the king's mental confusion. This double entendre is, of course, lost in the omission. Jones translates 4.17, "deceiving," as "accusing"; once again a verb with a passive connotation is rendered actively. Our learned barrister, Jones, defends his client Sakuntala (Sanskrit: "this person") as being an "incomparable girl" (4.15). Later in this same section, "this woman" (4.38) is rendered as "thy female associate." Jones then makes Dusyanta answer for the defense in equally legalistic terms (4.27,28: "man of unimpeached veracity"). This is not the vocabulary of a prince of the Puru tribe. The passage ends on what might be seen as a Christian note. The punishment to be meted out is not the vague Sanskrit term, "ruin" (vinipatah = "fall"), but rather
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"eternal misery." While some Sanskrit commentaries interprete vinipatah as "going to Hell," eternity is not implied. This is a punishment that only someone higher than a Puisne judge can issue. The problematic phrase 4.20 is simply omitted in this version. The Sanskrit here refers to a king's customary study of the Arthasastra. The term "sastra" signifies "science." Every statesman was expected to be learned in the precepts of this didactic work aimed at promoting success in worldly affairs, a book much like Macchiavelli's The Prince.
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Analysis. In passage 1, Forster follows Jones faithfully. In passage 2 he slightly alters the addition that Jones makes after 2.32. "Another" who is loved becomes an Eigenthum. Passage 3 is noteworthy for its flowery style. The tone is one of righteous indignation rather than anger. This tone continues throughout the passage. The "speaker of truth" (4.28), a term of respect which indicates an almost magical strength in its possessor, loses its power in Forster's rendition ("O Mann von unbescholtener Glaubwürdigkeit"). The only other deviation which Forster makes from his model is to add a proverbial tone to the proceedings ("aber wer nur andere anzuklagen, wer nur Verbrechen nachzuspähen weis, der allein soll Wahrheit sprechen!"). In the same moralistic vein, he renders "deceit'' as ''Ungerechtigkeit" (4.9).
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Analysis. In passage 1, Bruguière allows himself more variation on the Jones' model. 1.3,4, translated as "grossièreté," has moved far from its original sense of "dwelling in the forest." Bruguière adds to Jones' omissions (1.1617) and makes additions that are unnecessary (after 1.21). He heightens with metonymy (1.19) or epithetically (1.32,33; 2.38). After 1.22/24/25, the use of the French construction "en'' plus the present participle falsely suggests that her faltering is due to Sakuntala's angry discourse. In reality, both her faltering speech and harsh words are necessary characteristics of the stock portrayal of the angry female type, as in 1.1318,2942. The Sanskrit poet needed only to evoke these characteristics to call into play a wealth of imagery presenting Sakuntala as the archetypical scorned and angry woman. Bruguière, however, with his additions and mistranslations (1.18,22,24,25,27), cannot inspire the foreign reader with the associations which Kalidasa's choice of vocabulary
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immediately suggests to the Sanskrit reader through his use of dhvani. In passage 3, Bruguière adds an ironic tone ("avec dédain et ironie"). The long initial additional phrase, which he copies from Jones, is hyperbolically rendered ("Une entière croyance; vous vous flattez exclusivement . . . jamais de vrai"). Words have changed meaning to suit the new and mysterious tone which Bruguière gives to this passage (3.26: "unimpeded" becomes "étrange"; 2.40: ''friendship" is now ''les premiers apparences de l'amour"). When possible, Bruguière uses the passé simple, which is primarily a literary tense not common in spoken discourse. Its use here is highly stylized. It is as though, with such usage, Bruguière were trying to imitate the solemnity and refinement implied by the use of Sanskrit as opposed tc Prakrit. This is further suggested by rhetorical additions such as the one following 3.28. In passage 4, Bruguière further heightens the text ("fille simple et innocente, ètrangère au mensonge et à l'iniquité") and carefully words the allegations ("tandis qu'on feint de croire aveuglément," after 3.9 "comme tu le prétends," after 3.29). As can be seen from these examples, the same problems seem to recur in each secondary translation. Bruguière's innovations on Jones' translation suggest intrigue and deception, probably for the sake of heightening (for example, "tandis qu'on feint de croire"), which provide a quasireligious Western, rather than Hindu, vision of ruin ("des supplices éternels" of 4.42) that corresponds to the mistranslations of "is gained" (4.40) as "punition."
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Analysis. Passage 1 is presented in a fragmentary fashion. Only the final phrase of the king is retained and this is mistranslated.
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Passage 2 has quite a different tone from the irony of the French model. Doria's version is calmer, more logical and diplomatic, as can be seen from phrases such as "qualità del vostro rango" and "una cieca credenza ai vostri ragionamenti; e a preferenza d'ogni altro " (after 3.1). In passage 3, Doria follows his source, Bruguière, very closely with the exception of "sdegno" for anger (1.9). The tone of passage 4 differs from Bruguière's rendition in its poetry (4.15,17) and conversational character (4.28).
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Analysis. Jones' cultural prejudices reach their furthest extension in Bergaigne's translation of this passage. The anger which is "not pretended" (1.5) becomes unlike that of a "courtisane," an obvious eroticization of the material. Perhaps, ''courtisane" here means nothing more than a "woman at court," the negation of which parallels Kalidasa's general intent. However, such an interpretation presupposes that Bergaigne understood the dichotomy forest/city, which he does not, as can be evinced from his mistranslation of 1.3/4. Sakuntala's dwelling in the forest could not give her a nature farouche. Further eroticization can be seen in Bergaigne's translation of 1.14. What might be shy or furtive in her glance is made teasing and seductive. This translator's use of heightening (1.14,18,32) and flowery
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addition (after 1.36) double the length of the passage. In the last two lines of passage 1, Bergaigne adds that the female lover's anger is something sickening ("un coeur ulcéré"). Sanskrit kavya usually presents it as charming. In passage 2, Bergaigne's general confusion about the meaning is seen in the terms he mistranslates by their antonyms (2.3,7,23). In compensation, he creates lovely verses that suggest that the king is toying with Sakuntala and merely feigning to have lost his memory. This, of course, greatly alters the sense of the entire play. If there is no delusion, the plot is illogical and Dusyanta is truly a cad for repudiating his pregnant wife. Bergaigne does not even explain why the king thinks he is such "un ingrat, un parjure." Perhaps he portrays Dusyanta in this way to heighten the pathos of the entire scene. If so, he is willing to sacrifice much of the play's meaning toward this end. In passage 3, Bergaigne repeats with 3.5,6,15,20 the errors we have noticed elsewhere. A moral tenor is supplied by the addition of "châtiment" after 3.24. The translation of the original passage concludes there. The rhymed addition is very suggestive. Alluding to concepts that are foreign in this context, Bergaigne presents a vision of guilty sexual activity exacting its own punishment and of an innocent virgin surrendering to some brutish fiend, meriting whatever she suffers at his hands ("l'imprudence a gémi"). One would not distort to such an extent merely to heighten or eroticize. Clearly, Bergaigne is projecting his own personal attitudes (perhaps colored by cultural sanctions) on such matters. In passage 4, Bergaigne continues to supply distorting additions. The comparison between Sakuntala's behavior and that of the king is lost (4.10), as is the whole theme of the king's dharma. Bergaigne shifts emphasis from the king's dharma (4.33 "method" is omitted) to his innate characteristic ("je sois tel que tu dis," 4.31 and following), thereby individualizing his type. The translator's ignorance of the king's role (or the French translator's cliché of antimonarchism) is seen in the addition following 4.10 ("Pour regner par le fraude et profaner les lois"). The addition following 4.8 accuses Sakuntala not of conscious
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deceit, but of youth, and in terms too vulgar to be written by Kalidasa ("Mais enfance est habile, et la débauche est prude"). The entire addition seems more reminiscent of Corneille than Kalidasa.
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Analysis. In passage 1, Fauche has retained some of the moral judgment implied in 1.3,4 when he refers to Sakuntala's justifiable anger as inconvenient (i.e., a trespass against convention). Additions are for clarity's sake (after 1.38) or, as in the case of what follows 1.14 and 1.41, explanatory. His common tendency to render a negative verb in a positive sense is seen in 1.22,25 and contrary meanings can also be seen in 2.3,6,7. The common problem with negatives has been examined earlier. Fauche's rendering of 2.3538 is simply incorrect. The passive form of DRS (DRSYATE) as ''blame" may arise from its misreading as dosa. In passage 3, Fauche makes the same mistakes as the others. He too alters 3.4,5 for decency's sake, here becoming "vouées au libertinage." Women are qualified to their disadvantage. When they are not dedicated to libertinage, they are prudes, "la pudeur [les] fait rougir." The long addition is more or less taken directly from Jones. It is curious to see how dependent all these translators must have been on his translation. They incorporate into their own works a passage that was probably not present in any of their manuscripts. A philosophical tone appears in 3.2528, one we have noted elsewhere in French translations; "frivolity" (3.27) becomes "inconsistance de l'esprit" and "unimpeded" (3.26) has
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now a moral thrust "quand on n'a point su la vaincre." A vision of ascetic control, or rather the lack of it, becomes the focus. The gerundive (3.31) is translated correctly, but friendship (3.40) is romanticized into "amour." The impact of this entire passage should center on the king's dawning suspicion that he is deluded, and has done things in this life that he no longer remembers. Instead, the addition following 3.50 suggests that Dusyanta's alleged crimes were either committed in the past or in a past lifetime. In either case, this would suggest that karma, contrary to Indian religious belief, is insignificant. Passage 4 continues the moralizing tone: "deceit" (4.9) Fauche translates as "mal," and for "deceiving" (4.39), he substitutes ''séduire." Further eroticizing may be perceived in the reference to Sakuntala as ''cette fille" (4.38) and the rendition of 4.17 as "tromper." France is not only the land of love, but also the birthplace of Descartes; Fauche explains the king's méthode: "en nous plaçant même dans cette hypothèse . . . " (4.3133). The primary virtue of the translation by Fauche is the correct rendition of 4.20: "Voilà pour moi la science."
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Analysis. Although Chézy has omitted the idea of coquetry in passage 1, he still undervalues nature when he attributes the source of Sakuntala's anger to her "éducation sauvage." In this translation, each noun, verb, or adjective is elaborated or qualified ("oeil": "fixe et hagard''; ''la fureur": "se pressent et se heurtent"; "froid": "le plus vif"; "arqué": "d'une manière si délicate"; "se fronce": "avec violence"). Inattention to vocabulary and mood offers incorrect information (1.13,14; 2.7,12). In Sanskrit poetry, the finest effects of suggestion are possible when applied to types rather than individuals. Conventionality and typifying allows the Sanskrit author to evoke an entire image with a single word. So Sakuntala can become the protypical heroineinseparation when Kalidasa compares her with the madhavi vine, thus using a single image to evoke in the sahrdaya 10 reader a complete picture with a host of associations. When Sakuntala's eyebrows are described as they are in 1.34 42, the informed reader identifies her with a variety of descriptions in Sanskrit literature charaterizing both the angry and the seductive female type. The failure to recognize such images obscure the poetry, but far more important, obscure the general meaning. Such suggestion in Sanskrit easily evokes a mood by acting on conventional types; Sakuntala's individuality is deemphasized in order to bring her closer to nature.11 The removal of personality is not seen in the Indian context as a detriment or limitation. Just the opposite, it connotes the possibility for freedom in the larger, universal context. Sylvain Lévi commented upon this interplay: L'individu s'y efface et disparaît dans l'espace; le type triomphe de la variété. L'organisation de ce monde idéal reproduit la constitution classique du brahmanisme.12
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Such impersonality or reference to types is alien to most Western verse and drama. In the West, there is usually an association between the specificity of the individual and the intensity of emotional activity. 13 Chézy's additions following 2.11 and 2.16 articulate this very difference of intention. Chézy, given his horizon of expectation for drama in the Aristotelian tradition, would suggest subjective cognitive activity where it does not occur in the Sanskrit original. This tendency to inject activity into the plot continues in passage 3.4,5, and 30,31,33. A particularly heightened rendition of passage 4 presents ideas similar to those found in the text, but are in no way a translation of them. Chézy's stylistic fillers further poeticize his already elegant prose ("ainsi," "ditesmoi," "de grace''). A high style in French is an attempt to imitate the king's Sanskrit.
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Analysis. Although Hirzel has correctly translated 1.3,4, he nevertheless misinterprets its sense just as did Jones and his imitators. In 1.57, words which have caused so much difficulty in other translations, are omitted and paraphrased with a strange addition suggesting that Sakuntala is a bit crazy. Hirzel may have simply mistranslated as vibhramah ("confusion"). The common mistranslation of 1.1314 occurs also in this version. The passage is heightened with such additions as "entzückend" and "zierlich" and with his renderings of 1.21,22, and 24. Sakuntala is blamed in this rendition also for deception and using female wiles in 2.110. The opening cause and effect relationship with which passage 2 opens is erroneous. Sakuntala's anger is so sincere that it makes the king doubtful; it is not, as Hirzel suggests, that she deceives him intentionally and then becomes angry. Equally, negations are not perceived as such (2.22,39).
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Hirzel begins passage 3 with the first correct translation of 3.2,3. The lines following 3.4 are based on Jones' addition. Hirzel simplifies 3.1018, rendering 3.12,13 and 14,15 into Western idiom. Abstractions are popular in Sanskrit and they suggest the religious ideal of the Universal. In this passage, the abstract notions of friendship (3.40) and enmity (3.38) are personified, in keeping with the Western valorization of the particular over the Universal. In the rhymed addition following 3.5, we find the spurious addition which Jones added to passage 1 and upon which Belvalkar commented. It is quite possible that Hirzel's manuscript contained this variation here since he omits it from its customary place in passage 1.
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Analysis. Gerhard's rendition of passages 1,2, and 3 is highly derivative of Jones' translation. The same errors present themselves 1.35, 2.3,7,8, and 3,4,5. Gerhard has used heightening ("so schönen, sanftgewölbten Augenbraunen" after 1.41,43) and suggests a violence nowhere present in the original ("Aus ihrem finstern Blicken schiesst der Unmuth" around 1.15, "krampfhaft" (1.30) and "wild" before 1.39). In passage 4 the assumption of Dusyanta's impropriety, which arises from a misunderstanding of science of Indian kingship, is now a fact (4.29).
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Analysis. Rückert's rendition of passage 2 is quite faithful. Minor errors are the affirmative construction of a negative for 1.22 and the active rendering of a passive Sanskrit verb in 2.42. The one infelicitous translation of this passage occurs in rendering the name of the god Smara by its homonym (smara) signifying ''memory.'' If the double entendre is not rendered, then the proper name is preferable. Here, too, the classical kdvya image of a beautiful woman's eyebrows resembling the double bow of the god of love is mistranslated. Rückert's translation shows greater skill than that of the other Devanagari translators. He is the only one to exploit fully the advantages of German as a vehicle for translating Sanskrit. This is particularly obvious in the treatment of 3.1215, where
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he perfectly imitates the Sanskrit construction in the formation of his compound. Moreover, the final statement by the king is beautifully rendered. That Rückert was a poet is evident from a comparison of this passage with the other two German translations from the Devanagari recension. Rückert presents an almost perfect rendition of passage 4. 4.9 is curiously rendered by Frechheit instead of an equivalent for "deceit." The issue of truth versus deceit is an important theme of this passage, putting in relief the moral dilemma with which Dusyanta is confronted. It is not a question of an accusation being leveled at him by a spoiled child. (It should be noted that 4.33,34 are absent from this recension.)
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Analysis. This translation is virtually all in blank verse, as was Rückert's. This has a pervasive effect on the tone of the translation. Lobedanz has copied most of his errors from the other translations; the initial addition has been seen elsewhere in other forms, and those of the fourth and sixth lines come from Jones' translation. In passage 3, Lobedanz has added a certain moral tone to the proceedings with the rendering of 3.28 and 33, and in 3540, where the subject is not a false friend, but the ignorant folly of hastily formed friendships. Compared to the artistry of Rückert's rendition of this passage, Lobedanz' appears as a mere paraphrase of the original. The common error of negative/positive conversion (4.9) and the shift from the passive to the active voice (4.46) are present here, as is also the avoidance of difficult forms such as the gerundive in 4.48.
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Analysis. Meier's translation of these passages is also in verse and quite faithful to the original. He avoids Rückert's mistake with 2.32, although he retained the latter's rendering of 2.26 The addition in the last line, bei dir, alters the meaning significantly. A highly moralistic tone prevails in Meier's translation of passage 3, with such renderings as "sank ich selbst zur Dirne"
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(3.7,4,5) and the final injunction, "Unterscheide." Kalidasa would never have Sakuntala debase herself with the appellation "Dirne," although some manuscripts supply the term "ganika" (courtesan). Passage 4 of Meier's translation is similar to the others of this recension.
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Chapter VI Errors in the Host Language: Grammatical Prejudices of the Sanskrit Language and the Horizon of the Text as a Nataka This selection of the Sakuntala translations, with the exception of Jones' and Rückert's admirable renditions, are of little interest to the modern Indologist. They are, however, provocative to modern readers. Their worth resides in their ability to communicate a perception of the concerns shaping their own time. More significantly, they are valuable expressions of a phantom India arising from particular motives and ideals. In the Sakuntala translations, some errors are due to European cultural misperceptions of Indian society and culture. Other errors derive from the linguistic and stylistic dictates of the host language and the peculiarities inherent in Sanskrit. Ways of thinking unique to Indian culture manifest themselves in grammatical prejudices. These are seen as conflicting with the linguistic, aesthetic, and stylistic dictates of the host language. Still other errors are formed by the translator's horizon of expectation towards the Sakuntala, as a foreign work, as an Eastern text, and as an Indian drama. The "Oriental" way of thinking has often been described as spiritual and introverted, while the "Occidental" is often represented as worldly and extroverted. Such neatly paired opposites must, of course, be rejected as oversimplifications. The culture of a land, even if knowledge of it is culled from only one text, and the cultural responses that other peoples might bring to that land are diverse and complex. While on the one hand a
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text's reception seems to invite generalization, on the other it constantly calls all conceptualizations into question. In the last chapter, we examined the errors which were due to linguistic and stylistic dictates of the host language. The passages from the Fifth Act were sufficient to show how grammatical and lexical errors and cultural distortions modify the text according to specific patterns and trends. Difficult passages bore the stamp of the translators' preconceptions and interests, in the form of omissions, additions, distortions, and emphases. On the whole, the omissions tended to be for "decency's sake" or because of an incorrect understanding of the Sanskrit idiom. 1 The translators often failed to grasp Kalidasa's humor, irony and plays on words.2 Certain Indian customs were also difficult to grasp,3 as were literary clichés.4 The redundancy of introductory and concluding adverbs and of conjunctions in Sanskrit sentence structure led to further omissions. Amplifications tended to be due to the translator's desire to make the sense clearer to the reader.5 The translations further amplified the original text with didactic comments and philosophical glosses.6 Alterations in meaning often arose from mistaking one Sanskrit word for another having a similar spelling.7 In some cases, meaning materially suffered for want of sufficient care in the use of verbs. Interrogatives become assertions,8 assertions became interrogatives9 and the optative10 and causative11 moods were often not grasped. Most of the alterations in meaning were, however, a function of the translators' marked predilection for heightening12 and for local color.13 Periphrasis, as well, contributed significantly to alterations in meaning, when the addition of terms altered both tone and content. The complex, compact, and economical nature of Sanskrit verse is often so difficult to decipher that individual translators, at a loss as to the text's meaning, digress in the form of amplifications and glosses. It is, perhaps, in these emendations to the text that each translation's unique character should be sought. Of all the translators dealt with in this study, Sir William Jones alone learned Sanskrit in India and had personal contact with Indian people. His love of India and respect for Indians
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may well have interfered with his translating the Sakuntala faithfully. Throughout, Jones endeavored to lay out a positive picture of India and her people. His work presents a tendentious vision of India, which consistently fails to recognize Kalidasa's humor, puns, and irony. Certain cultural themes are consistently misunderstood, especially those dealing with human physicality and the larger philosophical issues. Monier Williams remarked in the preface to his editions of the Sakuntala that Jones' translation "does not truly represent the original." In it "the bold and nervous phraseology of Kalidasa has been weakened, his delicate expression of refined love clothed in meretricious dress, and his ideas grand in their simplicity diluted by repetition and amplification." Although unkind, given the obstacles that Jones had to overcome and the pedagogical tools available to him, this judgment is not wholly incorrect. The secondary translations, although highly derivative of Jones, possess unique characteristics, which distinguish them from each other. Georg Forster's translation followed Jones closely, adding, if anything, a worldweary tone to the proceedings, rendered in an overrefined idiom. Bruguière's translation is fettered by French dramatic norms. The trend to franciser rather than traduire manifests itself in the flowery style of Bruguière's work. Passages that would have been foreign to the French audience have been omitted. Bruguière seeks to imitate both the high style of French classical drama and the foreign solemnity of the Sanskrit language by rendering many passages into verse. A further influence of French classical style can be seen in appeals to logic, the precious use of irony, and suggestions of intrigue, deception, mystery, and the bizarre. Doria's rendition is the most distant, being a translation of a translation (Bruguière's) of a translation (Jones' English) of a translation (Jones' Latin). Although fragmentary, it offers surprises; the precious style of the French version is absent and is supplanted by an often melancholic conversational tone. Were the primary translations subsequent to Jones' marked by a more pronounced individual character? Did certain prejudices peculiar to particular languages present themselves? In a particular language was there an evolution in the characteristic prejudices and in the caliber of the translations?
