transisting the space time 9780170419644
504 61 19MB
English Pages 0 [682] Year 1985
Recommend Papers
- Author / Uploaded
- john buvkets
File loading please wait...
Citation preview
THIRD EDITION
SUPPORTING EDUCATION Karen Kearns
This book is dedicated to my beautiful mother, Leila, who taught her children that the most important thing in life is family.
BRIEF CONTENTS PART
A
WORKING IN A SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT
CHAPTER 1
The role of the education support worker
CHAPTER 2
Working in a legislative environment
CHAPTER 3
Working with diverse people
CHAPTER 4
Health and safety
CHAPTER 5
Child protection
PART
B
SUPPORTING LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 6
Introduction to child and adolescent development and learning
CHAPTER 7
Physical growth, development and learning
CHAPTER 8
Social and emotional development and learning
CHAPTER 9
Language development and learning
CHAPTER 10 Cognitive development and learning CHAPTER 11
Supporting learning
CHAPTER 12
Contributing to planning and educational programs
PART
C
CHAPTER 13
LITERACY AND NUMERACY Introduction to becoming literate
CHAPTER 14 Writing and literacy CHAPTER 15
Reading
CHAPTER 16
Supporting numeracy development
PART
D
SUPPORTING STUDENTS WITH ADDITIONAL NEEDS
CHAPTER 17
Introduction to supporting students with additional needs and disabilities
CHAPTER 18
Support for students with disabilities
CHAPTER 19
Supporting English language learners
CHAPTER 20 Supporting behaviour
v
CONTENTS GUIDE TO THE TEXT
xiv
GUIDE TO THE ONLINE RESOURCES
xviii
PREFACE
xx
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
xxi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
xxi
PART
A
WORKING IN A SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT
CHAPTER 1 The role of the education support worker
Duty of care and student safety_______________________________ 31
1
Hazards and student accidents and injuries ___________________ 31
Introduction _______________________________________ 1
Public health legislation __________________________ 32
The role of the ESW ______________________________ 2
Managing medications ________________________________________ 33
Clarifying expectations _________________________________________ 3
Sun safety_____________________________________________________ 35
Working with the teacher_______________________________________ 4
Privacy legislation ________________________________ 36
Other roles and responsibilities _________________________________ 5
Privacy and information systems ______________________________ 37
Employment awards____________________________________________ 7
Privacy and record-keeping ___________________________________ 37
Accountability and ethical conduct ________________ 8
Privacy and managing information ____________________________ 38
Ethical conduct ________________________________________________ 9 Privacy and confidentiality _____________________________________ 12
CHAPTER 3 Working with diverse people
42
Skills and knowledge ______________________________13
Introduction _____________________________________ 42
Professional knowledge ________________________________________ 14
Diversity and inclusion ___________________________ 43
Being organised _______________________________________________ 15
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights __________________ 44
Time management_____________________________________________ 16
Cultural diversity_________________________________ 44
Keeping a work diary __________________________________________ 18
Cultural competence __________________________________________ 45 Cultural identity _______________________________________________ 46
CHAPTER 2 Working in a legislative environment
Cultural safety ________________________________________________ 47
23
Cross-cultural communication ________________________________ 48
Introduction _____________________________________ 23
Communication strategies_____________________________________ 50
Legislation and policy_____________________________ 24 Human rights, anti-discrimination and equal opportunity legislation _____________________________________________________ 24 Disability, inclusion and education legislation __________________ 26 Child protection legislation ____________________________________ 28
Workplace policies _______________________________ 28 Duty of care _____________________________________ 30 Family law_____________________________________________________ 30 Work health and safety legislation_____________________________ 30
A personal perspective: Values and beliefs _________51 Attitudes ______________________________________________________ 52 Beliefs _________________________________________________________ 52 Values_________________________________________________________ 52 Diversity and bias _____________________________________________ 53
Working with diverse people ______________________ 55 Working with culturally diverse colleagues _____________________ 56 Cultural safety in the workplace _______________________________ 56
Mental illness and the workplace ______________________________ 57
Safely operating machinery ___________________________________ 89
Working with LGBTIQ colleagues _____________________________ 58
Electrical hazards _____________________________________________ 89
Working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples __________________________________________ 58
Stress in the workplace ___________________________ 90
Understanding the context ____________________________________ 58
Workplace violence ____________________________________________ 93
Understanding kinship _________________________________________ 62
Student violence_______________________________________________ 94
Harassment and bullying in the workplace_____________________ 91
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander language ________________ 63
CHAPTER 5 Child protection CHAPTER 4 Health and safety
99
66
Introduction _____________________________________ 99
Introduction _____________________________________ 66
A community responsibility ___________________________________ 100
WHS legislation__________________________________ 67
Child protection legislation ______________________ 100
Model Work Health and Safety Act and Regulations _____ 68
The prevalence of child abuse and neglect _____________________ 101
State and territory WHS legislation ___________________________ 68
Child protection pre-employment screening __________________ 102
WHS responsibilities of the employer__________________________ 69
Mandatory reporting requirements ___________________________ 103
WHS responsibilities of the worker ____________________________ 70
Child protection policies and schools _________________________ 103
Emergency planning _____________________________ 72
Legal definitions of child abuse and neglect __________________ 104
Selecting assembly areas ______________________________________ 73
Defining ‘risk of harm’ or significant risk of harm_____________ 105
Evacuation ____________________________________________________ 73
Why abuse occurs_______________________________ 105
WHS systems, policies and procedures____________ 74
Triggers for abuse ____________________________________________ 106
The intent of WHS policies and procedures____________________ 74
Perpetrators of abuse ________________________________________ 107
Identifying hazards and managing risks ____________ 76
Perpetrators of sexual abuse _________________________________ 108
Principles of risk management_________________________________ 76
Indicators of abuse ______________________________ 109
Assessing the risks_____________________________________________ 78
A word about possible indicators ______________________________ 110
Controlling or managing risks _________________________________ 79
The consequences of child maltreatment ______________________ 111
Hazardous chemicals __________________________________________80
Children and young people with disabilities ____________________ 112
Safety signs ___________________________________________________ 81 Personal protective equipment ________________________________ 83
Child abuse in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities __________________________________________ 114
Infection and disease _____________________________ 83
Protecting children and young people_____________114
Hand-washing ________________________________________________ 84
Documenting concerns ________________________________________ 116
Cleaning and housekeeping____________________________________ 85
If a child or young person discloses abuse _____________________ 117
Worker immunisation__________________________________________ 85
Responding to concerns or suspicions of risk of harm _________ 118
Exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation_________________________ 85
Ethical considerations _________________________________________ 121
Office ergonomics _______________________________ 85
Working with other agencies __________________________________ 121
Manual handling ______________________________________________ 86
Suspected abuse of children by school employees/volunteers____ 121
Manual handling and students with disabilities_________________ 87
Protective behaviours__________________________________________ 121
CONTENTS
vii
PART
B
SUPPORTING LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 6 Introduction to child and adolescent development and learning
125
Socialisation and child-rearing practices __________ 153 Behaviour management and discipline________________________ 153
Introduction ____________________________________ 125
Parental expectations and gender roles_______________________ 154
Learning and development_______________________ 126
Socioeconomic status ________________________________________ 154
Domains of development _____________________________________ 126
‘Non-traditional’ family unit__________________________________ 155
The principles of child development ____________________________ 127
Theories of development ________________________ 155
The concept of the ‘whole child’ ______________________________ 129
Albert Bandura (1925– )_____________________________________ 156
Child development and culture: Environmental and biological factors ____________________________ 132
Rudolf Dreikurs (1897–1972)__________________________________ 157
Cultural identity ______________________________________________ 132
Moral development ______________________________ 161
Biological factors_____________________________________________ 133
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–87) _______________________________ 162
Child development and the brain ________________ 134
Supporting moral development _______________________________ 164
Brain development during middle childhood and adolescence___________________________________________________ 135
Emotional wellbeing _____________________________ 166
Development and the curriculum ________________ 136 The role of the ESW__________________________________________ 136
CHAPTER 7 Physical growth, development and learning
Erik Erikson (1902–94) ______________________________________ 158
Personality and temperament ________________________________ 166 Self-regulation _______________________________________________ 168 Self-concept _________________________________________________ 170 Self-esteem ___________________________________________________ 171
138
Self-efficacy __________________________________________________173
Introduction ____________________________________ 138
The importance of friendships ________________________________ 174
The process of physical development_____________ 139
Resilience and mental health ____________________ 175
Gross motor skills ____________________________________________ 140
The mental health of children and adolescents in Australia ____ 177
Fine motor skills _______________________________________________ 141
Anxiety ________________________________________________________179
Sensorimotor development ____________________________________ 141
Childhood trauma ____________________________________________ 180
Perceptual motor skills _______________________________________ 142
Mindfulness ___________________________________________________ 181
Visual and auditory perception skills __________________________ 144
Middle childhood________________________________ 145 Gender differences ___________________________________________ 145 Risk-taking and experimentation _____________________________ 146
Adolescence ____________________________________ 147 Puberty ______________________________________________________ 147 Sexual orientation and body image ___________________________ 147
Factors that influence physical development _____ 148 Childhood obesity ____________________________________________ 149 Supporting physical development _____________________________ 150
CHAPTER 8 Social and emotional development and learning
CHAPTER 9 Language development and learning
185
Introduction ____________________________________ 185 Language development __________________________ 186 Speech and language: The same or different? ________________ 186 Theories of language development ____________________________ 187
Progression of language development ____________ 190 Language development in middle childhood___________________ 190 Language development in adolescence _______________________ 192 Lags in language development________________________________ 193
Pragmatics______________________________________ 194
152
Pragmatics and the classroom _______________________________ 195
Introduction ____________________________________ 152
The role of the ESW__________________________________________ 196
CHAPTER 10 Cognitive development and learning
Supporting students to complete a task ______________________250
200
Facilitating small-group learning _____________________________ 252
Introduction ___________________________________ 200
Teaching strategies ___________________________________________ 253
Cognitive development __________________________ 201
Providing feedback to the teacher ____________________________ 255
Factors that influence cognitive development ________________ 201
Providing feedback to students _______________________________ 256
Developmental theories _________________________202
The learning environment________________________ 256
Early developmental theories: An historical perspective ___________________________________________________ 202
Setting up the learning environment__________________________ 257
The notion of intelligence _____________________________________ 202 Jean Piaget (1896–1980)____________________________________203 Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) _________________________________ 209 Jerome Bruner (1915–2016)__________________________________ 212 Howard Gardner (1943– ) ___________________________________ 213 Barbara Rogoff (1950– ) ____________________________________ 216
Brain research __________________________________ 217
Arranging spaces for small-group learning________ 259 Inclusion and small-group learning ___________________________ 259 Planning for safety ___________________________________________ 261 Risk assessment ______________________________________________ 261 Effective supervision__________________________________________ 263 Establishing rules for safe behaviour__________________________ 264
Learning tools and resources_____________________264 Adapting and modifying learning resources___________________ 266
Critical periods, sensitive periods and plasticity _______________ 218
Executive functioning_________________________________________ 220
CHAPTER 12 Contributing to planning and educational programs
The brain from middle childhood to young adulthood_________ 222
Introduction ____________________________________ 269
Brain research and education ________________________________ 224
Assessment for planning_________________________ 270
Memory, recall and information processing ______ 225
Types of assessment __________________________________________ 270
Theory of mind _______________________________________________ 226
Record-keeping and reporting________________________________ 273
Self-regulation _______________________________________________ 226
Assessment for learning: Individual Education Plan__________________________________ 274
Brain development and the environment______________________ 219
Memory and recall ___________________________________________ 227 Information processing _______________________________________ 228 Concept development ________________________________________ 229 Higher-order mental functions _______________________________ 234
269
Who has input? ______________________________________________ 275 SMART goals _______________________________________________ 280 Implementing the IEP ________________________________________ 283 The process of evaluation_____________________________________ 285
CHAPTER 11 Supporting learning
239
Observing and documenting _____________________286
Introduction ____________________________________ 239
Formal observations __________________________________________ 287
What do we want students to know, understand and do?________________________________________ 240
Undertaking observations_____________________________________ 287
Understanding learning_______________________________________ 241
Analysis and interpretation ______________________ 293
Scaffolding ___________________________________________________ 241
Developing learning objectives________________________________ 294
Meeting learning needs_______________________________________ 245
Attending a case conference _________________________________ 295
Planning for learning ____________________________246 Contingency planning ________________________________________ 247
Transitioning a student with additional needs to a new school ____________________________________ 296
Task analysis _________________________________________________ 248
Pre-planning _________________________________________________ 296
Communicating the learning task ____________________________ 249
Orientation___________________________________________________ 297
Observation and professional conduct_______________________ 290
CONTENTS
ix
Supporting social interactions ________________________________ 297
Adaptation and modifications ________________________________ 299
Preparing peers ______________________________________________ 298
The physical environment_____________________________________ 301
PART
C
LITERACY AND NUMERACY
CHAPTER 13 Introduction to becoming literate
Paragraphs and texts_________________________________________ 346
304
Punctuation __________________________________________________ 347
Introduction ____________________________________305
Supporting the teacher _______________________________________ 348
The Australian Curriculum: English ______________305
Spelling _________________________________________349
The structure of the Australian Curriculum: English _________ 305
Learning to spell______________________________________________ 349
Content of the Australian Curriculum: English ______________ 309
Spelling knowledge ___________________________________________ 351
The big six ______________________________________ 310
Spelling lists __________________________________________________ 352
The big six and literacy activities ______________________________ 311
Spelling strategies ____________________________________________ 353
Oral language ____________________________________ 311
Handwriting and keyboarding____________________ 356
The link between reading and oral language __________________ 313
Keyboarding skills ____________________________________________ 357
The link between reading, oral language and writing __________ 314
Handwriting skills_____________________________________________ 357
The role of the ESW ____________________________ 314
Cursive handwriting __________________________________________ 359
Planning learning environments for literacy___________________ 316
Observing handwriting ______________________________________ 360
Learning resources ___________________________________________ 318 Digital tools for literacy acquisition ___________________________ 319
Supporting assessment of writing and spelling: The role of the ESW ____________________________ 365
Literacy assessment _____________________________320
Gathering evidence of writing skills ___________________________ 366
NAPLAN ____________________________________________________ 321
Assessment of spelling skills __________________________________ 367
CHAPTER 14 Writing and literacy
324
CHAPTER 15 Reading
370
Introduction ____________________________________324
Introduction ____________________________________370
Writing development ____________________________ 325
Stages in reading development___________________ 371
Writing and the Australian Curriculum: English ______________ 326
Stage 1: Emergent literacy ____________________________________ 371
The National Literacy and Numeracy Learning Progressions: Writing _______________________________________________________ 328
Stage 2: Experimental reading and writing ____________________ 371
Genres ______________________________________________________ 330
Preparing to be writers __________________________ 332 The processes approach ______________________________________ 333 Exploring genres______________________________________________ 335 Instructional approaches and writing development____________ 338 Understanding purpose and context __________________________ 341
Grammar and punctuation ______________________342 Applying grammar to text ____________________________________ 342 Constructing sentences ______________________________________ 343
Stage 3: Early reading and writing ___________________________ 372 Stage 4: Transitional reading and writing_____________________ 372 Stage 5: Independent and productive reading and writing ____ 373 Reading instruction and the curriculum ________________________ 374
Reading skills and knowledge ____________________ 375 Phonemic awareness _________________________________________ 375 Phonological awareness ______________________________________ 378 Fluency_______________________________________________________ 384 Vocabulary ___________________________________________________ 389 Comprehension_______________________________________________ 391
Support reading in the classroom ________________396
Number sense ________________________________________________ 423
Knowing your students _______________________________________ 397
Sorting, classifying, matching and ordering__________________ 430
Explicit instruction____________________________________________ 398
Understanding basic algebra _________________________________ 433
Giving timely corrective feedback_____________________________ 399
Understanding geometry and spatial relationships ____________ 435
Listening to students read ___________________________________ 400
Understanding fractions ______________________________________ 437
Monitoring and documentation_______________________________ 401
Collecting, analysing and interpreting data ___________________ 439
Attitudes to reading __________________________________________ 401
Working with sets and subsets________________________________ 442
Working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students _____________________________________________________ 405
Understanding and using measurement ______________________ 453
Supporting reading assessment _______________________________ 407
Higher-order skills____________________________________________ 458
CHAPTER 16 Supporting numeracy development
Using calculators _____________________________________________ 457
The role of the ESW in supporting numeracy ___ 460
412
Exploring your mathematical knowledge_____________________ 460
Introduction ____________________________________ 412
Strategies for supporting numeracy ______________462
The numeracy curriculum _______________________ 413
Modelled mathematics _______________________________________ 462
The General Capabilities _____________________________________ 413
Shared mathematics _________________________________________ 462
The National Literacy and Numeracy Learning Progressions __________________________________________________ 415
Guided mathematics _________________________________________ 463
The language of mathematics ____________________ 415 Modelling mathematical language ____________________________ 416
Supporting students who struggle with mathematics ___________________________________ 464
Word walls ___________________________________________________ 417
Strategies for effective intervention __________________________ 465
The development of numeracy concepts ___________ 418
Identifying learning needs ____________________________________ 469
One-to-one correspondence _________________________________ 421
Documenting numeracy development ________________________ 472
PART
D
Natural mathematics_________________________________________ 463
SUPPORTING STUDENTS WITH ADDITIONAL NEEDS
CHAPTER 17 Introduction to supporting students with additional needs and disabilities
Who are students with additional needs? ________483
475
A snapshot of children and young people with additional needs________________________________________________________ 484
Introduction ____________________________________ 475 Legal and ethical obligations to provide an education _______________________________________ 476
CHAPTER 18 Support for students with disabilities
489
United Nations Conventions _________________________________ 477
Introduction ___________________________________ 490
Principles of holistic and individualcentred care ____________________________________478
Students with visual impairments _______________ 490
Inclusion ________________________________________ 479
Learning challenges __________________________________________ 492
Personal values, attitudes and beliefs ________________________ 480
Orientation and mobility _____________________________________ 492
Inclusion in practice _________________________________________ 480
Accommodations and modifications __________________________494
Development of vision _______________________________________ 490
CONTENTS
xi
Students with hearing impairments ______________496
Acquiring a second language_____________________ 541
Is there a hearing problem? __________________________________ 496
Stages in the acquisition of a second language _______________ 542
Otitis media __________________________________________________ 497
Students with physical disability _________________499
The Australian Curriculum: English – English as an additional language or dialect _____________ 544
Students with cerebral palsy__________________________________ 499
General Capabilities __________________________________________ 544
Manual Ability Classification System _________________________ 501
Learning Progressions ________________________________________ 545
Communication ______________________________________________502
Bridging units ________________________________________________ 546
Students with spina bifida ___________________________________ 503
EAL/D programs in schools _____________________546
Students with dyspraxia (developmental coordination disorder)_____________________________________________________ 505
New Arrivals Program________________________________________ 547
Students with learning disabilities ________________507
Getting to know the EAL/D student__________________________ 549
Dyslexia _____________________________________________________ 508
Assessing EAL/D students___________________________________ 550
Students with speech, language and communication needs __________________________ 509
Practical strategies to support EAL/D learners _______________ 554
Supporting language and communication ___________ 555
Language delay________________________________________________ 511
Communication strategies____________________________________ 556
Augmentative and alternative communication ________________ 513
Cultural variations of non-verbal communication ____________ 557
Communication strategies____________________________________ 515
EAL/D and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students ________________________________________ 557
Students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder ________________________________________ 518 Classroom management______________________________________ 518
Preparing for EAL/D students________________________________ 547
Aboriginal English ____________________________________________ 559 Implications for the classroom_______________________________ 560
Students with sensory processing disorders________________________________________520
CHAPTER 20 Supporting behaviour
Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder _________ 521
Introduction ____________________________________ 563
Current research _____________________________________________ 522 Diagnosing ASD _____________________________________________ 522
The family, culture, temperament and expectations ________________________________564
Characteristics of ASD_______________________________________ 523
The family ____________________________________________________ 565
Students with multiple disabilities ________________ 529
Culture _______________________________________________________ 567
Communication strategies___________________________________ 530
Temperament_________________________________________________ 568
Students who are gifted _________________________ 531
Learning environments __________________________569
Supporting students who are gifted___________________________ 532
Student behaviour policy ________________________ 572
563
Policies for unacceptable behaviour __________________________ 573
CHAPTER 19 Supporting English language learners
535
Applying policies: The difference between guidance/discipline and punishment ______________________________________________ 574
Introduction ____________________________________ 535
Different perspectives on behaviour _____________ 576
Cultural and linguistic diversity __________________ 536
The behaviour continuum_____________________________________ 577
Cultural safety and cultural identity __________________________ 537
Guidance and discipline strategies ______________ 580
Immigration __________________________________________________ 537
Behaviour management strategies____________________________ 581
Culture shock ________________________________________________ 538
Using natural and logical consequences ______________________ 584
The importance of bilingualism ______________________________ 540
Behaviour-management strategies to avoid __________________ 585
Challenging behaviours __________________________586 Responding to challenging behaviours ________________________ 589
Documenting and assessing challenging behaviours ______________________________________ 593
Using behaviour contracts____________________________________ 591
Observing student behaviour _________________________________ 593
Responding to confrontation and violence____________________ 592
Establishing and implementing a behaviour intervention plan ________________________________ 601
REFERENCES
609
GLOSSARY
624
INDEX
635
CONTENTS
xiii
Guide to the text As you read this text you will find a number of features in every chapter to enhance your study of Education Support and help you understand how the theory is applied in the real world.
Identify the key concepts that the chapter will cover with the Learning objectives at the start of each chapter.
FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS Gain insight into real-world experiences using the Scenario boxes. Challenge the theory you have learned by considering the NEW Discussion questions.
NEW
Consider This boxes provide key facts, tips and research. Pause for self-reflection about the different issues you might encounter in your role using the NEW Discussion questions.
NEW
Identify how chapter concepts relate to the Australian curriculum using the Link to the Australian Curriculum boxes and icons.
Analyse in-depth Case studies that follow the journey of one child and build upon concepts as you progress through the chapter.
GUIDE TO THE TEXT
xv
NEW Develop your research skills using the weblinks in the Online Resources boxes.
NEW
Gain insight into real working practices and documents using example templates and checklists.
NEW Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander icons indicate where content is related to the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander context.
Go Further icons link to extra learning and Case Studies. Ask your instructor for the Go Further resource to deepen your understanding of the topic.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
GO
further
Children’s artwork demonstrates how chapter concepts can be applied to real examples from the classroom.
At the end of each chapter you will find several tools to help you to review, practise and extend your knowledge of the key learning objectives. Review your understanding of the key chapter topics with the Summary.
Test your knowledge and consolidate your learning through the discussion questions, self-check questions and activities.
At the end of the book you will find a Glossary that provides a one-sentence definition or explanation for each bolded key term throughout the book for quick reference.
GUIDE TO THE TEXT
xvii
Guide to the online resources FOR THE INSTRUCTOR Cengage is pleased to provide you with a selection of resources that will help you prepare your lectures and assessments. These teaching tools are accessible via cengage.com.au/instructors for Australia or cengage.co.nz/instructors for New Zealand.
SOLUTIONS MANUAL The Solutions Manual provides detailed solutions to every question in the text.
COGNERO TEST BANK A bank of questions has been developed in conjunction with the text for creating quizzes, tests and exams for your students. Create multiple test versions in an instant and deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, or wherever you want using Cognero. Cognero test generator is a flexible online system that allows you to import, edit, and manipulate content from the text’s test bank or elsewhere, including your own favourite test questions.
POWERPOINT™ PRESENTATIONS Use the chapter-by-chapter PowerPoint slides to enhance your lecture presentations and handouts by reinforcing the key principles of your subject.
MAPPING GRID The Mapping grid is a simple grid that shows how the content of this book relates to the units of competency needed to complete the Certificate III in Education Support CHC30213.
GO
further
GO FURTHER Provide your students with the Go Further resource to help deepen their understanding of the topic. It contains further readings including scenarios, children’s artwork and links to the curriculum to support the text.
ARTWORK FROM THE TEXT Add the digital files of graphs, pictures and flow charts into your course management system, use them in student handouts, or copy them into your lecture presentations.
FOR THE INSTRUCTOR NEW NEW Premium online teaching and learning tools are available on the MindTap platform – the personalised eLearning solution.
MindTap is a flexible and easy-to-use platform that helps build student confidence and gives you a clear picture of their progress. We partner with you to ease the transition to digital — we’re with you every step of the way. The Cengage Mobile app puts your course directly into students’ hands with course materials available on their smartphone or tablet. Students can read on the go, complete practice quizzes or participate in interactive real-time activities.
MindTap for Kearns’s Supporting Education 3rd edition is full of innovative resources to support critical thinking, and help your students move from memorisation to mastery! Includes: • Kearns’s Supporting Education 3rd edition eBook • Case Studies • Revision quizzes • Polling activities • Interactive diagrams.
MindTap is a premium purchasable eLearning tool. Contact your Cengage learning consultant to find out how MindTap can transform your course.
FOR THE STUDENT
NEW MindTap is the next-level online learning tool that helps you get better grades!
MindTap gives you the resources you need to study – all in one place and available when you need them. In the MindTap Reader, you can make notes, highlight text and even find a definition directly from the page. If your instructor has chosen MindTap for your subject this semester, log in to MindTap to: • Get better grades • Save time and get organised
• Connect with your instructor and peers • Study when and where you want, online and mobile • Complete assessment tasks as set by your instructor. When your instructor creates a course using MindTap, they will let you know your course key so you can access the content. Please purchase MindTap only when directed by your instructor. Course length is set by your instructor.
GUIDE TO THE ONLINE RESOURCES
xix
PREFACE Supporting Education provides essential underpinning knowledge for education support workers providing support to teachers and their students in the classroom. Working under the direction and guidance of the teacher, education support workers play a vital role in supporting students with disabilities to access and participate in the classroom alongside their peers. Schools – both public and private – employ staff in a variety of support roles to assist the teacher in regular classrooms, special units and special schools. Education support workers are engaged in a wide range of roles that include supporting individual students or groups of students within the classroom and the wider school community, preparing teaching resources, assisting with observations and documentation of student progress, helping to set up and implement learning experiences, and generally supporting the classroom teacher to deliver a quality teaching program. The third edition of this text has been updated to reflect the essential knowledge and skills required to work effectively with students with diverse abilities and needs. The text provides introductory knowledge of child and adolescent development and how children and young people learn. It provides an overview of some areas of the Australian curriculum and explores teaching practices that support learning and development. Included in the text are references to a range of websites that provide practical resources that can be used by education support workers in the classroom. Karen Kearns, 2019
ABOUT THE AUTHOR Karen Kearns has had a long career in the education sector, as a teacher, adviser, university lecturer and vocational trainer. Karen believes that all people working in the school environment with children and young people must have a sound understanding of child development, and theories of development and learning. Understanding how children and young people learn underpins the role of educators, allowing them to better match learning and teaching strategies to the needs of learners. The third edition of this textbook expands knowledge around child and adolescent development and examines how this knowledge can be applied to classroom practices to maximise and enhance learning so that each student can reach their full potential.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank Rhiannon Bowen from Cengage Australia, for her careful editing and constructive feedback on this 3rd edition. My thanks also to my team at ICCC, and to my family and friends, who have had to put up with my absence while completing this book. The author and Cengage would like to thank the following reviewers for their incisive and helpful feedback: • Andrew Wales – TAFE NSW • Christine Wilkes – Adapt Education • Daena Carruth – Central Regional TAFE – Kalgoorlie • Damian von Samorzewski – TasTAFE – Alanvale Campus • Gabrielle Johnstone – Central Regional TAFE – Northam • Jane Granger – Riverina Institute TAFE Cootamundra/Young • Jo Fasano – Goulburn Ovens Institute of TAFE Shepparton • Julie Fry – Wodonga TAFE • Leanne Hillman – SW Sydney Inst TAFE – Campbelltown College • Leanne Bell – North Metropolitan TAFE – Joondalup • Michelle Travers – North Coast Community College • Preeti Tahiliani – Chisholm Online
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
xxi
• • • • • •
Sandra Gould – BRACE Education and Training – Frankston Scott Dunlop – North Coast Community College Sharon Crowther – SW Sydney Inst TAFE – Miller College Sharon Spencer – Charles Darwin University Suria Naidoo – Holmesglen Institute Zareena Gynell – TAFE SA – Port Lincoln.
Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright. However, if any infringement has occurred, the publishers tender their apologies and invite the copyright holders to contact them.
PART
A
WORKING IN A SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT
Chapter 1 THE ROLE OF THE EDUCATION SUPPORT WORKER LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to demonstrate that, in relation to working in a school environment, you can: 1.1
identify the role and responsibilities of an education support worker (ESW) and locate the relevant employment awards that directly impact the work role
1.2 work in an accountable and ethical manner 1.3 acquire the skills and knowledge to work in a professional manner with minimum supervision, including the ability to be flexible and adaptable and to effectively observe and document student learning, contribute to planning and manage learning resources.
GO
further
Go Further icons link to extra content for this chapter. Ask your instructor for the Go Further resource and deepen your understanding of the topic.
Introduction This section of the text explores the role and responsibilities of the education support worker (ESW) in working with teachers, students and colleagues. Every ESW will bring their individual values and beliefs to the job, and these will shape how they undertake their duties and the relationships they develop with other people in the workplace. ESWs are expected to conduct themselves in a professional and ethical manner, particularly when working with students. Their role is to provide care and support to students with diverse
THE ROLE OF THE EDUCATION SUPPORT WORKER
1
abilities and behaviours, and the skills and knowledge required to do this well are quite broad and diverse. ESWs must be well organised, able to work with minimum supervision and demonstrate the ability to be flexible and adaptable. They must also take responsibility for managing their own time well in order to meet requirements such as observing and documenting student learning, contributing to planning and managing learning resources.
1.1 The role of the ESW The role of the ESW can be quite diverse, and can include administration, in-class support in a regular classroom, working in a special unit and supporting students with English as a second language or dialect. The following Consider This box provides some examples of these various job titles.
EXAMPLES OF JOB TITLES: SCHOOL LEARNING AND SUPPORT OFFICER • • • • • •
Student support officer Ethnic assistant Education assistant (special needs/Braille/behaviour centre) Education assistant (mainstream) Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander education officer Aboriginal community education officer
• • • • •
Consider This
School services officer Teacher aide: generic; identified; educational interpreter – Auslan; language model – Auslan Learning support assistant Teacher assistant School assistant (mainstream, autism, vision, communication, bilingual)
ESWs are an integral part of the school community, in both public and independent education systems. ESWs who work in the classroom are employed to assist the teacher to support the learning, wellbeing and care of students (see the Scenario box). This may include working with students who have been identified with specific learning/behaviour/language needs and/or students with physical disabilities. It may also include working alongside the classroom teacher in a more generalist role of supporting classroom learning activities. In classroom settings, the ESW plays an important role supporting students to participate as active, independent learners. Supporting students to become active learners also builds self-esteem, self-confidence and resilience, and facilitates social interactions.
MY ROLE AS AN ESW Freddy: ‘I work with my mob at a school in Arnhem Land. It’s called a Community Education Centre, but we just call it school. We got kids from little ones to high school. Most kids speak Ndjebbana or Burarra. English is a second language around here. We do lots of things outside. The kids don’t like the classroom so we gotta think of ways to get them interested in comin’ to school. I get the kids to read to me outside – they like that better.’
Scenario Casey: ‘I work in a mainstream public school with two students with additional needs. Kirra is eight years old. She has spina bifida and is confined to a wheelchair. I mainly help her with personal care. We have a purpose-built toilet that has wheelchair access, which is great as we are encouraging Kirra to be more independent. Kirra is very bright and is doing well academically. She does, however, struggle with her social skills and finds it difficult to make friends. Kirra says that the
other kids don’t like her because she is in a wheelchair but I don’t agree. Kirra tends to be quite loud and bossy. She needs to learn how to be a friend. I also work with Brock, who is 11 and has Down syndrome. I usually help him with his work in the classroom. He has been given a special program and is going really well, but he needs my help to stay on track and finish his work. Brock is a delightful student. He is well liked by his peers because he is friendly, kind and considerate.’ Adam: ‘I work in a special school for older students with severe physical disabilities. Part of my role is to work one on one with students to support their literacy skills. I enjoy working with teenagers and most of the kids have a great sense of humour, which is handy when they are struggling with basic physical tasks – it makes the day less stressful. We’ve got quite a bit of special equipment at the school that helps the students with their mobility. My days are full on, and by the end of each day I am exhausted!’ Eshe: ‘I work at a high school in the city. We have around 70 different nationalities at the school. It’s like a mini United
Nations! For most of the students, English is their second language. I speak Farsi as well as English. Mostly things are harmonious, but we do have to work hard on anti-bias, inclusion and acceptance of differences. My role is to work with small groups to help the students learn conversational English. It’s such a rewarding job. The girls like to learn about movie stars, singers and fashion while the boys are focused on sports, cars, Aussie slang and swear words!’ WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
The role of an ESW will vary from one school to another, and the range of skills and knowledge needed to work successfully with students can be quite complex and demanding. " DISCUSSION
Discuss what each of these settings may be like. What might be the rewards and challenges? What specific skills/qualities would you need to work successfully in each setting?
The role of an ESW will be unique to each school setting. For example, an ESW employed in a remote rural community would likely have a role and relationships that are very different from those experienced by an ESW in a large regional or city school. ESWs employed in high schools will also have different experiences and challenges from those working with students in primary schools or in special education environments. Scenario
WHAT ESWs SHOULD NOT DO! At a recent ESW professional development workshop, ESWs shared their various roles and responsibilities. ESW Katrina was amazed to hear that some ESWs were expected to assist in marking assessment tasks, taking over the whole class for extended periods of time while the teacher attended to administrative tasks, take primary responsibility for student Individual Educational Plans (IEPs) and attend IEP meetings in place of the teacher. Katrina feels relieved that she has never been asked to do any of these things. She wonders how such situations have been allowed to come about.
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
There may be occasions when ESWs are asked to perform tasks outside their scope of duties and responsibilities. Where this happens, it is important to clarify your role and make it known that you are not comfortable with taking on such tasks. " DISCUSSION
• •
If you were asked to perform any of the above duties, how would you respond? Can you think of a circumstance where a teacher might ask you to perform tasks that are clearly outside your role?
Clarifying expectations For someone to work effectively as an ESW, there must be clearly defined roles and expectations. The teacher is responsible for assigning the duties of the ESW in the classroom and will also determine how these duties are to be carried out, when they are to be performed and how the ESW will work with the students in the classroom. This requires clear communication between
THE ROLE OF THE EDUCATION SUPPORT WORKER
3
the teacher and the ESW. Furthermore, the teacher is responsible for ensuring that students understand the role of the ESW. Before commencing work in a classroom, make time to meet with the teacher to discuss your role. You may like to do this in your own time prior to your first day in the workplace. Meeting with the teacher provides you with the opportunity to clarify the teacher’s expectations, gather information about the students, share information about behaviour-management strategies, and become familiar with the daily timetable as well as your daily schedule and the resources available. You should clarify how you will communicate with the teacher, such as through a morning briefing for allocation of tasks, and/or a weekly meeting to review student progress and plans for the following week. At this meeting, the teacher may provide you with a weekly schedule completed by the teacher or completed in consultation with the teacher. Where you are appointed to work with specific students, you should take the opportunity to learn about their needs and strengths as well as discuss their specific learning goals/individual education plans (IEPs). You should also clarify documentation required, such as daily feedback on a student performance summary. After this meeting, you may also be able to walk around the school, meet the administration team and gather some basic housekeeping information, such as where to sign in and out, where to store personal items, the location of toilets and tea/coffee facilities.
Working with the teacher Working collaboratively with the teacher will help to ensure the best possible outcomes for the teacher, the ESW and the student/s. Figure 1.1 identifies how the roles and responsibilities of the teacher and the ESW typically are allocated. Figure 1.1 Areas of responsibilities of teachers and ESWs
Teacher
ESW
Teaching and learning philosophy
Establishes teaching and learning philosophy, such as collaborative learning, problem solving, respectful relationships, positive reinforcement and confidentiality.
Discusses the teaching and learning philosophy with the teacher and applies this in the classroom.
Student support
Develops Individual Educational Plans (IEP), Learning Support Plan (LSP) and/or Individual Behaviour Management Plan (IBMP) for students as required.
Assists in the delivery, monitoring and assessment of the IEP as directed by the teacher.
Shares information about the IEP/IBMP with the ESW: background information, diagnosis, identified strengths and weaknesses, agencies and personnel involved with the student/family, long-term and shortterm goals, home–school liaison strategies, classroom strategies and major teaching strategies. Lesson planning
Provides feedback to the teacher on student performance, management and care issues. Attends planning and review meetings as requested by the teacher. Liaises with agency personnel as required and/or directed by the teacher.
Lesson planning based on curriculum and learning outcomes or Key Learning Areas. Includes teaching strategies, instructional design, daily goals and objectives.
Works with individuals and small groups as directed by the teacher, using content and teaching/instructional design strategies and language/terminology provided by the teacher.
Identifies language/terminology to be used to support learning.
For example, listens to students read aloud.
Learning materials and resources
Classroom rules and behaviour management
Teacher
ESW
Identifies learning materials and resources to be used to support student learning. These may include special equipment/aids and adaptive technology.
Prepares, accesses, sets up and uses learning materials and resources as directed by the teacher.
Reviews learning materials and resources.
Provides feedback to teacher in relation to students’ use of learning materials and resources.
Provides information on safety procedures.
Uses special equipment/aids and adaptive technology.
Establishes classroom rules and behaviourmanagement strategies.
Reinforces classroom rules and uses behaviourmanagement strategies as directed by the teacher. Provides feedback on student behaviour and identifies any behaviour issues or concerns.
Assessment
Determines assessment requirements, including reporting and documentation requirements.
Undertakes student assessment, such as observations, under the direction of the teacher.
Identifies assessment tools and strategies. Establishes positive and respectful relationships with families.
Establishes positive and respectful relationships with families.
Provides written and verbal feedback to parents. Works with family when developing goals for the student.
Only provides feedback to families under the direction of the teacher.
Reviewing the educational program
Undertakes regular reviews of all aspects of the educational programs.
Assists as directed in regular reviews of the educational programs.
Professional development
Provides professional supervision and support to the ESW.
Asks questions/accesses professional learning resources to improve skills and knowledge.
Relationships with families
Shares professional learning resources, knowledge and skills with the ESW.
Engages in ongoing professional learning opportunities.
Supports the ESW to undertake ongoing professional development. WHS
Ensures due diligence in relation to work health and safety (WHS).
Ensures due diligence in relation to WHS. Actively complies with all policies and procedures.
Actively conveys the need to comply with all policies and procedures.
Other roles and responsibilities The ESW has a number of other roles and responsibilities.
ESW student-support role •
•
• • •
Assisting students with special needs; this may in certain circumstances extend to supporting mobility such as assisting with positioning, toileting and dressing of students unable to care for themselves. Assisting with feeding via a gastronomy or naso-gastric tube; shallow suctioning of secretions from the mouth, nose or tracheostomy tube; administering a student’s healthcare plan; implementing procedures to minimise infection; catheterisation; nappy change; washing, bathing, changing clothes. Preparing drinks, meals and snacks for students. Daily cleaning of materials used for art and craft, wiping tables and chairs, mopping toilets and wet areas. Supporting students to use a range of assistive technology, mobility aids and adaptive equipment to support daily living skills development, and supporting the use of augmentative or alternative communication aids/ equipment. THE ROLE OF THE EDUCATION SUPPORT WORKER
5
Administering medications, administering first aid (if qualified), providing temporary care for children who are unwell. • Assisting students to and from motor vehicles at arrival and departure times. • Working with the teacher to undertake a risk management plan for students with additional needs. •
ESW resource-support role • • • • •
Preparing learning materials. Assisting students who have hearing impairment using sign language and audio-visual aids. Working as an aide to visiting therapists. Assisting with recording audio-visual learning tools. Transcribing print to Braille or large print.
ESW non-teaching role • • • • • • • •
Assisting teachers and students with sporting activities and with school excursions. Compiling and supervising class rolls. Assisting teaching staff with playground and bus supervision. Collecting money from students for various school activities as required. Contributing to the welfare, health and safety of students, including the delivery of first aid. Laundering linens. Care of equipment. Assisting with organising off-site activities, such as excursions and performances.
ESW administrative role • • • • • •
Performing a range of general clerical duties at a basic level – for example, filing, handling mail, maintaining records, data entry. Operating routine office equipment, such as a computer, photocopier, scanner, facsimile, binding machine, guillotine, franking machine, calculator, etc. Performing a reception function, including providing information and making referrals in accordance with school procedures. Carrying out minor cash transactions including receipting, balancing and banking. Monitoring and maintaining stock levels of stationery/materials within established parameters, including reordering. Initiating and handling correspondence, which may include confidential correspondence. Source: ª Fair Work Ombudsman www.fairwork.gov.au. CC-By-3.0.
In relation to your role as an ESW, you should also clarify your specific role and responsibilities in key policies such as confidentiality, child protection, discipline and behaviour management.
ONLINE RESOURCES JOB DESCRIPTIONS
For examples of job roles/duty statements, search the following websites: Teacher’s aide: https://smartjobs.qld.gov.au/jobs/QLD-SER282257-18 Education assistant: https://www.seek.com.au/education-assistant-jobs/in-All-Perth-WA Teacher’s aide: https://www.seek.com.au/teacher-aide-jobs/in-All-Melbourne-VIC.
Employment awards In Australia employment options may include: full-time; part-time; casual; fixed term; shift workers; daily hire and weekly hire; probation and outworkers (ª Fair Work Ombudsman www.fairwork.gov.au. CC-By-3.0.). ESWs may be employed on a fixed-term, full-time or parttime basis. Employment awards will vary from one jurisdiction to another. Understanding Award conditions and the terms and conditions set out in the employment contract will ensure that the employee is aware of their entitlements and the obligations of both the employee and employer. In 2009, the Fair Work Act was introduced to provide National Employment Standards (NES), designed to provide a safety net in relation to minimum terms and conditions of employment. The NES set out a minimum of 10 workplace entitlements, which include: • maximum weekly hours • requests for flexible working arrangements • parental leave and related entitlements • annual leave • personal carer’s leave and compassionate leave • community service leave • long-service leave • public holidays • notice of termination and redundancy pay • Fair Work Information Statement.
GO
further
Learn more about casual employment awards and for links to access award information in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
Scenario
EMPLOYMENT CONTRACT Lucy, the assistant principal, greets Max as he walks into the foyer. This is the first day for Max as a part-time ESW and he is rather nervous. Fortunately, Lucy makes him feel welcome and relaxed. Lucy: ‘Hello Max, I’m Lucy James, assistant principal. It’s my job to supervise all our ESWs. Welcome aboard! I hope you’ll enjoy working with us – it’s a great school. Now first things first, Kate, our Admin Officer, will show you where to sign in and out and give a rundown of housekeeping matters. I’ll leave you in her capable hands and see you in around 15 minutes in my office.’ When Max rejoins Lucy, she begins his orientation process. Lucy: ‘We’ll go through your employment contract, Max, just to make sure you fully understand the conditions of your employment, such as work hours, start and finish times, sick leave, etc. We will also talk about your specific duties and responsibilities, and later I’ll introduce you to the teachers you’ll be most closely working with – Tom and Jesse.’ When concluding the interview, Lucy states: ‘I’ve put together a folder of key policies and procedures for you, Max. You’ll see I’ve included Child Protection, Confidentiality,
Professional Conduct, WHS, School Discipline and Communication with Families. I’ll highlight the key information for you now, but I don’t expect you’ll remember everything and I’m sure you’ll have some questions for me. This is your folder to keep, so you can read it at your leisure. It’s very important that you familiarise yourself with school policies and procedures. They are there to guide you and ensure that everyone acts in the best interests of the school.’ By the time Lucy has finished talking to Max, it is 10.30 a.m. and Max is more than ready for a coffee. He is pleased that Lucy has explained his contract, roles and responsibilities. He now feels much more confident about being an ESW. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
The assistant principal has clearly explained both the conditions of employment and the specific requirements of the job role. When entering into any new employment arrangement, it is essential to have the job role, expectations and conditions of employment in writing.
THE ROLE OF THE EDUCATION SUPPORT WORKER
7
1.2 Accountability and ethical conduct A school is a busy workplace. ESWs will work as part of a diverse team of teaching and nonteaching staff. Each member of the team will have a specific role and responsibilities that contribute to the overall operation of the school. To be effective and efficient, and to deliver quality educational experiences, all members of the team must work collaboratively, follow policies and procedures, and respect all other members of the school community. ESWs are directly accountable to the classroom teacher and their employer for their work standards (Figure 1.2) – this role typically is delegated to a member of the school executive, such as the deputy principal. Accountability extends not only to the employer and classroom teacher but also to students and their families. ESWs are also accountable to themselves to work Figure 1.2 ESW key areas of accountability
Accountability to students • Support learning needs • Support health and self-care needs • Ensure student safety • Support inclusion and positive peer interactions • Treat students with dignity and respect
Accountability to families • Treat all families with dignity and respect • Share information with families in accordance with school guidelines • Act as an advocate for the student and family
Accountability to teacher • Follow teacher directions and work to Accountability to employer achieve agreed goals and outcomes • Behave in a professional and ethical • Share information and provide detailed manner at all times feedback as required • Ensure compliance with school policies • Build a positive, professional relationship and procedures with the teacher • Actively participate as part of the school • Support behaviour goals and behaviour community as appropriate management strategies identified • Ensure a safe environment by the teacher • Work collaboratively with all staff • Complete all tasks in a timely manner • Maintain privacy and confidentiality • Seek support, direction and advice at all times from the teacher as needed • Support inclusion • Prepare and maintain learning Accountability to self resources • Understand own role and responsibilities • Perform all tasks in a competent and timely manner • Work as a member of a team • Communicate effectively • Care for own health and wellbeing • Engage in ongoing professional development • Comply with all policies and procedures
effectively and efficiently without the need for direct supervision and to perform their job role to the best of their ability. Accountability can be demonstrated as part of a performance review process that allows ESWs to review their skills, practices and knowledge, critically reflect on performance and set goals for future development. Performance reviews allow both the employee and the supervisor to reflect on individual achievements and identify areas where additional support, information, resources, guidance or training may be required. It is also an opportunity to identify longer-term career goals and how these might be achieved. Scenario
CAREER PLANNING David has been working as an ESW at an independent boys’ school for almost 10 years. His primary role has been IT support. Over the last three years, David has gained a Diploma in Education Support. He now wants to enrol part time at university to complete a teaching degree. David is a very independent person and has not shared this information with his supervisor. At his performance review, David is asked by his supervisor, John, if he has any long-term career goals and is surprised when David tells him of his achievements and aspirations.
John responds: ‘Wow David, that’s fantastic. You’ll make a great teacher! How about we schedule some regular classroom experiences so you can work on practical teaching skills?’ David is delighted and surprised by John’s enthusiastic response. He wishes he had asked John for support when he was doing his Diploma course. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Professional development is best achieved when the employee and the employer/supervisor work collaboratively to set goals and devise learning strategies.
Ethical conduct All employees working with students must conduct Figure 1.3 School employees must adhere to the Code themselves in an ethical manner, respecting the rights of of Conduct and respect students’ confidentiality. students and their families. Many schools have in place a code of conduct, which identifies standards of behaviours, including ethical conduct expected of individuals employed by the organisation (see Figure 1.3). A code of conduct is a statement of commitment to a set of expected professional behaviours of a group. It will reflect a range of values such as fairness, empathy, respect, integrity, ethics, morality and honesty. Working with children and young people is a position of great trust, and requires adults to act in the best interests of the child at all times. Where a code of conduct involves a violation of duty of care to children and young people, any breach of this code by employees is regarded as particularly serious, and tough sanctions usually are imposed, particularly where a breach relates to a misuse of power and authority that endangers children and young people physically and/or psychologically. Sanctions may include dismissal, fines or, in the case of serious misconduct, referral for criminal proceedings. A code of conduct may include directives such as managing conflicts of interest, protecting confidential information, duty of care, use of drugs, alcohol and tobacco, professional relationships between employees and students, dress code and statement of ethics. The Consider this box overleaf provides excerpts from the NSW Department of Education Code of Conduct, which includes a statement of ethics.
THE ROLE OF THE EDUCATION SUPPORT WORKER
9
CODE OF CONDUCT: STATEMENT OF ETHICS The values that underpin our work include fairness, respect, integrity and responsibility. We demonstrate these values in our daily work by: • providing quality services, whether in the community or the classroom • being consistently honest, trustworthy and accountable • being courteous and responsive in dealing with others • being committed to social justice by opposing prejudice, injustice and dishonesty • making decisions that are procedurally fair to people and that avoid discrimination – for example, on grounds such as gender, race, religion and culture • promoting dignity and respect by avoiding behaviour that is, or might reasonably be perceived as, harassing, bullying or intimidating • maintaining professional relationships with: > clients, customers and members of the public >
• • • •
students and young people
> parents and carers > colleagues, and business partners working collaboratively with colleagues to reach common goals maintaining and developing our professional and work practices acknowledging our stakeholders as partners in our work; and behaving in ways that advance vibrant, sustainable, inclusive and responsible communities across New South Wales.
WHO MUST COMPLY WITH THE CODE OF CONDUCT?
This Code of Conduct applies to all employees of the NSW Department of Education, whether employed on a permanent, temporary or casual basis (NSW Department
Consider This
of Education). By accepting employment with the Department of Education, you must be aware of and comply with this Code. Therefore, you must: i ii
engage in personal or professional conduct that upholds the reputation of the Department apply the Department’s policies and procedures
iii act ethically and responsibly; and iv be accountable for your actions and decisions. You are expected to: i
perform your duties to the best of your ability and be accountable for your performance
ii follow reasonable instructions given by a supervisor iii comply with a lawful direction iv carry out your duties in a professional, competent and conscientious manner, while seeking suitable opportunities to improve your knowledge and skills, including through participation in relevant professional development v act honestly and in good faith in providing advice or service that is honest, impartial and comprehensive, irrespective of your personal views on a matter vi be courteous and responsive in dealing with your colleagues, students and young people and members of the public vii work collaboratively with your colleagues viii be mindful of your duty to the safety of yourself and others and be aware that if your conduct has the potential to damage the reputation of the Department, even if it is in a private capacity, this could lead to disciplinary action. Source: Code of Conduct: Statement of ethics, NSW Department of Education. The Code of Conduct (2016). ª State of New South Wales (Department of Education), 2019 CC-BY-4.0 licence.
A code of conduct will usually include a statement of ethics. Dahlberg and Moss (2005) claim that ‘ethics is a practical matter, which involves thinking about everyday actions and decisions either individually or collectively and then responding with respect for all concerned’. When values underpin our responses and choices, ethics is at work. In some instances our decision making is ‘difficult because there can be different solutions or responses to a situation, each of which may seem appropriate. We call these situations ethical dilemmas’, and they may require considerable negotiations by all concerned to achieve an ethical outcome. The ethical nature of working with children and families is often recognised in services by the adoption of a professional code of ethics. Figure 1.4 identifies some of the many factors that impact on ethics in the workplace. Having in place a Code of Ethics can: • assist in making clear what is important among conflicting workplace demands • specify core values, beliefs and practices that are fundamental to the wellbeing and education of children and young people
Figure 1.4 Factors that impact on ethics Respect Social responsiveness
Democracy
Cultural responsiveness
Integrity ETHICAL VALUES AND PRACTICES
Education
Inclusivity
Honesty
Justice Courage
assist to ensure quality education and wellbeing practices by identifying what cannot be compromised • educate the community about standards of good practice • demonstrate the complexity of the school’s role in supporting the wellbeing of children and young people • promote appreciation of diversity. Inevitably ethical issues in relation to students, families and colleagues will arise in the workplace. These can lead to ethical dilemmas. Ethical dilemmas present conflicting perspectives related to personal values and beliefs, professional and legal obligations, fairness and social justice. When faced with an ethical dilemma, there are no firm rules about how to proceed. However, ESWs have a moral and legal obligation to comply with their employer’s code of conduct and act in the best interests of children and young people. Useful strategies to work through an ethical dilemma might include: • exploring the issue from each party’s perspective – what are the needs and beliefs of each party? • considering your moral and legal obligations to each party, including yourself as an employee • seeking guidance and support from a mentor, supervisor or trusted colleague. The following scenario highlights the challenges of addressing an ethical dilemma. •
Scenario
ETHICAL DILEMMA Eden, an ESW, is concerned that her colleague, Mandy, is consuming alcohol while working at the school. On several occasions, Eden has been able to smell alcohol on Mandy’s breath. Eden suspects that Mandy puts alcohol in her water bottle, which she carries with her at all times. Mandy
is a single parent with three teenage children. She gets little financial support from her ex-husband and often tells Eden how lucky she is to have such a wonderful job. Eden knows that if she reports Mandy and it is found that she is drinking on the job, Mandy will be dismissed
THE ROLE OF THE EDUCATION SUPPORT WORKER
11
immediately and is unlikely to be employed by any other school in the area. Eden grapples with her conscience – on the one hand, she knows she has a duty of care to students and a responsibility to act in accordance with the school’s code of conduct. On the other hand, she knows that if Mandy is dismissed she will probably spiral into binge drinking, putting herself and her children at risk.
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Acting ethically is not always easy to do. In this situation, Eden is torn between her responsibility to her employer (and students) and the wellbeing of her colleague and her family. " DISCUSSION
If you were in Eden’s shoes, what would you do? Why?
Privacy and confidentiality An essential aspect of ethical behaviour is ensuring privacy and confidentiality in relation to all aspects of your work role. This extends to all employees, students, parents/carers and visitors to the school. Examples of confidential information relating to students and their families include student behaviour, academic results, formal and informal assessment outcomes and family circumstances. Examples of confidential information relating to employees include telephone numbers and addresses, family details and workplace performance. The role of an ESW is a position of trust. ESWs must never provide information about a student or their family to other agencies/services – this is the role of the teacher, who will follow the school’s privacy/confidentiality policy when sharing information. Typically, the school will be required to have written permission from the parent or guardian to share information about a student with relevant agencies and support services. Acting ethically means any in-school discussion about students and their families with colleagues should be on a need-to-know basis. Avoid commenting on students and/or their families in informal settings such as the staffroom, as this can sometimes lead to gossiping – which is extremely unethical. When talking about your work role with family and friends, you should avoid using teachers’ or students’ names, and also avoid sharing information of a specific nature. Confidentiality and privacy should also be maintained in relation to written documentation. Any document of a confidential nature that is in your possession should not ever be left lying around in the classroom or staffroom. Best practice is to store these documents in a lockable filing cabinet. If this is not possible, you should seek direction from the classroom teacher about safe storage options. Student records are typically accessible only by teachers who may choose to share information with the ESW as relevant to their work role – for example, goals for the student or assessment outcomes relevant to planning/IEPs. Schools are dynamic environments. This means that while most often the school day runs smoothly and without incident, there will be occasions when this is not the case. For example, a student may act out aggressively or have a serious meltdown, a student or colleague may accidentally be injured, a parent may become angry or upset, or conflict may occur between staff. Where you witness or are exposed to such situations, you should avoid becoming involved unless directed to do so by the teacher and/or where the student is in danger and no teachers are available to assist. Details of any such situations should remain confidential and should only be discussed if you are directed to do so by a teacher or school executive.
1.3 Skills and knowledge ESWs are often required to work with students who have a range of special needs that influence the student’s ability to learn, behave in an appropriate manner, communicate effectively, relate to others in a socially acceptable and age-appropriate manner, use learning resources, access physical facilities and manage their own personal care. Increasingly, students with additional needs are supported within the regular classroom, or in an additional classroom or program within a mainstream school. ESWs will typically work under the direction and supervision of a classroom teacher. ESWs will work in the classroom alongside the teacher by withdrawing students for one-to-one support, or working with students in small groups (see Figure 1.5). Figure 1.5 ESWs may be required to work with students in small groups. Important attributes for an ESW include effective communication and interpersonal skills, patience, a sense of humour, self-motivation, good organisational and timemanagement skills, a willingness to be flexible and work effectively as part of a team, an ability to accept direction and supervision, and a willingness to engage in ongoing education and professional learning. Above all, ESWs need to enjoy working with children and young people. They also need to be resilient and willing to persist in supporting students whose progress may be marginal or who may act out and resist support. Importantly, ESWs must also be aware of the critical importance of maintaining privacy and confidentiality, and respecting the student and their family at all times. Scenario
PERSONAL COMPETENCE Arna: ‘I work four days per week at a local high school, primarily with young people who are struggling readers. My biggest challenge is communication. I work really hard to keep my students motivated. It’s not an easy task to work with teenagers who have low self-esteem!’ Jude: ‘The high school where I work is in a socially disadvantaged area. The kids have to be resilient to survive. I find that I spend much of my time trying to manage behaviour issues. I need to be patient, respectful and understanding.’ Megan: ‘I work at two schools – a high school and a primary school. I have to plan ahead and be really well organised. I use a daily diary and ‘Things to Do Today’ list. I write everything down that I need to do so that I don’t forget anything. My own children laugh at me and say, ‘Mum, why don’t you use your phone or your iPad for your notes?’ I tell them I like pen and paper. It may be old-fashioned, but it works for me!’ Saafie: ‘I find that being courteous and respectful even to the most challenging students is a good strategy. I remind myself that these kids are doing it tough and many of them don’t have a very happy home life. When a student gets angry or frustrated and takes it out on me, I do my best to stay calm and positive. Getting angry back doesn’t help – it’s my job to model coping strategies.’
Dion: ‘If you want to be an ESW, you need to be able to cope with change. Some days nothing goes to plan, and you just have to go with the flow. You can’t get stressed because you planned to have an hour with students and end up being allocated 30 minutes because of a special assembly, for example. Sometimes the students won’t cooperate and so you end up wasting valuable time just getting them settled. Sometimes I just scrap what I’ve planned and do something completely different, depending on the mood of the students. It’s the sort of job where you have to think on your feet. You can’t get caught up in sticking to your plans. That’s never going to work!’ WHAT THIS TELLS US
ESWs need to plan ahead, but also to be willing to be flexible and adapt, adjust or even abandon planned activities in response to changing situations. " DISCUSSION
• •
Which of these situations would you find most challenging? What resources/support could you access to support you when working in challenging situations?
THE ROLE OF THE EDUCATION SUPPORT WORKER
13
Professional knowledge Working with students can be both rewarding and challenging, particularly when students have additional needs. Each student will be unique in terms of their personality, strengths, areas of need and preferred learning style. Being well informed about each student’s particular strengths as well as their needs is essential to ensure optimal support. It is also important to understand how children and young people learn, and how learning can be supported in a formal school setting. Professional knowledge is a term used to describe specialised knowledge and its application to practice. In the case of an ESW, professional knowledge is required to ensure high standards and quality outcomes when supporting teachers, students, parents and the broader school community. Working with children and young people requires the highest possible standards of professional conduct. The following ‘Consider this’ box provides you with the opportunity to reflect on the range of professional knowledge you may need when working in school settings. Consider This
PROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGE What skills and knowledge might you require in each of the following situations? Where could you go to access resources and support? • Observe and document the social skills of a student. • Guide and support a student with behaviour issues. • Work with a small group of students to support numeracy skills. • Assist a student to complete a program of exercises that has been developed by a physiotherapist.
•
• • • • •
Support high school students with daily living skills to promote independence in areas such as dressing, toileting, hand-washing and meals. Work one-on-one with a student who is visually impaired. Support students who have limited mobility to navigate the classroom, outdoors, toilet, bus stop and so on. Assist a student to use augmentative communication. Assist a student to use mobility aids. Plan a small group reading activity for a group of Year 7 students.
Professional knowledge usually is acquired through formal training, self-directed reading, working alongside an experienced colleague, engaging in a mentoring program and undertaking formal professional development activities. Professional knowledge assists in understanding: • how students develop and learn – for example, understanding literacy or numeracy development • brain development – for example, understanding how adolescent brain development can provide insight into adolescent behaviour • children’s and young people’s behaviour and the effective application of behaviour management strategies – for example, understanding adolescent social development • the principles of supervision and how these can be applied both inside and outside the classroom – for example, understanding that supervision includes looking, listening, anticipating and setting clear behaviour limits • how to use effective communication with adults and students – for example, adapting your communication style so that it reflects the developmental level of a kindergarten or a high school student • legal and ethical obligations, school policies and procedures – for example, understanding child-protection legislation, policies and procedures to provide you with instructions on what to do if you suspect a child or young person is at risk • how learning materials can be used to enhance and support classroom learning – for example, creating a bank of age-appropriate resource materials for young people with reading problems
the Australian Curriculum and the seven general capabilities – this knowledge is essential when working with the classroom teacher to deliver supported learning programs for students • how to observe, document, record and interpret students’ behaviour – for example, the strategies a 14-year-old struggling reader uses when confronted with challenging text • how to develop technical expertise to support the use of supplementary aids to assist students with disabilities, such as adaptive equipment, structural aids and adaptive technology. •
PROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS Astarlin (14 years) has limited mobility and poor muscle control. To support her head and neck, she wears a foam wrap-around collar. She also wears a lightweight helmet to protect her skull. Astarlin can use her hands to operate her electric wheelchair but needs assistance at mealtimes and when toileting. Astarlin uses assistive technology as her main form of communication. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
To work effectively with Astarlin, ESW Zenni must have the following skills and knowledge:
• • • • • • • •
Scenario
personal care skills – assisting with toileting, handwashing and meals correct fitting of aids – for example, neck collar and helmet knowledge about use of personal protective equipment (PPE) and back-care strategies correct lifting techniques physical care – managing and monitoring mobility needs operation of an electric wheelchair use of assistive technology ethical conduct.
Professional knowledge informs best practice – that is, it equips you with the underpinning knowledge upon which you can build your skills as an ESW. It is important to be aware that no two classrooms will be the same and no two students – even those with similar abilities and/or disabilities – will be the same. The key to being an effective ESW is to continually build your knowledge and skills.
Being organised What does ‘being organised’ mean for an ESW? The answer may well vary from person to person and school to school. Being well organised comes naturally to some people, but for others it requires careful thought and planning. Organised people tend not to procrastinate and can usually achieve more in a limited time by having a range of ‘mini-routines’ or systems that they stick to each day. Schools, large or small, are always busy places. Being organised does not make them less busy, but it certainly makes the work more manageable. Being organised means: • having a thorough knowledge of your job description – understand your responsibilities, roles and associated tasks and be clear about your supervising teacher’s expectations • being aware of the roles and duties of others within the organisation • being aware of timetables and school schedules • being aware of the equipment and resources available, where they are stored, how they can be accessed and whether they must be returned to storage at the end of each day or can be left in the classroom • prioritising – knowing what is important, and not wasting time on trivial tasks • using a diary or organiser to forward-plan known commitments • Having a ‘to do’ list to ensure extra tasks are carried out as required – this takes the pressure off remembering everything and clears your mind for the day ahead
THE ROLE OF THE EDUCATION SUPPORT WORKER
15
arriving at work on time by making sure that you are up early enough to prepare yourself for the day • asking for direction and support when needed • knowing when you are becoming ‘snowed under’ – learn to say ‘no’ when you need to, and do not take on the work of others when your own jobs are incomplete • pacing yourself and keep an eye on the time throughout the day without becoming a ‘clock watcher’. See Figure 1.6 for illustrations of some simple ways to get organised. Being organised and well prepared leads to greater productivity which in turn leads to improved workplace performance and a greater Use a basket or crate for everyday items such as sense of achievement and wellbeing. Being organised reduces workplace gluestick, sticky notes, pens, pencils, highlighters, stress that, if allowed to accumulate, can lead to serious health issues. felt pens/markers, calculator and exercise books. See the Scenario box for an example. Figure 1.6 Tips for being organised
•
Source: iStock.com/Catherine Lane
Scenario
BE PREPARED! Vicki has been an ESW for seven years. Today she is a guest speaker at an orientation/training course for new ESWs. Vicki’s topic is ‘Be Prepared!’ Vicki shares her experiences with the group and outlines some interesting scenarios to highlight the importance of being organised and expecting the unexpected. Vicki has brought along her basket, which she has with her every day and refers to as her ‘tools of trade’. She unpacks the basket and, one by one, discusses the contents with the group. Vicki explains that the items in her basket are essential work tools for an ESW – her motto is ‘Never leave home without it’. Her basket contains the following items: • diary, including a ‘to do list’, school timetable and class timetables and class list – Vicki tells the group this is a must-have item • pens, pencils, pencil sharpener, eraser, paperclips, notebook, hole punch, stapler, sticky tape, masking tape, glue, scissors, ruler, sticky notes pad, felt pens, whiteboard marker and eraser, spare manila folders, spare paper, felt pens, stickers for rewards, reward charts – Vicki explains that these items make her self-
•
•
reliant. She doesn’t have to go hunting for things, which saves her precious classroom time. use-and-wipe game books, football cards, fun work sheets for different age groups, egg timer, games such as a set of magnets, dominoes, collection of plastic figures, babushka dolls, handheld electronic games, magic marker boards – Vicki shares with the group that these items are her ‘sanity savers’. She uses them to calm students, as rewards for staying on task, as brain breaks and as time fillers if needed. hand wipes, a box of tissues, hat and sunscreen. Vicki emphasises the need to look after yourself and take basic healthcare measures.
Vicki tells the group that they must be self-reliant and well prepared, and that having a well-stocked toolbox is a good starting point. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Vicki has emphasised the need to think about the job role and to be as self-sufficient as possible to save time and enable her to get on with the job.
Time management Time is a limited resource. Juggling competing priorities and demands for our time has become an ongoing challenge for most people. Being able to set priorities and manage time are essential skills for an ESW, as evidenced by the timetable in Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.7 Example of a weekly plan Weekly Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday Netball
3–4 School
4.30 Callie
football prac
Netball prac
4.15 Dentist
4.30 Callie
3-4 School
Shopping
Netball prac
football prac
house/garden
Sunday Family day
Anne Uni Anne Uni Reading group
Reading group
Reading group
Reading group
Reading group
Report
Report
Report
Report
Report
Maths group
Library
Maths group
Maths group
Maths group
Jack/Liliya
Harry
Harry
Harry
Harry
Class prep
Jack/Liliya
Jack/Liliya
Jack/Liliya
Jack/Liliya Class prep Sport
Write up obs TO DO
Write up obs
Write up obs
Write up obs
Write up obs
NOTES
There are many things that can impact on our ability to get the job done in a timely and efficient manner. Common ‘time stealers’, which can interfere with the ‘best laid plans’ at home and at work, include unforeseen interruptions, procrastination and indecision, acting with incomplete information, poor communication, unclear goals and priorities, poor planning, taking on too many tasks (the inability to say ‘no’) and poor organisational skills.
THE ROLE OF THE EDUCATION SUPPORT WORKER
17
GO further Learn more about maintaining a work–life balance in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor..
Of all the time stealers listed above, one of the most common is procrastination. Everyone will procrastinate over a task or decision at some time. Many people use procrastination as a strategy to allow time for further thought and consideration. However, when procrastination occurs regularly in relation to daily tasks, it can become a real problem. Putting off ‘must do’ small tasks can quickly lead to an overwhelming ‘mountain’ of tasks. If you are a procrastinator, you need to make a list of all the tasks that you need to do, set a timeframe and identify a realistic amount of time each day to ‘attack’ one task. To manage your time effectively, you can try creating a daily/weekly ‘to do’ list, be realistic about what you can achieve each day, delegate tasks where possible and learn to be assertive – it’s okay to say ‘no’!
DOCUMENTATION AND RECORD KEEPING Alistair ESW Alistair is responsible for the distribution and collection of textbooks and learning materials for senior students. Students use their swipe card to record collections and returns. Alistair monitors the process using a database. Rashida ESW Rashida has been given the task of taking minutes at meetings with therapists and visiting support staff in relation to individual student progress. Rashida uses her iPad to take notes and later emails a summary noting actions required by each participant.
Scenario
Kahir ESW Kahir is responsible for keeping the attendance register for his class teacher. To do this, Kahir had to learn the symbols for absences and reasons for absences, such as illness, special leave, suspension, exemption and so on. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
ESWs may be delegated a variety of administrative tasks that require them to use existing systems for recording or documenting information.
Keeping a work diary A diary is a simple but effective way to document and maintain a record of day-to-day activities in the workplace. Figure 1.8 shows some of the uses of a work diary. Your diary should be regarded as confidential and not be left lying around for students to read. Scenario
DAILY DIARY Helen Each morning ESW Helen spends 10 minutes reviewing her schedule of tasks with the teacher. At these meetings, Helen can ask questions to clarify her role and/or specific tasks that are to be performed. Helen makes notes in her daily diary as they talk. At the end of the week, Helen gives the teacher a written and verbal update on her work with individual students and small groups. The teacher provides Helen with support and feedback on her performance. This information is used to plan Helen’s schedule for the next week.
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Tim Tim, who is working with Asher, a student with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), was asked by the teacher to meet with her and the school counsellor to review Asher’s progress. Tim was well prepared for the meeting because
Daily diaries can be used as both a planning tool and a place to keep notes on incidental matters as they arise. These notes can act as reminders of tasks to be completed, things to follow up or information to be communicated to the teacher.
he had his daily planning and evaluation sheets as well as notes he had made in his diary. Tim was able to make a significant contribution to the meeting, particularly in relation to Asher’s responses to various management strategies to keep him calm and on task. At the end of the meeting, both the teacher and the counsellor thanked Tim for his professional input. Tim felt very pleased with his contribution and reflected on the importance of keeping objective and timely records.
Figure 1.8 Uses of a work diary MONDAY
TUESDAY
11
12
FEBRUARY
FEBRUARY
• Record date and times worked each day at each school. • Name or initials of each student to whom you were assigned, their class and teacher’s name. • The nature of the tasks carried out – for example, classroom support, one-to-one withdrawal, personal care assistance. • Any contact with parents and the nature of the
• Any changes that you make to the agreed routine or agreed tasks – for example, ‘Josh not responsive today – decided to spend time reading to him.’ • Any contact you may have with other support workers or specialist teachers in relation to the student – for example, ‘This morning Josh was
contact; for example, ‘Mrs J. informed me this
seen by Alice Brown (itinerant teacher) – she
morning that Josh had a restless night and
informed me that she is very pleased with the
would not eat his breakfast.’
way Josh is progressing. Well done Josh!’
• Any changes made by the teacher to the agreed routine or agreed tasks – for example, ‘Teacher suggested taking Josh for a walk around the
• The resources used, what worked well and what didn’t work well – for future reference. • Any questions you may have for the teacher.
grounds because he is very unsettled and restless today.’
Documentation required to be maintained by an ESW will vary, but may include individual and small-group learning experience strategies used with students to manage behaviour, and meetings with teachers, parents or other professionals. ESWs should also document any incidents related to students – for example, refusal to cooperate, aggressive, destructive or disruptive behaviour and accidental injuries. Any information recorded about students should be treated as confidential. ESWs should discuss with the class teacher where such information is to be stored and how it can be accessed.
Summary This section of the textbook has provided an overview of the diverse roles and responsibilities of an ESW. The importance of acting in a professional and ethical manner, and ensuring accountability as part of the role, was explored. While each workplace will impose different requirements for record keeping and documentation, it is important to be aware that record keeping can serve two purposes: the first is to demonstrate accountability and the second, no less important, is to provide evidence of how, and under what conditions, work was carried out. This is particularly important because ESWs often find themselves working with minimal supervision.
THE ROLE OF THE EDUCATION SUPPORT WORKER
19
Discussion questions 1
Figure 1.1 explores key areas of ESW accountability. Discuss these areas – which present challenges, which are easiest to demonstrate, which may require you to acquire further skills and/or knowledge.
2 Read the ethical dilemmas that follow and describe what you would do if you were Eve. Explain why each situation may present an ethical dilemma for some people.
ETHICAL DILEMMA 1
ETHICAL DILEMMA 2
It’s 4 p.m. and ESWs Reena and Eve are finished for the day. They have decided to stay behind today to complete some joint planning. They work with two kindergarten teachers in demountable classrooms, which are joined by a common area that includes toilets, storeroom and student cloakroom. As they are about to leave, Reena ducks into the storeroom and helps herself to toilet paper, a few bottles of liquid soap refills and two boxes of tissues. Noticing the look on Eve’s face, Reena says: ‘What? No one’s going to notice that a few things are missing. I just think of it as reimbursement for unpaid overtime! I hope you’re not going to dob me in!’ Reena laughs as she waves goodbye. That night, Eve tells her partner about the incident. ‘I was really shocked, and it must have showed on my face. I know she’s a struggling single parent but the liquid soap refills and tissues were donated by some of the parents. The bottom line is that it is stealing from her employer. I feel like Reena has put me in a very compromising situation. I don’t want to be involved in stealing. If I report her, she’ll probably lose her job. Even if she just gets a reprimand, she’ll be impossible to work with – she’ll make my life hell! What should I do?’
Eve is working with Dylan, 15 years, who has learning difficulties and behaviour problems. Dylan has been suspended from school on two previous occasions and any further behaviour incidents will likely result in expulsion. Dylan’s family is dysfunctional. His father has a problem with alcohol and can become quite violent towards Dylan, his younger brother and sister, and his mother. It is Saturday morning and Eva is out shopping when she bumps into Dylan. Eve can smell the distinct odour of marijuana on his clothing and sees that his eyes are slightly glazed. She says hello, then moves on. Eve thinks about the situation with Dylan over the weekend. What should she do on Monday morning? Confront Dylan and ask him whether he had been smoking? Tell the teacher about her suspicions? She knows that if she escalates her concerns, Dylan may at best be referred for counselling or at worst expelled. Either way, she knows that Dylan’s father is likely to respond with violence towards Dylan, as he has done in the past.
Self-check questions 1
In your own words, describe what professional conduct might ‘look like’ as it relates to the role of an ESW. 2 What is a code of conduct? 3 In your own words, explain why violation or abuse of duty of care (power and trust) in relation to children and young people is considered a serious breach of a code of conduct. 4 Explain what ‘behaving in an ethical manner’ means to you in your role as an ESW.
5 In your own words, explain why it is important to continually update your professional knowledge. 6 In your own words, explain why it is important to clearly understand the roles/responsibilities of the classroom teacher as well as your own job role and responsibilities. 7 Describe two strategies that you could use to ensure you carry out your work in an organised, timely and productive manner. 8 Explain how your attitudes, beliefs and values might influence your role as an ESW.