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Chézy's (1830) florid rhetorical prose attempts to imitate the elegance of the Sanskrit and distinguish between Sanskritspeaking characters and Prakrit speakers by offering a range of styles in French. The eroticization in Chézy's translation is tempered by moral censure, as though Chézy had been fully aware of the limits imposed by French convention. A work of ''Oriental'' provenance would be allowed certain license but this must at some point be condemned, however lightly. Erotic elements, superimposed upon a poeticized and heightened text, also characterize Fauche's translation, which appeared twenty years later. Here, too, eros and the narrator's moral judgment coexist. For example, Fauche judges Sakuntala as shameless after he has falsely condemned her to libertinage. In Fauche's translation, however, Kalidasa's characters possess a more modern outlook on life; life remains mysterious and humans do not know what to do when confronted with its strangeness. What in the human confrontation with existence had been bizarre (Chézy) or mysterious (Fauche) becomes fatal in Bergaigne's translation of 1884. Existence is unsettled and life has become a frightening riddle to be escaped by means of a death from which there is no rebirth. Humans, doomed by their own fate, are on the edge of an abyss. The themes of mortality and duty, which have been added to other translations, are presented here in a Christian light. Further refinements are made in the misconceptions of love. The erotic theme of the work, which was chiefly exploited by French translators, finds its most negative expression in Bergaigne's portrayal of relations between the sexes. The lover Dusyanta becomes a cad ("un ingrat, un parjure"), toying with Sakuntala by means of lies, which, when added to the plot, destroy its logic. Here, as in the other French translations, the depiction of physical love lacks the uplifting beauty and sensitivity expressed by Kalidasa. Nowhere is it presented as the ultimate good leading to salvation. The German translations are more faithful to the original in form and content than the French. However, Gerhard's rendition of the Fifth Act is characterized by a worldweary tone, tinged with cynicism. Heightening is of a psychological nature;
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dharma is seen exclusively in the realm of individual consciousness and an overriding importance is placed upon human happiness. Happiness, presented here as an alternative to dharma, 14 is absent from the original. Happiness is not really at issue in Kalidasa's Sakuntala; rather, the fulfillment of dharma and the satisfaction accruing from it are of much greater concern. The paucity of errors, treatment of compounds, understanding of Kalidasa's humor and economical use of words attest to Hirzel's skill as a Sanskritist. Yet his translation resembles the French translations of his time: he emphasizes local color, and tends to represent women as deceptive and conniving harpies. No translator seems to have grasped the significant point that women are always represented as idealized types in Sanskrit drama, certainly in kavya, which sings the praise of human love. Compared with the eroticism and exotic color that the French translations were apt to exploit, German translations, on the whole, are characterized by a pedestrian style. Meier's (1852) and Lobedanz's (1854) continue the German tendency to emphasize themes of duty and hard work. In the German translations, although humans try to be an active force in shaping their own destiny, they are ultimately impotent, the soul perishable and happiness elusive. This is not the Indian vision of human fate. Rückert's translation (1867)15 is the last translation examined in this study. With Rückert, the scientific stage of Indology was finally reached. His translation offered a fidelity to the form and content of the original unsurpassed by any translation up to his time and, indeed, it may be argued, ever since. He raised the nineteenthcentury German Sakuntala translations above a pattern of stylistic formality and cumbersome object lessons which their fidelity to form and content fostered. The avoidable errors mentioned above stem from nothing particularly intrinsic to the Sanskrit. They originate, rather, from various assumptions in the translator's horizon of expectation. These assumptions must be taken into account for two reasons: They become an integral part of the "new" work and they express tendencies, peculiar to particular languages, that
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distort the Sakuntala along specific lines. They are not to be confused with unconscious emendations stemming from linguistic forms peculiar to Indian culture. The Sanskrit language, as it is found in Kalidasa's Sakuntala, tells us much about classical India's way of thinking. Linguistic forms peculiar to this culture set it apart, and other languages lack the ability to adequately render them. The study of crosscultural attitudes as articulated in linguistic idiosyncrasies is not novel. It is anticipated in the Scienza Nuova of Vico. More specifically, Wilhelm von Humboldt sought to explain aspects of Indian thought in his study of Sanskrit duals, which appeared in 1826 in Schlegel's Indische Bibliothek. In the following pages, we propose to examine specific hermeneutical signs that suggest value judgments and questions of value in ethics, religion, and aesthetics possibly at work in both the creating society and the receiving society. Such forms of linguistic expression, not unlike Vico's sensus communis, give a voice to the inner consciousness of a people and provide norms for psychologically ordering patterns of thought. This, of course, presupposes several factors: Languages as conceptual signs are produced by a culture's thought processes, so forms of linguistic expression offer keys to understanding a culture's way of thinking. However, we must "bracket" for the sake of our inquiry any thought that a language and the culture from which it derives are inseparable and inextricably bound, as well as the spurious distinction between purely grammatical idiosyncrasies, which baffle the translator, and crosscultural dissimilarities. An initial conceptual problem is the way in which the West emphasizes the action and conflict of individuals as opposed to the "Eastern" static view of universal wholes where action and conflict are merely parts of the larger unity. Idiosyncrasies of the Sanskrit language facilitate the "depersonalizing" of character. Passive and impersonal constructions abound. The use of the plural in Sanskrit instead of the singular tends to universalize. 16 This peculiarity can be attributed to religious influences. Just as in the Vedanta through the stripping off of the personality one can strive for the real, so in Sanskrit poetry, the result of abandoning the individual brings the type closer to the
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universal. 17 Universality was partially achieved through suggestion, with the help of impersonality. The world of the past is transformed into art, and in watching this transformation, the reader touches the core of his being, thereby experiencing bliss that is only paralleled in the world of mysticism.18 That Indian thought in Kalidasa's time tended to stress the universal can be inferred from the limitless ability of classical Sanskrit to abstract any noun with the ta and tva suffixes19 and the inclination to use such abstract nouns. Sanskrit abstract nouns with ta or tva suffixes correspond to the German tät, the French té, the Italian tà, and the English ty, and are etymologically related. However, in these European languages, such abstract nouns are not often used except in formal sentences. In Sanskrit, they are quite common. For example, in passage A.1.911: "I have fallen into old age"; A.3.10,12: "He visits solitude"; C.1.42,41: ''I have gone to separation"; and similarly in B.3.2930: "the heat of those seeking protection." The Self is expressed not in relation to the individual itself, but as an instance belonging to the abstract universal. Each translation deals uneasily with such phrases. In the case of A.1.911, "old age'' (vayovasthana) was translated "alt," "decrepitezza," "condition de vie," and "époque fâcheuse." Further evidence of the Indian tendency to universalize can also be seen in the widespread use of cognate objects, which defy European translation.20 The stress on the universal and the consequent disregard for the particular is manifest in the general absence of definite and indefinite articles in Sanskrit. Furthermore, substantives enter compounds as adjectives and adverbs. In Sanskrit, adverbial suffixes (as in the case of the French ment) do not exist. Adverbs are expressed by either the accusative or the ablative, and tend to confuse these translators.21 The case of Act V, verse 8.9 is a good example: Nagarikavrttya, which means "in the manner of a Nagarika (or dweller of the city, with the sense of playboy)," was rendered "the urbanity of thy discourse," "die Milde deiner Rede," "la sagesse de tes discours," "poliment," "deine Gewandheit," "avec tes manières polies" and "par toutes ces belles paroles de cour dont tu possèdes si bien la manière"). The mutability of substantives compound the translator's
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difficulties. The tendency is often to stress the essence of the individual rather than his surface qualities. The individual's essence is conditioned by his dependency on the universal. An "elephant" (A.3.20) is in Sanskrit the "lord of those who drink twice," the "wind'' (B.1.30) is the "bearer of fragrance,'' similarly, in Act V, verse 8.7, a "hermit" is "one whose passions have been subdued" and in Act V, verse 7.15, a "bee" is a "maker of honey." The use in Sanskrit of the dual and the plural puts further stress on the universal. The dual expresses not only two things, but two things in a relationship. This grasping of an idea through its Gestalt, rather than through its individuality, is also inherent in the widespread Sanskrit use of the plural form of the proper noun to indicate all those who bear a particular name (pauravas). The contrary tendency is found in most European languages: Abstract nouns convey universal meaning through singular construction. With the tendency to minimize individuality and particularity, comes the correlative preference for the negative. This "negative" attitude was consistently misunderstood by the translators. In Sanskrit, the antonym is often expressed by the negative of the noun as in the following examples: C.4.13: "of no authority" (apramanam), B.3.9: "nondesiring" (anabhilasah); Act V, verse 6.2: "those advancing on the wrong path" (vimargaprasthita); Act V, verse 8.9: "not subdued of passions" (avidaraassa); and Act V, verse 8.12: "even without the separation" (virahadrte'pi). Here we find the Sanskrit universalizing of the word, putting it in a context that is, in a sense, both negative and positive. A negative expression such as ahimsa ("nonviolence") would, for the Indian, tend to appeal more to the positive moral virtues than would the word "peace." The European translator would see in this negative expression of virtues a less than positive influence; the Indian perceives it as evoking greater power. In this sense, the negative formation acts not only negatively, but also in a positive and affirmative fashion. Perhaps the best way to grasp an abstract idea is through its opposite, without which it cannot exist. Vimarga, "the wrong path," depends on the existence of a "good path," or, as Jones put it, a "path of virtue." On the whole, the Sanskrit language does not need expres
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sions establishing order among phenomena. Subordinate clauses, as well as direct discourse, are expressed appositionally. This characteristic of Sanskrit is particularly evident when one or more nouns explain one another: they are placed in apposition, with little grammatical distinction existing between them. In translations, this is usually handled with lengthy amplification. 22 Conjunctions, very popular in signalling conclusions and introductions, are omitted by translators who feel they serve no purpose or who are ignorant of their various meanings. Some of these repetitions are thought to be a result of formulaic techniques for oral recitation. In the case of drama, repetition serves the rhyme scheme and compensates for the scanty use of pronouns. To further aid in memorizing, more or less synonymous words can be used side by side. These tend to be omitted in translation. The frequent use of compounds in Sanskrit is symptomatic of this same fluid sense of order. In kavya, compounds are especially used, not to produce exact meaning, but, through the use of dhvani, to give the impression of ideas expressed by the combination of the words. Such compounds are confusing to the European translator; they force him to construct subordinate clauses which he must then clarify. Passage B.1.3740 is an excellent example of the difficulties such compounds cause. In compounds showing causal relationships, a particular word order suggests an order of thought that traces effect back to cause. These "inverted" constructions are often quite economical. When the translator is unfamiliar with a particular Indian image, he is often at a complete loss as to the meaning of the phrase.23 Bahuvrihi compounds further distress the translator by requiring complicated clauses when translated into modern Western languages. An excellent example of this is sastamsavrtter (B.1.3740), "him whose sustenance is on the sixth part." Doria translated it in the following manner: Quell 'uomo le di cui entrate vengono della sesta parte degli averi dei suoi popoli deve seguire il loro esempio, travagliando sempre senza interruzione.
In addition to difficulties in comprehension, long compounds,
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by mentioning several ideas, play upon imagery and suggestion. When translated, they tend to lose most of their rich and evocative effect. The static quality of the Sanskrit language, apparent in the abundance of passive constructions, complicates the translator's task. Sanskrit shows a marked proclivity for nominalization the substitution of nominal forms for finite verbal forms. Adjectival particles functioning verbally present various problems for the translator. While formally adjectives, they often signify an entire clause. Gerunds, for example, become finite in translation. 24 Gerundives either become finite,25 nominalized,26 or are simply omitted.27 The past passive participle often becomes active28 or baffles the translator.29 Present active participles tend to be omitted.30 Stylistically, these trends suggest a linguistic peculiarity. The Sanskrit language expresses ideas less through its changing aspects than is the case in many Western languages. The tendency toward stasis is best exemplified by the verb BHU, meaning "to become" which also denotes "to exist"; no distinction is made between these two connotations. Impersonal propositions, in keeping with the static nature of the language, are often passive. Much to the delight of the Romantics, there is little distinction between the Self and Nature in Sanskrit. The land is not named apart from its inhabitants. An animistic vision of the world maintains that everything has its proper spirit and thus should be respected. The Universal Being is behind the phenomenal world and this further shortens the distance between the realms. Natural phenomena are expressed in IndoEuropean languages in a third person singular construction ("es regnet," "il pleut"). In Sanskrit, the same concept would be something like "God makes rain," God either implied or explicit (as in "Indra rains"). Often, as may be seen in our limited selections from the Fifth Act of the Sakuntala, God is felt to be operating natural phenomena as if from a control booth since human agency is infrequent.28 Most passive Sanskrit constructions are rendered by European translators in the active mood, whether the translator's conception of drama demands that the protagonist act, or
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whether the purely linguistic problem of the host language not favoring the passive voice (the case of French) is the cause of distortion. Furthermore, the "actors" in the Indian context are significantly different from their Western counterparts. The subject (Atman) is not an acting individual soul, but rather, an Absolute Self hidden behind competing individual souls. European translations, formed in the Aristotelian tradition, tend to refer to individual experience. Stasis and the absence of individuation prove to be the most distinctive characteristics expressed grammatically. It is crucially important to realize that they are also manifested in the form of the nataka itself. Drama as we know it in the West is radically different from its Indian counterpart. According to Aristotle, drama brings about katharsis through the imitation of a "grave and great" action. The Indian nataka imitates a state or condition. The appreciation of Sanskrit drama leads to rasa. 29 Rasa is formed from the initial emotions, called bhavas. Bhavas are neither pure nor aesthetically harmonious. By contrast, rasa (mood), since it is created by the artist, can be purified, sustained, and combined with other moods. The Indian poet's job is to transmit a "decoction" of various bhavas to the audience. What the audience receives from this decoction is rasa. Emotion (bhava) is personal and mood (rasa) is universal. Hence, when John loves Mary in real life, it is a personal experience, but when Dusyanta falls in love with Sakuntala, the srngara (erotic) mood embraces all man and nature. Aristotelian drama demands portrayal of a chain of choice, action, and result. Choice is absent from Sanskrit drama, since the characters are not individuals capable of making choices, but idealized types whose choices are already inherent in their nature. Although what the nataka's characters do is not in doubt, the manner in which they do it is variable30 and governed by the rules of karma, which necessitates the predestination of action. According to Aristotle, plot is the "chief thing." In Sanskrit drama, both action and plot are immediately subordinate to emotional tone (rasa). Rather than the cleansing (katharsis) through pity and fear, the end of Sanskrit poetry is conceived as
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aesthetic delight, which does not "happen" in the course of the play, but is there, constant and immovable, subject only to apprehension 31 by a person with a certain amount of cultivation or moral sensitivity.32 In the Natyasastra, the reader is compared to dry wood, and poetry33 is like fire.34 What makes the Sakuntala's reception in nineteenthcentury Europe so unique is precisely the highly personal and enthusiastic response it evoked in readers distanced thousands of miles and hundreds of years from the culture for which the play was originally written. This enthusiasm is at times akin to the aesthetic rapture that the text within its own culture was meant to elicit. One has only to remember Goethe's epigram. The Sakuntala seduced the nineteenthcentury European reader's imagination. The Indian text may inadvertently have satisfied some aesthetic needs prevalent at that time among Europeans. This would assume a curious quirk of literary fate if, in the Sakuntala, these readers found a text tailormade for their aesthetic needs. There is, of course, another possibility. Like many immigrants of the nineteenth century, Sakuntala may have gradually assimilated to the European culture that adopted her. With this supposition in mind, let us now turn our investigation to the stage adaptations of the play in nineteenthcentury Europe.