Activities 1
The following table provides a sample of two advertisements for an ESW. Compare the two job roles by answering the following questions: a List three key differences between the job roles
b c
List the key differences in skill sets/qualifications required for each job role. As an Education Support Worker, what would be the challenges of each job role?
JOB ADVERTISEMENTS
Education support worker (General)
Education support worker (integration aide)
The role > Provide support to individuals and small groups of students in the regular classroom who have mild physical, emotional or educational needs.
The role > Provide support to students with a range of medium to high special needs in a special education unit.
> Provide support that is aligned to an IEP, which sets out learning targets to enable the student to complete their program.
> Observe and document student progress and recommended support strategies to the teacher.
> Support the teachers in identifying the most effective resources for pupils with particular needs.
> Prepare learning areas and activities.
> Work one-on-one with students using an IEP.
> Assist students to participate in all learning activities. > Provide basic physical and emotional care for students in areas such as toileting, meals and lifting.
> Help to create and maintain an effective and challenging learning environment. > Observe and document student progress and report to the teacher. > Support the wellbeing, behaviour and personal development of students. Essential skills and experience > Previous experience in a learning support role in a classroom setting.
> Assist with the preparation of teaching aids and resources. Essential skills and experience > Strong written and verbal communication skills. > Previous experience in the provision of support on a one-onone basis. > Experience working with students with moderate to high additional needs – highly regarded. > Knowledge and use of augmentative communication systems.
> Previous experience in working with students with mild additional support/learning needs. Essential qualification > Certificate III in Education Support, or be currently enrolled.
> Knowledge and use of physical care aids and personal care equipment. > Able to follow directions. > Able to work as part of a team.
Requirements > Undertake a Working with Children Check.
> Experience working with families. Essential qualification > Certificate III or IV in Education Support. Requirements > Undertake a Working with Children Check.
2 For this task, refer to the Consider this box on page 10 – the NSW Department of Education Code of Conduct: Statement of Ethics. a To whom does this Code of Conduct apply? b Read each example of workplace practice below and match it to an expectation in relation to the Code of Conduct.
Workplace practice examples •
ESW John works with 14-year-old Carla, who struggles with her learning and compensates by being disruptive, manipulative and rude in class. Each day, John starts afresh with Carla. He greets her respectfully and tells her he is looking forward to seeing how well she is progressing.
THE ROLE OF THE EDUCATION SUPPORT WORKER
21
•
•
John has made it his rule never to discuss or comment on teachers, students or their families outside of the school. He believes that treating everyone with respect and ensuring confidentiality are essential parts of his job role. At the end of each day, John writes brief notes about his daily tasks. He records who he worked with, what he did and how long he spent at each task. He also makes a note of any follow-up action required. This helps John to keep track of his busy schedule – he can easily refer to his notes if any questions arise about his work. These notes are in addition to any documentation about individual students.
•
•
John regularly attends professional development workshops. He also subscribes to a number of online blogs and newsletters. Most recently, John attended an Effective Workplace Communication workshop. Each week, John attends an ESW team meeting chaired by the deputy principal. It is an opportunity to share and exchange information as well as seek advice and support as needed. John looks forward to these meetings, and always makes sure he has something positive to share with his colleagues.
Chapter 2 WORKING IN A LEGISLATIVE ENVIRONMENT LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to demonstrate that, in relation to working in a school environment, you can: 2.1
identify and comply with legislative and policy requirements relating to the school workplace environment
2.2 identify, understand and comply with relevant workplace policies that guide the day-to-day decision-making and practices of the school in your work with teachers and specialist staff, students and families 2.3 understand the duty-of-care responsibilities and obligations of both the Educational Support Worker (ESW) and the school in maintaining student safety 2.4 Identify, understand and comply with public health legislative requirements 2.5 identify and comply with organisational policies and procedures as they apply to record-keeping, privacy and information systems.
GO
further
Go Further icons link to extra content for this chapter. Ask your instructor for the Go Further resource and deepen your understanding of the topic.
Introduction As an employee in a public or independent school, you are required to be aware of and comply with a range of legislative requirements, polices and procedures. You have a legal and ethical obligation to act in the best interests of children and young people. You are also required to conduct yourself in a professional manner and reflect the core values of the school.
WORKING IN A LEGISLATIVE ENVIRONMENT
23
2.1 Legislation and policy Schools operate within a legislative framework. All schools must comply with state/territory and Commonwealth legislation to ensure accountability, ethical conduct and to safeguard and protect the rights of all stakeholders. Schools – both public and independent – are funded under the provision of Commonwealth legislation, which includes: • the Australian Education Act 2013 – the principal legislation for the provision of Australian government funding to government and non-government schools. The Act also sets out broad expectations for compliance, to ensure funding accountability to the Commonwealth and to school communities. Under the Act the Schooling Resource Standard (SRS) provides a base amount per student and additional funding for disadvantage. • the Australian Education Regulation 2013, which outlines the financial accountability and other conditions that are required by approved authorities in order to receive funding under the Australian Education Act 2013 (ª The Department of Education and Training. CC-BY-4.0 licence.). Approved authorities include government schools (administered by relevant state or territory governments) and non-government schools (administered by a body corporate approved by the minister). Legislative compliance in the education environment is the responsibility of the employer, the principal and all employees.
Human rights, anti-discrimination and equal opportunity legislation The Australian Human Rights Commission is responsible for the implementation of federal human rights and anti-discrimination law in Australia. The key role of the Commission is to assist in the resolution of complaints about discrimination and other breaches of human rights. The priorities of the Commission (Australian Human Rights Commission, 2012: 9) are ‘building understanding and respect for rights in our community’ and ‘tackling violence, harassment and bullying’. Figure 2.1 describes Commonwealth legislation that addresses discrimination. Figure 2.1 Legislation and grounds for discrimination
Legislation
Summary
Areas covered
Australian Human Rights Commission Act 1986
Discrimination based on race, colour, sex, religion, political opinion, national extraction, social origin, age, medical record, criminal record, marital or relationship status, impairment, mental, intellectual or psychiatric disability, physical disability, nationality, sexual orientation, and trade union activity.
Discrimination in employment or occupation.
Also covers discrimination based on the imputation of one of the above grounds. Age Discrimination Act 2004
Discrimination based on age – protects both younger and older Australians. Also includes discrimination based on agespecific characteristics or characteristics that are generally imputed to a person of a particular age.
Discrimination in employment, education, access to premises, provision of goods, services and facilities, accommodation, disposal of land, administration of Commonwealth laws and programs, and requests for information.
Legislation
Summary
Areas covered
Disability Discrimination Act 1992
Discrimination based on physical, intellectual, psychiatric, sensory, neurological or learning disability, physical disfigurement, disorder, illness or disease that affects thought processes, perception of reality, emotions or judgement, or results in disturbed behaviour, and presence in body of organisms causing or capable of causing disease or illness (e.g. HIV virus).
Discrimination in employment, education, access to premises, provision of goods, services and facilities, accommodation, disposal of land, activities of clubs, sport, and administration of Commonwealth laws and programs.
Also covers discrimination involving harassment in employment, education or the provision of goods and services. Racial Discrimination Act 1975
Discrimination based on race, colour, descent or national or ethnic origin, and in some circumstances immigrant status. Racial hatred, defined as a public act or acts likely to offend, insult, humiliate or intimidate based on race, is also prohibited under this Act unless an exemption applies.
Sex Discrimination Act 1984
Discrimination based on sex, marital or relationship status, pregnancy or potential pregnancy, breastfeeding, family responsibilities, sexual orientation, gender identity and intersex status.
Discrimination in all areas of public life including employment, provision of goods and services, right to join trade unions, access to places and facilities, land, housing and other accommodation, and advertisements.
Discrimination in employment.
Sexual harassment is also prohibited under this Act. Fair Work Act 2009
Discrimination based on race, colour, sex, sexual orientation, age, physical or mental disability, marital status, family or carer responsibilities, pregnancy, religion, political opinion, national extraction, and social origin.
Discrimination, via adverse action, in employment.
Source: ª Australian Human Rights Commission 2017. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY POLICY – DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION TASMANIA: EMPLOYMENT PRINCIPLES Employment in the Department of Education, Tasmania is governed by the State Service Act 2000, which contains a set of State Service Principles that provide an overarching statement regarding both the nature and operation of the State Service and expectations of those who work within it. The four general areas covered by the principles are: • merit and employment • diversity and equity • ethics and accountability, and • provision of services.
Consider This
All departmental employees and officers must comply with the principles and all relevant employment directions. MERIT
Merit ensures that any appointment to, or promotion within, the State Service is made on the basis of the capacity of the person to do the job. Section 7 of the State Service Act 2000 provides that a decision relating to appointment or promotion is based on merit if:
WORKING IN A LEGISLATIVE ENVIRONMENT
25
• •
•
•
an assessment is made of the relative suitability of the candidates for the duties, and the assessment is based on the relationship between the candidates’ work-related qualities and the work-related qualities generally requested for the duties, and the assessment focuses on the relative capacity of the candidates to achieve outcomes related to the duties, and the assessment is the primary consideration in making the decision.
Some examples of work-related qualities that may be relevant in making an assessment are: • skills and abilities • qualifications, training and competencies • standard of work performance
• • • •
capacity to produce required outcomes relevant personal qualities demonstrated potential for further development ability to contribute to team performance. Source: ª Government of Tasmania, Department of Education. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
This policy is an example of how anti-discrimination and equal employment opportunity legislation is translated into practice. The goal of EEO is to select and promote candidates for employment based on merit alone, unless the organisation has been granted an exemption. For example, targeting employment of ethnic minorities, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people or to address gender bias/imbalance in employment practices.
Schools must also comply with state or territory anti-discrimination legislation shown in Figure 2.2. Figure 2.2 State/territory equal employment opportunity and anti-discrimination legislation
Region
Equal opportunity legislation
Australian Capital Territory
Discrimination Act 1991 ACT Human Rights Commission: http://hrc.act.gov.au
New South Wales
Anti-Discrimination Act 1977 Anti-Discrimination Board of NSW: http://www.antidiscrimination.justice.nsw.gov.au
Northern Territory
Anti-Discrimination Act 1996 Northern Territory Anti-Discrimination Commission: http://www.adc.nt.gov.au
Queensland
Anti-Discrimination Act 1991 Anti-Discrimination Commission Queensland: http://www.adcq.qld.gov.au
South Australia
Equal Opportunity Act 1984 Equal Opportunity Commission of South Australia: http://www.eoc.sa.gov.au
Tasmania
Anti-Discrimination Act 1998 Office of the Anti-Discrimination Commissioner: http://equalopportunity.tas.gov.au/home
Victoria
Equal Opportunity Act 2010 Equal Opportunity and Human Rights Commission: http://www.humanrightscommission. vic.gov.au
Western Australia
Equal Opportunity Act 1984 Equal Opportunity Commission: http://www.eoc.wa.gov.au
Disability, inclusion and education legislation The Disability Standards for Education 2005 (the Standards 2005) were developed to clarify the obligations and responsibilities of educational institutions under the Disability Discrimination Act
1992 and are designed to ensure that students with a disability can access and participate in education on the same basis as other students. The Standards apply to preschools and kindergartens, public and independent schools, public and independent education and training places and tertiary institutions including TAFEs and universities. (p. 1)
The Standards seek to ensure that students are not discriminated against in relation to enrolment, access to services and facilities and participation in learning programs. The Standards cover enrolment, participation, curriculum development, accreditation and delivery, student support services and elimination of harassment and victimisation. (p. 1) Source: ª The Department of Education and Training. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
The Standards support the concept of inclusion by promoting participation and accessibility for students with disabilities, advocating for facilities and resources that allow for universal access and promoting practices to eliminate discrimination, harassment and victimisation. All schools will have in place an inclusion policy that reflects both the Standards 2005 and anti-discrimination legislation. These policies also reflect Article 28 of the United Nations (UN) Convention on the Rights of the Child, to which Australia is a signatory. In part, Article 28 states that, ‘Parties recognize the right of the child to education, and with a view to achieving this right progressively and on the basis of equal opportunity.’ Chapter 18 of this text explores support for students with disabilities in greater detail.
ONLINE RESOURCES • •
Examples of Inclusion Policies Students at Educational Risk Policy and Procedures – Department of Education Western Australia: http://det.wa.edu.au/policies/detcms/ policy-planning-and-accountability/policies-framework/ policies/students-at-educational-risk.en?cat-id= 3457119
•
•
Inclusive Education Policy. Department of Education Queensland: http://ppr.det.qld.gov.au/pif/policies/ Documents/Inclusive-education-policy.pdf Learner Wellbeing and Behaviour Policy – Department of Education Tasmania: https://documentcentre. education.tas.gov.au/Documents/Learner-Wellbeingand-Behaviour-Policy.pdf
INCLUSION FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES ELLA JONES
Ella (5 years, 10 months) has Down syndrome and has been attending her local preschool for three years. The preschool director has provided a comprehensive report to the family on Ella’s developmental progress. Ella is a happy and confident child with a mild intellectual disability. She has well-developed expressive and receptive language skills and manages her own personal hygiene needs. At times she can be quite impulsive and overexcited. She has a congenital heart condition that causes her to become breathless and fatigued if she overexerts herself. Mr and Mrs Jones want Ella to attend the local school with her older siblings. They know that, over time, Ella will
Scenario
gradually fall behind her peers academically; however, they believe this will be outweighed by the benefits of inclusion in her local school community. Today, Ella and her parents are attending a pre-enrolment interview at the school. The school is located in a growing suburb and this year there will be three Kindergarten classes. The junior school principal is concerned that Ella may not cope with the size of the school campus. He is also concerned that funding for ESWs is scarce and is worried about how the teacher will cope with the demands of a student with additional needs. The interview goes well. Ella is very excited and insists on wearing one of her sister’s old uniforms. The principal later reflects that he had perhaps unfairly prejudged Ella.
WORKING IN A LEGISLATIVE ENVIRONMENT
27
He reminds himself that every child with a disability also has many abilities and strengths. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
The benefits of inclusion for students with disabilities go well beyond the individual’s right to quality education. The social and emotional wellbeing of the child and family should be a primary consideration.
" DISCUSSION
What first comes to mind when thinking about a student with a disability? Do you immediately begin to think about the disabilities the child may have? If your answer is yes, you are not alone, as we tend to be conditioned to think of the negatives rather than potential of those with disabilities.
Child protection legislation Each state and territory has in place child protection legislation governing key areas such as mandatory reporting requirements, investigation, registration, legal proceedings, protection orders, ongoing intervention, supervision and the collection of statistical data. Occupations where mandatory reporting is required vary across jurisdictions, but typically include medical professionals, police, teachers, disability workers and Family Court officers. Western Australia requires mandatory reporting only for suspected child sexual abuse. All schools will have policies and procedures in place for reporting students who are suspected of being at serious risk of harm. Typically, any employees – including ESWs – who suspect a student is at risk of harm would report those concerns to the school’s principal, who would then follow the school’s written policy in relation to notification procedures.
Mandatory pre-employment screening Pre-employment screening such as the Working with Children Check is designed to identify and prevent unsuitable individuals from working in occupations where they come into direct and regular contact with children and young people. Currently, there is no single national strategy in place setting out the requirements for pre-employment screening for adults working with children. However, all employees and volunteers employed in schools in every state and territory are usually screened as part of the recruitment process. Chapter 5 of this text explores child protection in greater detail, including your obligations in relation to legislation and policy.
2.2 Workplace policies GO
further
Access your Go Further resource, available through your instructor, for a more detailed list of the range of school policies you will encounter and an example of a school social media policy.
Workplace policies and procedures provide governance and operational advice. They are designed to guide day-to-day decision-making and practices. In many cases, policies and procedures will reflect the legislative requirements of the organisation. Policies are typically developed, disseminated, monitored and evaluated at the corporate level. For example, in public schools policies are developed by state/territory Education Departments. In non-government schools, policies may be developed by, for example, the Catholic Education Commission, which oversees the Catholic education system, or the Anglican Schools Corporation. School policies cover a wide range of areas, including: • corporate management • finance and administration • human resources • safety and welfare • school management.
Consider This The following human rights and anti-discrimination policy from the Department of Education and Training website, Victoria demonstrates how legislation is translated into school policy.
•
PURPOSE OF THIS POLICY
•
To ensure student dress codes treat students equally, protect students against discrimination, and uphold human rights requirements.
•
Policy Student dress codes must comply with human rights and anti-discrimination legislation by: • treating students equally • not treating students differently because of personal characteristics • upholding human rights requirements.
•
•
Objectives By upholding human rights and anti-discrimination legislation, schools can:
support a safe and inclusive school environment where the school community feels welcome, supported and physically and emotionally secure ensure that their dress codes enable all students to participate fully in school life increase the sense of belonging to and engagement with schools for students of all backgrounds, including cultural, linguistic and religious, regardless of personal characteristics such as disability, health condition, gender identity and so on. model appropriate behaviour for resolving issues and promote mutual respect for all members of the school community build effective relationships with parents or carers, students and staff from diverse cultural, linguistic and religious backgrounds. Source: ª The Department of Education and Training. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
Scenario
ALISTAIR Alistair (15 years) is gay. Today he arrives at school with part of his hair dyed bright blue. He is also wearing black winged eyeliner. The Year 9 coordinator tells Alistair to remove his eyeliner as it breaches the ‘no eye make-up’ dress code of the school. Alistair immediately claims that
the coordinator is homophobic and that he is being discriminated against because he is gay. " DISCUSSION
Is this a case of discrimination? Why or why not?
As an ESW, you are expected to be familiar with school policies and comply with these policies as they apply to your work with teachers and specialist staff, students and families. Most schools will make their policies available on the school website and/or provide a link to their department’s/organisation’s website. Figure 2.3 provides links to public school websites where you can access policy information. Figure 2.3 Public school policies websites
State/territory
Website
ACT
http://det.wa.edu.au/policies/detcms/portal
NSW
https://education.nsw.gov.au/policy-library
NT
https://education.nt.gov.au/education/policies
Qld
http://ppr.det.qld.gov.au/pif/policies/Pages/school-education.aspx
Tas
https://documentcentre.education.tas.gov.au/Pages/policies/topic.aspx
Vic
http://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/principals/spag/Pages/azindex.aspx
WA
http://det.wa.edu.au/policies/detcms/portal
WORKING IN A LEGISLATIVE ENVIRONMENT
29
2.3 Duty of care Duty of care, embedded in the law of negligence and as it pertains to schools, refers to the obligation of teachers and other adults working with children and young people to take reasonable measures to protect them against known hazards and risks of harm, which could reasonably be foreseen and/or prevented. This duty of care will arise whenever a teacher–student relationship exists, and extends to ESWs when working with students. Younger students and those with disabilities or special needs require a higher standard of care. To establish a breach of duty of care, it must be established that, on the balance of probabilities: • a duty of care was owed to them at the time of the injury, and • the risk of injury was reasonably foreseeable, and • the likelihood of the injury occurring was more than insignificant, and • there was a breach of the duty of care or a failure to observe a reasonable standard of care; and • this breach or failure caused or contributed to the injury, loss or damage suffered. Source: ª State of Victoria (Department of Education and Training). CC-BY-4.0 licence.
Scenario
REASONABLE CARE ESW Matt notices a group of Year 10 boys climbing on and jumping from the roof of the sports shed. As well as putting themselves in danger, Matt knows that this area is off limits to the students. Matt tells the students to get down and go back to the main playground. One of the boys laughs at Matt. ‘You’re not a teacher. You can’t tell us what to do!’ Rather than arguing with the boys, Matt goes in search of the teacher on outdoor lunch duty.
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Matt has conducted himself in the expected manner. He took immediate action to eliminate the risk. When his directions were ignored, he immediately notified the supervising teacher. Matt demonstrated that he was aware of the duty of care owed to students by school employees.
Family law All schools have a duty of care to their students. Where there are court orders, parenting orders or parenting plans related to a child enrolled in a school, parents have an obligation (but are not required by law) to notify the school. Sharing this information ensures that the school is aware of: • who has legal responsibility for the child – for example, signing permission forms, payment of any school fees, who to notify in case of sickness or injury • who may pick up the child at the end of the school day • any restrictions in relation to access/restraining orders – for example, attendance at school events, collecting a child early from school • who should receive official information such as the child’s assessment reports. Most schools will have in place policy guidelines to manage orders made by the Family Court where it directly impacts on the school’s duty-of-care obligations.
Work health and safety legislation Every person conducting a business or undertaking has a duty to ensure, as far as is reasonably practicable, the health, safety and welfare of all employees and others who come into the workplace.
In Australia, legislation in relation to work health and safety (WHS) includes: • the Model Work Health and Safety (WHS) Act 2011 (Model WHS Act) • the Model Work Health and Safety (WHS) Regulations 2011 (Model WHS Regulations). Incorporated under this legislation is the Model Codes of Practice and a National Compliance and Enforcement Policy.
Emergency procedures Regulation 43 of the Model WHS Regulations requires every workplace to have emergency procedures in place. Schools will have a policy and procedures to respond to emergency situations, which will outline: • testing of the emergency procedures, including how often they should be tested • information, training and instruction to relevant workers in relation to implementing the emergency procedures. WHS and emergency procedures will be examined in detail in Chapter 4.
Duty of care and student safety All teachers have a duty of care and must take reasonable measures to protect students from risk of harm. Duty of care requires adults working with students to assess potential risks in a range of situations. The Department of Education WA (2007: 3) states: ‘The duty owed to students is not a duty to ensure that no harm will ever occur, but rather a duty to take reasonable care to avoid harm being suffered.’ (ª Department of Education, Western Australia. CC-BY-4.0 licence). Duty of care extends to ESWs where this responsibility is included in the duty statement or job description. However, regardless of this legal position, all adults working with children and young people should take reasonable care to reduce the risk of harm. Reasonable care is difficult to define, and will often depend on particular circumstances. The Department of Education and Children’s Services SA (2007) states: Generally speaking a teacher owes a student a duty to take reasonable care to protect him or her from foreseeable risk of injury. This duty may be manifested in many ways including: • the duty to supervise the students so that they comply with rules and practices designed for their own safety and that of other students; • the duty to design and implement appropriate programmes and procedures to ensure the safety of students; • the duty to ensure that school buildings, equipment and facilities are safe; • the duty to warn students about dangerous situations or practices.
A risk assessment can be undertaken to determine reasonable care. Factors that must be taken into account include the nature of the experience, the physical setting, the abilities of the students, the typical behaviour of students and the equipment being used. Any risk assessment must also take into account the roles and other duties of any adults caring for or supervising the students. A risk assessment will include identifying any hazards, assessing the risks, controlling, managing or eliminating the risks, and monitoring and evaluating the outcomes.
GO
further
Learn more about student safety and the role of the ESW in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
Hazards and student accidents and injuries Accidental injuries to students can occur as a result of tripping or falling in the playground, or on stairs. Students may be injured while using special equipment such as lino-cut tools or
WORKING IN A LEGISLATIVE ENVIRONMENT
31
woodworking tools, or they may sustain injuries while playing sport, or because of fights between students, or due to students throwing objects. Injuries sustained at school are usually not life-threatening. All schools have designated first aid officers and first aid equipment, and usually have an arrangement with the ambulance service to cover the cost of emergency services for students. Figure 2.4 shows the injury-related statistics of Australian children for a 10-year period (2002–12). The figures show that falls are the most common cause of accidental injury and that boys are by far the greatest at-risk group. Figure 2.4 Injury-related statistics of Australian children
Types of injuries
%
Falls
38
Injuries due to inanimate mechanical forces (such as getting struck by or striking against objects; getting caught, crushed, jammed or pinched in or between objects)
18
Injuries involving animate mechanical forces (such as getting struck by another person, getting bitten by an animal)
6
Poisoning
4
Intentional self-harm
3
Places where injuries most occur Schools, other institutions and public administrative areas Sports and athletic areas
34 9
Most common types of injuries Fractures
42
Open wounds
16
Injuries to internal organs
5
Age groups of children presenting with injuries 0–5 years
34
6–10 years
25
11–16 years
41
Gender of children presenting with injuries Males had the highest proportion of injuries across all three age groups.
64
Source: Adapted by Mitchell R, Curtis K, Foster K. A 10-year review of the characteristics and health outcomes of injury-related hospitalisations of children in Australia. Day of Difference Foundation. University of Sydney. 5th May 2017.
Kidsafe (2016) recommends working with students to teach them how to use playground equipment safely. It also suggests that active zones be created for ball games and quiet zones for no running, and that a process be implemented to check the playground and playing fields regularly for hazards such as broken glass, used syringes, broken or worn equipment and unwelcome visitors such as stinging or biting insects and snakes.
2.4 Public health legislation Schools are required to maintain records of each child’s immunisation status and to notify health authorities should there be an outbreak of immunisation-preventable disease. Parents are required
by law to provide evidence of the immunisation status of their children prior to enrolment. Schools must sight the child’s Australian Childhood Immunisation Register (ACIR), which is run by Medicare Australia. Students who are not immunised may be excluded where there is an outbreak of a vaccine-preventable disease. A copy of the National Immunisation Program Schedule can be accessed from the following website: http://www.immunise.health.gov.au. School canteens usually are exempt from compliance with food safety legislation; however, each state and territory must provide information on food safety matters such as safe storage, cooking, cooling and reheating of food; cross-contamination; and food-borne diseases.
Managing medications Duty of care extends to the management and administration of prescribed medications for students. Medication management may include short-term prescribed medications such as a course of antibiotics or management of long-term prescribed medications for students with chronic conditions. To manage and administer medications, schools will have in place procedures to ensure that medications are correctly and securely stored and administered. Where a student is required to take medications while attending school, a medications form must be completed. Information on the medications form usually includes student’s name, date of birth, class, name of medication, dosage required, time when the medication must be administered, how the medication must be administered, the name of the prescribing doctor and the parent’s/guardian’s signature. When administering medications, it is important to check that the medication matches the name and date of birth of the student, is not out of date and is in the original container, and the name and signature of the person who has authorised consent for the administration of the medication – the parent/guardian (including, if applicable, self-administration). Where a student requires ongoing medication, the parent/guardian will be required to submit a medications form from the prescribing doctor. This usually includes the student’s name and date of birth, the doctor’s name, address and telephone number, details of the student’s medical condition, a list of prescribed medications and directions for administration, any specific training required to administer the medication, possible side-effects that should be monitored, any other important information and the signature of the prescribing doctor.
Management of allergies and anaphylaxis The Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy (ASCIA) (2010: 1) states: Allergy occurs when a person’s immune system reacts to substances in the environment that are harmless for most people. These substances are known as allergens and are found in house dust mites, pets, pollen, insects, moulds, foods and some medicines. The most common causes of allergic reactions in Australia are: dust mites, pollen, foods such as peanuts, cow’s milk, soy, seafood and eggs, cats and other furry or hairy animals such as dogs, horses, rabbits and guinea pigs, insect stings, moulds and medicines. This information has been reproduced from the ASCIA website www.allergy.org.au with permission from the Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy (ASCIA), the peak professional body of clinical immunology and allergy specialists in Australia and New Zealand. Please check the ASCIA website for the latest version of this information as ASCIA resources are regularly reviewed and updated.
Severe allergies can be life-threatening, as reactions can be sudden and violent. In serious cases, reactions can occur as a result of ingestion or absorption through the skin. Where students are known to have serious allergies or intolerances to food, it is essential to work very closely
WORKING IN A LEGISLATIVE ENVIRONMENT
33
with parents and keep thorough records to ensure the child is not exposed to any foods or products that may cause a severe allergic reaction. According to Allergy and Anaphylaxis Australia (2012: 1), ‘a severe allergic reaction or anaphylaxis usually occurs within 20 minutes to 2 hours of exposure to the trigger and can rapidly become life threatening’. Anaphylaxis is the most severe form of allergic reaction ‘which often involves more than one body system (e.g. skin, respiratory, gastro-intestinal and cardiovascular)’. It is potentially lifethreatening and must be treated immediately. The most common causes of anaphylaxis are allergies to some foods, such as egg, cows’ milk, soy, peanuts, sesame, shellfish, food additives and preservatives. In extreme cases, anaphylaxis can occur from skin contact or even the smell of certain foods. The signs and symptoms of anaphylaxis may occur almost immediately after exposure or within the first 20 minutes after exposure. Consider This
RECOGNISING ANAPHYLAXIS Common symptoms (Allergy and Anaphylaxis Australia 2012: 2) may include: Mild to moderate allergic reaction: • tingling of the mouth • hives, welts or body redness • swelling of the face, lips, eyes • vomiting, abdominal pain.
Severe allergic reaction – anaphylaxis: difficulty and/or noisy breathing swelling of the tongue swelling or tightness in the throat difficulty talking or hoarse voice wheeze or persistent cough loss of consciousness and/or collapse pale and floppy (young children).
• • • • • • •
Source: ª Allergy and Anaphylaxis Australia.
A student who is known to have a severe allergy must have in place a written Anaphylaxis Action Plan. This should be developed in consultation with the parent/guardian and the student’s doctor. ASCIA Action Plans for Anaphylaxis can be accessed from the following website: http://www.allergy.org.au/health-professionals/anaphylaxis-resources/ascia-actionplan-for-anaphylaxis. ASCIA (2015: 950) guidelines for prevention of anaphylaxis in schools and children’s services include six key steps: 1 Obtain up-to-date medical information and develop a healthcare plan. 2 Undertake staff training in recognition and management of acute allergic reactions. 3 Develop an awareness that unexpected allergic reactions might occur for the first time outside of the home in those not previously identified as being at high risk. 4 Ensure there is age-appropriate education of children with severe allergies and their peers. 5 Implement practical strategies to reduce the risk of accidental exposure to known allergic triggers. 6 Consider institutional provision of adrenaline autoinjectors (AAIs) for general use. An emergency kit with an adrenaline auto-injector device (EpiPen) containing a single, fixed dose of adrenaline is usually kept at all schools, with at least one adult on duty at all times who is trained to administer the device. Resources for schools on the prevention and management of anaphylaxis can be found on the Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy (ASCIA) website: https:// www.allergy.org.au.
Asthma management Asthma is a reversible narrowing of the airways in the lungs where the lining of the airways swells and produces sticky mucus. The National Asthma Council Australia (2015) advises that common allergens that may trigger asthma include ‘dust mites, pollen, the hair and skin of pets, mould, cigarette smoke, viral infections such as colds and flu, weather, such as cold air, change in temperature, thunderstorms, some medicines and work-related triggers, such as wood dust, chemicals, metal salts’. Asthma symptoms include wheezing, coughing (particularly at night), chest tightness, difficulty in breathing and shortness of breath. The National Asthma Council Australia (2015) also advises that children may present with symptoms such as ‘not eating or drinking as much, crying, tummy ache and vomiting, tiring quickly and getting more puffed out than usual when running and playing’. Students who are known to suffer from asthma should have in place an Asthma Management Plan that has been developed in consultation with the parents and the child’s doctor. Each Asthma Management Plan will be unique to the needs of the student, but will include a list of the student’s ‘usual asthma medicines, including doses; instructions on what to do when asthma is getting worse (including when to take extra doses or extra medicines, and when to contact a doctor or go to the emergency department); what to do in an asthma emergency; the name of the doctor or other health professional who prepared the plan and the date’ (National Asthma Council Australia 2015). Like anaphylaxis management, there should be an adult on duty at all times who is trained in the use of relievers, including puffers and spacer devices. The National Asthma Council Australia (http://www.nationalasthma.org.au) has a number of resources available for children with asthma, including a first aid chart and a back-toschool checklist, as well as information on the use of a puffer and spacer.
Sun safety Australia has one of the highest rates of skin cancer in the world. Damage to the skin from the sun’s ultraviolet (UV) radiation during childhood increases the later risk of skin cancer. UV radiation cannot be seen or felt, and levels can be high enough to damage skin on cool as well as warm days. Schools have a duty of care to protect students from the effects of UV radiation and may have a sun-protection policy in place to provide adequate shade in outdoor areas and for younger students to wear a hat when outside. Cancer Council Australia has developed a national SunSmart Membership Program for schools, which promotes using a combination of sun protection measures from ‘September to the end of April’ or ‘whenever UV levels reach three or higher’. The Cancer Council Victoria’s SunSmart (2014: 1–2) membership program for primary schools recommends that: • all students and staff wear hats that protect their face, neck and ears – legionnaire, broad brimmed or bucket hats – whenever they are outside • students who do not have appropriate hats or outdoor clothing are asked to play in the shade or a suitable area protected from the sun • school uniforms provide sun protection – for example, collared shirts with elbow-length sleeves and longer style dresses
WORKING IN A LEGISLATIVE ENVIRONMENT
35
the outdoor play space should include a sufficient number of shelters and trees providing shade in the school grounds, particularly where students congregate • students should provide their own SPF 30 or higher broad-spectrum, water-resistant sunscreen (applied 20 minutes before going outdoors and reapplied every two hours) • students should be encouraged to wear close-fitting, wrap-around sunglasses that meet Australian Standards • SunSmart education should be provided to students and parents. Cancer Council Victoria’s Secondary School UV Program also includes a sample policy template, which provides practical ideas to encourage secondary students to adopt sun protection strategies. This booklet can be found at: http://www.sunsmart.com.au/downloads/ communities/secondary-school/sec-school-sun-protection-program-booklet.pdf. •
2.5 Privacy legislation Within Australia, the Privacy Act 1988 relates to the protection of personal information and applies to all states and territories. The Privacy Act regulates how personal information is handled, covering: • how personal information is collected • how it is used and disclosed • its accuracy • how securely it is kept • the individual’s general right to access their personal information. There is no legislation that specifically identifies a child’s right to privacy. However, Article 16 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, to which Australia is a signatory, states that children have the right to privacy. All adults working in the school environment have a responsibility to treat every student and family with dignity and respect, and ensure that all private information relating to the student and family remains confidential. The Privacy Act is administered by the Office of the Australian Information Commissioner: http://www.oaic.gov.au.
PRIVACY AND PERSONAL INFORMATION Connie is an ESW at the local high school and works with a student whose family was involved in a drug raid that was reported in the local news. While out shopping, Connie runs into a friend who has a child at Connie’s school. Over coffee, the friend asks Connie what she knows about the family: ‘You work with the son of that family involved in the drug bust, don’t you? I’ve heard they are a violent family. How did the boy react?’ Connie: ‘I’m sorry, I’m not allowed to discuss the students and their families. Can we talk about something else? How’s Ellie going with her soccer?’ DID CONNIE DO THE RIGHT THING?
Yes: information about the students and families must be treated as confidential and only shared with relevant
Scenario
people (for example, a school counsellor) on a need-toknow basis. Even though Connie was not at work, she still observed the school’s confidentiality and privacy policy. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
As an employee, you are required to be familiar and comply with school policies related to student privacy, welfare and safety. This extends to your responsibilities both within and outside the school. In this scenario, Connie also demonstrated that she was able to act in an ethical manner to protect the privacy of the student.
Privacy and information systems Technology allows for the storage of large amounts of data and makes inputting, processing and accessing information quick and easy. While technology allows for information to be stored securely, unauthorised access to this information remains a possibility. To address the authorised storage and retrieval of information, most schools will have in place an Information and Communications Technology (ICT) policy (or similar). This policy would provide clear guidelines on the use of technology such as records management, acceptable use of emails, privacy and confidentiality, security and copyright infringement. The Department of Education and Early Childhood Development Victoria’s ICT Policy (2011: 3) states that its purpose is to ensure that all use of Department of Education and Early Childhood Development (DEECD) Information, Communications and Technology (ICT) resources is legal, ethical and consistent with the aims, values and objectives of DEECD and its responsibilities to the students in its care. DEECD is an institution charged with the safety and education of children … Source: ª The Department of Education and Training. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
DEECD ICT resources must be used properly and efficiently. They are not to be used for inappropriate activities – for example, pornography, fraud, defamation, breach of copyright, unlawful discrimination or vilification, harassment (including sexual harassment), stalking, privacy violations and illegal activity, including illegal peer-to-peer file sharing. Non-compliance with the policy is regarded as a serious matter, and may result in dismissal or criminal charges being laid.
Privacy and record-keeping All schools – public and independent – operate within a regulatory framework that requires a high level of accountability for the education and welfare of students and the expenditure of public funds. While requirements for record-keeping may vary between each state and territory, and between independent and public schools, most schools will maintain the following types of records and information: • student records – enrolment, attendance, immunisation status, specialist assessment reports, student progress reports (academic and welfare), records of attendance, records relating to the administration of medications to students • WHS – documented policies and procedures related to all operational aspects of school services • student assessment, class programs • personnel records – details of staff qualifications, including compliance with child protection legislation, employment records, sick leave • accidents and injuries to students, serious incidents • financial records (income and expenditure) – petty cash, monies collected from parents for various school functions or student resources/equipment • assets/inventory register (important for taxation and depreciation purposes and provides a dollar value for the purposes of insurance), with details such as: – name, brand, serial number and description of item – date and place of purchase – name, address and telephone number (and name of contact person if applicable) – cost (including GST) – details of guarantee, return options and after-sales service.
WORKING IN A LEGISLATIVE ENVIRONMENT
37
The content of records kept will be prescribed in related school policy and procedure documents – for example, Records Management Policy, Attendance Policy, Data Protocols: Student Information, Performance and Development Policy, Risk Management Policy, ICT Policy. The school principal will usually delegate record-keeping responsibilities to staff as appropriate. Privacy and confidentiality policy and procedures will apply to most records kept by the school. Scenario
ACCIDENTS As part of the annual risk management review of student safety, the principal and senior executives reviewed the accidents and injury-to-students reports for the previous 12 months. They found that most accidents had occurred during the lunch break or as students were moving from one classroom to another. Boys in the 13–15 years age bracket had the highest number of accidental injuries. This led to new supervision procedures being put in place during the high-risk periods.
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US IN RELATION TO RECORD-KEEPING?
By documenting and reviewing accidental injury records, the principal can gain an accurate picture of when most accidents occur and, in this case, the gender and age group in which most accidents occur. This information can be used to make changes to supervision practices and target those students at high risk of accidental injury.
Privacy and managing information Administrative staff will be required to prepare and disseminate a wide range of information to members of the school community and the public. The distribution or dissemination of information should be in accordance with school policy. For example, information of a general nature, such as enrolment procedures, behaviour management policy or procedures for giving medication to a student, is usually provided in the form of a written policy or procedure that is available in print or freely accessible via the school’s website. Each teacher and senior administrator will have a school email account where information can be directed or disseminated as required. Many schools also have an intranet where internal documents and resources are stored and can only be accessed by designated staff. Many schools now have a website that is used to disseminate information to parents, students and the public. Management of the website is typically allocated to one individual, who is responsible for keeping the website updated. There will be strict protocols in place around the type of information that can be posted on the website. As an ESW, it is essential that you become familiar with school policy and procedures around the sharing of information. Even information of a general nature should be authorised by the relevant staff member prior to dissemination. To ensure security of information, most schools will have two access points – one that is publicly accessible, such as a website, and one that is accessible only by a dedicated private network called an intranet. Intranet access requires authentication (identifying the users) and authorisation (granting authenticated users access via a password, pin code or security number). Intranets are used to share information such as policies, templates and forms, internal emails, information dissemination such as memos or newsletters, wikis, conferencing and webinars.
To protect information, there will be firewalls (hardware and software) in place, which Williams and McWilliams (2014: 291) explain ‘sit between the computers in an internal organisational network and outside network, such as the internet [and] filter and check incoming and outgoing data’. Information that is stored manually should enable easy access and retrieval of information. All confidential information will be stored in a manner that ensures security and confidentiality. For example, confidential e-records should be password protected and backed up on a regular scheduled basis. Hard copies of confidential information should be stored in lockable filing cabinets. Once collected, information will need to be stored on a short-, medium- or long-term basis. Some information will be of short-term value and may only need to be stored for the life of the task and then destroyed – for example, names of families planning to attend a family disco evening. Some information may need to be stored for many years. Requirements for each state and territory will usually stipulate the length of time for which records are required to be stored.
Archiving and disposal of information Information that is no longer required or that is out of date should be archived or destroyed. All schools have a legal requirement to retain and archive some records for specific periods of time – for example, student accidents or staff accidents/workplace injuries. The length of time for which records need to be retained will depend on the specific legislation. Records that are not required to be maintained by law, and which are out of date, should be destroyed. When destroying records, care should be taken to make certain that the information contained in the records cannot be retrieved. For example, confidential students’ records should be shredded rather than simply placed in the recycling bin. This will ensure that the information contained in the documents cannot be accessed, either accidentally or deliberately.
MANAGING ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS – UNAUTHORISED USE Recently, Kate was approached by a parent, Mrs Hughes, requesting that an electronic brochure be sent as a bulk email to all parents. Mrs Hughes had set up an authorised before- and after-school program and wanted Kate to notify all parents via email. Kate explained that the email policy did not allow her to disseminate any information to parents on behalf of other organisations. Mrs Hughes began to argue with Kate, stating that the service was for the benefit of students and families from the school community. Kate resolved the matter by offering to include information about the after-school program in the next school newsletter.
GO
further
Learn more about privacy and correspondence in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
Scenario
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Even though the information about the after-school program was obviously relevant to the school community, Kate acted in accordance with the school policy in refusing Mrs Hughes’ request. Kate was, however, able to offer an acceptable alternative. " DISCUSSION
Social media is now an accepted form of communication, and is used widely for both personal and business purposes. Does Facebook, for example, have a legitimate role to play in sharing information about the school community with families? What might be the benefits and risks?
WORKING IN A LEGISLATIVE ENVIRONMENT
39
Summary All employees must be aware of and comply with all policies and procedures as they relate to legislative requirements for the operation and management of independent and public schools. Legislative compliance ensures both the employer and the employee meet their legal obligations in the workplace.
Discussion questions 1
What is the definition of duty of care as it relates to adults working in a school environment? 2 What four elements must be present to determine a duty of care to students?
3 Read the following scenario and explain how it can be established that the two teachers breached duty of care requirements. 4 Did Pete also have a duty of care? Did he breach his duty of care?
SCENARIO Duty of care ESW Pete is walking through the playground when he notices a group of Year 10 boys climbing on and jumping from a 1.5 metre wall. As well as putting themselves in danger, Pete knows that this area is off limits to the students. Pete looks across and sees that the two teachers on playground duty are chatting together rather than
supervising the playground. Pete decides it is not his responsibility if one of the students falls and injures himself, so he simply continues on his way. Later in the day, Pete learns that a student fell from the shed and broke his arm and collarbone.
Self-check questions 1
Connect the name of the legislation (on the left) to its primary function. Australian Human Rights Commission Act 1986
Discrimination based on physical, intellectual, psychiatric, sensory, neurological or learning disability, physical disfigurement, disorder, illness or disease that affects thought processes, perception of reality, emotions or judgement, or that results in disturbed behaviour, and presence in body of organisms causing or capable of causing disease or illness (e.g. HIV)
Age Discrimination Act 2004
Discrimination based on sex, marital or relationship status, pregnancy or potential pregnancy, breastfeeding, family responsibilities, sexual orientation, gender identity, and intersex status
Disability Discrimination Act 1992
Discrimination based on race, colour, descent or national or ethnic origin, and in some circumstances immigrant status
Sex Discrimination Act 1984
Discrimination based on race, colour, sex, religion, political opinion, national extraction, social origin, age, medical record, criminal record, marital or relationship status, impairment, mental, intellectual or psychiatric disability, physical disability, nationality, sexual orientation, and trade union activity
Fair Work Act 2009
Discrimination, via adverse action, in employment
Racial Discrimination Act 1975
Discrimination based on age-specific characteristics or characteristics that are generally imputed to a person of a particular age
2 Explain the purpose of the Disability Standards for Education 2005. How do they support the concept of inclusion? 3 List the five key elements of the Privacy Act 1988.
4 Good supervision is made up of four key principles. List these principles and provide a definition for each.
Activities 1
For this task, refer to the Consider this box ‘Equal Employment Opportunity Policy: Department of Education Tasmania: Employment Principles’ on page 25. a What are the four general areas covered by EEO principles? b List four work-related qualities that can be used when making an employment assessment based on merit. 2 Go to the NSW Department of Education: Social Media Policy at https://education.nsw.gov.au/policy-library/ associated-documents/social-media-procedures.pdf. a What is the purpose of this policy? b How are social media defined? c What are the requirements in relation to parental consent if posting information/images of students? d What are the requirements in relation to student privacy? e Discussion: This policy is designed to guide the use of social media in schools and to protect the teacher’s and student’s right to privacy. Now that you have perused the policy, comment on whether or not it adequately meets the purpose for which it was written. For example, is it easy to read and interpret? Are any areas ambiguous/unclear or open to interpretation? 3 Go to your state/territory Education Department website and locate one policy related to inclusion. a What is the name of the policy?
b What is the purpose or aim of this policy? c List any legislation linked to this policy. 4 For this task, go to Educational Services (Schools) General Staff Award 2010: http://awardviewer.fwo. gov.au/award/show/MA000076#P144_11028 This award covers employers in the school education industry throughout Australia and their employees in the classifications contained in Schedule B to the exclusion of any other modern award. What are the key duties (typical activities) for a person employed at this level? 5 Locate the following information online: a What are the ordinary hours of work of a full-time employee? b What is the definition of a part-time employee? c What is the definition of a casual employee? d What is the minimum number of hours for which a casual employee must be paid? e For an employee who is rostered to work more than five hours on a day, what is the minimum unpaid meal break requirement? 6 For this task, go to: Fair Work: https://www.fairwork. gov.au/employee-entitlements/national-employmentstandards. a What are the 10 minimum entitlements of the NES? b Who is covered by the NES?
WORKING IN A LEGISLATIVE ENVIRONMENT
41
Chapter 3 WORKING WITH DIVERSE PEOPLE LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to demonstrate that, in relation to working in a school environment, you can: 3.1
describe the concepts of diversity and inclusion as they apply to the workplace
3.2 identify cultural diversity and develop cultural competence, and understand the concepts of cultural identity and cultural safety, as well as strategies for effective cross-cultural communication 3.3 reflect on your own cultural identity and biases, and how they may affect your interactions with others 3.4 understand the depth of cultural diversity in the community and work in an inclusive and culturally safe manner 3.5 reflect on the complex histories and cultures of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, and understand the importance of working in inclusive and culturally safe ways.
Introduction This chapter explores the importance of diversity and inclusion in the workplace and the school community. Workplace and school diversity extends to many elements, such as ethnicity, gender, religious beliefs, language, sexuality, lifestyle, health, abilities, disposition and education. Education Support Workers (ESWs) are required to understand the concepts of cultural diversity and cultural identity, and to practise cultural safety. As an ESW, you will encounter diversity among colleagues, students and their families, and you are expected to relate, communicate and interact with many diverse people in a respectful, meaningful and effective manner.
3.1 Diversity and inclusion Diversity goes far beyond differences of race, ethnicity or country of origin. Understanding diversity means understanding that every individual is unique and different. Samson and Daft (2015: 523) describe diversity in terms of two key dimensions. Primary dimensions include inborn differences, or differences that have an impact throughout one’s life, while secondary dimensions can be acquired or changed throughout one’s life. These dimensions are illustrated in Figure 3.1. Figure 3.1 Primary and secondary dimensions of diversity Secondary dimensions
Education Marital status
Religious beliefs
ry dimension Prima s
Age Gender Parental status
Ethnicity PERSON
Physical ability
Sexual orientation
Military experience
Race Work background
Geographical location Income
Source: Adapted from Loden & Rosener (1991: 20. Used with permission. Reproduced in Samson & Daft (2015).
Inclusion in the workplace is defined by Samson and Daft (2015: 256) as the degree to which an employee feels like an esteemed member of a group in which their uniqueness is highly appreciated. In Australia, it is unlawful for an employer or workplace colleague to discriminate on the basis of attributes such as sex, race, age, disability, religion, marital status, sexual orientation, political opinion or social origin. Organisations that embrace diversity and inclusion generally are more successful and competitive than those that do not. According to VicHealth (2013), the promotion of diversity in the workplace can have many benefits, including increased physical health and lower rates of illhealth – especially mental health issues – for the employee, and increased productivity and innovation among employees, and fewer employee sick days, for the employer. Respecting diversity requires employers and employees to: • show respect for the personal values and beliefs of others • be open to new or different ideas and innovations • treat all members of the organisation with dignity and respect. WORKING WITH DIVERSE PEOPLE
43
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights As explored in Chapter 2, Australia has a range of anti-discrimination legislation in place designed to protect fundamental human rights. Australia is also a signatory to the United Nations (UN) Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This describes the basic rights and fundamental freedoms to which all human beings are entitled, including civil and political rights, among them the right to life, liberty, free speech, legal protection and privacy. It also includes economic, social and cultural rights, including the right to social security, health and education, and the right to be free from discrimination. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is not legally binding; rather, it sets out the values shared by UN members in recognition of the minimum components that must be in place to ensure the essential human dignity of all people.
ONLINE RESOURCES The Universal Declaration of Human Rights – United Nations: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Documents/UDHR_ Translations/eng.pdf
The relationship between human needs and human rights In 1943, Abraham Maslow developed a ‘hierarchy of needs’, which included five levels or hierarchies, as shown in Figure 3.2. Maslow argued that higher order needs can only be Figure 3.2 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs addressed if basic human needs such as food, shelter, rest, health and security are met. At the apex of this hierarchy is self-actualisation, which Maslow described as the opportunity for the individual to reach their maximum potential. Maslow’s theory is still relevant today, although SelfActualisation additional higher order needs have been suggested, such as (the need for knowledge, meaning, self-awareness, beauty, inner balance development, creativity) and helping others. In comparison, human rights go beyond needs to Ego (the need for self-esteem, include human aspirations and desires. Human rights power, recognition, prestige) focus on entitlement with dignity, worth, justice and Social freedoms. Human rights are regarded as a collective (the need for being loved, belonging, inclusion) responsibility of communities, governments and countries. They are something to be fought for and protected. Security (the need for safety, shelter, stability) Violations of human rights often lead to protest, prosecution and direct action. In comparison, the absence Physical (the need for air, water, food, rest, health) of the provision of basic human needs tends to be addressed through government welfare and charities.
3.2 Cultural diversity The Australian Human Rights Commission (2016) refers to culture as ‘a common set of norms and values shared by a group’ and cultural diversity as ‘the variation between people in terms of ancestry, ethnicity, ethno-religiosity, language, national origin, race and/or religion’.
In Australia, social and cultural diversity is part of the fabric of society – it is reflected in all aspects of everyday life. The ABS Census of Population and Housing (2016) provides a snapshot of Australia’s cultural diversity: • Indigenous Australians make up 2.8 per cent of the population. • Nearly half (49 per cent) of all Australians were either born overseas (first generation) or have at least one parent who was born overseas (second generation). • Australia had the ninth-largest number of overseas-born people of any country, and the highest proportion of its population, at 26 per cent – ahead of New Zealand (23 per cent) and Canada (22 per cent). • The top five most commonly reported countries of birth among Australians born overseas were England, New Zealand, China, India and the Philippines. Cultural diversity includes more than country of origin. It encompasses a diverse range of beliefs and practices, ways of communicating, style of dress, gender roles and parenting/childrearing practices.
Cultural competence Cultural competence is the ability to understand, communicate and interact with people across cultures. It is a complex skill that can only be acquired over time, and includes: • developing a knowledge of diverse cultures • understanding the challenges faced by members of non-dominant cultures (particularly where there are significant differences in beliefs and practices), and • developing a set of values that focus on the positive nature of cultural diversity. Figure 3.3 shows the steps involved in acquiring cultural competence. Figure 3.3 Steps to acquiring cultural competence Step 1: Self-awareness
Step 2: Seeking to understand
Step 3: Putting what was learned into practice
• Strive to understand how your background has shaped beliefs, values and attitudes.
• Learn more about others’ cultural and sociocultural perspectives.
• Honour other cultures in your daily practice.
• Challenge some of your own assumptions.
• Recognise that cultures differ.
• Cast yourself in the role of the learner.
• Realise that everyone has biases.
• Learn about cultural values, beliefs and behaviours.
• Realise that curriculum is not neutral.
• Consider how your fear of doing or saying the wrong thing can inhibit interactions with others and therefore decrease your cultural competence over time. Source: Adapted from Jalongo & Isenberg (2012: 77).
Being culturally competent requires cultural proficiency, which can be described as the ability to ‘identify and challenge one’s own cultural assumptions, values and beliefs and to make a commitment to communicating at the cultural interface’ (SNAICC 2012, p. 1). An individual who can demonstrate cultural competence and cultural proficiency will be aware of their own cultural practices and values, and able to reflect on these. For example, how
WORKING WITH DIVERSE PEOPLE
45
does your culture view gender roles and sexual orientation? How are issues of ethnicity and race dealt with? What about social class and socioeconomic status? Your culture will have a series of ‘norms’, or accepted beliefs, about all these aspects and others, including geography (where you live), age, abilities and disabilities, religion, educational beliefs and language (Cooper, He & Levin 2011). Consider This
CULTURAL RESPONSIVITY Cultural responsivity refers to ‘the ability to learn from and relate respectfully to people from your own and other cultures’. It includes modifying your approach to people based on your knowledge of other cultures. It also includes demonstrating an accepting and open attitude towards other points of view. To be culturally responsive, you must demonstrate that you: • have become culturally self-aware • value a range of diverse views • do not impose your own values on others • avoid stereotyping
• •
•
examine your beliefs for bias learn what you can from others by attending their celebrations, reading information about other cultures and talking with members of a culture accept that learning about and understanding other cultures is a lifelong journey (Zion, Kozleski & Fulton 2005: 15, 16–17).
" DISCUSSION
Are you culturally responsive? What do you do that demonstrates this?
Cultural identity
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
While Australia is regarded as a multicultural society, the dominant culture is Anglo-Australian, and Anglo-Australian laws shape Australian society. Australia remains a member of the British Commonwealth. The process of colonisation assumed superiority over Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, and the consequences are still being felt today. Each member of Australian society has an individual story of their own cultural heritage. Some of these stories of being Australian are very recent, while others go back several generations. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, in contrast, have stories of their cultural heritage that go back through thousands of years of habitation in Australia. Anglo-Australian cultural heritage includes national values such as a sense of justice, fairness, honesty, integrity, optimism and humour. Typically, everyone will look firstly to their immediate family when reflecting on cultural heritage. For example, what do we value as a family? What traditions are practised in our family? What do we know about our family’s story? This connection to family is extremely important. When family connection is lost – as evidenced by stories of individuals who have experienced adoption, displacement or, in the case of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, forced removal – the consequences can be significant. Consider This
CULTURAL IDENTITY Zion, Kozleski and Fulton (2005: 5–9) list a range of factors that influence each individual’s cultural identity: • language – not only spoken and written words, but also non-verbal communication forms such as the use of eyes, hands, and body
•
•
attitudes towards time – being early, on time or late; some cultures stress the importance of being on time, while for others it is not important space/proximity – accepted distances between individuals within the culture; appropriateness of physical contact
•
• • •
•
gender roles – the way a person views, understands and relates to members of the opposite sex; what behaviours are deemed appropriate familial roles – beliefs about providing for oneself, the young, the old; who protects whom taboos – attitudes and beliefs about doing things against culturally accepted patterns family ties – how people see themselves in the context of family; who is considered part of the family; roles within the family; responsibility towards family members grooming and presence – cultural differences in personal behaviour and appearance, such as laughter,
• • •
smile, voice quality, gait, poise and style of dress, hair or cosmetics autonomy – beliefs about the priority given to individual needs in relation to group needs status of age – accepted manners and attitudes toward older persons, peers, younger persons education – purpose of education, kinds of learning that are favoured, methods of learning used in home and community.
" DISCUSSION
What factors make up your cultural identity?
The richness, diversity and complexity of our cultural identity shape the ways in which each of us views the world and influences how we engage and interact with others.
Cultural safety The Secretariat of National Aboriginal and Islander Child Care (SNAICC 2012) defines cultural safety as ‘an environment that is safe for people: where there is no assault, challenge or denial of their identity, of who they are and what they need. It is about shared respect, shared meaning, shared knowledge and experience, of learning, living and working together with dignity and truly listening’. Martin (1999) uses the term ‘cultural safety’ to describe the level of acceptance, understanding and respect that families who are not from the dominant culture must feel before they will access a children’s service. Martin believes that cultural safety must also include a nonjudgemental acceptance of family values and child-rearing practices, and argues that nonAboriginal people, for example, may not understand that Aboriginal children, by and large, are afforded the status of young adults, are expected to behave as such and are treated accordingly. They are expected to be independent, self-regulating and respectful from an early age. This lack of understanding of cultural beliefs and practices can lead to culturally biased value judgements. Ball (2015) believes that ‘cultural safety’ is characterised by respectful relationships; equitable partnerships in which ‘all parties have the right to influence the terms of engagement’ and quality interactions that ‘contribute to positive outcomes’. Ball suggests that there are five key principles related to cultural safety, which include protocols, process, personal knowledge, positive purpose and partnerships, as described in Figure 3.4. Consider This
CULTURAL SAFETY It is the right of our families to be able to express and be proud of their culture. We, as Kooris, acknowledge that western culture is no more or less important than our own culture. We do not force or inflict our views on others and we ask that our families be afforded the same courtesy – without the expectation that they conform to non-Aboriginal ways.
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
This statement tells us that cultural safety is a right enjoyed by all members of society. It is the responsibility of members of the dominant culture to acknowledge and respect the rights of minority cultures to their customs, values, beliefs and practices.
Koori Human Services Unit (2008).
WORKING WITH DIVERSE PEOPLE
47
Figure 3.4 Five principles of cultural safety 1
3
Protocols Show respect – Ask permission/informed consent Seek cultural knowledge – Ask questions Demonstrate reciprocity – Learning goes both ways Engage community accompaniment – Find allies, mentors in community of practice
4
2
Personal knowledge Hone critical consciousness of social location/power Who are you? Cultural affiliations, professional persona Introduce yourself in terms of your cultural identities
3
Partnerships Engage in relational practice founded on authentic encounters Share knowledge vs ‘telling’ Collaborative problem solving vs expert/authority Strengthen mutual capacity vs one-way ‘delivery’ Co-construct ways to move supports into place
5 2 4
Process Ensure equity and dignity for all parties Negotiate goals and activities Talk less, listen more
5
1
Positive purpose Build on strengths Avoid negative labelling Ensure confidentiality Be accountable Do no harm Make it matter: Ensure real benefits Source: Ball (2015).
Cross-cultural communication All communication is culturally bound. It draws on the ways in which we have learned to speak and give non-verbal messages. LeBaron (2003: 7) suggests that ‘the challenge is that even with all the good will in the world, miscommunication is likely to happen, especially when there are significant cultural differences between communicators. Miscommunication may lead to conflict, or aggravate conflict that already exists’. Every culture has variations in the ways in which both verbal and non-verbal communication is used. LeBaron (2003) suggests that differences in how people within a culture communicate can be grouped into key areas, as outlined below. It should be remembered that while one culture may have tendencies to display a certain style of communication, there will always be individual differences and not all individuals from a particular culture will conform to these generalisations – they should be used as a guide only.
Direct vs indirect context High context and low context are used to described differences in styles of communication practiced by various cultures. Cultures who use a high context style of communication such as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander, Asian and African, tend to use an indirect style of communication. Information is indirect, and meaning is often conveyed through subtle nonverbal communication. In contrast, western countries such as the USA, UK and Australia tend to use low context communication, which is more direct and explicit. Conflict can arise in the workplace when employees have different styles of communication.
Time Variations in time relate to the timing of communication, and the way information is communicated. In many Western cultures, time is of the essence, and the goal is to say what needs to be said quickly and succinctly. In contrast, in cultures where time is viewed in a much more relaxed manner (or as of little or no importance), the approach to conversation, negotiations and sharing information tends to be slow-paced and relaxed.
Personal space The concept of personal space also varies between cultures. In many Western cultures, standing too close to others when engaged in conversation is regarded as impolite and tends to make individuals feel uncomfortable. This is commonly referred to as invading someone’s personal space. In other cultures, being close to the speaker is regarded as polite and necessary to ensure that the conversation is interpreted correctly.
Fate and personal responsibility This refers to the things we feel we have control of and those things we feel we have no control of in our life. Many children from a white, Anglo-Saxon background in Australia are raised to dream big, have goals and believe in free will. If they encounter failure trying to achieve these goals, they are encouraged to keep trying until they get there. Children raised in other countries – for example, Mexico – have a fatalistic view of the world: if they encounter failure or accidents, they accept them as unavoidable or inevitable. In the workplace, two individuals with these beliefs may come into conflict if they are faced with a problem to solve.
Face and face-saving The concepts of face and face-saving relate to issues of respect, power and status. In some cultures, saving face and enabling others to save face are extremely important cultural practices. In many Western societies, individuals are generally less concerned with ‘saving face’ – individuals say what they mean and are not afraid of conflict. In countries such as China, Japan or Iran, group harmony is often the main goal, so individuals will avoid saying what they mean if it is likely to cause conflict.
Non-verbal communication Non-verbal communication can be even more powerful than verbal communication, and can easily be misinterpreted between colleagues of culturally diverse backgrounds. Non-verbal communication includes body language, facial expressions and gestures. There are also variations in cultural rules in the use of gestures or touching the other person while talking. Figure 3.5 sets out some examples of non-verbal communication, and how different meanings can be conveyed depending on the cultural background of the participants.
Language barriers Australia’s population is very linguistically diverse. If you are from an English-speaking background, it is important to be aware of misunderstandings that might arise when communicating with colleagues for whom English is a second language. Workers from non-English-speaking backgrounds (NESB) may have difficulty understanding others or in making themselves understood.
WORKING WITH DIVERSE PEOPLE
49
Figure 3.5 Examples of non-verbal communication and meanings Non-verbal communication
Different meanings
Potential misunderstanding
Eye contact
In Western cultures, speakers tend to look into each other’s eyes. If someone avoids eye contact, this can be interpreted as disinterest or deception. In many Asian cultures and Australian Aboriginal culture, however, avoiding eye contact is a sign of respect and humility.
If a person from a Western culture is speaking with a colleague from an Asian or Aboriginal culture, they may believe that the listener is not interested in what they are saying.
Gestures
Some gestures that are commonly used in Western cultures can be offensive in other cultures. For example, pointing with one finger is considered rude in some Asian cultures, where a whole hand is used to point to something. In some Latin cultures, hand gestures can be exaggerated compared with those used by other cultures.
It might incorrectly be assumed that a colleague from a Latin background is angry or over-excited if they wave their hands around a lot during a conversation.
Head nodding
In some cultures, a listener who nods their head is conveying the message that they are listening to what you are saying – it does not necessarily mean they agree with you.
A worker might fail to seek verbal agreement from their colleague and simply assume they agree because they have nodded their head.
Use of silence
For some cultures, if a listener remains silent, the speaker assumes that the other person does not understand. In other cultures, such as Aboriginal cultures, listeners often prefer to remain silent and delay their response until they have had time to think or listen to others’ opinions first.
A worker might incorrectly assume that their colleague doesn’t understand what they are saying, or will rush to fill the other person’s silence and not give them a chance to contribute.
Idioms, slang and jargon can be a source of misunderstanding for NESB workers. Consider the following Australian idioms (adapted from Australian Catholic University 2015): • ‘I’m feeling under the weather’ – meaning you are feeling sick • ‘It was a piece of cake’ – meaning something was easy • ‘That’s the last straw’ – meaning you’ve had enough of something • ‘Please bring a plate’ – meaning please bring some food to share. Australian slang can also present challenges – for example, ‘g’day’ (hello), ‘hooroo’ (goodbye), ‘sunnies’ (sunglasses) and ‘chook’ (a chicken). Australianisms or slang can make it extremely challenging for individuals learning to speak English, but also quite challenging in terms of embracing the Australian culture.
Communication strategies Any strategies that may be put in place to communicate with people from diverse language backgrounds should be based on mutual respect and acceptance of differences. Being polite,
patient and respectful should be a general rule of thumb when communicating with others in the workplace. Strategies that may be used include: • talking slowly so that the listener has time to hear and interpret what is being said • when explaining a task, breaking it down into smaller steps • keeping the message simple and to the point – avoid ‘information overload’ • avoiding jargon, slang, swearing and jokes – these can be confusing or even offensive to others • maintaining a respectful distance – avoid invading the personal space of others • not touching the other person when speaking • remaining aware of non-verbal communication • understanding that gestures can be useful if not overdone – don’t wave your hands around when speaking • checking for understanding – ask questions to clarify understanding, or ask person to demonstrate the task. If you are working with a person from a NESB, you could also take the time to learn a few words in the other person’s language – for example, the words for hello and thank you. Where there are significant language barriers, the employer may need to access translator and/or interpreter services. Translators convert written materials from one language to another. Interpreters orally restate in one language what has been said in another language. The Department of Social Services provides free interpreter services for Australian citizens and permanent residents to assist with communication between eligible organisations and individuals.
ONLINE RESOURCES Information about this service can be accessed from the department’s website at https://www.dss.gov.au/our-responsibilities/ settlement-and-multicultural-affairs/programs-policy/settle-inaustralia/help-with-english/free-interpreting-service.
3.3 A personal perspective: Values and beliefs Each of us is a product of our own culture and experiences. Our culture guides our thinking, our behaviour and our values. It influences what and how we eat, what customs are celebrated and how they are celebrated, our concept of family and family values, and our attitudes towards work and education. Your own values, attitudes and beliefs will significantly influence and shape your role as an ESW. Consider your beliefs about children and young people – for example, what are your expectations in relation to behaviour in public places, dress, manners, access to money, taking on responsibilities around the home, teenagers going to parties or teenage drinking? Your beliefs will be shaped by your own life experiences, your own upbringing and your culture. When working with children and young people, your values and beliefs can be challenged when you are confronted by situations and behaviours that you consider to be unacceptable, provocative, sad or shocking. Being able to manage these challenges so you respond in a positive and professional manner can be quite testing.
WORKING WITH DIVERSE PEOPLE
51
Attitudes Attitudes are learned predispositions of thinking or reacting towards a situation, group or concept. Attitudes are difficult to change, and have a strong influence on our behaviour. For example, some people have a positive attitude towards adversity – they believe things will get better (the glass half-full); while others have a negative attitude towards adversity – they believe that bad things always happen to them (the glass half-empty). Having a positive attitude is critical when working with children and young people, particularly where students are faced with adversity or learning challenges. Promoting an ‘I can do this’ attitude will assist children and young people to persist at tasks and contribute to building resilience and essential long-term success.
Beliefs Beliefs are things that we accept as true. Beliefs can be positive or negative and often have no factual basis, yet they can be quite powerful and may need to be challenged or examined carefully. Our beliefs may determine our response to major issues, such as whether young unemployed people should work for unemployment benefits, what responsibility our local council should take for household recycling or whether mothers should stay at home to look after their children rather than using child care. Our beliefs are also reflected in many of the day-to-day tasks that we carry out at work and at home – for example, is the television left on or off during dinner? What time should a 16-year-old be home from a party? Beliefs can shape how we perceive ourselves and how we view the actions of others. Children and young people who are challenged by the school environment will often develop selfdefeating beliefs about themselves: ‘I can’t read. I’m stupid. Everyone is better than me.’ Challenging these beliefs can assist children and young people to begin to recognise their own strengths and develop a much more balanced view of themselves – for example, ‘There are some words that you can’t read yet but there are lots of words that you can read.’ ‘You’re not stupid. You find some things hard to do but you are good at lots of other things.’
Values Ashman and Elkins (2012: 9) define values as ‘the principles or standards of behaviour that reflect judgments about what is held to be important in life. These standards of behaviour are affected by cultural influences and personal preferences and beliefs’. Examples of personal values include honesty, a belief in always doing your very best, spirituality, the importance of family and friendships, kindness, freedom and democracy, integrity, respect, fairness and equality. Personal values impact all aspects of life. In school settings, our values have a powerful influence on children and young people. For example, if fairness is valued then all students will be treated with respect. If respect for differences is valued, then we will strive to ensure that students do not engage in bullying or racial taunts. When working with children and young people, it is important to reflect on your personal values and consider how they impact your daily practices. See the Scenario box.
Scenario
VALUES, ATTITUDES AND BELIEFS John, an ESW, is working with a group of Year 6 students. The students are working on a project about river systems. John notices that Liam and Dillan are teasing Armin because of his accent. Liam: ‘Hey listen to Armin – he says riber. A riber sis-tom!’ Liam and Dillan laugh. Dillan: ‘Yeah, he can no speak English.’ Armin walks back to his desk and sits down. John takes Liam and Dillan aside. ‘Why are you making fun of Armin?’ Liam: ‘It’s just a joke.’ Dillan: ‘Yeah, he knows we’re only joking.’ John: ‘Take a look at Armin. It looks to me like he’s pretty upset.’ The boys look at Armin and then look to the floor.
John: ‘It’s not okay to make fun of the way other people speak. What can you do to fix this situation?’ Liam: ‘I’ll go and say sorry.’ Dillan: ‘Me too.’ John watches as the boys talk to Armin and reflects what it must be like to be 12 years old and made to feel different. John makes a mental note to report the incident to the classroom teacher. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Students act in ways that are hurtful to others. What Liam and Dillan considered to be a harmless joke is in fact a demonstration of racial bias. John acted quickly and appropriately to address this behaviour. By reporting the incident, John is demonstrating to the teacher that he understands the importance of addressing bias.
Diversity and bias Everyone will have some degree of personal bias based on their own unique belief system, values, attitudes and traditions, which have been shaped over time by family, cultural and social influences. Personal bias extends to stereotypes – one way in which individuals assign certain traits to groups of people or cultures. Stereotyping reflects our personal beliefs in relation to race, religion, disability, gender or ethnic background. Some examples of stereotyping include: • ‘All women are maternal.’ • ‘All Indians love cricket.’ • ‘People with a mental illness are unstable and can’t be trusted in the workplace.’ • ‘People with a learning disability have low intelligence.’ These stereotypes often remained fixed until they are challenged. Addressing our own bias can be quite confronting: often, we may not be consciously aware of our bias until challenged by others. Some ways to address personal bias are engaging in critical self-reflection and discussion with family and trusted colleagues. Figure 3.6 provides examples of questions that can be used to reflect on our own beliefs and bias. Figure 3.6 Self-reflective questions
Question
Points to reflect on
With which cultural groups do I identify?
Consider all the dimensions discussed, including race, religion, sexual orientation, qualifications and socioeconomic status.
What personal values and beliefs do I hold?
Consider how you would respond to questions such as: > Should all first tertiary qualifications be paid for by the government? > How do you feel about same-sex marriage? > Is religion an important part of my belief system?
WORKING WITH DIVERSE PEOPLE
53
Question
Points to reflect on
How do I feel and react when I am confronted with an unfamiliar experience?
Think about a time when you found yourself in an unfamiliar situation. For example, have you ever attended a wedding of a friend who had different religious beliefs to yours, or found yourself in a foreign country where no one spoke your language?
What stereotypes do I uphold?
We consciously or unconsciously uphold many positive and negative stereotypes. You could begin by reading the following stereotypes and examining your own beliefs about them: > Asian people are smart. > People with tattoos are not professional. > Older people are not good with technology. > Men are better at sport than women.
Unfortunately, discrimination and racism are still prevalent in Australian workplaces. A report by the Australian Human Rights Commission (2014) found that: • people born in countries where English is not the main spoken language are three times as likely to experience discrimination in the workplace (VicHealth, 2007). • Around 20 per cent of Australians have experienced race-hate talk (University of Western Sydney, 2008). • Some 19 per cent of Australians have reported discrimination because of their skin colour, ethnic origins or religion (Scanlon Foundation, 2013). • One in 10 Australians (1.5 million of the nation’s adult population) believes that some races are inferior or superior to others (University of Western Sydney, 2008). Racism can be overt – a conscious and intentional act aiming to harm someone based on their race – or covert. An example of overt racism would be an employer refusing to hire someone because of their race or linguistic background. Covert racism is a subtle and sometimes unconscious act, and is not always intentional – for example, laughing at a joke that enforces racist stereotypes. The effects on the worker of racism and discrimination – whether overt or covert – can include: • increased stress • a desire to find work elsewhere • feelings of resentment, shame, fear and insecurity • harm to physical and mental health • undermined confidence. (VEOHRC 2013). For the organisation, this results in a higher staff turnover, an environment where workers can feel unsafe, and lower productivity and innovation. According to the Victorian Equal Opportunity and Human Rights Commission (VEOHRC 2013), most people do not report the racism they witness or experience themselves because they feel that nothing will happen anyway, or they are afraid of retribution. However, if racism or discrimination in your workplace is not reported, it is effectively being accepted. If you witness acts of discrimination or racism in the workplace, it is important not to ignore it. You should discuss the incident with your supervisor and follow the organisation’s anti-discrimination policy.
Consider This
WORKPLACE DISCRIMINATION The Australian Human Rights Commission (AHRC) website provides information and advice on all forms of discrimination in the workplace: http://www.humanrights. gov.au/our-work/race-discrimination/publications/ know-your-rights-racial-discrimination-and-vilification. Direct discrimination in the workplace happens when a person is treated less favourably than another person in a similar situation because of their race, colour, descent, national or ethnic origin, or immigrant status.
Indirect discrimination in the workplace can be less obvious. It can happen when employers or service providers put in place conditions, requirements or practices that appear to treat everyone the same but that disadvantage some people because of their race, colour, descent, national or ethnic origin, or immigrant status. If the requirement is not reasonable with regard to the circumstances of the case, it could be indirect discrimination.
3.4 Working with diverse people The school community will include students and their families, teachers and ESWs, administrative staff, support staff and sometimes volunteers and tertiary students. ESWs may also be required to liaise with visiting specialist professionals, such as educational psychologists, itinerant teachers for students with vision and hearing impairment, physiotherapists, social workers, welfare officers and specialist officers from police units. In medium to large schools, the school community may also include several sub-teams: for example, the school executive, administration team, and teaching teams based on subjects, grades or specialist areas such as literacy, sports and music. In large schools, there may be a team of ESWs. Depending on their job roles, ESWs will typically be part of the administration team or the teaching team. Within these various school communities, there will be a great deal of diversity – social, cultural, religious, language, sexual identity, level of education and expertise, age and gender. With this diversity will come differences in values, beliefs and attitudes. Working effectively within such a diverse community requires teamwork, mutual trust and acceptance, and respect for differences. This is demonstrated when all members of the school community: • have a clear understanding and commitment to the educational and social goals of the school • are familiar with and comply with all policies and procedures necessary for the safe and effective operation of the school • are willing to be flexible, adaptable and open to change • are cooperative and willing to share information and address issues as they arise in a spirit of collaboration • use effective communication, including active listening, with adults and children • comply with all lawful directions to ensure the safety and wellbeing of members of the school community • are willing to use their initiative to address or prevent issues as they arise • are able to acknowledge and appreciate that each individual has the right to respectfully express their own point of view. The effectiveness of the school team will depend largely on the leadership skills of the executive team and a willingness of all team members to work towards a set of common goals.