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Chapter VII Dramatic Adaptations Several writers and composers of the nineteenth century adapted Kalidasa's drama for the European stage. Dramatic and musical adaptations are the final avatars in the long process of interrelated phases creating new works from the Sanskrit source. The very fact that these works had previous existence as translations and that they were rewritten for the stage can certainly not be ignored. The intertextual relationship between the stage adaptation and the translation upon which it was based is, therefore, significant. 1 Since they were all written subsequent to the "scientific" translations,2 the distortions are noteworthy, as they are intentional, not based upon inadequate knowledge of the Sanskrit idiom. The Sakuntala adaptations, like the translations to a certain degree, are all original works, often mere reminiscences of the original nataka. Théophile Gautier's Sacountala ballet,3 the first form under which the Parisian public saw Kalidasa's drama performed, had its debut in July 1858.4 Its plot and characterizations diverge considerably from the original. The ballet consists of two acts and nine scenes, rather than the seven of Kalidasa's play. Gautier learned from earlier experience with Paquerette and Gemma, that a ballet should not extend beyond two hours. Therefore, his primary task was to reduce Kalidasa's work to two décors.5 The setting of the First Act was an elaborately designed hermitage. Only the hunt and love scenes of the original are retained. Romance develops very quickly. The coup de foudre passion seems almost to parody Kalidasa's subtle depiction of
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love's awakening. 6 The king does not linger in the hermitage, nor does he marry and impregnate the heroine. With these significant omissions, Gautier dismisses the central conflict in the play, (i.e., that of the cruelty of Dusyanta's repudiation of his pregnant wife). The Second Act, set amid a sumptuous decor,7 continues to diverge from the original plot line. It is as though Gautier abandons the story in order to practice his descriptive skills. Not only is Sacountala rejected by the king, but his jealous wife sends her to be tortured and executed. Before the sentence is carried out, a fisherman returns the ring and the king regains his memory. The flames into which Sacountala has been cast are transformed into flowers. Although many of the ballet's distortions are due to the change in genre from language to dance and mime,8 others could only have been inspired by Gautier's manipulation of imagery. Along with the simplification of plot, there is a tendency to enhance the visual trappings of the play for "poetic" effect.9 In this sense, Sacountala conforms to Gautier's general criteria for ballet: Un ballet demande d'éclatantes décorations, des fêtes somptueuses, des costumes galants et magnifiques; le monde de la féerie est le milieu où se développe le plus facilement une action de ballet.10
Kalidasa's subtle drama was thus reduced to pictorial images. That Gautier strove primarily to abandon fidelity and heighten imagery and to add, whether in the decor or the dance sequences, sensual and decorative elements,11 is suggested in a review of the ballet that he himself wrote.12 His intention was to evoke the "vigoureux parfum, [les] langueurs pamées et [les] reculements" of Kalidasa's verse in dance.13 His choice of composer was not fortuitous. Ernest Reyer, who had composed dances depicting Arab desert life,14 was expected to bring to Sacountala his "profound sense of oriental melodies, i.e., strange timbres, imperious rhythms, bizarre cadences, and songs of savage grace."15 The production was fantastic: the cast consisted of three hundred and fifty members (brahmans, hermits, Negroes, courtesans, jugglers, bayaderas, priestesses,
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nymphs, goddesses, and genies) and eight often recalcitrant horses. The general effect of the staging, decor, exotic imagery and music, combined with the belief in the plot's "literary" merits, 16 assured the ballet's success.17 One year after its premiere, Fauche published his translation of the Sakuntala. In the introduction to this rendition, Fauche prophisized a future success for Gautier's ballet, which was not to be. However, in succeeding years, the Sakuntala enjoyed further adaptation at the hands of other artists. Alfred Freiherr von Wolzogen's Sakuntala,18 written in 1869, exemplifies the way in which Kalidasa's drama was reduced to an adventure tale.19 In this stage adaptation, the king's impetuous love is put on trial. He himself is subjected to a series of intrigues and ordeals. In confrontations with Kanwa and Gautami, the king must prove himself immune to the seductions of the world. Eventually, he is reunited with Sakuntala, but only after the heroine has died and been resuscitated. In this version, the king is made to perform many deeds of valor and honor, which distinguish him from his counterpart in the nataka. As in Gautier's ballet, Sakuntala is not impregnated in this version. A curious episode is appended to the plot. The king initiates a long discussion with his wife on the virtues of the life of duty and involvement in worldly affairs as opposed to the life of asceticism. When he believes that Sakuntala has died, the king renounces his kingdom and retires to the hermitage. Once revived, Sakuntala forces him to return to his kingdom and rule. The king's desire to reject the world is presented as less a product of his will than of Indian cultural attitudes and values. Moreover, this theme of the tension between conflicting life aims (e.g., worldrenunciation versus active living in the world) is incorporated in other adaptations where a character's passivity is both philosophically rationalized and built into the narrative. These emendations prefigure a larger problem with which the adapter had to contend. In 1895, the symbolist director LugnéPoe directed André Ferdinand Hérold's translation of L'Anneau de Sakuntala at the Théâtre de l 'Oeuvre.20 This production followed closely on another Parisian production of a Sanskrit drama, namely, Bar
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rucand's adaptation of Sudraka's Mricchakatika, with the title Le Chariot d'enfant. For several reasons, Sudraka's play enjoyed a mediocre reception: the text was poorly translated, Barrucand significantly altered the play to fit his anarchistic politics, and the audience was shocked by the actors' nudity. L'Anneau de Sakuntala, on the other hand, was received sympathetically. In his production, LugnéPoe employed Indian dramatic practices familiar to him through his reading of Sylvain Lévi's Theâtre indien (1890). 21 To LugnéPoe's way of thinking, the Sakuntala presented a dramatic system not in conflict with the aesthetics of the Symbolist school. At a time when traditional theatrical techniques were spurned by the naturalists, Indian dramatic conventions, as presented by Lévi and recreated by LugnéPoe, could be construed as reinstating artificiality in the theater. The lack of psychological realism found in Indian theater, as well as its indifference to real life further contributed to the perception that it shared many characteristics with the Symbolists. Both accentuated the role of visual, poetic, and contemplative descriptions of nature.22 The simplified decor of Indian drama, with little or no props, was identical to that being presented at the Oeuvre. Even Lévi's formulation of Indian dramatic method seemed to correspond to the declamatory style taught by LugnéPoe. In this adaptation of the Sakuntala, the audience experienced "un espèce de candeur lascive."23 LugnéPoe himself played the role of Kalidasa's theater director and L'Anneau de Sakuntala was one of the few uncontested successes in the Oeuvre's short existence. This production both challenged the classical norm, championed by critics such as Brunetière, and corroborated the innovative method of the Symbolists. The Sakuntala inspired yet another Symbolist production. In 1914, Alexander Tairov opened the Kamerny Theater in Moscow with a production of Kalidasa's play. It was based on a translation by the Symbolist poet Balmont; the decor was designed by the Symbolist painter Kuznetsov. Tairov's theory of the theater lay between the Stanislavsky school of Realism and Meyerhold's method of Symbolism. According to his lifelong companion, Alisa Koonen, who played the role of the heroine
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in this production, the choice of Sakuntala was not accidental. This adaptation presented a protest against the banality and lower middleclass taste that reigned in the Russian theater. 24 It has also been suggested that, in choosing a Sanskrit play, Tairov sought to refine and develop his own theatrical concepts.25 In the months proceeding the premiere, Tairov had studied Indian costumes, masks and Lévi's book while in Paris. By adapting principles of Indian set design, Tairov sought to present his own ideal: a stage design in which nothing hindered either the actor or the portrayal of emotion. The trend then current in Moscow production design, the art movement of Mir iskusstva (the World of Art), was characterized by grandiose and extravagantly painted backdrops, overshadowing the actor.26 Tairov and Kuznetsov rejected Mir iskusstva's dramatic preferences. The action of this Sakuntala was performed before simple colored curtains depicting the rasa of the given scene. As in other staged versions of the play, Tairov also emended the plot. Having deleted those scenes which alluded to morality, he retained only those which forwarded the action (love scenes, the curse, leavetaking and repudiation). With his production of the Sakuntala, Tairov also experimented with other problems of production design (gesture, pantomime, and costume).27 Many scenes were dialoguefree, and stylization was used to enhance the tableau effect. The actors were seminude. In keeping with Bharata's information, their bodies were painted according to their character. Tairov had adapted the color scheme to suit Western sensibilities. The actors moved in a halfdancing fashion of pantomime and stylized gestures ostensibly reminiscent of Sanskrit dance. The Sakuntala and Indian dramatic practice could thus be used to confirm the value of Symbolist aesthetic theories. Kalidasa's play presented Tairov with a propitious model upon which his theories could be developed. The general reception of dramatic adaptations differed from that of the Sakuntala operas that were concurrently produced. It is important not to lose sight of the fact that the meaning of opera is primarily musical. Opera is not merely a drama manqué; it presents a coherent musical structure whose poetry is of secondary significance. Although merely reading opera lib
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rettoes is essentially an act of misreading, certain factors legitimize the endeavor. Librettoes were read and regularly printed. Before Wagner, it was customary to leave the house lit. This custom, and the static staging of operas prevalent at that time, offered the opportunity for reading the libretto during performance. Staged performances of the Sakuntala could derive directly from the translations with minimal influences other than the previous translations and the few ''Indian'' stage performances to distort them. 28 The Sdkuntala operas may well have been influenced by the earlier operas using India as their locale. In the eighteenth and nineteenth century, many operas were set in India. It could be used gratuitiously, in no way furthering the plot, as in the case of Rameau's Les Indes galantes (1735). It could also figure as a lush tropical setting, as in Metastasio's Alessandro nell 'Indie (1729), Catel's Les Bayadères (1810), and Donizetti's Il Paria (1829). Or, as in the case of Massenet's Le roi de Lahore (1877), India presents an exotic situation in order to introduce exotic new sounds and strikingly original melodies.29 In short, Indian operas tended to portray the country as realistically as Turandot depicted China. In fact, Turandot presents an interesting point of comparison. It can be seen as the paradigm of a certain "bogus orientalism" which dominated the operatic stage and of which the abovementioned operas were exemplars. The Sakuntala operas, based on a genuine Sanskrit drama, whose diffusion in nineteenthcentury Europe was tremendous, do not necessarily fit into this category. It is no surprise, however, that the composer who completed Turandot, Franco Alfano, was also responsible for a late Sakuntala opera of his own.30 The Sakuntala operas, however, were unique within the genre of "Indian" operas. They were the only Literaturopern inspired by a Sanskrit text.31 Few of these musical adaptations have come down to us. Franz Schubert (17971828) began a Sakuntala opera (with libretto by John Philip Neumann) as early as 1820, but never finished it and it was not preserved. The Czech composer J.W. Tomaschek (17741850) wrote a Sakuntala opera, but it was never performed. Karl von Perfall (18241907) composed, along with the librettist Teichert, an opera of the
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same name for a Munich debut in 1854. As may be judged from its two performances, it was not a success. Like the Sakuntala operas by Tomaschek, Hopffer, and Flotow, Perfall's work is not extant. 32 Karl Goldmark's Sakuntala Overture (1865) and choral pieces by Hué, Kirby, and the American Louis Adolf Coehrne (1904)33 were composed as incidental music to accompany theater performances. Felix Weingartner's Sakuntala opera was performed at the Hoftheater in Weimar on March 23, 1884.34 The libretto emphasizes the love story: love transforms the king from a callow hunter into a sensitive lover of all life.35 Moonlit love scenes stretch over two hundred and twenty measures. Kanwa imposes a trial separation upon the guilty lovers.36 However, it is the king's wife, neglected and rejected, who curses the king. Throughout this version, the king fights off the effects of this curse. He goes off in search of Sakuntala only to learn that she has died. The king decides to become a hermit, but is reunited with his revived bride. As in Wolzogen's adaptation, ascetic renunciation is presented as an alternative to a broken heart. Action scenes are added to the plot and the character of the king develops from a vain Lothario into a penitent husband. The tendency to transform the Sakuntala into a melodrama reaches its furthest extension in Ludwig Philipp Scharwenka's operatic version (1885).37 Relative fidelity to the original is found in those scenes that are the most dramatic (the repudiation, assumption, and fisherman episodes), although these are considerably heightened. Scharwenka adds to the plot several long battle scenes with demons, missions in the service of Siva, and a sevenyearlong search by the king for his repudiated bride. It is clear that the relation of these adaptations to the original nataka was minimal. They were influenced, but did not rely upon, the translated Sanskrit play. What remained of Kalidasa's beautiful love story was sufficient to capture the audience's imagination, and India provided a colorful locale supplying elaborate costumes and sets. Secondary characters and scenes that would pose staging difficulties were cut. Textual quotations were often retained, lending these works a certain literary fidelity. The adaptations presented no imitation of the original meter
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and form, since these had already been lost in the initial process of translation. Their emended and abridged text was a complete play, with one meter throughout. In the case of musical adaptation, the text was adjusted to the underlying musical meter and reshaped to create a prose structure for the music. Instances where fidelity to the original was ignored had little to do with misconceptions about India or misinterpretations of Sakuntala's story. Rather, the dramatic limitations in Kalidasa's play and in the nataka form itself posed the most serious challenge for modern staging. In comparison with Western drama, less action occurs in Sanskrit drama; it aims, rather, at creating a mood. To say "Indian drama" is misleading; it involves neither conflict nor contrast of character. In fact, the Indian dramatist's art consists of evoking the most sentiment with the least action possible. 38 In lieu of dramatic conflict, elements of tone are organized for the audience's enjoyment. For this reason, the denouement of the Sanskrit drama would strike Western audiences as anticlimactic. These disparate goals would become an issue when European dramatists sought to stage a performance of the Sakuntala. By definition, "drama" involves a conflict or contest in character and a change in a hero/heroine's fortune or status. Change, so crucial to Aristotelian plot, is seen as a critical deficit in Indian drama. Ideally, Indian characters do not change. Since they are rigid types, their behavior is predictable. In the course of the nataka, their character is merely reaffirmed, while they remain constant and universal. The scenes most important to the Indian dramatist and audience deal with these interactions among characters which define their type.39 The very delineation of character achieved through suggestion is lost in adaptations where the modern rewriter, ignorant of Sanskrit character conventions, omits those descriptions he deems superfluous, but which, in effect, define not only character, but also the plot and the rasa. Sentiment (rasa), although it enhances the emotional impact, did not compensate for a static plot. For the nineteenthcentury European audience, rasa was no substitute for action. As early as 1791, the German critic Heyne recognized the lack of action in the Sakuntala.40 Schiller noticed this same
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characteristic and concluded that Kalidasa's play could not be adapted for the Western stage: Die Gitagowinda hat mich neulich auch wieder zur Sakontala zurückgeführt, ja ich habe sie auch in der Idee gelesen, ob sich nicht ein Gebrauch fürs Theater dafür machen liesse; aber es scheint, das ihr das Theater direkt entgegensteht, dass es gleichsam der einzige von allen zweiunddreissig Winden ist, mit dem dieses Schiff bei uns nicht segeln kann. Dies liegt wahrscheinlich in der Haupteigenschaft derselben, welche die Zartheit ist, und zugleich in einem Mangel der Bewegung, weil sich der Dichter gefallen hat, die Empfindungen mit einer gewissen bequemen Behaglichkeit auszuspinnen, weil selbst das Klima zur Ruhe einladet. 41
The important question then is this: what was to be done with essentially undramatic poetry when it was performed in the West? The answer has already been suggested in our discussion of Gautier's ballet. Just as the Sakuntala's transformation from a Lesedrama to pantomime necessitated certain structural changes, so too did its transformation into opera and staged dramatic performance. The adapters minimized the static effect and the predominance of mood by infusing physical action into the adaptation where it did not exist and where it was often organically senseless. With the exception of Tairov's rendition, where the static quality of the nataka was retained to conform to the aims of Symbolism, the Sakuntala adaptations all became melodramas, works characterized by their extravagant theatricality and the predominance of physical action. The significance of these alterations will be discussed in the following pages.
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Chapter VIII Traduttore Traditore In approaching the Sakuntala translations, one is forcibly reminded of the formula, traduttore traditore. All translations are, to a certain extent, betrayals of the text. What can be said in favor of the creative infidelity shown toward the Sakuntala? The betrayal allowed the text, whose original was undecipherable to nineteenth century interpreters, to say something new and meaningful. Even in its most grotesque distortion of material, the process of projection or application is neither arbitrary nor without value. As early as the sixteenth century, Montaigne described the phenomenon: un suffisant lecteur descouvre souvent es escrits d'autruy des perfections autres que celles que l'autheur y a mises et apperceues et y presles des sens et des visages plus riches. 1
The act of reading consists precisely in one's seeing one's own preoccupations highlighted in a text. However, the nature of a text's disclosure to a reader is not shaped solely by the intention of that reader. It is not the case that the reader, having mastered his own beingintheworld, projects the a priori of his own understanding and interpolates this a priori in the text. Rather, he broadens his capacity to project himself by receiving a new mode of being from the text itself. Yet the text's meaning is not found in some design hidden in it. Meaning arises out of the interplay between the reader and the text's nonostensive references. This interplay is also influenced by the reader's historical
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situation, just as the text's meaning can in part be determined by the literary tradition and by the historical and social situations to which it is related. As Collingwood 2 noted in the case of history, a literary work does not stand alone, offering the same view to each reader in each epoch. It is rather an event for each reader who reads it with a memory of other works and compares it with these works or with a canon of known works to which he sees correspondences. The treatment of the Sakuntala exhibits the process of reading to which Collingwood alluded. In the preceding chapters, we have seen how artists sought inspirational models in the Sakuntala and toyed with the fatalistic messages that they perceived in the text. We identified those instances where their curiosity led them astray. Where did it direct them? The Sakuntala portrayed a magical world of scrambled social conventions, where men still functioned in relation to the gods and nature. Writers' comments on and treatment of this single text express Western ideologizing on the merits of culture and the fundamental goodness of primitive man. The Sakuntala provided a fertile base for philosophical and religious speculation and was an example that justified preexisting European cultural aspirations: the reconciliation of worldly and ascetic ideals, the unity of man with nature and Christian universality. Race preoccupations entered into the text's translations: the ideal of the "perfect" translation became a pretext to cement racial and linguistic IndoEuropean filiation. Literary and artistic crises conditioned the translation and reception of Kalidasa's play. Yet, the Sakuntala left an indelible mark upon the development of these crises; a revalorization of myth was sought as part of the artistic reintegration of philosophy and religion. The Sakuntala supplied ammunition for the combat directed against the Classical canon and legitimized innovative critical positions, as can be seen by its dramatic and critical reception. Unlike its fraudulent predecessor, the poems of "Ossian," the Sakuntala was an authentic addition to the canon of the new Weltliteratur. Herder appropriated the Sakuntala in order to challenge the absolute authority of Aristotle's dicta. Lamartine manipulated the theoretical infrastructure of the play to legitimize his poetic theories. These critics, by peddling the wares of pop
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ularized "science," made their prejudices and ideals accessible to the public. The text upon which their commentary was based had, however, already been significantly altered. Gautier took the heightened imagery found in Chézy's version and used it for his own aesthetic purposes. In responding to these versions of the Sakuntala, its critics represent the secondary stage in the hermeneutic process. If in their writing they speak of heightened imagery, philosophical and religious theorizing, and eroticizing in fact foreign to the play itself, such elements were not all foreign to the translations by which they knew the text. Such wellmeaning dilettantes attempted to convey the original text's meaning, only to be stymied by their insufficient linguistic and cultural knowledge. But even philology, with all its linguistic hairsplitting, did not necessarily allow the translator to succeed where the dilettante failed. Both the philologist and the dilettante fell prey to their prejudices; the former's derived from knowledge, the latter's from ignorance. One cannot say that the degree of distortion was unusual in the Sakuntala's transference to the West; much of it was a consequence of nineteenthcentury translation conventions and practice. In 1891, the great German Hellenist Ulrich von WilamowitzMoellendorff declared that his function as a translator of Greek poetry was to steer the German people toward the moral and spiritual ideal represented by Greek civilization. 3 At the time when Wilamowitz was making his pronouncements on translation, no philologist still pretended to attain pure results with language and versification. If an intellectual of Wilamowitz' caliber and era could aspire towards such unrealistic ideals, imagine the idealistic dreams that inspired the early Sakuntala translations. Although nineteenthcentury theories of translation differed among individual scholars and from country to country, intellectual hybris was great in each European culture. Yet none of these translators conceived of an excellent translation as being (in the words of Wilamowitz) a "metempsychosis," where the body changed and the soul remained the same. In both theory and practice, the Sakuntala translators sought something else. What they hoped to produce was a hybrid. Insufficient
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knowledge of Sanskrit idiom and culture demanded that the Sakuntala be understood intuitively in the translators' own style. Often their stylelessness passed for foreign style. Just as Voss could write "saumnachschleppenden Weiber" or "helmumflatterten Hektor," so Rückert could render correct yet basically unreadable phrases such as ''Sechsttheilessers.'' The French translators sought to remove foreign elements and to perfect the original within the strictures of French classical drama. The Germans sought a fidelity to both form and content. But "fidelity" meant many different things. Our analysis of a body of translations highlighted the grammatical errors and cultural distortions that modified the text according to specific patterns and trends within particular host languages. We saw how Sanskrit linguistic idiosyncrasies, supporting the specific image of man found in Hinduism, presented further difficulties for the European translator. By conflicting radically with the linguistic and cultural presuppositions of the host language, they engendered curious misreadings. Concepts represented through language, such as abstraction, stress on the universal, absence of individuation, disregard for the particular, expression through the negative, and a fluid sense of syntactic order were interpreted pessimistically by the European translators. They misread into such concepts a fatal vision of destiny and man's impotence vis à vis the cosmos. A pessimistic Indian Weltanschauung that they mistakenly found in the text was projected onto their renditions. This process of distortion can be seen in the following emendations: the transitoriness of life (Doria A.2.25), the unsettled quality of human existence (Bergaigne A.2.2426), Death as an escape from misery (Bergaigne A.6, 15,16,19), the soul's extinction in death (Hirzel A.2.2930), worldweariness (Gerhard A.1.12,15; Forster B.1.9), man's position on the edge of an abyss (Bergaigne B.1.32) and man's Sisyphean labors (Chézy B.1). However, it must be noted that fatalistic misreadings were also generated by the poetics of the nataka itself. Drama is a metaphor. Rooted in the Indian scheme for reconciling life's possibilities, Indian drama represents the ideal reconciliation of the tension among the purusarthas or the aims of human existence. 4 The nataka reestablishes harmony, at least
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for its duration, by exploring the relations behind the apparent conflicts of existence. Through its paradigmatic ritual, drama reveals our common humanity, the sense of which is often hidden in the complications of daily life. Through the drama's creation of rasa, truth is communicated in a pure, uncontaminated, and depersonalized form. Drama thus enables us to order our own history through reactivization in an impersonal context. Impressions of our personal history, which are buried in the past, are awakened through the creation of a rasa. In fact, these impressions can only be revealed through representation, through unreal events that are already understood as paradigmatic and not individually meaningful. Since the nataka is undramatic, tragedy per se cannot exist. Indian plays, like the Sakuntala, all are resolved at the end with the formula: "They all lived happily ever after." They do not represent the fate of the individual, rather, the condition of man. Although translators perceived the static nature of the nataka, they did not understand its purpose. These are important considerations for our examination of the Sakuntala's reception in the West. If European translators had a different vision of the purpose and the end of drama, would this not be the greatest cultural distortion with which they had to contend? Would not their preconceived notions of the aims of drama and its portrayal of man necessarily color their renditions of the play on textual and contextual levels? Absence of action and characterization by types was inconceivable on the Western stage. Although problems of dramatic action and characterization did not necessarily force the adapters to acknowledge the fundamental differences between Sanskrit and Aristotelian drama, they must have realized that the Sakuntala, even in its distorted form, could not be presented without serious alteration. The adapters did not have to realize that the portrayal by types in lieu of individuals aims at the Universal. It was sufficient that they saw characters limited by karma, who acknowledged how little choice they have in their destinies. They did not have to understand why the phenomenal world of action is illusory, nor its consequent, that rasa is valued instead of the mimesis of an action. They just perceived passive and impotent people depicted in the nataka.
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Since little edification was to be gained from the depiction of mood, the adapters infused action into an undramatic plot and actualized the struggle between the active and the contemplative life which the translators had introduced in the narrative. In the adaptations, the correct order of things tends to prevail: Indian characters, no longer "victims" of their own predestination, become Aristotelian protagonists; they play an active role in their destinies. 5 Schiller had been right all along. The Sakuntala could not, in its original form, be presented on a Western stage. However, in their refusal to conform to Sanskrit dramatic norms, the adapters were taking not only an artistic stand but ultimately a moral one as well. Their vision of man did not coincide with the fatalism that they perceived in Sanskrit drama. Whereas the translators, in their emendations, toyed with the pessimistic projection that they misread into the play, the adapters went further. What the translators subtly articulated, the alterations from the Universal to the particular, the transformation from stasis to action, and from type to individual, were also addressed in stage performances. Librettists, dramatists, and choréauteurs made their characters act and take a decisive role in their destiny. In these adaptations, man would remain the measure of all things. Rather than reenforcing a perceived fatalism, adapters made the Sanskrit nataka reflect a Western vision of man. By transforming the Sakuntala into a melodrama, they rejected both the translators' superimposed pessimism as well as the passive vision of man presented by the nataka form itself. Although the understanding of Indian language and culture presented in the various interpretations, translations, and adaptations of the Sakuntala is often erroneous, it would be banal to suggest that the play's reception can merely tell us of nineteenthcentury Europe's ignorance of India. They "colonized" a text in an effort to resolve their individual aesthetic crises. Certainly artistic arrogance privileged and encouraged the European writers to reorder the works of foreign genius. Invariably, the hermetism of Sanskrit drama offered them the chance to separate themselves from the artistic crowd. Toying with the supposed values of Indian culture often allowed trans
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lators, critics and adapters to play at rejecting the values of their own society, which had empowered them as artists. However, they were not motivated merely by a vapid search for local color. Even if what they saw was a product of their imagination, they set out in search of truth. As readers of these critical and creative works, we should admire the authors' ability to seek inspiration beyond the bounds of their own culture and project their creative energy into it. Perhaps they were not ready to accept what they found. Perhaps much that they did was not done wisely or well, but at their best they transformed a classic piece from a wholly foreign literature into an articulate expression of the need for something other: the erotic, the spiritual, the aesthetic, or the fatalistic—needs that would become dominant forces in the lives of succeeding generations. In the conclusions that follow, we will examine whether their experience typified the larger issues in Europe's emplotment of India as a whole.