WORKING WITH DIVERSE PEOPLE
55
Working with culturally diverse colleagues An inclusive workplace provides opportunities to experience and benefit from a wide range of skills, abilities, cultures, life experiences, knowledge and expertise. Where there is a collective willingness to embrace diversity, and to explore and respect differences, bringing people from diverse backgrounds together can enrich any workplace. Everyone in the workplace, regardless of their role/status, deserves to be treated with dignity and respect. Every individual can make a positive contribution to the workplace if they are supported and encouraged to do so. It is highly likely that, at some point in your career, you will work with colleagues whose cultural background is different from your own. For most people, cultural differences present very few problems in the workplace. Wentling and Palma-Rivas (1998), however, identify a number of relevant factors, such as negative attitudes and discomfort towards people who are different; discrimination and prejudice; stereotyping; racism; and personal bias as cultural barriers in the workplace. Where such barriers exist, specific interventions – such as workplace training – are often needed to overcome these barriers and ensure the workplace is culturally safe.
Cultural safety in the workplace Cultural safety in the workplace is a process that, according to Eckermann, Dowd and Jeffs (2009), includes two elements: Cultural awareness + Cultural sensitivity = Cultural safety.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
Cultural awareness involves recognising and acknowledging that cultural differences exist. Cultural sensitivity is awareness of the sensitivities around cultural differences; it requires critical self-reflection on one’s own cultural values, attitudes and beliefs as well as the beliefs and biases of other cultures. Achieving cultural safety in the workplace can be a challenging task, and may never be fully achieved simply because the dominant culture will always be entrenched in every aspect of the workplace. Williams (1998, p. 4) suggests that organisations should begin the process of evaluating cultural safety by first examining preconceived ideas and stereotypes held by members of the organisation. Williams (1998, p. 6) describes the ‘nuts and bolts’ of cultural safety for organisations working with or employing Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians as involving the following principles: • respecting the individual’s culture, knowledge, experience and cultural obligations • treating cultural differences with dignity and ensuring culturally appropriate programs and environments • recognition that there is more than one way of doing things • debunking of the myth that all Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples are the same.
Cultural safety issues in the workplace All employees should have the opportunity to participate fully in the workplace and be treated with dignity and respect. According to the Equal Opportunity Commission of South Australia (2011), diversity in the workplace may include: • dress – for example, some cultures have specific clothing such as head scarves or turbans that are worn at all times • religious practices – some religions require time during work each day for prayer or time off for special religious days
• •
• • •
customs – some cultures restrict the foods that may be consumed, including the way foods are prepared intergenerational protocols – in some cultures older people must be addressed by their title, such as Mrs/Mr, or be referred to as Sir/Madam, while in other cultures there may be a more relaxed approach such as using the person’s first name or the term aunty/uncle social values – differences will exist in relation to what is considered appropriate social and sexual behaviour and work ethics family obligations – in some cultures family commitments take priority over work commitments taboos in relation to non-verbal communication, such as eye contact, facial expressions, and hand gestures. Scenario
PROTOCOLS ESW Trinh is in her mid-forties and has worked at the school on and off for around five years. The school recently employed a new ESW, Susan, who is in her midtwenties. When introduced to Trinh, Susan smiled and said, ‘Nice to meet you, Trinh’. Later in the day Trinh approached the teacher: ‘Mr Brown, may I speak with you about Susan? I am not comfortable being called by my first name. As a young person,
she must show respect. I would prefer that she call me Miss Phan. I think also that she should not call you by your first name. It is disrespectful to your position as teacher.’ WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Being aware of, and respecting differences in social protocols is important in the workplace. In this situation, Susan has inadvertently offended Miss Phan.
Mental illness and the workplace Mental illness is a health issue that can significantly affect how a person feels, thinks, behaves and interacts with other people. Mental illness is real, and it is treatable. Mental illness refers to a group of illnesses including, but not limited to: • mood disorders (such as depression and bipolar disorder) • anxiety disorders • psychotic disorders (such as schizophrenia and some forms of bipolar disorder). According to Safe Work Australia (2015: 4), the most common workplace-related mental health disorders are linked to workplace stress: • Around 45 per cent of Australians aged between 16 and 85 will experience a mental illness at some point in their life, while one in five Australian adults will experience a mental illness in any given year. • Anxiety is the most common mental health condition in Australia. On average, one in four people – one in three women and one in five men – will experience anxiety. • On average, one in six people – one in five women and one in eight men – will experience depression at some stage of their lives. • Research indicates that ‘job stress and other work-related psychosocial hazards are emerging as the leading contributors to the burden of occupational disease and injury’. • A total of 3.2 days per worker are lost each year through workplace stress. • Stress-related workers compensation claims have doubled in recent years, costing over $10 billion each year. • According to Safe Work Australia, teachers are one of 10 key professions representing almost half of all mental disorder claims (one in five teachers makes a claim).
WORKING WITH DIVERSE PEOPLE
57
Working with LGBTIQ colleagues Individuals who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex and queer (LGBTIQ) have the same right to respect, privacy and equal employment opportunities as any other employee. Homophobia – fear, hatred, discomfort with or mistrust of LGBTIQ people – has no place in the workplace. Personal bias, and cultural and religious beliefs are contributing factors to homophobia. Discrimination, harassment, gossiping, exclusion and bullying because of an individual’s sexual identity are unlawful. Employees who engage in such actions not only risk legal sanctions against the organisation but also contribute to disharmony in the workplace. Scenario
HOMOPHOBIA ESW Cahya, originally from Indonesia, is quiet and polite. He has been assigned to work with a new ESW, Ethan, to support a group of students for whom English is a second language. Ethan is pleased that he will be working with a more experienced ESW, as his experience with English language learners is limited. Ethan is gay and does not hide his sexual identity. Cahya believes that homosexuality is a sin and he is shocked to learn that the school has employed Ethan, knowing that he is gay. Cahya complains to his supervisor that he should not be expected to work with Ethan, who he describes as an abomination. His supervisor tells Cahya that such comments are discriminatory and have no place in the school. She tells Cahya that he has no choice and must work respectfully with Ethan. Cahya is not happy but can’t afford not to work.
Over the next several weeks, the tension between Cahya and Ethan grows. Finally Ethan goes to his supervisor, telling her that Cahya is difficult to work with and extremely unfriendly. He suspects Cahya is homophobic but has no direct evidence to back his suspicions. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
In this scenario, discrimination against Ethan has been indirect. Cahya has been unfriendly and difficult to work with, but he has not engaged in any direct acts of discrimination. " DISCUSSION
If you were the supervisor, how would you respond to Ethan’s complaints about Cahya’s behaviour? How would you resolve the situation?
3.5 Working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples A person may identify as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and/or be accepted by the Aboriginal community in which they live. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples are not a single homogeneous group. They speak many different languages, identify with different tribal groups and experience a deep connection to different parts of Australia and the Torres Strait Islands (Figure 3.7). Some Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples may prefer the term ‘Indigenous’, some may prefer the term ‘Aboriginal’ and some may prefer to be referred to by the name of the traditional tribe to which they belong, such as ‘Koori’ (New South Wales) or ‘Murri’ (parts of Queensland). When referring to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples in your own community, it is important to clarify the preferred name. This not only demonstrates respect but also helps you to better understand the importance of these titles to the people concerned.
Understanding the context As the original inhabitants of Australia, Aboriginals or Torres Strait Islanders deserve special consideration when looking at the cultural diversity of Australia. Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Figure 3.7 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander heritage
Shutterstock.com/BigAlBaloo
Shutterstock.com/dovla982
Heritage
Aboriginal peoples
Torres Strait Islander peoples
The flag
Ancestors are from Asia. Mainly nomadic and thrived mostly through hunting and food gathering. Aboriginal Dreaming stories feature the Rainbow Serpent, who is the creator and protector of the land. A majority of Aboriginal people spoke/speak Pama-Nyungan languages.
Black represents the Aboriginal people. Red represents the earth and their spiritual relationship to the land. Yellow represents the sun – the giver of life.
Ancestors are from Melanesia and Papua New Guinea. Engaged in seafaring and trade with the neighbouring islands, and although they thrived on hunting and food-gathering, they also excelled at agriculture. Torres Strait Islanders’ Dreaming stories feature the Tagai, or warrior, and their stories are focused on the stars and sky. Torres Strait Islander people spoke/speak Kala Lagaw Ya and Meriam Mir languages.
The white Dari (headdress) is the symbol of Torres Strait Islanders. The white five-pointed star symbolises the five major island groups and the navigational importance of stars to seafaring people. The green stripes represent the land. The black stripes represent the people. The blue stripe represents the sea. The flag as a whole symbolises the unity of all Torres Strait Islanders.
Source: Adapted from Difference Between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders, Clairsse, Differencebetween.com (2011), www.differencebetween.com/ difference-between-aboriginal-and-vs-torres-strait-islanders/.
Islander peoples have a cultural history dating back 50 000 to 65 000 years, making this the oldest known civilisation in the world. As the first inhabitants, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples are the traditional owners of the land. However, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples did not have the same perspective of land ownership as the white settlers. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples believed themselves to be part of the land – not ‘owners’ in the traditional sense but rather caretakers of the land. This belief allowed Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities to live successfully in harmony with the environment for thousands of years. Because of European settlement, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have systematically been stripped of their traditional land rights, and have suffered abuse, massacres, racism and the forced removal of children from the family unit.
The impact of colonisation on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander peoples were forced off their traditional lands, away from their active hunter-gatherer lifestyle. Those who resisted faced violence. • A treaty has never been negotiated as part of the colonisation process. • Many Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander peoples died from infectious diseases brought into the country by Europeans.
WORKING WITH DIVERSE PEOPLE
59
Many Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander peoples were moved to missions or reserves, where they were forbidden to speak their own language or maintain their cultural practices. • Laws were enacted, limiting the rights of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander peoples, segregating them from other Australians and giving them little or no self-determination. • Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander children were forcibly removed from their families and communities, to be raised in institutions or by foster families of European background, and forced to give up their Aboriginal identity. • Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples suffered physical or sexual abuse in institutions, or lived in servitude or poverty as labourers and domestic workers. • Many lost their language and cultural identity, as they were expected to adopt European dress, language, religion, lifestyle and cultural values. • Many were prevented from having any contact with their Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander families, even by letter. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have been denied basic human rights and continue to be disadvantaged in all aspects of their lives. The need to address and acknowledge the treatment of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples led to the appointment of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Justice Commissioner. The role of the Commissioner is to advocate for the recognition of the rights of Indigenous Australians and to promote respect and understanding of these rights among the broader Australian community. A life of opportunity and dignity, free from discrimination and disadvantage, should not be an ideal. It is a basic human right – one that we all share. Social justice (AHRC 2003) also means recognising the distinctive rights that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples hold as the original inhabitants of this land, including: • the right to a distinct status and culture, which helps maintain and strengthen the identity and spiritual and cultural practices of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities • the right to self-determination, which is the process by which Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities take control of their future and decide how they will address the issues facing them • the right to land, which provides the spiritual and cultural basis of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities (ª Australian Human Rights Commission 2017. CC-BY-4.0 licence.). Social justice for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples has focused on both fundamental human rights such as education, health and housing, and on land rights. For example, the 1992 High Court decision in Mabo recognised the common law right of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples to land, based on their continuing use and connection to land. The 1997 report Bringing Them Home (AHRC 2010) revealed the extent of government policy and laws that resulted in the systematic removal of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families between 1910 and 1970. Mick Dodson, an Aboriginal rights activist, reminds us that we still have a long way to go to make right our treatment of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples: •
Social justice is what faces you in the morning. It is awakening in a house with adequate water supply, cooking facilities and sanitation. It is the ability to nourish your children and send them to school where their education not only equips them for employment but reinforces their knowledge and understanding of their cultural inheritance. It is the prospect of genuine employment and good health: a life of choices and opportunity, free from discrimination. Source: ª Australian Human Rights Commission 2017. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
Scenario
SOCIAL JUSTICE The statement by then Social Justice Commissioner Mick Dodson brings into focus the glaring gap between the human rights of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and other Australians. Australia is a wealthy country with a high standard of living. Most Australians would regard food, shelter, education and cultural respect as part of their birthright, yet many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples are living in developing world conditions, which contribute to poor physical and
mental health, poor education and a lack of job opportunities. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Successive governments have failed to address the inequities between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people and other Australians. It is also true that nonAboriginal and Torres Strait Islander citizens have failed to raise their voices about these inequities.
Policy of assimilation In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the government adopted a policy of assimilation based on the false belief that Australian Aboriginals were a doomed race that would eventually die out through interracial marriage. To manage ‘the Aboriginal problem’, the government of the day changed the definition of ‘Aboriginality’ to identify differences between ‘full-bloods’ and ‘half-castes’, allowing the separation of different groups. Those defined as having a certain amount of European blood were prevented from living on the reserves and forced to live either in camps or in areas not designated as being for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. By the turn of the twentieth century, the ‘solution to the Aboriginal problem’ was to merge the mixed-descent population into non-Aboriginal society. So-called ‘half-caste’ Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children were also sent to missions, special schools and training institutions where Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages and cultural practices usually were forbidden, and the discipline was severe. Children who ‘looked white’ were put up for adoption with white families without the consent of their families. Referred to as the Stolen Generations, these children have reported that they: • were forbidden to speak in their own languages • were told their parents did not want them • experienced neglect, as well as physical, emotional and sexual abuse • received little or no education • were refused contact with their families (ª Australian Human Rights Commission 2017. CC-BY-4.0 licence.). Chief Protectors were appointed and given wide powers to control the lives of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. These powers included: • managing and controlling the reserves • the power to remove people from the reserves • the power to decide who could (or could not) marry (ª Australian Human Rights Commission 2017. CC-BY-4.0 licence.). Children of mixed race were forcibly removed from their families and placed in group homes to be trained in domestic service, or placed with white families and forced to work. As the Australian Human Rights Commission describes, these policies had a devastating effect on both the children who were forcibly taken away and their families.
WORKING WITH DIVERSE PEOPLE
61
Changing perspective During the 1990s, a number of decisions and reforms took place that helped to change the way Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples were viewed by other Australians. These were: • the establishment of the Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation by law of the federal parliament • the findings of the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody • the decision of the High Court in Mabo v Queensland • the Native Title Act, passed by the federal parliament in 1993 • the establishment of the National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families • the High Court Wik decision. • the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission’s Bringing Them Home report of the National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families • the introduction of the Native Title Amendment Act (Cth) • the People’s Walk for Reconciliation in 2000. Australia has yet to take the final step towards reconciliation in the form of a treaty that recognises and attempts to put right the injustices of the past.
Understanding kinship Understanding the nature and role that kinship plays in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities is essential for reaching a deeper understanding of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures. Relationships among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples are not only defined by family, but also by kinship – their birthplace or place of origin, which is referred to as their mob. The extended family structure of Aboriginal people is based on: • blood relationships (mum, dad, brother, sister, grandmother/grandfather, cousin, aunty, uncle) • marriage (aunty, uncle, cousin) • community (Elder, neighbour, friend, organisation) • kinship system (aunties, uncles, cousins or Elders) • non-related family (Elder, friend, community member) • mutual respect • a sense of belonging (Department of Community Services (NSW) 2009, p. 13). Many Aboriginal people identify themselves as belonging to several nations and kinship groups as a result of parents’/grandparents’ place of birth, marriage and identification with locations where individuals have lived. These kinship groups play an important role in raising children and teaching cultural beliefs and practices. Kinship groups also provide both moral and financial support. The responsibility of caring for and raising children is shared by the extended family and community, who play an important role in the transmission of cultural traditions and values. Many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children live in households that not only include immediate relatives such as parents and siblings, but extended family such as aunties, uncles, cousins and grandparents as well as family established by kinship systems and other members of the community (AIHW 2012). In recognition of this extended family network, children may refer to more than one
person as ‘mother’, and will use the terms ‘auntie’, ‘uncle’ and ‘sis’(ter) to refer to members of the extended kinship group. As part of the kinship group, children are included in most family events and discussions – there may not be the same distinction between adults’ and children’s ‘business’ that is typically seen in Anglo-Australian society. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children traditionally engage in a wide range of social activities, and spend much of their time in groups. The members of the kinship group share in celebrations and also share in honouring the deceased. Funerals are often a large kinship affair, and the inclusion of children is seen as natural. Older children are expected to care for younger children, and younger children are expected to learn from their older peers. Children are encouraged to be independent and to learn from their mistakes. Discipline is shared by the kinship group and children are taught to respect Elders. Strategies such as humour, teasing and acting surprised are commonly used to manage children’s behaviour. Being aware of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander kinship structures may help you to better understand Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander colleagues if they share information about their family.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have diverse languages. There are around 300 Aboriginal nations in Australia speaking around 250 different languages, with up to 600 different dialects. For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples living in rural and remote regions, English is often a second language. In these communities, some people – although not all – will speak Aboriginal English, which uses words and phrases that are different from Standard English. Aboriginal English is also spoken using an accent and grammar that are different from those of Standard English. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples in Northern Australia may also speak creole – a language that combines Standard English with a native language. The vowel sound for ‘h’ is usually dropped so that ‘house’ becomes ‘ouse’, ‘heavy’ becomes ‘eavy’ and so on. The reason for this is thought to be that traditional Aboriginal languages do not contain an ‘h’ sound. It is also common for Aboriginal English questions to end with a question tag, such as ‘eh’, ‘inna’ or ‘unna’ – for example, ‘You goin’ to the dance, eh?’ Gaining a better understanding of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander culture and history, and being aware of the differences in cultures, is a first step to improving intercultural working relationships. As with any culturally diverse workforce, it is important to be aware of barriers to effective communication that may cause misunderstandings or conflict. For example, for some Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, looking someone in the eye is a sign of disrespect. While many Westerners are uncomfortable with silences during conversations, an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander person might leave more time to think or to consider someone else’s opinion before responding. Their silence is not a sign that they do not understand what is being said. When meeting with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, it is considered polite to build a relationship before talking business. For example, ask about family, where the person is from and who their mob is, and share information about yourself. Just like any other culture, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have developed words and phrases that have a particular meaning within the cultural group; examples are given in Figure 3.8.
WORKING WITH DIVERSE PEOPLE
63
Figure 3.8 Examples of Aboriginal English
Aboriginal English
Standard Australian English
Camp
Home
Mob
Family, kin, group of people
Big mob
A lot of people
Lingo
Aboriginal language
Sorry business
Ceremony associated with death
Grow [a child] up
Raise [a child]
Growl
Scold
Gammon
Pretending, kidding, joking
Cheeky
Mischievous, aggressive, dangerous
Solid
Fantastic
To tongue for
To long for, to want
Deadly
Good
Gubba
Non-Aboriginal person
Shame
Embarrass, humiliate
Country
Land, home Source: Eades (n.d.).
ABORIGINAL AND TORRES STRAIT ISLANDER TERMINOLOGY •
•
•
The traditional meaning of an Aboriginal Elder is someone who has gained recognition within their community as a custodian of knowledge and lore, and who has permission to disclose cultural knowledge and beliefs. ‘Our mob’ is a term identifying a group of Aboriginal people associated with a particular place or country – it is used to identify who they are and where they are from. A traditional owner is an Aboriginal person or group of Aboriginal people directly descended from the original Aboriginal inhabitants of a culturally defined area of land or country, and has a cultural association with this country that derives from the traditions, observances,
•
•
Consider This
customs, beliefs or history of the original Aboriginal inhabitants of the area. The following terms are considered offensive to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples: native, mixed blood, half-caste, quarter-caste, full-blood, partAboriginal 25 per cent or 50 per cent Aboriginal, them, them people, those people, those folk, you people. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples may refer to themselves as blackfellas, but it is not appropriate for nonAboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples to use this term. Source: NSW Health (2004), Communicating Positively. A Guide to Appropriate Aboriginal Terminology, NSW Health, Sydney, pp. 18–22, 31. http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/aboriginal/Publications/pubterminology.pdf. ª NSW Department of Health 2004.
It is important to remember that every individual is unique and will bring to the workplace a unique set of life experiences, cultural values and beliefs. It is important not to generalise or make assumptions about others, particularly in relation to cultural practices. Where differences exist, it can be valuable to discuss these differences in a an open and respectful manner. Sharing information reduces the likelihood of misinformation and misunderstandings that can often lead to workplace tensions and conflict.
Summary Consideration of workplace diversity extends to a wide variety of elements such as ethnicity, gender, religious beliefs, language, sexuality, lifestyle, health, abilities, disposition and education. An inclusive workplace embraces and respects diversity and accommodates, as far as possible, the diverse needs of employees. As an ESW, you will encounter diversity among colleagues, students and their families. You may find this exciting, challenging or even confronting. Your role as an ESW is to work in ways that demonstrate respect for diversity and a willingness to accommodate individual differences.
Discussion questions 1
Australia has many slang words and phrases that are a challenge for English language learners. Consider, for example, arvo, brolly, sickie, crook, footy, servo, smoko, stoked, tinnie, clucky, deadset, bludger, dog’s breakfast; fair dinkum, mates’ rates, your shout, spit the dummy, fair go and budgie smugglers. While you may not use some of these words and phrases, you may be familiar with them and with their meaning. Discuss how we learn the meaning of these words and phrases. Are they an integral part of the Australian culture? Why or why not?
2 Refer to ‘The Impact of Colonisation on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ on page 59. Discuss why the consequences of colonisation continue to impact negatively on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. 3 Workplace diversity may include, for example, gender, age, education, ethnicity, sexual identity, disability, mental health, religious beliefs and culture. When you think about the workplace, what would you find most challenging in relation to diversity in the workplace? Why would you find it so challenging? What could you do to minimise this challenge?
Self-check questions 1
List the basic rights and freedoms included in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 2 Define the following concepts: a cultural competence b cultural responsiveness c cultural safety d attitudes e values f beliefs.
3 Answer the following questions about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities. a How is it possible to identify who is an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander person? b Why is it important to clarify with a local Aboriginal community the preferred name to use when referring to that community? c How do kinship groups in Aboriginal families differ from those of white, middle-class Australian families.
Activities 1
Provide examples of what defines your cultural values and beliefs.
2 How might your attitudes, values and beliefs shape your role as an ESW?
WORKING WITH DIVERSE PEOPLE
65
Chapter 4 HEALTH AND SAFETY LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to demonstrate that, in relation to working in a school environment, you can: 4.1
understand the role and function of WHS legislation, including the responsibilities of employers and employees
4.2 understand the policies and procedures required for emergency planning in schools 4.3 follow WHS systems, policies and procedures for safe work practices
GO further Go Further icons link to extra content for this chapter. Ask your instructor for the Go Further resource and deepen your understanding of the topic.
4.4 identify hazards and implement safe work practices to manage risks 4.5 identify and manage infection and disease risks to yourself, other staff and students in the school 4.6 contribute to safe work practices in the workplace though correct office ergonomics, manual handling procedures, equipment use and operation of electrical devices 4.7 identify and respond appropriately to sources of stress, bullying, violence or abuse in the workplace.
Introduction This section of the text provides an overview of work health and safety (WHS) legislation and identifies the roles and responsibilities of employers and employees in relation to their health, safety and wellbeing. This section also explores the roles and responsibilities of all employees working in a school in relation to the health, safety and wellbeing of students. Health and safety in a school environment must obviously address the health, safety and wellbeing of students, employees and visitors to the school. Working with children and young people can be physically and emotionally demanding. The physical demands of the ESW’s role can be quite diverse – for example, lifting and carrying equipment, cleaning up body fluids, working with chemicals, using photocopiers, working at tables that are not at adult height, assisting with the personal care of students with severe disabilities, and working with students with behaviour issues. All of these tasks require compliance with WHS policies and procedures.
4.1 WHS legislation The primary aim of WHS is to ensure that risks are minimised so that everyone who enters the workplace is safe. The goal of every workplace is to minimise workplace injuries by complying with WHS legislation. With the support of the states and territories, the Australian government has established the federal statutory agency Safe Work Australia (http:// www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au). The primary purposes of Safe Work Australia are to harmonise WHS laws throughout Australia; develop national work health, safety and workers compensation policy; and promote awareness of WHS issues. As a result, it has developed: • the Model Work Health and Safety (WHS) Act 2011 (Model WHS Act) • the Model Work Health and Safety (WHS) Regulations 2011 (Model WHS Regulations) • Model Codes of Practice • a National Compliance and Enforcement Policy. At the time of writing, all states and territories had adopted the legislation except for Victoria and Western Australia (as shown in Figure 4.1). Figure 4.1 Principal WHS legislation for states and territories in Australia
Jurisdiction
Principal legislation
WHS regulatory authority
Commonwealth
Work Health and Safety (WHS) Act 2011
Safe Work Australia
Work Health and Safety (WHS) Regulations 2011
http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au
Model Codes of Practice National Compliance and Enforcement Policy Australian Capital Territory
New South Wales
Northern Territory
Work Health and Safety Act 2011
WorkSafe ACT
Work Health and Safety Regulation 2011
http://www.worksafe.act.gov.au
Work Health and Safety Act 2011
WorkCover NSW
Work Health and Safety Regulation 2011
http://www.workcover.nsw.gov.au
Work Health and Safety (National Uniform Legislation) Act 2011
NT WorkSafe http://www.worksafe.nt.gov.au
Work Health and Safety (National Uniform Legislation) Regulations Queensland
South Australia
Tasmania
Victoria
Work Health and Safety Act 2011
Workplace Health and Safety Queensland
Work Health and Safety Regulation 2011
http://www.deir.qld.gov.au/workplace
Work Health and Safety Act 2012
SafeWork SA
Work Health and Safety Regulations 2012
http://www.safework.sa.gov.au
Work Health and Safety Act 2012
Workplace Standards Tasmania
Work Health and Safety Regulations 2012
http://workplacestandards.tas.gov.au
Currently has not adopted Commonwealth legislation
WorkSafe Victoria
Occupational Health and Safety Act 2004
http://www.worksafe.vic.gov.au
Occupational Health and Safety Regulations 2007 Western Australia
Currently has not adopted Commonwealth legislation
WorkSafe WA
Occupational Safety and Health Act 1984
http://www.commerce.wa.gov.au/WorkSafe
Occupational Safety and Health Regulations 1996
HEALTH AND SAFETY
67
Model Work Health and Safety Act and Regulations The aims of the Model WHS Act are to: • protect the health and safety of workers and other people by eliminating or minimising risks arising from work or workplaces • ensure fair and effective representation, consultation and cooperation to address and resolve health and safety issues in the workplace • encourage unions and employer organisations to take a constructive role in improving WHS practices • assist businesses and workers to achieve a healthier and safer working environment • promote information, education and training on WHS • provide effective compliance and enforcement measures, and • deliver continuous improvement and progressively higher standards of WHS (Safe Work Australia 2012, p. 2, ª Commonwealth of Australia 2018 CC-BY-4.0 licence). The Model WHS Regulations provide a ‘how to’ for the implementation of the Model WHS Act, and provide specific details of responsibilities and requirements to ensure compliance with the Act. A key principle of the Model WHS Act is that all people are given the highest level of health and safety protection from hazards arising from work, so far as is reasonably practicable.
WHAT DOES REASONABLY PRACTICABLE MEAN? To determine what is reasonably practicable, it is necessary to take into account: • the probability that a person will be exposed to harm as a result of a workplace hazard or risk • the potential for serious injury or harm
•
• •
Consider This
how much knowledge the person has about the hazard, the risk or strategies, which they could use to remove/ minimise that risk the ways available to remove or minimise the hazard/risk how much it would cost to remove or minimise the hazard/risk. Source: Safe Work Australia (2012), ª Commonwealth of Australia 2018 CC-BY-4.0 licence.
• • • • • • • •
Approved Model Codes of Practice that may be applied in school settings include: Work Health and Safety Consultation Cooperation and Coordination Managing the Risk of Falls at Workplaces Managing the Work Environment and Facilities First Aid in the Workplace Labelling of Workplace Hazardous Chemicals Preparation of Safety Data Sheets for Hazardous Chemicals Managing Risks of Hazardous Chemicals in the Workplace How to Manage Work Health and Safety Risks.
ONLINE RESOURCES You can access the WHS Model Codes of Practice by going to the SafeWork website: https://www.safeworkaustralia. gov.au/resources_publications/model-codes-of-practice.
State and territory WHS legislation While most states and territories have adopted the Commonwealth legislation described above, it is the states and territories that are responsible for administering WHS legislation, regulating
WHS practices, enforcing the legislation and administering the systems of workers compensation and rehabilitation. They also develop resources and provide training to assist anyone conducting a business and their employees to manage WHS. The range of functions of WHS regulatory authorities includes: monitoring and enforcing compliance with the Model WHS Act and Model WHS • Regulations • providing advice and information on WHS to duty holders and the community • fostering a cooperative, consultative relationship between duty holders and the people to whom they owe WHS duties, and their representatives • promoting and supporting education and training on WHS matters • engaging in, promoting and coordinating the sharing of information to achieve the object of the Model WHS Act, including the sharing of information with other WHS regulators • conduct and defend legal proceedings under the Model WHS Act • collect, analyse and publish statistics relating to work health and safety, and • promote public awareness and discussion of work health and safety matters in the community (Safe Work Australia 2012: 27). If it believes there has been a contravention of the Model WHS Act in a workplace, the regulatory authority has the power to investigate that workplace and obtain written evidence. Regulatory authorities also have the power to monitor a workplace to ensure WHS compliance.
WHS responsibilities of the employer WHS legislation is designed to reduce the incidence of workplace injuries and disease by prescribing the general requirements for workplace safety that must be met to manage risks in the workplace. WHS legislation also defines the legal responsibilities of all persons conducting a business – workers, the self-employed, manufacturers and suppliers – and people in control of workplaces used by non-employees. Every person conducting a business or undertaking (PCBU) has a duty to ensure – as far as is ‘reasonably practicable’ – the health, safety and welfare of all employees and others who come into the workplace. The employer must ensure that: • all ‘reasonably practicable’ measures and actions have been taken to control risks against possible injuries in the workplace, and to avoid anyone causing harm to themselves or to others in the workplace. • there are an adequate number of workers with a current approved senior first-aid certificate. The PCBU, or a delegated supervisor, must also: • consult with all workers who are directly affected by health and safety in the workplace when modifications or changes are made to WHS policies and practices. • provide WHS training to all employees – for example, on emergency evacuation, use of fire extinguishers, use and storage of chemicals and procedures for reporting.
Due diligence The employer must exercise due diligence by taking reasonable steps to ensure that the workplace supervisor (school principal) is able to: • acquire and update their knowledge of WHS issues so their knowledge stays current. • identify the hazards and risks associated with the school, including bullying or harassment in the workplace.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
69
Scenario
DUE DILIGENCE DUE DILIGENCE 1
Erin and Tom (WHS representatives) are attending a oneday workshop conducted by their state WHS authority. The aim of the workshop is to provide WHSRs with up-to-date information on their WHS obligations and responsibilities. Driving home that evening, Erin and Tom review the day. Even though the school has in place quite comprehensive WHS policies and procedures, they both agree that the workshop was extremely worthwhile and have both come away with a greater understanding of their legal obligations and maintaining rigorous WHS procedures. DUE DILIGENCE 2
As a follow-up to the workshop, Erin and Tom are required to provide feedback at the staff meeting. They
decide to put together a short PowerPoint presentation of the key points. To make it more interesting and relevant, they have included some WHS scenarios that require staff to work together in small groups to problemsolve solutions. Through open discussion, it is revealed that many of the staff pay little or no attention to WHS and are not aware of their basic responsibilities. The workshop demonstrates that regular training in WHS is essential for all employees. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Providing access to training contributes to meeting due diligence requirements. While all employees have a legal obligation to be aware of their WHS responsibilities, it can never be assumed that all employees comply.
WHS responsibilities of the worker All workers must take reasonable care to ensure their own health and safety, and the health and safety of others in the workplace. Workers are obligated to: • cooperate with their employer’s attempts to meet their WHS responsibilities • comply with all lawful instructions in relation to WHS • follow all WHS policies and procedures • report all workplace hazards to the nominated supervisor • undertake WHS training as directed. Safe work procedures are defined by WorkSafe ACT (2010: 1) as directions on how work is to be carried out safely. They identify hazards and clarify what must be done to eliminate or minimise risks – for example, correct lifting procedures to minimise the risk of back, neck and leg injury. WorkSafe ACT (2012: 2) suggests that the process for developing a written safe work procedure for a hazardous task may include the following steps: • Determine the overall task that requires a safe work procedure. • Break down the task into its basic steps. • Identify the hazards associated with each step, and ways to eliminate or minimise the risks to workers from these hazards. • Write the safe work procedure – the list of actions that workers must do when performing the task.
WHS notifiable incidents Regardless of how well WHS policies and procedures are implemented, there is a potential for accidents or near-misses to occur in any workplace. The Model WHS Act defines a notifiable incident as any incident involving the death of a person, the ‘serious injury or illness’ of a person or a ‘dangerous incident’. Each state and territory has in place definitions and requirements for reporting workplace incidents, accidents and near misses. A serious injury is any injury that requires immediate treatment in a hospital. A dangerous incident (or a ‘near-miss’) is defined as any incident in relation to a workplace that exposes a worker or any other person to a serious risk to health or safety (either immediately or soon after), such as exposure to asbestos or chemicals, the collapse of a structure, an electric shock, an explosion or a fire.
NOTIFICATION OF INCIDENT A record of the notification and details of the incident must be kept by the employer for at least five years. Each school will have a standardised WHS notification form that will include information similar to the sample form in Figure 4.2. Figure 4.2 Incident report form template Incident report form template Name:
Address:
Phone number: Age: Gender: Occupation: Relationship to organisation: Date, Time & Location of incident:
Detailed description of what happened (Include how the incident happened, a description of the injury sustained, the immediate treatment given and where the injured person was taken for treatment)
Contact details of the person conducting the business:
Contact details of the person notifying the state/territory authority:
Action taken to prevent a future recurrence:
Scenario
NOTIFIABLE INCIDENT Dali and Adrian, both ESWs, have acted as school first aid officers for the last three years. To date they have only had to deal with minor injuries; however, today they were faced with a major incident when four students and two teachers were injured when a 5 metre-high platform on which they were standing collapsed. Injuries included fractures, broken bones, a punctured lung and suspected head injuries. While waiting for ambulances to arrive, Dali
and Adrian took responsibility for applying first aid and directing other staff to assist. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
A serious incident may occur at any time requiring a prompt and calm response. In a situation where there are multiple casualties, it is important to delegate control to trained first aid staff.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
71
4.2 Emergency planning
GO
further
Learn more about emergency procedures in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
By their nature, emergencies can occur with little or no warning. It is essential to have in place a well-planned and well-rehearsed emergency plan. All schools are required by law to have set procedures that can immediately be put in place in the event of an emergency. Emergencies that may impact on schools include: natural disasters such as flood, bushfire, earthquake, severe electrical or dust storms • • power failures, gas leaks, loss of water supply • spills of hazardous or toxic materials on the roadside or the release of toxic chemicals into the atmosphere • a medical emergency involving serious sudden illness or injury to a staff member or student • a parent, guardian, intruder or student who presents as threatening, angry, abusive or under the influence of drugs or alcohol. A person conducting a business or undertaking must ensure that an emergency plan is prepared for the workplace that provides for emergencies, drills and training. The Managing the Work Environment and Facilities Code of Practice (Safe Work Australia 2011b: 28) recommends that emergency procedures be written clearly and that they be simple to understand. Where relevant, the emergency procedures should address evacuation procedures and appropriate staff training, assembly locations and protocols for an emergency, and lockdown procedures. There are many other considerations that are important to understand, and the full Code of Practice can be found for perusal at www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au.
EMERGENCY EVACUATION OR LOCKDOWN Procedures in relation to emergency evacuation and lockdown will usually include: • responsibilities of individual staff members to ensure all students are safely evacuated or contained (in the case of a lockdown) • clearly designated assembly point/s and evacuation routes – this should be familiar to all staff and students with signs posted at strategic points around the school facilities • a system for identifying all students in attendance (class rolls) • a designated signal for evacuation or lockdown • clearly stated procedures to follow such as closing windows and doors (if possible), and leaving everything behind • identification of who will check areas such as toilets, canteen, meeting rooms and the sick bay; who will be responsible for visitors, parents who may be on the premises and volunteers or students; who will contact emergency services; who will collect the first aid kit and mobile phone; who will contact head office
• •
Consider This
procedures for checking on ‘missing’ students or staff procedures for assisting students with disabilities, particularly where mobility is an issue or students are not able to understand the evacuation procedures. This may include an individual evacuation plan for each student with a disability, which takes into account the specific mobility, health and medical needs of each student. Generally, the evacuation route would need to be wheelchair-friendly, and also take into account students who are sight or hearing impaired. Where students must be evacuated via a staircase, it would be necessary for the school to have a wheelchair especially designed for use on stairs. Evacuation procedures for students with a disability may need to be practised more frequently than for students in the general population.
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
A wide range of factors need to be taken into account and carefully planned in the event of an emergency evacuation or lockdown. Preparation and regular practice are an essential part of the planning process.
Selecting assembly areas A safe assembly area for a whole school can be a challenge, particularly where there are large numbers of students of different ages and abilities. In the event of a widespread emergency such as a flood or bushfire, where whole streets must be evacuated, it is likely that the assembly point will be nominated by emergency personnel.
Evacuation When evacuating, all staff must remain calm and in control. Forward planning will assist staff to act promptly and efficiently and may include doing the following: • Plan ahead by selecting and clearly marking exits from the building. Ensure that exits are always kept clear. If some gates are kept locked, ensure keys are readily available. • Choose a route to the assembly location. Ideally, the assembly place will be within easy walking distance. • Decide what signals will be used to alert staff (and students) to the need to evacuate or commence lockdown procedures. • Have specific procedures in place where there are younger students or students with disabilities. This will assist the orderly progress to the assembly place or complying with lockdown procedures. It is important to be aware that in the event of a real emergency, younger students or those with a disability may become distressed or even hysterical. • Ensure procedures account for all people, including students, staff and visitors who may be there at the time of the emergency. A visitor sign-in/out book will help with this task. • Ensure all staff know and understand their specific role as part of the preparation for emergencies – for example, a person nominated to take charge of overall evacuation, a person nominated to take charge of evacuation of designated areas, a person nominated to search and check the building to ensure no one is left behind, persons nominated as first aid officers. All staff must be trained adequately in emergency procedures, including the location and use of fire extinguishers and fire blankets. Scenario
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES LOCKDOWN
It is just after 9 a.m. and classes have commenced for the day. ESW Liz is walking along the verandah accompanying four students to the special reading unit room when she notices two men in the playground; one appears to be carrying a crossbow and the other is carrying what looks like a machete. Liz quickly diverts the students into the closest classroom and quietly says ‘lockdown’ to the teacher. The teacher uses her mobile phone to alert the office to the situation. The signal for lockdown is issued and the police are called. DISASTER!
It is 2.40 p.m. and the sky is an eerie greenish black colour. Large hailstones begin to fall, followed by heavy rain
and lashing winds. The storm is still raging at 3 p.m. and it is evident that this is no ordinary storm. News has come through that a cargo ship has run aground on the beach, stormwater drains all over the city and surrounding suburbs have overflowed, roads are blocked, cars have been swept into drains and houses and businesses have been inundated. Parents are not able to get through and many of the cars in the staff carpark are now under water. It is clear that students and staff will have to remain at the school. Water is starting to creep into several of the low-lying buildings. Everyone is immediately evacuated to the hall, which fortunately sits on a slight rise. The canteen is adjacent to the hall so there is access to food and water. There is no landline or mobile phone reception and the power is out. It is getting colder and darker.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
73
Some of the younger students are beginning to get upset and many staff members are worrying about their own families. Everyone is tense. Fortunately, every teacher has an emergency torch and there are a few battery-operated radios available so that senior staff are able to get a better picture of the extent of the disaster. The teachers are directed to try to keep the students calm. Some classes decide to sing songs or tell stories, but the fading light makes this difficult. Several teachers are
gathering snacks from the canteen to distribute to the students before the light is completely gone. It is going to be a very long night! WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Staying calm and following procedure is the key to managing emergency situations. Students will look to the adults for reassurance and direction. Remaining calm will in turn help students to remain calm and listen to and follow instructions.
It is virtually impossible to be totally prepared for all emergencies. The very nature of an ‘emergency’ makes it unpredictable and often brings with it unforeseen circumstances that cannot be anticipated. However, schools can ensure that all staff are trained in emergency procedures.
4.3 WHS systems, policies and procedures The primary goal of WHS policies in the workplace is to minimise risks to health and safety as far as is reasonably practicable. WHS policies will typically be accompanied by written procedures with clear, step-by-step instructions for WHS-related tasks. WHS policies and procedures must reflect the requirements of WHS legislation and Codes of Practice. Every school will have systems in place to manage and monitor the health, safety and welfare of workers. Each school will have specific WHS factors that reflect the physical environment, the nature of the work being carried out, and the skills and experience of those conducting the work or engaging in services provided by workers. Examples of WHS systems in the workplace include: • written WHS policies and procedures • access to regular WHS training opportunities • provision of personal protective equipment (PPE) and guidelines for its use • maintaining an incident, illness and near-miss register • a regular, scheduled safety audit • written processes in relation to hazard identification, risk assessment, controlling risks and reviewing controls.
The intent of WHS policies and procedures The intent of WHS policies is to identify workplace practices where there are potential hazards, and to provide clear directions or procedures to minimise risks. Written WHS procedures aim to ensure consistency in workplace practices. The purpose of each WHS policy can be incorporated into a rationale and/or goals – for example, ‘using a team lift when moving heavy or bulky equipment minimises the risk of back and neck injury’. Written policies and procedures protect both workers and PCBUs. Workers are protected because clearly written policies and procedures direct work practices and take away any element of uncertainty or guesswork when performing a potentially hazardous task. PCBUs are protected because they can demonstrate due diligence by taking reasonable steps to provide workers with lawful directions in relation to WHS procedures. Written WHS policies and procedures can also be used in the orientation of new workers and as a basis for ongoing training of existing workers.
To be effective, WHS policies and procedures are dependent on compliance by all workers, and for this reason PCBUs must also ensure adequate training and supervision of workers as they carry out WHS tasks. In schools, the number and range of WHS policies and procedures will vary depending on the type of school, the nature of the tasks being undertaken and the physical environment. For example, staff working with physically disabled students in a special school would need to be trained in the use of mechanical aids, correct lifting techniques and personal protective equipment, while staff working in a science lab or with woodwork/metalwork would need to be trained in the use of machinery operation and personal protective equipment. While WHS policies are specifically written to ensure the health, safety and wellbeing of workers in schools, many WHS policies also serve to protect the health and safety of students. However, it is important to distinguish between policies aimed primarily at WHS and those aimed at ensuring the health and safety of students. In some instances, one policy may cover both WHS and students’ health and safety – for example, emergency evacuation and lockdown, first aid, sun protection and code of conduct for staff members. Figure 4.3 lists WHS policies and student health and welfare policies that are commonly found in most schools.
GO
further
Learn more about WHS policy from the NSW Department of Education in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
Figure 4.3 WHS policies
WHS policies
Student health and welfare policies
> Use of alcohol, tobacco and other drugs on school premises
> Drugs in schools
> Child protection > Anti-bullying, anti-racism, anti-discrimination > Code of conduct > Complaints handling > Conduct and performance > Homophobia in schools > Workplace accidents, injuries and illness > Social inclusion > Sun safety > WHS > Workforce diversity > Working with Children Check > Critical/non-critical incident management and reporting > First aid > Sexual harassment
> Excursions > Child protection > Healthy school canteen > Student discipline and welfare > Student grievance procedures > Anaphylaxis > Asthma-management plan > Homophobia in schools > Nutrition in schools > Home–school liaison support > School accidents, injuries and illness > Social inclusion > Sports and physical activity safety > Students with disabilities > Sun safety > Student suspension and expulsion > Violent behaviour > Administration of prescribed medication, catheters and injections to students > Family law > Head lice > Hydrotherapy pools – school use > Management of eating and drinking support (for students with disabilities) > Playground supervision > Student immunisation record keeping > Swimming pool and water park based aquatic activities
HEALTH AND SAFETY
75
4.4 Identifying hazards and managing risks A key strategy in the management of WHS is the identification, assessment and management of hazards and associated risks. According to Safe Work Australia’s Code of Practice (2011a: 4), ‘a hazard is a situation or thing that has the potential to harm a person’ while ‘a risk is the possibility that harm (death, injury or illness) might occur when exposed to a hazard’ Source: Safe Work Australia (2011a), ª Commonwealth of Australia 2018 CC-BY-4.0 licence.
Hazards can be found in any workplace. Their nature will depend largely on the type of work being conducted, the facilities, the process used to carry out the work and the equipment used as part of that process. Some common hazards that can be encountered in school settings are: • biological – exposure to infectious diseases; exposure to fungus from damp or poorly ventilated areas • chemical – fumes from photocopiers; skin, eye, throat irritation from contact with chemicals or chemical fumes, such as bleach, cleaning products, chemicals used in science labs • ergonomic – manual handling; lifting heavy or bulky items; poorly designed workstations that result in muscle strain; repetitive movements; bending, lifting, sitting on small chairs resulting in back/neck strain • physical – noise pollution where schools are located on busy roads; temperature extremes of heat/cold (not all schools are adequately ventilated or have air-conditioning installed); inadequately maintained electrical equipment; poor light in classrooms, storage areas, stairwells and walkways; lack of trolleys to move heavy equipment, and a lack of training in manual handling, use of special education aids and mechanical lifts; lack of availability of sufficient PPE • psychosocial – bullying, racism, sexual harassment; student violence.
Principles of risk management The Model Work Health and Safety Regulations set out the requirements for the management of risks in the workplace. Risk management includes four key steps that can be applied to any workplace situation. 1 Identify all hazards in the workplace. Identify all hazards related to the work that is done and the environment in which it is conducted. In schools this also includes potential hazards and risks to students. 2 Assess the risk of each hazard. Decide how likely it is to happen (its probability) and how great (the severity) the resulting injuries or ill health are likely to be. 3 Control, manage or eliminate the risk. Do something about the hazards – reduce the severity of the hazards and the probability of injury to health. 4 Monitor and evaluate. Ensure all hazards, accidents and near misses are recorded as part of a continuous improvement process. Figure 4.4 shows risk management as a continuous cycle. Hazards should be prioritised according to the level of risk they involve, and those with the highest degree of risk should be addressed first.
Figure 4.4 The risk-management process 1. Identify hazards
2. Identify associated risks
3. Eliminate risks if reasonably practicable
4. If not reasonably practicable implement hierarchy of control measures
HIERARCHY OF CONTROL MEASURES a.
SUBSTITUTE (WHOLLY OR PARTLY) THE HAZARD WITH SOMETHING THAT GIVES RISE TO A LESSER RISK OR
b. ISOLATE THE HAZARD FROM ANY PERSON EXPOSED TO IT OR c.
IMPLEMENT ENGINEERING CONTROLS
5. MONITOR AND EVALUATE
While some hazards are easy to identify – for example, a cracked and uneven footpath or a frayed electrical cord – others are not so obvious. To detect hazards, it may be necessary to: • examine the processes being used to undertake the task • identify the skills and knowledge required to undertake the task • assess the equipment being used to perform a task • assess the physical environment in which the task is being performed. WorkSafe ACT (2012: 31) suggests using a risk-assessment form, shown in Figure 4.5, to assess each workplace task for hazards and associated risks as well as identify strategies to fix the hazards or minimise the risks. The form can be used for any workplace task – indoors or outdoors. The form allows workers to systematically identify hazards, assess risks and work towards a solution. Each part of the process can be documented and retained as evidence of compliance with WHS legislation. Breaking down each task into steps is a very effective way of closely examining tasks for potential hazards. This is particularly useful for a range of day-to-day practices where staff may give little or no thought to the potential risks. In some situations, the frequency or length of time for which someone is exposed to a particular hazard will influence the degree of associated risk. The risk of harm from a potential hazard may also vary according to an individual’s skills, experience or knowledge (see Figure 4.6).
HEALTH AND SAFETY
77
Figure 4.5 Risk-assessment form RISK ASSESSMENT FORM Workplace location: Name of person conducting assessment: Date:
S
Spot the hazard
Identify the work task or activity What are the hazards associated with each activity or the steps in each activity?
A
F
Assess the Risk
Is the risk associated with the hazard low, moderate, significant or high?
Fix the Problem By Whom? By When?
If the risk is deemed unacceptable for the task, what will be done to reduce or remove the risk?
E
Evaluate the Results
Go through the first 3 steps again to ensure risks are now at an acceptable level. Revised risk level Source: WorkSafe ACT (2012).
Figure 4.6 Identifying the risks
Daily practice
Risk to educator
Fix/eliminate/minimise risk
Setting up and supporting learning tasks at desks and carpeted areas for kindergarten students
Muscle strain – legs, back
Squat or kneel on a kneepad; sit against a wall or furniture that supports the back – sit with a little pillow in the small of the back when possible; stretch when standing up from sitting
Reaching above shoulder height when accessing equipment/resources
Muscle strain – neck, back
Use step-ladders to reach high places
Writing reports, entering information on a computer
Eye strain
Use an anti-glare filter on the screen
Assessing the risks Safe Work Australia (2011b: 11) suggests that there are two key questions that need to be asked when assessing risks: 1 What is the degree or level of the risk? > Is the degree of the risk low (the worker may require first aid)? > Is it moderate (the worker may require medical attention and several days off work)? > Is it significant or high (the worker may suffer long-term illness or serious injury or permanent disability or ill health or death)? 2 What is the likelihood of harm? > Is it certain to occur – expected to occur in most circumstances? > Is it very likely – will probably occur in most circumstances? > Is it possible – might occur occasionally? > Is it unlikely – could happen at some time? > Is it rare – may happen only in exceptional circumstances? Source: Safe Work Australia (2011b), ª Commonwealth of Australia 2018 CC-BY-4.0 licence.
Figure 4.7 shows a risk assessment matrix, used to assess risks in the workplace. Figure 4.7 Risk-rating matrix
Insignificant
Minor
Moderate
Major
Catastrophic
Almost Certain
Moderate
High
High
Extreme
Extreme
Likely
Moderate
Moderate
High
Extreme
Extreme
Possible
Low
Moderate
High
High
Extreme
Unlikely
Low
Low
Moderate
High
High
Rare
Likelihood
Consequence
Low
Low
Low
Moderate
High
The level of risk will increase as the likelihood of harm and its severity increase. For example, the risk associated with lifting and setting up bulky or heavy/gross motor equipment without assistance would be significant to high. The likelihood of this action resulting in an injury to the worker is possible or very likely. Why? If a worker were to lift this equipment without assistance each day, the risk of injury would increase with the frequency of performing the task.
Controlling or managing risks
GO
further
Learn more about a worked example of a risk assessment matrix in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
The primary goal in any workplace is to identify and eliminate as many hazards as possible; however, this is not always practicable. Where hazards can’t be eliminated, then they must be controlled. As Safe Work Australia (2011b: 4) says, ‘Risk control means taking action to eliminate health and safety risks so far as is reasonably practicable, and if that is not possible, minimising the risks so far as is reasonably practicable. Eliminating a hazard will also eliminate any risks associated with that hazard’ ª Commonwealth of Australia 2014, licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Australia Licence (CC BY 3.0).
Risk control can be achieved by using a technique known as the hierarchy of control, in which the most effective level and reliability of control measures are determined and applied (see Figure 4.8).
HEALTH AND SAFETY
79
Figure 4.8 Hierarchy of risk control • Example: The rug in the staffroom has become a trip hazard as the edge of the rug is beginning to curl up. • Level 1 control: Remove the rug. • Example: The instant hot water tank in the staffroom does not shut off properly so boiling water is dripping constantly, creating a risk of splash burns • Level 2 control: Replace with an electric kettle until the system is repaired. • Example: The path at the side of the building is cracked and uneven. • Level 3 control: Place a barrier around the path with a sign saying ‘Danger – do not use’ until the path is repaired.
Eliminate the hazard and associated risks Substitute the hazard with something safer Isolate the hazard from people Use engineering controls Use administrative controls Use Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
• Example: The power boards used in the office are overloaded and do not have individual on/off switches. • Level 4 control: Purchase additional power boards with individual switches and have additional power points installed.
• These control measures do not control the hazard at the source. They rely on human behaviour and supervision, and used on their own tend to be least effective in minimising risks. • Example: Address risk of back injury from daily bending and lifting. • Level 4 control: Train all workers in correct manual handling techniques.
• Example: Address risk of infection from body fluids (nappy change, nose wiping, applying first aid to cuts and scrapes). • Level 4 control: Workers must wear disposable gloves when dealing with any body fluids.
Source: Adapted from Safe Work Australia (2011b). ª Commonwealth of Australia 2018, CC-BY-4.0 licence.
Control measures must be practicable and cost effective. They must also be easy to implement, or they are unlikely to be used by workers. For example, a simple control measure to minimise infection being passed from students to ESWs responsible for personal care of students with a disability is using disposable gloves and frequent hand washing. To be practicable, ESWs must have easy access to disposable gloves in all areas where students are cared for – both indoors and outdoors. This means having disposable gloves in student bathrooms, nappy-change areas and various locations in the playground. ESWs must also have easy access to an adultheight sink, soap and paper towels. Training in care procedures to minimise health risks is also essential – for example, correct hand-washing, manual handling and nappy-change procedures.
Hazardous chemicals The use, handling, storage and labelling of hazardous chemicals are subject to strict legislative requirements. A range of chemicals may be used in schools, such as detergent, washing powder or liquid, abrasive cream cleaning products, bleach disinfectants and gardening products. Some chemicals will be classified as dangerous goods and/or hazardous substances (DGHS), and may cause serious harm to human health through ingestion, inhalation or absorption through the skin or eyes. Examples of such chemicals include solvents and thinners, herbicides and pesticides, gas storage tanks, acids and other caustic substances. These chemicals may also pose a threat to the immediate environment. Using them may require the use of PPE such as protective clothing and footwear, dust masks, and respirators or breathing apparatus. Chemicals may be used in science labs, art rooms and dark rooms, technology/engineering classrooms and outdoors. They may be stored in classrooms, labs, cleaners’ rooms and gardeners’ sheds. Whenever a hazardous chemical is used in the workplace, a Safety Data Sheet (SDS) must be provided, free of charge, by the supplier or manufacturer of a hazardous chemical on first supply to the workplace or when asked to do so.
A Safety Data Sheet (Safe Work Australia 2012: 1) is a document that provides detailed information about a hazardous chemical, including: • the identity of the chemical product and its ingredients • the hazards related to the chemical, including health hazards, physical hazards and environmental hazards • physical properties of the chemical, like boiling point, flash point and incompatibilities with other chemicals • workplace exposure standards for airborne contaminants • safe handling and storage procedures for the chemical • what to do in the event of an emergency or spill • first aid information, and • transport information. Product Safety Australia (2015) suggests that if used inappropriately, products containing toxic chemicals can cause: • serious illness if swallowed • severe irritation on contact with the eyes or skin • respiratory and other illnesses if inhaled • allergic reactions in consumers with high sensitivity to small amounts of certain chemicals. For people who may have a high degree of sensitivity or allergy to chemicals, the effects can include mild skin irritation, dermatitis and/or life-threatening anaphylaxis.
GO
further
Learn more about WHS in a school science lab in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
ONLINE RESOURCES More information and a sample SDS can be assessed from the Safe Work Australia website: https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/system/files/documents/1702/understanding_sds_fact_sheet.pdf A sample SDS for bleach can be found at ACCO Brands Australia Pty Ltd: https://www.accobrands.com.au/pdf/ sds-bleach.pdf
A number of strategies can be used to reduce the risk of injury or illness when handling hazardous chemicals. ESWs, teachers and students who use chemicals must be trained in their correct handling, use and storage. Training should also include how to access, read and interpret labels and SDSs. All chemicals should be used in accordance with written directions and warnings. This includes the use of recommended PPE. It is also essential that workers are familiar with the signs and symptoms in case of poisoning or adverse reactions to chemicals and the administration of emergency first aid.
Safety signs The Australian Standards set out the requirements for the design and usage of safety signs in the workplace. The purpose of safety signage is to warn of hazards, identify desired behaviour and provide emergency information. Safety signs draw attention to hazards or potential hazards in the environment, and are also used to indicate the location of safety equipment. In Australia, all safety signs are colourcoded and divided into four categories as shown in Figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9 Colour coding of safety signs red
used to warn of a potential hazard
yellow
used as an alert to act in a cautious manner
green
used as a reminder to follow safety procedures
blue
provides mandatory directions
HEALTH AND SAFETY
81
• • • •
Safety signs may include a combination of pictures, symbols and text to communicate: information on hazards the need to use PPE (where other control strategies are inadequate or impractical) the location of safety equipment/emergency facilities (such as a first-aid kit) guidance and instructions for what to do in an emergency. Examples of safety signs are shown in Figure 4.10. Figure 4.10 Categories and colour-coding of safety signs Circle
White background with red borders and cross bar, black symbol
Stop and prohibition signs
Circle
Blue background, white symbol
Protective equipment
Triangle
Yellow background with black border, black symbol
Warning or caution signs
Rectangle
Green background, white symbol
Emergency-related information signs
EMERGENCY SHOWER
SAFETY SIGNS COMMONLY FOUND IN CHILDREN’S SERVICES
NOTICE FIRST AID
KEEP GATE CLOSED AT ALL TIMES
HAND PROTECTION MUST BE WORN
Location of first aid equipment
Located on all perimeter gates
Used when dealing with body fluids
INFECTIOUS SUBSTANCE 6
TOXIC
Substances that may cause infection or illness
Hazard symbol for toxic or highly toxic substances which may cause serious illness or death
FIRE BLANKET
FIRE EXTINGUISHER
Located as suggested by fire authorities
Lift correctly
6
Used when floor is wet
Reminder of correct lifting technique
Source: Adapted from WorkSafe Victoria, Safety Signs ª WorkSafe Victoria.
Personal protective equipment
GO
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is any clothing, equipment or substance designed to protect a person from risks of injury or illness. PPE minimises the risk of injury or infection to workers and should be used as directed by WHS policies and procedures. Examples of PPE used in school settings may include disposable gloves, safety goggles, protective apron, closed-in shoes, sun hat, long-sleeved top with collar, hairnet, helmet, earmuffs and barrier creams. To be effective, workers must be trained in the use of PPE. It is also important for anyone using PPE to understand how it reduces risks in the workplace. PPE is only effective if it is used consistently, correctly and under the appropriate conditions.
further
Learn more about PPE in a school darkroom in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
4.5 Infection and disease Working in schools exposes staff to the risk of infection and disease. ESWs working with students with disabilities who require a high level of personal care are at higher risk of contracting infections and contagious diseases. Infection can be spread in a variety of ways: • Airborne droplets. Some infections occur by transfer of bacteria or viruses via mucus or saliva, through the air by coughing or sneezing or nose-blowing. Droplets are then spread to hands, furniture, equipment and books. ESWs who do not wash their hands after wiping a student’s nose may also spread airborne droplets. Examples of infections spread by airborne droplets include the influenza virus and meningococcus. • Airborne transmission. Germs are spread by breathing contaminated air. Small particles can be spread on air currents, and through ventilation systems and air-conditioning systems. Examples of infections spread by airborne transmission include the measles virus and the varicella (chickenpox) virus. • Direct contact. Organisms can be transferred from one person to another when the secretions (urine, blood, saliva, tears, vaginal secretions and semen) of an infected person come into direct contact with the broken, cut or scratched skin of another person. • Organisms spread by faeces. These include bacteria, viruses and parasites. Surfaces most commonly contaminated with faeces include the hands, floors, tap handles, toilet flush areas, hand towels, equipment and table tops. Examples of infections spread by faeces include viral gastroenteritis, giardia (diarrhoea) and Hepatitis A. • Organisms transferred via contaminated surfaces. Surfaces are easily contaminated by an infected person through coughing, sneezing or touching. Infection occurs when others touch the contaminated surface and then touch their mouth, eyes or nose. Examples of infections spread by direct contact include head lice (head-to-head contact), scabies and fungal infections of the skin (skin-to-skin contact). • Animals. Infections from animal faeces spread into the environment and may then be passed on to humans through direct contact – such as with a dog, a hand or face – or indirectly – such as with contaminated sand or soil. Infection can also be spread by flies and vermin. • Food. Germs can spread when people eat food that has not been heated or chilled properly, and where good hygiene such as hand washing or sneezing etiquette is not practised. Source: National Health and Medical Research Council (2012), CC-BY- 3.0 licence.
All schools will have in place a range of procedures to minimise the spread of infection. Examples of these procedures may include hand hygiene, PPE, disposal of used or discarded needles and syringes, food hygiene, management of blood and body fluids, cough etiquette, cleaning surfaces and equipment. HEALTH AND SAFETY
83
Remember, it is impossible to know the current infection status of every student and adult in a school environment. For this reason, you should always apply universal precautions when dealing with body fluids such as blood, vomit, saliva and nose secretions. The best form of protection from body fluids is disposable gloves and hand washing. Disposable gloves must be worn when dealing with any body fluids (including body fluids on clothing, carpets, hard surfaces, equipment and sand). To minimise the risk of infection, educators should also: • cover all open wounds • wash any part of the body that comes in contact with blood or body fluids immediately; if necessary, flush eyes and mouth with clean water • clean body fluid spills on any surfaces with disinfectants or bleach solution • treat all contaminated linen or clothing as infectious.
ONLINE RESOURCES A list of infectious diseases and exclusion periods from work/school can be found at the National Health and Medical Research Council: http://media.healthdirect.org.au/publications/healthdirect-School-exclusion-periodsReviewed-2018-v2.pdf.
Hand-washing Hand-washing is an extremely effective first-line defence strategy to minimise the spread of infectious disease. To be effective, hand-washing throughout the day should be a regular part of the daily routine for ESWs. Figure 4.11 shows correct hand-washing procedure. Figure 4.11 Correct hand-washing technique Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Wet Hands
Apply Soap
Lather & Scrub 20 seconds
Use warm water to remove any visible dirt or soiling.
To prevent contamination, always use liquid soap.
Clean palms, back of hands, thumbs, each finger, between fingers and fingernails.
Step 4
Step 5
Step 6
Rinse Hands
Turn Off Tap
Dry Hands
20 seconds
Rinse under warm running water, pointing your fingers downwards.
If possible use a paper towel or your elbow to prevent contamination.
Dry thoroughly using a dry paper towel or a hand dryer. Copyright 2016 © Australian Institute of Food Safety
Source: https://www.foodsafety.com.au/resources/posters/a-guide-to-washing-your-hands
Cleaning and housekeeping A school is typically a shared workspace, where a team of staff work together to provide an education for students. WHS practices therefore protect not only workers but also the health and safety of students and visitors to the school. Keeping the workplace clean and tidy is essential. ‘Good housekeeping’ might include: • returning equipment and resources to the correct storage location after use • storing equipment and resources safely (and neatly), ready for use • ensuring that lids on any container are secure before it is returned to storage • refilling expendable items such as toilet rolls, paper towels or liquid soap as they run low (or alerting the person responsible for this task) • wiping spills on floor or tables as and when they occur • emptying rubbish bins as they become full • ensuring that doorways and emergency exits are kept clear at all times • removing equipment that may become hazardous from wear and tear • returning cleaning materials and equipment to the correct storage area so that they don’t become a trip hazard.
Worker immunisation Immunisation can protect ESWs from a range of communicable diseases. The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC 2012) recommends that adults working with children be vaccinated against: • pertussis (whooping cough) • measles–mumps–rubella • varicella (herpes virus that causes chickenpox) • hepatitis A. The NHMRC also recommends a yearly influenza vaccination, and that if an adult working with children is pregnant, additional precautions should be taken.
Exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation Schools will have in place policies and safe practices to limit the risk of exposure to the harmful effects of the sun. Cancer Council Australia warns that ultraviolet radiation is the major cause of sunburn and increased skin cancer risk, and also contributes to ageing of the skin. TWs can protect themselves from sunburn by applying a broad-spectrum sunscreen to all exposed skin 20 minutes before going outdoors, and wearing a broad-brimmed hat and clothing that covers the neck and shoulders. The PCBU is responsible for ensuring that there is adequate shading in the outdoor area for workers (and students).
4.6 Office ergonomics Administrative support staff generally work in a defined office space and use a range of equipment such as telephones, photocopiers and printers, computers, monitors and document holders, keyboards and an adjustable chair.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
85
According to Comcare (2008), ergonomics involves ‘designing tasks, jobs, information, tools, equipment, facilities and the working environment so work can be performed in a productive, comfortable and safe manner’. The general principles of office ergonomics are important, and Figure 4.12 provides a detailed breakdown of ergonomic assessment. Figure 4.12 Office ergonomics
least disc pressure (100–110°)
60° angle at most disc pressure (80°)
elbow at 90–100° lumbar support
least disc pressure
seat angle 100–105° seat slightly tilted forward
feet flat on floor
Manual handling ESWs frequently lift, move and carry equipment, and sometimes lift students. They also spend a great deal of time bending, turning, squatting and kneeling. Manual handling and lifting present a real risk of musculoskeletal injuries, such as soft tissue injuries, sprains, repetitive strain injuries, joint injuries, and back and neck injuries as a result of incorrect procedures when lifting, carrying, pulling and pushing. Injuries may occur immediately or as the result of wear and tear over a period of time. The strategies to identify hazardous manual tasks are the same as those used to identify any workplace hazard: consult with workers, closely examine workplace tasks and break down each task into steps. Workers can also identify tasks that are physically challenging or tiring, or that require awkward or unnatural movements that cause discomfort or pain. An important strategy in identifying hazardous manual tasks is to observe how such tasks typically are performed in the workplace.
Consideration should also be given to the physical environment, the tools, machinery or equipment being used, and the strategies or practices being utilised to perform a task. It is possible to reduce the risk of injury when undertaking hazardous manual tasks in the school workplace: • Use mechanical devices such as mobile storage crates, trolleys, porter’s trolleys, large plastic garden trolleys that can be easily moved, and shelving with wheels (it will be necessary to use devices to immobilise this type of storage while it is being used by the students). • Use chairs and workbenches that can be height adjusted. • Use mechanical lifting devices for students with a physical disability. • Ensure that storage facilities are designed to minimise the need to bend, twist or reach above shoulder height. • Plan daily routines to minimise the number of times equipment is moved. • Regularly stretch and flex throughout the day with gentle movements such as turning the head from side to side and stretching arms towards the ceiling. • Always use a buddy system when moving heavy or bulky objects. • Where possible, encourage students to help pack away equipment and keep the room tidy. Training in the management of and procedures for hazardous manual tasks – for example, correct lifting techniques (Figure 4.13), team lifts and using alternative manual strategies such as squatting rather than bending down to a student – will also reduce the likelihood of musculoskeletal injuries. Safe Work Australia’s Code of Practice: Hazardous Manual Tasks (2011a: 13, 15) suggests asking detailed questions when determining whether a manual task is hazardous. Figure 4.13 Correct lifting procedures
Source: Workfast (2017).
Manual handling and students with disabilities ESWs involved in the physical and personal care of students with disabilities are required to undertake a range of tasks that may pose a risk of neck, back or other musculoskeletal injuries. Manual handling of students may include, for example, lifting the student from a chair, undressing/dressing, assisting with toileting or nappy change, helping to transfer a student to or from a car or bus, moving a student in a wheelchair, or physically supporting a student who may be engaged in physical therapy or using climbing equipment. These tasks may require a range of movements such as bending, squatting, twisting, reaching, gripping, lifting or forceful exertion.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
87
Factors that may contribute to the risk of injury to the carer when assisting the student include the degree of mobility, flexibility and head control of the student, the degree of involuntary movement, the student’s weight, size and degree of alertness, the ability or willingness of the student to cooperate with the carer, and the student’s level of communication skills (expressive and receptive). Students with chronic health conditions that require regular medication – for example, epilepsy, cystic fibrosis or diabetes – may display symptoms such as fatigue, sluggish mobility and a lack of concentration. Some students with physical impairments must be moved with the assistance of a hoist and sling. These mechanical devices reduce the risk of injury to carers and the student. Safe Work Australia (2011a: 28) suggests a number of controls that can be used to reduce the risk of injury. These controls include: • undertaking a mobility risk assessment to identify the most appropriate mechanical or assistive device • moving the person to a place that does not constrain the movement of the worker • performing the task – for example, when toileting a student ensure that the toilet area is large enough so that the door can be closed to respect the dignity and privacy of the student without restricting the movement of the ESW • where handling is required, assessing the needs of the task including the specific type of mechanical aids and personnel needed, and planning it in a manner that avoids the hazardous manual task • where the use of a hoist requires two or more people, providing adequate supervision and resources to eliminate the risk of workers being under time pressure and attempting the task on their own • planning how to handle a person attached to medical or other equipment, ensuring the location and storage of mechanical aids and assistive devices enables easy access • providing training in the safe use of mechanical aids and assistive devices. Figure 4.14 A device used to enhance mobility
Developing a care plan
Students who require physical and personal care should have a care plan in place. It should outline the degree of support the student will need from the ESW to help them move, the equipment the ESW will need to use in assisting the student (for instance, a hoist) and the equipment the student will need (such as a wheelchair or walking frame) as well as personal care requirements. It may also include the assistance required by the student when lifting and positioning his or her body for toileting or moving from a mobility device to a chair or onto the floor. ESWs who are responsible for lifting and positioning should undertake formal training in Source: Shutterstock.com/Goldsithney manual handling of people to ensure best practice in transferring and positioning students and the safe use of mechanical lifts and assistive devices. Formal training will also minimise the risk of injury to both the ESW and the student.
Scenario
ASSISTIVE DEVICES WHEELCHAIRS
‘Until I went to the training day I didn’t really think there was much to know about pushing a student round in a wheelchair. We learnt how to maintain a wheelchair, the best way to move a wheelchair over uneven surfaces, on grass and on thick pile carpet. We practised things like moving wheelchairs up and down ramps, over curbs, manoeuvring in tight spaces, accessing toilets, and transferring people to and from chairs, folding chairs and putting them into a boot and getting them out again. I was amazed how much there was to learn!’
braces, standing frames and crutches. I’ve also learnt how to use slings and hoists. It’s been great – I feel confident that I know what to do to make it easier for the students and also to make sure I keep myself safe. The physio showed me how to move and brace myself so that I don’t end up with an injury.’ WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
When working with students with limited mobility, it is essential that ESWs are competent in and confident about the use of mobility devices. " DISCUSSION
MOBILITY DEVICES
‘This week I have been working with the physiotherapist so that I can learn about how to support students who use walking frames, chest harnesses and head supports, splints and
What should you do and be aware of in order to protect your back in the workplace?
Safely operating machinery Operating machinery and IT equipment in the workplace can be hazardous if the correct safety instructions are not followed, or if the equipment is faulty or stored incorrectly. Equipment and machinery that may be used by ESWs in schools can include computers, printers, scanners, projectors and electronic whiteboards. Hazards associated with this machinery and equipment can include electrocution, laser printer particle emissions, poor ventilation and noise. Key strategies to minimise risks associated with the operation of machinery include training, demonstration and clearly written, step-by-step instructions. When operating equipment, it is important to: • read the manufacturer’s instructions, warnings and suggested maintenance schedule • identify hazards, potential risks and risk control measures • identify PPE that may be required • follow safe start-up and shutdown procedures • learn specific skills recommended by the manufacturer to safely operate the equipment • assess ergonomic hazards.
Electrical hazards Electrocution is a possibility in any workplace. Safe Work Australia (2012: 7) defines the risk as ‘risks of death, electric shock or other injury caused directly or indirectly by electricity’. The most common electrical risks and causes of injury are: • electric shock causing injury or death • arcing, explosion or fire, causing burns • electric shock from ‘step-and-touch potentials’ (step potential is the risk of injury during an electrical fault simply by standing near the grounding point; touch potential is the voltage between the energised object and the feet of a person in contact with the object) • toxic gases causing illness or death • fire resulting from an electrical fault. Source: Safe Work Australia (2012), ª Commonwealth of Australia 2018 CC-BY-4.0 licence.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
89
All equipment where electricity is supplied through an electrical socket should be inspected regularly for damage such as frayed or bent cords, discoloration that may indicate burning or broken switches. Safe Work Australia (2012: 17) states that testing and tagging by a licensed electrician or electrical inspector is only required where such plug-in electrical equipment is ‘used in an environment in which its normal use exposes the equipment to operating conditions that are likely to result in damage to the equipment or a reduction in its expected life span. This includes conditions that involve exposing the electrical equipment to moisture, heat, vibration, mechanical damage, corrosive chemicals or dust.’ Residual current devices (RCDs) or safety switches such as a circuit breaker reduce the risk of electrical shock because they are designed to immediately switch off the supply of electricity when electricity ‘leaking’ to earth is detected at harmful levels. WHS Regulation 164 requires RCDs to be used in workplaces where electrical equipment is portable (that is, it can be used in different parts of the workplace) or handheld, or moved from one location to another. Electrical hazards in schools may include any plug-in device, particularly where equipment is used frequently and moved – for example, vacuum cleaners, shared CD players or laptops. A risk assessment should be carried out on electrical devices, which should be based around the potential likelihood of a risk occurring and the potential severity of that risk. Control measures may include providing in-house training for workers and students, providing written step-by-step safety instructions and close supervision, restricting the use of the equipment, restricting the unnecessary movement of equipment around the school, regular visual safety inspections, testing and tagging of equipment by a licensed electrician or electrical inspector, not using extension cords, only using power boards with a built-in RCD, using a cord organiser to keep cords off the floor, and ensuring that electrical cords are not placed across a room or walkway. Scenario
RCD The cord on one of the electric mixers used by food technology students has begun to fray. The ESW makes a mental note to arrange for it to be repaired. Two weeks later, the cord has still not been replaced. It is a busy morning and Year 7 students are making desserts. Eddie, a student, turns on the mixer. The circuit breaker immediately cuts the power to the power point. The ESW is quietly thankful for the RCD and decides to immediately remove the mixer until it is repaired.
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Any equipment that is damaged should be immediately removed from use until it can be repaired or replaced. " DISCUSSION
Had Eddie been electrocuted, who would have been responsible for this accident?