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Chapter IX India: A Source of Inspiration or an Alibi for Despair The Sakuntala provided European artists with models for inspiration. It allowed them to find in another culture and its customs a confirmation or refutation of pre existing theories and to discover analogies to their own culture. To this end, the artists were motivated by seemingly contradictory impulses: the desire to exercise imaginative expression fed by a generally exact documentation and the desire to present faithful pictures of a reality apparently radically different from that of nineteenthcentury Europe. The creative desire to seek inspirational models often accompanied a confrontation with the seemingly pessimistic Indian Weltanschauung. How much was the modality of inspiration/pessimism unique to the Sakuntala experience? How much did it reflect the general issue of India's reception in Europe? Just as the Sakuntala was wholly foreign and initiated a comparison of aesthetic concepts that challenged the literary hegemony of the West, so too did India offer a propitious framework for the presentation of new critical ideas embodied in the dominant aspirations of the time; it allowed several innovators to sharpen their aesthetic concepts and demonstrate their relevance. These opportunities all fulfilled the same aim: to escape the monotony and uniformity of current artistic expression. Théophile Gautier (18111872) appropriated India, her in
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habitants, and their customs for such innovative aesthetic ends. 1 Inspired by the works of his friend Joseph Méry (17981865), whose fantastic horror stories were set in exotic locales,2 Gautier created images which were to become his hallmark in describing India: exotic perfumes, lush vegetation, and sonorous names. The first reference to India appears in Gautier's novel Fortunio, which appeared in feuilleton form in 1837. Subsequent mention of India appeared in his collection of essays entitled Caprices et Zigzags (1845). As in the case of Eugène Sue, Gautier's India was a land of violence,3 ruse, and blood.4 However, India's creations also represent for Gautier an important aesthetic ideal: L'art y vaut encore plus que la matière, le goût le plus pur, le plus fin, le plus inventif. Nos langues du Nord sont trop froides, trop pauvres, trop mesquines pour décrire toutes les somptuosités.5
Even as chronicler of India, Gautier was largely preoccupied with fascinating and amusing a bon enfant public. The colorful images of a fictitious India, which he conjures in a LouisPhilippard Paris, sought to offer vibrant contrasts in tones unknown under Western skies. The West, he tells us, has much to learn about taste and color from the Indian barbarians. Seeking luminosity in the manner of a painter, Gautier went Eastward to furnish his palette with the brilliant hues of the Orient.6 Maxime Du Camp, a friend of Flaubert and Gautier, relates how Gautier's use of India as a source of inspiration roughly coincided with the composition of Émaux et camées (1856).7 Neither Du Camp nor Gautier scholars have drawn the significant conclusion from this chronology, namely, that Gautier's depiction of India coincided with his theorizing on l'art pour l'art.8 The important question then arises: toward what particular end did Gautier appropriate India? A beautiful bayadera,9 Amani, haunted Gautier's dreams from the first time he saw her dance at the Théâtre des Variétés in 1838.10 In his essay Les Bayadères,11 Amani is vividly described as possessing a beauty that evokes in the "most bourgeois" brain an idea of sun, perfume, and depraved grace.
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She is "l'amour teint en noir," 12 later to appear as a femme fatale in Gautier's adventure novel, La Partie carrée.13 The frequency of Indian characters and themes in Gautier's work suggests that exotic imagery was presented neither through haste nor negligence. Indian exoticism served the double purpose of introducing the unknown and mysterious and of intriguing bourgeois sensibilities.14 Although Gautier's interest in representing India may have been predicated on a taste for local color, cruelty, eroticism, and the fantastic,15 the fact that it coincided with his theoretical speculation on the nature of beauty and art suggests that his interests ran deeper than merely enriching his poetic vocabulary. Amani, Priyamvada (the heroine of La Partie carrée), and Sacountala, as objects of beauty created by the poet, incarnate ideals of beauty which Gautier expressed elsewhere in his work.16 Painted or sculpted by the writer's pen, the women are remolded as works of art. What was important in their depiction was the artist's manipulation of details17 which were added to nature in order to improve upon it.18 This artistic utilization of the visible world characterizes Gautier's treatment of India. Just as poetry was art crafted by the master, so then did Gautier fashion artistic objects not only out of Sakuntala, and the bayaderas, but also out of India itself.19 Here, too, he is presenting more than tableaux of hypertrophied landscapes. Reality is transformed into an artificial landscape. All these images are singular in their beauty and devoid of any value beyond their status as objects created by the artist.20 Gautier's appropriation of Indian exoticism was, therefore, not inconsequential. India became for him the ideal locus of art for art's sake. He found in India and its inhabitants both local color and threedimensional works of art offering icons of beauty to the reader as well as their creator. The inspirational message of India was often not of primary concern, but rather how the artist reacted to it emotionally and spiritually. It may be argued that the desire, whether real or affected, to set oneself above and apart from the known world, combined with Romantic intellectual and moral egotism, distinguished nineteenth century European travellers Eastward from their precursors. The revelations, descriptions, and confidences arising out of this experience bear witness to the con
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flicts that motivated the European's metaphorical voyage to India. Contiguous with the larger issue of the artist's conflict with his own culture was a dependence on what that culture ostensibly assured: compensatory spiritual and aesthetic satisfaction. In his monumental work, the Cours familier de littérature, Alphonse de Lamartine (17901869) exemplifies this very process when he shares with his readers his discovery of Sanskrit literature. 21 A student of Victor Cousin, an appreciator of Chézy, Wilkins, Wilson, a reader of the Ramayana of Fauche, of the Vedas and the Bhagavad Gita of Barthélemy St. Hilaire, Lamartine was a connoisseur of the Oriental domain. The first time that he read this "mysterious" literature was in an uninhabited country home, whose previous owners had left behind pages torn from diverse literary journals and brochures. As the rising sun poured light into his room, he discovered a beautiful passage from the Vedic hymns.22 The Sanskrit text brings him the same ecstasy as the opium growing on the Gangetic plain.23 The wisdom conveyed by the Sanskrit text is, however, of less value in and of itself than the individual's reaction to it: Je lus, je relus, je relirais encore . . . je jetai des cris, je fermai les yeux, je m'anéantis d'admiration dans mon silence . . . je sentis comme si une main pesante m'avait précipité hors de mon lit par force d'une impulsion physique. J'en descendis en sursaut, les pieds nus, le livre à la main, le genou tremblant, je sentis le besoin irréflechi de lire cette page dans l'attitude de l'adoration et de la prière, comme si le livre eut été trop saint et trop beau pour être lu debout, assis ou couché, je m'agenouillai devant la fenêtre au soleil levant, d'où jaillissait moins de spendeur que de la page, je relus lentement et religieusement les lignes. Je ne pleurai pas, parce que j'ai les larmes rares à l'enthousiasme, comme à la douleur, mais je remerciai Dieu à haute voix, en me relevant, d'appartenir à une race de créatures capables de concevoir de si claires
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notions de sa divinité, et de les exprimer dans une si divine expression.
After sharing this religious experience with Lamartine, the reader might be tempted to forgive him his unsubstantial and flamboyant style, but not for long. On another occasion, while hunting, Lamartine caught sight of a deer at play, which he wounded and then killed.25 While awaiting the return of the shepherd to help him carry back his prey, he discovered a volume in his pocket which he had inadvertently brought along. It happened to be an English translation of Sanskrit epic poetry. To distract himself, he began to read. What a vain effort! By chance he opened up to the Mahabharata episode of the man refusing to enter svarga (heaven) without his dog. The odiousness of his crime became painfully evident, forcing him to recognize the Indian religious truth that preached a common parentage among living beings. He concluded that the Sanskrit poet was a sage and that he, the product of Western civilization, was a barbarian. Lamartine's narratives are interesting for several reasons, not least of which are his playacting and use of confessional discourse to elicit the reader's sympathy and legitimize the author's personal response. His criticism of and fictional response to Sanskrit poetry suggest important factors at work in the nineteenthcentury European reception of India: the critique of European morality, a dissatisfaction with its religious values and a rejection, through revalorization of primitive man's relationship with nature, of sophistication in general. Through a projection of the self onto a foreign culture, Lamartine sought less to describe that culture than to define his sensibilities as an artist. The creative impulses that animated Gautier's metaphorical journey to India, and the personal aesthetic and spiritual crises that inspired Lamartine's figurative quest are combined in Friedrich Schlegel's experience of India. Schlegel (17721829) was the first European to study Sanskrit outside of India and the first German to attempt to translate directly from Sanskrit into his own language. Even before learning this language, Schlegel assumed the prophetic
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mantle of its newly discovered literature. In a letter to his brother August Wilhelm, Friedrich wrote of his desire to keep Goethe away from the subject of India, which he saw as his personal scholarly domain. 26 Schlegel invested in India; he imbued the land and its culture with his hopes for the aesthetic and spiritual Absolute. In 1800, Schlegel began to study mythology, a field which had recently been revitalized27 and was now recognized to have an aesthetic virtue in supplying material for poetic inspiration.28 Since the modern Occident had no mythology, "one would have to be invented,"29 discovered,30 or appropriated from the Orient.31 This task fell to the translator. Since Germans were particularly gifted at translation, Schlegel saw himself as ideally suited to assume the mantle of artist/prophet and reveal the great truths that Indian mythology had to offer. Schlegel's task was not easy; he sought to rectify the intellectual and cultural morass into which his country had fallen.32 His letters were full of admiration for India and his high hopes for it as the source of inspiration.33 The entire argument of the Gespräche über die Mythologie und symbolische Anschauung calls for the renewal of German poetry with the help of the Indian muse. With the ardor of a neophyte, he sought to communicate his discoveries to all of Europe, in the hopes of fomenting not only an Oriental renaissance, but also an intellectual and political revolution centered on this newfound wisdom.34 This revolution35 rested on a severe critique of the West, to which Schlegel consistently opposed an idealized Orient. Everything that the West had in terms of religions and mythology came from the Orient, he said; the difference was that in the West these things had degenerated, while in Asia they had not. The decline of the West, abetted by the abuses of rationalism and Idealism, was ever apparent to Schlegel. Europe had lost its sense of unity, defined by Schlegel as the union of thought and poetry,36 while India had maintained it. Inspired by the importance of his mission, Schlegel undertook his metaphorical voyage to India, which resulted in the utter disillusionment expressed in Uber die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier (1808). This volume appeared several days after Schlegel converted to Roman Catholicism. Goethe recognized this work for what it
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was: a Catholic manifesto presenting the Church as man's only refuge. Having approached India in search of truth and revelation, Schlegel was to find neither. He first became disillusioned with Indian pantheism; it dulled his soughtafter idea of the Absolute and led to what Schlegel viewed as moral stupefaction and intellectual indolence. For the same reasons, the Indian system of Emanation was untenable; its ethical consequences of fatalism, pessimism, and determinism annihilated free will and imposed indelible culpability. From his reading of the Laws of Manu, Schlegel was then forced to acknowledge Indian atomism and atheism. 37 The coup de grace, however, was administered when Schlegel discovered Sivaism.38 He understood devotion to Siva in simplistic terms: it united voluptuousness with death and worshipped god in the form of a phallus. This was not Schlegel's idea of true religion. Just as Emanation had annihilated free will, Sivaism now destroyed the principle of culpability itself. It was no wonder, then, that this hierophant manqué abandoned his Sanskrit studies and sought refuge in the Roman Church. I mention Schlegel's encounter with India for specific reasons. His arrogance, endemic to his Europeanism, was also based on the implicit assumption that culture exists as a vehicle for one's spiritual fulfillment. Nationalistic issues, at least on the linguistic and literary level, entered into his plans, as well. However, these functioned as a means toward personal aesthetic and religious ends. His metaphorical journey to India relied on a dissatisfaction with and rejection of German culture and an idealization that posited India as the locus of spiritual and aesthetic aspirations. Rather than seeking to promote his own society's political power through artistic expression according to the ''imperialist'' critical stance, what Schlegel sought from the East was the power perceived to lie there. Schlegel, like other metaphorical travellers to India, wholeheartedly embraced the prerogatives of European culture, while at the same time rejecting the values of that same culture. Schlegel's experience was emblematic of the general nineteenthcentury experience of India: Although Sanskrit literature and India in general could be used to voice Europe's hopes for a cultural invigoration from without, problems latent
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in India's philosophies ultimately had to be addressed. Schlegel resolved the dilemma posed by the tension between a utilization of Indian wisdom as a source of inspiration and as an emblem of despair. Although initially inspired by what India had to offer, Schlegel eventually rejected its wisdom, when faced with the seemingly "pessimistic" consequences of its religious philosophy. Schlegel's disillusionment not only manifested itself in a religious conversion but also in an artistic verdict: He no longer read a language that he had painstakingly learned. In this respect, how different was Schlegel from the Sakuntala translators and adapters? They too sought, on an inspirational level, to be empowered by the text. They too confronted the challenge posed by the moral issue of fatalism. Schlegel did so by rejecting Sanskrit literature: the translators and adapters did so in their works of art by significantly altering its supposed message. How much was their European experience of India merely a product of that age? Although these nineteenthcentury Westerners were not yet ready to accept certain religious teachings that India had to offer, there were many who eventually would. The Sakuntala enthusiasts, like Schlegel, believed that man was still the measure of all things. Their reluctance to espouse certain Indian religious beliefs was to separate them from the twentiethcentury metaphorical pilgrims to India, just as, by their egotism, they had separated themselves from their precursors. Theirs was a decision of faith. In later years, there would develop a kinship between Indian metaphysical concerns and those of Romantic Europe. In the interstices between a presumably "original" India and the pretense of filiation, curious artistic graftings emerged: Schopenhauer reinterpreted the Upanishadic theory of illusion as Kantian phenomenalism, Nietzsche abusively reconciled India with Plato, and Wagner annexed Buddhism to a medieval mystical cycle. European pessimism, invigorated by Schopenhauer's distorted synthesis of Buddhism and Brahmanism, ebbed and flowed steadily through the spiritual landscape of the nineteenth century. Many immersed themselves in its tides. They saw pessimistic renunciation as an attribute of Indian
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thought and maintained that the spirit of man could only realize itself by withdrawal from dynamic reality. Their predecessors, the Sakuntala Schwärmer and Friedrich Schlegel alike, rejected "Indian pessimism" and espoused an affirmative view of life prevailing over all suffering. The balance between India as a source for artistic inspiration and as a model for modern pessimism shifted from the 1870s onward. When India no longer offered new and innovative models for inspiration, European fascination with Indian "pessimism" became dominant. A generation of writers embodied an exalted interpretation of the individual soul's extinction. Schopenhauer's disciples, reworking the theme of nirvana, sought to maintain, on the ruins of theism, a humanism legitimized by ancient religion. 39 Eduard von Hartmann's Philosophie des Unbewussten (1869) aroused renewed interest in the teaching of the Buddha. Whereas Schopenhauer had drawn attention to quietist and ascetic aspects of Buddhism, Hartmann extolled a heroic kind of modern pessimism which proclaimed the purposiveness of every act of will. Schopenhauer sought a road to deliverance by negating the will to live, Hartmann proclaimed it. Others followed suit. On August 1, 1876, the day after the appearance of his work, Die Philosophie der Erlösung, Philipp Mainländer (pseudonym for Philipp Batz) sought nirvana by the abbreviated route of suicide. Mainländer's will to total annihilation (Vernichtungswille) also recognized virginity as an alternative route to world salvation. Was the appearance of such thinkers merely a function of the fact that India's inspirational contribution had been exhausted and Europeans now turned to the brand of pessimism which, although apostrophized as Indian, was more a product of European imagination? Or, rather, did this "Indian" pessimism come to reflect a European reality in the last decades of the nineteenth century? When the positive foundations of the belief in Man were shaken, the worst effects of the Industrial Revolution were being felt, Utopian reforms had failed, Europe had suffered internecine conflicts, and Romanticism had given way to Naturalism. Prospects of emancipation receded into the distant future. The grammatical misreadings of the Sakuntala, although
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eventually rejected, foreshadowed later philosophical misreadings of Indian thought. Both exhibit a temperamental tendency to view things pessimistically. The translator interprets the Hindu God, who in Sanskrit is described in impersonal terms without action, as a god offering no comfort and help. The Western philosopher does not envision theories of karma and transmigration as exhibiting the creative effect of human deeds; they symbolize human's enslavement. Those writers who embraced socalled Indian pessimism sought an Oriental remedy for an essentially Occidental ailment: Their efforts were doomed to failure. Two errors characterize the European projection of pessimism onto Indian thought. "Indian" pessimism is not primarily a feeling of worldweariness. Of the three antitheses necessary for a pessimistic world view (illusion versus reality, suffering versus pleasure, wrong versus right volition), the third is virtually absent from Indian thought. In other words, Indian pessimism is not ethically grounded, since Indian religious thought dismisses the effects of the volitional will. Pessimistic thought in the West is primarily grounded in the actions of the will. It was from this enslavement to the will that Schopenhauer and his followers sought to escape. They sought their inspiration from a philosophical system which negated not only the will, but the ego. The Western tyranny of the ego exerted its power whenever Europeans went to India in search of inspiration, whether the Aristotelian protagonist or the worldweary philosopher seeking the darkest and lowest purlieus of Being. We began this study with Günderrode's Indian epitaph; let us finish it with another. Theodor Springmann carried the Bhagavad Gita into the trenches of World War I. Krishna's call to duty coalesces with Kant's Pflichtethos and becomes a categorical imperative. Months before he died as commander of a minethrowing company, Springmann wrote the following preface to his translation of the Gita. Ohne Abstraktion und metaphysische Erkenntnis, ohne Versenkung und Religiosität findet man sich im äusseren Leben niemals zurecht. Es fehlt der ge
Page 211 schulte Überblick über das All, es fehlt die Innigkeit des Glaubens und Fühlens, die zur Tat begeistert und ihr erst den eigentlichen Wert verleiht; es fehlt diedurch lange Übung erworbene Selbstzucht, die Fähigkeit, alle Kräfte im gegebenen Augenblick auf einen Punkt einzustellen.—So werden in der Bhagavad Gita die verschiedensten Systeme und Heilswege herangezogen, um die Notwendigkeit zu beweisen, gegen die Feinde des Rechts zu kämpfen und um den Kämpfenden in diesem Kampf sittlich zu stärken. Selbst der brahmanische Opferkult kann uns lehren, das ganze Leben als ein Opfer anzusehen. Das grösste Opfer ist aber das Opfer des Lebens auf dem Altar der Schlacht, das der Krieger bringt. Dann stehen ihm die Tore des Himmels offen. 40
This "epitaph" was much like that of Günderrode. Both show how India consistently offered inspiration to Westerners, even if the models were distorted and became increasingly destructive.
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Notes Chapter 1. Background. 1. Friedrich Schlegel, Athenaeum, (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1800) 3:103. 2. Paul Hazard, La Crise de la conscience européenne (Paris: Boivin, 1935) ch. 2. 3. E.W. Said, The World, the Text and the Critic (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983), p. 267. 4. E.W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978), p. 11. 5. Scholars have also examined the philosophical reception of Indian thought. See Sommerfeld, Glasenapp, Hoffman, Gérard and Halbfass. 6. Mario Praz, The Romantic Agony, trans. Angus Davidson (London: Oxford University Press, 1933), pp. 200201. 7. E.W. Said, Orientalism, p. 98. 8. Aziz AlAzmeh, "The Articulation of Orientalism," Orientalism, Islam and Islamists, ed. Asaf Hussain, Robert Olson, Jamil Qureshi (Amana: Brattleboro, Vt; 1984), p. 97. 9. Bryan S. Turner, "Orientalism and the Problem of Civil Society in Islam," Orientalism, Islam and Islamists, p. 35 10. This phenomenon existed not only in the rarefied figure of the anthropologue de bureau, but also on the popular level. The phenomenon still exists today: Few, if any, members of American minority groups seek their gurus in India. The continued relevance of this phenomenon justifies our present study. 11. I am indebted to V.S. Naipaul's allegorical examination of this phenomenon as expressed in his essay on Conrad's story, "An Outpost of Progress," The Return of Eva Per6n with the Killings in Trinidad (New York: Knopf, 1980), p. 71. 12. Abraham Rogerius. Offne Thür zu dem verborgen Heydenthum (Nuremberg: Schipper, 1663).
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13. These appear under the title "Gedanken einiger Bramanen" in the fourth collection of Herder's Zerstreute Blätter (1792). Herder's rendition of the poem in question, entitled "Abscheid des Einsiedlers" can be found in his Sämtliche Werke, ed. B.Suphan (Berlin: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, 18771913), 19:416: Erde, du meine Mutter, und du mein Vater, der Lufthauch, und du Feuer, Mein Freund, du mein Verwandter, der Strom, Und mein Bruder, der Himmel, ich sag' euch Allen mit Ehrfurcht freundlichen Dank. Mit euch hab'ich hernieder gelebt. Und geh jetzt zur andern Welt, euch gerne verlassend; Lebt wohl, Bruder und Freund, Vater und Mutter, lebt wohl.
14. In the early nineteenth century, the body of Sanskrit scholarship was limited. The Jesuit Heinrich Roth wrote a Sanskrit grammar (as yet unpublished) sometime before his death in 1668, and another Jesuit, Johann Hanxleden, wrote a nevertobe printed grammar entitled "Grammatica Granthamia seu Samscredamica." These two grammars were to serve as a basis for the grammars of Paulinus a Sancto Bartholomeo. Paulinus (17481806), an Austrian Carmelite living in India, devoted himself to the study of Sanskrit. Between 1776 and 1789 he wrote two Sanskrit grammars as well as other books pertaining to India. A Grammar of the Bengal Language was written in 1778 by Nathanial Brassey Halhed, whose Code of the Gentoo Laws or Ordinations of the Pundits had been published in London two years earlier. In order to compile this code, Halhed appointed Brahman pandits to make extracts from representative works and translate them into Persian, from which Halhed could subsequently make an English translation. All these literary "explorers" worked against great odds, since manuscripts were few and their efforts were otherwise hindered. Halhed's pandits flatly refused to instruct him in Sanskrit, despite an appeal from the GovernorGeneral. Brahmans who, by tradition, were custodians of the language were unwilling to pass it onto a mleccha (impure or alien). Occasionally a more liberal Brahman could be found, but this was not easy. 15. Abhijñanaskuntala literally "The token(recognized) Sakuntala." In this study, the play will be referred to by the abbreviated title Sakuntala, as it is often referred to in the critical literature, and distinguishing it from the heroine's name, Sakuntala. With the various translations, I have kept this spelling consistent, except in those cases where the spelling has been altered by the translator (presumably because of homonymic associations to words for female genitalia), as in the case of "Sacountala" or ''Sakontala." 16. I have chosen to regard the Wilkin's 1785 translation of the
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Bhagavad Gita as not constituting a "complete text," as it is part of the Mahabharata. Chapter 2. Critical Reception and Methodology. 1. A nataka, one of the ten types of Sanskrit drama, can best be described as a heroic romance whose subject is indicated in the title. 2. Letter to A.W Schlegel from Friedrich Schlegel on August 26, 1791. In Friedrich Schlegel, Friedrich Schlegels Briefe an den Bruder AugustWilhelm, ed. O. Walzel (Berlin: Speyer und Peters, 1890), p. 279. 3. J.W von Goethe, Werke, Weimar ed. (W.A.) (Weimar: Böhlau, 18871912), 1:4, p. 122. In these verses Goethe fully expressed his admiration for the sensitivity and gentleness he perceived in the text. The following Ich version was originally published in Deutsche Monatschrift in the year of the Forster translation. The Ich form was changed, at Herder's request, to the final Duform, emphasizing, perhaps, the poet's eagerness to share his enthusiasm for the play with his readers. Will ich die Blumen des frühen, die Früchte des späteren Jahres, Will ich was reizt und entzückt, will ich was sättigt und nährt, Will ich den Himmel, die Erde mit Einem Namen begreifen; Nenn ich Sakontala dich und so ist alles gesagt.