4.7 Stress in the workplace Work-related stress has been identified as the most common health issue for staff in school settings. Working in a school setting can also present a risk to mental health. Reducing stress should be part of the school’s WHS management system. According to Comcare (2008: 12), there are six primary causes of workplace stress: • demands – includes workload, work patterns and the work environment • control – how much say the person has in the way they do their work • support – includes the encouragement, sponsorship and resources provided by the organisation, line management and colleagues
relationships – includes promoting positive working to avoid conflict and dealing with unacceptable behaviour • role – whether people understand their role within the organisation and whether the organisation ensures that they do not have conflicting roles • change – how organisational change (large or small) is managed and communicated in the organisation. •
Comcare, used under Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Australia licence (CC BY 3.0 AU)
Working with children and young people is very demanding, and requires all staff to be healthy, alert and energetic. There will be times when individuals experience personal stress in addition to the everyday pressures of work. Each individual’s physical and emotional wellbeing and the level of support available both outside and in the workplace will have an impact on how well they cope with and manage stress. Workers who are stressed present a risk to themselves and others in the workplace. PCBUs have an obligation to reduce stress by identifying possible sources of stress and, where practicable, developing procedures and strategies to eliminate or reduce the causes of stress. When people are stressed, they respond in different ways. Physical, mental or emotional symptoms of stress are identified in the Consider this box. Consider This
STRESS SYMPTOMS OF STRESS
•
•
•
Physical symptoms of stress – common symptoms include fatigue, back pain, a rise in blood pressure and/ or heart rate, insomnia, stomach ulcers, digestive disorders, headaches, sweating and dry mouth. Mental symptoms of stress – common symptoms include racing thoughts, anxiety, irritability, poor memory and concentration, and an inability to make decisions. Emotional symptoms of stress – common symptoms include irrational fear and/or anger, panic and depression.
• • • • • •
meditation, listening to music and other techniques to calm the mind getting involved in a hobby/interest sleeping and eating well using exercise as a stress release doing things in moderation – avoid the use of alcohol to ‘wind down’ recognising the importance of work–life balance. Source: Adapted from Black Dog Institute (2014). Copyright ª 2018 Black Dog Institute.
" DISCUSSION
HOW TO IMPROVE PERSONAL HEALTH AND WELLBEING
•
According to the Black Dog Institute (2014: 4) strategies to improve personal health and wellbeing include:
• •
Can you list the symptoms you experience when you become stressed? Does everyone experience the same symptoms? What can you do to minimise stress in your life?
Harassment and bullying in the workplace Like workplace stress, workplace bullying and harassment can result in physical, emotional and mental illness, and can also result in serious injury. Symptoms will vary but may include a sense of helplessness, a decrease in self-confidence, feelings of isolation, anxiety and depression, insomnia and a decrease in work performance. Workplace bullying is defined by Safe Work Australia (2016: 2) as ‘unreasonable behaviour directed towards a worker or a group of workers that creates a risk to health and safety’. It includes repeated and unreasonable behaviour. ‘Repeated behaviour refers to the persistent nature of the behaviour and can involve a range of behaviours over time. Unreasonable behaviour means
HEALTH AND SAFETY
91
behaviour that a reasonable person, having considered the circumstances, would see as unreasonable including behaviour that is victimising, humiliating, intimidating or threatening.’ Safe Work Australia (2016), ª Commonwealth of Australia 2018 CC-BY-4.0 licence.
Bullying in the workplace can take on many forms – it can be overt or covert, subtle or openly aggressive. Whatever form it takes, workplace bullying – previously referred to as workplace harassment – will have an adverse impact on the workplace and those in it. Sexual harassment is associated with unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favours or other unwelcome conduct of a sexual nature. Discrimination and sexual harassment in employment are unlawful under anti-discrimination, equal employment opportunity, workplace relations and human rights laws (Safe Work Australia 2016: 25). Safe Work Australia states that the responsibility to prevent workplace bullying, harassment and discrimination is covered in the Work Health and Safety Act 2011 by the duty of the organisation to provide a healthy and safe working environment and safe systems of work. Scenario
SEXUAL HARASSMENT Catherine is a newly appointed ESW at a local high school. She is young, single and attractive. Catherine has been receiving unwanted attention from a male teacher, who comments on Catherine’s physical appearance and tells jokes of a sexual nature. Catherine’s response A: Catherine makes it clear to the teacher that she is not comfortable with his behaviour towards her and asks him to stop. However, when the behaviour continues Catherine keeps a record of incidents and reports the teacher’s behaviour to the principal, who instigates action in accordance with the school’s Sexual Harassment Policy.
Catherine’s response B: At first, Catherine tries to ignore the teacher’s behaviour. As the behaviour continues, she tells him it makes her feel uncomfortable and asks him to stop. She then tries to avoid being alone with the teacher. Catherine wants to make a complaint, but fears she will not be believed and that she will ultimately lose her job. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Harassment is unacceptable in any workplace. Every school will have in place a policy and procedures to address bullying and harassment.
Bullying may include behaviours such as verbal abuse – swearing, yelling at a person, ridicule, constant criticism, sarcasm, threats of violence, negative body language, dismissal, harm, sabotaging the person’s work, spreading gossip, name calling, laughing at a person, excluding the person from the team by ignoring, not communicating information or messages, sending threatening texts or emails. As Safe Work Australia (2016: 6) states ‘a single incident of unreasonable behaviour is not considered to be workplace bullying, however it may have the potential to escalate and should not be ignored’. Scenario
EXAMPLES OF HARASSMENT QUASAM
JUDITH
Quasam is originally from India and wears the traditional Sikh turban as a symbol of his religious values. Quasam has recently started work as an ESW in a high school. One of his colleagues teases him about his turban: ‘What have you got hidden under that turban, Quasam?’
ESW Judith rings her husband every day at morning tea and lunch. Judith’s husband is retired due to a heart condition. Her work colleagues have started to make sarcastic comments that are loud enough for Judith to hear. ‘There she goes again, calling Bill. I don’t know why she doesn’t just stay home with him!’
AMY
ESW Amy is recently divorced. Although Amy has made it clear that she is not interested in dating, one of her work colleagues constantly asks her out: ‘Hey sexy, want to come to the pub with me tonight for dinner?’ TRISH
Trish, aged 54 years, is a quietly spoken ESW and goes about her work diligently and efficiently. She has been at the school for students with disabilities for five years and is well respected by the teaching staff and parents. This year, Mark has joined the ESW team. Mark is very outspoken and continually talks about the way things were done at his last school. Mark often puts Trish down,
saying she needs to ‘get with the program’ and update her skills and knowledge or consider retirement. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Harassment can take many forms – it can be overt or covert. Often those engaged in harassment are surprised when the recipient makes a complaint. " DISCUSSION
Each of the above examples of harassment demonstrates a lack of respect for the victim. Discuss why each situation is unacceptable. Suggest what could be said to the perpetrators to make them aware that their behaviour is inappropriate and unacceptable.
In the first instance, formal complaints about bullying or harassment must be raised with the employer. If the situation is not addressed satisfactorily and either the bullying continues or it results in further harassment, workers can seek help from Fair Work Australia. The Fair Work Ombudsman can address harassment or bullying in the workplace where it relates to unlawful discrimination in the workplace. The Ombudsman’s scope includes resolving collective and individual workplace disputes through conciliation, mediation and, in some cases, arbitration. Addressing workplace bullying and harassment can be difficult because of fear of how the perpetrator/s might react. The worker who is being bullied or harassed may have concerns that they won’t be believed or will be regarded as a ‘whinger’. The worker may also be concerned about putting into place a chain of events that are outside the worker’s control. There may also be concerns about how they will be perceived by workplace colleagues, or whether a complaint will result in job loss or being overlooked for promotion.
Workplace violence WorkSafe Victoria (2014: 3) defines workplace violence as: Work-related violence involves incidents in which a person is abused, threatened or assaulted in circumstances relating to their work. This definition covers a broad range of actions and behaviours that can create a risk to the health and safety of employees. It includes behaviour often described as acting out, challenging behaviour and behaviours of concern. Examples of work-related violence include biting, spitting, scratching, hitting, kicking, pushing, shoving, tripping, grabbing, throwing objects, verbal threats, threatening someone with a weapon, armed robbery and sexual assault. It may also include harassing telephone calls, sending of threatening emails, website postings and SMS texting using mobile phones, and stalking.
Responding to threatening behaviour by co-workers or parents All employees have a right to be and feel safe in the workplace. Unfortunately, there may be occasions when staff are threatened by colleagues or a parent. Any threats of violence should be taken seriously, documented and reported immediately to your supervisor, or if this is not an option, to an executive member of the school. PCBUs have a duty of care to investigate any reported threats and act in accordance with the school’s policy and procedures.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
93
If faced with an imminent threat, it is important to take action to ensure your own safety and that of students or other adults who may be nearby. Retreat is often the best and safest course of action. If retreat is not an option, call or send for help. Arguing or engaging in a confrontation may only escalate the threat or result in the threat being acted upon. Where threats are made by a parent, it is often best to seek the help of a senior teacher or member of the school executive, as they will have greater expertise in responding to, managing and following up as needed. Scenario
VIOLENCE Mrs James, Carl’s mother is angry – very angry! She approaches Toni, an ESW in the Special Behaviour Unit, who is busily preparing for tomorrow’s lessons. Toni is alone in the classroom. Mrs James: ‘I see Carl has yet more misdemeanour points again today, Toni. What’s going on? You teachers are supposed to be the great behaviour experts and all you’re doing is putting him down. I have to say I’m getting sick of it. I’m so angry I could really hurt you!’ Toni: ‘I’m sorry you’re upset, Mrs James. We do try to do our best with Carl. He has been struggling with his aggression today and unfortunately he has hit several students.’ Mrs James: ‘Well they must have done something to provoke him. Did they get misdemeanour points too?’ Mrs James advances towards Toni:‘That’s right, just brush me off, you smug bitch!’ Toni: ‘Mrs James, I’ll go and get the teacher to come and talk to you.’ Toni quickly ducks past Mrs James and goes outside to get the teacher. After the students have left for the day Toni and the teacher discuss the incident.
Toni: ‘I was really scared of Mrs James, especially when she stepped towards me. She was so angry I thought she was going to hit me.’ Teacher: ‘It must have been very frightening. Mrs James can be quite intimidating when she’s angry. You did the right thing coming to get me. I’m pleased to see you have documented what happened. Hopefully she will apologise to you tomorrow. She told me she just wants to see some improvement in Carl’s behaviour. I reminded her that the misdemeanour points were there as a visual aid to help Carl understand when his behaviour is unacceptable. I pointed out to her that he also has quite a few positive behaviour stickers.’ WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
When threatened by others, it is important to try to remain calm, remove yourself from the situation, and document and report the incident as soon as possible. " DISCUSSION
What strategies could you use if confronted with a threat of verbal or physical violence in the workplace?
Student violence The Standing Council on School Education and Early Childhood’s (SCSEEC) National Safe Schools Framework (SCSEEC 2010: 3) has as its vision ‘All Australian schools are safe, supportive and respectful teaching and learning communities that promote student wellbeing.’ The guiding principles of the Framework emphasise the importance of student safety and wellbeing as a prerequisite for effective learning in all school settings. Australian schools: • affirm the rights of all members of the school community to feel safe and be safe at school • acknowledge that being safe and supported at school is essential for student wellbeing and effective learning • accept responsibility for developing and sustaining safe and supportive learning and teaching communities that also fulfil the school’s child protection responsibilities • encourage the active participation of all school community members in developing and maintaining a safe school community where diversity is valued
actively support young people to develop understanding and skills to keep themselves and others safe • commit to developing a safe school community through a whole-school and evidence-based approach •
Source: SCSEEC (2010: 3), ª 2010 Education Services Australia as the legal entity for the Standing Council on School Education and Early Childhood (SCSEEC) http://www.safeschoolshub.edu.au/documents/nationalsafeschoolsframework.pdf CC-BY-4.0 licence.
ONLINE RESOURCES To support the Framework, an online Student Wellbeing Hub has been developed, which provides teachers, students and parents with information to create a school community that promotes student safety and wellbeing. The Student Wellbeing Hub can be found at: https://studentwellbeinghub.edu.au.
Responding to violence or threats of violence by students Schools will have in place policies and procedures to respond to violence or threats of violence by students. This will typically include actions to ensure the immediate safety of staff, other students and the student of concern. The management of violence or threats of violence is usually undertaken as a collaborative process with teachers, senior executive staff, parents, a school counsellor and other professionals as relevant. It may also include police. A risk assessment should identify strategies to eliminate or control the risks. It will take into account the student’s age, gender, abilities, family, and social and cultural context. It will also include the student’s behavioural history, the context of the violent behaviours and the triggers that led to the behaviour, and will take into account the nature of the violent behaviour, the degree of harm caused (or threatened), patterns of behaviour, others involved (or targeted), the physical and social environment of the school, and any underlying conditions or significant circumstance that may contribute to the student’s behaviour, such as disability, medical condition, drugs, living with domestic violence or the subject of abuse or bullying. For more information, see NSW Department of Education and Training (2018). At worst, students who engage in violence or serious threats of violence may be subject to suspension, expulsion and criminal charges. At best, they will require intensive behavioural support in order to continue their education and may also require a range of interventions from other agencies, such as family intervention. Being confronted by a violent or out-of-control student can be frightening. You must act to protect yourself, other students and, if possible, the aggressor. The best strategy is to leave the area, taking other students with you, and seek immediate help by asking a student (if possible) to run to the nearest classroom and alert a teacher to get help. When confronted with student violence, Guetzloe (2006) suggests adults use the following strategies: • Play the role of ‘calm, cool, and composed’. Acting in this manner actually helps a person to remain calm. • Be assertive and directive but not aggressive. Do not threaten the student, either verbally or physically. • Be as non-intrusive and non-invasive as possible. Do not move towards the student or invade their space. • Communicate expectations verbally and non-verbally. Always tell the student to stop (with an accompanying hand signal) and give a directive statement, as explained below. For example, ‘Sit down now’, ‘Step back’, ‘Stand still’. HEALTH AND SAFETY
95
Send for help and get rid of the audience (the rest of the students). Wait for help (if possible). Do not argue and do not respond to verbal abuse. Use physical intervention only as a last resort, and then only if policies permit and you are well trained in its use. Where violence occurs between students, such as a physical fight, it is often better to wait for assistance rather than attempt to intervene. Many schools offer training such as non-violent crisis intervention to assist adults working with students to implement strategies to de-escalate challenging situations. • • • •
Scenario
CRISIS INTERVENTION JB
ALICIA
JB (14 years), who we met in the Crisis intervention Scenario, is learning skills to manage his anger. When JB arrived this morning, it was clear that he was in a bad mood. He threw his bag on the floor, kicked his chair back with his foot and then began to pace around. He angrily yelled at another student who happened to glance at him. ‘What are you looking at, moron?’ The ESW, Peter, suggested to JB that he might like to spend some time alone and practise some relaxation techniques. JB responded by deliberately bumping his shoulder into Peter as he walked away. Peter ignored this provocation as he knew that if he confronted JB in his present mood things could get out of hand. Richard, a colleague who witnessed this display from JB commented: ‘Are you just going to let him get away with treating you like that? He deliberately bumped into you and that’s assault. You should follow school policy on student violence and report him.’ Peter responded: ‘Yes, it probably does fit the legal definition of assault. I’d like the chance to talk to JB before I take any action. I’m not condoning his behaviour but reporting him and having him suspended or expelled isn’t going to help him. I will talk to Kate (school counsellor) about it and see what she thinks we should do.’
Alicia (9 years) is prone to violent outbursts. She will throw things, push and hit others, and scream abuse. Other students know to steer clear of Alicia when she is in a bad mood. Today, while working in a small group with ESW Rachel and three other students, Alicia became enraged because the program on her iPad would not load. She slammed it onto the desk and began to abuse Rachel. Alicia: ‘You idiot, you’ve given me a broken iPad. I’m not doing this stupid game!’ Rachel: ‘Alicia please sit down and take some deep breaths. When you have calmed down, I’ll see what I can do to help you.’ Alicia: ‘No, I don’t want your help!’ Alicia throws her pencil case at Rachel, which hits her in the chest. Rachel calmly tells the other students to move to the library area. The teacher is alert to the situation and is ready to intervene. All the students in the class are now looking at Alicia. Rachel then tells Alicia that she needs to stop, sit down and rest her head on the table. This is a strategy that has worked in the past with Alicia.
" DISCUSSION
" DISCUSSION
Discuss Peter’s decision not to immediately respond to JB’s shoulder-bumping provocation. Was it a wise decision? Why or why not?
Should the teacher have intervened immediately? Why might the teacher have chosen not to intervene?
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Responding with anger when a student is out of control or very angry does not help to de-escalate the situation. Often students who are out of control are frightened by their own anger and need an adult to respond calmly. This can help the student to regain control and feel safe.
When responding to a physical attack by a student, using physical force to restrain the student should be avoided and used only as an absolute last resort. The NSW Department of Education and Communities (2012: 2) states that: If staff determine that physical intervention is an appropriate response to a particular situation, then any force used in that intervention must be reasonable having regard to the circumstances and any force used must be proportional to the nature of the threat. Reasonable force in dealing with a young infant or
primary school student will be significantly different from that in dealing with a senior secondary school student. Staff who use physical intervention to diffuse dangerous situations are occasionally subject to complaint. It is also possible that staff who use physical intervention may be subject to criminal assault proceedings by the police or by private prosecution.
Summary This chapter has explored WHS and student health and safety, both of which require a safe physical environment and safe work practices. WHS is the responsibility of adults – policymakers, school executive, teachers, ESWs and other school staff. Responsibility for student health and safety also includes parents and carers as well as the students themselves (where appropriate). All members of the school community, including visitors, have the right to be in a safe environment. Documented health and safety policies and procedures provide a framework for keeping staff and students safe. However, to be effective, all employers must be familiar with and comply with these policies and procedures.
Discussion questions For this activity, reread JB’s story in the Crisis intervention Scenario box on p. 96. 1 What signs indicated that JB was angry? 2 What did Peter do to diffuse the situation?
3 Was Peter wrong not to follow the school’s student violence policy? Provide a reason for your response.
Self-check questions 1
In relation to WHS: a A key principle of the Model WHS Act is that all people are given the highest level of health and safety protection from hazards arising from work, so far as is reasonably practicable. What must be taken into account to determine what is ‘reasonably practicable’? b List the five key obligations of the employee in relation to WHS. c What are the four steps involved in the process for developing a written safe work procedure for a hazardous task? d Define the following terms: i a serious injury ii a dangerous incident (or near-miss) iii a notifiable incident iv hazard and risk as they relate to WHS. e Describe the intent of WHS policies and procedures.
f List the four key steps in risk management. g Describe the three levels of risk. h Explain the five levels of likelihood of harm. 2 In relation to personal protective equipment (PPE): a What is personal protective equipment (PPE)? b Provide two examples of PPE that may be used in a school setting. c What is the best form of protection from body fluids? d For adults working with children, what vaccinations are recommended by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC)? 3 In relation to dangerous goods and/or hazardous substances (DGHS): a Provide three examples of chemicals that are classified as DGHS. Why are these chemicals classified as DGHS?
HEALTH AND SAFETY
97
b
What PPE is recommended for use when handling DGHS? c What is a Safety Data Sheet (SDS) and what information does it include? 4 In relation to manual handling: a Provide four examples of situations that may involve manual handling of a student with a physical disability. b Briefly describe what might be included in a physical and personal care plan for a student with physical disabilities.
c
What should you do to minimise risks when operating equipment? 5 In relation to workplace bullying: a Provide examples of what might be considered workplace bullying, including sexual bullying. b What formal action can be taken in relation to workplace bullying?
Activities 1
Connect the hazard category (on the left) to each hazard. Ergonomic Chemical Psychological Physical Biological
bleach, cleaning products
3 Connect the colour-coded safety signs to the appropriate category. green
Procedures for using wood lathe
lack of adequate PPE
red
Hand-washing reminder sign in bathrooms
exposure to infectious diseases
blue
Sign above taps in staff kitchen warning of hot water
lifting heavy or bulky items bullying/workplace harassment
2 Hierarchy of control a List the steps used in the hierarchy of control. b For each hazard in the box below, suggest the most appropriate control measure using the hierarchy of control. Hazard
The spray-on cleaning product irritates the skin.
yellow
Wet and slippery floor
4 Connect the correct label (on the left) with the means of spreading infection. Organisms spread by faeces
Germs spread by breathing contaminated air
Airborne droplets
Touching a contaminated surface and then touching mouth, eyes or nose
Direct contact with infected person
Organisms can be transferred from one person to another when the secretions (urine, blood, saliva, tears, vaginal secretions and semen) of an infected person come into direct contact with the broken, cut or scratched skin of another person
Airborne transmission
Surfaces contaminated with faeces
Organisms transferred when surfaces are contaminated
Transfer of bacteria or viruses via mucus, saliva, through the air, coughing or sneezing or nose blowing
Control measure
Applying first aid to a cut. There have been several instances of back injuries due to incorrect procedures for assisting students with physical disabilities in and out of buses. Frayed power board. Wet slippery surface due to leaking pipe. The lid of the liquid bleach doesn’t fit tightly.
Chapter 5 CHILD PROTECTION LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter you should be able to demonstrate that, in relation to working in a school environment, you can: 5.1
identify the legislative requirements for child protection in your state/territory
5.2 identify the four interrelated factors that are commonly used to explain why abuse occurs 5.3 describe indicators of the different types and dynamics of abuse as they may apply to age, gender, disability and culture and understand the consequences of child maltreatment 5.4 describe your legal obligations, and notification procedures and protocols within a school-based setting, and identify the ethical issues in relation to child protection. As you read the information about child protection, you may find it raises issues from your own childhood. If this is the case, you should consider seeking support from an experienced counsellor or health professional.
GO
further
Go Further icons link to extra content for this chapter. Ask your instructor for the Go Further resource and deepen your understanding of the topic.
Introduction This section of the textbook explores the sensitive issue of child protection. It examines current child protection legislation and legal responsibilities for reporting suspected risk of harm. It also explores the complex factors that contribute to risk of harm, the possible indicators of risk of harm and the consequences of abuse and neglect for children, young people and families.
CHILD PROTECTION
99
A community responsibility
GO
further
Learn more about child protection legislation across each jurisdiction in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
Child Protection (CP) legislation cannot prevent child abuse from occurring, but it can put measures in place to minimise the risk of abuse and neglect, provide appropriate responses to support victims of abuse and impose punitive measures against perpetrators of abuse. CP legislation can also raise public awareness of child abuse and neglect, and support training in preventative measures. Protecting children and young people from abuse and neglect requires all members of the community to be vigilant and to act in the best interest of children and young people at all times.
5.1 Child protection legislation Each state and territory has in place child protection legislation, which includes definitions, mandatory reporting requirements, investigation, registration, legal proceedings, protection orders, ongoing intervention, supervision and the collection of statistical data.
EXAMPLE OF LEGAL DEFINITIONS – VICTORIA The child protection legislation in each state and territory includes legal terminology, which is defined within the legislation and is often used in child protection policies and procedures. Below is an example of legal definitions relating to child protection from the state of Victoria.
•
CRIMES ACT 1958: ‘FAILURE TO PROTECT’, ‘FAILURE TO DISCLOSE’ AND GROOMING OFFENCE (OCTOBER 2014)
In Victoria, under the Crimes Act 1958, failure to protect, failure to disclose and grooming are defined as follows: • Failure to protect: The offence applies where there is a substantial risk that a child under the age of 16 under the care, supervision or authority of a relevant organisation will become a victim of a sexual offence committed by an adult associated with that
•
Consider This
organisation. A person in a position of authority in the organisation will commit the offence if they know of the risk of abuse and have the power or responsibility to reduce or remove the risk, but negligently fail to do so. Failure to disclose: Any adult who forms a reasonable belief that a sexual offence has been committed by an adult against a child under 16 has an obligation to report that information to police. Failure to disclose the information to police is a criminal offence. Grooming: refers to actions deliberately undertaken to befriend and influence a child (and, in some circumstances, members of the child’s family) with the intention of achieving a criminal objective of sexual activity with children.
Source: Crimes Act 1958 (Vic). Sourced from the Federal Register of Legislation. https://www.legislation.gov.au. CC-BY-4.0 licence; State Government of Victoria (2018), ª State of Victoria. CC-BY-4.0 licence; ª Our Community Pty Ltd & Moores.
Figure 5.1 describes a number of key terms commonly used in relation to child protection. Listed after many of the items in the table are the page numbers of the document where this definition can be found. Figure 5.1 Child protection: Key terms
Term
Definition
Notification
Contacts made to an authorised department by persons or other bodies making allegations of child abuse or neglect, child maltreatment or harm to a child: p. 129
Disclosure
Revealing that some form of abuse has occurred. A child may fully disclose – that is, tell someone they have been or are being abused and provide details of the abuse and the perpetrator. Partial disclosure means the child will hint at or allude to being abused, but does not provide specific details: not referenced.
Term
Definition
Allegation
A statement without proof that someone has perpetrated abuse against a child or young person: not referenced.
Investigation
The process whereby the relevant department obtains more detailed information about a child who is the subject of a notification: p. 129.
Substantiated
After investigation, it is concluded that there is reasonable cause to believe that the child has been, was being or was likely to be abused, neglected or otherwise harmed: p. 133.
Not substantiated
A notification received . . . where an investigation concludes that there was no reasonable cause to suspect prior, current or future abuse, neglect or harm to the child: p. 130.
Perpetrator
A person who has been determined to have caused (intentionally or unintentionally) by acts of omission or knowingly the maltreatment of a child: not referenced.
Guardianship order
Conveys responsibility for the welfare of the child to the guardian (for example, regarding the child’s education, health, religion, accommodation and financial matters). Does not necessarily grant the right to the daily care and control of the child, or the right to make decisions about the daily care and control of the child, which are granted under custody orders: p. 127.
Custody order
Generally refers to orders that place children in the custody of the state or territory department responsible for child protection, or a non-government agency. These orders usually involve the child protection department being responsible for the daily care and requirements of the child, while the parent retains legal guardianship. Custody alone does not bestow any responsibility regarding the long-term welfare of the child: p. 127.
Finalised guardianship or custody order
Order involving the transfer of legal guardianship to the relevant state or territory department or non-government agency: p. 127.
Foster care
A form of out-of-home care where the caregiver is authorised and reimbursed (or was offered but declined reimbursement) by the state/territory for the care of the child (excludes relatives/kin who are reimbursed): p. 128. Source: AIHW (2014b). CC-BY-3.0 licence.
The prevalence of child abuse and neglect Price-Robertson (2012) defines child maltreatment – child abuse and neglect – as ‘any non-accidental behaviour by parents, caregivers, other adults or older adolescents that is outside the norms of conduct and entails a substantial risk of causing physical or emotional harm to a child or young person. Such behaviours may be intentional or unintentional and can include acts of omission (i.e., neglect) and commission (i.e. abuse).’ Child maltreatment continues to be a growing social and public health issue in Australia. Figure 5.2 shows the percentage breakdown of primary substantiated harm types in Australia for the period 2015–17. The following list provides a summary of some of the key findings from the Child Protection Australia 2015–16 Annual Report on child protection:
Figure 5.2 Percentage breakdown of primary substantiated harm types in Australia in 2017
Sexual abuse 12%
Physical abuse 18%
Emotional abuse 45%
Neglect 25%
Source: Based on AIFS (2017), CC-BY-3.0 licence.
CHILD PROTECTION
101
•
• • • •
•
•
•
•
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
•
Emotional abuse was the most common secondary type of maltreatment to co-occur with other primary types of child maltreatment. For example, emotional abuse as a secondary type of maltreatment co-occurred in 50.8 per cent of cases of physical abuse and 28.8 per cent of cases of substantiated sexual abuse. The inclusion of children who had witnessed domestic violence is likely to be one of the key reasons for the high rates of substantiated emotional abuse. Girls were significantly more likely to be the subject of substantiation cases of sexual abuse (15.8 per cent) compared to boys (8.5 per cent). Nationally, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children were almost seven times more likely to be the subject of substantiated reports than other Australian children. Children from remote and very remote areas were most likely to be the subject of a substantiation (16.2 per 1000 and 23.5 per 1000 respectively) compared with children in major cities (6.2 per 1000). Children in lower socioeconomic areas were more likely to be the subject of a substantiation than children in higher socioeconomic areas, with 6.9 per cent of substantiations occurring in the highest socioeconomic areas compared with 35.7 per cent in the lowest socio-economic areas. Of the children found to have been harmed or at risk of harm from abuse and neglect, and removed from the care of their parents and placed in out-of-home care (OOHC), more than half of the children were aged nine years or under (54.5 per cent). A further 31.6 per cent of all children were aged 10–14 years and 14.3 per cent were aged 15–17 years. Nationally in 2015–16, members of the police force, followed by school personnel, medical professionals and family members, were the most common sources of notifications that led to investigations. Child protection statistics are the best available indicator of the extent of the problem of child abuse and neglect in Australia; however, they do not reveal with sufficient accuracy how many children in the community have been abused or neglected. It has been estimated that fewer than 30 per cent of all sexual assaults on children are reported and that the reporting rate is even lower for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children.
CHILD PROTECTION STATISTICS: AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF HEALTH AND WELFARE " DISCUSSION
Reflect on and discuss the statistics outlined above and suggest what they can tell us about victims and perpetrators. For example: • Why are females significantly more likely to be the subject of substantiation cases of sexual abuse (15.8 per cent) compared with boys (8.5 per cent)? • Why is the rate of reporting in relation to sexual abuse of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
Consider This
children much lower than for other Australian children? • Why are children in lower socioeconomic areas more likely to be the subject of a substantiation than children in higher socioeconomic areas? Think about the relationship between social factors and child abuse – for example, poverty, domestic violence, homelessness, substance abuse and culture might impact rates of child abuse.
Child protection pre-employment screening Currently, there is no single national strategy in place that sets out the requirements for preemployment screening for adults working with children and young people. Each state and
territory has in place either a police check or a Working with Children Check as the required pre-employment screening procedure for adults working with vulnerable people. Police checks focus on the identification and release of relevant criminal history information relating to convictions, findings of guilt or pending court proceedings. The Australian Institute of Family Studies (AIFS 2014b) reports that the objective of a Working with Children Check is ‘to make an assessment of the level of risk an individual poses to children’s safety’. In general, Working with Children Checks give consideration to: • convictions – whether or not they are considered spent or were committed by a juvenile • apprehended violence orders and other orders, prohibitions or reporting obligations • charges – for example, where a conviction has not been recorded because, for example, a proceeding has not been heard or finalised by a court, or where charges have been dismissed or withdrawn • any relevant allegations or police investigations involving the individual; and • relevant employment proceedings and disciplinary information from professional organisations – for example, organisations associated with teachers, childcare service providers, foster carers and health practitioners. Source: Australian Institute of Family Studies (2014b), ª Australian Institute of Family Studies. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
Mandatory reporting requirements Where there are reasonable grounds to suspect a child is at risk of harm or significant risk of harm, persons mandated by child protection legislation in each state and territory must report their concerns to the relevant authority. Those nominated as mandatory reporters vary across jurisdictions, but typically include occupations such as medical professionals, police, teachers, disability workers and Family Court officers. Western Australia requires mandatory reporting only for suspected child sexual abuse.
ONLINE RESOURCES To identify the occupations named as mandated reporters for your state/territory, access the Australian Institute of Family Studies website: https://aifs.gov.au/cfca/publications/mandatory-reporting-child-abuse-and-neglect.
Child protection policies and schools Every school will have in place a child protection policy and procedures for reporting suspected risk of harm. Typically, the principal will be responsible for making a formal notification following the school’s policy guidelines. Typically, a child protection policy for schools will include: • a statement of purpose – for example, the responsibilities of school employees, volunteers and visitors in relation to suspected risk-of-harm procedure • the role/responsibilities of the school principal • procedures for mandatory reporting • documentation requirements and records management • support for students • child protection training requirements • definitions.
Access links to child protection policies in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
CHILD PROTECTION
103
GO
further
Legal definitions of child abuse and neglect Generally, child protection legislation recognises and defines several types of abuse, including: • physical abuse • emotional abuse • neglect • witnessing domestic violence • sexual abuse. Child protection legislation in each state and territory includes a legal definition of child abuse and neglect that is used to determine when and under what circumstances state and territory authorities are mandated to intervene on behalf of a child or young person. Figure 5.3 provides a conceptual definition of abusive and neglectful behaviours. Figure 5.3 Definition of abusive and neglectful behaviours
Term
Definition
Maltreatment
Refers to non-accidental behaviour towards another person that is outside the norms of conduct and entails a substantial risk of causing physical or emotional harm. Behaviours may be intentional or unintentional and include acts of omission and commission. Specifically, abuse refers to acts of commission and neglect to acts of omission.
Physically abusive behaviour
Any non-accidental physically aggressive act towards a child. Physical abuse may be intentional or may be the inadvertent result of physical punishment. Physically abusive behaviours include shoving, hitting, slapping, beating, shaking, throwing, punching, kicking, biting, burning, scalding, strangling, poisoning and suffocating the child (Butchart et al. 2006). The definition of physically abusive behaviours extends to and includes the fabrication, exaggeration and inducing of illness symptoms in a child (previously known as Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy – see Lasher & Sheridan, 2009).
Sexually abusive behaviour
Refers to any sexual activity between an adult and a child below the age of consent; non-consensual sexual activity between minors (e.g. a 14-year-old and a 10-year-old); sexual activity between a child under 18 years and a person in a position of power or authority (e.g. parent, teacher); or any sexual activity that a child does not fully comprehend, is unable to give informed consent to or for which the child is not developmentally prepared (Butchart et al., 2006; Higgins, 1998). Sexual activity includes fondling genitals, masturbation, oral sex, vaginal or anal penetration by a penis, finger or any other object, fondling of breasts, voyeurism, exhibitionism and exposing the child to or involving them in pornography (Butchart et al., 2006; Higgins, 1998).
Neglectful behaviour
Refers to the failure (usually by a parent) to provide for a child’s basic needs. Physically neglectful behaviours include a failure to provide adequate food, shelter, clothing, supervision, hygiene, medical attention, safe living conditions, education or emotional development (Butchart et al., 2006).
Witnessing family violence
A form of psychologically abusive behaviour; however, there is growing support for the inclusion of family violence as a distinct maltreatment sub-type. With this in mind, witnessing family violence refers to ‘a child being present (hearing or seeing) while a parent or sibling is subjected to physical abuse, sexual abuse or psychological maltreatment, or is visually exposed to the damage caused to persons or property by a family member’s violent behaviour’ (Higgins, 1998, p. 104). Source: AIFS (2014a). ª Australian Institute of Family Studies. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
Defining ‘risk of harm’ or significant risk of harm The definition of ‘risk of harm/significant risk of harm’ varies across each jurisdiction. Generally, reasonable grounds to suspect that a child or young person is at risk of harm (or significant risk of harm) will include concerns that: • the basic physical or psychological needs of the child are not being met • the parent/s is unwilling or unable to arrange necessary medical care • the child is being physically or sexually abused or neglected • the child is witnessing domestic violence. The Consider this box provides a definition of risk of harm as defined in the Queensland Child Protection Act 1999 (Department of Communities, Child Safety and Disabilities Services Qld 2015: 2–3).
HARM AND UNACCEPTABLE RISK OF SIGNIFICANT HARM Unacceptable risk of significant harm refers to significant harm that has not yet occurred but is likely in the future, given risk factors identified in the present. A child may be assessed as in need of protection if the level of future risk is identified as likely (probable), not just possible (may occur); the probable harm will have a significant detrimental effect on the child if it does occur; and there
Consider This is not a parent able and willing to protect the child from future significant harm. Where abuse is an action against a child, harm refers to the detrimental effect or impact of that action on the child. Therefore, to assess harm, parental actions, behaviour, motivation or intent are identified to determine the impact on the child, which may be cumulative in nature.
5.2 Why abuse occurs Child abuse occurs for many different reasons. Although there are ‘common’ factors that may contribute to abuse, these will vary from one situation to another. It is likely that the ‘triggers’ for abuse will be unique to each individual and each situation. While any adult faced with a screaming baby, a toddler throwing a tantrum or a sullen teenager has the potential to abuse a child, most adults are able to show appropriate restraint. Perpetrators of abuse do not fit a specific profile – we cannot say that this person will abuse their children and that person will not. Child abuse occurs across all socioeconomic groups, religions and cultures. There are four interrelated factors that are commonly used to explain why abuse occurs. These factors are: • individual characteristics – personality and temperament • an individual’s interpersonal relationships – dysfunctional relationships with family and friends • individual history – life experiences such as being abused or neglected as a child • sociocultural beliefs and values – beliefs around child-rearing practices, expectations of children’s behaviour, discipline practices, gender roles, and inter-generational clashes due to changing cultural or social values.
CHILD PROTECTION
105
Scenario
THE NEXT GENERATION Leylak (16 years) has four younger brothers. The family lives in an inner-city area populated by families who have emigrated from the Middle East. Leylak attends a school for academically gifted students. Although her father doesn’t believe that girls need to be well educated, Leylak’s mother is determined that her daughter will go to university. Each term, Leylak’s school has a supervised school dance but Leylak’s father refuses to allow her to attend. Tonight there is a huge argument, which results in Leylak being slapped across the face by her father. Leylak runs to her room screaming that her father lives in the past. She tells him she is Australian and wants to be treated like her friends.
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Leylak has been physically assaulted by her father. The slap constitutes physical abuse. The reason for the slap is complex. Leylak’s father is drawing on his traditional cultural values in not allowing her to attend the school dance. Leylak clearly rejects these values and wants her father to embrace ‘Australian’ values. As Leylak matures into young adulthood, the clash between the two cultures is likely to escalate. " DISCUSSION
If you were aware of this situation, would you make a notification? Why or why not?
Triggers for abuse Abuse may occur due to a variety of precipitating factors that, when combined, may cause a parent or carer to use inappropriate force, neglect or physical punishment. These ‘triggers’ may include vulnerable adults, unclear or unrealistic expectations of the child or young person, relationship difficulties, social/cultural issues and circumstances surrounding the child or young person. Figure 5.4 lists the wide range of factors that may, given a range of particular circumstances, trigger abuse and neglect. Figure 5.4 Factors that contribute to or trigger abuse and neglect
Factors
Examples
Vulnerable adults may display one or more of the following characteristics
> Low self-esteem, low tolerance or frustration level > Mental illness, drug or alcohol abuse, chronic physical illness, psychiatric disability, poor physical or emotional health > Domestic violence, family crisis > Little or no preparation for parenting, poor parenting model as a child, adult has history of abuse or neglect as a child > Involvement in a violent relationship, inability to manage stress
Unclear expectations of children
> Little or no knowledge of child development and child behaviour > Fear that the child will be spoiled or disobedient > View of children as inherently bad or naughty > Unrealistic expectations of the child
Relationship difficulties
> Domestic violence, few or no supportive friends > Poor relationship with own parent/s > Reliance on the child to meet emotional needs, social isolation > Hostile relationships or unrealistic expectations of partner
Factors
Examples
Social/cultural factors
> Poor housing and no safe play areas, poverty/unemployment, lack of reliable transport, lack of affordable child care > Life crises – for example, the death of a family member or a friend or a recent separation, unwanted/unplanned pregnancy > Constant illness of children > Social changes – e.g. breakdown of family support, socially isolated > Belonging to a member of a minority group – conflicting cultural values from one generation to the next > Cultural/community attitudes towards violence
The child or young person (victim) Specific characteristic of the child/ young person or circumstances surrounding the birth may also act as triggers for abuse and neglect
> The child is born prematurely, with a disability or with chronic health issues – this may result in a disruption to the bonding process because of prolonged hospitalisation at birth > The child may be the ‘wrong’ gender, resemble a disliked family member, have feeding problems, be difficult to settle, not meet the academic expectations of the parents, act out during adolescence or have a difficult temperament
Scenario
JUST LIKE YOUR FATHER! Marco (13 years) lives with his mother, Maria, and two older sisters. His parents are divorced. Marco spends every second weekend with his father, Peter, his new partner, Nell, and their three-year-old daughter. Marco loves going to his father’s house and wishes he could live with Peter and Nell full-time, but he is afraid to tell his mother. His mother makes it clear that she loathes Peter and endlessly tells her children that Peter and his new wife enjoy ‘the good life’ while they struggle to make ends meet. Today, when he gets home from visiting his father, Maria is in a bad mood. When Marco takes his weekend washing and tips it into the laundry basket, his mother yells: ‘That’s right, just come home and dump me with a load of washing. You are so selfish, just like your father! Get out
of my sight!’ Marco runs to his room and slams the door muttering to himself, ‘Yeah I know you hate me like you hate Dad!’ WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Maria still harbours resentment towards Peter and seems unable to separate these feelings from her relationship with her son. This type of emotional abuse can have longterm consequences for children. " DISCUSSION
What impact might this situation have on Marco’s behaviour at school?
Perpetrators of abuse The Australian Institute of Family Studies (AIFS 2014c) states that, ‘From the evidence available, it is clear that with the exception of child sexual abuse, children are most likely to be abused or neglected by parents and/or caregivers.’ The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW 2014) reports that intact two- parent families have the highest proportion of substantiated abuse (36 per cent), closely followed by female single-parent families (29 per cent). However, inconsistency in data collection across Australia makes it difficult to draw any real conclusions from the report. It is important to be aware that families who live in poverty, are dependent on welfare and use a range of social services are more likely to come to the notice of authorities than families from higher socioeconomic groups. Child maltreatment is not a problem exclusive to a single social or cultural group – it occurs across all sectors of the community and is not restricted to a particular race, gender or religious group. Perpetrators of abuse can be parents (including step-parents, a partner in a de facto
CHILD PROTECTION
107
relationship or a casual partner), community leaders, religious figures, teachers, doctors, counsellors, community workers, plumbers, cleaners or shop assistants. Although perpetrators of abuse are more likely to be male, females also abuse children. It should be noted that the true incidence of abuse to children in our society is unknown simply because so much of it may go unreported.
Perpetrators of sexual abuse The Australian Institute of Family Studies (AIFS) (2014c) reports that child sexual abuse is the least substantiated form of abuse. Of substantiated cases, girls are more likely to be victims of sexual abuse than boys. The AIFS (2014c: n.p.) also reports that ‘a far greater number of child sexual abuse offences are perpetrated by adults who are not in a caregiver role’. Unlike other forms of abuse, sexual abuse is usually premeditated. Perpetrators (predominantly male) use deliberate strategies to target children. The AIFS (2014c) describes three main types of child sex abuse offenders: • Serial perpetrator predators – high-frequency chronic offenders who choose victims based on situational factors and are likely to actively manipulate environments to create opportunities to abuse. Serial perpetrators usually engage in grooming behaviours by befriending, spending increasing amounts of time with the child or young person to win trust, offering gifts and moving from hugs to inappropriate touching to sexual penetration. • Opportunistic occasional predators – more likely to commit abuse when a lack of appropriate controls, such as a code of conduct or reporting procedures, obscures personal responsibility for the abuse. • Situational perpetrators – commit abuse in reaction to environmental factors and often behave impulsively when overcome by temptation or a temporary failure of self-control. Children and young people can be very confused about sexual abuse, especially when the perpetrator is a significant person in the child’s life, such as their father, uncle, grandfather, family friend or a well-known neighbour. Perpetrators will usually bribe, coerce or physically and/or emotionally threaten the victim into keeping the abuse a secret.
Consequences of sexual abuse Sexual abuse of children and young people is perhaps the ultimate act of betrayal and breach of trust. The secretive nature of child sexual abuse usually leads to children and young people feeling that they are to blame for the abuse. They come to see themselves as bad, useless, hopeless and dirty. Children and young people will often experience guilt that they did not tell anyone about the abuse and feel responsible for the ongoing nature of the abuse. Many perpetrators tell their victims that they will not be believed if they report the abuse, and that they will be sent away for telling lies. Victims may also be told by the perpetrator that they will cause the family unit to be split up if they tell. Child sexual abuse has devastating lifelong consequences, the most extreme of which may include self-harm and suicide. Children may display indicators such as extreme acting-out behaviours, regression, phobias, nightmares and sleep disturbances, pseudo-maturity, persistent, inappropriate sexual play and provocative sexual behaviour, an overly sophisticated and detailed understanding of sexual behaviour, depression and anxiety. Young people who are victims of sexual abuse may display indicators such as promiscuity, prostitution, drug and/or alcohol abuse, eating disorders and suicidal or self-mutilating behaviours. Children and young people
who have been sexually abused are likely to have difficulty forming satisfying adult relationships and are more likely to choose partners who are violent and abusive. It must be remembered that while curiosity about genitalia is normal in most young children, it is extremely rare for children to make up stories of sexual abuse. Detailed knowledge of sexual behaviour is normally outside a young child’s realm of knowledge. In order for young children to have explicit knowledge of sexual behaviour, they must be exposed to it or experience it. Scenario
SARAH Sarah (12 years) is being sexually abused by her stepfather, Paul. The abuse started when Sarah was eight. Sarah’s mother is a nurse, and when she is on night shift, Paul goes into Sarah’s room. He tells Sarah that he loves her and that she is his ‘special girl’. Paul tells Sarah that what they do is a secret and that she must never tell because everyone will think she is a liar and she will be put into care or sent to a children’s home. Sarah knows that her step-father is not like other fathers. She loves her step-father, but she wishes he would stop. Sarah’s teacher has expressed concern that Sarah is becoming increasingly withdrawn at school – she sits alone at lunchtime and refuses to join in any activities with her peers.
Recently, Sarah told her teacher that she wished she could die. When asked why she felt this way, she said that she ‘did bad things’, but would make no further comment. Her teacher reported the conversation to the principal and Sarah was referred to the school counsellor for urgent follow-up. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Victims of child sexual abuse are often told that they are ‘special’ and they must keep it a secret. They are typically threatened that they will be sent away and/or they will break up the family if they tell. Victims often blame themselves or see themselves as ‘bad’.
5.3 Indicators of abuse Figure 5.5 lists indicators of abuse and neglect in line with the definitions outlined in Figure 5.1. It is important to consider such indicators in the context of what is already known about the child and family. It is also important to be aware that a cluster or pattern of indicators is usual, rather than a single indicator. Figure 5.5 Indicators of abuse
Type of abuse
Indicators
Possible indicators of physical abuse may include:
> Facial, head and neck bruising > Lacerations and welts from excessive discipline or physical restraint > An explanation offered by the child or young person that is inconsistent with the injury or the parent’s explanation > Other bruising and marks that may show the shape of the object that caused it – e.g. a handprint or belt buckle > Bite marks and scratches where the bruise may show a print of adult teeth > Multiple injuries and bruises of varying colours > Ingestion of poisonous substances, alcohol or other harmful drugs > Ruptured organs without a history of trauma > Dislocations, sprains, twisting > Fractures of bones, especially in children under three years > Burns, especially on the back of the legs, lower legs or buttocks, consistent with immersion and scalding > Head injuries where the child or young person may have indicators of drowsiness, vomiting, fits or retinal haemorrhages, suggesting the possibility of the child being shaken violently CHILD PROTECTION
109
Type of abuse
Indicators
Possible indicators of sexual abuse may include:
> The young child verbalising the sexual act – for example, ‘Daddy hurt my wee-wee’ > The young child describing sexual acts from watching adult videos > Direct or indirect disclosure (such as role-playing sexual acts) > Age-inappropriate behaviour and/or persistent sexual behaviour > Regression in developmental skills > Bleeding from the vagina, external genitalia or anus – for example, blood on the underpants or nappy > Trauma to buttocks, lower abdomen or thighs > Regressive behaviour – for example, wetting or soiling
Possible indicators of neglect may include:
> Ongoing poor standard of hygiene > Scavenging for food or hoarding food > Extreme craving for adult attention and affection > Excessive anxiety about being abandoned > Excessive self-comforting behaviour – for example, rocking > Non-organic failure to thrive > Unexplained delay in reaching developmental milestones > General appearance of neglect – dirty clothing, unclean appearance, poor skin tone, poor hair condition
Possible indicators of psychological/ emotional abuse may include:
> Feelings of worthlessness about life and themselves > Inability to value others or show empathy > Inability to trust others > Lack of interpersonal skills necessary for age-appropriate functioning > Extreme attention-seeking > Taking extreme risks > Being markedly disruptive, bullying or aggressive
Possible indicators of children living with domestic violence may include:
> Atypical aggressive or violent behaviour > Persistent separation anxiety > Frequent absences from service > Regressive behaviour > Reduced social competence skills, including low levels of empathy, anxiety, depression, low self-esteem
A word about possible indicators Many of the possible indicators listed above may be attributed to a range of non-abusive causal factors. For example, children may display separation anxiety due to their temperament or simply because they are adjusting to a new situation. A child may display regressive behaviours because there is a new baby in the family or a parent is absent from the home. An adolescent may display withdrawal or aggression due to peer conflict or peer pressure. When considering possible indicators of abuse, it is essential to consider the context in which they occur, knowledge of the child or young person’s temperament, typical behaviours, family situation and any history of abuse. Indicators of abuse will usually manifest over a period of time. It is important to be alert to persistent atypical behaviours, or suspicious or unexplained physical injuries.
Scenario
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE Saari (14 years), Eddie (8 years) and Oscar (6 years) live with their mother, Cara and father, Dan. Their father was seriously injured in a workplace accident three years ago and is unable to work. Dan has become increasingly depressed but refuses to seek help. Cara and Dan constantly argue and Dan is becoming increasingly aggressive towards his wife. Saari knows the warning signs and always tries to get Eddie and Oscar into her bedroom or out of the house when the arguments start. Last night, for the first time, Dan pushed Cara, knocking her to the floor. When Saari heard the noise she rushed to her mother’s side screaming at her father to stop. Eddie and Oscar hid under Saari’s bed.
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Children who are caught up in domestic violence are victims of emotional abuse. Older children may feel they need to protect the parent who is subject to the abuse and/or to protect younger siblings. Younger children and their older siblings are placed in a situation where they no longer feel safe and protected. " DISCUSSION
What would you do if you were made aware of Saari’s situation?
The consequences of child maltreatment Child maltreatment can have a range of immediate and long-term consequences for children and young people. The consequences will vary according to the age of the child, the nature and extent of the abuse, the relationship of the perpetrator to the child and the experiences suffered by the child. Child Family Community Australia (AIFS 2014c) states that ‘critical factors that influence the way child abuse and neglect affects children and young people include the frequency and duration of maltreatment and the co-occurrence of multiple forms of maltreatment’. Although the consequences for each child may be unique, there is no doubt that child abuse always has an extremely negative impact. Child Family Community Australia (AIFS 2014c) reports that the consequences of abuse and neglect include a range of health, psychological and social problems. These consequences will manifest themselves in ways that are unique to each child and young person. There is no typical pattern – the impact of abuse will often manifest itself in different ways and over a long period of time, sometimes extending to a lifetime of deepseated psychological trauma (see Figure 5.6). Figure 5.6 Possible consequences of abuse and neglect for a child or young person
Outcomes
Example
Attachment issues
Babies and children exposed to abuse and neglect are more likely to experience attachment problems, which can negatively impact on social and emotional development; they manifest in the form of an inability to trust others and difficulty forming healthy relationships throughout life.
Physical and mental health problems
Severe physical trauma may have long-term consequences for the child. An example is Shaken Baby Syndrome, where the baby is shaken vigorously, causing tiny blood vessels inside the baby’s brain to tear and bleed. As a result of such trauma, babies may suffer brain damage, hearing loss, spinal cord injuries, seizures, blindness, speech problems and even death. Exposure to prolonged abuse and/or neglect can have a profound effect on the developing brains of young children, and may result in learning and developmental problems, behavioural problems, depression and anxiety. Young people who have been exposed to prolonged abuse and/or neglect are at increased risk of alcohol and drug abuse, engagement in violence and criminal activity, and are more likely to be homeless and at increased risk of suicide. Females are at greater risk of teenage pregnancy. Source: Children’s Hospital Westmead (2014); CFCA (2014) CC-BY-4.0 licence.
CHILD PROTECTION
111
Factors that influence the consequences of abuse and neglect may include the age of the child and the severity of the abuse (with younger children being more likely to experience difficulties later in life), the nature of the abuse, the child or young person’s feelings as a consequence of abuse (such as self-blame or a sense of shame) and the emotional relationship the child or young person has with the abuser. Dolgin (2014: 254–5) states that neglect, or physical, sexual or emotional abuse, during adolescence has serious long-term consequences for young people as they are moving into early adulthood. Adolescents who have been physically abused may display pathological fear, shyness, passive dispositions, deep-seated hostility, sullenness and a cold and indifferent inability to love others. They are more likely to use violence themselves and more likely to develop clinical depression and have suicidal thoughts. Teenage girls who have been physically abused are more likely to choose partners who are physically abusive and so continue to be abused. Adolescents who have been sexually abused (including victims of incest) will manifest similar symptoms but are also more likely to engage in self-harm, substance abuse, truancy, running away, hostility and aggression. They may also turn to prostitution (see the Scenario box). Scenario
SEXUAL ABUSE When Casey was 13, she told her mother that Jayden, her mother’s current partner, was sexually abusing her. Casey’s mother accused her of lying and said she was just trying to ruin her mother’s life. Casey tried to tell one of her teachers about the abuse but felt too ashamed. At 15, Casey ran away from home and now lives on the streets. Casey sees herself as worthless and ‘unlovable’. She daydreams about having a loving family and living in a nice safe home.
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Children and young people who are abused feel isolated. They often won’t seek help outside of the family – especially when those who are meant to safeguard them are the perpetrators. The long-term consequences are often feelings of worthlessness and hopelessness.
The most powerful consequence of abuse is the breach of trust between the child and the trusted adult. The role of adults is to nurture, love and protect children so that they can grow up with a sense of being valued as individuals. Child abuse takes away the joy and innocence of childhood and replaces it with fear and anxiety. Victims of child abuse often lack positive parenting role models, and as adults may repeat the abusive behaviours to which they were subjected as children.
Children and young people with disabilities Any child or young person may be the subject of abuse or neglect. As we have explored, abuse occurs in all cultural and socioeconomic groups. There are, however, some children and young people who, for a range of reasons, are at greater risk of abuse than others. Miller and Brown (2014: 8) report on findings from research undertaken by the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC), London, that: disabled children are three times more likely to be abused than non-disabled children … are at significantly greater risk of physical, sexual and emotional abuse and neglect than non-disabled children … Disabled children at greatest risk of abuse are those with behaviour/conduct disorders. Other high-risk groups include children with learning difficulties/disabilities, children with speech and language difficulties, children with health-related conditions and deaf children.
Based on international research, a number of factors contribute to this greater level of risk, including: • a tendency not to believe children with disabilities when they report abuse • children with disabilities and their families tending to be more isolated within the community, meaning that abuse may go unreported • the child’s or young person’s inability to understand, resist and communicate abuse • the child’s or young person’s inability to seek help • a general assumption that children and young people with disabilities will not be at risk in the care of parents, carers or professionals. This research also shows that children and young people with disabilities are more likely to be abused by a family member, carer or someone known to the child. Children and young people with disabilities face multiple barriers in disclosing abuse. They may lack the cognitive skills to understand what is happening to them or to be aware that they have the right to be protected. They may not have the necessary vocabulary or language skills to communicate what is happening and may not have access to a wider network of caring adults to whom they can turn for support. See the Consider this and Scenario boxes. Consider This
ABUSE AND DISABILITY • •
•
•
Boys who are disabled are at greater risk of abuse (physical and sexual abuse and neglect) than girls who are disabled. Children and young people with disabilities are more likely to be bullied than their non-disabled peers because they are seen as different, an easy target, easily exploited, or easily hurt or upset (Miller & Brown, 2014: 24). Most common reasons for not reporting given by children and young people with disabilities were fear of violent retribution, embarrassment and not being believed (Miller & Brown 2014: 25). Children and young people with disabilities find it difficult to report sexual abuse or sexual misbehaviour perpetrated by their peers.
•
•
•
Children and young people with disabilities are more likely to experience multiple kinds of abuse and multiple episodes of abuse (Miller & Brown 2014: 22). Despite explicit sex education, neither boys nor girls with disabilities readily associated sex with pregnancy or sexually transmitted diseases (Miller & Brown 2014: 27). The majority of children and young people with disabilities accepted sexual misbehaviour (among peers) as the norm and did not think it worth reporting (Miller & Brown 2014: 27). Source: Miller & Brown (2014). Copyright ª 2019 NSPCC.
Scenario
BARRIERS JORDAN
Jordan (14 years) has learning and physical disabilities as well as a range of health problems. Jordan’s communication is very restricted – he uses a limited number of pictures and symbols to make his needs known. Jordan has a new carer, Tom, who takes him to and from hydrotherapy. Tom has begun sexually abusing Jordan when he is changing him after hydrotherapy. Jordan becomes distressed each time Tom comes to collect him for hydrotherapy but his
teacher puts this down to Jordan reacting to the presence of a new carer. MICHAEL
Michael (11 years) has a severe hearing impairment and is academically gifted. He has just started at his local high school but is finding the large number of students challenging. Several Year 8 boys have targeted Michael and taunt him daily by pointing and shaking their fists at him and indicating that they are going to hurt him.
CHILD PROTECTION
113
Michael tries to ignore the boys but he is becoming worried that they will carry out their threats. CASSIE
Cassie (16 years) has Down syndrome. She attends a living skills program at a special school. Cassie tells her mother that one of the boys in her class, Elliot, who also has Down syndrome, is her boyfriend and they are ‘sexing’. When questioned, Cassie tells her mother that
they kiss and hold hands but they don’t cuddle ‘because that’s how you get a baby’. Cassie giggles as she says this and her mother realises that Cassie has not understood the many discussions they have had about sex. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Children and young people with disabilities are at greater risk of abuse by perpetrators who prey on their vulnerabilities.
Child abuse in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children are over-represented in child protection and outof-home care services compared with other Australian children. Neglect remains the most common form of substantiated abuse for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children. In 2016, approximately 36 per cent of all children in out-of-home care were identified as being of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander origin. The AIHW (2014) suggests that the reasons for the high rate of substantiated abuse of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children is a result of multiple historical, social, community, family and individual factors. Historical events include the poor treatment of and lack of respect for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, the Stolen Generations, forced assimilation, racism and the removal of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities from their lands – all of which have led to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities feeling disempowered. Ongoing trauma and community problems have resulted in alcohol and drug abuse, domestic violence, sexual abuse and overcrowded and inadequate housing. Scenario
CORRINE Corrine (9 years) is being sexually abused by her uncle, who shares the home with Corrine’s mother, brothers, younger sister and grandfather. Corrine’s remote community is extremely poor, with a high rate of unemployment, low school attendance, alcohol and drug abuse, domestic violence and child abuse among the Aboriginal population. Corrine wishes her uncle would stop. Her uncle tells her that if she tells she will be taken away from her community and placed in a home with white people and she will never see her mother again.
WHAT THIS TELLS US?
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander families living in remote communities are often disconnected from their culture and face a lifetime of unemployment and welfare dependency. The reasons for this are complex and can be traced back to the breakdown of traditional communities as a consequence of white settlement.
5.4 Protecting children and young people The challenge in protecting children and young people from abuse, neglect and bullying becomes significantly more complex when children and young people have disabilities that limit their understanding of what is happening to them, have no understanding of their rights and/or cannot communicate with an appropriate adult.
All children and young people have the right to be Consider this UN protected from abuse and neglect. This right is enshrined in the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. The Consider CONVENTION this box details Articles 19 and 23 of the Convention. ON THE RIGHTS The responsibility to protect children and young people OF THE CHILD with disabilities from abuse rests with the community. In Article 19: Governments should ensure that particular, it rests with those adults who have regular, ongoing children are properly cared for and protect contact with these children and are in a position to identify them from violence, abuse and neglect by their possible indicators of abuse and/or neglect. parents, or anyone else who looks after them. The report by Miller and Brown (2014: 26) found that Article 23: Children who have any kind of teaching explicit ‘keeping safe’ skills (building self-esteem, disability should receive special care and support so that they can live a full and assertiveness and relationship skills) was effective in assisting independent life. children and young people with disabilities to identify and Source: UNICEF (2018) report abuse. An excellent example of a ‘keeping safe’ strategy is described below in Figure 5.7. The strategy, developed by the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC), is called ‘The Underwear Rule’. It is designed to assist parents, teachers and carers to teach children and young people with disabilities about how to keep themselves safe. Figure 5.7 The NSPCC Talk Pants initiative
Source: Copyright ª 2019 NSPCC.
ONLINE RESOURCES To find out more about PANTS go to: http://www.nspcc.org.uk/preventing-abuse/keeping-children-safe/underwear-rule.
Miller and Brown (2014: 27) also report that peer support programs have been found to be successful (or at least to create greater awareness) in reducing bullying of children and young people with disabilities. Anecdotal results of peer support programs in schools showed: • fewer friendship problems • a drop in the number of ‘petty’ incidents reported to staff
CHILD PROTECTION
115
the school feeling safer for pupils vulnerable and lonely pupils spotted earlier and supported a more pleasant playground fewer complaints about pupil behaviour from lunchtime supervisors learning time no longer lost in following up lunchtime incidents. Protecting children and young people with disabilities from harm is the responsibility of the whole community. As an ESW, your role is to always act in the best interests of the child or young person and always report any concerns or suspicions of potential risk of harm immediately. • • • • •
Documenting concerns Documenting signs of possible risk of harm is an extremely important role for all adults working with children and young people. Such documentation can assist in identifying a pattern of unexplained changes in behaviour and/or unexplained injuries (see Figure 5.8 for an example template). Figure 5.8 Document template Date:
Time:
Description of the visible injury:
Location of visible injury/ injuries: Front
Back
e.g. size (use a comparison, such as the size of a 50-cent coin), shape (round, elongated, handshape), colour (this will indicate the age of the bruise: red, purple, brown, yellow)
the easiest way to do this is to draw a simple body outline and mark the position of the injury on the outline
Any explanation of the injury given by the child, young person, carer or parent:
Observations of the child or young person’s behaviour:
Direct or indirect comments made by the child or young person that may indicate abuse has occurred:
Uncharacteristic behaviours of the child or young person:
this can be particularly important if conflicting explanations are given
It is important to always act promptly and in the best interests of the child or young person. Always report any concerns you may have to your supervisor and/or follow your school’s child protection reporting procedures.
If a child or young person discloses abuse Disclosure of abuse can be an extremely stressful situation for both the adult and the child. Children and young people who are being abused will often be extremely secretive or protective of the perpetrator if that person is a parent or close family member. Many child victims are threatened with dire consequences if they disclose abuse, such as being taken away from the family or causing the perpetrator to be removed from the home. Even very young children may sense that ‘telling’ is being disloyal (even though they are not able to articulate such thoughts). Children and young people will only disclose to a person they trust, such as a teacher, ESW or carer. If a child or young person makes a disclosure, you must always act in the best interests of the child or young person. You should follow the school’s child protection policy and procedures (see Figure 5.9). Remember that your role is to listen to and support the child. You are not required to investigate, nor are you required to determine whether or not the information given is accurate. You should also refrain from judging the alleged perpetrator. You must put your own feelings of shock, dismay or anger to one side – the child must be your primary concern at the time of disclosure. Scenario
DISCLOSURE Zola (13 years) has learning difficulties and attends a special unit at her local high school. ESW Kelly has been working with Zola for a number of years in the unit and the two have developed a good relationship. It is the first day back after the summer break and Kelly is chatting to a group of students about their holidays. Kelly notices that Zola is not her usual happy self and doesn’t join in the conversation. Later Kelly asks Zola about her holidays. Kelly: ‘What did you do in your holidays, Zola?’ Zola: ‘We went to my uncle’s because he lives at the beach.’ Kelly: ‘Wow, that must have been fun.’ Zola: ‘I don’t like Uncle Peter. He scares me.’ Kelly: ‘Why does he scare you?’ Zola: ‘He comes into my bedroom at night and wants to get in bed with me but I don’t like it and he gets angry.’
Kelly: ‘Have you told your mum or dad about Uncle Peter?’ Zola: ‘No because they like Uncle Peter and Mum gets mad at me when I say I don’t like him.’ WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Children and young people are often uncertain or even fearful about disclosure. They worry they may be in trouble or accused of lying. They often sense that telling will create family tensions or family breakdown, for which they will be responsible. " DISCUSSION
What action should Kelly take?
CHILD PROTECTION
117
Figure 5.9 Steps to take if a child or young person discloses
1
React calmly
2
Listen without judging
3
Don’t ask leading questions – e.g. ‘Did your mother hit you with a belt?’
4
Reassure the child that they have done the right thing – e.g. ‘I’m pleased that you have told me about what’s worrying you Sarah’
5
Don’t make promises that can’t be kept – e.g. the child may ask you not to tell others
6
Provide comfort to the child
7
Don’t confront the alleged perpetrator – this is the role of the investigating authorities
8
Don’t leave the child alone
9
Report the disclosure to the person nominated in your school’s policy and procedures
10 11
In the case of sexual abuse where the alleged perpetrator is a family member living in the family home, it would be important to ensure immediate action is taken so that the child does not have to return to the family home that evening As soon as possible, make note of what the child said and include a description of any visible injuries
Responding to concerns or suspicions of risk of harm As an ESW, you have a responsibility to act in the best interests of children and young people by reporting suspected risk of harm following established school protocols. The principal or delegated officer will be responsible for following the school’s child protection policy and procedures for notification. Notification is often the first step towards intervention and protection.
To act in the best interests of children and young people, ESWs must: • be aware and alert to indicators of risk of harm (or risk of significant harm) • be familiar with the child protection policy of the school and the protocols for notification • accurately and objectively record any concerns of risk of harm • immediately report concerns to the delegated person • establish a relationship of respect and trust with every child and young person with whom you are working. Remember that it is not the role of ESWs or any members of the school to investigate suspected abuse.
Formal notification of risk of harm Each state and territory child protection authority will have in place procedures for notification of suspected risk of harm. These procedures vary across jurisdictions, but typically include verbal reporting via a dedicated telephone number and/or a dedicated online portal. All notifications of suspected risk of harm are treated as confidential and every individual who notifies in good faith is protected from any legal recourse by a suspected perpetrator. Guidelines for each state and territory will usually outline the desired information that should be included when making a notification. Information that may be required includes: • the name of the child or young person • the current whereabouts of the child or young person • the child’s residential details – address, telephone, who resides in the household • the age of the child or young person and the names of other children in the household (if known) • all available information that is relevant to the safety and welfare of the child or young person • a record of events, conversations and observations which led to suspected risk of harm • the name, position and school contact details of the person notifying. While it is highly unlikely that an ESW would be required to make a formal notification, it is important to be aware of the procedure (refer to Figure 5.4 for steps to take if a child discloses). The exception to this is the Northern Territory, where it is the responsibility of the individual, rather than a designated member of the school executive, to make the notification.
GUIDELINES FOR MANDATORY REPORTING FOR SCHOOLS The Guidelines for Mandatory Reporting for Schools state that departmental staff must report to the Department of Children and Families where they reasonably believe that: • a child under 18 years has suffered or is likely to suffer harm or exploitation (physical, emotional, psychological or sexual) • there has been sexual activity where the adult has a ‘special care relationship’ with the child • there has been any sexual activity of anyone under 14 years of age. Every person who works in a school setting must comply with these mandatory reporting requirements.
Consider This
Staff are not obliged to notify the school principal if a notification is made. The Guidelines state: ‘Staff members are encouraged to notify their principal/manager when they have made a report in relation to a student. This will enable the principal/ manager to provide any required support to the staff member and develop appropriate student support plans.’ Source: ª Northern Territory of Australia (Department of Education) 2017. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
" DISCUSSION
Discuss the above Guidelines for Mandatory Reporting for Schools. Would you feel comfortable making a report? Why or why not?
CHILD PROTECTION
119
Concerns about reporting Reporting risk of harm can cause a great deal of anxiety. As an ESW, you may feel a sense of disbelief and self-doubt, especially if you have come to know the child and the child’s family well. Common concerns that can arise when reporting suspected risk of harm are shown in Figure 5.10. Figure 5.10 Common concerns that can arise when reporting suspected risk of harm ‘I fear that the child or young person will be labelled.’
This is a legitimate fear; however, this must be weighed up against the certain damage to the child resulting from continued abuse.
‘I’m concerned about impact of the relationship I have with the parent/s.’ (if the alleged perpetrator is a parent)
There may be some initial anger, but in most instances there is relief that the abuse is out in the open so that the parent can get help.
‘I’m concerned I might have to go to court.’
It is very rare for notifiers to be asked to attend court and give evidence. Evidence is usually collected by the authorities who investigate the allegations.
‘I’m worried that the parent will guess it was me who made the notification.’
The identification of the notifier is kept confidential, but in many cases the parent is able to guess who made the notification. There may be an initial outburst of anger and threats against the school but this usually subsides and often the parent will look to the school for support.
‘I just don’t want to get involved. I have enough to deal with as it is!’
If you have regular contact with the child and the family then you are already involved. Ignoring suspicions of risk of harm will not make them go away. The child or young person cannot be protected unless intervention occurs.
‘I worry that the child protection In most instances notifications will be managed in a professional manner, but authorities will be too if there are concerns in relation to the management of the situation these can heavy-handed and just make be raised with the authorities. things worse for the child.’ ‘I think I should give the parent/s the chance to tell their side of the story before deciding whether or not to notify.’
In the case of suspected risk of harm, it is safer for the child if the parent/s are not informed of the intent to notify. By alerting the parent/s the child or young person may be put at greater risk, particularly in the case of suspected sexual abuse. You must always act in the best interests of the child. Remember it is not your role to investigate.
‘I just don’t believe they would be capable of treating their child so badly.’
Child abuse occurs for many different reasons and any parent is capable of abusing their child. Notification is often the first step in putting in place strategies to protect the child from further abuse and addressing the contributing factors.
‘I’m concerned that if I notify and there’s an investigation the family will be split up.’
Where abuse allegations are substantiated, a number of actions may be undertaken. These may include court-ordered intervention, removal of the perpetrator from the home, removal of the child from the home (temporarily or permanently) and prosecution and incarceration of the perpetrator.
What happens after a notification is made? The notification process and subsequent decision about whether or not to investigate vary with each jurisdiction. Typically, once a notification has been received it will be allocated a priority for action based on a number of risk factors. After investigation, action may include referral of the child and family to appropriate support services and/or medical and psychological assessment of the child or young person. In some cases, the matter may be referred to the police and/or taken before the Children’s Court.
The role of the Children’s Court is to make orders that are in the best interests of the safety and wellbeing of the child or young person. Where possible, every effort is made to maintain the child or young person in the family situation and at the same time remove the immediate threat to the child. Removal of children from the home is usually a last resort.
Ethical considerations All children and young people and their families should be treated with dignity and respect. Where a child or young person is suspected of being at risk of harm, behaving in a professional and ethical manner is critical. The role of all adults working with children and young people is to act in the best interests of the child or young person – the protection and wellbeing of the child or young person are paramount. Under normal circumstances, information about children and families should be treated as confidential. However, in the case of suspected risk of harm, child protection authorities will have in place interagency protocols to allow relevant information to be shared on an as-needs basis without the consent of the individual or family.
Working with other agencies Child protection requires the close co-operation and goodwill of a range of government and nongovernment agencies. Each state and territory will have in place well-defined inter-agency guidelines and protocols to ensure that investigating officers work with all relevant agencies to ensure, as far as possible, that processes are put in place to minimise ongoing risks to the child. Confidentiality, high standards of ethical practice and a genuine willingness to act in the best interests of the child and family are necessary to ensure that children and young people are provided with the best possible protection against abuse and neglect.
Suspected abuse of children by school employees/volunteers Any adult has the potential to abuse a child. Some children and young people can be extremely challenging, and at times it can be difficult to form a positive relationship with a child. All adults working with children and young people need to be aware of their own stress levels and take time out if needed. Abuse by an adult entrusted with the care of a child is regarded by the community as an extreme breach of trust. The perpetrator usually suffers the full weight of the law. Every child and young person has the right to a safe, secure environment free from harm. By maintaining child-focused practices, all adults can ensure that the safety and wellbeing of children remain the highest priority. Where there is suspected abuse of a student by a teacher or other member of staff or visitor to the school, it should immediately be reported to the principal. Where this is not possible, it should immediately be reported to the state or territory child protection authorities.
Protective behaviours As an adult working with children and young people, it is important to be aware of behaviours that you can adopt to ensure you are not vulnerable to false allegations of incorrect or inappropriate behaviour in relation to students. CHILD PROTECTION
121
The following are some strategies that you can put into place to minimise the likelihood of false allegations: • Always follow policy and procedures in relation to behaviour-management practices. • Where possible, minimise physical contact with students. • If you need to take a student aside to address an issue, try to do so in sight of others. • Under no circumstances use physical punishment. • Where you are responsible for the personal care of a student, with the teacher, parents and student (if appropriate), discuss how and where these duties are to be performed. • Always treat each student with dignity and respect. • Avoid engaging in arguments with students. • Remember that if you get angry or upset it is best to walk away – take five minutes to calm down. • Where you have been involved in a confrontation or incident of concern with a student, you should report the situation as soon as possible and try to accurately record the incident. The Government of South Australia (2017) has published an excellent resource on protective behaviours: Protective Practices for Staff in Their Interactions with Children and Young People.
Summary Your responsibilities as an ESW include understanding the legislative requirements for child protection in your state or territory. Child abuse is a complex problem that occurs for many different reasons. Although there can be common factors that contribute to abuse, every situation is unique. As an ESW, it is important that you can recognise the different types and dynamics of abuse as they apply to age, gender, disability and culture, and understand your legal and ethical obligations to report suspected abuse. You should ensure that you are familiar with the notification procedures and protocols within your school. Child protection is a challenging issue that can generate a range of emotional responses, such as anger, shock, disbelief or sadness. It may also raise personal issues for adults who have themselves been the subject of abuse or neglect. Every adult who works with children has a responsibility to act always in the best interests of the child. Remember, it is the right of every child to feel and be safe.
Discussion questions 1
Discuss the above protective behaviour strategies and identify why it is important to always act in ways that minimise the risk of false allegations.
2 Read the following scenario and discuss the responses of ESWs Mitch, Marley, Cameron and Cassie in relation to children and young people’s right to be safe from harm.
ESW Cassie and her colleagues are attending a one-day child-protection workshop. Over lunch, Cassie and her colleagues discuss what they would do if they suspected a student was being abused.
Mitch: ‘Well I’d say nothing. It’s not our job, it’s the teacher’s. There’s no way I’d get involved.’ Marley: ‘I honestly don’t know what I’d do. I would like to think I would speak up, but the reality
is I’d probably be like Mitch and not want to get involved.’ Cameron: ‘I think it would depend on the circumstances. If I knew the student’s family I could probably make an assessment about whether or not
3 Assume you are an ESW assigned to support Tom (10 years), who uses a wheelchair. Over the past few weeks you have noticed what appear to be fingertip bruises appearing on Tom’s lower arms and face. When you ask him about them, he looks uncomfortable and tells you that he got them ‘mucking around with his brother’. What should you do?
something was going on. I wouldn’t want to accuse parents without good reason.’ Cassie: ‘Well, I’m surprised at all of you. We just heard that most kids don’t make up stories about abuse and if you suspect you should act.’
4 Read the following two scenarios about Eddie and Esther and answer these questions for each: a Identify the possible triggers for the abuse/neglect. b Identify possible indicators of possible abuse/neglect.
EDDIE
ESTHER
Eddie (9 years) is one of six children – he has three older brothers and two younger sisters. Eddie’s three brothers are from his mother’s first marriage, Eddie’s father is no longer on the scene and the girls’ father currently resides in the family home. The family lives in a three-bedroom rental property. Eddie’s mother, June, is a stay-at-home mother. She left school at 15 and has no formal qualifications. She had her first child at 17. June’s current partner, Collin, is self-employed. He has a lawn maintenance business which is currently struggling due to persistent wet weather. Collin is quite a heavy drinker and when under the influence he can be very verbally and physically aggressive. Collin says Eddie is a wimp. He often taunts Eddie and tells him he should be a girl because he isn’t interested in sport and prefers to draw and read. He tells June that ‘the boy needs to be roughened-up’. Collin often lashes out at Eddie if he is drunk. Eddie tells his mother he hates Collin and wishes he could kill him. Her typical response is, ‘He’s only nasty when he’s drunk. Just keep out of his way.’ Eddie often presents with bruising of different colours on his face, the backs of his legs and his upper arms. He tells the teacher that he ‘falls over a lot’. Eddie often wears the same clothes to school all week, and appears not to have showered. His skin is pale and his hair is dull and limp.
Esther (13 years) lives with her mother, step-father and two younger step-siblings. Esther’s mother is a nurse and often works at night. Esther sees her father every second weekend. Esther presents as sullen and mistrustful. She argues with her teachers and is often on detention. Esther has a small group of friends who are regarded by most students as bullies and misfits. Esther refuses to participate in any form of physical activity. She appears to have a total lack of empathy for anyone. She often laughs at the misfortunes of others and takes any opportunity to taunt or humiliate her peers. In both summer and winter Esther always wears a long-sleeved top over her uniform to hide her arms. Esther cuts herself almost every night. She tells her best friend Maddy that she hates herself because she is ugly and stupid. She fantasises about running away from home and stays overnight with her friends whenever she can. All her friends know that Esther hates her stepfather, whom she refers to as ‘the creep’. Esther tells her friends that ‘the creep’ is always leering at her and trying to touch her. Esther has tried to tell her mother about her stepfather’s behaviour but her mother responds by saying Esther is just trying to make trouble. Esther desperately wants to go and live full-time with her father but this isn’t possible as he travels a lot for work.
CHILD PROTECTION
123
Self-check questions 1
2
3 4 5 6
Answer the following questions about the Child Safe Standards (Victoria). a What are the key principles of the Child Safe Standards (Victoria)? b If, like Victoria, every state/territory had in place Child Safe Standards, would this contribute to reducing the incidence of child abuse and neglect in Australia? Why or why not? What is the aim of the National Framework for Protecting Australia’s Children 2009–2020 (the National Framework)? In your own words, explain the purpose of a Working with Children Check (WCC). Explain the term ‘mandatory reporting’. What concerns constitute reasonable grounds of ‘risk of harm’? Why abuse occurs and indicators of abuse: a What are the two most common substantiated forms of abuse?
b
What are the four interrelated factors that are commonly used to explain why abuse occurs? c Who are the perpetrators of child abuse? d Why is child sexual abuse considered to be the most repugnant form of child abuse? e What should be taken into account when considering possible indicators of abuse? f Why are children with disabilities three times more likely to be abused than non-disabled children? 7 Protecting children and young people a What should you do if a child or young person discloses to you? b What action should you take if you suspect that a child is at risk of serious harm? c What information are you typically required to provide if a formal notification is made? d What reservations might you have about making a formal notification of possible risk of harm?
Activities 1
Connect the term (on the left) to the matching description. Notification
Substantiation
A statement without proof that someone has perpetrated abuse against a child or young person. Revealing that some form of abuse has occurred. A child may fully disclose – that is, tell someone they have been or are being abused and provide details of the abuse and the perpetrator. Partial disclosure means that the child will hint or allude to being abused but not provide specific details.
Allegation
After investigation, it was concluded that there was reasonable cause to believe that the child had been, was being or was likely to be abused, neglected or otherwise harmed.
Disclosure
Contacts made to an authorised department by persons or other bodies making allegations of child abuse or neglect, child maltreatment or harm to a child.
2 Refer to Figure 5.4. Read each example and suggest a trigger or contributing factor. • Cassie (30 years) punishes her son, Jack (8 years) for swearing by beating him with a leather belt. She justifies her treatment by saying, ‘Dad used to belt me when I was a kid – it’s how you teach kids to behave.’
•
• •
Abbi tells everyone that her son, Ethan (4 years) is her special little mate and best friend. ‘He always looks out for me.’ Indira tells her son that he is ‘just like his father – lazy, worthless and good for nothing’. Alex smacks 18-month-old Dana for ‘deliberately’ splashing water onto the floor when having a bath.
PART
SUPPORTING LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT
B
Chapter 6 INTRODUCTION TO CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to demonstrate that, in relation to working in a school environment, you can: 6.1
identify the domains and principles of child development
6.2 identify the environmental and biological factors that influence development 6.3 explain the relationship between the domains of development, the brain and the environmental context 6.4 describe how the curriculum reflects the progression of child development from simple to complex.
Introduction This section of the textbook provides an overview of child and adolescent development, and explores how ESWs can facilitate and support learning. When you have completed it, you should be able to demonstrate that you can apply child development knowledge to support physical, social and emotional, cognitive and language development of students.
INTRODUCTION TO CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
125
The study of child development is a large and complex area, and development of an in-depth knowledge of child development will require ongoing study and research. This section examines the key principles of child development and introduces you to the domains of development. Key theories of development are also presented at an introductory level. The aim is to assist you to better understand the reciprocal relationship between growth, development and learning. This understanding is essential if you are to work with children and young people to support their acquisition of skills and knowledge in a developmentally appropriate manner. Knowledge of child development can contribute to appropriate planning and implementation of learning activities.
6.1 Learning and development A theory is a set of general principles or beliefs that can be applied consistently to explain or describe something – in this case, human development. Theorists study these principles by testing them, challenging them, adding to them, modifying them or offering new theories or explanations about human development. The Figure 6.1 Stages of child and adolescent study of human development is complex and challenging, but at the development (approximate ages) same time it is quite amazing. Theorists have been studying human development for many years, and there is now a substantial body of foundation knowledge and set of underlying principles to help us to Late early childhood 6–8 years understand how humans grow, develop and learn. Learning and development are intricately intertwined – you cannot understand one without understanding the other. While there is no single, universally accepted theory of human development, collectively Middle childhood 8–10 years they can be used to help us to better understand the complex nature of development, which in turn informs and influences educational practices. Theories of development and learning influence curriculum design and pedagogical (teaching) practices so that children and young Early adolescence 10–14 years people can be supported to reach their full potential. It is important to be aware that each child develops at their own unique pace. Ages and stages of development associated with various theories of development and developmental charts should therefore be regarded as approximate. The degree to which varying factors shape Middle adolescence 15–16 years and influence development is also unique to each child. The journey from childhood to adolescence and finally adulthood is marked by significant developmental milestones. This period is typically divided into five stages, as shown in Figure 6.1. While a range is assigned Late adolescence 17–21 years to each stage, this should be regarded as a rough guide only, as each child will develop at their own unique developmental pace.
Domains of development The study of child development typically begins with an understanding of the domains of development, typically referred to as physical, social, emotional, cognitive and language development.
As a beginning learner of child development, it is critical that you have a thorough understanding of each domain, the typical sequence of each domain of development and the interrelationship of each domain of development – that is, how each domain is dependent on and influenced by all other domains of development. It is also important to consider the biological, social and cultural context of each child in order to build a realistic understanding of the unique nature of each child’s development. A sound knowledge of developmental domains will help you gain an understanding of how children develop and what typically can be expected during each stage of development as the child matures. The traditional domains of development are outlined in Figure 6.2. Figure 6.2 Traditional domains of development Domains of development
Details
Physical development
Gross motor development – the large muscles in the body, such as legs, arms and chest Fine motor development – the small muscles such as those in the hands, fingers, lips and tongue. Hand–eye coordination is an example of fine motor development Growth and maturation
Social/emotional development
Self-regulation, self-concept, self-esteem, emotional intelligence, relationships with others
Language development
Speech – production of sounds (articulation) and voice quality Receptive language (understanding or comprehending) and expressive language (verbal and non-verbal communication)
Cognitive (intellectual) development
Information processing (thinking, concentrating, imagining, problemsolving, using logic, organising information and using symbols) memory and recall Language and cognitive development are closely linked
The principles of child development The study of child development has resulted in the establishment of several concepts that underpin our understanding of development. The common terms and phrases used in the study of child development are outlined in Figure 6.3. Figure 6.4 presents the core concepts of child development. Figure 6.3 Typical terms and phrases used in the study of child development
Definition Basic human needs
All humans have basic needs that must be met if they are to thrive and develop to their potential. These include: > physical needs: shelter, protection, food, warmth, health care, rest and activity > psychological needs: affection, consistency, security, trust, quality interactions, appropriate expectations, acceptance and positive attitudes towards unique characteristics; for example, cultural, ethnic and developmental differences > opportunities to learn: access to developmentally appropriate play that fosters development in all areas > respect and self-esteem: a respectful and supportive environment, where efforts and accomplishments are appreciated and acknowledged.
INTRODUCTION TO CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
127
Growth and development Growth
Physical changes – for example, height, weight. Growth occurs throughout a person’s life and the rate of growth varies, with infancy and adolescence identified as rapid growth periods.
Development
Concerned with how organisms change over time. The changes that take place as part of growth and development are the result of two processes: maturation and learning.
Learning
Refers to a permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience. Learning is dependent on a person’s environment.
Maturation
Refers to changes that result from a person’s individual, biologically determined developmental pathway. It is determined by internal signals and not influenced by the environment – for example, when teeth erupt, an infant is ready to eat solid food. Through observation, we are able to see how children change as part of the developmental process.
Changes in development can be measured in two ways: Quantitative change
Changes that involve an increase or decrease and can be measured by: > comparing an individual’s development at different times in their life > comparing an individual’s development with that of other children of the same age.
Qualitative change
Changes to the ‘quality’ of a function or process – for example, the gradual improvement in handwriting.
The pace of development Sequence of development
Refers to the predictable series of steps or stages through which most children typically progress as part of the developmental process – for example, sitting to creeping to crawling to walking.
Individual differences
Each child’s developmental timetable is unique – while most children will progress through the same sequence of development, the timing of this development is unique to each individual.
Readiness
Refers to the period when a child has all the prerequisite skills and opportunities to master the next step in the developmental sequence. Readiness is linked to maturation. One term you are likely to hear often is ‘school readiness’, which refers to the emotional and social skills necessary for children to confidently transition to a formal school setting.
Normal or ‘typical’ growth and development or ‘age-appropriate’ development
These terms are often used when exploring child development to describe development that falls within what has come to be regarded as typical development for an age range. For example, a toddler who first walks at 9 months and a toddler who first walks at 13 months would both be within the normal range of physical development. Even children who share the same parents and the same home environment will develop at their own unique pace.
Developmental milestones
This refers to the acquisition of significant skills or events in a child’s life. For example, when babies take their first steps, they have reached an important milestone that signals that they are entering the toddler stage.
Developmental profiles
Refers to a group of understandings, skills or behaviours that can normally be expected of children of a particular age or stage.
Stages of development
Each stage of development is linked to an approximate age range and a set of behaviours and skills that generally are thought to be ‘typical’ of an age/ stage of development. However, it is important to be aware that a wide range of factors influence each child’s developmental pathway and progression.
Figure 6.4 Core concepts of child development
Concept
Explanation
Development at one stage lays the foundation for later development
‘Normal’ development is dependent on the child proceeding through each stage of development. Children should not be hurried or pushed to skip a stage; they must be allowed time for learning at each stage.
Development moves from simple to complex and from general to specific
Children’s development becomes more complex in all areas as they move through each stage of development; the child moves through a developmental sequence for each developmental domain.
Development occurs in a predictable sequence
Individuals develop according to a timetable and pace. The timing and length of each stage can vary from one individual to another; however, the sequence remains the same.
There are optimal periods in development
Learning occurs most easily when children are developmentally ‘ready’. If a child is not physically, emotionally, socially or cognitively ‘ready’ then no amount of ‘teaching’ will make learning happen easily.
Development results from the interaction of biological factors (maturation) and environmental factors (learning)
As children mature, they become ‘ready’ to learn new things. The environment or circumstances in which the child lives will affect the child’s opportunities to learn.
One area of development affects and influences another area of development
Physical, cognitive, emotional and social development are integrated and are all equally important.
The concept of the ‘whole child’ While the study of child and adolescent development necessitates an examination of growth and development in each domain, it is important to keep the concept of the whole child in mind – the idea that each domain of development is influenced by and dependent on all other domains of development, and all development is influenced by genetic and environmental factors unique to each child. This concept is particularly important when working with students with disabilities. For example, a student with a language delay or speech impairment may, as a direct influence of that delay/impairment, have poor social skills and find it difficult to form friendships because other students may avoid or exclude a student who is difficult to understand. The concept of the whole child also emphasises a balanced assessment of the student – not simply focusing on the student’s disabilities or weakness but also taking into account the student’s strengths and interests. Every child and adolescent will have some common features as they grow and develop; however, no two children will be exactly alike, and no two children will follow the same developmental pathway. Even children born into the same family, living in the same home with the same parents and experiencing the same upbringing will develop in their own unique way. This is best understood by studying Uri Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems theory of development. Bronfenbrenner believed that development was influenced by the child’s interaction with the environment, which occurs within the context of the child’s culture. Bronfenbrenner’s theory focuses on a sociocultural view of development and suggests that there are five layers or systems of sociocultural influences on the developing child. Each system is further removed from the child and reflects the broader social, political and economic factors that
INTRODUCTION TO CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
129
operate within a society. It also argues that the individual’s interactions at each level demonstrate that the individual is also actively engaged in constructing their own social meaning and not merely a passive agent. Bronfenbrenner compared his ecological systems theory (Figure 6.5) with babushka dolls that nest one inside the other – separate yet connected. Each system is influenced by the other systems and represents a dynamic model of development. Figure 6.5 Ecological systems theory
Source: Based on Bronfenbrenner (1979).
At the heart of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory is the child within the family. Bronfenbrenner argues that the family is the primary socialising agent, and even though external factors become increasingly important as the child matures the family remains the cornerstone for social and emotional development. Radiating outwards from the family are the social and cultural systems that influence and shape the child’s development. Bronfenbrenner uses the term ‘bi-directional influences’ to describe the relationships that exist within and between the child and the various microsystems. These relationships both influence and are influenced by the child. The first and most critical system is the microsystem, which includes roles and interpersonal relationships such as family, childcare services, school, the local neighbourhood and memberships of organisations or clubs. The mesosystem serves as links among microsystems, such as the relationship between home and school, parents and friends. The exosystem is described as the social system one step removed from the child. The exosystem has an indirect impact on the child’s development because of the connection with the family unit – for example, a parent’s place of employment, and access to family and community services. Radiating further from the child and family is the macrosystem, which includes the cultural values, laws and customs of the community in which the child and family live. The final influencing factor is the chronosystem, which reflects the social and historical timeframe in which the child’s life is set.
Bronfenbrenner’s theory demonstrates that socialisation does not occur in isolation, and that while the family is the key socialising agent, there are many factors that may impact on social development. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of child development helps us to understand how child development can be influenced by the environment and how in turn the child can influence the environment. Figure 6.6 represents the many influences that impact on and influence each child’s development from birth well into young adulthood. The individual temperament and personality of each child are significant factors in how external factors might shape an individual’s development. Figure 6.6 Every child and adolescent is exposed to a wide range of factors that influence development Exposure to attitudes of fairness, equity, respect, tolerance
Life chances – opportunities to play and learn
Ethnicity/culture
Media and technology
Education
Genetics
Support systems – family, friends, community services, health services
Geographic location and dwelling
Child-rearing practices
Diet
Religion
Moral influences
Safety – exposure to violence, abuse, war, racism
Exposure to extreme ideologies Source: iStock.com/vitapix.
Scenario
INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT Ali (12 years) has now resettled in Australia after spending two years in a detention centre with his aunt, uncle, younger brothers and cousins. Four years ago, Ali’s parents, grandparents and two older sisters were killed when a bomb landed on their house while they were sleeping. Ali will carry the horror of his experiences with him for the rest of his life. Ali last went to school when he was 6 years old. He is quiet and withdrawn – he rarely smiles and only contributes to class discussion if the teacher directs a question specifically to him. Rhett (12 years) lives with his parents and two younger brothers in an affluent inner-city area. Rhett attends a private school and has enjoyed a happy, secure childhood. The family spends weekends going on picnics
with the extended family, bike rides and various cultural and sporting events. Rhett is a struggling reader and attends a special reading intervention program at his school. Rhett is becoming increasingly embarrassed and frustrated by his poor reading skills. Myles (12 years) lives with his mother and two younger stepsisters in a high-rise public housing estate. Myles has never had contact with his father. Myles misses a great deal of school because his mother has a chronic health condition and he stays at home to care for her and his younger sisters. Myles can barely read or write. He is described by his mother as ‘an old head on young shoulders’. Nasser (12 years) has Down syndrome. He lives at home with his parents and three older siblings. Nasser is
INTRODUCTION TO CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
131
a much-loved member of a large extended family. Next year, Nasser will attend a life skills program at a high school a few suburbs away. His family is very positive about Nasser’s future. Evan (12 years) has a chronic health condition that requires frequent bouts of hospital care. Over the years Evan has missed the equivalent of four years of schooling. His mother has tried home schooling but finds it difficult to manage as she also has two younger children and a husband who is a long-distance truck driver. Because he is often housebound, Evan has very few friends. He presents as shy and lacking in confidence when around other children his own age.
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Each of these 12-year-olds is in the early adolescent stage of development. Each child has a unique set of factors that have influenced and shaped their development. Each child will face unique learning challenges that will need to be considered in the classroom environment. " DISCUSSION
Taking into account the diversity of children and young people’s development and life experiences, is the current age/grade system the best option for teachers and students? What might be a better option?
6.2 Child development and culture: Environmental and biological factors When studying child development, it is also important to be aware that development does not occur in isolation but rather in a dynamic social and cultural context that is unique to each individual. Even within a family unit, social and cultural influences may be unique for each child. This is also true in the broader context of the community – that is, each family is unique in terms of its values, beliefs and practices. Rogoff (2003) defines culture as the common way in which participants in a community share skills and knowledge. She claims that both individual and group functions contribute to the concept of culture, and that culture should be viewed as dynamic rather than static. She believes that the traditional view of culture as a static collection of traditions, values, beliefs and practices is too simplistic, and that culture is better described as a complex and dynamic process of relationships between the individual and their sociocultural context. Culture is thus an interwoven series of interactions between an individual and the community in which they live. Rogoff also believes that biology and culture function together and contribute to both similarities and differences in human behaviour. The process of learning is also viewed as both biological and sociocultural in nature. That is, we learn because of our biological predisposition to learn and through socialisation within our cultural setting.
Cultural identity The term sociocultural context refers to all the factors that influence a person’s development and behaviour. Each of us belongs to a cultural group that is made up of people who share a common language, as well as a common set of values, beliefs and behaviours that have been learned from other people within the cultural group. Other factors often used to identify a cultural group include class, race, nationality, ethnicity, customs and artefacts. A strong cultural identity gives people a sense of belonging and promotes positive self-esteem and self-confidence. People feel most comfortable within their own cultural group. Our culture influences all aspects of our life – for example, the way we think and learn, how we relate to others, our beliefs about the roles of males and females, motherhood and fatherhood, and our beliefs about the role of the family. Importantly, our culture also shapes our sense of self as part of the family and the broader community.
Scenario
MY CULTURE An inner-city high school with a large Aboriginal population has adopted a range of strategies to create a sense of belonging for Aboriginal students. There are images of Aboriginal culture displayed throughout the school, Aboriginal dance groups, an Aboriginal student council supported by community elders, and several staff, including the school principal, are Aboriginal. What the students say: ‘I like it here because there’s lots of my mob here.’ ‘Mr Kennell, the bossman, is the best! He can play the didg.’
‘Yeah, Mr Kennell makes us work hard you know. But that’s good because we can grow up to be leaders.’ ‘The teachers listen to us, you know. We respect them, and they respect us. It’s good, man.’ WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
A sense of belonging is essential if students are to feel connected to their school, want to come to school and want to learn. For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students, this extends to an environment that acknowledges and respects Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander culture.
Biological factors As well as social and cultural influences, child development is shaped by biological factors. The significant developmental changes from middle childhood to young adulthood are marked by physical growth, strength and agility, sexual maturity, and the ability to think abstractly, engage in self-reflection and address moral issues, and use language in more complex ways. During adolescence, the brain moves into its final stage of development of the frontal lobe, which controls behaviour, reasoning and rational thinking. Feinstein (2009: 125) reports that ‘the volatility of adolescent behaviour is, in part, caused by lack of emotional regulation in the frontal cortex’. The brain continues to refine itself but does not reach full maturity until 23–25 years of age. Each person is born with an inherited genetic blueprint that will determine many, although not all, developmental outcomes. These biological (or heredity) factors include: • sex – boys traditionally mature later than girls • physical attributes – body shape, agility, strength, athleticism • personality – children are born with a personality type and, while this can’t be changed, it can be modified by relationships with nurturing adults • intelligence – the brain continues to develop well into young adulthood. Amazingly, brain research has demonstrated that our genetic makeup can be altered by experience. This occurs as a direct result of human interactions and sensory stimulation. It has now been established that while our genes determine when specific brain circuits or wiring occur, it is sensory experience that shapes their formation. While many of these biological factors – for example, physical characteristics such as eye colour or shape of face – are predetermined and cannot be changed easily, other biological factors can be shaped or modified by the environment. How the child interacts with and experiences the social environment and the physical environment will thus affect the child’s development. Environmental factors that can shape or influence biological factors include: • the presence of consistent nurturing relationships, firstly and most importantly within the family unit and later extending to significant others (teachers, peers, coaches). Nurturing relationships are critical to healthy emotional development and have a significant impact on the developing brain. • the way in which the physical environment supports the child’s health and wellbeing – for example, adequate nutrition, a physical environment that provides adequate safety and shelter. INTRODUCTION TO CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
133
6.3 Child development and the brain Brain research is contributing significantly to our understanding of human development. This research is not only providing new knowledge about how the brain develops, but has shown how development is influenced and shaped by the environment. Understanding the architecture of the brain, and how human relationships and the environment impact on brain development, is critical for all educators. The brain is the only unfinished organ at birth. It is built over time and a substantial proportion is constructed during the early years of life. The brain is built ‘from the bottom up’, with simple circuits and skills providing the scaffolding for more advanced circuits and skills over time. The primary task of the brain in early childhood is making the connections between brain cells. Babies are born with 100 billion nerve cells, called neurons. Every neuron has an axon that sends information out to other neurons and several dendrites that receive information. As axons ‘wire up’ to dendrites, trillions of connections called synapses are formed. The synapses are activated when stimulation occurs. The first three years of life are the most critical for the development of synapses. Synapses that are used repeatedly become permanent; those that are not used are eliminated. The brain continues to refine itself throughout the middle years, and adolescent period and young adulthood until it reaches final maturity at around the age of 23–25 years. Brain research confirms that development does not occur in isolation but is a result of complex interactions between biological and environmental factors. Cognitive, emotional and social capabilities are inextricably linked – they are the ‘bricks and mortar’ that comprise the foundation for human development. The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (2004: 8–10) identified five key factors that contribute to and influence development: 1 Culture. This influences every aspect of human development and is reflected in: > child-rearing beliefs > the quality of interactions between the child and significant adults, and > factors such as nutrition and health care. 2 Self-regulation. Allows children and young people to manage their own behaviour by making good choices, paying attention, ignoring distractions and controlling impulsive behaviours. The growth of self-regulation is a cornerstone of development that cuts across all domains of behaviour. 3 Human relationships. Children and young people learn about human relationships through experience. The equality of relationships experienced by children and young people, first within the family and later with friends, teachers and others in the community, are the building blocks of healthy social and emotional development. 4 Individual differences. While development generally occurs in a predictable sequence, each child will develop at their own unique pace. Development can be gradual and almost seamless (for example, moving from creeping to crawling) or it may be much more dynamic, such as the change from crawling to walking, which opens a whole new world of possibilities for the child. 5 Stressors. Toxic stress such as poor health, poverty, child abuse, exposure to domestic violence, substance addiction and poor adult mental health in early childhood can damage the developing brain and lead to lifelong problems in learning, behaviour, and both physical and mental health.
Brain development during middle childhood and adolescence The brain continues to develop until around the mid-twenties. During middle childhood, the brain continues to refine executive functions such as self-regulation, planning, organising, reasoning and working memory. This is an important period for consolidating and clarifying skills and knowledge, and learning how to apply skills and knowledge to solve problems and answer questions that require deeper thinking. During adolescence, the brain enters its final critical period of development. Duchesne and colleagues (2019: 51) state that: The adolescent brain enters a new ‘critical period’ of development during which two processes appear to underpin the emergence of the adult brain. First, as the grey matter of the cerebral cortex completes development, a process of synapse pruning begins, resulting in an adult brain that is actually less dense in grey matter than the childhood brain. This process of pruning is believed to make communication between different regions of the cerebral cortex extremely efficient. A second process also speeds up communication between different areas of the brain.
Duchesne and colleagues (2019: 51) report that the frontal lobe, which in part controls behaviour and impulse control, develops slowly during the adolescent period and is not yet mature: ‘this may explain limitations in their thinking and reasoning skills’. It is also suggested that this may be a reason why adolescents engage in risk-taking behaviour. Scenario
SELF-REGULATION Aaron and Caiden (both 11 years) have been best mates since kindergarten. They share the same birthday and live in the same street. Aaron is quiet and cautious while Caiden is outgoing and a risk-taker. Caiden is always taking risks and leading Aaron astray. Today, Caiden shows Aaron a can of shaving cream that he stole from his parents’ bathroom. Caiden wants to spray the shaving cream on the windscreen of a teacher’s car. Aaron is horrified by the
idea. He is also surprised that Caiden would steal from his own family. He tells Caiden they will get into serious trouble but Caiden simply laughs and says it will be fun. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Each child’s ability to self-regulate develops at its own unique pace. It also indicates that Aaron and Caiden are at different stages of moral development.
Consider This
EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS Executive function is developed primarily in the prefrontal cortex of the brain and includes working memory, flexible thinking and inhibitory control (selfcontrol). The prefrontal cortex is not thought to be fully developed until at least the mid-twenties. Executive function is responsible for the following skills: • paying attention – identifying what is important and attending to it • organising and planning – this can include goal setting, planning your day, planning steps to complete a task, the ability to sequence a task in a logical manner • initiating a task and staying focused and on-task while ignoring distractions • regulating emotions – the ability to make rational as opposed to emotional decisions; the ability to maintain self-discipline and avoid impulsive behaviours; the ability
•
to assess and respond to risky situations and make choices based on the degree of risk self-monitoring – remembering what you are doing (working memory); knowing, understanding and working towards an end-goal. Source: Mental Health Daily (2015).
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
The fact that executive functioning is not fully developed until the twenties tells us that many of the behaviours we see in adolescents, such as poor decision-making, risktaking behaviour, impulsive behaviour and poor planning skills, can be attributed to the immature development of the frontal cortex. It explains why teenagers behave in ways that are risky and impulsive, and tells us that teenagers still need adult guidance and supervision as they transition to adulthood.
INTRODUCTION TO CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
135
Brain development influences all domains of development. Our growing understanding of brain development highlights the concept of the whole child – all domains are intertwined intricately. Each domain influences and is influenced by all other domains. In turn, the brain is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors, all of which contribute to the uniqueness of each child as they mature and engage in learning.
6.4 Development and the curriculum
Link to the Australian Curriculum
A curriculum typically specifies content and skills – that is, what children should know (knowledge content) and be able to do (skills content). It often describes the type of learning that will take place and the expected outcomes that will be achieved by the learners. Curricula are usually written around subject or knowledge areas, such as numeracy or literacy, and typically describe a progression of skills, knowledge and capabilities from beginning or foundation level to the final year of school. In Australia, the curriculum is linked to grades, which are in turn age related – students progress through each stage of the curriculum based on their age and grade. At the time of writing, the appropriateness of an age/grade-related curriculum is being questioned with a view to creating greater flexibility. This would allow students to progress through the seven general capabilities in the Australian Curriculum at their own pace, and account for the unevenness of maturity of each developmental domain. The change would acknowledge that children may have superior mastery in some curriculum areas and therefore progress more quickly in these areas, while others may need more time to progress through curriculum content. In the Australian Curriculum, the general capabilities describe what can reasonably be expected of students at a particular year/level. The curriculum content describes the knowledge, understanding and skills that are to be taught in each year level or stage of schooling (continua). The learning progressions describe the steps of literacy and numeracy development and, unlike the general capabilities, are not organised by year levels or stages of schooling.
The role of the ESW As an ESW, your role is to support the acquisition and application of skills and knowledge in a manner and at a pace that best suit the needs of the learner and as prescribed by the teacher. Children and young people learn best through hands-on learning, exploration and practice. Learning requires repeated exposure to new knowledge and the opportunity to practise and apply knowledge in a variety of ways and situations. ESWs are directed and guided by the teacher, who designs learning activities based on what is known about each student’s readiness and abilities as a learner. Teachers working with students in Grades K–6 will typically group students according to ability and provide learning experiences that allow students to learn at a pace that best suits their learning needs. ESWs support the teacher to deliver learning activities by working alongside students to provide guidance and support. Having a sound knowledge of child and adolescent development allows ESWs to work with students in ways that best support each student’s learning and development.
Summary A sound knowledge of child and adolescent development will assist you to better understand what can reasonably be expected as a student progresses through each stage of development. Each stage provides the foundation for the next stage of development. In turn, learning occurs when children can apply what they already know, understand and can do to new and novel situations. Child development theory tells us that the progression of development, while linear, is unique to each child and is dependent upon a range of genetic and environmental factors. The following section of the text explores each individual domain and the interconnectedness of these domains.
Discussion question 1
Discuss the following statement by drawing on your own sense of belonging to a culture: ‘A strong cultural
identity gives people a sense of belonging and promotes positive self-esteem and self-confidence.’
Self-check questions 1
Explain the term ‘curriculum’ in the context of Australian schools. 2 Briefly describe Bronfenbrenner’s basic belief in relation to child development. Which of Bronfenbrenner’s systems refers to the relationship between home and school, parents and friends? 3 How does Rogoff define the concept of culture? What is the meaning of the term ‘sociocultural context’?
4 List four heredity or biological factors that influence development. List the five key factors that influence child development as identified by the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. 5 Define the concept of self-regulation. 6 List the three elements of executive functioning. Describe five skills related to executive functioning.
Activities 1
Connect the concept (on the left) to the matching description. Growth
Developmental milestones Developmental profiles Readiness The whole child Learning Sequence of development Stages of development
Refers to a permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience. Learning is dependent on a person’s environment. Refers to the period when a child has all the prerequisite skills and opportunities to master the next step in the developmental sequence. Physical changes – for example, height, weight. Refers to the predictable series of steps or stages that most children typically progress through as part of the developmental process. Acquisition of significant skills or events in a child’s life. Each stage of development is linked to an approximate age range and a set of behaviours and skills that are generally thought to be ‘typical’ of an age/stage of development. Refers to a group of understandings, skills or behaviours that can normally be expected of children of a particular age or stage. Each domain of development is influenced by and dependent on all other domains of development, and all development is influenced by genetic and environmental factors unique to each child.
INTRODUCTION TO CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
137
Chapter 7 PHYSICAL GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to demonstrate that, in relation to working in a school environment, you can:
GO further Go Further icons link to extra content for this chapter. Ask your instructor for the Go Further resource and deepen your understanding of the topic.
7.1
describe the process of physical development
7.2 identify the key characteristics of physical development during middle childhood 7.3 identify the key characteristics of physical development during puberty and adolescence 7.4 understand the factors that influence physical development and describe strategies for supporting physical development in the classroom.
Introduction When beginning the study of child and adolescent development, a good starting point is physical development, as it is easily observable. Physical development is most rapid during the first three years of life. During this relatively short period, children move from total dependency to being able to do many things for themselves. Healthy physical development during this period is dependent not only on good nutrition, adequate health care and opportunities for physical activity, but also on a loving, supportive and nurturing environment.
7.1 The process of physical development Physical development (also referred to as motor development) is a complex process that begins in the womb, involving muscle tissue, tendons, bones, joints and nerves. Brain development influences and is also influenced by motor development. Physical growth occurs in a predictable pattern – motor skills tend to develop in the same universal sequence across all cultures. Females usually reach physical maturity around 16 years of age while for males it is at around 18 years of age. Mastery of motor skills will vary according to genetic predisposition and environmental factors. Motor development includes both quantitative physiological change (increased strength allows walking to develop) and qualitative change (motor skills improve with practice). Two of the basic principles related to growth are referred to as cephalocaudal development and proximodistal development. Cephalocaudal development refers to the direction of the body’s physical growth, reflected in the order in which parts of the body become larger and the order in which functions and structures become more complex. Cephalocaudal development progresses from head to foot. The infant gains control of their head movement, then their neck, shoulders, back, hips, legs and feet (see Figure 7.1). Figure 7.1 Cephalocaudal development: Changes in body proportions (prenatal to adult)
2 months (foetal)
5 months (foetal)
Newborn
2 years
6 years
12 years
25 years
Source: Sigelman, C.K. (1999), Lifespan Human Development, Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks Cole.
Proximodistal development is the progression of physical and motor development from the centre of the body towards the extremities. For example, an infant learns to control the muscles of their chest and shoulders before they can control their arms, hands or fingers The study of physical development includes three broad areas: gross motor development – the development and coordination of large muscles such as • those in the arms, legs, back, chest and abdominals • fine motor development – the development and coordination of small muscles such as those in fingers, hands, toes, eyes and the face • perceptual motor development – the ability to receive, interpret and respond successfully to sensory information. Perceptual motor development is critical to cognitive development.
PHYSICAL GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
139
Each area of motor development influences, and is influenced by, all other areas of motor development. Like all other areas of development, motor skills develop at uneven rates – for example, gross motor skills develop and are refined more quickly than fine motor skills.
Gross motor skills Gross motor development refers to the development of large muscles used for walking, running, climbing, jumping, hopping and so on. It includes the skills outlined in Figure 7.2. Each of these skills is refined over time. Figure 7.2 Gross motor skills (also referred to as fundamental movement skills)
Skill
Explanation
‘Body-management skills involve balancing the body in stillness and in motion. Examples are: static and dynamic balancing, rolling, stopping, landing, bending, stretching, twisting, turning, swinging, and climbing.’ Stability and mobility
Some physical activity requires the ability to control movement in a purposeful way and manipulate objects – for example, join connecting blocks.
Weight shift and weight bearing
Learning to control movement in three dimensions through weight shift and weight bearing is important for movements where it is necessary to change the position of the body – for example, running and climbing.
Reduction of unwanted background movement
Moving only those body parts required for purposeful movement – for example, keeping the legs still while sitting at a table completing a writing task.
Balancing muscle length and strength
This skill is necessary for control of the head and trunk and for reaching. It is essential that each muscle group be flexed and stretched to full use. Preschool children who have not refined this skill may, for example, persistently run on their tiptoes.
Proprioceptive development
This is an understanding of where the body is in space – the sense of extremities and how to move the body within a defined space.
‘Locomotor skills involve transporting the body in any direction from one point to another. Examples are crawling, walking, running, hopping, leaping, jumping, galloping, skipping, dodging and swimming.’ Moving one body part independently of another
Children without body control will have difficulty coordinating their movements, such as swinging arms in opposite directions or using alternate feet and hands when climbing.
Strength
This refers to having the power, strength or endurance necessary for movement.
Agility
This is the ability to move quickly and easily.
Flexibility
This refers to having flexible muscles and joints for easy movement.
‘Object-control skills require controlling implements (for example, bats, racquets or hoops) or objects (such as balls), either by hand or foot. Examples are throwing, catching, kicking, striking, bouncing, and dribbling.’ Sequencing and scaling of muscle activity
Learning to sequence and coordinate the movement of muscles so that the correct amount of force is used in a complex task. Children who have not refined this skill can look awkward or clumsy. Children with poor sequencing and scaling of muscle activity may, for example, have a great deal of difficulty applying the correct pressure when writing with a pen.
‘Fundamental Movement Skills (FMS) are movement patterns that involve different body parts such as the legs, arms, trunk and head, and include such skills as running, hopping, catching, throwing, striking and balancing.’ Source: Department of Education WA (2013) ª Department of Education, Western Australia. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
There is no evidence that improvement in movement skills directly improves academic performance. However, increased movement competence can improve self-esteem, self-confidence,
self-management and self-control. In turn, this can affect academic performance and willingness to tackle new challenges, provided that the tasks required are meaningful, relevant, purposeful and appropriate for the child (ª Northern Territory of Australia (Department of Education) 2017. CC-BY-4.0 licence.).
Fine motor skills Fine motor skills involve all functions related to the use of small muscle groups, such as wrist movement or using the palm of the hand and fingers. Mastery of fine motor skills is necessary for children to develop independent self-help skills, such as using utensils for eating, toileting and hand-washing, dressing and undressing. Fine motor skills tend to lag behind cognitive development, which can result in frustration. For example, a child may know the letters needed to form their name but lack the fine motor control needed to write it. During the preschool years, there can be great variation in children’s fine motor capabilities. For example, some four-year-olds will be able to cut around shapes while others have difficulty opening and closing scissors. These skills are usually well developed by 6 to 7 years. Fine motor skills are outlined in Figure 7.3. Figure 7.3 Fine motor skills
Descriptors
Definition
Hand movements
> Development of grasp, which progresses from palmar, digital and static tripod to dynamic tripod grasp > Ability to release objects with precision and control
Intrinsic movements
> Manipulating an object already held in the hand
Extrinsic movements
> Using both hands and upper body movements (gross motor) to manipulate an object – for example, throwing a basketball through a hoop
Simple synergies
> Movement of all fingers and thumb in a similar manner, such as squeezing or pinching
Reciprocal synergies
> Separate movement of fingers and thumb, such as rotating thumb with a closed fist, or tapping fingers while thumb remains stationary
Sequential patterns
> Sequential movement of hands and fingers to perform a specific task. This includes the development of a leading and helping hand to complete tasks that require the coordinated use of two hands, such as tying shoelaces, sharpening a pencil, cutting with scissors or writing on a sheet of paper.
Healthy physical development is an important school readiness factor. Children who arrive at school with age-appropriate fine and gross motor skills are better able to engage in a learning environment that requires them to move around the room, sit for extended periods of time, engage in movement games and manipulate materials for literacy and numeracy.
Sensorimotor development Sensorimotor development is the process of receiving sensory messages and using these messages (sensory input) to produce movement (motor output). This process of input and output is referred to as sensory integration (or sensory processing). It requires the brain to simultaneously receive, process and use, in an integrated manner, all the information being
PHYSICAL GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
141
gathered by the senses. Sensory information, carried by the nervous system, allows the brain to coordinate movement so that the body remains upright and balanced during movement. This process occurs at a subconscious level. Types of sensory information include: Tactile. This sense is used to obtain information about everything that is touched by or • touches the body. It tells us when something is rough, smooth, sharp, hard, prickly and so on. Tactile information also alerts us to danger such as the ‘flight/fight’ process, for example, pulling away from a hot or sharp surface. • Oral. This is the sense of taste. • Visual. This involves detection of light, colour, depth perception and movement. • Auditory. This is the detection of sound. Children can develop hyper-sensitivity to sounds. • Olfactory. This relates to detecting scents/smells. • Proprioceptive. This is awareness of the body’s position in space. It is essential for coordination of movement such as eye–hand and eye–foot coordination, necessary for running, jumping, climbing, balancing, writing and so on. Children with poor proprioceptivity will often be described as clumsy. • Vestibular. This involves the structures in the inner ear that allow for the detection of movement, head position and balance, speed and direction of movement, and eye tracking. Children with a poor vestibular sense may have difficulty with coordinated movement, such as writing, jumping, climbing or walking along a balance beam. From a very early age, babies begin to store, recall and use information obtained from the senses to interpret the world around them. Sensory stimulation is critical to healthy brain development. Research by van Praag (2009) demonstrates that physical activity promotes brain function and improves learning and memory. Engaging in a range of movement contributes significantly to children’s learning. The part of the brain that processes movement, the cerebellum, is the same part of the brain that processes learning. As children develop their motor skills, they also engage in motor learning, they use practice and experience to continually refine their motor skills. Children who have difficulty in processing one or more of their senses are said to have Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD). Students with an SPD may present as awkward, clumsy, tactile defensive, overly sensitive to light, sound, taste and/or movement, or unable to sit still and easily distracted. SPD is explored in Chapter 18.
Perceptual motor skills Perceptual motor learning involves all senses: seeing, hearing, touching, smelling and moving or kinaesthetics. Perceptual development begins with proprioception. Proprioception is an innate sensory motor skill that allows infants to become aware of their body by receiving sensory feedback from involuntary movement of the joints and muscles. At this early stage, the brain is simply processing sensory and vestibular (sense of balance – which way is up) information. Perceptual motor skills are outlined in Figure 7.4. This overview of gross and fine motor skills development should help you to understand why it is important to have a sound knowledge of child development when working with children and young people. Any lags or delays in motor development can have a significant impact on children’s ability to undertake a range of routine tasks in the classroom. For example, students with poor motor skills may present as clumsy and/or unable to sit still, have difficulty with fine motor tasks such as cutting with scissors or writing, and confuse left and right. There is also a
Figure 7.4 Perceptual motor skills
Skill
Explanation
Hand–eye coordination
Using the eye to assist in accurate movement such as writing, drawing, using scissors, grasping and gripping objects, throwing and catching, and coordinating movements for climbing.
Foot–eye coordination
This refers to a child’s ability to use their eyes and feet together to accomplish a task.
Laterality
Internalising the awareness of the difference between right and left and the ability to control the two sides of the body together or separately.
Directionality
An awareness of external space outside of the body and knowledge of directions in relation to left and right, in and out, up and down. This is often confused with laterality.
Kinaesthesia
The function of the senses that sends messages from joints, muscles and ligaments to the brain. Kinaesthesia provides information about the position and movement of limbs and bodies without conscious thought.
Static balance
The ability to maintain balance while remaining stationary. This skill requires vestibular development, which is linked to the inner ear, balance and coordination. Balance refers to the ability to assume and maintain any position against the force of gravity. Maintenance of balance results from the interaction of the muscles working to keep the body on its base.
Body image
This refers to an individual’s concept of their body and its parts.
Visual motor control
The ability to successfully integrate visual and motor responses into a physical action. It enables an individual to control movement and move easily and smoothly from place to place.
Coordination
The ability of the body to integrate the action of the muscles of the body to accomplish a specific movement or a series of skilled movements in the most efficient manner.
Gross motor coordination
This results from the development of the skeletal or large muscles to produce efficient total body movement.
Fine motor coordination
The coordinated use of small muscles resulting from the development of the muscles to the degree that they can perform specific small movements – for example, cutting, writing and grasping.
Spatial awareness/ orientation
This involves the ability to select a reference point to stabilise functions and organise objects into the correct perspective. It involves knowledge of the body and its position, as well as the positions of other people and objects in relation to your body in space. It is closely associated with body image. Source: Capon (1984: 6–7).
well-established connection between physical development and cognitive development. Grissimer and colleagues (2010), cited in Jenkins (2012), state that: there is a clear connection in the circuitry of the brain between areas controlling fine motor skills and areas controlling cognition. These areas are developing simultaneously, with exceptional speed during early brain development. Motor skills are a proven indicator of future math and reading success.
The process of voluntary movement also requires a series of mental processes, such as planning, problem-solving and drawing on stored memory. For most people, this all happens rapidly and subconsciously. For example, if we want to jot something down, we will pick up a pen and, moving from left to right, create a series of symbols to form words that convey our thoughts. Leisman, Moustafa and Shafir (2016) state that this process of planning, preparation and production of movement is referred to as motor cognition. As movement is occurring, the brain is also using feedback from our movements to further refine and direct movement.
PHYSICAL GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
143
Visual and auditory perception skills Visual and auditory perceptual skills are gradually refined as the child matures and the developing brain is able to process or make sense of the information being received. Visual perception is the ability to make sense and meaning out of what you see. Visual discrimination includes the ability to perceive depth, colour and movement. Auditory perception is the process of making sense out of what you hear. The ability to detect, locate and discriminate sounds begins to develop prenatally, and is essential for speech and language development. It includes listening to speech sounds, looking towards the speaker and beginning to experiment with phonemes (speech sounds). Figures 7.5 and 7.6 describe the key visual and auditory perception skills. Figure 7.5 Visual perception skills
Skill
Description
Visual discrimination
The ability to detect small differences between objects and things
Figure ground
The ability to screen out irrelevant visual details and focus selectively on chosen detail
Spatial relations
The ability to understand how objects relate spatially to one another
Visual memory
The ability to recall visual images and information
Visual closure
The ability to visualise a whole when only fragments are visible
Figure 7.6 Auditory perception skills
Skill
Description
Auditory awareness
The simple recognition of the presence of sound
Auditory decoding
The ability to understand sounds or spoken words
Auditory discrimination
The ability to distinguish between sounds
Auditory memory
The ability to remember and recall auditory information
Auditory sequencing
The ability to reproduce a sequence of sounds in the correct order
Visual and auditory perception skills have obvious implications for language development, reading, writing and spelling. For example, a child who is not able to decode auditory information will have difficulty with verbal communication. A child who has poor visual discrimination skills will find learning to read and write a challenge. As an ESW, having an awareness of physical development will assist you to better understand and support students who have motor skills problems. Being aware that there is an established connection between physical development and cognitive development will also provide you with an understanding of the learning challenges faced by many students with poor physical development.
Dominance and hand preference Most people have a dominant side. For example, when asked to write their name, kick a ball, use scissors, look through a tube or step onto a platform, people consistently use one side of their body. Some people will always use their right eye, hand, foot and ear while others will always use
the left. This preference for one side of the body is referred to as dominance. Some people use a mixture of right and left – this is referred to as mixed dominance. Dominance also occurs in the left and right hemispheres of the brain. The right hemisphere focuses on the big picture and breaking down information into smaller details. This side of the brain deals with patterns, shapes and images, estimates, possibilities, colour and the beat and rhythm of music. The right hemisphere helps us to remember faces and voices. It is also the emotional side of the brain, and responds best to events as they are happening. Individuals who are more right-brain thinkers are said to be creative, spontaneous and intuitive, and favour a hands-on approach to learning. The left hemisphere focuses on identifying and processing detail in a logical and sequential manner in order to create the bigger picture. The left hemisphere is the decoding side of our brain. It deals with facts, analysis of numbers, sound, words and complex sentences. The left hemisphere is the centre for reading, spelling and comprehension. Individuals who are more left-brain thinkers are said to be logical and planned in their thinking. While most individuals will favour either the left or right hemisphere of the brain as indicated by eye, hand, foot and ear dominance, there are many different dominance profiles and dominance of one hemisphere does not occur to the exclusion of the other hemisphere. Establishing dominance assists children to accomplish many tasks, including writing and reading. By three years of age, most children develop a preference for a particular hand and are able to hold writing tools in a more mature grip. Children who have not developed a hand preference by the time they are 3 or 4 years old may have difficulty with tasks that require the coordination of two hands.
7.2 Middle childhood Middle childhood and early adolescence are times of complex physical changes and the refinement of existing motor skills. Due to uneven rates of physical development, some children may appear awkward when attempting one skill, while appearing quite accomplished at other skills – for example, they may swim well but have poor ball skills. At this age, children often focus on developing specific physical skills of interest to them – for example, ball-handling skills associated with games such as soccer and football or fine motor skills such as those needed for knitting and sewing. During middle childhood, growth rate slows and there is steady weight gain. While children at this stage may appear to have endless energy, they can still tire easily, so a balance of rest and activity is still necessary. During the second half of middle childhood, children may become very interested in organised games and team sports. Some children may have the necessary physical skills but find participation in organised group activities cognitively and socially challenging. Children who are not so good at sport begin to notice that they are physically less competent than their peers. This may lead to feelings of inferiority.
Gender differences At around 9 to 10 years of age, girls begin to grow and develop more rapidly than boys. Secondary sex characteristics begin to appear in females, particularly breasts, pubic hair and/or menstruation. During the later stage of middle childhood, children – particularly girls, but increasingly boys too – begin to become conscious of their body image and take greater responsibility for personal hygiene. Some may become quite self-conscious.
PHYSICAL GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
145
Risk-taking and experimentation Along with changes in body size and shape, middle childhood is also a time when children will test their mastery of physical skills. Peers become more influential, and there is greater competition among peers. Children are likely to extend themselves to their physical limits or show off to impress their friends and ensure acceptance by their peers. At around 9 to 12 years of age, children increase in strength and refine their coordination. Children are prepared to devote time to practising and testing their skills. Close supervision is still required as greater confidence in their physical abilities, and increased endurance and stamina, are accompanied by greater risk-taking behaviour, especially in boys. Gross motor development still precedes fine motor development, although greater control of small muscles is achieved. The key physical changes that occur during middle childhood are shown in Figure 7.7. Figure 7.7 Physical development in middle childhood Growth spurts
Coordination and sport skills
Visual and auditory
At around 8 years of age, the head size has reached 90 per cent of its adult size, the stomach flattens and the chest size increases.
Greater strength, agility and balance, which require coordination, speed, reflexes and strength.
Visual skills continue to develop but children will still have difficulty judging distance and speed.
Until nine to 10 years, males tend to be slightly taller and heavier than females.
Refinement of running, climbing, jumping, throwing, hopping, skipping and bicycle riding.
The Eustachian tube in the ear grows, resulting in improved hearing.
At around 10 years, girls begin to grow and develop more rapidly than boys.
Greater strength, speed and control with physical activities.
Refinement of hand–eye coordination allows students to begin to incorporate 3D images into their drawings.
Girls have a growth spurt at around 10–12 years while boys have a growth spurt around 13–14 years of age.
Most children master foot–eye coordination and can kick a ball with a degree of accuracy.
Fluency in handwriting increases; however, some students may show a great deal of irregularity in their handwriting style.
Scenario
AWKWARD! Frank and Nic (12 years) are each keen to invite a girl to be their partner at the end-of-year farewell dance for Year 6 students. The problem with which they are struggling is that the girls they like are much taller than the boys. In fact, most of the girls in their class are taller than the boys. Frank and Nic have discussed this issue on a number of occasions and can’t quite decide whether being shorter than their partner is something they should
worry about. Frank’s older brother teases Frank and says he will look like he’s dancing with his big sister instead of a girlfriend! WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
At around 12 years, girls tend to be taller than their male peers due to a growth spurt between 10 and 12 years of age.
7.3 Adolescence The transition from middle childhood to adolescence is characterised by changes in physical appearance as a result of maturation. Adolescents will become more self-conscious – body odour, pimples, acne, body shape, clothing and hairstyle are central concerns. Growth spurts during this period include not only an increase in height and weight, but also the hands, feet, arms, legs, trunk and chest. Often the limbs appear to grow disproportionately in comparison to the trunk, making adolescents appear gangly and awkward. Some males and females will become so anxious about appearance and body shape that they may become bulimic or anorexic. This is a period of a heightened sense of one’s own sexuality and sexual experimentation.
Puberty Puberty, the biological changes that result in sexual maturity, may begin as young as 10 years in females. Boys typically mature 12 to 18 months later than girls. Hormonal changes contribute to mood swings, which lead to emotional outbursts, sullenness, anger and ‘attitude’ in relation to authority figures such as parents and teachers. The characteristics of puberty for females include enlargement of breasts, the development of pubic hair, enlargement of the uterus and the commencement of menstruation, as well as an increase in height and weight. For males, puberty includes changes to the testes and scrotum, enlargement of the penis and the growth of pubic hair. It also includes the growth of facial hair, lengthening of the jaw and chin, enlargement of the nose and deepening of the voice. Boys also gain height, increased bone density and increased muscle size.
Sexual orientation and body image Sexual orientation is a major developmental marker of adolescence. Jackson and Goossens (2006: 292) state that ‘the development and acknowledgement of sexual orientation plays an important role in the formation of adult identity. Sexual fantasies, emotional attraction, sexual behaviour and self-identification are considered to be dimensions of sexual orientation’. Adolescents who identified themselves as homosexual can experience extreme anxiety and confusion if not supported by the family unit and friends. Homophobia and the uncertainty faced by young people in telling their parents of their sexual orientation can be extremely difficult. Dolgin (2014: 361) reports that these adolescents ‘fear abandonment or even abuse, especially from their fathers’. Dolgin also reminds us that gay and lesbian students are at greater risk of bullying and victimisation than their heterosexual peers. During this period, adolescents are very aware of their own appearance compared with that of their peers. In relation to body image, Dolgin (2014: 118) states that physical attractiveness and body image have an important relationship to the adolescent’s positive selfevaluation, popularity, and peer acceptance … attractive adolescents appear to have higher self-esteem and healthy personality attributes, are better adjusted socially, and possess a wider variety of interpersonal skills than their less attractive peers.
Body image is a significant issue for most teenagers. Each young person will go through puberty at their own individual rate, which may result in feelings of inadequacy and a lack of self-confidence – particularly when a young person compares their underdeveloped body with the more mature physique of some of their peers or compares their body to media images of the ‘perfect body’. PHYSICAL GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
147
GO further Access a list of resources with practical guidance and fact sheets about body image and supporting sexual and gender diversity in schools in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
The focus on body image may result in poor self-esteem and can also lead to obsessive dieting and eating disorders, such as bulimia or anorexia. According to Dolgin (2014: 443), young people with eating disorders typically ‘have a pervasive sense of inadequacy and distorted body images and this often leads to depression’. Discouraging negative self-talk, promoting acceptance of differences and focusing on each student’s strengths can assist in building self-esteem.
7.4 Factors that influence physical development Like all other areas of development, physical development is influenced by biological and environmental factors, including the following: • Maturation (readiness). Readiness is an important factor in physical development. For example, if a child has not yet developed the fine motor control and hand–eye coordination necessary to be able to manipulate scissors, no amount of practice will help the child to achieve this skill. • Heredity factors. These include body shape, size and growth rate. Children will look similar to their parents and experience similar growth rates to their parents. By middle childhood, body image is a significant factor in self-esteem, self-concept and peer relationships. Body image will also influence young people’s participation in physical activities. For example, a student who perceives that they are athletic is more likely to attempt ball games with a greater sense of self-confidence than a student whose body image is one of being awkward, clumsy or overweight. • Culture/family. A range of cultural and family factors will influence physical growth and development. Parental attitudes about physical activity will greatly influence children’s and young people’s participation in outdoor games and sports. • Nutrition. Nutrition influences individual growth rates as well as the growth rates of whole populations. For example, children and young people living in extreme poverty are likely to have reduced growth rates due to poor nutrition; children and young people who have poor role models and consume large amounts of processed and fast foods are at risk of obesity and its associated health risks. Poor nutrition can also have a negative influence on the developing brain. • Prenatal development. The health and wellbeing of a mother during pregnancy can be linked directly to a child’s physical growth. For example, pregnant women who smoke heavily, abuse alcohol, have a poor diet, drink excessive caffeine or are drug abusers are more likely to give birth to an infant with a low birth weight. These children often have poor fine motor and coordination skills compared with their same-age peers. • Opportunities for practice. While physical development occurs naturally through maturation, providing opportunities for children to practise their physical skills also contributes to the rate of physical development. For example, an infant who is left in a cot for long periods is likely to reach physical milestones later than an infant who is placed in different positions, and encouraged and stimulated to begin to move about, reach and look around. • Emotional support. Children who suffer physical, emotional or sexual abuse are likely to have delayed physical development. There is a direct link between a lack of emotional availability and consistency of love and care and conditions such as ‘failure to thrive’. Failure-to-thrive children may have experienced an unpredictable and frightening relationship with their
primary carer. This condition affects all areas of development, including brain development. For older children and young people, a lack of emotional support and/or abuse have both short-term and long-term negative psychological consequences, which may include behaviours such as extreme acting-out, self-harm and promiscuity, as well as homelessness.
Childhood obesity Another connected environmental influence is obesity, which is a growing problem throughout Australia. The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW 2016: 149–50) reports that 63 per cent of adults are overweight or obese and one in four children aged 5–17 years (27 per cent) is overweight or obese. Among children and young people aged 5–17 years in 2011–12, 80 per cent did not meet physical activity recommendations on all seven days of the week. Rates increased from 64 per cent for those aged 5–8 to 94 per cent for those aged 15–17. According to the AIHW, health problems and consequences of obesity in children include musculo-skeletal problems, cardiovascular disease, some cancers, sleep apnoea, type 2 diabetes and hypertension. Childhood obesity can also lead to poor self-esteem, self-loathing and a higher risk of being a victim of bullying. Factors that contribute to childhood obesity include heredity; poor family role models in relation to eating healthy foods and engaging in exercise; a lack of exercise; a sedentary lifestyle due to relying on motor transport rather than walking or cycling; spending long periods of time watching television or videos and playing computer games; and a high intake of fast foods and highly processed food, as well as peer group and media pressure to consume fast foods in order to collect various ‘toys’. Scenario
HEALTH RISKS Annita (6 years) is obese and is already wearing size 10–12 clothing. Her mother, father and older brother are also obese. The family eats fast foods three to four times per week. Annita does not participate in outdoor games because her breathing becomes laboured. She is often teased about her weight by other students. Dane (9 years) lives with his mother and two younger siblings. Mum is a shift worker and often leaves money for Dane to buy hot chips for dinner. The children usually buy their lunch from the school canteen. Dane tells his teacher her never eats fruit or vegetables. Dane is thin, pale and very lethargic. Larnie (12 years) is the tallest student at the school. She inherited her tallness from her father, who was a professional basketball player. Until recently, Larnie was not worried about her height. Now that she is almost a teenager, though, she is beginning to regard her height as a disadvantage. She tells her mother that she just wants to be the same as all the other girls in the class. Larnie is constantly measuring her height and asking her parents how tall they think she might grow.
Eric (14 years) is an academically gifted student. His goal is to become a medical research scientist. Eric is obese. He eats lots of junk foods and does very little in the way of physical activity. He spends most of his free time playing online games. Eric has very few friends at school, but is proud of the fact that he has many online friends who are also ‘gamers’. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
The physical and mental wellbeing of children and young people can be affected by a wide range of factors. These factors are very often outside the control of the school, but can play a significant role in the opportunities each child has to reach their full potential. " DISCUSSION
The physical development of Annita, Dane, Larnie and Eric presents unique issues in relation to their physical wellbeing and mental health. Who is responsible for addressing these issues to support each student? Is it the parent/s, a teacher, the school counsellor or a combination of these people?
PHYSICAL GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
149
Supporting physical development Physical development influences all domains of development, including the brain. Physical development also plays an important role in learning. In fact, the area of the brain (the cerebellum) that contributes most to learning is also responsible for movement. Jensen (2005: 61) reminds us that movement involves mental processes such as predicting, sequencing, ordering, timing, and practising or rehearsing a task before carrying it out. Strong evidence supports the connection between movement and learning and shows that moderate exercise enhances cognitive processing. Being aware of physical development and how it might influence the student’s ability to participate in learning activities is an important skill for ESWs. Strategies that can easily be used in the classroom to support physical development are described in Figure 7.8. Figure 7.8 Supporting physical development in the classroom Strategy
Examples
Alternative seating positions
Provide therapy balls, large cushions, bean bags. Encourage standing and working at a benchtop.
Writing utensils
Provide a range of pencil grips, weighted pens, jumbo grip pencils.
Adapt the physical environment
Minimise distractions by creating a quiet zone that allows students to face away from others in the classroom. Provide headphones to screen out background noise. Create small work spaces by using shelving and dividers.
Brain breaks
The brain learns best in short bursts because this allows time for information to be processed, so having a five-minute break from learning is good teaching practice. Jog on the spot, push-ups (floor/wall/desk), stretching, sit-ups, star jumps, dance and wiggle, move and freeze, Simon Says, keep a beach ball in the air, give yourself a bear hug, arm squeezes (use right hand to tightly squeeze left arm moving from bottom-to-top-to-bottom then swap arms).
GO further Access a list of resources to support physical development in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
Finger aerobics
Stretch and curl fingers, spider push-ups (fingers of each hand touching at tips pressing and out), finger lifts (press hands flat on desk and raise each finger independently while other fingers remain on desk), fingertip touch (touch each finger to thumb as quickly as possible).
Relaxation
Yoga stretches, meditation, breathing exercises, stillness, listen to calming music with eyes closed.
Movement
Movement increases the heartrate and increases blood circulation and oxygen to the brain. Movement relaxes tense muscles and increases energy and alertness.
Including movement and brain breaks as a routine learning strategy acknowledges and supports the powerful role of movement in the learning process. Children and young people are not designed to sit still for long periods – accepting this and incorporating movement into daily learning activities recognises the fundamental role that movement plays in learning.
Summary Physical development follows a predictable sequence and includes periods where development slows as well as periods of rapid change. There is an established link between physical and cognitive development that reinforces the interrelationship between developmental domains. During adolescence, body image becomes an increasingly important issue for teenagers and can have a negative impact on self-esteem. Learning is enhanced when students are provided with regular brain-breaks and/or opportunities to move around.
Discussion question 1
The school curriculum aims to support students in all areas of development. Increasingly, young Australians are being reported as overweight or obese. Discuss the factors that are contributing to obesity and the role that
schools should (or could) play in addressing this issue, given that teachers are already struggling with an overcrowded curriculum.
Self-check questions 1
Define the following terms: a Proximodistal development b Gross motor development c Fine motor development d Perceptual motor development e Sensorimotor integration
2 What behaviours usually are attributed to hormonal changes in puberty? 3 What are the main health problems related to childhood obesity? 4 What are the factors that contribute to childhood obesity?
Activities 1
Connect the term (on the left) to their matching description. Coordination Visual motor control Kinaesthesia
Internalising the awareness of the difference between right and left and the ability to control the two sides of the body together or separately. The ability to maintain balance while remaining stationary. This refers to a child’s ability to use their eyes and feet together to accomplish a task.
Foot–eye coordination
The ability of the body to integrate the action of the muscles of the body to accomplish a specific movement or a series of skilled movements in the most efficient manner.
Static balance
An awareness of external space outside of the body and knowledge of directions in relation to left and right, in and out, up and down. This is often confused with laterality.
Hand–eye coordination Laterality Directionality
Using the eye to assist in accurate movement such as writing, drawing, using scissors, grasping and gripping objects, throwing and catching, and coordinating movements for climbing. The ability to successfully integrate visual and motor responses into a physical action. The function of the senses that sends messages from joints, muscles and ligaments to the brain.
2 Go online and access the list of resources for sexual orientation and body image. Explore and describe two of these sites. 3 For this task, go online to the list of physical development resources and explore two of the sites
listed – one for ‘Fun games for movement’ and one for ‘Brain breaks’. Briefly describe your selected site and explain how it could be used by an ESW to support movement in the classroom. Present one movement and one brain break activity to your class colleagues.
PHYSICAL GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
151
Chapter 8 SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to demonstrate that, in relation to working in a school environment, you can: 8.1
discuss the role of socialisation and child-rearing practices in social and emotional development
8.2 describe the key theories of social and emotional development
GO
further
Go Further icons link to extra content for this chapter. Ask your instructor for the Go Further resource and deepen your understanding of the topic.
8.3 identify the key characteristics of moral development during middle childhood, and adolescence 8.4 define emotional wellbeing and understand its importance for social and emotional development and learning. 8.5 understand the role of resilience for social and emotional development, describe mental health conditions that most commonly affect students and make accommodations to support them.
Introduction Children’s social and emotional development – how they behave, how they understand the world, how they interact with others, how they determine right from wrong, their ethical and moral behaviours, attitudes and values – is learned within a social-cultural context. The interactions and relationships children and young people have with significant others have a profound impact on their social and emotional development and wellbeing. The family is at the heart of the socialisation process, and provides the child with the emotional support necessary for healthy development. The family socialises the child first as a member of the family unit (whatever this might be) and second as a member of the community. Relationships and relationship skills are the key not only to healthy social and emotional development but to all areas of development.
8.1 Socialisation and child-rearing practices Each student will arrive at school having experienced a unique set of child-rearing experiences. These will have shaped the child’s sense of self and wellbeing. For example, ‘I am loved, valued, capable and confident’ or, at the other end of the spectrum, ‘I am a disappointment, I am incompetent’. Fortunately, most children present as secure, competent and eager to learn. Child-rearing practices are culturally bound – that is, the family’s culture, values and beliefs will significantly influence how children are raised. Child-rearing practices generally include gender role expectations, responsibility expectations, protection of children, responsiveness such as patience, understanding, encouragement, emotional support and stability, behaviour management, punishment, permissiveness and regulation of behaviour.
Behaviour management and discipline Children and young people learn how to behave in a socially and culturally acceptable manner by observing and modelling the behaviour of family members. Discipline practices influence children’s social and emotional development. For example, at one end of the spectrum, persuasion, discussion, withdrawal of privileges, age-appropriate rules and limits, and positive emotional reinforcement promote resilience and self-confidence. At the other end of the spectrum, shaming, threatening, verbal and physical punishment/abuse, sarcasm, ridicule and withdrawal of emotional support may result in poor self-esteem, shame and a sense of hopelessness. How parents manage their children’s behaviour will also influence how the children relate to others. Figure 8.1 shows how diverse child-rearing and discipline techniques might influence and shape behaviour. Figure 8.1 Contrasting child-rearing practices Child-rearing based on positive relationships
Child-rearing based on fixed beliefs
Strong moral rules – discipline is based on importance of manners, religious beliefs and/or family code of conduct.
Poor moral rules – little or no consideration, concern or empathy shown for other members of the community.
Loving family relationships – frequent hugs, kisses, encouragement and positive statements.
Poor family relationships – frequent physical and verbal violence, ridicule and threats.
Family imposes clear, consistent rules and limits that reflect the child’s age/stage of development.
Family imposes inconsistent and inappropriate rules and limits that do not reflect the child’s age/stage of development.
Discipline is based on the child’s development – punishment focuses on assisting the child or young person to learn from their behaviour in a positive, non-punitive manner.
Discipline is based on family pride – children are punished if their behaviour is seen to embarrass the family.
The family gradually promotes independence and a sense of responsibility.
Independence is expected at an early age; children are not supported emotionally.
SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
153
Parental expectations and gender roles The birth of a child is surrounded by parental hopes, dreams and expectations and, in some cases, despair. How these emotions and expectations impact the child will unfold over many years. While most parents are simply happy to have a child who is healthy, some cultures place great value on the sex of the child. For example, in some cultures male children are more highly valued than female children. The cultural and social practices of families will influence their beliefs about how boys and girls are expected to behave. In many cultures, very clearly defined roles are assigned to males and females. The Scenario box highlights the link between cultural/ social values and gender-linked behaviour. Scenario
CHILD-REARING PRACTICES UMAY
Umay (13 years) has two older brothers and two younger brothers. Her parents emigrated from Turkey as newlyweds and have retained their cultural practices and beliefs in their new country. As the only female child, Umay is expected to help her mother around the house, assist with meal preparation and care for her younger siblings. Her older brothers see their role as protecting Umay and often criticise her friends as unsuitable because they are not Turkish. Umay complains that this is unfair, and this has led to Umay becoming increasingly rebellious. Umay tells her mother that she wants to become a strong, independent woman and will not become a slave to the old ways like her mother. MY VALUES
Ankica and her two older sisters were raised by their grandmother because her mother and father worked long hours in the family business. Ankica’s grandmother was born in Poland. She is devoutly religious and is a strong believer in strictness and respect for elders. Ankica was expected to respect her sisters and do what she was told without question. Grandmother seldom demonstrated any physical affection to the girls but was devoted to ensuring that they were raised to be well mannered and hard working.
Ankica, now a parent of two girls, reflects on what she wants for her own children. She says: ‘Obviously, I am influenced by the Australian culture and way of life, which seems to me to be very relaxed and easy-going. Children in Australia seem to have it pretty easy; they get what they want and are allowed to do many things. My childhood was very strict, and we didn’t get many hugs or cuddles. However, I can’t help thinking that being brought up strictly was a good thing. We learnt to be independent and respectful of our elders, something that is certainly lacking in today’s society. I want my girls to be strong and independent but I also want them to know the value of working hard and caring for others.’ WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Traditional cultural values can significantly influence child rearing practices. In the first scenario, Umay, who was born in Australia, rebels against the traditional values of her parents. Umay is fighting against long-held traditions and beliefs, which will continue to put her at odds with her family. In the second scenario, Ankica is able to verbalise how her own upbringing has influenced her parenting style. As educators, it is important to be aware that family values and expectations will vary, and that in turn this will impact how children behave and how they are expected to behave.
Socioeconomic status The socioeconomic status of a family can have a significant effect on early relationships and development. Higher socioeconomic status is linked to better health, nutrition and living conditions. Poverty in childhood is associated with a decline in the use of imaginative play, poor attitudes towards school and learning, low self-esteem and a shorter attention span. Children and young people living in families that are financially stressed are more likely to experience punitive attitudes or physical violence, and may not experience positive ways of resolving problems and
conflicts. Children and young people living in poverty may at best be constantly relocating as adults chase employment opportunities, and at worst experience homelessness, living in a car, tent, crisis accommodation or housing estates with high levels of unemployment, crime and drug abuse. Children and young people in such situations can feel vulnerable and often lack a sense of security. They may find it difficult to form friendships, or alternatively may become part of street or neighbourhood gangs. Living in poverty impacts children’s and young people’s selfesteem, sense of wellbeing and sense of worth.
‘Non-traditional’ family unit Not all children and young people live in what some may consider an intact ‘traditional’ family unit (mother, father, siblings and grandparents). Family units may include children and young people living with a single parent (mother or father); blended families (step-parent and stepsiblings); adoptive parent/s; same-sex parents; grandparent/s; extended family and friends; foster care or group care. Jackson and Goossens (2006: 160) remind us that relationships within the family unit are particularly important as children reach adolescence, in terms of supporting the development of autonomy and independence. Relationships within the family have a significant impact on the child’s ability to establish close and stable relationship with others as they reach adulthood. Scenario
FAMILY DIVERSITY AJ (13 years) now lives with his mother and two brothers in a caravan park. His parents separated after many years of drunken violence and spouse abuse. AJ’s mother often gambles her single parent benefit on the poker machines, and as a result AJ and his brothers frequently go without meals. AJ tells his best friend that he is going to leave home as soon as he can. Jalena (13 years) lives with her mother and her mother’s partner and her two children. Jalena sees her father regularly. Her parents have a good relationship and Jalena presents as a happy and well-adjusted teenager. Jalena plans to study veterinary nursing when she finishes school. Saleh (13 years) has three younger siblings and lives with his parents and grandmother in a three-bedroom high-rise apartment. Saleh’s mother is chronically ill and his father works two jobs to bring in enough income to support the family. Saleh helps his grandmother to care for his mother and siblings. Saleh dreams of having a bedroom of his own.
Macy (13 years) lives with her brother, sister and parents in a five-bedroom home in a leafy inner-city suburb. Macy and her family enjoy overseas holidays each year. Macy plans to take a gap year when she finishes school before deciding on a career. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
These 13-year-olds come from very different family situations. Their different life experiences will have a unique influence on how they see themselves and their long-term future aspirations. " DISCUSSION
As an ESW, it is unlikely that you will have much background knowledge of the students with whom you are working. What difference would it make to you if you were privy to such information? Would it help you to better understand each student? Would it assist you to build relationships with students?
8.2 Theories of development This section of the text provides a brief overview of theories relating to social and emotional development. Being aware of these theories will help you to understand how various teaching practices have evolved. Theories of development help educators to develop pedagogical strategies
SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
155
(teaching practices) that best meet the developmental needs of children and young people. Traditional theories of social development include the work of Bronfenbrenner, Bandura, Dreikurs and Erickson.