Included in the section entitled "antiker Form sich nähernd" enclosed in Goethe's letter to J.H. Jacobi of July 1, 1791, i.e., 2 months after the publication of Forster's translation. See W.A. 1:52, p. 341. 4. Goethe also wrote two Indian poems, "Der Gott und die Bajadere" and the "Paria" trilogy. In his writings, Goethe refers to his readings on India (W.A. 4:33, p. 164, verses 1011 and 4:33, pp. 317318); he comments upon the progress of Sanskrit studies in Europe (W.A. 4:38, p. 254, verses 15 and 4:38, p. 256, verses 1113) and his interest in the establishment of a Sankrit press (W.A. 4:33, p. 196, verses 1418). 5. He commented upon the enthusiasm engendered by the Sakuntala translations (W.A. 1:7, pp. 3389.1:42.2 p. 52). The play's effect upon his own life (W.A. 1:31, p. 20) and the greatness of Kalidasa's masterpiece (W.A. 1:42,2, p. 50). 6. Goethe, W.A. 1:3, pp. 256257: Nicht jeder kann alles ertragen:
Page 216 Der weicht diesem, der jenem aus; Warum soll ich nicht sagen: Die indischen Götzen, die sind mir ein Graus? Nichts schrecklicher kann dem Menschen geschehen Als des Absurdes verkörpert zu sehen. Auch diese will ich nicht verschonen, Die tollen Höhl = Excavationen, Das düstre Troglodyten = Gewühl, Mit Schnauz und Rüssel ein albern Spiel; Verrückte Zierrat = Brauerei, Es ist eine saubere Bauerei. Nehme sie niemand zum Exempel Die Elephanten = und Fratzen = Tempel. Mit heiligen Grillen treiben sie Spott, Man fühlt weder Natur noch Gott. Auf ewig hab'ich sie vertrieben, Vielköpfige Götter trifft mein Bann, So Wishnu, Cama, Brama, Schiven, Sogar den Affen Hannemann.
See also W.A., 1:3, p. 251; 1:42,2, p. 50. 7. J.W. von Goethe, Schriften zur Literatur, ed. E. Nahler (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1970), p. 132. 8. Goethe, W.A. 4:25, pp. 27475: Indessen lassen Sie mich gestehen, dass wir andern, die wir den Homer als Brevier lesen, die wir uns der griechischen Plastik, als der dem Menschen gemässesten Verkörperung der Gottheit, mit Leib und Seele, hingeben, dass wir, sag'ich, nur mit einer Art von Bangigkeit in jene gränzlosen Räume treten, wo sich uns Missgestalten aufdringen und Ungestalten entschweben und verschwinden.
See also Zahmen Xenien 2 in W.A. 3: p. 251. 9. Goethe, Schriften zur Literatur, p. 97. 10. Thankyou note to Chézy of Oct. 9. 1830, in Goethe. WA. 4:47, p. 284, verses 13ff.: Das erste Mal als ich dieses unergründliche Werk gewahr wurde, erregte es in mir einen solchen Enthusiasmus, zog mich dergestalt an, dass ich es zu studieren nicht unterliess, ja sogar zu dem unmöglichen Unternehmen mich getrieben fühlte, es, wenn auch nur einige Massen, der deutschen Bühne anzueignen. Durch diese wenn gleich fruchtlosen Bemühungen bin ich mit dem höchst schätzbaren Werke so genau bekannt
Page 217 geworden, es hat eine solche Epoche in meinem Lebensgange bestimmt, es ist mir so eigen geworden, dass ich seit dreissig Jahren weder das Englische noch das Deutsche je wieder angesehen habe. . . . Ich begreife erst jetzt den überschwenglichen Eindruck, den dieses Werk früher auf mich gewann. Hier erscheint uns der Dichter in seiner höchsten Funktion, als Repräsentant des natürlichsten Zustandes, der feinsten Lebensweise, des reinsten sittlichen Bestrebens, der würdigsten Majestät und ernstesten Gottesbetrachtung: zugleich aber bleibt er dergestalt Herr und Meister seiner Schöpfung, dass er gemeine und lächerliche Gegensätze wagen darf, welche doch als notwendige Verbindungsglieder der ganzen Organisation betrachtet werden müssen.
See also 1:422. p.247 and 4:32. p. 137. verses 11ff. 11. J.G. Herder, "Gedanken and Einfälle," Aus Herders Nachlass (1861), quoted in E. Windisch, Geschichte der Sanskrit Philologie und indischen Altertümskunde (Strassburg: Trübner, 1917), p. 204. 12. J.G. Herder, Sämtliche Werke, 16:74: "Das Haupt = Hinderniss nämlich war die Quelle ihrer Kunst selbst, ihre Religion und daher geformte Einrichtung. Ihre Götter entsprangen aus symbolischen Begriffen, die man auch in Denkmalen als Symbole beibehielt, die aber deshalb die Kunst gewaltig einschränkten." 13. Herder, Werke 16:1106: 29:131146. 14. Herder, Werke 29:666. 15. Herder. Zerstreute Blätter, Werke 16:100. 16. Herder, Zerstreute Blätter, Werke 16:90. 17. Herder, Zerstreute Blätter, Werke 16:91: Werden Sie nicht vielmehr mit mir wünschen, dass statt ihrer unendlichen Religionsbücher derWeda's. Upaweda's, Upanga's u.s.f. man uns mit nützlichern und angenehmern Schriften der Indier, vor allen mit ihren besten Poesien in jeder Art beschenke? Diese machen uns den Geist und Charakter des Volks am meisten lebendig, wie ich denn gern bekenne, aus der einzigen Sakontala mehr wahre und lebendige Begriffe von der Denkart der Indier erlangt zu haben, als aus allen ihren Upnekats und Bagawedams.
18. Kalidasa, Sakontala, (oder die entscheidende Ring,) trans. Forster, intro. J.G. Herder (Mainz and Leipzig: Fischer, 1803), p. xxviii: Das Leben im Hain und am Hofe sind so treu geschildert, die Karaktere so fest und zart gehalten; unmerklich und unauflöslich den Sterblichen, wird der Knote zusammengezogen und geschmückt, Blumenreich und nie doch übertrieben, das Betragen der Personen und Stände gegen
Page 218 einander, seyen sie Götter oder Menschen, ist so anständig und artig, dass in allem diesem das Stück seines Gleichen suchen dürfte, in allen Sprachen unter allen Nationen. Auch die eingemischten Stimmen der Musik, die Züge der Malerei, des Schmuckes, des Scherzes sind eben so Original als zierlich; die Begriffe der Religion endlich zumal in den Wohnungen des Paradieses, sind (wer darf's läugnen?) selbst paradiesisch.
19. Herder, Werke 1:32, 5:50. 20. Herder, Zerstreute Blätter, Werke 16:85129. 21. J.G. Herder, Aus Herders Nachlass, ed. H. Düntzer and F.G. von Herder. (Leipzig: Meidinger, 1861), 2:416ff. 22. Johann Christoph Gottsched (17001766), German author and critic who provided, in the translations of the Deutsche Schaubühne, the German stage with a classical repertory. He insisted on German literature being subordinated to the laws of French Classicism. 23. Herder, Werke 5:21731. 24. Herder, Zerstreute Blätter, Werke 16:8788. 25. Herder, Zerstreute Blätter, Werke 16:92. Worüber, wie Sie glaubten, ich lachen würde, das hatte ich bei der Sakontala selbst gethan; ich hatte sie nämlich aus Scherz und im Ernst mit Aristoteles Poetik verglichen und zu bemerken gesucht, ob Kalidas, der hundert Jahr vor Christo gelebt haben soll, den Aristoteles recht beherzigt, oder Aristoteles auf Kalidas gehörige Rücksicht genommen habe. Im Ernst, m. Fr., halte ich eine solche Prüfung nützlich: denn obgleich das Drama aller jetzigen Völker in Europa, so gut als völlig ohne den Aristoteles entstanden ist, mithin wir an ihnen unabhängige Puncte der Vergleichung genug haben: so war es mir, weil doch Eins dieser Theater vom andern geborgt hat und alle mehr oder minder in Bekanntschaft mit einander gewesen, sehr angenehm, ein in seiner Art vollkommenes Stück eines ganz fremden Theaters zu erblicken, um dasselbe dem Regelmaas des Aristoteles zu nähern. Je mehrere freie Puncte der Vergleichung wir haben, desto leichter wird uns die Auflösung der Frage: ''was in Aristoteles Dichtkunst blos Lokal=Geschmack oder allgemeines, ewiges Gesetz sei?" ein Problem, das, wie ich glaube, noch nie rein aufgelöst worden.
26. Herder, Zerstreute Blätter, Werke 16:93: Über alles dies ist bei der Sakontala kein Streit: in ihr ist Handlung d.i. Verknüpfung der Begebenheiten zu Einem Endzweck von Anfange bis zu Ende. Die Handlung ist ernsthaft, vollständig, sie hat eine Grösse; und da Aristoteles selbst sagt, dass sich nicht durch Regeln bestimmen lasse, sondern nach der Aufmerksamkeit der Zuschauer eingerichtet
Page 219 werden müsse, so können wirs dem Dichter Kalidas zutrauen, dass er diese für seine Zuschauer werde eingerichtet haben.
27. Herder, Zerstreute Blätter, Werke 16:96. "Durch Furcht und Mitleid eine Reinigung der Leidenschaften zu bewirken." Ein so hohes Ziel hatte das Indische Drama nicht. "Wozu eine lange Rede?" sagt der Theater= Director, als Prologus der Sakontala; "Wenn Sie mit Ihrem Putz fertig sind, Madame, so belieben Sie nur zum Vorschein zu kommen." In sofern ein erleuchtetes Publikum von unsern theatralischen Talenten Vergnügen empfängt und ausdrückt, in sofern und nicht weiter setze ich auf diese Talente einen Werth.
28. Herder. Zerstreute Blätter, Werke 16:97. Herder maintained that Greek classical rules attempt to give the actions portrayed a natural turn of events, often motivated by the psychology of the characters. The Sakuntala, on the other hand, is based on influences beyond history and humanity. While Greek tragedy is based on the rational, Indian drama is often set in motion by the marvellous and the irrational. 29. Herder, Zerstreute Blätter, Werke 16:100: "Alle sind wir darüber einig, m. Fr., dass das eigentliche Localund Zeitmässige der Griechischen Schaubühne kein Gesetz für alle Orte und Zeiten der Welt seyn möge." 30. Herder, Zerstreute Blätter, Werke 16:88: Welch ein weiter Gesichtskreis herrscht in diesem Werk! Ein Gesichtskreis über Himmel und Erde. Welch ein eigne Art alles anzuschauen! Götter und Geister, Könige und Hofleute, Einsiedler, Bramanen, Pflanzen, Weiber, Kinder, alle Elemente der Erde. Und wie tief ist alles aus der Philosophie und Religion, der Lebensweise und den Sitten der Indier nach ihrem Klima, ihren Geschlechterabtheilungen und sonstigen Verhlltnissen geschöpft, ja in diese verwebet.
31. The analogy between Shakespeare and Kalidasa was to be made often throughout the Sakuntala's reception. Although he was to become Germany's first Sanskrit professor, A.W. Schlegel made very few comments on the Sakuntala, but in those he did make, he limited himself to comparing Kalidasa and Shakespeare ("Etwas über William Shakespeare bei Gelegenheit Wilhelm Meisters," (1796) and Vorlesungen über die dramatische Kunst und Literatur, in A.W. Schlegel, Sämtliche Werke, ed. E. Böcking (Leipzig: Weidmann, 184647) 5:17). Similarities between the English and Indian dramatists were also noted by Angelo de Gubernatis, who refers to Kalidasa as Shakespeare's fratello indiano. 32. Herder, Werke 16:71. 33. Giovanni Berchet, II Conciliatore, nos. 4 and 11, March 1819, pp. 1113, 3637.
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34. Georg Forster's fatherinlaw. 35. Christian Gottlob Heyne, Göttingische Anzeigen no. 67, July 23, 1791, pp. 10031004. 36. Lamartine mentions this article but does not cite the reference. 37. Bharata, Natyasastra, ch. 1, verses 1105. This text was first published in Paris by P. Reynaud as an appendix to his work La Rhétorique sanskrite in 1884, thirty years after Lamartine wrote the Cours familier de littérature (Paris: Privately printed, 185569). Lamartine supplies the reader with information found only in the Natyasastra, most notably, the myth of drama's origins, which comprises one of the initial chapters of the Bharata's work. 38. Lamartine's interpretation of Indian drama is quite different from Herder's. The former declared virtue as the end of drama; the latter, pleasure. Lamartine, (Cours, p.437): La vertu et non la passion, est le but moral des drames poétiques de l'Inde; leur poésie, plus philosophique que la nôtre, tend à calmer l'âme du spectateur, et non à la troubler. L'équilibre des sensations, qui est la santé de l'âme, y est promptement rétabli après les peripéties moderées de la curiosité.
39. Lamartine, Cours, pp. 438439. Lamartine theorized that Indian drama followed four rules. The first is unity, a rule of nature that originated in India and spread to Greece, Rome, and finally France. Other rules consist of the episodic suspension of action, gradual development of action corresponding to audience anxiety and, finally, a happy denouement as the hero masters his passions. 40. The theory of sentiments (rasa) occupies an important place in ancient Indian literature. Briefly, it can be defined as: durable psychological states (love, anger, etc.) represented in dramatic action as stimuli to evoke in the spectator an analogue of these psychological states; this is called sentiment (rasa). According to Bharata, rasa originates out of the union of the determinant (vibhava), the consequents (anubhava) and the transitory mental states (vyabhicarin). One might say that the vibhavas are statements that give rise (from the verb viBHU) to emotions and sentiments. The expressions of sentiments and emotions thus born are the anubhavas; the fleeting emotions caused and expressed in a similar way are the vyabhicarins. All these unite to form a whole, like sap (rasa), gathered from various plants. When this unitary whole becomes tasted (RAS) by one who can discern (sahrdaya), it is the state of rasa. As the result of drama, rasa is understood as a state of awareness peculiar to the drama and distinct from normal worldly consciousness; its essence is aesthetic delight (camatkara). 41. Bharata, Natyasastra, with Abhinavagupta's commentary. Ed. and
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trans. M. Ghosh, Gaekwad's Oriental Series ed., 2nd ed. (Baroda: Bhandarkar Oriental Instutute, 1976), p. 108: 4243. The Erotic sentiment is light green; the Comic sentiment, white; the Pathetic, grey; the Furious sentiment, red; the Heroic, yellowish; the Terrible, black; the Odious, blue; and the Marvellous, yellow. 44. Visnu is the god of the Erotic, Pramathas, of the Comic, Rudra, of the Furious, Yama, of the Pathetic, Mahakala (Siva), of the Odious, Kala, of the Terrible, Indra, of the Heroic, and Brahma, of the Marvellous sentiments.
42. Lamartine, Cours, pp. 443450. 43. Thalia, ed. J.C.F. von Schiller (Leipzig: Gösschen, 17851791) 3: no. 11, p. 33. 44. Schiller, Thalia 3: no. 11, p. 34. This same review appeared in the Göttingische Anzeigen. no.70, April 30, 1791, p. 133. 45. Angelo de Gubernatis, Storia del Teatro drammatico (Milan: Hoeppli, 1883), p. 102. 46. Fritz Strich, Goethe and World Literature (Bern: Francke, 1946), p. 7. Goethe discussed this in Wilhelm Meister and in Dichtung und Wahrheit. 47. Goethe, W.A. 1.42.2 p.52. 48. Goethe, WA. 1.7. pp. 235239. 49. Goethe, W.A. 1.7. pp. 33839. Man erinnere sich des entschiedensten Beifalls den wir Deutschen einer solchen Übersetzung der Sakontala gezollt, und wir können das Glück, was sie gemacht gar wohl jener allgemeinen Prosa zuschreiben, in welche das Gedicht aufgelöst worden. Nun aber wär'es an der Zeit uns davon eine Übersetzung der dritten Art zu geben, die den verschiedenen Dialekten, rhythmischen, metrischen und prosaischen Sprachweisen des Originals entspräche und uns dieses Gedicht in seiner ganzen Eigenthümlichkeit auf's neue erfreulich und einheimisch machte. Da nun in Paris eine Handschrift dieses ewigen Werkes befindlich, so könnte ein dort hausender Deutscher sich um uns ein unsterblich Verdienst durch solche Arbeit erwerben.
50. Henry IV, Pt. 2, Act III. 51. Friedrich Schlegels Briefe, p. 507.
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52. Friedrich Schlegel, Sämtliche Werke, 2nd ed. (Vienna: Mayer, 18221825), p. 8. 53. Ursula Oppenberg, Quellenstudien zu Friedrich Schlegels Übersetzungen aus dem Sanskrit (Marburg: Elwert, 1965), pp. 12021. 54. Die Bruder Schlegel: Briefe von und an Friedrich und Dorothea Schlegel, ed. J. Körner (Stuttgart: Union deutsche Verlagsgesellschaft, 1962), p. 59. 55. Friedrich Schlegels Briefe, p. 636. 56. A sloka is a particular kind of common epic meter (also called anustubh) consisting of four padas or quarter verses of eight syllables each or two lines of sixteen syllables each. 57. Paul Th. Hoffmann, Der indische und der deutsche Geist von Herder bis zur Romantik (Tübingen: Laupp, 1915), p. 83. 58. Introduction to Kalidasa, Sakontala, oder der entscheidende Ring, trans. G. Forster, (Mainz and Leipzig 1803. See also J.B. Herder, Briefe, ed. W. Dobbek and G. Arnold (Weimar: Volksverlag, 1977) 5:260: "Selbst Engländerinnen sagen, dass es sich schöner im Deutschen als im Englischen lese. So etwas erscheint freilich nur alle 2000 Jahre einmal." Herder, Zerstreute Blätter, Werke 16: 85: ". . . es (lieset) sich fast besser als das Englische Original." Note this mention of "the English original." 59. Kalidasa, Sakontala, trans. Forster, pp. 194195. 60. A.B. Keith, A History of Sanskrit Literature (Oxford: Clarendon, 1920), pp. viiviii. 61. D.H.H. Ingalls, Sanskrit Poetry (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1967), p. 8. 62. Garland H. Cannon, Sir William Jones, a Bibliography of Primary and Secondary Sources (Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1979), p. 57. 63. The translations of Jones, Bergaigne, Chézy, Hirzel, Gerhard, Fauche, Meier, Lobedanz, and Rückert. 64. The translations of Bruguière, Forster, and Doria. 65. The date given for translation from both the Bengali and Devanagari recensions indicate the original date of publication. In several cases, these editions have not been readily available and the textual analysis has been based on a subsequent edition. Chapter 3. NineteenthCentury Translation Conventions. 1. In the "Enchanted Fruit," Jones wrote of the Mahabharata story of
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Draupadi and her marriage to the five Pandava brothers: Preposteous! that one biped vain Should drag ten housewives in his train, And stuff them in a gaudy cage, Slaves to weak lust or potent rage! Not such the Dwapar Yug! Oh then ONE BUXOM DAME MIGHT WED FIVE MEN!