Albert Bandura (1925– ) Albert Bandura’s (1986) social learning theory is based on the belief that learning occurs as a result of observation, imitation and modelling. Bandura’s theory focuses on the complex interrelationship that occurs as a result of human interactions, behaviour and the environment. In particular, Bandura sought to demonstrate that a person’s cognitive abilities, physical characteristics, personality, beliefs and attitudes influence both their behaviour and environment – that is, that the social environment directly influences behaviour, and in turn this behaviour influences the environment. This reciprocal influence is referred to as reciprocal determinism. For example, a student who bullies others to invoke fear and a sense of power is reinforced when other students respond to the bullying behaviour with fear and treat the bully as being a powerful person in the playground. Essentially, social learning occurs through a process of observation and modelling. This process is reinforced by intrinsic motivation or reinforcement such as a sense of pride, accomplishment and satisfaction with oneself. In this sense, learning will only occur if the person is motivated to learn. Through observation, the learner will either imitate the behaviour or reject the behaviour, depending on the observer’s perception of the outcome of the behaviour. Put simply, if child A observes child B being rewarded for an observed behaviour, child A is likely to imitate this behaviour. Conversely, if child A observes child B being punished for an observed behaviour, child A is unlikely to imitate this behaviour. Through this process, children can observe and practise behaviours. Learning by observation involves four separate steps: 1 attention – the observer will be motivated by the model and often by the novelty aspect of the model 2 retention – the observer must then retain the information for later use 3 production – the observer must reproduce the behaviour. This can be difficult for younger children, as they may not have all of the required skills, knowledge or understanding to reproduce the desired behaviour successfully. 4 motivation – the observer may be motivated by, for example, fear, envy, admiration, possible rewards or praise. Bandura (1986) also made a significant contribution to understanding the process of selfregulation. He believed that individuals could engage in a process of self-reflection as a way to intentionally regulate their own behaviour. Bandura used the term human agency to describe this process, which includes observing how others behave (observational learning) and how they evaluate their behaviour, and using these observations to make intentional behaviour choices. For children and young people this process can be applied by talking to them about their behaviour, and helping them to reflect and self-evaluate, and to set realistic goals. Bandura also believed that, through observation, children could develop a sense of selfefficacy (an understanding of one’s own personal competence to deal with challenging situations). Children who observe persistence at challenging tasks and attempts to problem-solve when difficulties arise are more likely to have positive self-efficacy. They are more likely to try new experiences or challenges with a positive ‘can do’ attitude. Conversely, children whose role models give up easily when faced with a new challenge, and become easily frustrated and avoid problem-solving, are less likely to develop positive self-efficacy. Bandura (1986) stresses that
modelling does not necessarily lead to a change in behaviour – the child or young person needs some reason or motivation to change. Bandura’s social learning theory can be seen in action in many school settings. The importance of adults acting as positive role models to children and young people in order to influence and promote positive attitudes to behaviour, learning and life choices is widely recognised in schools, as well as in the broader community. Scenario
ROLE MODEL Each year a group of students in Years 7 and 10 are asked to work on a community project. The older students are given leadership roles while the younger students are required to work as part of a team to achieve the project outcomes. The project is led by two teachers who act as facilitators and mentors. The goal for the students is to promote a sense of self-worth and self-confidence as they work to give back to their community. The teachers support the students by
encouraging and modelling collaboration and team problem solving. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
This project reflects Bandura’s belief that adults can play a significant role in shaping and promoting positive behaviours. The project is designed to instil a sense of pride, accomplishment and satisfaction as the students work together to achieve a common goal for the good of the community.
Rudolf Dreikurs (1897–1972) Rudolf Dreikurs (1968) studied human behaviour, particularly misbehaviour in children. His theoretical approach, which is referred to as interactionalist, focuses on both internal and environmental influences. The most important contribution made by Dreikurs was his rationale for misbehaviour, which he referred to as ‘mistaken behaviour’. He argued that mistaken behaviour occurred because of the child’s basic needs not being met and a need to fit in to the social group. He believed that mistaken behaviour had one of four goals: 1 attention – the desire to be noticed; this behaviour may be passive or aggressive 2 power – the desire to have power over others if the need for attention is not met: the child or young person may engage in a power struggle with a target adult, such as a parent or teacher 3 revenge – the need to seek revenge when needs are not met: verbal or physical abuse, destruction of property 4 avoidance of failure – acting out to avoid tasks that may result in a sense of failure or inadequacy; this may also include displays of self-imposed helplessness (it’s too hard, I can’t do it) or self-imposed avoidance. Dreikurs (1968) believed that if adults regarded inappropriate behaviour as mistaken behaviour, they would have a realistic framework with which to work with the student – for example, ensuring that the child or young person received a reasonable amount of positive attention, therefore avoiding the need for acting-out behaviour. Power struggles can be avoided by providing children and young people with opportunities to be involved in decision-making and to be given age-appropriate choices. He also suggested encouraging students to support each other and work as a team. Valuing students’ contributions, skills and efforts would help to avoid students’ need to act out. Another important contribution made by Dreikurs (1968) was the concept of natural consequences, including logical consequences for mistaken behaviour.
SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
157
Natural consequences The use of natural consequences means that the student must experience the natural outcome of their behaviour. The teacher advises the student of the likely natural consequence of the action but allows the student to make a choice. For example, ‘Tom, if you don’t put your phone in your locker during sport, you may find it goes missing.’ If Tom chooses not to put his phone in his locker and subsequently loses it, then he is forced to take responsibility for his actions. Tom will be angry and upset – the teacher would remind Tom that he had made a choice and now must accept the consequences. Natural consequences help students take responsibility for their own actions and can be used to help them think through their actions and anticipate possible outcomes. The application of natural consequences can be challenging for adults who must resist ‘rescuing’ the child or young person from their own actions and allow them to experience natural consequences.
Logical consequences Logical consequences are similar to natural consequences but include adult intervention in applying the consequence. Logical consequences focus on the student’s behaviour and should be applied consistently each time the behaviour occurs. Logical consequences work well during middle childhood because students are able to understand cause and effect: if you do A, then B will happen. For example, ‘If you don’t hand in your homework you will be given extra work to complete over the weekend.’ Logical consequences help students to develop self-discipline and to think about the effects of their behaviour on themselves and others. Dreikurs also emphasised the role of encouragement rather than praise. Duchesne and colleagues (2019: 658) state that, ‘Encouragement focuses on effort rather than achievement and removes a value-based judgment about a student. In contrast praise often arises after the child has completed a task and makes a direct link to the value of the person because they acted in a praiseworthy way.’ For example when praising, an adult might say, ‘Good girl, Yannie’, while when using encouragement the adult might say, ‘I liked the way you kept trying, Yannie, you’ve made great progress with your handwriting.’ In this example, the adult encourages Yannie’s persistence at the writing task rather than simply praising the end-product. Dreikurs believed that punishment was not an appropriate response to mistaken behaviour. He advocated that the adult be proactive in providing an environment that encouraged children and young people to be cooperative and successful. The role of the adult should be to anticipate behaviour and provide opportunities for students to correct their behaviour.
Erik Erikson (1902–94) Erikson (1963) was influenced by the work of Freud, and developed a stage-based lifespan psychoanalytic theory of development. Erikson used the term psychosocial development to explain how development was influenced by a combination of an individual’s biological makeup and the environment. Erikson believed that an individual must accomplish a critical task, or crisis, at each stage of development. Each crisis represents a milestone or turning point in psychosocial development. Erikson proposed that successful progression through each stage was largely dependent on how adults interacted with and guided the behaviour of the child or young person. Erikson’s theory suggests that human behaviour is shaped by crisis and conflict, which occur in stages as the individual matures. Unresolved issues from one stage may be carried forward and impact the individual’s ability to deal with later ‘crises’.
Erikson believed that development was a result of three key factors: • biology, such as personality traits • environmental (cultural) factors, such as the level of support received by significant others such as family or teachers, life experience and life events • psychological factors, meaning that the individual’s own perceptions of an experience are as important as the experience itself in shaping behaviour. Erikson (1963) based his theory on the following broad beliefs: • People tend to have the same basic needs. • Personality develops and changes in response to basic needs. • Development occurs in stages that reflect Figure 8.2 Stages of psychosocial development physical lifespan changes. • In each stage of development, the individual Period of development General development description is confronted by a ‘crisis’ or developmental Infant Trust vs Mistrust task. Mastery of this crisis or developmental task • Toddler Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt Simple is critical to that particular stage of Pre-schooler Initiative vs Guilt development. Middle Child Industry vs Inferiority • Motivation to meet these challenges will vary Adolescence Identity vs Role Confusion from stage to stage, as our needs vary. Erikson did not assign specific ages to each Emerging adulthood Intimacy vs Isolation Complex stage; rather, he provided a general developmental Adult Generativity vs Stagnation description that coincides with typical periods of Old Age Integrity vs Despair development. Erikson’s stages of psychosocial Source: Adapted from http://career.iresearchnet.com/career-development/eriksons-theory-of-development. development are shown in Figure 8.2.
Stage 1: Child develops trust or mistrust (infants) Through interactions with the environment and significant adults, an infant learns whether the world is a comfortable, trustworthy place. This early sense of trust is the basis for a positive outlook on life and healthy self-esteem. A sense of mistrust leads to an attitude of wariness about people and new experiences. During this period the child is reliant on adults. If infants’ demands are met promptly by caring adults, they develop a sense of trust in the world – they trust that their needs will be met. Adult responses need to be consistent, warm and responsive so that infants develop a sense of trust. Unresponsive caregiving can result in the infant developing mistrust.
Stage 2: Child develops autonomy or shame and doubt (toddler to beginning preschooler) Children at this stage are developing new cognitive, motor and language skills, and use these to express their preferences and insist on doing things for themselves. They have a strong drive towards independence. If children are restricted from trying things themselves or given negative feedback when their attempts are unsuccessful, they may doubt their own abilities.
Stage 3: Child develops initiative or guilt (preschooler) Children use sociodramatic play to explore and try out social roles. They begin to develop a sense of responsibility and ambition. They acquire many new skills and increasingly want to do
SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
159
things for and by themselves. Preschoolers are full of ideas but rarely have the skills to carry out their plans. Adults need to support the child’s new sense of direction and initiative by encouraging role-playing, being an appropriate model, answering children’s questions, imposing realistic expectations and limits, and not making the child feel guilty if their efforts are unsuccessful. Children need adults who continually support and encourage their efforts to show initiative and develop their own play ideas.
Stage 4: Child develops industry or inferiority (middle childhood) Children have a strong desire to learn and master a wide range of new skills and to control their environment. They develop the ability to work and cooperate with others. A child in this stage needs to have a feeling of mastery and competence. The level of challenge of a task must be adjusted to keep a child motivated. Continual failure or tasks that are too easy can lead to the child developing a sense of inferiority. Adults need to allow children the opportunity to demonstrate their ability to work and cooperate with others. Support their efforts: do not criticise or humiliate them. If they have negative experiences at home, in school, in care or with peers they can feel inferior or incompetent.
Stage 5: Identity versus identity confusion (adolescence) As the child moves towards young adulthood, questions arise about personal beliefs, values and identity: ‘Who am I?’ and ‘What is my place in the world?’ During this stage, adolescents are focused on the self as separate from the family unit. The peer group is of critical importance during this stage of development, as young people contemplate their future. Scenario
THE PATH TO ADULTHOOD Clyde (17 years, 10 months) left school at 16 against his parents’ wishes and has had a series of casual jobs, which he has not found to be interesting or rewarding. He has been in trouble with the police for minor driving and alcohol offences. To everyone’s surprise, Clyde announces that when he turns 18 he is joining the navy and wants to train in communications.
Clyde’s parents praise his decision and support him in his career choice. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Clyde is moving from being a teenager who had no focus to a young adult who has found a purpose in life. This process is not always clear and for some young people it takes a long period before any clear pathways are determined.
Stage 6: Intimacy versus isolation (emerging adulthood) The task at this stage is the development of lasting, intimate relationships with others that can be sustained in the long term. This is the period when long-term relationships are formed, the role of parent is assumed and careers are developed and consolidated.
Stage 7: Generativity versus stagnation/self-absorption This stage refers to when a person starts contributing productively to society – for example, through child-rearing, work and caring for others versus a non-productive role in society.
Stage 8: Ego integrity versus despair (old age) In the eighth stage, following retirement, the individual reflects on their life with either satisfaction or despair.
Overview of Erikson’s theory Erikson’s theory highlights both the fragile and the resilient nature of the human spirit. It acknowledges that we are shaped by who we are, what happens to us, how we deal with this and the level of support we receive. Erikson believed that if adults supported children and young people in their attempts towards independence, they would emerge from each stage feeling capable and positive about their own abilities. His theory describes the optimal environments for children of different ages and how adults can interact with children and young people to successfully support and guide them through each stage, or ‘crisis’.
8.3 Moral development Morality is described by Duchesne et al. (2019: 174) as ‘concerned with fundamental questions of right and wrong, justice, fairness and basic human rights’. Children’s and young people’s developing sense of morality is shaped by broader cultural values and beliefs. The most significant influence on moral development is the family unit. As children mature, they are able to engage in moral reasoning, which is the ability to think about values and beliefs, why they exist and how they are applied. They are also faced with making socially responsible choices about how to behave. They must decide to be honest or dishonest, to tell the truth or lie, and to be sensitive and compassionate or hurtful. The process of moral development begins in early childhood when preschoolers develop a conscience and understand that some behaviour is regarded as unacceptable. However, they still have a very limited understanding of ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ in the moral sense, and tend to ‘judge’ actions on the basis of consequences rather than how one’s behaviour might impact on others. As children move towards middle childhood, they are very focused on rules and fairness. Then, as they move towards adolescence, they become aware that there can be shades of grey and are more interested in issues of justice. Scenario
LOST AND FOUND As Caleb (14 years) is leaving the fast food outlet, he spots a $50 note on the ground. He picks it up and puts it in his pocket. Caleb had passed a mother with two young children as he was leaving. The woman was taking money from her wallet. Caleb supposes the money might belong to the woman but can’t be sure. He thinks about going back inside and handing the money over to the manager – maybe someone will ask whether any money was found. Caleb thinks about the new runners he so desperately wants. They cost $200.00 and his parents
said he had to pay half. Caleb knows it is wrong to steal but he reasons that he found the money so therefore it’s not stealing if he keeps it. Or is it? WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Caleb understands that handing in the money is the right thing to do but is also wrestling with his desire to buy new runners. Caleb is experiencing a moral dilemma. At 14 years of age, he is able to understand that there are shades of grey when deciding on the right course of action.
SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
161
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–87) Lawrence Kohlberg (1976) based his theory of moral development on the cognitive development theories of Piaget (1965). Kohlberg believed that morality was based on the ability to reflect, debate, question and challenge rules, laws and practices. It requires the ability to be empathic – to understand the feelings of others and consider situations from the perspective of others. It also requires the ability to be sympathetic towards others. Empathy and sympathy are emotional and cognitive responses to the situations of others. They are important elements in the process of becoming a caring, responsible adult capable of contributing positively to society and acting as an advocate for others. Kohlberg’s stages of moral development are embedded in a social and cultural context where interactions with others, and reflecting on differences of opinions and beliefs, lead to the development of a sense of justice and fairness. Kohlberg’s stages are based on qualitative changes in cognitive development rather than age, and depend on the individual’s ability to reflect on moral issues with empathy and sympathy. According to Kohlberg, moral development occurs in stages that are sequential and hierarchical – that is, they are achieved in the same order, and transition to the next stage is dependent on integrating the skills attained at the previous stage. However, the level attained by each individual will vary and the time taken to move from one stage to the next will also vary. Kohlberg (1976) suggests that his stages of moral development are universal – that is, they occur with all people in all cultures. This view has been criticised widely as not taking into account variations in cultural beliefs and moral teachings. Figure 8.3 describes Kohlberg’s stages of moral development. Figure 8.3 Kohlberg’s six stages of moral development Stage 1 Heteronomous morality Level I: Preconventional morality
Level II: Conventional morality
Avoidance of breaking rules for fear of punishment Obedience for obedience’s sake
Stage 2 Individualism, instrumental purpose and exchange
Acting in accordance with individual interests – fairness is an equal exchange based upon motivations of self-interest
Stage 3 Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships and interpersonal conformity
Living up to what is expected of you Mutual relations of trust and respect should be maintained provided they conform to your expected social role
Stage 4 Social system and conscience
Rules are to be upheld except when they conflict with other social duties Right is contributing to society and fulfilling social duties
Stage 5 Social contract or utility and individual rights
Awareness of the social contract between individuals, but also of the different moral perspectives of others Some individual rights transcend the different perspectives of others and therefore should be upheld
Level III: Postconventional morality Stage 6 Universal ethical principles
Following self-chosen ethical principles When such principles conflict with existing moral standards, these principles should be upheld regardless of majority opinion
Source: Weiten, W., Psychology: Themes and variations 5th ed., ª 2001, a part of Cengage, Inc. Reproduced by permission. www.cengage.com/permissions
Following on from Kohlberg’s theory, Rest (1976, 1986) developed a model of moral behaviour which he called the Four-Component Model (a fifth component was added later). The components are: • moral judgement – to reflect ethically and consider a situation from different perspectives • moral sensitivity – being aware of and sensitive towards the perspective of others • moral motivation – awareness of what motivates personal decision-making and the ability to put the needs or beliefs of others ahead of one’s own • moral action – acting on, communicating and providing a rationale for decisions • moral character – maintaining moral beliefs even in the face of obstacles. Scenario
CONVENTIONAL MORALITY The Year 11 history students hold a class discussion on the decision by a foreign government to execute two Australian drug smugglers who had been held in prison in that country for over 10 years. The two young men had turned their lives around and were said to be model prisoners who helped other prisoners to adapt to life in prison. The two men broke the law of another country. They admitted their guilt and knew at the time that if they were caught they could face execution. Had they not been arrested, they may have successfully smuggled harmful drugs into Australia, which would have found their way onto the streets, putting Australian lives at risk.
The students struggle with the complex moral issues surrounding this situation – the discussion is emotional and intense. There are students who believe that the pair knew the risks and therefore deserved the punishment, while others argue that the death sentence is inhumane, regardless of the crime. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
At this level of their moral development, students are able to acknowledge that there are ‘shades of grey’ and some issues have no easy solution. They are now of an age when they are expected to take responsibility for their own actions – their developing sense of morality will help them when making behaviour choices.
Other contemporary theories of moral development include that of Gilligan (1982), who explores moral development from a feminist perspective. She argues that males and females have different approaches to moral reasoning. Males focus on rules, rights and justice, while women also tend to focus on issues of compassion, fairness, need, care, sensitivity and interpersonal relationships. Eisenberg (1986) developed a stage-based theory of moral development which she called ‘prosocial moral reasoning’. Eisenberg suggests that an individual’s sense of morality can depend on the situation or context and on the individual’s reasoning and thinking skills as well as individual characteristics, such as empathy and sympathy. Knowing what is morally correct does not necessarily mean that individuals will act in a morally correct manner. The increasing development of reasoning and logic skills provide older children and young people with the ability to take into consideration a range of factors when determining a course of action. However, external factors such as peer pressure, wanting to show off or impress others may override this decision-making ability. For example, a young person may be able to reason that bullying is wrong and socially unacceptable, but may engage in bullying anyway because of peer pressure and a strong need to be part of the group. This means that sometimes children and young people will conform to social standards and sometimes they will not. Adults can assist older children and young people to explore examples of moral dilemmas that students typically may face. Understanding the process of moral development will help ESWs to respond more effectively to situations where students are acting in a seemingly unacceptable manner. Increasingly, as they mature, children and young people will need to make moral choices without the direct guidance of a supportive adult. Towards the end of middle childhood most students will understand social rules,
SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
GO
further
Learn more about young people making choices that conflict with their growing sense of morality in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
163
they will understand that some actions are illegal and they will also understand that some actions are immoral, inappropriate, unethical or simply unacceptable. This knowledge helps them to self-regulate by applying appropriate personal boundaries for behaviour. Students whose environments do not actively promote and model moral and ethical behaviour will have difficulties setting these boundaries. Figure 8.4 provides a summary of ‘typical’ emerging moral development from middle childhood to young adulthood. Figure 8.4 Typical emergence of moral development
5–8 years
• Often believe that there is only a right and wrong way to do things. There is no in-between – their concept of right and wrong is rigid. • Make decisions about how to behave, based on the possible consequences of their behaviour. • Could lie or tell tales. • Base their moral beliefs on those held by significant others such as family and teachers. • Make decisions on what is good or bad based on self-interest. • Could have difficulty accepting blame. • Are developing a conscience.
9–12 years
• Are more likely to challenge authority. • Can take into account extenuating circumstances when evaluating behaviour – for example, motivation and intention. • Appreciate the idea of a ‘fair go’. • Set standards for themselves that are usually influenced by peer expectations. • Have an emerging sense of fair play and loyalty to peers.
Adolescence to young adulthood
GO
further
Learn more about the effects of peer pressure on risktaking for young people in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
Link to the Australian Curriculum
• • • • • • • •
Able to think and reason in a logical manner. Begin to form a moral conscience and are interested in issues of social justice. Begin to question values – family, social rules, laws, etc. Impulsivity can impair moral reasoning. May be persuaded by peer group to act inappropriately. Able to use abstract thought to consider moral dilemmas. May look towards contemporary role models. Begin to take responsibility for own actions and understand the consequences of their actions on self and others (parents and friends). • Can understand the concept of ‘doing the right thing’.
Children and young people with poor role models, where significant adults act in an amoral manner and lack empathy and sympathy for others, are less likely to develop a strong sense of morality and are very unlikely to reach the higher stages of moral development.
Supporting moral development To support moral development, schools generally have in place a range of rules, policies and procedures to promote fairness, equity, natural justice, empathy and wellbeing. A key driver is the National Framework for Values Education in Australian Schools, which includes nine core values based on Australia’s common democratic way of life – for example, equality, freedom, the rule of law, compassion, integrity, respect, inclusion, environmental sustainability and social justice. The Framework is shown in Figure 8.5. Values education requires a whole-of-school approach, which engages all key stakeholders – students, parents, teachers and support staff, and the governing body. Students learn about the
Figure 8.5 National Framework for Values Education in Australian Schools
Care and Compassion
Integrity
Care for self and others
Act in accordance with principles of moral and ethical conduct, ensure consistency between words and deeds
Doing Your Best Seek to accomplish something worthy and admirable, try hard, pursue excellence
Fair Go Pursue and protect the common good where all people are treated fairly for a just society
Freedom Enjoy all the rights and privileges of Australian citizenship free from unnecessary interference or control, and stand up for the rights of others
Honesty and Trustworthiness Be honest, sincere and seek the truth
Respect Treat others with consideration and regard, respect another person’s point of view
Responsibility Be accountable for one’s own actions, resolve differences in constructive, non-violent and peaceful ways, contribute to society and to civic life, take care of the environment
Understanding, Tolerance and Inclusion Be aware of others and their cultures, accept diversity within a democratic society, being included and including others
Source: DEEWR (2005). Education Services Australia, licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).
SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
165
core values when they are modelled and practised by teachers and parents, and importantly when they are able to experience these values in their day-to-day life – for example, being treated with dignity and respect, being acknowledged as worthwhile individuals, or having opportunities to work towards the common good. The final report on the National Framework for Values Education in Australian Schools (Values Education Good Practice Schools Project 2008) highlights the 10 good practices in values education from Stage 2 of the project. One of these practices is explicitly teaching values so students know what the values mean and how the values are lived. This allows the teacher to reinforce the importance of respecting differences in values and beliefs. Strategies such as a ‘value of the month’, weekly values assemblies, community forums, newsletters, dramatic presentations and lunchtime clubs have been used to focus on values. Another practice involves teachers implicitly modelling the values that have been explicitly taught. This creates opportunities for teachers to actively reinforce values learning. The report states that such pervasive modelling of values helps to create more positive classrooms and school cultures. Modelling values also reinforces the importance of respectful relationships between teachers and students, students and students, and teachers and teachers.
8.4 Emotional wellbeing Emotions, learning and thinking are intertwined. Jensen (2005) states that, ‘We can now safely say that emotions constitute the passion for learning.’ According to Jensen, emotions: • help orchestrate our attentional priorities • support either persistence or retreat • are sources of information about the outside world • evoke necessary empathy, support or fear • associate our learning with either pain or pleasure • help us make meaning out of our learning, work and life • push the pursuit of rewarded behaviour • improve social problem-solving • provide incentives for desired social behaviour • allow us to enjoy and even celebrate our learning success (Copyright ª Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.). Jensen goes on to say that emotional states run our lives, including how we think, feel, remember, act and dream. Everything we do is state dependent. All behaviours must come from an appropriate emotional state, and we each have a ‘pool’ of states that dictates our possible behaviors. Emotional states are something we experience. They are transient and mobile. Heightened emotions cause a chemical reaction in the brain that in turn stimulates the brain and heightens memory, as well as the ability to recall information. Emotions influence our thinking, values and beliefs, and the way we relate to others. Students who are happy and welladjusted are more effective learners than students who are unhappy and stressed. This means paying attention to a student’s emotional state is important.
Personality and temperament Like adults, children and young people differ greatly in their temperament and personality. Personality is the traits that make each person unique. Personality traits can, for example, include sense of humour, empathy, social values, temper, sociability and attitudes. Temperament
refers to the traits that determine how individuals react, interact and behave. Prior et al. (2000: 64-5) state: Temperament is about the style of behaviour, not the content of the behaviour; that is, how children react and behave rather than what they do in a situation. For example, it can refer to the way in which children show their likes and dislikes (for one child, definitely and intensely, and for another, quietly and gently) rather than whether they do or do not like something. Source: Prior et al. (2000). ª Australian Institute of Family Studies. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
Temperament impacts on relationships and emotional self-regulation in areas such as persistence at tasks, the ability to cope with challenges or frustration, and the ability to control one’s behaviour. There are three general types or descriptors of temperament: easy, difficult and slow to warm up. While children are predisposed to a particular temperament, they may not easily ‘fit’ into any particular type. Temperament can also be influenced by experience – particularly regarding the way behaviour is managed. Prior and colleagues (2000: 9) explored the following dimensions of temperament: • sociability – the tendency to approach new people and situations positively versus shyness and withdrawal • adaptability – the ability to adapt over time to new foods, new experiences and new life challenges • mood – whether positive or negative on a day-to-day basis • intensity – of responses to everyday occurrences and experiences, such as crying or protesting very lustily, or responding in a mild way • distractibility – the ease with which a child can be distracted or comforted when required • persistence – the ability to remain focused on an activity or task • rhythmicity – the regularity and predictability of the child’s usual pattern of activities, including eating and sleeping schedules • reactivity – the readiness with which a child reacts to a particular stimulus or event • activity – the amount of body movement and activity level on a day-to-day basis. Source: Prior et al. (2000). ª Australian Institute of Family Studies. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
Scenario
INDIVIDUAL TEMPERAMENT ADAPTABILITY
ACTIVITY LEVELS
Richard (8 years) insists on having a cheese sandwich every day for his lunch, while his twin sister Amy is happy to try a variety of foods.
Stuart (11 years) is always on the move – he talks quickly and never seems to sit still. He plays several different sports. Barney (11 years) is quiet and a bit of a dreamer. He doesn’t like any sports, preferring to be an observer rather than a participant.
SENSITIVITY
Mia (13 years) is sensitive to sound and is easily upset by a noisy environment. Daisy (13 years) thrives in a group setting – the noisier the better! CONSISTENCY
Owen (9 years) likes to follow a regular daily routine and becomes very upset if these routines are interrupted. Owen does not cope well with change. Jay (9 years) comes from a large family where routines are flexible. Jay copes well with change.
INTENSITY
When upset, Carly (16 years) will become quiet and withdrawn. When Zoe (16 years) is upset, everybody around her knows it! She yells, screams and slams doors. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
A child or young person’s temperament influences the way they behave and the way they relate to others. Knowing a student’s temperament can be useful when planning learning activities, and also when responding to inappropriate or challenging behaviours.
SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
167
Temperament is also influenced by the child’s cultural context. For example, Asian children are thought to be more restrained than Western children, which is a reflection of cultural beliefs and child-rearing practices. Prior and colleagues (2000) found that the key characteristics of temperament were persistence, flexibility and reactivity, which they referred to as temperamental ‘self-regulation’. This is the ability to control and manage responses and behaviours to various events and situations. Prior and colleagues report that children who have poor temperamental ‘selfregulation’ are most likely to be at risk of poor behaviour as a reaction to stress or frustration. They found that these children had better outcomes when their behaviour was managed sensitively. Behaviour management of a negative nature tended to have a negative impact on the child’s behaviour. Prior and colleagues (2000) believe that children’s temperament tends to be set along a particular pathway by the age of 2 to 3 years. Teaching specific self-regulation skills was found to be most effective with children who had poor temperamental ‘self-regulation’.
Self-regulation Self-regulation refers to developing the capacity to manage emotions constructively and keep one’s attention focused. Controlling outbursts of emotion, learning to wait before acting, selfmonitoring and acquiring the ability to organise segments of behaviour sequentially – all of which are embraced by the term ‘self-regulation’ – all involve ‘various forms of self-monitoring and response inhibition that, in turn, reflect the growing maturity of the brain’. Being able to self-regulate in response to situations, people or events is an essential skill that all children must acquire if they are to function successfully in a classroom environment. Selfregulation is a key developmental task. Shonkoff and Phillips (2000: 103, 193) state that selfregulation is the ‘cornerstone of development’. Warhol (1998: 22) reminds us that ‘the regulation of emotions does not take place in a vacuum, but most certainly develops within the framework of interaction and relationships’. Like all other areas of development, self-regulation occurs in a social context as children and young people build relationships – first with the family and later with significant others such as educators, teachers and, as the child matures, peer groups and close friends. Self-regulation is a cognitive process that requires the purposeful modification or inhibition of one’s emotions. The ability to self-regulate emotions improves as the child matures, but is also dependent on, and influenced by, temperament, gender, cultural factors such as child-rearing practices, life experience, cultural expectations in relation to the expression of emotions, parental expectations and role models. The process of self-regulation takes time, and for some children the process continues well into adolescence (or even adulthood). The process of self-regulation starts as young children begin to understand that emotions have both a cause and an effect. For example, a toddler might have a tantrum after being denied a biscuit and is then ignored by the parent until the tantrum ceases. An older child might learn that being unkind to a friend is likely to result in that friend not wanting to play. A teenager might learn that bragging to her peers about her good looks does not in fact win friends. Expression of emotions is also culturally bound – for example, in some cultures, such as Japan, it may be considered impolite to express anger in public, while in other cultures the public expression of extreme emotions is expected. Children gradually learn that there are rules about how, when and where it is acceptable to express certain emotions. These social and cultural rules are referred to as emotional display rules, which are developed first within the context of the family and later within the broader
community. Children and young people who have poor self-regulation will be at risk of social isolation and school failure. In later years, they may be more likely to engage in anti-social behaviours, which in turn may have lifelong consequences. Based on the work of Goleman (2006) and Gardner (1993), the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL 2007) has identified five core groups of social and emotional competencies that contribute to the development of self-regulation. These are recognising and managing our emotions, developing caring and concern for others (empathy), establishing positive relationships, making responsible decisions, and handling challenging situations constructively and ethically. These skills allow children to calm themselves when angry, make friends, resolve conflicts respectfully, and make ethical and safe choices. Figure 8.6 lists the five core groups of social and emotional competencies and the general developmental expectations from middle childhood to adolescence. Figure 8.6 Five core groups of social and emotional competencies
Competency
Description
Examples of development
Self-awareness
Accurately assessing one’s feelings, interests, values and strengths; maintaining a well-grounded sense of self-confidence
Middle childhood (around 6 to 9 years): recognise and accurately label simple emotions such as sadness, anger and happiness Pre-pubescence (around 9 to 12 years): analyse factors that trigger their stress reactions Adolescence (12 years+): analyse how various expressions of emotion affect other people
Self-management
Social awareness
Regulating one’s emotions to handle stress, control impulses and persevere in overcoming obstacles; setting and monitoring progress towards personal and academic goals; expressing emotions appropriately
Middle childhood (around 6 to 9 years): describe the steps of setting and working towards goals
Being able to take the perspective of and empathise with others; recognising and appreciating individual and group similarities and differences; recognising and using family, school and community resources
Middle childhood (around 6 to 9 years): identify verbal, physical and situational cues indicating how others feel
Adolescence (12 years+): identify strategies to make use of available school and community resources and overcome obstacles to achieving a long-term goal
Pre-pubescence (around 9 to 12 years): predict others’ feelings and perspectives in various situations Adolescence (12 years+): evaluate their ability to empathise with others
Relationship skills
Responsible decision-making
Establishing and maintaining healthy and rewarding relationships based on cooperation; resisting inappropriate social pressure; preventing, managing and resolving interpersonal conflict; seeking help when needed
Middle childhood (around 6 to 9 years): describe approaches to making and keeping friends
Making decisions based on consideration of ethical standards, safety concerns, appropriate social norms, respect for others and likely consequences of various actions; applying decision-making skills to academic and social situations; contributing to the wellbeing of one’s school and community
Middle childhood (around 6 to 9 years): identify a range of decisions they make at school
Pre-pubescence (around 9 to 12 years): demonstrate cooperation and teamwork to promote group goals Adolescence (12 years+): evaluate uses of communication skills with peers, teachers and family members
Pre-pubescence (around 9 to 12 years): evaluate strategies for resisting peer pressure to engage in unsafe or unethical activities Adolescence (12 years+): analyse how current decisionmaking affects their university and career prospects Source: ª CASEL, www.casel.org.
SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
169
During middle childhood, children commonly exhibit behaviours that can be challenging for adults. These reflect the child’s growing need for independence, assertiveness, testing of boundaries and, at times, defiance of authority. Such behaviours, while at times annoying for adults, are simply a reflection of healthy child development. These behaviours do not usually have serious consequences and can be resolved through discussion/reasoning, effective discipline strategies and the use of natural and logical consequences. By middle childhood, most children are able to communicate their needs and wants verbally but may still have difficulty expressing their feelings in a socially acceptable manner. Children who consistently present with challenging behaviours do so because they perceive that their needs or demands are not being met. All children, but especially those who display challenging behaviours, need the feedback of a reliable and caring adult who can provide consistent support and guidance.
Self-concept Self-concept is the process of evaluating oneself – ‘Who am I, what am I like, what do others think of me, what will I become?’ Self-concept is multidimensional – it is a process of thinking critically in order to evaluate oneself in a range of areas. Duchesne and colleagues (2019) discuss four factors relating to the self-concept of school-age children and young people: • physical self – What do I look like compared with others? What physical skills do I have? Am I attractive? • psychological/emotional self – Am I likeable? How do I manage my emotions? How do I deal with disappointment or conflict? Am I happy, kind, friendly, helpful, empathic? • social self – Do I have a range of social networks and friendships? Do I participate in a range of activities and experiences with others? Can I communicate effectively with people of different ages? What are my core values and beliefs? • academic self – How do I perform at school? What subjects do I like. What am I good at? What are my goals for the future? Duchesne et al. (2019: 157) report that having a positive academic self has a positive effective on academic achievement. Self-concept, or how young people ‘see’ themselves, is a primary concern for adolescents. They are preoccupied by how they fit in, which group they belong to at school, their physical appearance, their physical prowess, their reputation among their peers and what they can do well. How adolescents see themselves as competent individuals will to a large extent shape their interactions with family, peers and teachers. Self-image may also impact participation in sport, social functions or part-time work. Adolescence is also a time when young people may experiment with drugs, alcohol and sex. They may engage in risk-taking behaviour with little or no thought given to the possible consequences. Adolescents are dealing with surges in hormones and major physical changes, while the frontal lobe – which manages the executive functions of the brain, such as behaviour and impulse control – is not yet fully developed. This combination of an immature frontal lobe, which limits the ability to problem-solve, combined with the surge in hormones, often results in risk-taking behaviour. Jackson and Goossens (2006: 286) suggest that much of adolescent behaviour described as ‘risky’ is in fact characteristically developmental for adolescents and experimental in nature. They state that ‘very often risk behaviours arise more because of situations which bring about new and unexpected challenges to an inexperienced youngster, than [due] to characteristics inherent in the individual’.
Scenario
RISKY Asher (15 years) and his mates have two dozen eggs and are out for a good time. It’s 9 p.m. and the boys are walking around the neighbourhood throwing eggs at cars, houses and shopfronts. They find this behaviour exhilarating, especially if chased or challenged by someone in the neighbourhood. When his father hears what Asher has done, he makes him help to wash the dried egg off the damaged property. Although annoyed, Asher’s father is aware that his son’s behaviour is typical for his age and recalls the many risks he took just for the fun of it when he was a teenager.
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
The teenage brain lacks impulse control, which leads to risk-taking behaviours. " DISCUSSION
Young people often engage in behaviours that are annoying and borderline unacceptable, but can be explained by the need to show off or conform to the peer group – for example, swearing, risk-taking behaviours, answering back, showing-off. Should these behaviours be addressed formally or is it more effective to simply ignore them?
Developing a positive self-concept is an integral part of the socialisation process. To develop a positive self-concept, children and young people need to feel they are competent and to have this feeling validated by significant people in their lives. Feeling good about oneself is essential for establishing successful interactions with other people. The ways in which adults respond to and guide children’s and young people’s behaviour will significantly affect their self-concept.
Self-esteem Self-esteem is the measure of how much an individual likes or values the characteristics that make up the image they have of themselves. Self-esteem reflects the judgements children make about themselves when they compare their self-concept with what they believe is their ideal self. From infancy, self-esteem is shaped by the degree of unconditional love and nurturance received from parents or primary attachment figure/s. This attachment is a critical factor, and continues to have a strong influence on self-esteem throughout adolescence. As babies begin to interact with their environment, their self-esteem is shaped by adult responses to their attempts to become more independent. It is not until around 3 years of age that children develop the cognitive skills to understand that other people can have different thoughts and feelings from them. A child’s self-esteem in turn plays a role in how children behave and how successfully they interact with others. Children and young people who do not have their self-esteem validated find the world untrustworthy and unreliable, and often use unacceptable or extreme behaviour to have their emotional needs met. Negative behaviours such as bullying and aggression are often symptoms of poor self-esteem. Children and young people with poor self-esteem are less likely to be proactive in taking responsibility for their own actions or to respect the rights of others. They may find it difficult to form trusting relationships with adults. Self-esteem is also closely linked to the development of friendships, and children with poor self-esteem are less likely to develop friendships and more likely to be easily led or manipulated by others. A child’s self-esteem develops in response to the experiences they have and the feedback they get from significant people in their lives (family members, friends, teachers, ESWs). The concept of self-esteem as the foundation for emotional health is supported by the work of several theorists. For example, Erikson (1963) believed it was essential that children be given ‘the right messages’ at each stage of development in order to develop:
SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
171
a sense of trust in the world a feeling of control over actions and decisions a sense of responsibility a feeling of competence. Healthy self-esteem Poor self-esteem Children and young people behave according to the way they see themselves (see Figure 8.7); their Respected • Anxious belief about what they can and cannot achieve will Valued • Unhappy influence how they approach new situations. Happy • Anti-social Productive • Feeling of hopelessness Self-esteem also influences life chances and Optimistic • Mistrustful life choices – what you do and what you can Risk-taker • Focuses on failure become. If children and young people are given Perseveres • Avoids risks Cooperative genuine, positive feedback, such as ‘You’re kind, Capable responsible, creative, helpful, thoughtful’, they are Resourceful more likely to develop positive, healthy attitudes and beliefs about themselves and to have positive self-esteem. It is critical that children and young people hear ‘the right messages’ so they see themselves as worthwhile and valued: ‘I am loveable, I am valued, I am worthwhile, I can handle myself and my environment with confidence. I know I have something to offer to others’. Children and young people with healthy self-esteem: • feel good about themselves, and in turn act kindly towards others • accept and appreciate themselves and others • are happy and therefore more productive • form positive relationships with others • feel respected, valued and powerful • are creative and are motivated to learn • are prepared to persevere and therefore accomplish goals • are honest, loyal and cooperative • accept responsibility and develop coping skills • accept rules and limits more readily • understand that disappointment is just a part of life • deal with disappointment in a positive way • feel a sense of belonging – to the family unit and later to groups such as child care or school • can appreciate the individual value of every person they meet Children and young people with low self-esteem are typically characterised by: • anxiety – feeling bad about yourself interferes with the way you deal with life’s stresses and problems • anti-social behaviour • focusing on failure instead of success, problems instead of challenges, difficulties instead of possibilities • avoiding risks and avoiding situations that may involve failure – for example, when the teacher asks a student to do something, they say ‘It’s too hard’ or ‘This work is stupid’. Children and young people with low self-esteem will often generalise difficulties or challenges in one area to a general sense of failure: ‘I’m hopeless’, ‘I can’t do anything right!’, ‘Everyone hates me.’
Figure 8.7 Self-esteem – how children and young people see themselves
• • • • • • • • • •
• • • •
Scenario
SELF-ESTEEM NERVES
Hannah (11 years, 8 months) is anxious about starting at her new selective high school. As her mother is driving her to school, she starts to cry and says she has made the wrong decision and should have gone to her local high school with her friends: ‘I won’t be as smart as the other kids. They’ll think I’m stupid. What if no one likes me?’ Her mother tries to reassure Hannah, telling her that it is normal to be nervous in a new situation and that there will be lots of other students feeling the same way. SELF-CONFIDENCE
Eva (11 years 9 months) is also on her way to the same school as Hannah. Eva is excited. She tells her father that
she can’t wait to make some new friends and meet her teachers: ‘It’s going to be so exciting!’ WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Hannah lacks self-esteem. She sees herself as perhaps not being good enough to attend the selective high school and worries that she won’t make any friends. Eva’s positive self-esteem allows her to feel excited and confident about her new school. " DISCUSSION
What factors might contribute to the difference in the self-esteem of Eva and Hannah?
Self-efficacy Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief in their ability to achieve and to ‘have a go’ – for example, ‘I think I could learn how to do that’ versus ‘I’ll never be able to do that!’ Self-efficacy is based on the individual’s sense of agency (sense of control or self-confidence) – the individual’s perception of their ability to influence/control their own fate by making deliberate choices and decisions. Self-efficacy involves an individual’s belief about their own competence and power to be in control and take purposeful action to achieve desired outcomes – for example, ‘If I practise every day I might be selected for the first division team’; ‘I’m going to study hard so that I get lots of options for my future.’ Low self-efficacy can lead to a sense of powerlessness, helplessness and despair. As described by Bandura (1986), low self-efficacy can create a cycle of continuous low achievement: ‘I can’t do this so there is no point trying’, with resulting failure reinforcing the ‘I can’t do this’ belief. Students caught in this cycle will often avoid new challenges and use a range of avoidance strategies – for example, ‘I have a headache; My tummy hurts; I feel sick; My hand is sore.’ Students with low self-efficacy can be supported by the following strategies: • Break tasks down into small, manageable steps. This helps the student to see that completing a task need not be overwhelming if it is broken down into small chunks. • Talk about the task with the student and allow them to ask questions. This encourages the student to think through the task and visualise a positive outcome. • Ask open-ended questions to clarify the student’s thinking (think aloud) – for example, ‘Tell me what you know about …; What can you do if you don’t’ know how to spell a word? What can you do if you get stuck?’ • Use specific, positive reinforcement by commenting on what the student does – for example, ‘Good, you remembered to start your sentence with a capital letter.’ • Provide a range of resources (depending on age/interests) – for example, coloured paper, special pens, iPad, apps. • Where possible, offer choices – for example, choose a book for reading; choose a topic for writing; choose where to sit.
SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
173
Set short-term goals with the student – for example, ‘By next Friday I will write a sentence with at least six words.’ • Offer rewards/motivation for effort – ‘When you have written your sentence, you can choose … • Start with what the student can do and gradually build on these skills. • Give the student specific tips, such as a visual reminder of the structure of a sentence, or teach rhymes – for example, when rounding up or down, chant, ‘Four or less let it rest, five or more raise the score!’ •
Scenario
‘CAN DO!’ VERSUS ‘NO WAY!’ Mitch, 10 years, and his sister, Callie, 8 years, have been enrolled in the local swimming club. Callie is looking forward to improving her swimming and says she might be able to go to the Olympics one day. Callie always sees the glass as half full. She is an eternal optimist and will have a go at almost anything. As a result, she is a good all-rounder who achieves well, both academically and in sport. She is popular with other students and teachers. Mitch, on the other hand, is a fatalist – he always thinks about what might go wrong. This attitude has limited Mitch’s opportunities to reach his full potential. He lacks self-confidence and complains whenever he is
faced with a new challenge. He tells his father he doesn’t want to be in the swimming club as he’s ‘hopeless at swimming’ and it will be a waste of time and money. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Mitch and Callie are siblings but have very different levels of self-belief. Callie’s optimism will support her to reach her full potential in life; conversely, Mitch’s low selfefficacy will limit his ability to reach his full potential. " DISCUSSION
What could the children’s father do to build Mitch’s low self-efficacy?
The importance of friendships Self-esteem, self-confidence and self-efficacy all play a role in the formation of friendships. The ability to form and sustain friendships is an important social and cognitive task for children and young people. Friendships developed at school (or child care) are typically the first relationships formed independently of the family. Friends are often chosen on the basis of similarity – gender, age, sporting skills, common interests, socioeconomic status and ethnicity. Children and young people are acutely aware of how they compare with and are different from their peers. Awareness of these differences will play an increasing role in whether or not children and young people regard themselves as competent and confident individuals. By middle childhood, children are increasingly becoming focused on body image, and are anxious to ‘fit in’ and be part of a group. Being ‘different’ or not being accepted within the peer group can cause great anxiety and undermine confidence at this age. Negative experiences with their peer group can have a significant impact on self-esteem. Children and young people use various strategies to ‘fit in’ or be part of a group. They may adopt the same dress, likes or dislikes, behaviour and even speech patterns of more popular children to ensure acceptance. The positive opinion of peers exerts a powerful influence over how children and young people see themselves and how they behave. By adolescence, friendships can influence the development of values such as trust, empathy, loyalty, problem-solving and conflict resolution. Friendships also support emotional development – to have a friend, you must be a friend. The interdependent and reciprocal nature of friendships provides children and young people with the opportunity to explore and gain
valuable experience in building and sustaining mutually beneficial relationships. They learn that friendship can mean compromising or putting the needs of others before one’s own needs. During adolescence, friendships provide an important source of emotional support. There will be occasions during early adolescence when young people may prefer to share their intimate concerns, thoughts and feeling with their friends rather than with a supportive adult. By high school, young people usually have an established group of friends. Membership of these groups is usually achieved by mutual consent and there is usually a natural group leader. Dolgin (2014) reminds us that a teenager’s definition of popular is not the same as an adult’s definition (kind, generous, thoughtful, outgoing, friendly). Young people who are regarded as popular are typically natural leaders who are perceived as being cool – they usually have their own style of dress and way of talking, and they are usually good looking, persuasive and charismatic. They can also be very manipulative, dismissive and judgemental. Popular adolescent girls in particular can also be quite nasty – for example, controlling others by spreading malicious rumours, making unkind comments or excluding them from the group. Young people who have not been able to establish special friendships during their primary school years may find it difficult to do so in high school. Children in mainstream education who have a disability that impacts on their ability to form and sustain relationships may also become loners at high school. For example, a young person with mild autism who does not have the social skills necessary to effectively interact on an ongoing basis with their peers may find it difficult to establish friendships. Duchesne and colleagues (2019: 195) remind us that ‘a history of peer rejection and a lack of supportive friendships is associated with a risk of poor school performance, early school dropout, antisocial behaviour, criminality and poor relationships in adulthood’. These authors also state that friendship, particularly during adolescence, is a source of protection – that is, friends look out for each other, care for each other, help each other out and provide a source of security. Scenario
BFF Harley and Adam (both 17 years) have been best friends since kindergarten. As they get ready to leave school and begin a new phase in their lives, they reflect on their friendship and how much it has helped them to navigate their way to adulthood. They know they will remain friends forever, even as they go on their separate journeys – one to university, the other on a 12-month student exchange to Germany. Lan and Mei (both 15 years) are both ChineseAustralians. Their parents are close friends and the families socialise on weekends. Lan’s parents have very traditional views on gender roles and want Lan to marry well. Mei’s parents are more Westernised and tell Mei she
is free to choose her own path in life. Lan has a boyfriend at school but keeps it a secret from her parents because she knows they would disapprove as he is not Chinese. Lan and Mei collaborate on stories to tell Lan’s mother about where they are going and what they are doing so Lan can spend time with her boyfriend. Lan is so grateful to have Mei as her best friend. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Forming and sustaining friendships is an important part of the socialisation process, particularly as young people move towards great independence.
8.5 Resilience and mental health Resilience refers to the individual’s ability to overcome setbacks and persevere in the presence of difficulty or hardship. Resilience is closely related to self-efficacy. The ability to reflect
SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
175
Figure 8.8 Internal and external factors that can support the development of resilience L INFLUENC ERNA ES EXT l a t e i r o n g n s i h ips Car
LF ERNA ACTORS INT lf cont rol
bility/ participat ion posi res
skills confide nce
p o si
role models itive pos
ing ink th
community resource s
Se
tiv e o u tlo o k
Ontario Maternal, Newborn and Early Child Development Resource Centre (2012). iStock.com/pixelfusion3d.
Figure 8.9 Encouraging messages can promote resilience
positively on what we can and can’t do requires a certain level of optimism. The focus then becomes what ‘I can do’ rather than what ‘I can’t do’. Children and young people who are resilient are able to attempt and persist with new tasks without fearing disappointment or failure. They are able to accept that they may not be ‘good’ at everything they do. They can bounce back from failure or disappointment. They are happy to do their best and will continue to work towards success. Children and young people who are resilient tend to have an easy temperament and high self-esteem, and to come from homes where there is a high level of emotional support. Resilience is a key factor in school readiness and later social and academic achievement. The skills required to develop resilience include: • self-control – the ability to manage disappointment without losing control (self-regulation) • thinking and problem-solving – the ability to engage in problem-solving and finding new ways to approach challenges • self-confidence – believing in self and willingness to persist • a positive outlook – a focus on positives rather than negatives; having a ‘can do’ attitude • a sense of responsibility/participation – a sense of purpose and self-motivation to attempt challenges. Figure 8.8 identifies the internal and external factors that can support the development of resilience. Encouragement, as illustrated in Figure 8.9, also promotes resilience. According to Be You, a national mental health in education initiative led by Beyond Blue (2019a), children and young people ‘with greater levels of resilience are better able to manage stress’. While resilience is thought to have a genetic component, protective factors such as helping children to manage their emotions, family support, friendships and a sense of belonging to the school community support the development of resilience. Building resilience supports good mental health for children and young people.
The mental health of children and adolescents in Australia Mental health can be defined as ‘a positive capacity relating to the social and emotional wellbeing of individuals and communities’ (Hunter Institute of Mental Health 2010, p. 2). How it is defined depends on cultural understandings, but it generally includes elements such as our enjoyment of life, how we cope with stress, sadness, grief and difficulties, our goals and ambitions, and how we go about achieving them and our connections with other people. Mental health encompasses ‘our thoughts, our emotions, our social functioning, and the overall coherence or purpose in our lives. Mental health is an integral part of a person’s overall health and wellbeing’ (Hunter Institute of Mental Health 2010, p. 2).
REPORT ON THE MENTAL HEALTH OF CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS The 2015 Report on the Second Australia Child and Adolescent Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing into the mental health of children and adolescents in Australia is based on a national survey conducted in the homes of over 6300 families with children and/or adolescents aged from four to 17 years, developed as part of the second Child and Adolescent Mental Health Survey (2013–14). The report found that the seven most common and disabling mental disorders experienced by children and adolescents were major depressive disorder; attention-
Consider This
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD); conduct disorder; and four anxiety disorders: social phobia, separation anxiety, generalised anxiety and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). " DISCUSSION
The 2015 report revealed that children and young people can suffer a range of mental health disorders. Why is it important for teachers to be aware of this information?
Prevalence of mental health disorders • •
•
• • •
Around one in seven (13.9 per cent) children and adolescents aged from four to 17 years had experienced a mental disorder. The rate was higher in males. ADHD was the most common mental disorder in children and adolescents (7.4 per cent), followed by anxiety disorders (6.9 per cent), major depressive disorder (2.8 per cent) and conduct disorder (2.1 per cent). Almost one-third of children and adolescents with a disorder (30 per cent, or 4.2 per cent of all four to 17-year-olds) had experienced two or more mental disorders at some time in the previous 12 months. One in eight (12.8 per cent) children and adolescents in this age group with mental disorders had taken a medication for emotional or behavioural problems in the previous two weeks. Around one in 10 adolescents (10.9 per cent) reported having ever self-harmed. Self-harm was more common among females than among males, and more common in older adolescents. Around 7.5 per cent of young people aged 12–17 years had seriously considered attempting suicide in the previous 12 months. The proportion was over twice as high for females as for males. Just over one in eight young males with major depressive disorder attempted suicide.
The role of the school •
Schools provided services to around 40 per cent of this age group with mental disorders who attended them, including individual or group counselling, placement in a special class or special school, support from a school nurse or other school services.
SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
177
•
• • • •
Two-fifths (40.5 per cent) of parents and carers reported that a school staff member was among those who suggested that their child may need help for emotional or behavioural problems. One in five students with a mental health disorder reported having received informal support for emotional or behavioural problems from a school staff member. School performance in all subjects was markedly poorer for students with a mental disorder. Major depressive disorder was associated with the highest average number of days absent from school, followed by anxiety disorders, conduct disorder and ADHD. A higher proportion of children and adolescents with a mental disorder than those without a mental disorder somewhat disliked or very much disliked school.
The role of the family The report found that children and adolescents in low-income families, with parents and carers who had lower levels of education and higher levels of unemployment, had higher rates of mental disorders. It was also reported that young people in step-, blended and one-parent or carer families had higher rates of mental disorders than young people living in their original families – that is, where at least one child was living with both their natural, adoptive or foster parents and there were no step-children. Children and adolescents who lived outside the greater capital city areas had higher rates of mental disorders compared with those living in other areas. The survey measured the severity of impact of mental disorders in four different domains of functioning: in school or work; with friends and on social activities; on the family; and on the children themselves. For children with anxiety disorders, ADHD and conduct disorder, in the majority of cases there was a mild impact on functioning. For children and adolescents with a major depressive disorder, there was a severe impact on functioning.
Risk factors Risk factors associated with young people with a mental health disorder included smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, use of cannabis and other drugs, problem eating behaviours, risky/promiscuous sexual behaviours, bullying and excessive use of or addiction to internet/ electronic games. The report on the mental health and wellbeing of children indicates that educators need to be aware of the mental health of children and young people. Schools can be a source of support for students with mental health issues – this may include identification, counselling and/or referral to health services. Teachers are often the first people outside the family to identify children and young people with emotional and behavioural problems. It is important to actively assist students to deal with disappointment or mistakes, and to help them understand that they are a part of life. This support can be achieved by talking to students and helping them to see how they can work towards building their skills or working through their mistakes. It is important not to dismiss students’ concerns, but rather to acknowledge them in a respectful manner. ‘I know you’re disappointed, William. How about we work through it together?’ Students should not always be ‘rescued’ from disappointment or failure, but should be supported to cope, take responsibility for their own actions and identify and draw on their own strengths. Sometimes students will need to simply accept disappointment or failure: ‘You did your very best and I know you are upset. You won’t always succeed at what you do but you can always feel good about trying your best. Let’s think about the things you can do well.’
Help students to put disappointment or mistakes into perspective. ‘Remember last year you couldn’t write your name and now you can!’ Children and young people who present with mental health issues may present in many different ways. For example, they may exhibit acting out behaviours such as persistent defiance, physical or verbal aggression, including verbal threats, inability to inhibit or control behaviour impulses or remain on task without constantly being distracted. Alternatively, they may become quiet and withdrawn from the family and from their peers. They may present as anxious, uncertain or unsure of themselves. They may also see the world in very negative ways and present with a sense of hopelessness. It is important to be aware that determining a child or young person’s mental health status requires specialised expertise. Labelling a student as having mental health issues is not helpful and in fact can be quite damaging for the student and the family. As an ESW, your role is to be aware of the student’s needs and support the student in the classroom under the guidance of the teacher and/or other professionals engaged with the student.
Anxiety All children and young people will experience a degree of anxiety from time to time – for example, when starting school, joining a sporting team, completing exams or going to a party. This type of anxiety is normal, healthy and usually overcome by support from the family. Children and young people who suffer from anxiety disorder are constantly anxious. They may feel overwhelmed by the expectations of themselves and others, they may have irrational fears and they generally lack self-confidence. They can be overwhelmed by a task simply because they are not able to break the task into manageable chunks and often are not able to visualise themselves as competent, capable and resourceful. They are unable to relax, and this creates a cycle of worry, stress and anxiety that becomes all consuming. They lack the resilience needed to attempt tasks or move from their comfort zone because they fear failure, sense danger or simply regard themselves as incapable. According to Be You (2019b), behaviours that might indicate higher than average levels of anxiety may include separation anxiety and clingy behaviour; frequent, severe tantrums; low interest in social situations; unwillingness to get involved in unfamiliar activities and significant difficulty with change or transitions. Ultimately, chronic anxiety in children and young people stops them from participating fully in their life, and enjoying it. Anxieties that may manifest in childhood include: • separation anxiety – while this is appropriate in younger children, in older children the inability to separate from the family without becoming anxious will reduce the child’s opportunities to participate in normal social activities such as sleepovers, attending parties or school camps/excursions. • phobias (including social phobia) – a phobia is an intense and irrational fear of an object, thing or event. It becomes debilitating when the child obsesses over the phobia. For example, a social phobia may mean that the child refuses to attend social outings with others. • Generalised Anxiety Disorder – the child worries about almost everything. For example, being late, forgetting their homework, what to wear, how many friends they have etc. • Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) – this disorder can develop as a consequence of a traumatic experience or event such as a serious accident, a natural disaster, witnessing extreme violence, being attacked or bullied. PTSD is often accompanied by flashbacks and extreme mood swings.
SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
179
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) – this can be an extremely debilitating disorder as the child obsesses over a particular action or ritual such as hand-washing, touching certain objects before leaving the house, checking that certain items are in the backpack and so on. Children with OCD will repeat the same action over and over again, even if this means returning to the house multiple times to carry out an action. • school refusal – children who develop school refusal are usually so anxious about going to school that they will develop psychosomatic illnesses such as a headache or upset tummy. •
Accommodations Students who suffer from an anxiety disorder require adults to be supportive and patient. It may take a child many false starts before they are prepared to try to overcome their anxieties. Accommodations may include: • allowing students to talk about their anxieties and helping them to verbalise what makes them feel anxious • teaching calming techniques such as self-affirmations, deep breathing or rehearsal • working alongside the children rather than taking over or acting on behalf of the child • facing anxieties with a trusted person to reduce fears • encouraging a ‘can do’ attitude. Teach resilience by talking about failure and the importance of having a go, learning from the experience and trying again.
Childhood trauma Childhood trauma is described by the National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN 2018) as a traumatic event that is a frightening, dangerous or violent event that poses a threat to a child’s life or bodily integrity. Children who suffer from child traumatic stress are those who have been exposed to one or more traumas over the course of their lives and develop reactions that persist and affect their daily lives after the events have ended. Traumatic reactions can include a variety of responses, such as intense and ongoing emotional upset, depressive symptoms or anxiety, behavioural changes, difficulties with self-regulation, problems relating to others or forming attachments, regression or loss of previously acquired skills, attention and academic difficulties, nightmares, difficulty sleeping and eating, and physical symptoms such as aches and pains. Older children may use drugs or alcohol, behave in risky ways, or engage in unhealthy sexual activity. Traumatic events may include: • physical, sexual or psychological abuse and neglect (including trafficking) • natural and technological disasters or terrorism • family or community violence • sudden or violent loss of a loved one • substance use disorder (personal or familial) • refugee and war experiences (including torture) • serious accidents or life-threatening illness • military family-related stressors (e.g. deployment, parental loss or injury). Not all children who experience the same trauma will develop traumatic stress or experience the same level of traumatic stress. This will depend on the nature of the traumatic experience, previous traumatic experiences, the response and support of the family, the child’s culture, living conditions, community support and the severity of the experience. Complex trauma is defined as exposure to multiple traumatic events and includes the wideranging, long-term effects of this exposure. Examples of complex trauma include child abuse,
abandonment and severe neglect, witnessing repeated domestic violence, substance abuse, or the mental illness of a parent. Children who are exposed to complex trauma may become emotionally detached, distrustful, angry and vigilant. They may also suffer anxiety and depression. They may dissociate themselves from the trauma, may become fearful or aggressive, and in adolescence may engage in extreme risktaking behaviours. They experience feelings of shame, guilt, low self-esteem and a poor self-image. For young children, the experience of complex trauma can lead to toxic stress, which has a disruptive effect on the nervous system and stress hormone regulatory systems that can damage developing brain architecture and chemistry. It can lead to lifelong problems in learning, behaviour and both physical and mental health (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child 2004: 8–10). Without treatment, in adulthood these children may become mentally ill, and engage in violence, substance abuse, illegal activities and prostitution.
Accommodations Children and young people who have experienced traumatic events or complex trauma should receive treatment from people who specialise in treating childhood trauma. In school settings, this can be supported by: • being aware that the student has suffered trauma and is exhibiting signs of traumatic stress (it is not necessary or appropriate to know all of the details related to the student’s trauma – this information is confidential) • making allowances for the student’s behaviour (within reason and with clear boundaries) • allowing the student to take short breaks as needed • suggesting a buddy or support person who can alert staff if there are any problems in the playground • working with the student to identify emotional triggers and trying to minimise these or anticipate in order to prepare the student • focusing on the student’s strengths and abilities to develop activities to build self-regulation of emotions and gaining a sense of control • acting as a trusted mentor and support to the student • where students have collectively experienced a trauma such as a natural disaster, encouraging students to talk about their experiences, and their emotions and fears, and to work on ways of overcoming these as a group.
ONLINE RESOURCES CHILD TRAUMA TOOLKIT
Child Trauma Toolkit for Educators (2008). The National Child Traumatic Stress Network. This free 28-page resource can be downloaded from the website: http://opi.mt.gov/Portals/182/Page%20Files/Health%20%26%20Physical%20Education/ Child%20Trauma/NIH_CDC_TraumaToolkit_Educators.pdf
Mindfulness Mindfulness is the ability to pay attention, with judgement given to what we are thinking and feeling in the here and now. As students move into adolescence, factors such as peer pressure, being liked, having friends and being part of a group, and body image influence and shape emotional wellbeing. A student’s emotional state will influence how they act, think and learn. Students who are SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
181
emotionally well adjusted are able to manage negative emotional states with the support of caring adults. Being able to manage emotional states allows individuals to put emotions to one side and focus on the task at hand. This is a developmental skill that must be supported and nurtured by responsive adults. Learning to manage emotions is an essential life skill that can be supported by: • helping students to recognise and label their emotions • helping students to choose acceptable and safe behaviours to manage their emotions • helping students to recognise how their emotional state influences their thinking, learning and decision-making • engaging mindfulness activities • recognising that experiencing strong emotions can be frightening for children and young people and, regardless of how they react, they need the understanding, guidance and support of caring adults. ESWs can support students by being alert to their emotional wellbeing and alerting the classroom teacher if there are any concerns. They can support mindfulness, which in its simplest form can be described as tuning in to the present moment and focusing on the task at hand. Be You (2019c) states that mindfulness is a ‘clinically proven tool to support your wellbeing and mental health’. The benefits of mindfulness for children include: • ‘improving resilience (building skills to cope better with stress) • increasing their ability to self-regulate through breathing and other grounding techniques, especially difficult emotions such as fear and anger • improving empathy (their ability to understand how another person is feeling, which helps them to build positive relationships)’.
Mental health programs Many government and non-government schools have implemented programs specifically designed to promote resilience, mental health and wellbeing. An alphabetical list of mental health programs in Australia (for all ages) can be found at the Commonwealth Department of Health website: http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/content/mentalprogs. Figure 8.10 provides a list of examples of commercial and funded programs that are available to Australian schools. Figure 8.10 Examples of resilience and mental health programs for schools
Program
Website
Beyondblue: Resilience program for Secondary Schools
https://www.beyondblue.org.au/healthy-places/secondary-schools-and-tertiary/secondary-schoolsprogram
Building Resilience: A model to support children and young people
http://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/health/mentalhealth/Pages/buildingresilience.aspx
KidsMatter: Bounce Back
https://www.kidsmatter.edu.au/primary/programs/bounce-back
SDERA: Challenges and Choices Resources
https://www.sdera.wa.edu.au/programs/challenges-and-choices-resources
The Resilience Project
https://theresilienceproject.com.au/schools
Summary Healthy social and emotional development and wellbeing profoundly influence how children and young people regard themselves as learners. Seeing themselves as competent and capable learners, being accepted within the peer group, and developing and sustaining positive relationships with adults will significantly enhance the student’s likelihood of reaching their full potential and achieving their life goals.
Discussion questions 1
Discuss the following statement as it might relate to adolescence. ‘Knowing what is morally correct does not necessarily mean that individuals will act in a morally correct manner.’ 2 Refer to the Consider this box ‘The 2015 Report on the Mental Health of Children and Adolescents’ on page 177 and discuss why it is important for all educators to be aware of children’s mental health.
3 Mindfulness activities may be something as simple as deep breathing or finding a space to be still and quiet for a few minutes. To provide daily mindfulness activities, teachers would need to take time out from an already busy curriculum. Do you consider this to be a worthwhile tradeoff? Why or why not?
Self-check questions 1 In relation to child-rearing practices and culture: a What is the role of child-rearing practices and culture in relation to social development? b Explain how parental discipline style influences children’s social/emotional development. c What influence does socioeconomic status have on children’s and young people’s social, emotional and academic development? 2 Finish each sentence. a Albert Bandura’s social learning theory (1986) is based on the belief that learning . . . b The most important contribution made by Rudolf Dreikurs (1968) was his rationale for misbehaviour, which he referred to as . . . c Dreikurs argued that mistaken behaviour occurred because . . . d Dreikurs believed that mistaken behaviour had one of four goals: i attention – which is the . . . ii power – which is . . . iii revenge – which is . . . iv avoidance of failure – which is . . . 3 Describe the three key factors that Erikson believed contribute to development. 4 Describe the following two stages of Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development:
5
6
7
8
9 10 11
a Stage 4 b Stage 5 Unlike many other theorists, Kohlberg did not base his stages of development on age. What skills did Kohlberg believe lead to higher level moral development? Provide a brief definition for: a personality b temperament. Self-regulation a Explain why the development of self-regulation is a critical skill for children, particularly in a classroom setting. b List the five core groups of social and emotional competencies that contribute to the development of self-regulation. Define self-concept and describe the four factors relating to the self-concept of school-age children and young people. What is self-esteem? Explain how poor self-esteem might impact children and young people. What is self-efficacy and how does it relate to student performance? Explain the concept of resilience and describe the skills required to develop resilience.
SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
183
Activities 1
Connect the following traits of temperament (on the left) with the descriptor. Sociability Adaptability
Distractibility Persistence
The ability to adapt over time to new foods, new experiences, and new life challenges The tendency to approach new people and situations positively versus shyness and withdrawal; The ability to remain focused on an activity or a task; The ease with which a child can be distracted or comforted when needed
2 For this task, go to Figure 8.10 Examples of resilience and mental health programs for schools (p. 182). Explore two of the websites listed and briefly describe:
a b c
the purpose of the website the range of resources available how it could be used to support children and/or young people’s mental health.
Chapter 9 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to demonstrate that, in relation to working in a school environment, you can: 9.1
describe the process and key theories of language development
9.2 identify the key characteristics of language development during middle childhood, and adolescence 9.3 understand pragmatics and how they can be used to support language development in the classroom.
Introduction Language usually is defined as a system of symbols that are combined using a set of rules. For example, the English language uses 26 symbols (letters), 20 vowel sounds and 24 consonant sounds or phonemes. There are over 300 ways of combining letters into sequences to make distinct sounds and around 1000 rules of syntax that dictate how words must be connected to one another to convey meaning. The average adult has a vocabulary in excess of 50 000 words as well as a large repertoire of non-verbal language. By the time children start formal school, they have many of the cognitive skills needed to be logical and independent thinkers; they have mastered the complexities of spoken language and use it to express their thoughts and feelings, and to function successfully in the social world.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
185
9.1 Language development Language and cognitive development are intricately interwoven, with each domain supporting the development of the other domain. According to Vygotsky (1978), the acquisition of language is the most significant milestone in children’s cognitive development. Vygotsky also emphasises that language development occurs in a social context and that children begin to generalise the meaning of words when they are heard repeatedly in a meaningful context. The brain is hard-wired for language acquisition – the development of language is instinctive and does not require direct instruction. Children learn language by being immersed in it. The environment is critical for shaping and supporting language and cognitive development – the quality and timing of exposure to language will affect the rate and proficiency of language acquisition. Language development is not simply learning about the rules of grammar or developing a vocabulary: it is a social tool used to transmit cultural values, beliefs and practices. It is used to develop relationships with others, to convey meaning, and to share and exchange information, emotions, ideas and thoughts. In relation to language development, neuroscience tells us that: • learning to produce the sounds that will eventually result in language is not completely mastered until around the age of 8 years • babies and young children are better language learners when compared with adults, despite adults’ cognitive superiority • language acquisition is one of the classic examples of a ‘critical’ or ‘sensitive’ period of brain development • the developmental timing of critical periods for learning the mechanics of language varies • language learning is both a cognitive and social process.
Speech and language: The same or different? Speech and language are two separate but closely related areas of development. Speech is divided into two key areas: • articulation – the ability to produce speech vowels and consonants • quality of voice – this refers to how speech sounds when it is spoken. Is the voice loud, soft, husky, fluid, fast, slow or hesitant, or does the voice sound just right? Quality of voice becomes a problem if it is difficult for the child to be understood or if it interferes with the child’s ability to interact effectively. Physical problems with the mouth or throat, or a hearing impairment, will affect quality of voice. Language development refers to how children understand, organise, speak and use words in order to communicate at an effective, age-appropriate level. Language development is divided into two areas: • Receptive language refers to how well the child understands what is said. It develops well before the ability to use spoken language. Receptive language is dependent on the developing brain processing and understanding messages. Infants and toddlers have the ability to understand and respond to spoken language before they are able to use words. • Expressive language is the ability to communicate thoughts and needs to others so they can be understood. Expressive language refers to both verbal and non-verbal communication. Expressive language is dependent on both the developing brain and physical maturity. Until about 6 months of age, babies are referred to as ‘the universal listener’. They can distinguish
differences in phonemes that an adult cannot hear, and are able to distinguish the sounds of all languages. They lose this ability at around 6 months, when the brain begins to filter out sounds not heard in the environment and instead only recognises the sounds of the child’s native language.
Theories of language development Traditional theories of language development are generally divided into four perspectives, with each contributing to our understanding of how language develops: • Nativist: language is naturally acquired through the presence of a language acquisition device (LAD) that is present from birth. • Behaviourist: language is acquired by operant conditioning – imitation and reinforcement. • Cognitivist: language is acquired through the process of thinking. • Interactionist: language is acquired as a result of interactions between the environment and (a) information processing and (b) social interactions.
Nativist theory Noam Chomsky’s (1976) nativist theory of language development suggests children are equipped with language skills at birth, which are activated as the child matures. Chomsky describes language as ‘unfolding’ as the child matures. He believes there are ‘universal principles’ built into the brain, and that the child is pre-programmed to learn language. He used the term ‘language acquisition device’ (LAD) to describe this special biological brain mechanism. According to Chomsky, the LAD is activated when infants begin to be exposed to language. In Chomsky’s view, the LAD explains why children around the world learn language at about the same time and in a similar way, and also how children learn the complex components of language, such as grammar, without apparently being ‘taught’. Chomsky believes that within the LAD, the human brain is equipped with an innate sense of universal rules for grammar (signed or spoken), which is used by the child to determine whether a sentence is well formed – for example, the child’s ability to understand that ‘the chair on sit’ is grammatically incorrect and ‘sit on the chair’ is correct. Chomsky argues that children are born with this ability, which is acquired after the child hears a few examples in their native language. Recent critics of Chomsky suggest that, rather than being born with the innate ability to use language, children are born with the ability to interpret language using structural analysis. Yang and Lust (2009) refer to this as the ability to ‘crack the codes’ of their language, which they have demonstrated to be a universal skill. Yang and Lust believe that children can work out their language system of word meaning, sentence structure and sounds with great accuracy.
Behaviourist theory B.F. Skinner’s (1957) behaviourist theory of language development explains language acquisition as a ‘stimulus–response’ process. Behaviourists believe that language is learned through imitation and practice. By associating sounds with objects, actions and events, infants learn to speak and listen by turn-taking with the adult. A process of modelling and reinforcement is used as the child imitates and practises language. The child is seen as ‘an empty vessel’ waiting to be filled with knowledge and information. According to behaviourist theory, children learn language by imitating an adult model and having their attempts either positively or negatively reinforced.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
187
Behaviourist theory does not adequately explain the rapid development of language that cannot be learned solely by imitation, nor does it explain why children make mistakes when generalising rules such as past tense – for example, ‘I wented to the beach’, ‘I goed shopping yesterday’.
Cognitive theories Piaget believed that adult interaction does not play any significant role in the development of children’s language. In Piaget’s (1936) opinion, language facilitates learning, but it does not bring about cognitive growth – in other words, language reflects rather than determines cognitive development. Towards the end of the first stage, the sensorimotor stage, children begin to understand that one thing can stand for or symbolise another. They understand that a word or symbol represents a real person or object. During the next stage of development, the preoperational stage, children develop an understanding that written words can represent people, objects, actions and feelings, tell a story or provide information. Piaget divides children’s language into two types: egocentric speech, or language centred on the self. This is demonstrated when children talk to • themselves, about themselves and for themselves. If you listen carefully to a group of threeyear-olds who seem to be involved in a conversation, they are often focused on themselves and not the topic of conversation. • social speech, which begins to replace egocentric speech at about 7 years of age. Piaget implies that the ability to communicate adequately is connected to cognitive development, but more often language reflects cognitive development rather than determining it. Figure 9.1 Social interaction is an important part of a child’s development
Interactionist theory This theory of language development sees language acquisition as both social and biological. Children are born with the predisposition to communicate, and language is acquired within a social context with adults who scaffold children’s language learning. Theorists who support this model of language acquisition include Bruner and Vygotsky. Bruner (1974) developed a social constructivist model of development in which the child is actively engaged in meaning-making through their interactions with people and the environment (see Figure 9.1). Bruner developed the term language activating support system (LASS) to describe the socialising process that drives children towards language learning. In this model, Bruner considers the educator–child relationship to be a critical factor in language development. Bruner believed that individuals only reach their full potential through social and cultural interactions, which allow individuals to make sense of the world, shaping ideas and beliefs and providing the opportunity to use language to express thoughts. Bruner (1974) suggests that meaningmaking includes not only how children make sense of the world but also how they understand themselves. He refers to both constructing meaning and processing of information as ways of understanding development. Bruner (1974) also argues that development cannot be studied in isolation from the child’s social and cultural environment. Bruner saw
cognition as something that was deeply embedded in both language and culture. He believed that the outcome of cognition is thinking and that it is through this thinking process that children are able to understand themselves and the world through their own experiences. The process and construction of meaning are achieved through concept attainment, in which the child assesses incoming information and determines its relevant features based on problemsolving, and trial and error. Bruner advocated discovery learning, believing that the child would gain understanding through first-hand experience and exploratory play. He believed that cognition developed in stages or modes of representation, with each stage becoming increasingly complex: • Enactive representation stage. During infancy, the child’s world is represented through sensory experiences. • Iconic representation stage. At around 2 or 3 years, the child begins to use mental images to represent real objects. • Symbolic representation stage. At around 7 years, the child develops the ability to use symbols to create meaning. These symbols primarily include written language and mathematics.
Social-constructivist theory: Vygotsky Vygotsky believed that learning led to the development of higher order thinking. He regarded learning as a social process whereby the child and adult (or older child) worked together by investigating, experimenting, hypothesising and problem-solving to acquire new knowledge. Language was regarded by Vygotsky as the prominent ‘tool of the mind’ that shaped mental functioning. As language (verbal and non-verbal) occurs in a sociocultural context, Vygotsky (1978) argued that it is first used as a way of making social contact, and later as an individual tool for governing thoughts and behaviour. This process of internalising language (private speech) leads to higher-order mental functioning as language becomes self-communicative. Vygotsky believed that there are critical times in learning where children could be assisted to a higher level of learning with adult intervention. The application of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) can be used to support children’s language acquisition. This is referred to by Vygotsky (1978) as the lower limit that the child can achieve in terms of learning without adult support, compared with the upper limit that the child can achieve in terms of learning with support from an adult or more knowledgeable older child. According to Vygotsky, as the child learns to use words to label objects or express needs, they are also developing concepts about relationships between objects and events. Hearing words or phrases in a social context allows children to begin to generalise the meaning of the word. For example, the word ‘dog’ might only be assigned by the child to the child’s pet dog. However, as the child hears the word ‘dog’ applied to similar creatures in other settings, the child is able to generalise the meaning of the word ‘dog’ to mean a category of animals with a particular set of characteristics that define them as ‘dogs’. This generalisation may take the child some time to achieve. At first, the child may assign the label ‘dog’ to all four-legged animals. This generalisation of word meaning is known as overextension, and is seen commonly in toddlers, who may refer to cats as dogs or vice-versa depending on their own experiences. The ability of the child to make this generalisation is quite astounding, given that the child has only a very limited knowledge of what makes a dog different from a cat or a goat or a horse. The child must develop a set of characteristics that can be assigned to all animals that are ‘dogs’ – quite a task considering the variety of colours, shapes and sizes in the dog
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
189
world! Vygotsky’s contribution to understanding the process of language acquisition and its relationship to cognition provides educators with a sound framework for supporting language in a sociocultural context.
9.2 Progression of language development Rogoff (2003: 310) reminds us that while language is universal, the way language is used to communicate varies between cultures: Everywhere, people use words, silence, gestures, and gaze, skilfully to communicate. Yet there also appear to be important differences in how much people talk and in how articulately they communicate non-verbally.
Language development occurs in a predictable, universal sequence, which moves from simple to complex with earlier development laying the foundation for later development. The rate at which language develops may vary from one child to another. Variations in language acquisition will occur for a variety of reasons, such as physiological factors and/or environmental influences. Physical, social, emotional and cognitive development contribute to, and impact on, language development. Each child will develop language skills at their own pace, and there will be many individual differences in the rate and quality of language acquisition based on culture, ethnicity, health and ability. After a period of experimenting with various vocalisations, beginning sounds and then single words, approximations of words or invented words begin to appear. Infant babbling contains combinations of vowels and consonants, and reflects the sounds of the language that they hear. The sequence of single words usually appears in the following order: nouns, verbs, adjectives and prepositions. First single words tend to be nouns that represent things important to the baby, such as ‘mumma’, ‘dadda’, ‘bubba’, ‘bottle’ and ‘dog’. A toddler may add ‘ie’ or ‘y’ to words to create two syllables, such as ‘doggie’; relational/functional words such as ‘no’, ‘mine’ and ‘gone’ also begin to appear. Before 24 months, children often use a single word to represent an entire group of words – for example, ‘car’ might refer to all four-wheeled vehicles. At about 2 years of age, children begin to put two words together to make simple phrases that typically describe actions or events, such as ‘mummy work’, ‘ball gone’, ‘baby cry’. Two-word phrases will also be used to ask questions or convey needs. For example, ‘where gone?’, ‘more nanna’. The use of prepositions in two-word phrases requires children to understand the physical relationship between two objects – for example, ‘Teddy in box’ requires the child to understand the concept of ‘in’. Similarly, using adjectives to describe an object, action or person requires a higher level of cognitive skill. The child will initially draw on a single perception as a way of using adjectives – for example, ‘big doggie’. Just as a child uses a single lexicon such as ‘car’ to describe all fourwheeled vehicles, they will use a single adjective to represent a number of concepts. For example, ‘big’ might be used to refer to height, width or depth.
Language development in middle childhood By middle childhood, most children can be easily understood and can usually understand and interpret verbal messages and some non-verbal messages. Figure 9.2 provides an overview of speech and language skills typically acquired by the time children arrive at school.
Figure 9.2 Speech and language skills typically acquired by the time children arrive at school By the time they transition to school, children can: Use language to talk about their experiences Discuss the pictures that they see in storybooks Recount past experiences in detail; talk about future events or predict what might happen Follow three-step directions Mostly use correct grammar and speak so that they can be understood Initiate communication by smiling and/or eye contact and respond to social greetings Respond to comments and questions from others and engage in conversation; share their own knowledge and ideas Use language to help them think, and possibly still use self-talk Understand and use words to describe opposites – ‘full/empty’, ‘big/small’, ‘open/closed’, ‘day/night’ and ‘high/low’ Use words to describe properties of an object such as shape, colour and size; begin to describe how they are feeling – this is still a challenging task Use and understand words related to time such as ‘today’, ‘tomorrow’, ‘yesterday’ and ‘after lunch’ Provide explanations for events or actions – ‘I lost my football because I didn’t put it away’ Ask who, what, how, where and why questions Explain the use of familiar objects Use rhyming words, silly words and jokes Concentrate on stories – answer questions and make predictions Sometimes mispronounce the letters ‘s’, ‘v’, ‘f’ and ‘th’ Ask and answer lots of questions Associate words with actions Use and interpret non-verbal communication: • Use gestures and facial expressions to communicate • Interpret obvious facial expressions that denote anger, happiness, sadness or fear, but find it more difficult to interpret subtle expressions such as frustration, jealousy and impatience • Use body language to convey their feelings: head bowed, arms crossed, eyebrows furrowed, stamping of feet and hands on hips.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
191
Towards the end of middle childhood, children have refined their use of grammar, have a greater knowledge of the rules of language and, according to Duchesne and colleagues (2019: 59), have a vocabulary of around 40 000 words. They are better able to adapt their language to meet the needs of their audience and their conversational skills continue to improve. Some specific language skills that are refined during middle childhood include: • the ability to clarify and expand on what they are saying • an increasing ability to maintain and contribute to conversations and debates – listen and respond to the comments of others • an increasing ability to able to understand and use metaphors (e.g. light as a feather) • progressive use of slang words • an increasing ability to able to notice and interpret body language • the ability to use silly words to tell jokes as a sense of humour develops • the ability to create complex storylines • improved grammar skills • an increased ability to use language to explain actions and events • an increased ability to use words specific to concepts such as time, measurement or technology • an increased ability to use a wide range of verbs to express thoughts, or about cause and effect • an increased awareness of when and how to use formal language – for example, when talking to the doctor • a beginning understanding of sarcasm when it is obvious – for example, ‘Now that was clever!’ (knocks things off table when running inside).
Language development in adolescence Language development continues to be refined during adolescence and young adulthood. This refinement in the use of language is supported by the growing ability to think abstractly, use logic, persuasion and reasoning, and engage in critical thinking in relation to the acquisition of information and knowledge. Language development during adolescence and into young adulthood typically includes: • a growing understanding of sarcasm, irony and plays on words, such as double meanings • increasing vocabulary and greater complexity in sentence structure • the ability to adapt language style to suit a particular audience – for example, they may swear and use slang when around their peers but modify their language according to the setting and the audience • being better able to understand and separate fact from opinion • being able to better explain more complex ideas, and to use persuasion, better constructed arguments and more sophisticated negotiation skills • being able to retell events in greater detail, making it more interesting for listeners • refinement of the rules around communicating in a group context – allowing others to speak, listening without interrupting and respecting others • being able to understand and follow more complex instructions. Language develops alongside cognitive, social and emotional development. As students progress through the curriculum, they are introduced to context – specific vocabulary, taught grammar knowledge – and generally exposed to diverse literacy experiences, all of which contribute to language development.
Lags in language development Most students will develop language skills in a predictable, sequential manner. However, it is important to be alert to lags in development that may indicate the need for investigation and intervention. Having a sound knowledge of typical patterns of language and speech development will assist you to identify speech and language problems, which may include: • speech disorders – may include substitutions or distortions such as ‘berry’ for ‘very’, lisps, omission of sounds such as ‘ellow’ for ‘yellow’, or additional sounds such as ‘abble’ for ‘apple’ • voice disorders – may include a husky, hoarse, breathy or strained voice • fluency disorders – may include repetitions or interruptions such as stuttering or stammering • hearing disorders – may be indicated by difficulty in hearing certain sounds, such as beginning, middle or end sounds • communication disorders – may include problems following two- or three-step directions, an inability to follow or join in conversations with peers and adults, or poor vocabulary • language processing disorders – may include difficulty in comprehending and/or using spoken words. Receptive language disorders may be indicated by a child being unable to follow a sequence of commands, while expressive language disorders may present as difficulties with the sequencing of sounds – for example, ‘aminal’ for ‘animal’ – or with applying rules such as past tense – ‘I wented to the shop’. The impact of language and speech disorders on learning and socialising are highlighted in the following scenario. Language disorders are explored in Chapter 18.
LANGUAGE AND SPEECH DISORDERS DANE
Dane (6 years) has a severe speech impediment and is becomingly increasingly frustrated by his inability to make himself understood. Most of his peers avoid talking to him in class and complain that they can’t understand what he is saying. Some students speak to Dane in a loud voice, assuming he is deaf, while others tell him to talk slowly. Although he is a friendly child, Dane has very few friends. As a developing reader, Dane is struggling. Dane has a schedule of appointments with a speech pathologist; however, his parents have only kept one of the 10 appointments made. STELLA
Stella (9 years) has verbal dyspraxia – difficulty producing sounds and words. While her condition has improved with speech therapy, she relies on a
Scenario
communication board and sign language as her main form of communication in the classroom. The classroom teacher and many of the students communicate with Stella using verbal language while also signing. Unlike Dane, Stella has a faithful group of friends and is a fluent reader. Her parents ensure that Stella has access to a range of support services. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Students who have a speech or language disorder can become isolated from their peers. The inability to engage in two-way communication can be extremely isolating. Not being able to share thoughts and ideas, tell a joke, make a comment or ask for help in a way that can be understood is a significant barrier to socialisation. Using alternative forms of communication can reduce this sense of isolation and increase opportunities for socialisation.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
193
LINK TO THE Australian CURRICULUM LANGUAGE AND THE CURRICULUM The Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians (MCEETYA 2008) describes successful learners as having the ability to plan activities independently, collaborate, work in teams and communicate ideas. The Australian Curriculum includes General Capabilities, which describe generic skills integrated across all curriculum areas (ACARA 2013). The Capabilities comprise an integrated and interconnected set of knowledge, skills, behaviours and dispositions that students develop and use in their learning across the curriculum, in co-curricular programs and in their lives outside school. They recognise the intrinsic and interdependent relationship between social context, meaning and language. The ability to communicate enables learning across the curriculum, the school day and life outside of school. Language (verbal and non-verbal) is regarded as the meaning-making system used to engage with the learning experiences of the school. The General Capabilities also include critical and creative thinking. Critical thinking involves students in learning to recognise or develop an argument, use evidence in support of that argument, draw reasoned conclusions, and use information to solve problems. Examples of critical thinking skills include interpreting, analysing, evaluating, explaining, sequencing, reasoning, comparing, questioning, inferring, hypothesising, appraising, testing and generalising. Creative thinking involves students in learning to generate and apply new ideas in specific contexts, seeing existing situations in a new way, identifying alternative explanations, and seeing or making new links that generate a positive outcome. The English curriculum is designed to create confident communicators, imaginative thinkers and informed citizens. The Language strand of the English curriculum includes exploring how language enables people to interact effectively, to build and maintain relationships and to express and exchange knowledge, skills, attitudes, feelings and opinions.
9.3 Pragmatics Pragmatics, or social language, is the ability to communicate effectively with others for a range of purposes and in a range of situations. Most children require direct training to develop and later refine their pragmatic skills over time. Some children and young people, such as those on the autism spectrum or who have a hearing impairment, may require intensive training. Verbal language pragmatics are centred around conversational skills. This includes intent of communication, which is the ability to generate information such as commenting, asking questions, or negotiating in an age-appropriate manner, and frequency of communication, which involves engaging in back-and-forth exchange so that one person is not dominating the interaction – for example, active listening and turn-taking, introducing and maintaining a topic and addressing any misunderstanding of what is being communicated. Politeness and recognition of social roles when communicating are also central in pragmatics. For example, if a student wanted help with a task, they would be expected to ask politely: ‘Can you please help me with …?’ Recognition of social roles simply refers to how we might automatically vary the way we address others based on their perceived status or relationship to the speaker. For example, we speak differently when addressing partners, children, doctors, police or someone unknown. A central element is the ability to consider and respect the perspective of others, including knowing the level of detail required when communicating with others so that our message is understood – for example, judging when to add detail while at the same time not including irrelevant information. In addition to verbal communication, children and young people must learn how to recognise, interpret and use non-verbal communication – for example, making eye contact when speaking
(this is a culturally based practice), using gestures and facial expressions, recognising and respecting personal space, and understanding social conventions such as not talking on a mobile phone while engaged in a conversation with another person or not interrupting the speaker. Pragmatics is arguably one of the most challenging skills of communication. Much of what we expect of children and young people in relation to pragmatics is not directly and deliberately taught, but rather acquired through observation, imitation and interactions with family and in a variety of social settings. Children and young people who have good role models will acquire most pragmatic skills at an age-appropriate level; however, they will still need direction and instruction to refine their skills (adapted from Vicker 2009).
Pragmatics and the classroom Social language is a critical skill for learning in all curriculum areas. Students are expected to listen, understand, interpret and apply huge volumes of information. Teachers typically translate the content of the curriculum to students through oral vocabulary. Teachers will use both formal and informal language throughout the day as they communicate with students. For example, using formal communication the teacher might say: ‘I want you to observe carefully as the balloon is inflated’. The same statement could also be said informally: ‘I want you to watch carefully as the balloon is blown up.’ Students whose language and communication skills are not at an age-appropriate level will struggle in the classroom and may be at risk of lagging behind their peers or even of school failure. Supporting language and communication is therefore a critical task for teachers and ESWs. Students whose pragmatic skills are poor may have difficulty explaining their thinking or actions, asking questions, engaging in debate, engaging in collaborative problem-solving, seeking additional information, making predictions, stating a problem, and developing and maintaining friendships. If, as Vygotsky (1978) theorised, language is the tool of the mind and social interactions are central to cognitive development, then students with poor pragmatic skills will struggle in the classroom.
Classroom talk Talking to and with teachers and peers is the primary means by which students actively engage in the learning process. It is also a strategy used by the teacher to promote reasoning and thinking skills. Barnes (2008, cited in Johnson 2015) describes two main types of classroom talk: • exploratory talk, in which the speakers arrange their own thoughts, hypothesising and justifying ideas collaboratively. When students engage in exploratory talk, they have the opportunity to extend their thinking. It also provides the teacher with an opportunity to scaffold learning. • presentational talk, in which the speakers formulate and provide an answer to a question. As talking is the primary way in which information is conveyed, it follows that students need to develop effective listening skills which will allow them to: • focus and pay attention to the speaker • follow and respond to instructions and questions • recall and restate information • actively participate in conversations with educators and peers.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
195
Encouraging students to think out loud – make comments, ask questions, hypothesise and share information with educators and peers – is an effective way to engage students in the learning process. It promotes deeper understanding and allows students to take a leadership role in their own learning.
The role of the ESW A successful way to support pragmatic skills is to purposefully include discussion (exploratory talk) when planning learning activities. Exploratory talk can occur with one or two students or with a small group. It may be as simple as saying, ‘Tell me what you are thinking’; ‘How could we …’ or What do you think would be a good way to find out about …?’ Encouraging students to engage in exploratory talk by sharing their thoughts and ideas with their peers can be a powerful pedagogical practice. If done effectively, it communicates to students that they are valued as competent, self-directed learners. Students who have poor pragmatic skills will struggle to participate in exploratory talk and will need additional support. They can, for example, be encouraged to use images, diagrams or other visual forms to share their ideas. When promoting exploratory talk, it is important to take group size into account. Generally speaking, the larger the group, the less opportunity there is for individuals to talk. Group size and group composition are also important considerations for students with poor pragmatic skills. A smaller group of supportive peers is much more conducive to exploratory talk – particularly where the process is kept low-key. Students with poor pragmatic skills may feel intimidated by their more confident peers, and in particular teenagers may feel embarrassed by their lack of skills and may avoid or refuse to contribute in such situations. To support students, ESWs can use the following strategies: Act as a language role model. Speak in sentences; avoid the use or jargon or slang; make eye • contact with listeners/speakers; and model back-and-forth interactions by pausing and actively listening to students as they engage in verbal interactions. • Use think-out-loud strategies: ‘I’m not sure whether this will work. What I’m going to do is …’ • Be clear and specific about the purpose of exploratory talk. It can be described to students as thinking out loud – give examples as necessary. • Reinforce respect for the thoughts and ideas of others – ‘all ideas are welcome as long as you stay on the topic’. • Pair up students who are comfortable talking to each other. • Encourage students to use full sentences when answering questions rather than giving singleword answers. • Avoid putting students ‘on the spot’ – this can embarrass students and act as a deterrent. • Remind students that learning takes time – they aren’t expected to ‘get it’ straight away (that’s the purpose of exploratory talk); remind them that there is no wrong answer, just different ways of thinking. • Make it clear that learning is collaborative – sharing thoughts/ideas and problem-solving together helps everyone to learn. • Regularly review the students’ ideas – ‘Let’s look at our ideas/thoughts so far …’ This reinforces the concept of learning as a cumulative journey. • Engage in scaffolding by asking open-ended questions that challenge and extend thinking. • Encourage students to ask questions.
•
• • • •
Demonstrate good communication and conversation skills by speaking clearly, demonstrating respect for the speaker and using responsive body language such as nodding and making eye contact. Allow time for students to process information and/or respond to questions. Ask students to select one or two ideas to explore in greater depth. Help students to refine their exploratory talk by posing questions that challenge their thinking: ‘Tell us/show us what you mean when you say …’ Assist students to develop effective listening skills by actively teaching good listening skills, which are described in Figure 9.3. Figure 9.3 Good listening skills
1. Turn their body towards the speaker
2. Look at the speaker
3. Respect the speaker by listening without interrupting
4. Accept that each person is entitled to their own point. of view as long as it is expressed respectfully
5. Ask questions if I am not sure about what was said
Scenario
CLASSROOM TALK RAP
ESW Liam knows that one of the most challenging tasks as an educator is getting students to listen. The group of Year 6 boys with whom he works every day on literacy skills are particularly challenging. It is clear that the boys lack confidence in their own abilities and will often choose to clown around as a way of covering for this lack of confidence. Liam knows the boys are into rap music. With the permission of the classroom teacher, Liam uses rap as a way of motivating the students and grabbing their attention. ‘Now listen up dudes I’ve got
something to say. Are you listening? Are you hearing? . . .’ He also challenges the boys to use rap to retell and describe the text they are currently reading. The results have been outstanding. The boys can’t wait to share their rap and have been seen working on it during recess and lunch. THINKING OUT LOUD
ESW Sarah is working with a group of Year 8 students to interpret the imagery in a poem. Sarah knows from experience that as soon as she starts to read a poem to
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
197
the students, they begin tuning out and switching off. Today Sarah has a collection of pictures that reflect the imagery in the poem. Sarah asks the students to select an image and share one or two words that come to mind as they look at the image. Next Sarah challenges the students to explore how the pictures could be matched to the imagery in the poem. Later, Sarah tells the teacher that the students responded well to the activity and came up with some great words that really captured the imagery in the pictures. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
In both scenarios, the ESW captured the imagination of the students by engaging them in a hands-on way. In the
first scenario, the use of rap encouraged students to engage with the text in a fun and creative manner and use their language skills to interpret the text. In the second scenario, the students were able to make the connection between visual imagery and the imagery created by the use of words. Encouraging students to think aloud and contribute words to describe visual images helped students to make the connection with the imagery used in the poem. " DISCUSSION
How did Liam and Sarah demonstrate their knowledge of child/adolescent development to connect successfully with their students?
Encouraging and supporting talking and listening for thinking and learning is a valuable teaching strategy that promotes collaborative learning and allows students to engage actively in the learning process.
ONLINE RESOURCES • • •
A Hierarchy of Social/Pragmatic Skills (0–18 years) can be found at: https://nyspta.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/ Conv17-305-Executive-Functions-Hierarchy-Handout-Peters.pdf Social Communication Skills – the Pragmatics Checklist can be found at: https://successforkidswithhearingloss.com/ wp-content/uploads/2013/06/PRAGMATICS-CHECKLIST.pdf. For educators: Ted Talks to help you be a better listener can be found at: https://www.ted.com/playlists/92/listen_up
Summary Children develop language in a predictable and sequential manner. By school age, most children are fluent in their home language and can use language to communicate effectively with others. During middle childhood and adolescence, children and young people consolidate their language and are capable of communicating in a variety of ways and for a variety of purposes with a wide audience. Language develops when children and young people are provided with language role models and are given daily opportunities to engage in communication for different purposes.
Discussion question 1
Discuss why it is important for educators to have a sound knowledge of typical language development during early childhood, middle childhood and adolescence.
Self-check questions 1
Define the following terms. a articulation b quality of voice c receptive language d expressive language 2 Briefly describe the four perspectives and related theories of language development.
3 During adolescence, what skills support the refinement of language skills? 4 In relation to language, what is pragmatics? Why should educators be concerned if a student has poor pragmatic skills? 5 Describe the two main types of classroom talk.
Activities 1
Connect the disorders that impact on language and speech (on the left) with the relevant example. fluency disorders
Asher’s voice is very husky and often sounds strained.
hearing disorders
Ilsa (7 years) is unable to follow two- to three-step directions.
communication disorders speech disorders voice disorders language processing disorders
Brian has a stutter that becomes worse when he is anxious or nervous. Mia (8 years) has difficulty with the sequencing of sounds. Spencer often substitutes beginning sounds, making him difficult to understand. Elkie has difficulty reproducing beginning sounds.
2 For this task, go to the Talking Point website: http://www.talkingpoint.org.uk and answer the following questions. a Briefly outline the information available on this site that would be useful for you as an ESW.
b
Go to the Practitioner FAQs on this site. Select one FAQ and explain how it might be used as a resource in your work as an ESW.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
199
Chapter 10 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to demonstrate that, in relation to working in a school environment, you can: 10.1
describe the process of cognitive development
10.2 describe the key theories of cognitive development 10.3 outline findings from brain research into cognitive development, and identify the key characteristics from childhood to young adulthood 10.4 define key concepts for memory and information processing, and explain strategies for supporting their development.
Introduction Cognition is the ability to acquire, understand and apply information received from continuous sensory input. It is a complex developmental process that evolves over an extended period of time. It involves a range of mental tools such as knowledge acquisition, language, thinking, memory, retrieval of information, applying existing knowledge to make sense of new knowledge, problem-solving, reasoning and planning. By the time children transition to school, they have also mastered the complexities of language and communication, and have developed an astounding range of knowledge and cognitive skills, which lay the foundation for academic learning. Importantly, preschool children have also developed a degree of self-regulation essential for successful transition to school and later academic success.
10.1 Cognitive development Like other domains of development, cognitive abilities move from simple to complex, are built over time, and are dependent on and influenced by, all other domains of development. Klein and Knitzer (2006: 9) state that ‘social-emotional development is the foundation for, and intertwined with, early cognitive development’. Klein and Knitzer found that positive self-esteem and selfconfidence are essential for positive school outcomes in areas such as early literacy and maths skills. This is an important finding, which is often overlooked in the rush to prepare children for academic learning. The key message is that later successful academic performance is not dependent on young children being able to identify colours, shapes, numbers or their name, but rather depends on them being emotionally secure, confident learners.
Factors that influence cognitive development Cognitive abilities are influenced and shaped by a number of factors, including heredity, the social-cultural environment and the child’s growing sense of self. In order to reach their optimum level of cognitive development, children require a warm, caring and stimulating environment in which they can form positive, trusting and loving relationships with their primary carers. Learning takes place in a sociocultural context. Children acquire cognitive abilities only when they actively engage with others – family, peers, older children, teachers and the broader community. With the exception of children who are profoundly cognitively impaired, it is the sociocultural environment that shapes a child’s cognitive abilities.
Heredity Each person has a unique combination of genes that contributes to shaping their cognitive development. Each child matures at their own unique rate and, while environmental factors can influence the rate of maturation, each child will develop according to their own biological clock.
The social-cultural environment A child’s cognitive abilities are shaped by their social and cultural environment, including: • gender roles • behaviour-management/child-rearing practices • attitudes to play and exploration as a primary source of learning • the transmission of cultural beliefs and values • attitudes towards education • the degree of appropriate stimulation in the physical environment – children are sensory learners who require ‘hands-on’ experiences to gather information about, and make sense of, the world • access to health, welfare and education • the quality of interactions and early experiences provided by the family.
Relationships: The emotional environment During the first two years of life, the child’s brain is focused on forming and reinforcing connections (neural pathways). These connections are facilitated through positive interactions
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
201
with others, being active and involved, and learning through exploration and discovery. It is these early experiences and developing relationships that cause the connections in the brain to increase rapidly (Dalli et al. 2011: 15). Dalli and colleagues (2011: 52, 60) report that research into brain development has confirmed that the neural mechanisms for cognitive and social development appear to be the same. Optimal brain development is strongly connected to sensitive responsive caregiving. Unresponsive, inconsistent and unstable relationships within the family unit, as well as repeated exposure to highly stressful environments, have a negative impact on brain functioning and overall development.
10.2 Developmental theories Early developmental theories: An historical perspective Around the sixteenth century, religious leaders and thinkers began to talk about the ‘special qualities’ of children. This interest in children was accompanied by a concern about how best to educate children to ensure they became ‘good adults’. • John Locke (1632–1704) believed that newborn babies were like ‘blank slates’. What they would become was a result of learning and experience. • Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712–78) was the first theorist to put forward the idea that development proceeded according to an ‘inner biological timetable’, and that development followed a series of stages. Part of his ‘educational method’ relied on the belief that all children are curious: they learn for the sake of learning. If children are allowed to explore and ‘deal with physical things’, nature will support the child to spontaneously develop skills and understandings without the need for adults to control the process of learning. • Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827) emphasised the total development of the child: physical, mental, social and emotional. • Friedrich Fro¨bel (1782–1852) made a significant contribution by recognising play as a means for children to express themselves, and as a way to imitate and try out various adult roles.
The notion of intelligence The modern notion of intelligence is probably best recognised through the work of Alfred Binet, who in 1905 developed a test to measure the intelligence of school-age children. With his colleague Theodore Simon, Binet went on to develop tests to identify children who needed additional educational support in school settings. Binet believed that intelligence was the result of environmental as well as hereditary factors, which fuelled the ‘nature versus nurture’ debate. Interestingly, Binet predicted that children who had opportunities to interact with materials as part of the learning process would score higher in his tests than children whose experiences were limited. Binet and Simon developed an intelligence test that they claimed would assess the ‘superior faculties’ necessary for academic success. They also developed the concept of ‘mental age’ to compare children’s performance in the test to their actual chronological age. For example, a child with a chronological age of 8 years who performed well on the IQ test might be said to have a mental age of 12 years. Conversely, a child with a chronological age of 12 years who performed poorly might be said to have a mental age of 8 years.
Children’s intelligence quotient (IQ) tests commonly include the: • Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) • Bayley Scale of Infant Development • Denver Developmental Screening Test. Today, these tests and others like them are used primarily to identify serious developmental delays.
Criticism of IQ tests as a measure of intelligence The usefulness of IQ tests is limited, as they fail to take into account individual differences, or environmental, social, cultural, ethnic or genetic factors. The tests can only measure performance on a given day. IQ tests have been widely criticised as giving false results in relation to culturally or socially disadvantaged groups. Opponents of IQ tests claim they are culturally biased and racist because the language and concepts in the tests are biased towards white, middle-class society.
Performance or achievement tests A spin-off from IQ tests is performance or achievement tests, which are commonly carried out in schools. For example, in Australia all students are required to undertake National Assessment Program – Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) tests in numeracy and literacy. These tests are designed to measure children’s performance in Key Learning Areas (KLAs) of the curriculum, and are age/grade-related. These tests do not take into account sociocultural factors or individual differences in learning styles.
Link to the Curriculum
Jean Piaget (1896–1980) Jean Piaget made a major contribution to our understanding of cognitive development. Piaget’s (1936) constructivist theory of cognitive development focuses on the development of thinking, reasoning, memory and logic. Piaget made a significant advancement in understanding cognitive development by proving that children did not think in the same way as adults. The following are significant concepts in Piaget’s cognitive theory (Bee & Boyd 2004): • Cognitive or intellectual development is primarily a result of the child’s independent interaction with and exploration of the environment. Free-choice play and discovery learning are relevant ideas here. • Development occurs in four sequential, age-related stages. Progress through each stage is gradual and predictable, and involves long periods of transition. The idea of ‘readiness’ is relevant here. • Children have different and distinct thinking processes from those of adults – for example, in relation to object permanence and conservation. • New knowledge is built on existing knowledge. • Mental functioning is seen as the most important factor in determining behaviour – for example, children who are egocentric have great difficulty sharing. • Qualitative changes occur as a result of maturation in thinking.
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development According to Piaget (in Hendrick 1991), cognitive development occurs in four predictable, sequential stages. He suggested that all children pass through the same stages in the same order
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
203
at roughly the same age. Progress from one stage to another depends on the child’s readiness. Piaget believed movement through each stage is gradual, and could involve lengthy transition periods. He believed that there are individual differences in the rate of progress through each stage. Piaget believed strongly that adult intervention would not result in acceleration of cognitive development, as development is determined by maturation and therefore could not be accelerated by adult intervention. He argued that if the child is not ready to proceed to the next stage, no amount of stimulation would make this learning occur more rapidly. This belief has now been challenged by other theorists. Piaget’s stages of development are described in Figure 10.1. Figure 10.1 Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
Stage/approximate age
Characteristics
Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years) > Understanding the present and the real world
> Involves direct interaction with the environment > Child begins with reflex-dominated responses and continues to the beginning of symbolic thought > Dominated by sensory exploration and motor abilities > Cause-and-effect behaviour develops > Object permanence develops > Reflex actions are gradually replaced by goal-directed activity > Imitation, memory and thought emerge
Preoperational (2 to 7 years) > Symbolic representation of the present and real > Preparation for understanding concrete operations
> Language develops > Child begins to think independently and hold mental representations > Language and imagination used to extend child’s thinking abilities and understand the world around them – characterised by who, what, where, how and when questions > Ability to mentally manipulate symbols develops rapidly – seen through language use > Drawing is used, and reading and writing skills develop > Child can apply logic in one direction only > Foundation laid for the development of concepts of conservation, classification, seriation and reversibility
Concrete operational (7 to 12 years) > Organisation of concrete operations – the development of many mathematical concepts
> Child learns to apply logical thought to concrete problems > Development of conservation, reversibility and more complex seriation and classification skills > Child can group objects according to more than one principle and begins to apply logical thinking to solve problems > Perception less dominant in the process of reasoning > Child can think logically in a variety of practical or concrete situations; skills cannot yet be applied to abstract situations > Child understands that mass, weight, length and number remain constant > Child can arrange items in order from greatest amount to least amount > Understanding of terms such as ‘smaller than’ and ‘larger than’
Formal operational (12–15 years) > Hypothesis-making; testing the possible
> Abstract thinking develops > Child applies the skills of thinking to more abstract arguments and discussions; thinking is more independent of concrete reality > Child is able to consider alternative possibilities and solutions; development of scientific rational thought > Development of an awareness of social issues; child sees the world not only as it is, but how it could be Source: Adapted from Hendrick (1991).
Scenario
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT SENSORIMOTOR STAGE AND OBJECT PERMANENCE
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE AND REVERSIBILITY
Milo (2 years) has developed object permanence. He now knows that just because he can’t see something, it doesn’t mean it no longer exists. When Dad asks ‘Where’s Zebbie, Milo?’ Milo looks around the room and then runs into his bedroom, returning with Zebbie the Zebra.
Joseph (7 years, 6 months) is able to demonstrate his understanding that a process can be reversed by working backwards through each step.
PREOPERATIONAL STAGE AND SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION
Francis (2 years, 6 months) uses off-cuts of timber to represent houses for her little horse. ‘One, one, one, one,’ she says as she places a horse on each piece of timber.
FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE AND ABSTRACT THINKING
Ava (14 years) states that the proverb ‘People in glass houses should not throw stones’ means that, ‘You shouldn’t criticise the poor qualities of others when you have the same poor qualities yourself.’ WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Children and young people’s thinking moves from simple to complex as they mature.
Piaget’s preoperational, concrete and formal operational stages are most relevant to school-age children and young people. These help to explain how children acquire knowledge through exploration, experimentation and repetition.
Piaget’s theory of how knowledge is acquired There are two main parts to Piaget’s constructivist theory of cognitive development: how knowledge is acquired and the particular order in which different ways of thinking develop. Piaget’s theory is based on the belief that children do not think in the same way as adults, and that at each stage children use different cognitive processes and skills to construct knowledge. According to Piaget, as children mature, they acquire three types of knowledge: • social-conventional knowledge: information gained through direct social transmission – for example, language, learning the labels for common household objects, learning about social norms such as manners, dress rules, laws and customs • physical knowledge: information about the qualities/attributes of objects and what they are used for – acquired by sensory exploration, learned facts, experimenting and observation • logico-mathematical knowledge: knowledge that is developed in the mind by thinking about an object. This enables children to develop ideas about the relationship between objects, an essential skill for reasoning.
The process of knowledge acquisition Piaget maintains that cognitive development occurs as a result of the following developmental principles: 1 Maturation: Piaget believed that the development of physical abilities – maturation – plays a major role in cognitive development. This is reflected in his age-related stages of cognitive development. 2 Socialisation: Integrating experiences into daily life is important. Interactions with adults and other children promote cognitive understanding. 3 Experience: ‘Real-life’ experiences help to develop understanding, such as cause and effect. 4 Equilibration: This is the most general developmental principle in Piaget’s theory; it states that an organism always tends towards biological and psychological balance. Development progresses towards an ideal state of equilibrium, which is never fully achieved. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
205
Schemas/action patterns Piaget believed that a child’s understanding of the world is derived from objects and the actions the child applies to objects. As a result of ordinary, simple actions on objects (feeling, turning, banging, mouthing), a baby comes to know some of the effects of their actions and some of the properties of the objects. The child also learns how to combine or coordinate their actions into action patterns or schemas, which they will play with and repeat in different ways in different places. Piaget suggests that adults and children use action patterns or schemas to deal with or make sense of objects and events in the world.
Building on prior knowledge: Assimilation, accommodation, adaptation and equilibration Piaget uses the terms assimilation, accommodation, adaptation and equilibration to describe the process children use to construct and acquire knowledge. These terms are explained in Figure 10.2. Figure 10.2 Construction of knowledge
Term
Explanation
Assimilation
The process of incorporating a new object or event into an existing schema or way of dealing with the world
Accommodation
The process whereby the individual adjusts their existing schema when the schema does not fit to a new object
Adaptation
Occurs when the individual uses prior knowledge to acquire new knowledge
Equilibration
The process that allows each individual to develop cognitively while maintaining a state of stability that serves to regulate behaviour
According to Piaget, ‘intelligence is adaptation’ – that is, our behaviour can be changed and adjusted to each new situation. Our cognitive processes allow us to draw on prior learning to adapt. The processes of assimilation, accommodation, adaptation and equilibration are continuous throughout life.
Representational thought and reasoning During the preoperational stage of development, critical cognitive skills are developed that lay down the foundation for abstract logical thought. During this period, thinking is still very much perception based, and preschoolers continue to rely heavily on their senses to help them interpret and make sense of the world (Figure 10.3). Piaget believed an important feature of the preoperational stage was the child’s inability to reason in the same way as adults. Adults are able to use both inductive reasoning (from specific to general) and deductive reasoning (from general to specific). Piaget called the reasoning skills of a preschooler transductive reasoning – that is, it moves from particular to particular, which results in thinking that lacks adult logic.
Figure 10.3 Conservation of number and liquid – typical preschooler responses
Conservation of number There are two equal lines of beads.
Spread out one line of beads.
Which line has more beads?
‘The spread-out line of beads.’
Pour one into a squat glass.
Which glass contains more?
‘The taller one.’
Conservation of liquid There are two equal glasses of water.
Implications for learning Piaget believed that schemas are the foundation of cognitive development. A schema is the mental concept developed to understand and make sense of objects, things and actions. It is a way of organising, categorising and storing information. The following learning principles have been derived from Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and can be used to support students in the classroom. • Repetition and practice are important. New schemas are created by a process of repetition. It is essential that students are offered many opportunities to explore the same experience until a schema has been formed. • Learning is built on past experiences. Each individual Figure 10.4 Conserving quantity develops a personal filter that decides which sensory information is meaningful and will be internalised as 5= = knowledge. Children tend to most readily accept information that fits into their existing schemas (assimilation). For example, a six-year-old who has developed the ability to conserve quantity will be ready to learn subtraction and addition because they will understand that all the examples shown in Figure 10.4 are equal to five.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
207
To consolidate new concepts, students must be provided with a wide range of concrete experiences to explore. • When students are given many different experiences related to the same learning objective, they are challenged to change their schema (accommodation) – for example, exploring volume using a wide variety of containers for measuring and comparison. • Piaget’s work led to a greater awareness that children do not think in the same way as adults and that while development occurs in a universal sequence, the rate of development varies according to each individual’s own developmental timetable. • Piaget stressed that development is both quantitative and qualitative, and that play, trial and error, exploration and repetition are important to children’s learning and development. A summary of Piaget’s significant ideas is shown in Figure 10.5. •
Figure 10.5 Significant ideas in Piaget’s cognitive theory
Cognitive development > Cognitive development is primarily a result of the child’s independent interaction with and exploration of the environment. > Children have different and distinct thinking processes from adults. > New knowledge is built on existing knowledge. > Mental functioning is the most important factor in determining behaviour. > Qualitative changes occur as a result of maturation in thinking. > Language facilitates learning but does not bring about cognitive growth. > Language reflects rather than determines cognitive development.
Stages of cognitive development Piaget believed that cognitive development occurred in four sequential, age-related stages: > sensorimotor – understanding the present and the real world > preoperational – symbolic representation of the present and the real world > concrete operational – applying logical thought to concrete problems > formal operational – abstract thinking. All children were believed to pass through the same stage in the same order at roughly the same age. Transition to each stage was regarded as gradual and children were thought to move back and forth before finally moving on to the next stage (idea of ‘readiness’). Piaget did note that there were individual differences in the rate of progress through each stage.
Scheme and schema Piaget used the term scheme to describe the activity used by children to gather and interpret information about objects and events in order to make sense of the world. He used the term schema to mean the mental representation of the features of an object such as shape, colour, texture or size. Piaget believed children chose the information they incorporated into their schema, and interpreted the information in their own way without the need for verbal interaction with adults.
Piaget’s view was that children choose the information they incorporate into their schemas and interpret it in their own way, without the need for verbal interaction with adults. This idea has been challenged by other theorists, who believe that there are many understandings that cannot be gained through discovery, experience, experiment, and trial and error alone, and that require input from adults – for example, helping teenagers to develop safe behaviours when not being supervised by adults.
Criticisms of Piaget’s theories Major criticisms of Piaget’s theories centre on his underestimation of children’s abilities at each stage. Subsequent research has shown that Piaget’s age–stage relationships are too rigid and do not reflect the more complex thinking skills that may be demonstrated at each age or stage. The stage-based theory has also been challenged as failing to reflect cognition as a gradual rather than a stage-based process. Piaget’s belief that the process of learning is one of individual discovery of the world has also been challenged. It is generally felt that he also under-estimated the importance of the role of the adult in scaffolding learning, and in making concepts, skills and knowledge explicit to the child. There is now extensive evidence that children’s cognitive development can be supported by intentional teaching, and through collaboration with same-age peers and older children. Research on theory of mind also suggests that preschoolers are less egocentric than Piaget’s observations suggest. Children as young as 2 and 3 years of age have been observed to alter their play behaviour to accommodate younger children or children with a disability. Preschoolers have also been shown to be able to identify the feelings of others when they are given perceptual clues such as laughing, crying or looking angry. Children as young as 4 and 5 years have also been found to demonstrate awareness that other people’s actions are governed by what they think and believe. For example, Liam (5 years) tells his teacher that his father sells raffle tickets on Saturday mornings ‘to help people who have no food to eat’. Piaget’s views about the age at which perceptual dominance (the tendency to focus on, and judge on the basis of, visually striking features) is overcome have also been challenged. For example, four- and five-year-olds have been able to demonstrate that they can distinguish between appearance and reality. For example, when shown a sponge that was painted to look like a rock, the children would say that it looked like a rock but was a sponge. This contrasted with two- to three-year-olds who would say it looked like a rock and therefore was a rock. Piaget has been criticised for his lack of recognition of the role of language and the importance of social and cultural contexts in children’s development. Many of Piaget’s experiments did not take into account children’s level of language development as a contributing factor in not being able to explain concepts that they may in fact be able to comprehend. However, Piaget’s theory of cognitive development remains a significant contributing factor to our understanding of cognitive development. His theories led to the understanding that children do not think in the same way as adults, and that children play an active role in their own learning through investigation and experimentation. He also emphasised the importance of readiness (the skills, knowledge and disposition needed to acquire a slightly higher level of new skills and knowledge). His central belief that children learn best through hands-on experiences plays an important role in the way in which younger students are introduced to new concepts and knowledge.
Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development was based on the belief that each child is born with the skills necessary for learning. Vygotsky (1978) argues that cognitive development is a process of internalising ideas (Bee & Boyd 2004), which are experienced as a result of interactions with the social/cultural world in which language is a critical factor. Vygotsky believed that cognitive development is the result of inherited or genetic factors (lower
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
209
mental functions), as well as acquired or learned skills (higher mental functions) that could only occur through the socialisation process. He defines lower mental functions as sensation, attention, perception and memory. Through interaction with the environment, these lower-order functions evolve into higher-order mental functions such as memory strategies. The tools needed to develop these higher-order functions are embedded in the child’s social and cultural context, and are referred to by Vygotsky as ‘tools of the mind’. These tools of intellectual adaptation are said to be culture specific. For example, a young Aboriginal child living in a remote outback community may learn very early in life that food can be sourced from the bush. A middle-class Anglo-Australian child of the same age living in a large city may learn that food is sourced from the supermarket. Vygotsky saw the child as a dynamic learner who is facilitated in the learning process by interested adults (parents, extended family, teachers, coach). Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development emphasises the importance of language acquisition and the influence of the child’s culture in cognitive development. He argues (Vygotsky 1978) that learning and development cannot occur outside the social and cultural context, and that social learning plays a critical role in cognitive development. Vygotsky maintains that more knowledgeable others (such as adults, older children or, in today’s context, information accessed electronically) play a crucial role in the development of higher-order knowledge and skills. He stresses social interactions, role modelling, tutoring and instructing as important learning strategies for cognitive development.
The zone of proximal development (ZPD) The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the term used by Vygotsky to describe the period of time when children are almost able to do things and, with the assistance of others, can attain the learning that was previously just out of reach. In other words, the ZPD describes the lower limit of learning that the child can achieve without adult support, compared with the upper limit of learning that the child can achieve with support from an adult or a more knowledgeable older child. Proximal in this context means ‘what might come next’ in the learning process. The ZPD allows for guided practice as the child becomes a collaborator in the learning process alongside a more knowledgeable person. It allows more knowledgeable others to guide the child to develop skills in order to reach higher mental functioning. The concept is based on Vygotsky’s belief that learning and development influence one another.
The role of language Vygotsky maintains that children learn as a result of interactions in the social world, and that language is critical to this learning process. He identified the role of private speech (self-talk), which is used by children to guide themselves through a task. According to Vygotsky’s theory, children use language (private speech) to help internalise their knowledge and understanding of the world, and that language is made meaningful by interactions with adults, who can assist children to reach a higher level of development. He emphasises that language development occurs in a social and cultural context. For Vygotsky, the role of language in cognitive development is to transmit information to children so that they can acquire and adapt new skills and knowledge. He also views thought as the result of language.
While Vygotsky describes children’s early language as egocentric, he stresses the importance of inner speech to the learning process. Vygotsky identifies two key functions of children’s language: • Private speech is used by a child for the purposes of self-direction, self-control and problemsolving. According to Vygotsky, language accelerates thinking and understanding – for example, ‘Where is that brown horse? It can go in the truck. Where are you, brown horse? I can just take this white horse. Here you go, horse.’ • Public speech, although still egocentric, is used primarily for communicating with others – for example, ‘I’m going to draw a monster with two heads.’ Vygotsky believed cognitive development occurs in stages, which are described in Figure 10.6. Figure 10.6 Vygotsky’s stages of cognitive development
Characteristic
Explanation
Example
Thinking in unordered heaps
> This stage reflects the beginning of conceptual thought.
A child attempts to post shapes into a posting box, but does not take into account the relationship between the shape of the object and the shape of the slot; their attempts are random.
> Children use a variety of unreliable methods for thinking about and organising objects and ideas, such as trial and error. Thinking in complex stages
> Children begin to understand the relationship between objects and ideas. > Connections are not made using a consistent method or common characteristics. Children may: – select objects according to colour or proximity – connect objects according to dissimilarity in characteristics – use logical and consistent thinking but still have difficulty shifting their thinking from one characteristic to another to make different connections.
A child is able to recognise more than one attribute, but not able to sort by more than one attribute at a time. For example, they can sort by shape and place squares, circles and triangles into three distinct groups, but find it extremely challenging to sort by colour and shape at the same time.
Thinking in concepts stage (prior to mature thought)
> Children are able to remember an attribute in order to sort or match objects.
For example, a child may sort animals according to a group of characteristics, such as feathers, wool or hair.
Thinking in true concepts
> Children are able to use concepts to inform thought processes.
For example, a child may sort animals according to a particular characteristic that is not visible, such as ‘meat eaters’.
Vygotsky and Piaget compared Piaget and Vygotsky have much in common, but differ on several points, as shown in Figure 10.7. Vygotsky places more emphasis than Piaget on the importance of culture, social interaction and language in cognitive development. He maintains that the adult has an important, active teaching role – unlike Piaget, who promotes leaving children to explore and discover new concepts on their own. Vygotsky emphasises the role of language as critical to cognitive development. In his view, as a result of the socialisation process, language informs cognitive development. Conversely, Piaget claims that language is the result of cognitive development.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
211
Figure 10.7 Vygotsky and Piaget differ in some of their key areas Piaget
Vygotsky
Children explore and discover new concepts on their own.
Children learn in a social and cultural context.
Language is a result of cognitive development.
Socialisation supports language and cognitive development.
The adult plays a limited role in supporting cognitive development.
The adult plays an active role in supporting cognitive development by scaffolding learning.
Cognitive development occurs in age-related stages.
Cognitive development is a continuous process.
The terms schema, assimilation, accommodation, adaptation and equilibration are used to describe the process children use to construct and acquire knowledge.
The term zone of proximal development is used to describe the lower limit of learning that the child can achieve without adult support compared to the upper limit of learning that the child can achieve with support from an adult or more knowledgeable older child.
Piaget advocated discovery and exploration as key learning strategies, and placed limited emphasis on the role of the adult as teacher. Vygotsky believed that adults play a key role in enhancing cognitive development.
Jerome Bruner (1915–2016) Bruner’s constructivist theory focused predominantly on cognition. He believed that, through thinking, children engage in meaning-making. Like Vygotsky, Bruner (1974) believed learning is an active social and culturally embedded process. Like Piaget, he believed that cognitive development occurred in stages. These stages include: • enactive – learning through play and discovery (action-based) • iconic – creating mental images without the need for concrete materials (image-based) • symbolic – using abstract ideas (language-based). Unlike Piaget, Bruner believed that teacher scaffolding was necessary to assist in the learning process. He also argued that children use existing knowledge to build new information by being engaged, active participants in their own learning. As new information is acquired, the child is required to engage in problem-solving and inductive reasoning in order to make sense of the new information, which can then be generalised and applied to other aspects of learning. This process was referred to by Bruner as discovery learning. Learning that is assisted by the adult through scaffolding is referred to as assisted learning. The process of problem-solving, trial and error, hypothesising and inductive reasoning requires children to organise information and create a coding system to make mental connections between existing and new information.
Bruner advocated that it is the process of learning rather than the acquisition of facts that is most important. The process of learning allows children to explore, discover, make errors, investigate new possibilities and finally make connections to concepts. Bruner regarded learning as the transmission of culture through an engaged, active process that continues throughout life. He advocated that learning new information should begin with existing knowledge and, through a process of scaffolding and discovery, lead to the acquisition of new knowledge. He called this method of teaching and learning the spiral curriculum. The role of the educator in Bruner’s theory is that of the intentional teacher, actively facilitating, guiding, supporting and challenging children to be active inquirers and learners. Bruner also emphasised the importance of children’s self-esteem as a necessary characteristic for effective learning. Bruner’s theory of cognitive development is reflected in pedagogical practices in the classroom such as scaffolding learning and intentional teaching.
Howard Gardner (1943– ) The theory of multiple intelligences (MI) developed by Howard Gardner (1983: 34) defines intelligence as the ability to solve problems or to create products that are valued within one or more cultural settings. Gardner believes that an individual’s strengths influence how they learn. Some people learn best by interacting with others, others through reading, asking questions and utilising language, while yet others are visual, using diagrams and drawing and some need to learn through doing and being physically active. For example, if you did not have any prior knowledge, think about how you might best learn the following tasks: • operating a forklift • using a desktop publishing program • making a ceramic pot • making a stained glass window. Some people might choose to observe the process and ask questions, followed by a period of supervised instruction; others may prefer to read about the process, be given verbal or written instructions, or learn by trial and error. For most people, hands-on learning is the most effective method when trying to master new skills, and the same principle applies to children.
Eight spheres of intelligence Gardner (1993) emphasises the importance of providing opportunities for children to choose ways of learning to meet their particular intelligences. He describes eight spheres of intelligence and says an individual may have strengths in one or more of these spheres. He does not rate one type of intelligence as higher or lower than another. Gardner’s eight spheres of intelligence are shown in Figure 10.8. LINGUISTIC-VERBAL INTELLIGENCE (THE WRITER/COMMUNICATOR) The people in this group prefer to process information through words and language rather than pictures. According to Gardner (1993), these people tend to: • be sensitive to the meaning, order and sound of words • be able to use varied language • be avid talkers • like to explain, convince and persuade through words • enjoy and excel at word games • enjoy listening to, telling and reading stories. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
213
Figure 10.8 Gardner’s spheres of multiple intelligence Linguisticverbal Intrapersonal
Musicalrhythmic
Bodilykinesthetic
Existential MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
Logicalmaths
Visualspatial
+ 5 3 =× 8 2 ÷ 1
Naturalistic
Interpersonal
LOGICO-MATHEMATICAL INTELLIGENCE (THE SCIENTIST/PHILOSOPHER) The people in this group like to create order out of chaos by analysing, grouping and categorising. According to Gardner, they are good at recognising relationships, connections and patterns. These people tend to: • be able to handle long chains of reasoning • like to know the reasons for doing things • possess good inductive and deductive reasoning • be quick to learn equivalencies • ask ‘why’ and ‘how’ questions • solve problems rapidly • have strong mathematical and problem-solving skills • enjoy board games and games with rules. MUSICAL INTELLIGENCE (THE ENTERTAINER/MUSICIAN) Those in this group have a high musical intelligence – they learn best through sound, rhythm and music (see Figure 10.8). According to Gardner, these people tend to: • have an ability to perceive pitch, tone and rhythmic pattern • have well-developed auditory sense and discrimination • pick up melodies and rhythms easily • remember songs easily • be able to sing or play a musical instrument.
VISUAL/SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE (THE ARCHITECT/ ENGINEER/SCULPTOR) People in this group process information best by using pictures, visuals and imagery. According to Gardner, they have a good sense of direction and an ability to think and plan in three dimensions. These people tend to: • have an ability to create complex mental images • have an active imagination • be able to find their way mentally and physically around the environment • be able to place things in relationship to others and to use mind maps • like visual supports – videos, pictures, photos, charts and posters • enjoy designing and decorating. BODY/KINAESTHETIC INTELLIGENCE (THE ATHLETE/DANCER/ACTOR/SURGEON) The people in this group have an ability to process information through their bodies – through muscle, sensation and movement. According to Gardner, they tend to: • have a fine-tuned ability to use the body and handle objects • have an ability to express emotions through body movements • enjoy physical movement and dance • experience a strong mind–body connection • excel at creative drama. INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE (THE COUNSELLOR/MINISTER/TEACHER) Individuals with interpersonal intelligence are ‘people people’ – they are able to relate well to others and understand the feelings of others. According to Gardner, they tend to: • be able to notice and discern subtleties among others, such as moods, temperament and feelings • have an ability to discern underlying intentions, behaviour and perspectives • make friends easily and enjoy the company of others • be able to see things from the perspective of others • have an ability to negotiate and handle conflict resolution and work cooperatively in a group • have good communication skills • love to talk and influence. INTRAPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE (THE POET) People in this group have a strong sense of self and their own needs, and are generally selfreflective and non-conformist. According to Gardner, they tend to: • have an awareness of feelings and be able to express feelings • be self-reflective and mindful • have an ability to think about thinking (metacognition) • ask the big questions: ‘Why are we here?’, ‘What is our purpose?’ • often daydream • be excellent self-planners and goal-setters • enjoy solitude and thinking alone • be good at understanding strengths and weaknesses. NATURALISTIC INTELLIGENCE (THE GARDENER/ENVIRONMENTALIST) Naturalistic intelligence refers to a well-developed sensitivity to living things – plants and animals, and the environment in general. People in this group like and respect nature, and are interested in subjects like astronomy, evolution and the environment.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
215
MULTIPLE ABILITIES Gardner’s theory demonstrates that intelligence is not a single trait, but involves multiple abilities that occur on a continuum. Gardner believes that individuals have a unique combination of each intelligence and may have outstanding strengths in one or more areas. An individual’s particular blend of intelligences predisposes them to being suitable for a particular vocation or interest. Critics of Gardner’s theory, including McGreal (2013), argue that no research evidence has been produced to support the theory of multiple intelligences. They argue that if eight spheres of intelligence exist, then there should be eight specific tests that can be used to measure them. Intelligence or spheres of knowledge tend to be integrated rather than segmented as suggested by the multiple intelligences theory. Gardner has not specifically defined what he means by ‘intelligence’ and has used the terms ‘abilities’, ‘skills’ and ‘aptitudes’ interchangeably when referring to his theory.
Barbara Rogoff (1950– ) Like Vygotsky, Rogoff (2003) regards cognitive development as sociocultural in nature. However, Rogoff (2003: 37) regards human development as ‘a process in which people transform through their on-going participation in cultural activities’. Rather than culture influencing development, Rogoff argues that people and culture are inseparable, and that each transforms the other: ‘Humans develop through their changing participation in the sociocultural activities of their communities, which also change’ (2003: 11). Rogoff suggests that there are three key learning processes: participatory appropriation, guided participation and apprenticeship: • Participatory appropriation is the process of acquiring knowledge by observing and interacting in sociocultural activities. For example, teenagers copy the dress and language of their cultural icons. • Guided participation is the process of acquiring knowledge by taking on new roles and responsibilities under the guidance of a coach or mentor. For example, when senior primary school students take on the role of mentor/peer support for newly enrolled Kindergarten children, they develop their leadership skills and social responsibility. • Apprenticeship refers to the role of the child as a member of the community. The process of apprenticeship involves becoming familiar with the social and cultural norms of the community. This is achieved by engaging with and being part of the community through institutions such as family, school and church. The common element of each of these learning processes is language – the primary cultural tool through which knowledge is transmitted. Thinking, learning and language, and their associated social interactions, are interwoven inextricably. According to Rogoff (2003), the skills and knowledge that children learn, and when they are learned, are based on cultural values and beliefs, as well as the practical realities of family and community life. For example, a six-year-old child living in a remote village in Africa might be required to learn the skills required for cultivating crops or tending to cattle to support the family’s livelihood and to protect its food source. Rogoff argues that much of the current thinking on the relationships between culture and development reflects a white, middle-class, Western perspective that fails to take cultural differences in development into account.
The work of Rogoff and others serves to challenge our traditional view of how children learn and develop. We can no longer assume that traditional developmental stages are universal, because clearly they are not. Rogoff proposes that in order for educators to understand each child’s development, we need to look for what is the same and what is different in each child’s culture compared with our own. Rogoff also points to the dangers of generalising about larger groups of people according to the practices observed in a smaller community. Cultural practices are not only acquired as a result of living within a particular community; they can also be acquired because of deliberate choice. That is, each of us has the capacity to adopt new cultural beliefs and practices. Culture is a dynamic process of interactions where children learn through shared practices with members of their family and community.
10.3 Brain research Brain development has a significant impact on learning and behaviour, as well as physical and mental health. Brain research is now providing new knowledge about how the brain interacts with the external environment to influence human development and learning. Understanding the architecture of the brain and how human relationships and the environment impact brain development is critical for all educators. The brain is the only organ in the body that is unfinished at birth. The primary task of the brain in early childhood is making connections between brain cells. Babies are born with 100 billion nerve cells, called neurons (Figure 10.9). Every neuron has an axon that sends information out to other neurons and several dendrites that receive information. As axons ‘wire up’ to dendrites, trillions of connections called synapses are formed. Figure 10.9 The neuron Dendrites
Axon
Chemical neurotransmitters
Cell body Node of Ranvier
Synapse
The synapses are activated when stimulation occurs. The first three years of life are the most critical for the development of synapses. Synapses that are used repeatedly become permanent; those that are not used are eliminated. By age 10, the number of synapses decreases to about 500 trillion. The exact number of synapses depends on the degree of stimulation the brain receives in early childhood.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
217
Research (Mustard 2007; Shonkoff & Phillips 2000) tells us that during the early years the brain makes more connections than are required for optimal functioning, and these are pruned back over time. The brain will also prune incorrect connections and shape brain circuitry before becoming fully mature. The ‘wiring’ that takes place in a very young child’s brain depends not only upon genetic factors but also environmental factors, including critical relationships between the child and their parents, and between the child and their teachers. James Fraser Mustard (2007), a prominent researcher in early brain development, has found that experiences in early childhood have a critical impact on later learning because early experiences: • affect gene expression, the function of sensing neurons and the development of neural pathways • shape emotion, and regulate temperament and social development • shape language and literacy capability • shape perceptual and cognitive ability • shape how children cope with their daily experiences • shape physical and mental health in later life • shape physical activity and performance. Research also tells us that the brain develops in a hierarchical manner. Earlier brain development impacts on later brain development. Mustard (2007: 12) states: The brain is composed of billions of neurons and trillions of nerve connections (synapses).The neurons in an individual all have the same genetic coding and are shaped for their different functions by sensory experiences. Experience transmitted to the brain in early life by the sensing pathways assists in the later development of the architecture and function of the brain.
Critical periods, sensitive periods and plasticity Critical periods and sensitive periods in brain development have important implications for educators. These terms are defined as follows: • Critical periods represent a narrow window of time during which a specific part of the body is most vulnerable to the absence of stimulation or to environmental influences. Vision is a good example: unless a baby sees light during the first six months, the nerves leading from the eye to the visual cortex of the brain that processes those signals will degenerate and die. Critical periods of brain development occur at the time when the brain is most influenced by sensory information, and are essential for the development of specific neural circuitry. • Sensitive periods are the broad windows of opportunity for certain types of learning. They represent a less precise and often longer period of time when skills, such as acquiring a second language, are influenced. If the opportunity for learning does not arise, however, these potential new skills are not lost forever. Individuals learn new languages at many different times in their lives (Gable & Hunting, 2001) Sensitive periods of brain development occur at the time when environmental influences have the greatest impact on the development of neural circuitry. Research into brain development has highlighted that the years from birth to age three are a sensitive period for development and learning in all areas. Like other areas of development, the brain moves from simple to complex – lower-order functions lay down the foundation for the development of higher-order functions.
Plasticity is the brain’s ability to reorganise and adapt to influences, interactions and challenges in the environment. While the human brain remains plastic throughout life, plasticity is greatest in the first years of life, and decreases with age as the brain becomes more complex. We now know that the brain development that supports higher-order functions, such as complex behaviour, thinking and problem-solving, depends on the prior development of lowerlevel neural pathway circuits. These lower-level pathways are formed during the first four years of life, and they lay the foundations for the higher-order brain functions. By the time a child is school-aged, these foundations have lost plasticity and are difficult to change. Brain development or function at the lower level that directly impacts on later brain development is referred to as the limbic–hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal (LHPA) pathway. This is often called the stress or behaviour emotional pathway. Mustard (2007: 12) states that: This pathway (LHPA) works as a stress, emotional and behaviour thermostat. It is vital for everyday existence and we are now learning how the development of this pathway and its function in early life affects cognition, emotions and behaviour and risks for diseases (physical and mental) throughout life.
Amazingly, brain research has demonstrated that our genetic makeup can be altered by experience. This occurs as a direct result of human interactions and sensory stimulation. It has now been established that, while our genes determine when specific brain circuits or wiring occur, it is sensory experience that shapes how they are formed. Early sensory experiences involving touch, sound and vision act as stimulants for the brain. Babies respond to this stimulation by staring intently at human faces, using facial gestures such as smiling and responding to the sound of a human voice. The baby’s response reinforces this adult stimulation, which helps to build a mutually pleasant and reciprocal relationship between the baby and the adult. Research on the impact of supportive, nurturing relationships between adults and children undertaken by the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (NSCDC 2004: 1) highlights the importance of these relationships in children’s development: relationships are the active ingredients’ of the environment’s influence on healthy human development. They incorporate the qualities that best promote competence and wellbeing – individualised responsiveness, mutual action and interaction, and an emotional connection to another human being … Relationships engage children in the human community in ways that help them define who they are, what they can become, and how and why they are important to other people.
This research concluded that early, secure attachments enhance emotional development and social competence, and support the brain’s early foundations for cognitive and language development.
Brain development and the environment The environment plays a critical role in brain development. Environmental factors such as the consistent presence of significant adults who nurture and support the child, adequate nutrition and health care, safe, stable and predictable living conditions and quality, age-appropriate experiences have a positive impact on brain development. Conversely, inconsistency in caregiving, lack of a significant adult who is able to consistently nurture and support the child, poor nutrition, poor health care and a lack of appropriate stimulation will have a detrimental impact on brain development. As brain plasticity differs between lower-order and higher-order functions, different experiences at different ages are necessary for optimal brain development. The complexity of brain development is not easy to grasp, and cannot easily be simplified. It is incorrect to make a simple assumption that ‘missing’ these sensitive periods means that the ‘window of opportunity’
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
219
is lost forever. It must be remembered that higher-order functions of the brain, such as social, cognitive and emotional functions, continue to develop well into early adulthood. However, the timeframe for optimal brain development in these sensitive periods will vary from one individual to another, and will be shaped by experience over a period of time. It is also incorrect to assume that children who have had limited stimulation in early childhood or who have been exposed to toxic stress can simply undergo an intensive enrichment program to help improve brain development. There is also no scientific evidence to suggest that intensive exposure to particular media, such as music or intensive early learning programs to teach babies to read, have any impact on brain development. As the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (NSCDC 2004: 5) states: evidence from decades of scientific investigation of experience-induced changes in brain development makes it highly unlikely that the potential benefits of such media would even come close to matching (much less exceeding) the more important influences of attentive, nurturing, and growing-promoting interactions with invested adults.
In essence, children’s ability to interpret, understand and make sense of their experiences will change over time, as the brain develops and matures. This means that parents and educators have an important role to play in providing age-appropriate experiences that help the developing brain to lay down the foundation for higher-level functioning.
Executive functioning During early adolescence, the brain undergoes its second major phase of increased production of grey matter, which is responsible for executive functioning (thinking and processing information, decision-making, impulse control, focusing, holding and working with information in mind, filtering distractions, and switching gears. Executive functions help to make connections between existing knowledge and current actions. The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (2011) states that having executive function in the brain is like having an air traffic control system at a busy airport to manage the arrivals and departures of dozens of planes on multiple runways. There are three key dimensions of executive function skills: 1 Working memory. This is the capacity to hold and manipulate information in our heads over short periods. It enables children to remember and connect information from one paragraph to the next, to perform an arithmetic problem with several steps, to keep track of a succession of moves and make a logical next step in a game of checkers, and to follow multiple-step instructions. It also helps children with social interactions. 2 Inhibitory control (impulse control). This is the skill we use to master and filter our thoughts and impulses so we can resist temptations, distractions and habits, and learn to pause and think before we act. It makes possible selective, focused and sustained attention, prioritisation and action. 3 Cognitive or mental flexibility. This is the capacity to nimbly switch gears and adjust to changed demands, priorities or perspectives. It is what enables us to apply different rules in different settings. It enables us to catch mistakes, fix them, revise ways of doing things in light of new information, consider something from a fresh perspective and ‘think outside the box’.
Other executive functions include: • emotional control – the ability to manage feelings by thinking about goals • self-monitoring – the ability to monitor and evaluate your own performance and become an independent learner • planning/prioritising – the ability to create steps to reach a goal and to make decisions about what to focus on • task initiation – the ability to recognise when it is time to get started on something and begin without procrastinating • organisation – the ability to create and maintain systems to keep track of information or materials (Understood 2013: 5–6). Executive functions provide the foundation skills needed for the process (the how) of learning – focusing, remembering, planning – which enables children to effectively and efficiently master the content (the what) of learning – reading, writing and computation. Executive functioning skills are optimised when learning occurs in a social context that supports self-regulation and provides opportunities for students to draw on existing skills and knowledge to build new skills and knowledge (scaffolding). The development of executive functioning skills occurs over time. It is important to be aware that each child will develop executive functioning skills at their own unique pace and that individual development will depend on a range of factors that are unique to each child. Children and young people who have not yet developed executive functioning skills in one or more areas are likely to experience difficulties both academically and socially. Figure 10.10 provides examples of what poor executive functioning may look like in children and young people. Scenario
EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONING Edward (11 years) is working his way through a task that each student is required to complete independently. Edward becomes very anxious whenever the class is required to work on independent tasks. He finds it difficult to focus and get himself organised. Edward reads the task to himself and then reads it aloud. He’s already forgotten what he’s supposed to do, so he reads it again. He decides to make a list of what he needs to do. He writes ‘Step 1’ and then rereads the task. Still unsure, Edward decides he could get started by getting together the things he needs for the task. He thinks this will be easy as there is already a list called ‘What you need to complete this task’. Edward reads the list and goes off to get his materials but returns to his desk empty handed as he has forgotten the three items on the list. He decides to take the list with him to remind him what he needs. As he moves around the room getting his materials, Edward becomes distracted by what other students are doing. By the time he returns to his desk, the teacher tells the class
that the allotted time for the task is nearly up and to finish off what they are doing. Edward slumps down on his chair. He is disappointed with himself and wonders why he can’t keep up with the other students. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Edward has poor executive function skills – he has poor planning/prioritising skills, poor organisational skills and a poor working memory; he is also easily distracted. Without appropriate intervention, Edward will not reach his full potential and will lag behind his classmates. Edward is already comparing himself adversely with his peers. This may lead to feelings of hopelessness and decrease his motivation to learn. " DISCUSSION
As an ESW, what could you do to support Edward to organise his thoughts, recall what he needs to do and complete the task in a timely manner?
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
221
Figure 10.10 Examples of poor executive functioning
Difficulty with self-regulation– I may have difficulty with: managing and expressing my emotions in an appropriate manner; I become easily upset/angry/anxious when I make a mistake even if it can be easily corrected.
Difficulty with mental flexibility– I may find it difficult to: transition from one activity to another; manage the school timetable; keep track of time; cope with unexpected change.
Difficulty with inhibition– I may have difficulty with: curbing impulsive behaviour; starting a task without all the information or materials; I interrupt others and make inappropriate comments; I often say and do things without thinking through the consequences.
Difficulty with attention– I may have difficulty with: staying on task; ignoring external distractions; maintaining persistence with challenging tasks and listening to others.
Difficulty with planning and organising– I may find it difficult to: start and finish a task; prioritise tasks in order of importance; prepare for events such as organising my sports gear; plan and complete projects.
Source: Adapted from Understood Executive Function 101 (2013).
The brain from middle childhood to young adulthood The growth in the frontal lobe supports the development of a range of cognitive skills typically developed during the middle years of schooling. Importantly, this aspect of brain development supports the application of order and logic, so that children can undertake a task in an organised and methodical manner. This allows children to apply the rules needed to learn to read and create meaningful text, and apply basic mathematical concepts to solve problems. It also supports the use of research skills: What do I need to know? How can I find out? These developing skills can be observed in the play of children during middle childhood. For example, they invent increasingly complex role-plays, develop and apply rules for games, play sequenced computer games, build with construction sets that may include simple electronic components and create detailed drawings. An important aspect of brain development during this period is the lateralisation of the two hemispheres of the brain and the maturation of the corpus callosum. This involves maturation of
both the brain and the synapses, which are the connections between the cells in the nervous system. Over time, if not used, these synapses are gradually pruned from the nervous system. Lateralisation of the brain allows children to use both sides of the brain effectively. The left hemisphere largely specialises in analytical thought and facts. It is also responsible for mathematical thinking, logic, deductive reasoning, planning and the understanding of spoken and written words. The right hemisphere specialises in feelings and emotions, creativity, rhythm, spatial awareness, spontaneity, relationships, motor skills and humour. The brain works most effectively when the left and right sides communicate and work together, and while the left/right brain is assigned specific tasks they are not mutually exclusive.
The brain: 5 to 6 years of age According to Sprenger (2008), the following are the key features of brain development that occur at 5 to 6 years: • development of the frontal lobes, allowing for an increase in short-term memory skills • acceleration of the language and skills necessary for reading • improved ability to plan and organise – children are able to set long-term goals • development of an ability to understand and use strategies for remembering • improvement in long-term memory • improvement in reading and the understanding of word meaning.
The brain: 7 to 8 years of age Sprenger (2008) suggests that the development of the brain by 8 years allows for more sophisticated thinking, including: • increased impulse control and improved ability to plan, support developing independence and accept responsibility for oneself • improved ability to understand irony and sarcasm • significantly improved ability to organise stored memories • automatic reading and writing, which allows the brain to focus on comprehension and content. By 8 years of age, the brain has reached 90 per cent of its adult weight.
The adolescent brain According to Sprenger (2008), during adolescence the brain undergoes a period of reconstruction, which partly contributes to the impulsive and seemingly reckless behaviour that is typical of adolescent development: • At around 10 to 12 years of age, the brain has a final growth spurt. • By the time children reach adolescence, the brain begins the reorganisation of regulatory systems. Unused neurons and connections are pruned. • It is thought that many of the undesirable attributes of adolescent development, such as recklessness, challenging rules, poor organisational skills and emotional outbursts, are related to the pruning process. • The adolescent brain is still in the process of developing higher-order thinking skills, which are not fully developed until the prefrontal cortex matures in the mid-twenties. • The part of the brain that controls emotions tends to dominate the adolescent brain. This can lead to irrational and risky behaviours. Probably the most significant cognitive advancement in adolescence is the refinement of the executive function of the brain, which allows young people to think logically, engage in abstract
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
223
thought and use metacognition skills such as planning, monitoring and evaluating one’s own learning. Increasingly, when guided by adults, young people are able to engage in critical reflection – they begin to question and challenge ethical, moral and social issues. They are able to consider more than just their own perspective and can apply creative ideas to solve problems and learning challenges.
The transition to young adulthood Great gains in cognitive skills are evident by early adolescence. Dolgin (2014: 155) reports the following improvements in cognition: • improvement in deductive reasoning – allowing students to find answers more quickly • improved ability to think hypothetically – allowing students to engage in reflective thinking, predict and consider a range of possibilities and alternatives • greater use of prepositional logic – using reason based on logical inference, which allows students to engage in more complex problem-solving tasks • the development of reasoning and probability – used to explore problems and find logical solutions; such skills are necessary for higher-order mathematical thinking • improved metacognition – the ability to think about one’s own thoughts, which allows students to examine their own thinking and consider alternative ways of thinking about a problem • greater command of language – meaning students are therefore better able to express thoughts, feelings and ideas.
Brain research and education Brain research has led to a better understanding of how the brain is built over time, how learning occurs and the factors that influence learning and brain development. Applying what we now know about the brain can assist educators to create more effective learning environments and develop better strategies to support learning. Schiller (2010) summarises a number of key factors that can inform learning: • Brain development is both genetically predetermined and dependent upon the child’s interactions and stimulation within the environment. This tells us that brain development can be influenced positively by timely learning experiences. • Sensory stimulation is food for the rapidly growing brain. This tells us that providing handson sensory learning experiences is the best way to support learning. • The quality, quantity and consistency of stimulating experiences have an impact on brain development. This tells us that learning experiences need to be stimulating and delivered in a way that is timely and allows for unhurried learning. • Positive interactions affect brain wiring. This tells us that forming positive and respectful relationships with students is an important learning strategy. • There are critical or sensitive periods in which a greater ‘window of opportunity’ exists for learning certain skills and knowledge. This tells us that it is important to have sound child development knowledge so that learning opportunities can be matched to developmental readiness. • A child’s brain is two and a half times more active than an adult’s brain. This tells us that children are biologically pre-programmed to learn. • Positive early childhood experiences are likely to prevent or reduce the likelihood of later learning, social and emotional problems. This highlights the critical importance of providing quality learning experiences for students during the early primary school years.
•
Positive interactions are critically important for healthy brain development. This tells us that children and young people learn best when educators develop positive and respectful relationships with their students. Source: Adapted from Schiller (2010: 14–18).
Being aware of brain development research also supports our understanding of how to support learning. While this research has done much to inform us of how the brain develops and how learning occurs, it is the evidence of the importance of establishing positive, nurturing relationships with children and young people that is most clear. This tells us that establishing a good rapport with students should be the first step in supporting the learning process.