2. Letters to the 2nd Earl Spencer, August 4, 1787September 22, 1787. In Sir William Jones, The Letters of Sir William Jones, ed. Garland H. Cannon (Oxford: Clarendon, 1970), pp. 365384. 3. Kalidasa, Sacontala, or The Fatal Ring: an Indian drama by Calidas, trans. Sir W Jones (London: Printed for Edwards by J. Cooper, 1790), p. 206. 4. Letter to Earl Spencer, August 24, 1787, in The Letters of Sir William Jones, p. 381. 5. Kalidasa, Sacontala, trans. Jones, p. 204. 6. Kalidasa, Sacontala, trans. Jones, p. 207. 7. Sir William Jones, Poems Consisting Chiefly of Translations of Asiatick Languages (Oxford: Clarendon, 1772), p. 174. 8. Sir William Jones, A Grammar of the Persian Language (London: W Bulmer, 1809), pp. iiiv. 9. Sir William Jones, "Essay on the Poetry of Eastern Nations," Poems, p. 199. 10. Letters of Sir William Jones 1:444445, 2:753. 11. Kalidasa, Sakontala oder der entscheidende Ring, trans. Forster (Leipzig: J.P. Fischer, 1791), p. 287. 12. Kalidasa, Sakontala, trans. Forster, p. 285. 13. Kalidasa, Sakontala, trans. Forster, pp. 285286. 14. Kalidasa, Sacontala, trans. Jones, p. 207. 15. Kalidasa, Sacontala, drame en sept actes mêlé de prose et de vers, trans. A. Bergaigne et P. Lehuguer (Paris: Librairie des Bibliophiles, 1884), p. ix. 16. Edward Young, Les Nuits d'Young, trans. P. P. F. LeTourneur (Paris: LeJay, 1769). p. v. 17. Année littéraire (1776) vol. 7. No.1, p. 61. 18. Anne Louise Germaine Necker, Baronne de StaëlHolstein, "Sulla
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maniere e la utilità delle traduzioni,'' Biblioteca Italiana, January 1816, pp. 439. 19. A. de Staël, De l'Allemagne (Paris: Garnier, 1865), Part 2, ch. 31. 20. Kalidasa, Sakontala, trans. Forster, p. xxiv. 21. G.E. Lessing, Hamburgische Dramaturgie (Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh, n.d.), pp. 5960. 22. Lessing, Hamburgische Dramaturgie, p. 58. 23. Lessing, Hamburgische Dramaturgie, pp. 5758. 24. G. Herder, Werke 5:161. 25. F. Rückert, Jahrbuch für Wissenshaftlichen Kritik (Berlin: n. p. 1834), p. 847. 26. F. Rückert, Jahrbuch, p. 849: He noted Chézy's translation ". . .was im Original Vers ist, . . . . fliesst (in der französischen Prosaübertragung) höchst anmutig, leicht und klar, . . ." 27. F. Rückert, Jahrbuch, p. 851. 28. F. Rückert, Jahrbuch, p. 848. 29. F. Rückert, Jahrbuch, p. 854: Die ganze, dichtverwobene Laubmasse einer solchen indischen Vegetation nach unserer Art in einzelne Ränkchen und Blüten aufzulösen, zerstört den eigentlichen Zauber jener Poesie; man kann einen solchen Satz nicht in Sätzchen zerschneiden, ohne ihm die Sonne des Lebens entzwei zu zerschneiden. Der Engländer und der Franzose konnen nicht anders, wir aber können es . . .
30. F. Rückert, Jahrbuch, p. 853. 31. F. Rückert, Jahrbuch, p. 855. Chapter 4. An Introduction to the Sakuntala. 1. Of the many works attributed to Kalidasa, six are acknowledged by critics to be undoubtedly his. They are the Abhijñanasakuntala, Vikramorvasiya, Malavikagnimitra, Raghuvamsa, Kumarasambhava, and the Meghaduta. The first three are dramas, the next two are epics, and the last is an elegiac poem. The authorship of a seventh work, the Rtusamhara, is doubtful. 2. D.H.H. Ingalls, "Kalidasa and the Attitudes of the Golden Age," Journal of the American Oriental Society (1976) 96 (1):1526. 3. The Abhijñanasakuntala is a nataka in seven acts. Several recen
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sion of the work can be distinguished: the Bengali, the Kashmiri, the Devanagari, and the Southern. The Bengali recension was first translated by Sir William Jones, with subsequent secondary translations by Forster, Bruguière, and Doria. Chézy gave a French translation of it in 1830. R. Pischel (Kiel, 1877) offered the first direct German translation, which was later revised by C. Cappeller. The Devanagari recension was first published by O. Boethlinck (Bonn, 1842) and subsequently by K. Burkhard (Breslau, 1872). No critical edition using all the recensions has yet been undertaken. German translations of the Bengali are by B. Hirzel (Zurich, 1833), and L. Fritze (Chemnitz, 1849). Rückert follows the Devanagari. Lobedanz (Leipzig, 1954) and E. Meier (Stuttgart, 1852) offered free poetic renderings of this recension.It is not known what commentaries, if any, these translators used. It is also not known whether they worked from the same original or what its form (manuscript or printed edition) might have been. For the sake of this study, we assume that they used the same text of their respective recension. Mention is made when commentators support alternate readings. 4. Bharata, Natyasastra, (N.S.) chapter 34, verses 34, 1821, 3438. 5. Kalidasa, Sakuntala, 1.24: "aho madhuramasam darsanam." 6. Kalidasa, Sakuntala, 1.26: "katham iyam kanvaduhita . . .rsirvyavasyati." 7. Kalidasa, Sakuntala, 1.56. 8. Bharata, Natyasastra, 34.2527. 9. A Brahman confidant who is rather a fool. He is, according to Bharata (N.S. 12.121f.; 21.126), ludicrous in dress, speech, and appearance. 10. Kalidasa, Sakuntala, 2.910. 11. Bharata, Natyasastra, 22.429. In this respect, she is contrasted with the shrewd, straightforward, selfish, and taunting Sakuntala of the Mahabharata, who not only introduces herself to the king, but offers herself as well. 12. One of the eight types of marriage. It is formed by the mutual consent of the parties involved. 13. The portrayal of Kanva is particularly interesting: Kalidasa chose not to emphasize the individuality of this character. He presented Kanva, not performing a Yajña ceremony, engaged in teaching or penance, but as a father who is particularly loving and affectionate. He is thereby rendered appealing even to an audience ignorant of the Indian ascetic mode of life. This is an important point: Indian religion is epitomized here by a character who denotes no aspect of religious rule or regimen; he is portrayed in universal terms of goodness and simplicity. Kanva, the hermit, is human enough to be brokenhearted upon the departure of his foster daughter. He is conversant with
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worldly affairs, as can be seen in his advice to Sakuntala and his message to Dusyanta. How could a character like Kanva fail to appeal to nineteenthcentury Western culture, whose vision of clerics and organized religion had been fed by the Enlightenment? How could he not please a German Romantic audience accustomed to finding hermits in their poetry and operas? 14. Kalidasa, Sakuntala, 5.1. 15. Kalidasa, Sakuntala, 5.20. 16. Kalidasa, Sakuntala, 5.10,12,20. 17. Kalidasa, Sakuntala, 5.5,7. 18. Kalidasa, Sakuntala, 5.89,21,22,28. 19. The king's behavior corresponds to Bharata's description of a superior male character (N.S., 34.34) 20. Kalidasa, Sakuntala, 5.8. 21. Bharata, Natyasastra, 34.1821. 22. Kalidasa, Sakuntala, 5.8. 23. Kalidasa, Sakuntala, 5.8. 24. Dusyanta has the temperament and passion of an artist who loves beauty (1.14,17,20). Perhaps this carefree lover has paused and reevaluated the significance of love. Perhaps the realization of his childlessness is the catalyst for such introspection. Kalidasa emphasizes Dusyanta's lack of an heir (1.12). The blessing that the ascetics confer upon him is a boon not only for the king, but also for the protection of the religious life of his realm. Dusyanta's mother tires herself observing vows with the hope of obtaining a continuance of the family line. The reality of the king's childlessness is forced upon his consciousness in a moving scene where Dusyanta swoons after having given his royal judgment upon the inheritance of a childless deceased man. 25. This reunion occurs in the last act. On his return from battling demons, Dusyanta stops off on the mountain Hemakuta in order to pay homage to the sage Kasyapa, whose hermitage is located there. While waiting for the hermit, Dusyanta experiences a strange emotion upon seeing the boy, who happens to resemble him. He immediately feels great affection for the child. Dusyanta learns that the child has the marks of a sovereign king on his palms and is born from the king's family; his mother is related to a nymph and has been abandoned by her husband. Through a clever play on words, he learns that the name of the child's mother is Sakuntala. Dusyanta then successfully touches the child's magical amulet which when touched by anyone other than the child's father, mother, or the child himself, transforms itself into a snake. These "coincidences" convince the king that the child is his own. Sakuntala
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then arrives upon the scene. She is emaciated and in mourning. The child introduces his mother to Dusyanta and their reunion is complete. The sage Kasyapa explains the cause of Sakuntala's repudiation by Dusyanta and thereby removes all misgivings. The sage then pronounces his blessings on the family and sends them all home to Dusyanta's palace. 26. When the selections in question either differ completely in the Devanagari or are absent from it, they do not appear in our analysis, as in A. verse 2 and C. verse 2. Chapter 5. Analysis of The Text. 1. In fact, Hirzel supplies the sloka meter over his own German sloka. 2. Abhinavagupta, Dhvanyalokalocana, Kasmiri Sanskrit Series, n. 135 (Calcutta: Motilal Banarasi Dass, 1952), p. 90, Karika 1.5. 3. Anandavardhana, Dhvanyaloka, ed. Pattbhirama Sastri, (Benares: Benares Sanskrit College, 1940), Karika 1.24. 4. Abhinavagupta, Dhvanyalokalocana under Dhvanyaloka 2.1. 5. H. H. Ingalls, "Kalidasa and The Attitudes of the Golden Age." Journal of the America Oriental Society, 96 (1976): 22. 6. Literally "having much rice." A possessive adjective compound whose last member is a substantive. The whole compound becomes an adjective qualifying another substantive and agreeing with it in gender. 7. D. H.H. Ingalls, "Kalidasa and the Attitudes of the Golden Age," Journal of the American Oriental Society, 96 (1976): 23. 8. Durgaprasanna Raychaudhuri, Sir William Jones and His Translation of Kalidasa's Sakuntala (diss. Universität Göttingen, 1928). 9. S.K. Belvalkar, "The Original Sakuntala", in Sir Ashutosh Mookerjee Silver Jubilee Volumes, 3 vols. (Calcutta: Motilal Banarasi Dass, 1957) 3, pt. 2, p. 356. 10. Literally, "together with the heart," connoting one who has a sense of the beautiful. 11. D. H. H. Ingalls, Sanskrit Poetry (Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University Press, 1967), p. 30. 12. S. Lévi, Le Théâtre indien (Paris: Honoré Champion, 1948), p. 420. 13. D. H. H. Ingalls, Sanskrit Poetry, pp. 2226.
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Chapter 6. Errors in the Host Language. 1. C.3.45 in Hirzel, Fauche; C.3.15 in Jones, Forster, Bruguière, Doria; C.4.20 Chézy. 2. A.3.56 in general; B.2.3436 in Jones, Forster, Bruguière, Bergaigne, Doria, Chézy, Gerhard. 3. B.1.8, in general. 4. C.1.1315 in Jones, Forster, Bruguière, Doria, Fauche, Hirzel. C.2.2332 Jones, Forster, Bruguière, Doria, Bergaigne, Chézy, Hirzel, Gerhard. 5. A.1 before 1 in Bruguière, Doria, Gerhard; A.1 after 12 in Fauche; A.1 after 30 in Gerhard; A.3 after 15 in Chézy; interspersed throughout B.1 in Jones, Forster, Bruguière, Doria; throughout B.1 in Gerhard; B.2 after 41 in Fauche and Doria. 6. A.2.2426 in Jones, Doria; B.1 final lines in Lobedanz ; C.3.48 in Meier, Rückert, Fauche, Bergaigne. 7. A.1.27 in Chézy; A.3.9 in Jones, Forster, Bruguière, Doria, Fauche, Chézy, Rückert, Lobedanz, Meier. 8. As in Jones' translation (1790), page 58, line 12. 9. Jones' translation (1790), page 87, lines 1518, A.1.7 in Forster, Bruguière, Fauche, Doria, Chézy. C.3.after 50 in Fauche; C.4.8 Bergaigne. 10. Jones' translation, page 88, lines 1518. 11. B.2.27 in Jones, Forster, Bruguière, Doria, Hirzel, Gerhard; B.3.27 Bruguière, Doria, Bergaigne, Fauche, Chézy, Gerhard, Lobedanz. 12. A.2.28 in Jones; entire A.2 in Chézy; entire A.3.20 in Bruguière; A.3.15 in Bruguière; A.3.12,15 in Fauche; entire A.3 in Chézy; B.1.30 in Bergaigne; entire B.1 in Chézy. 13. A.1.17 in Bergaigne, Hirzel, Fauche, Chézy. 14. An example of Gerhard's treatment of this theme can be seen in his translation of B.3.10. 15. Rückert initially translated the Sakuntala in 1834, and published revisions in 1867 and 1876. 16. D. H. H. Ingalls, Sanskrit Poetry (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967), pp. 2226. 17. J. L. Masson and M. V. Patwardhan, Aesthetic Rapture, the Rasadhyaya of the Natyasastra (Poona: Deccan College, 1970), 1:32. 18. D. H. H. Ingalls, ''Kalidasa and the Attitudes of the Golden Age,"
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Journal of the American Oriental Society (1976) 96(1): 22. 19. Examples from the Fifth Act are A.2.12, B.2.20, and C.2.18. 20. A.3.56: prajah prajah, B.2.36,39: natisama, sramdya, and also in Act V, vs. 7.6: sthanam, sthitah. 21. B.1.29; B.3.13, Act V, vs. 8.9,15. 22. B.1.2427; C.2; Act V, vs. 7.8, 7.11,9.15. 23. B.2.3446; C.1.35. 24. A.3.2 in Bruguière, Doria, Bergaigne, Rückert, Lobedanz; A.3.9 in Bruguière, Doria, Bergaigne. 25. A.2.6 in Jones, Forster, Gerhard; C.3.31 in Forster, Bruguière, Doria, Rückert, Meier; C.4.48 in Meier. 26. A.2.6 in Bergaigne, Fauche; C.4.48 in Bergaigne, Fauche, Hirzel, Rückert. 27. A.2.6 in Bruguière, Hirzel; C.3.31 in Bergaigne, Gerhard, Lobedanz. C.4.48 in Jones, Bruguière, Doria, Chézy, Gerhard, Lobedanz. 28. B.1.26 in Fauche, Gerhard, Rückert, Lobedanz, Meier. 29. A.3.15 in Doria, Hirzel, Gerhard, Rückert, Lobedanz, Meier. 30. C.2.22 in Jones, Forster, Bruguière, Doria, Bergaigne, Chézy, Gerhard. 28. B.2.21; C.3.40; etc. 29. Although Sanskrit poetics was not fully developed in Kalidasa's time, aesthetics had devised a theory of drama articulated in Bharata's Natyasastra. Bharata is the earliest extant Indian author and critic dealing with theories of beauty and poetry. Kalidasa was not only inspired by his theories, but refers to them and uses the term rasa in a technical sense in his works (Kumarasambhava 5,82; 7,91; Malavikagnimitra 1,4; 2,8; 4,15; and in the Vikramorvasiya 1,8 and 3,18). 30. D. H. H. Ingalls, Sanskrit Poetry, p. 18. 31. E. Gerow, Indian Poetics. In A History of Indian Literature, ed. Jan Gonda, vol. 5, fasc. 3. (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1977), p. 250. 32. Visvanatha Kaviraja, Sahityadarpana . . . with exhaustive notes and the history of Sanskrit Poetics, Ed. P.V. Kane. 2nd ed. (Bombay: P.V. Kane, 1923), 3.3. 33. Bharata makes no distinction between poetry and drama. 34. Bharata, Natyasastra 7.8.348.
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Chapter 7. Dramatic Adaptations. 1. Unfortunately, one can only speculate on the translations that each adapter used. It is known that Gautier used the Chézy version. We must assume that the German adapters, writing after Rückert, had access to his translation. 2. Such "scientific" translations, beginning with that of Rückert, are beyond the scope of this study. They were based on a more informed and sophisticated knowledge of the Sanskrit language. 3. T. Gautier, Sacountala, Ballet Pantomime en deux actes tiré du drame de Calidasa (Paris: Veuve Jonas, 1859), p. 473. 4. Before Sacountala, Gautier wrote two resounding successes (Giselle and La Péri), two failures (Paquerette and Gemma) and the relatively successful ballet, Yanko le bandit. 5. Gautier reduced the action, yet retained plot meaning by adding the character (merely voices in the Sanskrit original) Durvasas and Hamsati. He also added several scenes for clarity's sake (the vision of the funeral pyre, the thwarted execution and Sacountala's pardon of Hamsati). These scenes contributed to the continuity of the play, which otherwise would be confusing in the ballet's pantomime. For a further discussion of the emendations that Gautier effected, see E. Binney, Les Ballets de Théophile Gautier (Paris: Nizet, 1965), p. 331. 6. Gautier, Sacountala, p. 474: Pendant qu'on lui rend tous ces soins, le roi fixe sur la jeune fille des yeux enflammés; il se lève, se rapproche d'elle, et veut exprimer sa passion. Sacountala l'évite avec une coquetterie pudique, mais il finit par la rejoindre, et danse avec elle un pas de deux, qu'il termine en la pressant sur son coeur, comme ivre d'amour.
7. FrançoisJoseph Nolau (1804/81883) and AugusteAlfred Rubé (18151899), famous for their elaborate stage sets, decorated the Second Act. 8. Most significant is the omission of the couple's son, Bharata. As Binney (p. 330) suggests, for a child to be old enough to mime the scene of recognition, a considerable period of time would have had to pass, hence the unity of time, so dear to the French audience, would be broken. A more compelling reason for the omission of the child would, of course, be the omission of Sakuntala's pregnancy. Gautier must have realized the limitations of a obviously pregnant heroine dancing during the repudiation scene. 9. Several instances of this heightening are completely ridiculous. For example, the initial tryst between the lovers is interrupted not by the arrival of Gautami, but by an elephant stampede.
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10. La Presse, July 11, 1837, reprinted in T. Gautier, Histoire de l'art dramatique en France depuis vingtcinq ans (Paris: Edition Hetzel, 185859), 1:38. 11. The set was painted by an artist who had lived in India for fifteen years and knew the appropriate tones for his palette. In reference to the set, Gautier notes, Théâtre: Mystère, comédies et ballets (Paris: Charpentier, 1882), p. 377: "Il ne faut pas s'étonner si sa forêt ne ressemble ni au BasBreau, ni au Bois de Vincennes." 12. Review of the premiere at the Théâtre impérial de l'Opéra on July 14 in the Le Moniteur universel, July 19, 1858, reprinted in T. Gautier, Théâtre, p. 378. Gautier undertook the review himself when the regular critic, Fiorentino, was on vacation. This was the only review of his own work that Gautier wrote. In general, Gautier's ballet criticism comments upon decors, costumes, and ballerinas' physical attributes. Binney (p. 117) sets Gautier's critical work within the context of general dance criticism during the Second Empire, which tended to ignore ballet technique, recounting rather the subject and commenting along the way on the dancers, music, and choreography. 13. Le Moniteur universel, July 19, 1858: M. de Chézy eut été bien étonné de voir madame Ferraris [in the role of Sacountala] interpréter couramment le sanskrit et le pali sans faire une faute, et rendre ainsi du bout de ses petits pieds les slokas qui lui ont donné tant de peine; à l'endroit où il fait une note hérissée de variantes, la danseuse commente le passage difficile en fermant à demi les yeux, en inclinant la tête comme une fleur chargée de rosée, en se penchant avec une volupté morte sur l'épaule de son danseur, et tout le monde comprend.
14. Their first coventure was Selam ("bouquet" in the sense of "lyrical garland,"). First performed at the Salle Ventadour on April 5 and 17, 1850, it was received coldly by the critics. 15. T. Gautier, Théâtre, p. 379. Reyer was acquainted with Gautier through his fellow Marseillais, Méry. It is interesting to note that Reyer's most successful operatic work was the Orientalist masterpiece par excellence, Flaubert's Salammbo. 16. Sacountala was the first "Oriental" literary masterpiece to be adapted for the French stage. The erudition of the work was generally ridiculed as were the exotic names of the characters. Jouvin in the Figaro wrote that Douchmanta meant "en indien [celui] qui a besoin de douches," cited in Binney, p. 292. The critic Janin refered to it as a ''Gautierhabharata." The critic of the Le Ménestrel (July 18, 1858) wrote: "Encore deux ballets comme Sacountala et nous saurons l'indien.'' 17. Of the four stage productions of Sanskrit dramas in nineteenthcen
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tury France (MéryNerval's Chariot d'enfant at the Odeon in 1850, Barrucand's Chariot de terre cuite at the Oeuvre in 1895, LugnéPoe's Sakuntala, also at the Oeuvre, and Gautier's Sacountala), Gautier's ballet alone turned a profit. Considering the dimensions of the theaters involved and the number of the performances given the other productions, the success of Gautier's ballet, with its eighty performances, earning 185,000 francs in receipts, was quite extraordinary. 18. Alfred Freiherrn von Wolzogen, Sakuntala, Schauspiel in fünf Aufzügen Frei nach Kdlidasas Altidischem Drama (Leipzig: Philipp Reclam, 1918). When King Ludwig decided to mount a production of the Sakuntala, he found this adaptation to be too free for his tastes and Rückert's translation to be too literal. He commissioned Karl von Heigel to rework the play for production in 1877. See review by A. Hillebrandt, Beiträge zur Allgemeinen Zeitung, Nov. 29, 1888. 19. Although not a stage adaptation, another rendition of the play was written at this time which follows the pattern of transforming the Sakuntala into a melodrama. Friedrich Martin von Bodenstedt, using both Kalidasa and the Mahabharata version, chose to emphasize the sexual aspect of the lovers' relationship. The addition of a considerably long battle scene (lasting thirty pages) and the suppression of the love story betray Bodenstedt's major concern in fashioning out of the Sakuntala a heroic saga. All of the characters in this version are particularly energetic, including Bharata, who, although a child, fights for his mother's rights, protects her from an ambush, and even proves his own legitimacy. As in a Western, the poem ends with Dusyanta riding off into the sunset to claim his wife and child. 20. L'Anneau de Sakuntala debuted at the Comédie Parisienne on Dec. 10, 1895; the decor was by Paul Ranson (La Revue de l'Oeuvre, Nov. 1927) and the music by Pierre de Bréville (Henri Albert, Mercure de France, Jan. 1896). 21. Lévi based his analysis of Indian theater on an examination of the Sakuntala. 22. Le Soleil, Aug. 6, 1888. 23. Henri Céard, Le Matin, Dec. 11, 1895. 24. Alisa Koonen, Stranitsy iz zhizni (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1975), p. 206. 25. Konst Derzhavin, Kniga o Kamernom teatre 19141934 (Leningrad: Gosizdat, Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1934), p. 53. 26. Alexander Tairov, Notes of a Director, trans. William Kuhlke (Coral Gables, Fla.: Books of the Theater Series, 1969), p. 59. 27. For information concerning the unpublished notebooks kept by Tairov in Paris in the summer of 1914, now located in the Central State Archive of Literature and the Arts in Moscow, see Marilyn Elizabeth Quinn Levy,
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"Sakuntala: a reconstruction of the First Production at the Kamerny Theater by Alexander Tairov," diss., New York University, 1978. 28. No other Sanskrit dramas, which might have formed a different interpretive ground, had been adapted for the stage at this time. The one exception to this was the adaptation of the Mricchakatika by Gérard de Nerval and Joseph Méry entitled Le Chariot d'enfant (Paris: Giraud et Dagneau, 1850). 29. One Indian opera which might have dealt with India on a deeper level was Wagner's projected Buddhist opera Die Sieger, which was never written. 30. Franco Alfano, La Leggenda di Sakuntala (Milan: Riccordi, 1921). The opera had its debut in Bologna on October 12, 1921, and was performed, most recently, in 1982 at the Wexford Festival. The text of La Leggenda di Sakuntala was destroyed in the Allied bombing of Italy, but was reconstructed by Alfano after the war. This opera is of so late a date that it does not concern us in this study. Suffice it to say, Alfano's Sakuntala fit into the tradition of the Literaturoper which emphasized literary fidelity. Alfano altered the original very little. If anything, he added to the characterizations by exploiting for dramatic purposes the child and the charming scenes involving the hermit girls, the bee scene, the king's spying on Sakuntala, and Hamsapadika's song. All these scenes would, of course, be important for the Literaturoper's emphasis on local color. Deletions in the plot are few, the most significant of which occurs at the end of the opera. Sakuntala is not reunited with the king. The son, however, is brought to Dusyanta by a heavenly host and the opera ends in this manner. Is it an Italian touch that the important person to be brought back is not the wife but the son? 31. It is not our task here to examine these works musically as this would be a task for the musicologists and the historians of music. 32. Other lost Sakuntala operas were written by Balduin Zimmermann (lib. H. Schmilinski) performed in Erfurt in March 1905, by Ferdinand Hummel (lib. M. Moller) performed in Berlin on April 29, 1903 at the Schauspiel Haus, and Antonin Modharelli (lib. Jul. Hart) performed in Augsburg in December 1930. Sigismund Bachrich (18411913) wrote a Sakuntala ballet which is also lost. 33. Coehrne's work was entitled a "melodrama" and was based on Monier Williams' English translation, adapted by Alice Morgan Wright. It was performed once for the graduation ceremonies of Smith College in 1905. 34. Weingartner wrote both the music and the libretto. Felix Weingartner, Sakuntala, ein Bühnenspiel in 3 Aufzügen, die Orchesterpartie fur Clavier übertragen (Kassel and Leipzig: Paul Voigt, 1884). 35. Weingartner, Act I, scene 2. Dusyanta sings the aria: "Du hast mich die Zaubermacht der Liebe gelehrt. . . . An deinen Herzen lass' mich seligste
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Wonne trinken, von deinen Lippen strömen süssestes Liebesentzücken. . . . Lass' mich sterben für dich! Sind wir nicht einig ewig selig unvergänglich, unvertrennlich?" 36. Weingartner, Act I, scene 2: "In rascher Glut ward euer Lieb entflammt und selbst müsst ihr euch prüfen, ob auf die Dauer hält, was eines Augenblicks flüchtiger Rausch erzeugt." 37. This opera had its debut on March 9, 1886. T.P. Scharwenka, Sakuntala, lib. Carl Wittowsky (Berlin and Posen: Bote und Bock, 1885). 38. For this reason the Indian poet does not invent his own story which he would have to explain and overload with action. By borrowing a legend from another source, Indian poets can count on the collaboration of the public's memory to complete the exposition for them. 39. It is for this reason that incidental events (such as the provocation of the curse or the finding of the ring) are presented outside of the play. The reliance on the deus ex machina (as in the use of the sage's curse) although common to Western drama and opera, was invariably changed or omitted in the adaptations. 40. Heyne attributed this to poor character development. In a review in the GöttingischeAnzeigen (no. 67, July 23, 1791), p. 1006) he wrote: "Sakontala hat so wenig als Duschmanta einen stark gezeichneten Character." 41. Letter to Goethe of February 20, 1802, in J.C.F. von Schiller, Briefwechsel SchillerGoethe, ed. E. Staiger (Frankfurt am Main: Insel Verlag, 1966), pp. 940 941. Chapter 8. Traduttore Traditore. 1. Michel de Montaigne, Les Essais, 1:24. 2. R.G. Collingwood, An Autobiography (Oxford: Clarendon, 1970), p. 70. 3. Ulrich von WilamowitzMoellendorff, Reden und Vorträge (Berlin: Weidmann, 1925), p. 2. 4. These are four in number: dharma (duty), artha (wealth, prosperity), kama (erotic love), and moksa (liberation). 5. This struggle can most clearly be seen in the adaptations of Wolzogen and Weingartner. Chapter 9. India: A Source of Inspiration or an Alibi for Despair. 1. Gautier's main sources of information on India appear to have been
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Le Théâtre indien of Wilson, translated into French in 1828. He was also familiar with the French Sanskrit translations of his time: Burnouf's Bhagavata Purana (1840), Langlois' Harivamsa (1834), and Fauche's Gitagovinda (1850). Chezy's translation (1830) of Sacountala and its copious notes also supplied him with valuable source material. Gautier culled additional images of local color from other contemporary works, in particular, the novels of Eugène Sue and Bernardin de SaintPierre. 2. Best known for the roman noir, Méry also wrote novels set in the Orient. Héva (18421843), Floride;La Guerre de Nizam (1844), Les Damnés de l'Inde (1859), and Les Damnés de Java (1855). It is important to note that this depiction of India is a conscious fiction. Héva (Paris, 1860), pp. 4748: "Je ne l'ai pas vu. Si je l'avais vu, je ne le peindrais pas. Voici donc mon tableau dont je garantis la ressemblance." Cited in Pierre Jourda, L'Exotisme dans la littératurefrançaise depuis Chateaubriand (Paris: Boivin, 1938) 1:100. 3. La Presse, July 24,1843 (inT. Gautier, Histoire de l'art dramatique en France depuis vingtcinq ans (Paris: Edition Hetzel, 18581859) 3:85: "J'aurais préféré la decoration primitive qui rappelait le tableau de Decamps (Le Supplice des crochets) et laissair à la scène toute son épouvante. . . . Mais les habilles et les prudents ont prétendu que le ballet ne se prêtait pas à de telles violences. . . . " 4. For example, the following description of the ascetic in T. Gautier, Le Partie carrée (Paris: Fasquelle, 1857), p. 193: Je me suis voué, pendant trente ans, aux plus effroyables austérités. . . . J'ai voulu détruire cette chair infirme pour que l'âme dégagée put remonter à la source des choses et lire dans la pensée des dieux. . . . La pluie a fait ruisseler ses torrents glacés et le soleil ses torrents de feu sur mon corps immobile dans la position la plus gênante. Mes ongles ont, en poussant, persémés mes mains fermées. . . hideux, souillé de poussière . . . des termites batissaient leur cite à côté de moi; les oiseaux du ciel faisaient leur nid dans mes cheveux hérisses en brousaille.
5. T. Gautier, Caprices et zigzags (Paris: Hachette, 1855), p. 260. 6. T. Gautier, Le Pavillon surl'eau (Paris: Charpentier, 1872), p. 14; in a letter he wrote while composing Le pavillon sur l'eau, Gautier refers to this method of inspiration: "J'ai à lire plusieurs volumes pour me barbouiller de couleur locale, et j'ai besoin de fourrer mon nez dans beaucoup de pots de japon et autres." Similar thoughts are expressed in Caprices et zigzags (p. 283): "En fait de couleur et de goût, les barbares l'emportent infiniment sur les civilisés." 7. Maxime Du Camp, Souvenirs littéraires (Paris: Hachette, 18821883) 1:418419: C'est à cette époque qu'il a composé presque toutes les pièces d'Émaux
Page 236 et Camées. Un jour, je lui portai le Déivrance de Sakontala [sic], traduite par Chézy, qu'il ne connaissaient pas encore. Il en fut ravi; il examinait avec une joie d'enfant les caractères sanskrits placés en regard du texte. Il méditait un voyage dans l'Indostan et voulait traduire le Mahabharata en vers français. De tout cela il resulta plus tard le ballet de Sakountala, dont Ernest Reyer a fait la musique et qui fut applaudi à l'Opéra.
8. L'Artiste, Dec 14, 1856: "L'art pour l'art signifie un travail dégagé de toute préoccupation autre que celle du beau en luimême." 9. Bayadères, or as they are referred to by their Sanskrit name, devadasis, were "servants of the gods" and functioned as ritual prostitutes and temple dancers. That the bayaderas were exotic, prostitutes, and dancers was almost too fortuitous. Women of such qualities and skills were popular in the nineteenthcentury artistic representation to the point of becoming clichés. In the figure of the bayadera, Gautier had, it seemed, discovered the "real" thing. 10. T. Gautier, L 'Orient, 2 vols. (Paris: Charpentier, 1877) 2:29. Gautier wrote two separate reviews of the bayadera's public performances. These reviews appeared in La Presse of August 20 and 27, 1838. Earlier, he had been among the select few to see them dance in a house they occupied on the Allée des Veuves (La Presse, August 20, 1836; Caprices et zigzags, p. 359). Orient 2:3031: "Nous n'étions separés d'un des rêves de notre vie, d'une de nos dernières illusions poétiques, par une simple porte." 11. The review of the bayaderas performance was reprinted in L'Orient, vols. 1 and 2. 12. See La Presse, Jan 31, 1844, in Charles Victor Maximilien Albert Vicomte de Spoelberch de Lovenjoul, Historie des oeuvres de Théophile Gautier, 2 vols. (Paris: Charpentier, 1887) 1:659ff.; La Presse, June 10, Lovenjoul 1:686; Gautier, Historie de l'art dramatique en France 3:215219. His reminiscences of Amani and her troupe are found in almost everything he was to write. In 1842, he cites her in Mille et deuxième nuits (published in the Musée des families on April 1842, Lovenjoul 1:576). In 1843, an Indian reminds him of one of her codancers (La Presse, Jan. 31, 1844). He mentions them in his reviews of Scribe's opera, Le Dieu et la bayadère (La Presse, Sept. 22, 1845, Lovenjoul 1:768). See also Le Moniteur universel, Oct. 20, 1852, Lovenjoul: 2:1188, 1769ff.; L'Orient 1:101116 and, thirtythree years later, in a description of Indian acrobats at the Cirque d'Hiver (Lovenjoul 2:2335) and again in L'Orient, 2:2122. 13. Also entitled La Belle Jenny. In feuilleton in La Presse of September and October 1848, it was entitled Les Deux Étoiles. It appeared in book form in 1851. The plot involves an Indian prince who attempts a revolt against the English in order to take control of India. The hero, a descendant of Dusyanta, is encouraged in this venture by his beloved, a woman who bears a remarkable resemblance both to the bayadera Amani and Kalidasa's Sakuntala. In fact, La
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Partie carrée can be seen as an intermediary piece, inspired by Chézy's Sakuntala translation and predating Gautier's own Sacountala by ten years. 14. H. David, "l'Exotisme hindou chez Théophile Gautier," Revue de littérature comparée 3, no. 9 (1929), p. 555. 15. Mention should be made of another curious work by Gautier, Avatar, which deals with metempsychosis. 16. In his Historie du romantisme (Paris: Charpentier, 1874), p. 359, Gautier notes that the poet's task is to sculpt beauty ("sculpter la beauté"). Each Indian woman's beauty relies on the harmony of color, form, and brilliance as found in Gautier's definition of beauty, formulated in Mlle. de Maupin (1835). Amani is described primarily in terms of form and brightness; she can, à la rigueur, be reduced to an ivory or gold statue. Priyamvada is described in terms of light, both natural and created by the painter, and line sculpted by the artist. Sakuntala is described as being in harmony with nature's perfumes, music, and color. 17. T. Gautier, La Revue des deux mondes, April 1, 1841: "L'art c'est la beauté, l'invention perpetuelle du détail, le choix de mots, le soin exquis de l'exécution." 18. R. Töpffer, "Du Beau dans l'art," Revue des deux mondes, July 1, 1847. Cf. T. Gautier, Voyage en Espagne (Paris: Charpentier, 1879), p. 61, and T. Gautier, Constantinople (Paris: Michel Levy, 1854), p. 326. 19. The country is presented both as a figurative and a literal model in Gautier's essay "L'Inde" (1851). Its entirety can be encompassed in the display cases of the Universal Exposition in London. L'Orient 1:301: "[Ils] ont mis l'Inde tout entière dans des caisses et l'ont apportée à l'Exposition." Similarly, L'Orient 1:313: ''Ces petits compartiments, c'est le sol de l'Inde, depuis ses profondeurs jusqu'à sa surface," and L'Orient: 316: "Un paysage immense sort de ces étroits casiers.'' See also "Les Éléphants de la pagode," in L'Orient: 321, apropos a spectacle at the Cirque Olympique, where Gautier describes his India: II fallait nous faire voir ces pagodes taillées dans les montagnes et soutenues par des bottes de colonnes; ces escaliers de terrasses et ces supersupositions de tours de Babel que Dieu a oublié d'abattre; ces basreliefs mysterieux où se déroulent en strophes de granit les poèmes des cosmogonies et des avatars; ces idoles aux bras de polype, à la trompe d'éléphant, aux jambes cerclées de bracelets, abimées dans la contemplation du lotus mystique; la statue tricéphale de Brahma, de Vichnou et de Shiva; tout ce peuple de divinités hideuses, tortilées comme des racines de mandragore, pleines d'excroissances et de ramifications inventées par le symbolisme effréné de l'Inde . . . .
This paragraph shows that a spectacle as culturally mediocre as the Cirque
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Olympique fulfilled Gautier's desire to make a decor out of India, consisting of titanic architecture, sculpture, vegetation, and mystery. 20. In describing Priyamvada, Gautier writes: "son teint avait l'éclat de l'or . . . semblable à celle que le temps a donnée aux chairs peintes par Titien" (La Partie carrée, p. 186). Amani is "comme les anciennes statues grecques . . . [sa] face est immobile comme un masque de bronze" ("Les Bayadères,'' p. 361) and "elle a l'air d'une statue de la Mélancolie personifiée (p. 364). To a certain extent, the bayadera is similar to the Algerian negresses "aux figures bestiales et aux corps d'une pureté de forme à défier les plus beaux bronzes." See also "En Afrique'' in Loin de Paris (Paris: Charpentier, 1881), pp. 128129, 41, 46, 5859. 21. A. de Lamartine, Cours familier de littérature (Paris: privately printed, 18551869), pp. 206220. 22. Lamartine, Cours, pp. 209210. 23. Lamartine, Cours, p. 206. 24. Lamartine, Cours, p. 210. 25. Lamartine, Cours, p. 215: Ce regard me disait clairement, avec un déchirant reproche de ma cruauté gratuite: "Qui estu? Je ne te connais pas, je ne t'ai jamais offensé. Je t'aurais aimé peutêtre; pourquoi m'astu frappé à mort? Pourquoi m'astu ravi ma part de ciel, de lumière, d'air, de jeunesse, de joie, de vie? Que vont devenir ma mère, mes frères, ma compagne, mes petits qui m'attendent dans la fourré, et qui ne reverront que ces touffes de mon poil diseminé par le coup de feu, et ces gouttes de sang sur la bruyère? N'y atil pas làhaut un vengeur pour moi ou un juge pour toi? Et cependant je t'accuse, mais je te pardonne; il n'y a pas de colère dans mes yeux, tant ma nature est douce, même contre mon assassin. II n'y a que de l'étonnement, de la douleur, des larmes.
26. Friedrich Schlegel, Friedrich Schlegels Briefe an den Bruder AugustWilhelm, ed. O. Walzel (Berlin: Speyer und Peters, 1890), p. 631: "Was sagst Du zu Goethes Divan? Wirst Du es ihm so ausgehen lassen, dass er drausen unverständig und wie ein Rohrsperling auf alles Indische schimpft?' 27. F. Schlegel, Seine prosaische Jugendschriften, 17921802, ed. Jakob Minor, 2nd ed., 2 vols. (Vienna: Konegen, 1906) 1:136. 28. F. Schlegel, Gespräche über die Mythologie und symbolische Anschauung, Sämtliche Werke, 15 vols. (Vienna: Klang, 1846) 4:174. 29. Schlegel, Sämtliche Werke 4.197. 30. Schlegel, Sämtliche Werke 2:357ff.: Es fehlt unserer Poesie an einem Mittepunkt, wie es die Mythologie für
Page 239 die Alten war, und alles Wesentliche worin die moderne Dichtkunst der antiken nachsteht, lässt sich in die Worte zusammenfassen: wir haben keine Mythologie. Aber, setze ich hinzu, wir sind nähe daran, eine zu erhalten.
31. F. Schlegel, Rede iiber die Mythologie in Seine prosaischen Jugendschriften 2:362. 32. F. Schlegel, Seine prosaischen Jugendschriften 2:362: Wären uns die Schätze des Orients so zugänglich wie der des Altertums! Welche neue Quelle von Poesie könnte uns aus Indien fliessen, wenn einige deutsche Künstler mit der Universalität und Tiefe des Sinnes, mit dem Genie der Übersetzung, das ihnen eigen ist, die Gelegenheit besässen, welche eine Nation, die immer stumpfer und brutaler wird, wenig zu brauchen versteht.
33. Brief to Ludwig Tieck from Friedrich Schlegel on September 15, 1803. In Lüdwig Tieck und die Brüder Schlegel, ed. H. von Lüdeke (Frankfurt am Main: Baer, 1930), p. 140: "Hier ist eigentlich die Quelle aller Sprachen, aller Gedanken und Gedichte des menschlichen Geistes; alles stammt aus Indien ohne Ausnahme. Ich habe über vieles eine ganz andere Ansicht und Einsicht bekommen, seit ich aus dieser Quelle schöpfen kann." 34. F. Schlegel, Reise nach Frankreich, Betrachtungen in Kritische FriedrichSchlegelAusgabe, ed. Ernst Behler, 24 vols. (Munich: Ferdinand Schöningh, 1966) 7:7374. 35. Schlegel, Kritische FriedrichSchlegelAusgabe, 7:7879. 36. Schlegel, KritischeFriedrichSchlegelAusgabe, 7:74. 37. Manava Dharma Sastra 1:9, 1213, 15, 17, 1920. 38. Sivaism was previously unknown to him, being absent from the works he knew, namely the Manava Dharma Sastra, Bhagavad Gita, and the Sakuntala. 39. Among the authors dealing with this theme we can cite Julius Bahnsen, Adolf von Schack, Countess Ida von HahnHahn, H. Elissen, W. Jensen, and the French Spiritualists and Mesmerists. 40. BhagavadGita, Der Gesang des Erhabenen, trans. Theodor Springmann (Hamburg: n.p., 1920), pp. 1920.
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———. Abhijnanasakuntala. Bengali Recension, ed. Richard Pischel, rev. Carl Cappeller, Harvard Oriental Series, no. 16. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1922. ———. Sacontala, or, The Fatal Ring: an Indian Drama by Calidas. Translated by Sir William Jones. Calcutta: Joseph Copper, 1789. ———. Sacontala, or, The Fatal Ring: an Indian Drama by Calidas. Translated by Sir William Jones. London: Printed for Edwards by J. Cooper, 1790. ———. Sakontala; oder Der entscheidende Ring, ein indisches Schauspiel von Kalidas. Aus den Ursprachen sanskrit und prakrit ins englische und aus diesem ins deutsche übersetzt, mit erläuterung. 1st ed. Trans. Georg Forster. Mainz and Leipzig: J. P. Fischer, 1791. ———. Sakontala; oder Der entscheidende Ring, ein indisches Schauspiel von Kalidas. Aus den Ursprachen sanskrit und prakrit ins englische und aus diesem ins deutsche übersetzt, mit erläuterung. 2nd ed. Trans. Georg Forster. Frankfurt am Main: A. Hermann, 1803. ———. Sacontala, on l'anneau fatal. Drame traduit de la langue sanskrit en anglais par Sir William Jones et de l'anglais en français par le Cit. A. Bruguière. Paris: Treuttel et Würtz, 1803. ———. Sacontala, ossia L'anello Fatale. Dramma tradotto dalla lingua Orientale Sanskrit nell 'idioma inglese dal Sig. W Jones, indi dall 'inglese in francese dal Sig. A. Bruguière ultimamente dal francese in italiano. Trans. Luigi Doria. Darmstadt: n.p., 1815. ———. Sakontala, oder der verhängnissvolle Ring; indisches Drama in sechs Aufzügen. Metrisch für die Bühne bearbeitet. Trans. Wilhelm Gerhard. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus, 1820. ———. La Reconnaissance de Sacountala, drame sanscrit et pracrit de Calidasa. . . accompagné d'une traductionfrançaise, de notes philologiques, critiques et littéraires et suivie d'une
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appendice. Trans. Antoine de Chézy. Paris: DondeyDupré, 1830. ———. Sakuntald, oder der Erkennungsring. Trans. Bernhard Hirzel. Zurich: Drell, Füssli, 1833. ———. RingSakuntala. Trans. Otto Böthlingk. Bonn: H. B. Koenig, 1842. ———. Sakuntala, metrisch übersetzt. In Indisches Theater, vol. 2. Trans. Ludwig Fritze. Chemnitz: E. Schmeissner, 1849. ———. Sakuntala, ein Indisches Schauspiel. Trans. Ernst Meier. Stuttgart: J. B. Metzler, 1852. ———. Oeuvres complètes de Kalidasa, traduites du sanscrit en français pour la première fois par Hippolyte Fauche. Paris: A. Durand, 18591860. ———. Sakuntala, Aus dem Nachlass. Trans. Friedrich Rückert. Ed. H. Rückert. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus, 1867. ———. Sakuntala, annulo recognita, fabula scenica calidasi. In usum scholarum academicarum textum recensionis Devanagaricae recognovit atque glossario Sanskrito et Pracrito Trans. Carolus Burkhard. Breslau: J. U. Kerni, 1872. ——— .Sakuntala, indisches Schauspiel. Trans. Edmund Lobedanz. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus, 1878. ———. Sacountala; Drame en sept actes mêlé de prose et de vers. Trans. Abel Bergaigne and Paul Lehuguer. Paris: Librarie des Bibliophiles, 1884. ———. Theater of Memory: The Plays of Kalidasa. Ed. Barbara Stoler Miller. Trans. Edwin Gerow, David Gitomer, and B. S. Miller. New York: Columbia University Press, 1984. Keith, Arthur Berridale. A History of Sanskrit Literature. Oxford: Clarendon, 1920. Koonen, Alissa. Stranitsy iz zhizni. Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1975.
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Lamartine, Alphonse de. Cours familier de littérature. Paris: privately printed, 18551869. Lessing, Gottfried Ephraim. Hamburgische Dramaturgie. Paderborn: Schöningh, 1894. ———. Samtliche Werke. 20 vols. Ed. K. Lachmann. Rev. F. Muncker. Berlin: Voss'scher Buchhandlung, 18861924. Lévi, Sylvain. Le Théâtre indien. Paris: Honoré Champion, 1948. Levy, Marilyn Elizabeth Quinn. ''Sakuntala: a Reconstruction of the First Production at the Kamerny Theater by Alexander Tairov.'' Doctoral dissertation, New York University, 1978. Lovenjoul, Charles, Vicomte Spoelberch de. Histoire des Oeuvres de Théophile Gautier. 2 vols. Paris: G. Charpentier, 1887. Martino, Pierre. L'Orient dans la littérature française aux XVIIe siècle. Paris: Hachette, 1906. Masson, J. L. and M. V. Patwardhan. Aesthetic Rapture, the Rasadhyaya of the Natyasastra. 2 vols. Poona: Deccan College, 1970. Méry, Joseph de. Les Damnés de Java. Paris: Michel Lévy, 1868. ———. Floride. Paris: Hachette, 1859. ———. Les Damnés de l'Inde. Paris: Michel Lévy, 1868. ———. La Guerre de Nizam. Paris: Hachette, 1863. ———. Héva. Paris: Calmann Lévy, 1896. Mukherjee, S. N. Sir William Jones: A Study in Eighteenth Century British Attitudes to India. London: Cambridge University Press, 1968.
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Naipaul, V. S. The Return of Eva Perón with the Killings in Trinidad. New York: Knopf, 1980. Nerval, Gérard de and Joseph Méry. Le Chariot d'enfant. Paris: D. Giraud et J. Dagneau, 1856. Oppenberg, Ursula. Quellenstudien zu Friedrich Schlegels Übersetzungen aus dem Sanskrit. Marburg: N. G. Elwert, 1965. Poliakov, Léon. Le Mythe aryan, essai sur les sources du racisme et des nationalismes. Paris: CalmanLévy, 1971. Praz, Mario. The Romantic Agony. Trans. Angus Davidson. London: Oxford University Press, 1933. Raychaudhuri, Durgaprasanna. "Sir William Jones and His Translation of Sakuntala." Doctoral disseration, Universität Göttingen, 1928. Riencourt, Amaury de. The Soul of India. London: Jonathan Cape, 1961. Rogerius, Abraham. Offne Thür zu dem verborgen Heydenthum. Nüremberg: J. Schipper, 1663. Rückert, Friedrich. Jahrbuch für wissenschaftlichen Kritik. No. 101. Berlin: n.p., 1834. Said, Edward. Orientalism. New York: Pantheon Books, 1978. ———. The World, the Text and the Critic. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983. Scharwenka, T. P. Sakuntala, Libr. Carl Wittowsky. Berlin and Posen: Bote und G. Bock, 1885. Schiller, J. C. F. von. Briefwechsel SchillerGoethe, Ed. E. Staiger. Frankfurt am Main: Insel Verlag, 1966. ———. Göttingische Anzeigen. No. 70, April 30, 1791.
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Schlegel, A. W. Sämtliche Werke. Ed. E. Böcking. 12 vols. Leipzig: Weidmann, 18461847. Schlegel, A. W., and F. Schlegel. Die Brüder Schlegel, Briefe von und an Friedrich und Dorothea Schlegel. Ed. J. Körner. Stuttgart: Union deutsche Verlagsgesellschaft, 1962. Schlegel, A. W., F. Schlegel and L. Tieck. Ludwig Tieck und die Brüder Schlegel. Ed. H. von Lüdeke. Frankfurt am Main: Baer, 1930. Schlegel, F. Athenaeum. 3 vols. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1800. ———. Friedrich Schlegels Briefe an den Bruder AugustWilhelm. Ed. O. Walzel. Berlin: Speyer und Peters, 1890. ———. Reise nach Frankreich, Betrachtungen in Kritische FriedrichSchlegelAusgabe. Ed. E. Behler. 24 vols. Munich: Schöningh,1966. ———. Smtliche Werke. 2nd ed. 15 vols. Vienna: J. Majer, 18221825. ———. Seine prosaische Jugendschriften, 17921802. Ed. Jakob Minor. 2nd ed. 2 vols. Vienna: Konegen, 1906. ———. Uber die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier, Intro. Sebastiano Timpanaro. Amsterdam: John Benjamin, 1977. Schwab, Raymond. La Renaissance orientale. Paris: Payot, 1950. Sommerfield, Susanne. Indienschau und Indiendeutung romantischer Philosophen. Tschudi: Gilarus, 1943. StaëlHolstein, Anne Louise Germaine Necker, Baronne de. De l'Allemagne. Paris: Garnier Frères, 1865. ———. "Sulla maniere e la utilità delle traduzioni," Biblioteca Italiana, January 1816, pp. 4349. Strich, F. Goethe and World Literature. Bern: A. Francke, 1946.
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Taha Hussein, Moënis. Le Romantisme français et l'Islam. Beirut: Dar Al Maaref, 1962. Tairov, Alexander. Notes of a Director. Trans. William Kuhlke. Coral Gables, Fla.: Books of the Theater Series, 1969. Thalia. Ed. J. C. F. von Schiller. 3 vols, 12 numbers. Leipzig: Gösschen, 178591. Tilakasiri, J. "Kalidasa's Poetic Art and Erotic Traits." Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 5859 (1978): 36574. Töpffer, R. "Du Beau dans l'Art." Revue des deux mondes, July 1, 1847. Turner, Bryan S. "Orientalism and the Problem of Civil Society," Orientalism, Islam and Islamists. Eds. Asaf Hussain, Robert Olson, Jamil Qureschi. Brattleboro, Ve.: Amana, 1984, pp. 2342. Van Teighem, Paul. "L'Annee littéraire" (17541790) comme intermédiaire en France des littératures étrangères. Paris: F. Rieder, 1917. Vico, Giovanni Giambattisto. La Scienza Nuova. Ed. Fausto Nicolini. 4th ed. Bari: G. Laterza, 1953. WeinbergerThomas, Catherine, ed. L'Inde et l'imaginaire. Paris: École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, 1988. Visvanatha Kaviraja. Sahitadarpana. . . with exhaustive notes and the history of Sanskrit Poetics. Ed. P. V. Kane. 2nd ed. Bombay: P. V. Kane, 1923. Weingartner, Felix. Sakuntala, ein Bühnenspiel in 3 Aufzügen, die Orchesterpartie für Clavier übertragen. Kassel and Leipzig: Paul Voight, 1884. WilamowitzMoellendorff, Ulrich von. Rede und Vorträgen. 2 vols. Berlin: Weidmann, 1925.
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Index A abhijñana, 40 Abhijñanasakuntala, 9 Abhinavagupta, 82 Absolute, 181, 206 ahimsa, 178 Alfano, F., 188 Anandavardhana, 82 anarya, 40 Anneau de Sakuntala, L', 18586 AnquetilDuperron, A., 8 antisemitism, 4 aranya, 124 Aristotelian dramatic theory, 11, 14, 16, 18, 35, 154, 18182, 190, 194, 19798 art, 13, 177; Greek, 13; Indian, 13 art pour art, 1', 2023 Arthasastra, 127 Asiatic Society of Calcutta, 24, 27 Athenaeum (Schlegel), 1 atman, 104, 177, 18081 avibramah, 122 B Bahuvrihi compounds, 108 Balmont, 186 Barrucand, 18586 Barthélemy St. Hilaire, 204 Batz, P., (see P. Mainländer) Baudelaire, C., theory of correspondence of, 18 Belvalkar, S.K., 125, 157 Berchet, G., 16 Bergaigne, A., 23, 29, 31, 174, 196; analysis of translation, 6061, 9194, 13944 Bernal, M., 4 BhagavadGita, 8, 20 Bharata, 17, 35, 81 Bhartrhari, 7 bhava, 37, 181 Biblioteca Italiana (de Stael), 30 Bibliothèque Nationale, 8, 42 Bies J., 3 Brahma, 8 Brahmanism, 208 Bruguière, A., 23, 173; analysis of translation, 5456, 8588, 13135 Buddhism, 208 C Caprices et Zigzags (Gautier), 202 Carré, J.M., 3 Catel, 188 Chézy A. de, 23, 33, 174, 196, 204; analysis of translation, 6366, 97101, 15253 classicism, 1516 Coehrne, L.A., 189 Colebrooke, H.T., 21 Collingwood, R.G., 194 Conciliatore, 16 Cours familier de littérature (de Lamartine), 17 Cousin, Victor, 204 Crusaders, 2 D DaraShikoh, 8 death, 52, 68 délicatesse, 30 Descartes, R., 148 Deutsche Monatschrift, 12 Deutsche Schaubühne, 31 dharma, 41, 8082, 85, 100, 106, 108, 110, 143, 175 dhvani, 58, 8182
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distich, 20 Doria, L., 23, 173, 179, 196; analysis of translation, 5758, 8891, 13539 drama, as metaphor, 19697; Greek, 15, 181; heroes and heroines in, 35; Sanskrit, 15, 17, 18182, 190 dramaturgy, Sanskrit, 17 Du Camp, M., 202 Dufrenoy, M., 3 Durvasas (the sage), 38 Dusyanta, King, 35, 148 E East, the, aesthetic discovery of, 56; idealization of, 206; Western reception of, 3, 58; see also Orient EastWest, in comparison, 3, 10, 17677, 18182 Eckstein, Baron d', 17 ego, 210 Eigenthum, 130 ElNouty, H., 3 eros, 174 eroticism, 14243, 148, 174 exoticism, 3, 9, 2023; as myth, 4 F fatalism, 208 Fauche, 23, 174, 204; analysis of translation, 6163, 9597, 14448 Flaubert, G., 202 Flotow, 189 form, in translation, 32 Forster, G., 1214, 19, 20, 23, 27, 31, 173, 196; analysis of translation, 5254, 8385, 127130 Fortunio (Gautier), 202 Foucault, M., 5 French classicism, 173 French poetic theory, 18 French translation, 29 françiser, 94, 173 G gandhavahah, 111 gandharva marriage, 37 Gautami, 39 Gautier, T., 183, 195, 2013; Caprices et Zigzags, 202; Fortunio, 202; Partie carrée, La, 203 Geistesbewegung, 2 Gerhard, W., 23, 68, 17475, 196; analysis of translation, 6870, 1036, 157161 German nationalism, 28 Gerstenberg, 14 Gessner, 2 Gestalt, 178 Gitagovinda, 23 God, 180 Goethe, J.W von, 7, 12, 19, 21, 23, 182, 206; theory of translation of, 1819; "Prolog in Himmel", 13 Goldmark, K., 189 Gottsched, J.C., 15, 31 Grammar of the Persian Language (Jones), 27 Gubernatis, A. de, 18 Günderrode, K. von, 7, 210 Gupta Dynasty, 35 H Hamilton, A., 19 Hamsapadika, 39 Hartmann, E. von, 209 hava, 37 Hazard, P., 2 Heine, H., 13 Herder, J.G., 7, 13, 1617, 20, 32: Humanitat, 28; Volkslieder, 32; Von deutscher Art und Kunst, 32; Zerstreute Blätter, 14 hermeneutics, 1112, 195 heroheroine type, 35, 152 Hérold, A.F., 185 Heyne, C.G., 16, 190 Hierseyn, 28 Hirzel, B., 23, 33, 175, 196; analysis of translation, 6668, 101103, 15357 Histoire gallante, 2 History of Sanskrit Literature (Keith), 21
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Hitopadesa, 8 Homer, 15 Hopffer, 189 Hué, 189 humanism, 7, 16 Humanitat (Herder), 28 Humbolt, W. von, 7, 176 I idealism, 206 imagination, 7 imperialism, 3 Ingalls, D., 22 India, Indian culture, 6, 1415, 18, 17273; as locus of inspiration, 6, 2034, 209210; as "phantom", 68; conception of happiness, 110; conception of personality, 1523; European knowledge of, 1; and fatalism, 2089; Goethe's interest in, 12; and pessimism, 67, 2089; the Universal in, 17677; Western appropriation of, 20311; Western reception of, 69 Indische Bibliothek (Schlegel), 176 Indology, 24 irony, in Sanskrit literature, 51 Italian Romanticism, 16 J Jones, Sir William, 89, 12, 19, 2325, 29, 31, 33, 1723; analysis of translation, 4952, 7982, 11927; dependency upon his translations, 14748; grammatical problems, 51; Grammar of the Persian Language, 27 Jourda, P., 3 K Kabbani, R., 4 Kalidasa, 9, 20, 25, 35, 39, 8182, 108, 124; Goethe's praise of, 1213; poetics of, 2223, 152; use of simile by, 51 kañchouki, 63 Kant, E., 208, 210 Kanva, 3638 karma, 148, 197, 210 katharsis, 15, 181 kavya, 21, 23, 163 Keith, A.B., A History of Sanskrit Literature, 21 kingship, 52, 110 Kirby, 189 Koonen, A., 186 Kuznetsov, 186 L Lamartine, A. de, 194, 2045; Cours familier de litterature, 17 Laws of Manu, see Manava Dharma Sastra Lesedrama, 191 Lessing, G.E., 1415, 3132 Le Tourneur, Nuits d'Young, 29 Lévi, S., 152, Théâtre indien, 18687 Lobedanz, E., 23, 175; analysis of translation, 7273, 108110, 164166 LugnéPoe, 18586 M Madhavya (the vidusaka), 37 Mahabharata, 20, 205 Mainländer, P., 209 Manava Dharma Sastra, 8, 20, 25, 81, 207 Martino, P., 3 Massenet, 188 Meghaduta, 122 Meier, E., 17, 23; analysis of translation, 7374, 11012, 16669 Menaka (nymph), 36 Mery, J., 202 Metastasio, 188 methodology and translation, 1624 Midsummer Night's Dream, A, 32 mimesis, 197 Mir iskusstva, 187 MonierWilliams, Sir M., 173 Montaigne, M. de, 193 Montesquieu, 2 mortality, 174 Mricchakatika, 186 mysticism, 177
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Mythe aryen, Le (Poliakov), 4 mythology, 206 N nagara, 124 Nagarikavrttya, 177 nataka, 11, 181 nationalism, 16 Nature, 152, 180; poetry and, 14; revalorization of, 2; Sakuntala and, 12224 Natyasastra, 17, 35, 37, 182 Nazism, 4 Neumann, J.P., 188 Nietzsche, F., 208 nirvana, 209 nirvrtti laksana dharma, 82 Nuits d' Young (Le Tourneur), 29 O Open Deure tot het verborgen Heydendom (Rogerius), 7 Orient, conceptions of, 12; Europe's encounter with, 6; political domination of, 2 Orientalism, 9; as imperialism, 3; current critism of, 45; politics of, 5 Ossian, 2, 16, 32 "Other", objectification of, 4 P pada, 81 Panini's Grammar, 26 Partie carrée, La (Gautier), 203 Perfall, K. von, 188( )89 pessimism, 6, 201, 20810 philology, 195 Pischel, 21 Plato, 208 poetry, Nature and, 14 Poliakov, L., Le Mythe aryen, 4 Prakrit, 2021, 33, 42 prajah, 68, 71 pravrtti laksana dharma, 82 Praz, M., 3 primitive, 14 Prince, The, 127 pun, in Sakuntala, 81, 103, 108, 110 purusarthas, 196 R racism, 4 rajyam, 110 Ramayana, 20, 123 Rameau, 188 rasa, 17, 35, 58, 8182, 181, 187, 190, 197 Rasadhyaya, 17 rationalism, 206 Raychaudhuri, D., 125 Reincourt, A. de, The Soul of India, 4 religious symbolism, 13 Renaissance, 1, 2 Renaissance Orientale, La (Schwab), 4 Reyer, E., 184 Rg Veda, 124 Rogerius, A., Open Deure tot het verborgen Heydendom, 7 Romantic literature, 16 Rousseau, V.J., 7 Ruckert, F., 22, 23, 3334, 196; analysis of translation, 7072, 106108, 16164 S Sacountala ballet, 18385 sahrdaya, 152 Said, E.W., Orientalism, 34 SaintPierre, B. de, 2 Sakuntala, 8, 36, 12325, 152 Sakuntala, analysis of, 3543, 5152; as ballet, 18385; Bengali recension, 23, 42; Bergaine's translation of, 5861, 9194, 13944; Bruguiere's translation of, 5456, 8588, 13135; Chezy's translation of, 6366, 97101, 14853; and classicism, 1516, 19495; Devanagari recension, 23, 42; Doria's translation of, 18, 5658, 8891, 13539; dramatic
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adaptations of, 18391; eroticization of, 148; Fauche's translation of, 6163, 9597, 14448; Forster's translation of, 13, 20, 5254, 8385, 12730; Gerhard's translation of, 6870, 1036, 15761; Goethe and, 1213, 19; Herder and, 13; Hirzel's translation of, 6668, 1013, 15357; Jones' translation of, 12, 20, 25, 4951, 7980, 11922; Lobedanz' translation of, 7273, 10810, 16466; Meier's translation of, 7374, 110112, 16669; as opera, 18789; reception of in West, 9, 1116, 18, 182, 198, 201; Ruckert's translation of, 7072, 1068, 16164; Schlegel's translation of, 20; Western translation of, 23, 17182 samavayasambardha, 124 samdhi, 23 Sanskrit, 1, 9, 12, 21, 103, 17481; use of compounds in, 108, 179; early studies of, 4, 810; use of irony in, 51; use of negative in, 178; use of suggestion in, 152; Schlegel's study of, 1920; selections, 4647, 745, 112115; translation of, 9, 22 Sanskrit literature, 810, 152, 190 santamana, 54, 71 sastra, 127 satire, 2 Scharwenka, L.P., 189 Schiller, J.C.F. von, 106, 19091, 198 Schlegel, A.W, 18, 32, 206; Indische Bibliothek, 176 Schlegel, Friedrich, 12, 19, 23, 2059; Athenaeum, 1; Über die Sprache und Weischeit der Indier, 4, 20, 206 Schopenhauer, A., 208 Schubert, F., 188 Schwab, R., La Renaissance Orientale, 4 Schwärmerei, 7 Scienza Nuova (Vico), 176 Self, see atman Sesha, 94 Shakespeare, W, 15, 18, 19, 29, 32 Sivaism, 207 sloka, 20, 51, 108 Sophocles, 15 soul, 18 Soul of India, The (de Riencourt) 4 "spiritual discovery", 56 Springmann, T., 21011 srsti, 103; see also Nature Stanislavsky school, 186 Stael, A. de, 3031; Allemagne, De 1', 30; Biblioteca Italaina, 30 Sudraka, 186 Sue, E., 202 sukha, 108 svarga, 205 Symbolist school, 186 T Tairov, A., 18687 tantrayitva, 52 Théâtre de l'Oeuvre, 18586 Théâtre de Varietes, 202 Théâtre indien (Levi), 186 Tieck, 33 Tomaschek, J.W, 188 traduttore traditore, 193199 translation, 9, 1724, 2633; difficulties of, 18, 2223, 43; Goethe's theory of, 19 transmigration, 210 trochaic tetrameter, 106 Turandot, 188 U Universal Being, 180 Universality, 157, 17677, 197 Upanishads, 8 V vailaksanya, 82 Vedanta, 7
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vibramah, 156 Vico, G., Scienza Nuova, 176 vidusaka, 37 vinipatah, 127 Visnu, 94 Visvamitra, 36 Volk, 68, 71, 85 Volkslieder (Herder), 32 Von deutscher Art und Kunst, (Herder), 32 Voss, J.H., 19, 196 W Wagner, R., 188, 208 Weingartnerr, F., 189 Weltanschauung, 196, 201 Western culture, 6, 153 Western bias, 124, 137 Westöstlicher Diwan (Goethe), 12 Wieland, 19 WilamowitzMoellendorff, U. von, 195 Wilkens, C., 8, 204 will, 210 wirkungsgeschichtliches Bewusstsein, 6 Wolzogen, A.F. von, 185, 189 Z Zerstreute Blätter (Herder), 14