WHY DO THEORIES AND RESEARCH MATTER? You may be wondering why knowing about brain research and theories of cognitive development are important for ESWs. After all, your role is to work under the direction of the teacher – you are not responsible for planning curriculum delivery. Understanding how children and young people develop allows you to better understand how they learn and how you can support the learning process. Let’s consider some examples: 1 Cognitive development occurs in a predictable sequence with earlier development laying down the foundation for later development. This tells us that if a student hasn’t mastered the prerequisite skills or knowledge, then no amount of practice will help them acquire subsequent new skills or knowledge. The only way forward for the student is to start with what they know, understand and can do as a baseline for building new skills and knowledge. 2 Piaget believed that children do not think in the same way as adults. He explained this by demonstrating
Consider This
children’s use of transductive rather than deductive reasoning. For example, two-and-a-half-year-old Carla talks to her grandfather on the telephone, showing him her new toy. Her reasoning: ‘If I can see my toy then you can see my toy.’ Four-year-old Saffie reasons, ‘If I pour the same amount of water into containers, one of which is wide and shallow and the other tall and thin, then I will reason that the tall and thin container now contains more water.’ Knowing that young children are not able to apply logic in the same way as adults has huge implications for teaching and learning. It tells us, for example, that in relation to literacy development, young children need to be shown, reminded and provided with multiple opportunities for practice. 3 Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) helps us to understand that the introduction of new skills and knowledge must be properly sequenced and timed to correspond to the student’s readiness to acquire new skills and knowledge with adult guidance and support.
10.4 Memory, recall and information processing The ability to store, recall and retrieve information is central to learning. These processes are developed and refined over time and involve the integration of cognitive, language, social and physical skills. Children and young people must be able to be active participants in classroom tasks and discussion, follow directions, ask and respond to questions, understand and respect that others may have views that are different from their own, listen, pay attention and stay on task.
Theory of mind Theory of Mind (ToM) is the term used to describe an awareness that each of us has our own separate thoughts and that we may view things from different perspectives. You have probably seen a toddler ‘hide’ under a blanket and then reappear excitedly, believing they have surprised
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
225
others by magically reappearing. The toddler is not able to consider the perspective of others and falsely believes that if they cannot see someone, then that person can’t see them. ToM is a cognitive and social skill that develops gradually. By around 4 years of age children begin to realise that each person is a separate individual with their own thoughts. ToM can be demonstrated using a false belief task. In this task, the child watches as Person A places an object in a cupboard and then leaves the room. Person B comes into the room and moves the object to a different cupboard. Person A then returns to get the object. Will Person A know that the object has been moved and go directly to the other cupboard? If the watching child’s answer is no, then the child demonstrates ToM. That is, the child understands that Person A believes the object is still in its original place (false belief) because they don’t know what the child knows. If the child watching answers ‘yes’, then the child demonstrates that they have not yet developed ToM because of the false belief that if they know the object has been moved, then Person A must also know the object has been moved. ToM (Lowry, 2016) allows children to: understand that to get what you want you must interact with others in different ways in • different situations. For example, a toddler may have learned that if I tantrum, dad will give in and give me a treat. On the other hand, I have learned that this doesn’t work with mum. • understand that ‘my thoughts’ are not necessarily the same as other’s thoughts. I might think that everyone loves lemonade ice blocks because I love lemonade ice blocks. • understand that to see something is to know something. For example, when a toddler is talking on the phone to grandma they might say, ‘Look, I have a new toy and it’s got lights, see?’. A toddler without ToM does not yet understand that grandma can not see what she is seeing and, therefore, needs extra information. • understand ‘false beliefs’. For example, ‘If I see that mum has put the remote up high on the bookcase, then when grandad comes over he will know where to find it’. The child falsely assumes that if she knows something, then others will also know the same thing. • understand that an individual may be feeling different emotions from the one they display. For example, children with ToM will understand that mum is sad because grandma has died even though mum is not crying. • children who do not yet have ToM can not understand the meaning of idioms such as ‘better late than never’. Nor can they understand sarcasm or lies. Without ToM, children will interpret language quite literally. For example, sarcastic statement such as ‘I’d love to get cold and wet just so you can have your truck that you left out in the rain!’ will result in the child eagerly awaiting you to venture out into the rain. ToM is an important cognitive and social skill that supports children to participate in classroom discussion and consider the perspectives of others. It also allows children to predict how the actions of one person may affect the feelings of others. It allows children to explore characters or themes in a text – for example, ‘How might the girl be feeling?’ or ‘What will her mother think when she finds out that …?’ ToM continues to be refined well into adolescence, where it supports children’s growing awareness of social justice, fairness and empathy for the plight of others. Interestingly, it is thought that children who have autism lack ToM.
Self-regulation Self-regulation refers to the ability to attend and block out distractions, follow directions with several interrelated steps and understand relationships between separate pieces of information.
Students who lack self-regulation are more likely to engage in disruptive behaviours, are more easily distracted and are less productive in the classroom. Bodrova and Leong (2007) state that self-regulation not only requires the ability to regulate emotions but also the ability to monitor and control cognitive processes such as paying attention, staying on task, focusing on two or three things at once, following multiple-step directions and recalling the correct sequence of steps within tasks. Self-regulation also allows children to concentrate without distraction for longer periods of time. Without age-appropriate self-regulation, children and young people will struggle in a classroom setting where they are required to work independently or to actively collaborate on small-group activities.
Memory and recall As children develop, they discover the existence of ‘memory’, and can recognise that some things are more difficult to remember than others. Often it seems that children have selective memories – they may recall a promise made in haste but seem unable to remember to do their household jobs! Vygotsky believed that the young child’s ability to think was bound by their ability to remember. He argued that thinking and remembering were one and the same thing, and that young children’s perception of the world was based on their memory of their own concrete experiences. He argued that, for young children, thinking did not involve logic but rather the recall of information. Some people believe that they have a good memory and are easily able to recall things while others consider themselves to have poor memories. However, the person who has a ‘good memory’ is not necessarily smarter than the person who has a ‘poor memory’. Some people can remember faces but not names, or they can remember events but not dates. Others have good verbal recall while others have better visual recall. Figure 10.11 outlines the main strategies used for remembering. Figure 10.11 Common strategies involved in remembering
Strategy
Description
Rehearsal
> Involves either mental or verbal repetition, or repetition of movement (such as learning to kick a goal or dance). > Preschoolers can use this strategy if taught, but tend to not use it spontaneously.
Clustering or encoding
> Grouping ideas, objects or words into clusters to help you to remember them – for example, ‘all animals’; ‘all ingredients used to make a chocolate cake’. > This strategy requires experience with a particular subject or activity, since grouping or clustering depends on being aware of common elements. > When shown a series of pictures of animals, food and furniture, school-age children will cluster the pictures into categories in order to help them to remember, while preschool children do not.
Elaboration
> Finding shared meaning or a common reference for two or more things – for example, using a rhyme such as ‘Every Good Boy Deserves Fruit’ to remember the lines on the treble musical staff, or by associating the name of an object or person. > Often people will develop their own personal versions of elaboration to help them to remember things such as car number plates or telephone numbers. > This skill is usually not developed until the late primary or early high school years.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
227
Strategy
Description
Systematic searching
> Involves scanning your memory to search for the required information. For example, you think back and ‘relive’ a situation or conversation in order to better recall specific facts; you may visualise a scene in your head in order to better describe it to another person. > This skill is usually not acquired until late primary school age.
Retrieval
> Involves recognition (the clues presented help you to recognise prior experiences) or recall (involves reproducing the information from memory without any clues). For example, if asked, you may not be able to recall the names of the main actors in a recent movie. However, if given a clue – such as multiple-choice answers – you may be able to correctly answer because the clues have prompted your memory. > Recognition is easier to achieve than recall, and is used at all levels of development. For example, a three-year-old may be able to point to pictures of exotic animals such as a polar bear, leopard or giraffe, but may not be able to recall the names of these animals. > Adults may not recall a person’s name but may recall the person’s features.
Existing knowledge, prior experience and interest all play a part in the ability to remember. For example, a five-year-old may be able to recall the correct names of most dinosaurs because this subject is an interest at that particular time, but may have limited recall of this skill by age seven or eight, when dinosaurs are no longer a passion. Long-term memory is the largest structure in the cognitive system, and some research suggests we never lose the information stored in the long-term memory; the challenge is to retrieve it at the appropriate time. Vialle, Lysaght and Verenikina (2005: 85–6) describe three different ‘remembering processes’ for retrieving information, which seem to occur automatically: 1 Recognition. This is an automatic process requiring only a response to a stimulus – for example, the smell of freshly mown grass may instantly take you back to a childhood memory, or a song on the radio may remind you of a significant period in your life. 2 Recall. This relies on remembering an absent stimulus (improves with age) – for example, recalling information that has been learned by rote, such as multiplication tables, the order of the planets or the colours of the rainbow. 3 Reconstruction. This a process for the storage of information that depends on our existing knowledge base, which in turn influences how we construct information through our memory – for example, learning about child development can be enhanced by drawing on our existing knowledge and life experiences.
Information processing Information processing refers to the way in which information is collected, sorted, stored (in the short and long term) and recalled in a way that is meaningful and allows the individual to make sense of the world. This information processing draws on a number of abilities and skills, which include: • knowledge of concepts and understanding of relationships • understanding of the use of symbols such as spoken and written language • concentration and attention span • curiosity, intrinsic motivation and persistence • problem-solving skills • ability to make choices
ability to observe, ask questions and evaluate ideas ability to work collaboratively with others. An important part of information processing is the storage and retrieval of information so that it can be recalled easily (memory) when needed. Efficient use of the limited ‘space’ in the short-term memory relies on converting information into meaningful chunks that take up less ‘space’, allowing us to work on new information or deal with complex ideas. Information processing helps us to: • make connections between past and present experiences • understand how things work • make informed predictions or assessments • label and group things • generally make sense of the world. Vialle, Lysaght and Verenikina (2008) suggest that information processing can be explained using the store model, where information is stored in the cognitive system in three parts: the sensory register, short-term (working) memory and long-term memory. Figure 10.12 illustrates how the flow of information begins with an ‘input’ or stimulus of some kind and ends with an ‘output’ – the storage of the information, a decision or observable behaviour. ‘Input or stimulus may include images, sounds, words, smells, textures or text. • •
Figure 10.12 The ‘store model of information processing’
INPUT
Sensory register
Short-term memory
Long-term memory
Encoding
Temporary storage
Permanent storage
Held up to 5 seconds
Held up to 20 seconds
Held indefinitely
OUTPUT
Concept development Concept development requires the ability to recognise relationships between objects and things, apply meaning to objects and things, and apply reasoning skills to sort and assign objects and things. It requires the ability to reason, interpret, deduce and think creatively. Concept development is both a cognitive and language skill. Concepts help us to organise, manage and filter many pieces of information in a meaningful and efficient manner. They allow us to group and sort information based on common attributes. Concepts develop over time and rely on children drawing on their existing knowledge and reasoning skills to develop new knowledge and understandings. Concept development moves from specific to general – for example, from being able to recognise and label food such as ‘apple, orange, banana, pear’ to understanding that this collection of food represents fruit. A young child who does not yet have the concept of fruit would be asked, ‘Would you like an apple or an orange?’ A child who has the concept of fruit would be asked, ‘Would you like a piece of fruit?’
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
229
The skills required for concept development include matching (Can you find the matching sock?), identification (Which object is a square?), naming (What shape is this?), seriating (light to dark/short to tall, wide to narrow) and classifying by one or more attributes (Put all of the large, red, blocks into this container and all of the small red blocks into the other container). Early concept development includes: • spatial awareness • symbolic relationships • quantity, rote and rational counting • time • functional relationships (sorting, matching, classifying) • ordering and seriation • temporal ordering • cause and effect.
Concept: Spatial awareness Spatial awareness involves the ability to understand concepts such as: • proximity – near/far; next to, behind, in front of • separation – removing/dividing; filling/emptying; putting together/taking apart; pouring/ emptying • enclosure – containing/surrounding • order – positioning items one after the other; seriating. Figure 10.13 describes the development of spatial awareness. Figure 10.13 Development of the ability to describe spatial relationships
Level
Description
Level 1
The child does not follow the directions that describe the relative positions of people or things (on, over, under, behind) or the direction of movement of things (up, down, forward, back, into, out of).
Level 2
The child follows directions (on, over, under, behind, up, down, forward, back, into, out of) but does not use them correctly when speaking.
Level 3
The child uses words that describe the relative position of things (over, under, behind, in front of).
Level 4
The child uses words that describe the direction of movement of things (up, down, forward, back, into, out of).
Level 5
The child uses words that describe the relative distance between things (closer, farther away). Source: Hohmann (1997, p. 2250. HighScope Educational Research Foundation Copyright ª 2009. All rights reserved. The name ‘HighScope’ and its corporate logos are registered trademarks and service marks at the HighScope Foundation.
Concept: Symbolic relationships Symbolic relationships involve a range of symbols used in everyday life to convey meaning. These symbols include concrete objects, physical actions, and spoken and written symbols: • Action symbols. These are symbols that indicate that something is going to happen – for example, when the teacher stands at the whiteboard, students will assume that the teacher is going to write information to which they need to pay attention. • Object symbols. These are symbols formed from objects – for example, in the classroom object symbols might be used to remind students of classroom rules; a cardboard thermometer and an arrow might be used to convey the noise level in the room.
Picture symbols. These are pictures of familiar objects, which assist the understanding that a two-dimensional picture represents a real three-dimensional object. • Language symbols. These are written letters and words – by talking, pointing and labelling, teachers help young students to understand that words are symbols for objects, actions, feelings, ideas, concepts and beliefs. • Number symbols. These are numerals and other number symbols; counting and using numerals assist the child to develop a concept of quantity and time. •
Concept: Quantity, rote and rational counting Children encounter the spoken form of numbers long before they understand their meaning. Many can rote count to 10 or 20 without having the concept of one-to-one correspondence necessary for understanding quantity – for example, that the symbol ‘3’ means three objects. Figure 10.14 outlines the development of counting skills (quantity). Figure 10.14 Development of the ability to count objects (quantity)
Level
Description
Level 1
The child does not relate number-words and objects.
Level 2
The child touches objects and names a number for each one, although the numbers may not be in the correct order.
Level 3
The child correctly counts up to three objects.
Level 4
The child correctly counts up to four to 10 objects.
Level 5
The child correctly counts over 10 objects. Source: Hohmann (1997, p. 225). HighScope Educational Research Foundation Copyright ª 2009. All rights reserved. The name ‘HighScope’ and its corporate logos are registered trademarks and service marks at the HighScope Foundation.
Being able to rote count is not the same as having a concept of quantity. For example, a three-year-old may be able to rote count to 10 but is not likely to have an understanding of ‘quantity’, which comes from using concrete materials to explore matching and one-to-one classification. In rote counting, the number words are repeated in the correct sequence without reference to the actual quantity of objects. In rational counting, there is reference to objects (quantity). The sequence of words is matched in one-to-one correspondence with the objects. In this way the number of objects in a set is discovered. This number is called the cardinal number of the set. The ability to understand quantity is based on the development of one-to-one correspondence – that is, that the word ‘three’ and the number symbol ‘3’ both represent three things.
Concept: Time By preschool age, children have a fundamental concept of time – they are able to name events as preceding, present or following. They use terms such as ‘last night’, ‘yesterday’, ‘today’ and ‘tomorrow’ with varying degrees of understanding; they can anticipate upcoming events that will occur in the future, such as birthdays, holidays or Christmas; and they are able to relate to time in the context of their own routines, such as breakfast time, bathtime, bedtime, home time and so on.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
231
Initially, the concept of time is in relation to duration: • starting and stopping an action on signal – understanding that time relates to a specific period or duration, such as lunchtime • experiencing and describing rates of movement – for example, running is faster than walking; going by car is faster than riding a bike • experiencing and comparing time – experiencing time intervals as part of the daily timetable. The next key concept of time relates to sequences: anticipating, remembering and describing sequences of events; and understanding and anticipating the order of daily routines – what will happen next, or recalling the sequence of what has happened during the morning. Figure 10.15 outlines how the ability to describe sequence and time will typically develop. Figure 10.15 Development of the ability to describe sequence and time
Level
Description
Level 1
The child does not show an understanding of time or of routine sequences of events.
Level 2
The child plans or anticipates the next event in a sequence.
Level 3
The child describes or represents a series of events in the correct sequence.
Level 4
The child compares time periods correctly (a short time is shorter than a long time).
Level 5
When describing or representing a series of events in the correct sequence, the child uses words for conventional time periods (morning, yesterday, lunch time). Source: Hohmann (1997), p. 233, HighScope Educational Research Foundation Copyright ª 2009. All rights reserved. The name ‘HighScope’ and its corporate logos are registered trademarks and service marks at the HighScope Foundation.
Concept: Functional relationships (sorting, matching, classifying) Very young children use objects or tools for the function for which they were designed. They understand that a broom is for sweeping the floor and a shovel is for digging. Relationships of similarity include matching, sorting and classifying, ordering and seriation, and temporal ordering. Being able to sort and group information is an essential skill for refining how efficiently information is stored and recalled. Children show that they are aware of relationships of similarity when they can label groups of things or objects – for example, cars, trucks, trains, boats and planes are all forms of transport. Matching involves making comparisons of similarities and differences. To successfully match objects, children require perceptual skills, including visual/auditory discrimination and figure– ground perception. They must also understand the concept of ‘same’ and ‘different’. Figure 10.16 describes the development of comparison language. Figure 10.16 Development of the use of comparison words
Level
Description
Level 1
The child does not yet use or respond to comparison words (bigger, biggest).
Level 2
The child follows directions that involve comparison words (‘Take the biggest cookie’).
Level 3
The child uses comparison words, but not always correctly.
Level 4
The child uses comparison words correctly (‘This one is bigger than that one’).
Level 5
The child compares three or more things using some comparison words appropriately (smaller, smallest). Source: Hohmann (1997), p. 233, HighScope Educational Research Foundation Copyright ª 2009. All rights reserved. The name ‘HighScope’ and its corporate logos are registered trademarks and service marks at the HighScope Foundation.
Sorting and classifying are the processes used to identify the common attributes of objects and how they can be grouped together. For example, when shown a set of animal pictures, older students will be able to create a wide range of sub-categories such as herbivores/carnivores, domestic/wild, and tree dwelling/land dwelling. The development of sorting skills is shown in Figure 10.17. Figure 10.17 Development of sorting skills
Level
Description
Level 1
The child does not yet sort objects into groups.
Level 2
The child groups identical objects together.
Preschool children with level 2 sorting skills may sort buttons and shells like this. Level 3
In sorting, the child groups together objects that are the same in some way but different in other ways (combines red stars and red circles).
Later, at level 3, the same child may group together buttons and shells as illustrated. The child can now group objects that are the same in some way but different in others. Level 4
In sorting, the child groups together objects that are the same in some way and occasionally describes what has been done.
Level 5
In sorting, the child groups objects together on the basis of two or more characteristics (includes all the big red circles but not the big red stars or the big blue circles). Source: Nuffield Mathematics Project (1973: 8).
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
233
Concept: Ordering and seriation Ordering is the ability to arrange objects or events in a logical order – being able to identify what comes next. Seriation is identifying what comes next in a graduated series of objects. Seriation requires the ability to discriminate differences and comparative relationships of objects – for example: • comparing gross differences: longest/shortest, biggest/smallest • arranging objects in a specific pattern: smallest to biggest, shortest to tallest • fitting one ordered set of objects to another, as in puzzles where graduated blocks of different lengths and colours form a step arrangement. Seriation is a complex mathematical concept, which requires children to place things in order based on an identified attribute – for example, heaviest to lightest, tallest to shortest.
Concept: Temporal ordering This is a more complex concept, requiring children to identify the logical order of events as they would happen in real time –for example, the sequence followed when getting dressed or undressed.
Concept: Cause and effect Understanding cause and effect involves understanding what action produces an effect. Understanding and predicting cause and effect is a complex task that requires the ability to process information, remember and recall. It also requires the child to apply logic and reasoning – which does not typically develop until the later stages of Piaget’s preoperational stage. Understanding of cause and effect moves from simple to complex – for example, ‘If I tip my cup upside down, my milk will spill onto the floor’; ‘If I don’t share the toys, the other children won’t play with me’; ‘If I lie to Mum and Dad, they will be disappointed in me’; ‘If we recycle our rubbish, we can help to protect the environment’. Concept development requires analysis (What features are the same?), reasoning and creating logical links (This goes with this because …) and analysis (Why have I grouped these things together?). Each of the these skills is an example of higher-order mental functions. Concept development allows children to understand and apply rules related to literacy and numeracy learning. It allows students to generalise information and apply it to different situations. For example, the formula used to find the area of a rectangle can also be used to work out whether a certain-sized rug might fit next to a bed, or the strategies used to understand the meaning of a word in this text can also be applied to understanding the meaning of a word in another text.
Higher-order mental functions Doyla (2010) suggests that supporting cognitive development in children must focus on higherorder mental functions, and that these can only be developed when adults actively engage with children to support and extend their understandings. Higher-order functions are learned functions that are deliberate, mediated (defining thinking) and internalised behaviours, including: • mediated perceptions – for example, distinguishing different shades of green • focused attention – for example, the ability to deliberately focus on one thing to the exclusion of other things present in the environment
deliberate memory – for example, using deliberate strategies to remember something, such as creating a rhyme (i before e except after c) • logical thinking – for example, working through a problem in a planned step-by-step sequence • mediation – for example, recognising the universal meaning of signs and symbols, such as understanding that a skull and cross-bones symbol means ‘danger’, or an equals (=) sign means ‘the same as’ (Bodrova & Leong 2007: 19–20). •
Using questions to support higher-order mental functions Teachers will use a range of questioning strategies to support higher order mental functions. Figure 10.18 demonstrates the different scenarios to which they could be applied. Figure 10.18 Questioning strategies Type of question
Examples
Reasoning questions Require a student to form relationships of cause and effect, comparison or classification. Reasoning questions challenge students’ thinking and encourage investigation and exploration.
‘What things go together?/ Why do they go together?’ ‘What does … mean?’ ‘Look at these words; tell me some things about the words that are the same.’ ‘What is the difference between a soccer ball and a football/a cricket bat and a tennis racquet?’
Creative questions Encourage students to think beyond the ideas and concepts they have developed. Creative questions promote thinking and engage the student in exchanging ideas, problem-solving, hypothesising and imagining.
‘How would you …?’ ‘What would you do if …?’ ‘Suppose …’ ‘If … what would …?’ ‘What will happen if …?’ ‘How do you think the story is going to end?’ ‘What do you think the boys could do?’ ‘What would happen if you were allowed to eat lollies for breakfast, lunch and dinner?’ ‘Suppose we ran out of water – what would we do?’
Valuing questions Questions that require students to express an opinion, use their imagination, solve problems and to think more deeply in order to express their thoughts and emotions.
‘How do you feel when …?’ ‘Some people believe Australia should not take refugees. What do you think?’ ‘If you could invent anything you liked, what would it be?’ ‘How do you feel when you wake up at night and the house is quiet?’ ‘If you could only have three foods to eat for 12 months, which foods would you choose? Why?’ ‘What do you think it will be like going to high school?’
Information questions Encourage students to research facts. Information questions allow teachers to gain insight into the students’ existing knowledge and challenge students to investigate and research.
‘Where could you find more information about …?’ ‘How could you see whether your answer is correct?’ ‘What can you do to fix this problem?’ ‘Why do you think the politicians made this decision?’ ‘Where do butterflies go at night?’ ‘How does a spider make a web?’
Non-cognitive questions Relate to areas such as management and control, or are rhetorical questions that require a one- or two-word response.
‘Does anyone have a question?’ ‘Have you finished packing away the maths games?’ ‘How are you today?’ ‘Has everyone read the question?’
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
235
How you answer a question is just as important as the questions you ask. Some tips for answering questions include: • Make sure the language you use is at the student’s level. • Show genuine interest – look at the student and use the student’s name. • When asked confronting questions, try to reply truthfully and objectively. • If necessary, after responding, check that the student has understood your response. • Where appropriate, engage the student in conversation/discussion. Higher order thinking allows children and young people to explore, evaluate and consider alternatives. Scenario
SUPPORT HIGHER-ORDER THINKING ESW Evan is working with a group of Year 7 students to research issues around global warming. Two students, Liam and Jess, have researched information on the internet, cutting and pasting various texts without using references. The information is jumbled and disjointed. To support the students, Evan asks Liam and Jess the following questions: • Which sections of your information do you consider to be most relevant? • How did you decide which information was most relevant?
• • •
What could you do to check the accuracy of the information? Who provided the information? Could the source be in some way biased? What gaps do you have in your information?
" DISCUSSION
Consider the questions Evan asks the students and explain how they might help the students to organise their information.
ONLINE RESOURCES • •
Middle Childhood – Cognitive Development (Barton Poulson) YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sw G2DQpNs-k Adolescence – Cognitive Development (Barton Poulson) YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yj3nm KQdACU
Summary Theories of cognitive development have led to a greater understanding of how thinking and learning progresses in a predictable, sequential and accumulative manner. Theorists have identified how thinking moves from simple to complex, with each stage of development laying the foundation for the next stage. We know that cognitive development does not occur separately but relies on the integration of language, and social and physical development. Brain research has confirmed that the brain develops in a hierarchical manner. While genetics are a major contributing factor for brain development, environmental factors can positively or negatively alter the brain.
The progression of learning and thinking skills relies on the ability to store, sort and recall information. Concept development is critical to being able to organise and make sense of the huge volumes of information with which children are confronted on a daily basis. Higher order mental functions develop best when there is deliberate and intentional teaching that promotes critical thinking, analysis and reflection.
Discussion question 1
Why is it important to understand the progression and sequence of cognitive development and the factors that influence this development when planning for learning?
Self-check questions 1 Piaget uses the terms ‘assimilation’, ‘accommodation’, ‘adaptation’ and ‘equilibration’ to describe the process used by children to construct and acquire knowledge. Explain each of these terms. a Assimilation b Accommodation c Adaptation d Equilibration 2 What are the six key implications for learning of which educators should be aware in relation to Piaget’s theory? 3 Explain the meaning of Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development. 4 What contribution did Bruner make to our understanding of the importance of the process of learning? 5 In relation to brain development, explain the following terms: a Sensitive periods b Plasticity c Executive functioning
6 Explain why executive functioning skills are important for learning. 7 Explain the term ‘theory of mind’. 8 List the cognitive skills related to self-regulation. 9 Explain the term ‘information processing’. 10 Define each of the following cognitive concepts. a spatial awareness b symbolic relationships c number and counting d time e functional relationships f relationships of similarity g matching h sorting and classifying i ordering and seriation j temporal ordering k cause and effect.
Activities 1
Connect Piaget’s stages of cognitive development (on the left) to the examples provided. sensorimotor preoperational
concrete operational formal operational
Zephie can place objects in a row from tallest to shortest. Evie now knows that just because an object is out of sight it doesn’t mean it no longer exists. Ussef talks passionately about the need to care for the environment. Ethan points to the letter ‘E’ in the magazine: ‘That say Ethan!’
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
237
2 Connect the list of dimensions of executive functioning (on the left) with the descriptor. working memory self-monitoring cognitive or mental flexibility planning/prioritising inhibitory control task initiation emotional control organisation
The skill we use to master and filter our thoughts and impulses so we can resist temptations, distractions, and habits and to pause and think before we act The ability to manage feelings by thinking about goals The ability to create steps to reach a goal and to make decisions about what to focus on The ability to recognise when it is time to get started on something and begin without procrastinating The capacity to hold and manipulate information in our heads over short periods The ability to monitor and evaluate your own performance and become an independent learner The ability to create and maintain systems to keep track of information or materials The capacity to nimbly switch gears and adjust to changed demands, priorities or perspectives – what enables us to apply different rules in different settings
3 For this task, access a website that provides executive functioning games for children and/or young people. Some examples of websites you might visit are listed below. Working in pairs, select two games and provide the following information to share with the class: a name of game b brief description of how the game is played c the executive function skill/s practised d the target age group e number of students who can play the game Executive functioning games Games to improve executive functioning skills: https://www.thepathway2success.com How working memory games can improve kids’ executive function in 5 minutes a day: https:// thecornerstoneforteachers.com/working-memory-games Games to Boost Executive Functioning: http:// zucchinisummeretsy.blogspot.com/2018/06/games-toboost-executive-functioning.html?m=1 10 Fun Activities That Teach Executive Functioning to Kids and Teens: http://leftbrainbuddha.com/10-funactivities-that-teach-executive-functioning-kids-teens/ 4 The use of questions can support the development of higher order mental functions. Match the type of
question to the explanation and provide your own example. a creative questions b information questions c reasoning questions d valuing questions Explanation Require a student to form relationships of cause and effect, comparison or classification. Reasoning questions challenge students’ thinking and encourage investigation and exploration. Encourage students to research facts. Questions that require students to express an opinion, use their imagination, solve problems and to think more deeply in order to express their thoughts and emotions. Encourage students to think beyond the ideas and concepts they have developed. Questions promote thinking and engage the student in exchanging ideas, problem-solving, hypothesising and imagining.
Question type
Example
Chapter 11 SUPPORTING LEARNING LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to demonstrate that, in relation to working in a school environment, you can: 11.1
understand the goals for student learning and strategies for meeting learning needs
11.2 meet specified needs of students in the planning and preparation phase and confirm relevant principles of practice with the teacher 11.3 establish an environment conducive to student learning 11.4 arrange a safe and comfortable space for small-group learning 11.5 select and modify required resources that support the learning approach prior to the activity.
GO
further
Go Further icons link to extra content for this chapter. Ask your instructor for the Go Further resource and deepen your understanding of the topic.
Introduction Children and young people learn new knowledge and skills in many ways – for example, direct instruction (Figure 11.1), discussion, observation, demonstration, reading and research. Above all, children and young people learn when they are immersed in learning – playing, exploring, investigating, researching and collaborating with peers and educators. A key task for students as learners is not simply the acquisition of knowledge and skills, but the ability to apply knowledge and skills in a range of contexts. The application and transfer of skills and knowledge requires higher-order thinking skills such as problem-solving and critical thinking. Brookhart (2010) refers to critical thinking as being able to apply wise judgement using skills
Figure 11.1 Students learn through direct instruction
SUPPORTING LEARNING
239
such as reasoning, questioning and investigating, observing and describing, comparing and connecting, finding complexity and exploring viewpoints. Problem-solving is defined by Brookhart (2010) as the skill that enables a person to find a solution for a problem that cannot be solved simply by memorising. Skills used in problemsolving include remembering information, learning with understanding, critically evaluating ideas, formulating creative alternatives, and communicating effectively. Jensen (2005) tells us that learning is commonly divided into two broad categories: explicit learning and implicit learning. Explicit learning consists of what we commonly read, write and talk about. It is conveyed via such means as textbooks, lectures, pictures and videos. Implicit learning consists of things we learn through life experience, habit, games, experiential learning and other ‘hands-on’ activities.
11.1 What do we want students to know, understand and do? The most obvious answer to this question is to refer to the content of the Australian Curriculum and the General Capabilities. A less obvious answer is to think about the skills that children and young people will need to actively participate and contribute to twenty-first century living. They will need executive functioning skills such as (Understood, 2013): • making plans • keeping track of time and finishing work on time • keeping track of more than one thing at a time • meaningfully including past knowledge in discussions • evaluating ideas and reflecting on their own work • asking for help or seeking more information when needed • engaging in group dynamics and back-and-forth discussion • making mid-course corrections while thinking, reading and writing. Ultimately, teaching any new skills or knowledge requires students to make connections with their existing skills, prior knowledge and understandings. Jensen (2005) states that prior knowledge fundamentally influences whether and how a student will gain an accurate or deep understanding of the topic. Prior knowledge is personal, complex and highly resistant to change. The best way to teach is to understand, respect and build upon the student’s prior knowledge. Making connections with existing skills and prior knowledge can be achieved by focusing on the processes or the ‘how to’ of learning: building connections, challenging students to think about their own ways of thinking and engaging in problem-solving – all of which make thinking and learning visible. Asking questions is an effective way to help students make connections with prior skills and knowledge. Questioning also challenges students to think about how they learn (metacognition). Examples of questions include: • What do you already know that could help you? • Can you think of something we did recently that is similar to this task? • Can you explain how you do that? • How do you know that’s the correct answer? • Describe what you are thinking. • What could you do to find out?
Another important learning goal for students is the development of critical thinking skills, as illustrated in Figure 11.2. Figure 11.2 Critical thinking skills Identifying and recalling information
Analysis – separating a whole into coponent types
Developing opinions, making judgements or decisions
Organising and selecting ideas and facts
Using and applying facts, rules and principles
Combining ideas to form a new whole Source: Rubin (2012).
Understanding learning You will recall from Chapter 10 that the ability to store, retrieve and apply information is referred to as information processing. This complex cognitive process includes collecting, sorting, storing and recalling information in a way that is meaningful for the individual in terms of making sense of the world. In essence, acquiring new knowledge and skills requires the child to draw on existing knowledge and skills to recall, think, problem-solve, generalise, hypothesise and make meaningful connections. Vygotsky (1978) used the term zone of proximal development (ZPD) to describe the process of constructing meaning. ZPD is the distance between the child’s existing skills and knowledge and the level of potential skills and knowledge that can be acquired by a process of problem-solving guided by an adult. ZPD works on a strengths-based model of knowledge acquisition – that is, the starting point is determined by what the child already knows and/or can do. Supporting the student to use their existing skills and knowledge to build new skills and knowledge is referred to as ‘scaffolding learning’ (Wood, Bruner & Ross 1976).
Scaffolding Educators can scaffold learning when introducing new information, new challenges or ways of thinking that allow the child to achieve at a higher level. Scaffolding is an important teaching practice because it assists the student to move forward in their thinking in a way
SUPPORTING LEARNING
241
that is just beyond what they already know, understand or can do. Berk and Winsler (1995: 29) state that: A major goal in scaffolding, and in education in general, is to keep children working on tasks in their ZPDs. This is usually achieved in two ways: (1) by structuring the task and the surrounding environment so that the demands on the child at any one time are at an appropriately challenging level, and (2) constantly adjusting the amount of adult intervention to the child’s current needs and abilities.
Scenario
SCAFFOLDING LEARNING Rose (13 years) becomes easily flustered when faced with new information. She tends to panic and immediately use negative self-talk such as ‘This is dumb/stupid/too hard/a waste of time’. Instead of thinking about what she can do, Rose focuses on the negative and predicts failure even before she begins. The ESW, Josh, is now familiar with Rose’s negative behaviours and always begins any new task by reviewing what Rose knows and can already do in relation to the day’s tasks. Josh takes the time to help Rose understand and make the link between existing and new knowledge.
To do this, Josh uses examples of previous work completed by Rose, reinforcing the positive outcomes Rose has achieved: ‘Rose, last week we worked on ‘sh’ words and you did a really good job. This week we are going to add ‘ing’ to our ‘sh’ words.’ WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Learning is a cumulative process. While new skills and knowledge are built on existing skills and knowledge, this is not always evident to the learner. In the case of Rose, reminding her to think about what she knows and can do helps her to make connections as she progresses in her learning journey.
Figure 11.3 provides examples of the ways in which adults can use scaffolding to support skills and knowledge acquisition. Scaffolding learning is a practice that encourages students to focus on their own learning and give thought to what they already know and can do. This is a way of making learning clear or obvious; it is often referred to as making learning explicit. Watkins (2009: 3) suggests that educators can help students to focus on their own learning by using several practices: • Noticing learning – making learning an object of attention. Help students to notice their own learning by pointing out their progress: ‘Well done, Dillan! Remember at the beginning of the term you could not spell those words?’ • Talking about learning – making learning an object of conversation. Engage students in describing their learning: ‘Tell me how you worked out that maths problem. What did you do first? How did you know what to do?’ • Reviewing experiences of learning – making learning an object of reflection. This may include talking about learning – for example, ‘You worked really hard on those fractions today. What do you think about what you achieved? With their permission, students’ work can also be displayed as a way of reflecting on their achievements. • Experimenting with learning – making learning an object of learning. This is an important strategy, as it encourages students to have a go without worrying about whether they get it right or wrong. Use ‘What if/what would happen if we tried …?’ or ‘I wonder what we could do to …?’ Use errors as a learning tool: ‘Let’s see what we need to change.’ Watkins (2009: 4) also suggests that older students can be encouraged to think about their own learning by using storyboard themes such as those shown in Figure 11.4.
Figure 11.3 Scaffolding student learning 1. Model, demonstrate and provide example
• Show the student what they will do or learn – ‘what does this learning look like?’ – for example, ‘We are going to work on a word ladder. I have one that I did to show you. Let’s look at it together.’
2. Check understanding
• Ask open-ended questions that provide students with an opportunity to give feedback and demonstrate their understanding of the task.
3. State the goal or purpose
4. Manageable steps
• State the goal or purpose in simple terms – for example, ‘We are going to use the clue to subtract a letter and replace it with a different letter to make a new word.’
• Chunk or break down the task into manageable steps: ‘Let’s start with this one. You read the word (bake) and I’ll read the clue.’
5. Make connections and provide clues
• Talk about what you are thinking and direct the student’s thinking – for example, ‘Let’s see, it says to change the first letter to make this new word. The word clue is something you eat. What’s a good way to work on changing the first letter?’
6. Try out ideas and provide practice and encouragement
• Trial the student’s suggestions (even if you know they won’t work). If the student doesn’t suggest an idea, suggest yourself – for example, ‘Working your way through the alphabet is a great idea. You say the letter and we’ll try to make it into a word. The student goes straight to ‘C’ and says ‘cake’.
7. Develop student’s understanding to make learning explicit
8. Work collaboratively with the student
9. Allow student to practise new skills/ knowledge
• Restate the aim or goal of the exercise and how the result was achieved – for example, ‘Excellent. You changed the first letter “B” into a “C” so it reads “cake” instead of “bake”. A cake is certainly something you can eat.’
• Working alongside the student provides the support needed to ‘have a go’ – for example, ‘Let’s try the ladder on the next page. It looks a little harder. See, you must change two letters. Are you ready to give it a go? We’ll do the first one together.’
• When new skills and knowledge are acquired, students need the opportunity to both practise and apply what they have learned.
SUPPORTING LEARNING
243
Figure 11.4 My special learning
A time when I helped someone else with their learning . . .
I can help someone else with their learning by . . .
I can help myself continue with my learning by . . . A time when I persevered with my learning . . .
I can help myself take charge of my learning by . . .
Some learning I’m proud of . . .
I can help myself be proud of my learning by . . .
I can help myself create impressive learning by . . .
My special learning
A time when I took charge of my learning . . .
I can help myself learn well with others by . . .
A time when I learned really well with others . . .
Scenario
LEARNING TO LEARN The classroom teacher and the ESW are sitting together reading the students’ responses to the learning-to-learn task, which encourages students to think about their own learning. The students were asked to describe learning they were proud of. Some of the responses from the Year 5 students included: • ‘This week I FINALLY learned not to ask stupid questions for no reason. I took the teacher’s advice THINK BEFORE YOU SPEAK!’ (Kirra) • ‘Well, I think I did a good job with my maths this week. I even did some revision, which I NEVER do. I know how to work out area. I even measured up our garage at home and told Dad the size of the room so we could get the right amount of paint. Dad was really impressed.’ (Zac) • ‘I am a champion! I got all my spelling words correct! I finally figured out a way to remember hard words. I visualise them and remember their shape.’ (Corrine) • ‘Yesterday I read in front of the class. I only made a few mistakes and I didn’t even get embarrassed. Mr King, you
My most impressive learning . . .
always say it’s okay to make mistakes if we work at fixing them. I get this now.’ (Bailey) WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Children can think about and evaluate their own learning. Kirra’s response could be used to explore why she thinks her questions are ‘stupid’. What does ‘Think before you speak’ mean to Kirra? Is she referring to thinking about what she already knows before asking a question or is she referring to her own listening skills? Asking students to share their thinking about learning can also provide feedback to educators about their learning strategies. " DISCUSSION
This scenario highlights the importance of an educator– student partnership in learning. Discuss how encouraging students to talk about and explore their own learning can assist educators to build such a partnership.
Where time permits, reviewing learning and learning strategies with students at the end of a lesson will help them to become more confident and resilient learners who are able to take charge of their own learning.
Meeting learning needs Adapting teaching strategies to meet individual needs and the varied learning styles of students is referred to as student-centred learning. While teachers must work within a curriculum that is framed by grade-related learning outcomes, student-centred learning allows the teacher to plan the daily program of learning based on the current knowledge and skills of the students. This process reflects Vygotsky’s (1978) ZPD (see Chapter 10). Figure 11.5 provides examples of several strategies that can be used in the classroom to accommodate the varying learning needs of students. Figure 11.5 Accommodating learning needs
Strategy
Example
Always work with each student’s strengths. This allows the student to develop confidence as a learner.
Build on what the student already knows and can do: ‘Edith, I know you can write your first name, so you do that first, then I’ll help you with your surname.’
Always acknowledge the student’s efforts. This indicates to the student that you have high expectations of them as a learner.
‘Sadiq, thanks for trying so hard today. I can see you’re trying to do your best.’
Try to establish and follow the same routine each time a new task is being attempted. This provides consistency and a sense of control for the student.
> Say what the student is required to do: ‘Nawar, we are going to write ten words from your spelling list.’ > Communicate the strategies that will be used to complete the task: ‘We are going to use ‘‘look, say, spell, cover, say, spell’’ before writing each word.’ > Outline the time frame for completion: ‘Hadya, we need to complete your spelling revision in time to go to the library in thirty minutes.’ > Establish the standard of work required: ‘Cassie, you need to attempt all ten words.’ > State the resources that will be used: ‘Connor, you will need your spelling list, your spelling book and a pencil.’ > Indicate the level of support that will be provided: ‘I will help you if you get stuck but you must try each word first.’
Provide simple clear instructions. This ensures that the student is able to move on to the task quickly and with a degree of confidence.
> Always give simple, clear, one- or two-step instructions and allow the student unhurried time to carry them out. > Break the task down into manageable steps – some students can become overwhelmed by learning activities simply because they focus on the whole task rather than seeing the task as a series of logical steps. > Clearly indicate a beginning step – this is important as it allows the student to get started, which boosts confidence. > Reinstate the end goal – what outcome is the student aiming to achieve? > Review the steps or prompt the student as needed.
Work alongside the students. This allows you to provide on-thespot support and also observe the students as they are learning.
Give direction, guidance and support as well as verbal instructions, demonstrations, modelling and/or visual prompts, such as creating a visual sequence for the task.
Use questioning and coaching techniques to promote learning. This encourages students to think more deeply about what they are learning. Prompt by modelling and cue by giving hints. As the student becomes competent, gradually fade out prompts and cues.
‘Jorn, what’s the first thing you need to do?’ (wait for Jorn to respond) ‘Yes that’s right. Now what do you need to do next?’
SUPPORTING LEARNING
245
Strategy
Example
Use a range of positive reinforcement strategies. Positive reinforcement can be an excellent motivator if used discreetly and purposefully.
> Use intrinsic rewards, such as verbal feedback: ‘Jack I can see you are trying really hard, well done’ (smile, nod, high five). > Use extrinsic rewards, such as stickers, a star chart or activity rewards such as special games or an extra turn on the computer. > Always use the student’s name to gain their attention: ‘Wasim, you’ve finished your maths, now let’s write down your homework tasks for tonight.’
Provide timely and specific feedback and assistance, and encourage problem-solving for more complex tasks. On-the-spot feedback is an effective scaffolding strategy.
‘Ollie, you’ve done a great job so far. This part can be a little tricky. How about we stop for a moment and plan what to do next. I wonder what would happen if . . .’
Use a range of concrete resources and visual prompts that can help the student to complete a task, such as counters or charts and posters.
‘Let’s go and see if we can find that word on the word wall.’
While students are working on a task observe what they are doing – how do they go about the task? What skills and knowledge do they draw on? How do they use their peers to support their learning? What problem-solving skills are they using? Do they seek help/ask questions as needed? This type of incidental observation allows you to verify the skills and knowledge each student is demonstrating. Always be prepared to start over or change the planned task if the student is not responding as required. It is far better to stop and do something else rather than labour over a task that will not achieve the desired learning outcome. It is also important to monitor students’ energy levels, as some students may tire easily. This can be managed by providing short ‘brain and movement breaks’ (see Scenario box). Scenario
BRAIN AND MOVEMENT BREAKS ESW Paul has a number of resources and strategies he calls his ‘brain breaks’, which he uses if students are becoming distracted or tired. At a recent meeting of ESWs, Paul shared some of his ideas: • The thinking game: This game does not require resources and can be played with any age group at any time. ‘I’m thinking of a sea creature. It’s sort of round and quite flat. It doesn’t have fins but has a long tail.’ • Yoga picture cards • Finger football • Names moves – say your name out loud along with a dance move that others have to copy • Paper ball basketball (throw into a waste paper bin) • Smile! – a set of cards with funny pictures to make you smile
• •
Mirror mirror – face another student and copy their movements Play air guitar to your favourite song.
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Learning should be engaging. Taking short breaks to re-energise helps students to remain focused and makes learning fun. " DISCUSSION
Play ‘The Thinking Game’ in class. As you are playing, think about your own thinking. Discuss the benefits (cognitive, language, social) of playing brain games.
11.2 Planning for learning ESWs are required to support the teacher by working with individual students and small groups of students to assist in the delivery of teacher-planned learning tasks. Typically, when working
with an ESW, the teacher will share their lesson plan, identify the required goals or outcomes, and provide direction as to how the task is to be performed. You will also be informed of the resources to be used. To be effective in your role as an ESW, you should also take the time to think about and plan how the activity will be introduced, what the student will learn and how you can best support the learning process. To do this, you need to be both well prepared and well informed. To be informed you should know: • the purpose or goal of the learning activity – that is, what the student is required to know, understand and do • the expected standard of student performance in relation to the task – how will you know if the students are performing at the required standard? • what the student must already know, understand and be able to do to successfully complete the task • whether the task is related to the acquisition of new knowledge and skills or the application of existing knowledge and skills • whether the task is a continuation of a previous lesson by the teacher • what questions the students are likely to ask • which students you will be working with – what are their strengths and needs? Are there any students with behaviour issues? If so, how are they best managed? To be prepared, you should know: • what, how, why – have a lesson plan that is tailored to your needs: you may need to record each step in sequence; you may simply need headings to use as prompts; you may need to make note of key points you wish to emphasise with students (always have a beginning, middle and end!) • what equipment/resources or learning tools you are required to use (and be familiar with their use/application) • whether the task involves reading or written instructions – you should read these and be familiar with the content • what information/instructions you need to provide • the expected role of students – working collaboratively, working independently or engaged in directed learning by the ESW • what question you could ask to clarify understanding of the task • how the task/activity is to be presented – that is, your role, how you will introduce the task, how you will conclude the task and how you will transition the students when completed • what students who finish ahead of others are permitted to do • what is expected of the students – for example, complete the task, explore, investigate, practise, demonstrate • what you need to look for in terms of learning outcomes – what students do and say, how they go about the task, whether they are able to complete the task, what level of support they need; whether the task is at the appropriate level for each student • what your contingency (alternative) plan is – you never know what can happen to disrupt a lesson!
Contingency planning An important aspect of preparation is having contingency plans in place – always have a backup plan. A student may be uncooperative, stressed or simply uninterested. The resources or materials planned for use may not be suitable – they may malfunction, and items may be
SUPPORTING LEARNING
247
missing or broken, insufficient in number or simply be unsuitable for use by the student. You may have planned to use a physical space – in the classroom, on the verandah, in the library or outdoors – which suddenly becomes unavailable. Scenario
PLAN B This morning, ESW Paul had planned to work with Harry (11 years) on his spelling. However, Harry is not being very cooperative. He complains that he is tired and that the words are too hard. Paul knows that there is no point in forcing Harry and decides to switch to some word games that he knows Harry enjoys. Later he works with Harry to develop a contract so he will complete his spelling task the next day. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
When plans go wrong or need to be abandoned, you need to be able to quickly offer an alternative or have a Plan B upon which you can quickly draw to refocus or redirect the student/s.
Having a contingency plan is essential. In this case, Harry was uncooperative so the ESW quickly switched to an alternative activity. It meant that no time was wasted, and Harry was still engaged in a meaningful learning experience. " DISCUSSION
An essential skill for ESWs is the ability to be flexible and ‘think on their feet’. It is also necessary for ESWs to be resourceful when working with students. Discuss why this is so necessary. How can ESWs equip themselves to be ‘resourceful’?
Task analysis Task analysis is simply working through a task, breaking it down into small, manageable steps. It is an effective way of thinking about the skills needed by students to complete a set task. Task analysis can help you to closely analyse what you are asking students to do and reflect on the skills and knowledge needed to complete the task. Figure 11.6 provides an example of a detailed task analysis. Figure 11.6 Sample task analysis
Steps
Example: Writing
1
Write one sentence about the picture.
Identify what the student is required to do
2 To complete this task the student must:
> Be seated at a desk. > Look at the picture and verbally describe what they are seeing. > Translate what they see and what they say to a written description – students must know how to construct and write a sentence, and spell the words they wish to use. > Form a sentence by saying it aloud and then writing it down. They must remember what they said and put the words in the correct order. > Look at the paper and locate the space where the sentence is to be written. > Get a pen and hold with correct grip. > Hold paper with other hand and commence writing. > When finished, put the pen down.
3 Support the students to complete the task
While most educators may not undertake task analysis to this level of detail, it is a useful exercise for ESWs as it allows you to identify prior requirements – that is, what the student already knows, understands and can do. It also allows you to identify new skills and knowledge. Task analysis is helpful when considering students with additional needs who may be able to complete some but not all of these steps. Task analysis can help you to anticipate what support students will need to complete a set task. Scenario
WRITING A DESCRIPTIVE SENTENCE ESW Josh shows the students a photograph of two children collecting shells from a beach. The expected learning outcome is that the children will write a descriptive sentence about the photograph using adjectives. Before commencing the activity, Josh reminds Eden, Omar and Ollie (all 6 years) of the rules for small-group discussion. Josh uses an Indian talking stick as a physical reminder that when he asks a direct question, only the person holding the stick can speak. This helps the children to understand that discussion includes both speaking and listening to others. The talking stick is useful with Omar, who can be very impulsive and often talks over the top of other students. It helps Ollie to focus on what he is being asked, as he tends to become easily distracted. It also gives Eden – who is very shy – a voice. 1 Identify the task: Writing using adjectives. ‘Today we are going to write a sentence about this photograph. I want you to use some adjectives to describe what you see. Who can tell me what an adjective is?’
I think you’re right – it looks like he’s found an interesting shell.’ While Eden and Josh are speaking, Omar again starts to speak: ‘Omar, you are not holding the talking stick. Your job is to sit quietly and listen. Ollie, can you think of some words to describe the waves? That’s a very good description, Ollie – big and fluffy. Omar, you said you can see clouds. Can you describe what they look like? A good description Omar, rainy and grey and black.’ Josh continues to work with the children, asking questions to help them use descriptive language. ‘Let’s start by writing a sentence about the children. Are they big children or little children?’ Josh continues to work with the students, acting as scribe and prompting the use of descriptive language. At the end of the lesson, Josh and the students read the sentences together. The children are praised for their hard work. Josh then produces a large shell so that the children can ‘listen to the sound of waves’.
2 Identify what the student is required to do: ‘Work as a group to write three sentences about the photograph using an adjective in each sentence.’
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
3 Support the student to describe the photograph: ‘Let’s look at the photograph together.’ Josh passes the talking stick to Eden. ‘Eden, tell me what you can see.’ Omar starts to speak. ‘Omar it’s Eden’s turn to speak – she has the talking stick.’ Josh: ‘That’s right. The children are collecting sea shells.’ Josh passes the talking stick to Ollie: ‘Ollie, what else can you see? Great – you can see the waves.’ Josh passes the talking stick to Omar. ‘Omar, what can you see in the sky? Excellent! Omar said he can see two seagulls and some clouds. Let’s think about some words we could use to describe the things we see in this photograph.’ Josh again passes the talking stick around. ‘Eden tell me something about the children. Yes, there are three children, two girls and a boy. What is the boy doing, Eden?
Josh reminds the children of the rules for a discussion, explains the task, talks about the photograph and invites the students to describe what they see. Josh repeats what the students say – this reinforces oral language and listening skills. When addressing an individual student, Josh begins by using the student’s name and passing them the talking stick. This prompts the student to focus, listen and respond. Josh also praises the student’s responses. The lesson proceeds at a leisurely pace – the students are not hurried. Open-ended questions are used to encourage the student to respond in more than just single words. The subject matter of the photograph is something familiar to the students, which makes it easier for the students to describe what they see. Josh works with the students to maintain their focus and complete the task, and praises them for their work, showing respect for their efforts.
Communicating the learning task Providing information about learning is almost as important as the learning itself. Tell students what they are going to do, what they might learn (or practise) and some of the ways in which they might SUPPORTING LEARNING
249
GO further Learn more about communicating tasks to students and keeping them on task in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
go about the task. This all requires careful planning. Giving students this clear information allows them to anticipate what they will be doing and prepare for learning (develop a learning mindset). It also demonstrates respect for students as competent, capable and resourceful learning partners. Always plan tasks so that there is an obvious beginning (introduction), middle (the actual work) and end (conclusion and transition). Never assume that the students will know what they are expected to do or how to do it – always provide instructions. These should not be lengthy and can include demonstration and practical examples. Timing is everything – spending too much time talking about what students are going to do can result in them switching off.
Supporting students to complete a task When working with students on a task, your teacher will provide you with strategies that can be used to support students as they work through the task. The degree of support and prompting you give to each student will vary depending on the skills and knowledge of the students as well as their temperament. Following are some simple support strategies that can be used with small groups or individual students. Some students will need support to get started and organise space and materials. A simple checklist can be used to assist students to develop organisational skills (see Figure 11.7). • When talking to a student, begin by saying their Figure 11.7 Pictorial checklist to encourage organisational name: ‘Jake, are you ready to listen to what we are skills going to do?’ This alerts the student that you want them to look at and listen to you. If this does not Checklist happen, you may need to say, ‘Jake please look at I am sitting at my desk me while I explain what we are going to do.’ • Always clarify that the student has heard and I have pencils that are sharpened and ready to use understood what they are required to do by asking I have my eraser on the desk open-ended questions – for example, ‘Jake, I’d like I have the correct book or worksheet you to tell me what I have asked you to do’ or ‘Jake, tell me what you will do first’ or ‘Jake, do I understand the task you have any questions for me before we start?’ I am ready to start work • Periodically check that the student remains clear about what they are required to do: ‘Jake, tell what you have done and what you are going to do next.’ If a student asks a question that you are unable to answer, be honest and tell the student that you will need to consult with the teacher. • Promote the importance of concentration and accuracy over speed – learning is about the journey, not the outcome. Remind students not to rush their work. ‘I don’t want you to rush. Please take your time and think about what you are doing.’ • Provide specific reinforcement and avoid negative comments. As students are completing a task, provide specific rather than general feedback – for example, rather than simply say ‘good work’, you might say, ‘I can see you have used an adjective in your first sentence.’ • Where a student becomes disruptive or non-compliant, ask whether they need your help or simply sit next to the student and begin to provide assistance: ‘Jake, let’s go through the first task together.’ If this doesn’t work, give the student a choice: cooperate and start working or go to the teacher. Give the student only a very short amount of time to make this choice and then follow through promptly. • Use open-ended questions: ‘What do you need to do first/next? What equipment do you need? When you have finished, what do I want you to do? What should you do if you need help?’
•
Use simple visual cues to support students to stay on-task and remind them of the rules when working in small groups. Figure 11.8 demonstrates simple signs that can be used as cues for behaviour and to remind students of what behaviour is expected. They send very clear messages and avoid singling out students or giving lengthy reminders or directions. Figure 11.8 Simple signs to use as behaviour cues
Source (L to R): iStockphoto.com/aydinynr; iStockphoto.com/; sureshsharma; Shutterstock.com/Nadin3d; Shutterstock.com/alexandrovskyi; iStockphoto.com/arcady_31.
Be alert to feelings of frustration or negative attitudes. Students may find even simple tasks quite frustrating and challenging. Be alert to individual students’ abilities and levels of resilience – some students may give up easily while others may persist at a challenging task. • Use a talking stick. Native Americans used a talking stick (Figure 11.9) when holding group discussions: only the person holding the stick had the right to speak. This idea can be adapted in small group settings, with students raising their hand and being given the talking stick. • Another very simple strategy is to give every student in the small group three or four coloured tongue depressors (decorated with stickers) – each time the student speaks they must surrender a tongue depressor; when they are all used up they must remain silent. This is a particularly useful strategy for shy students who are paired with very vocal students. •
Scenario
THE TALKING STICK With the permission of the class teacher, ESW Alice worked with her small group to make a talking stick – the students contributed to decorating the stick with various patterns using coloured felt pens. They also added feathers and beads. Alice assisted the students to research the history of the talking stick and then helped the students to develop a set of rules for using it. Alice’s aim was to help students to develop their listening skills and show respect for each other by not interrupting or talking over the top of others. The classroom teacher was very pleased with this initiative and decided to ask Alice’s group to explain the use of the talking stick to the rest of the class. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Students can be involved in developing appropriate tools to support their own learning. In this scenario, the talking stick serves as a visual prompt for students to listen and take turns when involved in a small-group discussion.
Figure 11.9 A talking stick
Source: Kenyan tree: saragoldsmith; eagle feather: derrypubliclibrary; rabbit fur: Alan Vernon; beads: Orin Zebest; Wikipedia Creative Commons https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/.
" DISCUSSION
The talking stick is an example of a simple prop that can be used with students to assist them to listen and take turns when talking. With reference to your knowledge of child development and learning, discuss why this simple prop proved to be so effective.
SUPPORTING LEARNING
251
Timers such as a kitchen timer can keep students motivated and on task if they know that they have been allocated a fixed amount of time to complete a task. The idea is to help students pace themselves and not get distracted so that work can be completed in a timely manner. Timers should not be used to pressure or hurry students. • A simple hourglass can be used for students who find it difficult to work without moving around or continually talking. Use the hourglass to set the student a challenge. ‘Dan, see whether you can work without talking until the sand runs out.’ • Encourage collaboration – ‘Ask three before me’. This means students asking themselves whether there is another way they can find information or solve their problem; asking a friend for help (if this person can’t help them, they should ask another friend); if they still have a problem, they can now ask the teacher or the ESW. These strategies can be adapted to suit individual needs. To learn more strategies, ESWs can ask the teacher for ideas and also observe the teacher as the teacher works to support student learning. •
Facilitating small-group learning ESWs are often required to set up learning activities planned by the teacher for small groups of students. This may involve all students completing the same task for a curriculum area, such as a maths problem. It may also involve students working on the same curriculum area but at an individual abilities level. Your role may be one of general supervision and support or you may be required to work intensively with one or two students while the remaining students in the group work independently and are provided with support as needed. Working with small groups of students with mixed ability can be challenging, as you must continually adjust your level of support to match individual needs. Mixed-ability grouping also encourages students to work collaboratively and support each other as part of the learning process. When working with small groups, consideration should be given to each student. Does every student have: • the ability to communicate effectively with others • the appropriate level of social skills that will allow for cooperation and collaborative learning • the ability to stay on-task and not distract others • the confidence to contribute to group work? Small groups are typical of student-centred learning. They provide an effective environment for collaboration and cooperation. Where possible, students should be encouraged to be collaborators in their own learning, working in partnership with the ESW and, where appropriate, with other students. When planning for small-group learning, it is important to clarify with the teacher what the students are required to do, how they will go about the task, the equipment/resources to be used and the feedback required by the teacher. This will ensure that you are meeting the expectations of the teacher and following the required procedures. It also ensures that both you and the teacher are clear about your roles.
Scenario
FACILITATOR ESW Kylie has been working with a group of four Year 8 girls on a special learning project focusing on budgeting. The girls have been allocated the nominal sum of $500. The project the girls have decided to plan is a 16th birthday party. They have had to plan all aspects of the party, costing invitations, food, drinks and decorations. The girls have been working on the project each week for the last four weeks. Kylie reports to the classroom teacher that the students are meeting all the required learning outcomes –
maths concepts, working cooperatively and problemsolving. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
This is a win–win situation. The teacher is meeting her curriculum objectives and the students are meeting their learning goals. The students are drawing on their existing skills and knowledge to develop new skills and knowledge. The teacher uses the students’ interest in planning a party as a fun way to explore maths concepts.
Teaching strategies While ESWs are not teachers, they do act as a support to the teacher and are often required to implement small-group activities/lessons planned by the teacher. Teachers use a wide range of strategies when working with children and young people. These strategies are varied, and often adapted to suit the needs of students, the type, nature and complexity of the learning task and the size of the learner group (whole class, small groups, individual students). Teaching strategies will also vary according to the required learning outcomes. Figure 11.10 explores some of the common teaching strategies used by teachers and the possible supporting role of the ESW. This role will vary according to the type of teaching strategy used. Figure 11.10 Teaching small groups Teaching Strategy
Teacher role
Direct instruction
Define/describe the task; give instructions/ directions; keep students on-task; pace the tasks; manage behaviour; prioritise and set order of work to be completed; manage time.
Clarify the task with individual students; reinforce the sequence or steps needed to complete the task.
Set the scene by providing resources and materials; offer ideas and suggestions; ask questions to clarify understanding; explore students’ thinking; scaffold learning.
Ask open-ended questions to challenge students’ thinking; provide support as requested by students; assist students to access and use learning resources.
Ask questions that will promote thinking and problem-solving; make suggestions for effective learning techniques; answer questions or direct students to where they might find answers; assist students to decode tasks; offer learning solutions; break down tasks into more manageable steps; anticipate and address problems before they arise; assist students to organise themselves so that they work in a logical manner.
Assist students to break down tasks into more manageable steps; assist students to work in a logical manner; assist students to apply their knowledge and skills.
Facilitation
Supporting and guiding
ESW support role
SUPPORTING LEARNING
253
Teaching Strategy
Teacher role
ESW support role Where necessary, clarify the information and directions provided by the teacher.
Explaining
Provide information and directions to assist students to better understand and make connections in relation to their learning: ‘We need to write down what is happening now so that when we come back tomorrow and check what has happened we will be able to compare any changes that we might see.’
Ask open-ended questions.
Questioning
Ask probing/open-ended questions to clarify what students are thinking; check student knowledge and understanding; assist students to think, problem-solve, predict and reflect.
Provide feedback to students as they attempt to make connections and explore ideas.
Exploring
Work with students to explore ideas and suggestions, discuss possible connections, and identify where additional information may be required: ‘What do these words have in common? Okay, let’s test your answer.’
Researching and investigating
Identify student knowledge and understandings, as well as any gaps; facilitate ideas for research and investigation; act as a resource: ‘Let’s find some information about whales and research the types of food they eat.’
Support students to access and use various learning tools and resources.
Discussing
Challenge students’ ideas, opinions and assumptions; assist students to weigh up facts and draw conclusions: ‘Tell me why you think school uniforms should be abolished?’
Support students to engage in discussion and share their ideas.
Listen to students’ feedback; analyse students’ questions and/or answers; interpret student responses to better understand each student’s thinking and learning style.
Observe and document student learning.
Listening, observing and responding
Observe students and encourage them to engage in play.
Playing
Engage in playful experiences with students; promote social interactions and collaboration: ‘Let’s play rhyming words. You pick a word card and I’ll turn the egg timer over. See how many rhyming words you can say before the timer runs out. Are you ready?’ ‘Let’s pretend we’ve been transported to another planet and this group is in charge of creating new laws for behaviour.’
Support students to work cooperatively; assist students to access and use learning resources.
Collaboration
Collaborative learning as a teaching strategy requires the teacher to work alongside the students, supporting them to make decisions about the processes they will use to engage in learning. For example, students may collaborate on a project, assign tasks and roles, identify sources of information, undertake research and document their learning.
Source: Based on Cowdray (2013: 15).
Scenario
COLLABORATION Sam, Jac and Amir (Year 6) have difficulty staying on task. They are easily distracted and all tend to play the role of class clown when they are faced with challenging learning tasks. The ESW, Rod, was sceptical about the classroom teacher’s plan to group the boys together under Rod’s direct supervision. He felt that the dynamics would be such that no work would be accomplished as the boys tended to ‘feed off each other’ and become extremely disruptive. Rod was asked to work with the boys on a maths project measuring speed and distance. Rod knew that the
boys were keen on motor sports, so decided to make this the focus of the lesson. He planned problems around motorcycle racing and motocross. The lesson was a great success. The boys were immediately engaged in the topic and were eager to apply mathematical concepts to predict speed and distance. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Planning teaching strategies that reflect the interests as well as the needs of students is an effective way to engage the students’ interest and make learning fun.
Providing feedback to the teacher ESWs can play a critical role in supporting the teacher to notice and document learning. Students will provide a great deal of information about their learning as they go about their daily learning tasks. For example, the teacher may ask you to provide feedback on a particular skill, an individual student’s behaviour, how a small group responds to a specific learning task or how students used a particular learning tool. As you become more confident about and experienced with working with students, you will also become more skilled at noticing and observing learning. ESWs can contribute to the observation of student performance by: • where possible, asking students for feedback: ‘Tell me something about what we were just doing’; ‘Who can remember/who can tell me …?’ • documenting how the students used the learning tools/resources – were they pitched at the right level? • noticing and documenting any aspects of a task that students find challenging • noticing and documenting what students do well • documenting examples of the questions asked by students • making a note of which students needed extra support, the type of support required and the effectiveness of the support in relation to student outcomes • commenting on the achievement of the stated goals/outcomes • commenting on how students used resources and learning tools • describing the behaviour of individual students. Documentation may include a variety of formats – for example, anecdotal observations, jottings, checklists, notations on work samples, photographs and written feedback from students. Documentation should be authentic, factual, accurate and free of bias. ESWs can also provide valuable anecdotal evidence about individual students. For example, did the student draw on existing skills and knowledge when attempting new learning? Was the student able to work independently at an age-appropriate level? Did the student rely on prompting/directions from the ESW? Was the student able to independently access and use learning resources? Was the student able to stay on task? Did the student complete the task in the designated time? Did the student struggle with written and/or verbal directions? Was the student able to recall what they were required to do? Was the student able to follow directions of
SUPPORTING LEARNING
255
STUDENT FEEDBACK TO THE TEACHER
Scenario
Mia anticipated the theme of the book from the cover illustrations; she also predicted that Lilly would be ‘naughty’ by skimming the book and looking at the illustrations. Jasper used his prior knowledge of robots to predict that the book would involve the concept of ‘good versus evil’ and that the plot would have ‘lots of twists’. Kiera accurately predicted vocabulary appropriate to the topic discussed: funny, jokes, humour, tricks.
two or more steps? Did the student ask for/seek help when needed? Did the student appear motivated? This feedback can be helpful to the teacher in terms of clarifying their own assessment/thinking about a student and can contribute to a clearer understanding of the learning needs of the student. The accompanying Scenario provides examples of feedback to the teacher.
Providing feedback to students
Feedback to students can reinforce learning and assist students to focus on areas for improvement and/or gaps in skills and knowledge: ‘I can see by your answers that you understand how to apply the ‘‘es’’ rule’; ‘You haven’t got the verbs right so that’s something we need to keep working on.’ Feedback can also be used to provide students with strategies to develop and improve their skills and knowledge: ‘Let’s go back over the list of verbs. Remember, verbs are doing words.’ Feedback should be timely and delivered in a manner that is easily understood by the student. Types of feedback may include: • on-the-spot verbal feedback and/or demonstration • talking through each step in a process, giving directions and feedback along the way • group discussion • questions to encourage self-reflection: ‘Tell me how you got that answer’; ‘What did you do to work this out?’ • redirecting: ‘Please do this one more time so I can watch you and give you feedback.’ It is also important to show respect for the student as a learner. Never give feedback in a negative or derogatory manner: ‘Okay, you didn’t do so well. That just means we need to work on some things together. Let’s make a plan for what we can do.’ Remember, your role is to support learning, so stay upbeat and positive.
11.3 The learning environment School environments are slowly being transformed to reflect the need for more flexible learning spaces to suit the needs of twenty-first century learners. However, progress is slow and many schools include buildings that date back well into the last century, when students sat in rows in small crowded rooms. The classroom is a living environment, learning environment and working environment. Ideally, it should provide spaces for large groups, small groups, pairs of students or student/ teacher/ESW and spaces for individual students to engage in quiet work. It should provide spaces for movement, reading and writing spaces, creation stations and messy work, collaboration and discussion. There should be mixed seating options such as clusters, boardroom style, floor cushions and so on. There should also be well-designed storage and display spaces as well as spaces for computers and other technology. Above all, the learning environment should be a place where students feel a sense of safety, ownership and belonging (Figure 11.11).
Figure 11.11 Well-planned spaces support learning.
Four key elements contribute to the quality of the physical learning environment: acoustics, heating, lighting and ventilation. Additional elements that also make a significant contribution to a quality learning environment are furniture (to create flexible learning spaces), fittings, equipment, the use of colour, ease of accessibility to technology and outdoor learning spaces. The physical environment should also be designed to allow for inclusion – for example, students using a wheelchair or a walker, students with a visual impairment or students with limited mobility.
Setting up the learning environment While ESWs cannot change the classroom layout, it is important to be aware that the way in which the learning environment is set up will have an impact on student behaviour. For example, overcrowded, untidy or noisy spaces make it difficult to concentrate and may cause students to be distracted easily. In contrast, tidy, quiet (but not silent) and spacious learning spaces support concentration and on-task behaviour. Scenario
A PLACE FOR EVERYTHING Year 2 students know that when they use equipment and learning resources they are required to return them to their correct storage area when they have completed their activity. Posters reminding students of their responsibility have been placed around the room and all storage areas are clearly marked. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Having designated storage areas contributes to the creation of a tidy and well-organised learning space.
Requiring students to maintain tidy learning spaces gives students responsibility and a sense of ownership of their classroom. " DISCUSSION
Drawing on your own experiences, discuss how the physical environment influences factors such as behaviour, mood and alertness. How can you use this knowledge when planning learning spaces for students?
Lighting While it is not possible to control the type of lighting used in the classroom, care should be taken to ensure students are not exposed to glare, harsh light or poor lighting. Where possible, take advantage of natural lighting. The degree of lighting required may vary from one student to another, depending on individual needs. Lighting can be varied by using items such as screens, window shades, lamps or positioning students so that the best possible use is made of natural light.
SUPPORTING LEARNING
257
Ventilation and temperature The brain is extremely sensitive to temperature and functions best in cooler conditions, with the ideal temperature range being 20–22ºC. Where possible open windows and doors to allow fresh air to enter, and use air-conditioning and fans to control classroom temperature.
Acoustics Schools can be noisy places, with very poor acoustics making it difficult for students to concentrate and stay on task. Jensen (2005: 88) reminds us that research strongly suggests poor acoustical conditions can lead to stress, impaired learning and frustration for students with normal hearing. Students who are hypersensitive to noise – especially those with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) – will have difficulty blocking out background noise and some students may be hypersensitive to noise such as footsteps in the corridor, tapping on a computer keyboard, road traffic or sounds from other classrooms. These students will benefit from working in an area that faces away, and is screened from, the main classroom – for example, you could create a learning nook with a desk and chair that is partially screened to create a personal learning space.
Personal space When setting up your learning areas, ensure that sufficient space is provided so each student has their own personal space suited to their specific needs. Consider the age and ability level of the students – younger students tend to need more space than older students. Some students with additional needs may require physical boundaries to ensure their working space is well defined, while others may cope well simply by having a visual barrier to help them to define their own work space.
Furniture and furnishings Learning spaces should allow students to sit or stand comfortably at a desk or sit on the floor. Bean bags, large cushions and large exercise balls can be used in addition to chairs. Furniture should be arranged so that all students can move around freely. Cramped conditions may create anxiety and contribute to disruptive behaviours. Students need furniture that is suitable for their individual needs. For example, a student in a wheelchair may require the desk to be adjusted to a height suitable for the wheelchair. A student with a hearing impairment should be seated nearest to the educator so that both student and educator can acknowledge that messages are received and understood. If you are working with a group of students, think carefully about where each individual will be positioned. Some students work well together while some distract, disturb and disrupt others. You should also ensure that you have a comfortable chair that is suitable to your own needs so that you don’t experience lower back strain.
Seating arrangements There are many seating options for students, such as being seated at a desk, on chairs arranged in a circle or semi-circle, on the floor (with or without cushions), lounge chairs, bean bags, stools, mezzanine, benches and so on. Having flexible seating options allows the teacher to match the seating arrangement to accommodate the learning activity and the needs of students. Changing seating arrangements can subconsciously challenge students’ brains by forcing them to see the room, their peers and their learning from different perspectives. However, for some students – such as those with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) – any change, no matter how small, may be counter-productive.
11.4 Arranging spaces for small-group learning ESWs are often required to work with students in a small group. Small-group learning spaces may be arranged by the teacher or you may be asked to create a small-group learning space. In addition to the factors considered above, when planning these spaces you need to consider: • the number, age and abilities of the students • individual student behaviour – for example, whether students are able to sit, listen and participate; whether some students require a greater level of supervision; whether there are students who are uncooperative, disruptive, impulsive and noisy • the nature of the task/activity – this will determine the size and nature of the space required. Is the activity active or passive? Will students work independently or collaboratively? Will the activity be messy/noisy/quiet? • the learning materials/resources that will be used. Will students be required to share learning resources? Will students need access to technology? • whether the learning activity could be conducted outdoors • how the students will enter and exit the learning space • your own role – will you need to stand, sit or move around? Will students come to you? What resources will you require?
Inclusion and small-group learning When setting up for small-group learning, it is also important to consider the physical and learning requirements of students with special needs. While it will be essential to assess the individual needs of each student, common considerations may include: • being aware of the hygiene and special physical care regimen for each student • ensuring that each student has furniture that is suitable to their individual needs • ensuring that all students have sufficient personal space, as cramped conditions may create discomfort and anxiety, which are not conducive to effective learning. Figure 11.12 provides examples of factors that you may need to take into consideration when planning small-group learning spaces for students with disabilities. Figure 11.12 Planning small-group learning with inclusion in mind
Students with orthopaedic impairments Students may use a wheelchair, a walking frame, crutches, braces or other aids. Some students also have restricted hand, head, arm or body movement. With these students: > Be aware of neck, back and arm support requirements when students are seated. > Ensure correct desk/chair height to meet each individual student’s needs. The chair may need to be adapted for use. > When working with a student in a wheelchair, consider the following: – – – – – –
Ensure adequate wheelchair access and clear pathways to maximise student’s independence. Provide a desk at the correct height for comfortable wheelchair access. Ensure frequently used equipment and resources are within easy reach. Look at the physical space from the perspective of a student in a wheelchair. Be aware that the student may require writing aids such as thicker pens, pen grip, adjustable writing board. Be aware that the student may require assistive technology and/or augmentative communication devices.
SUPPORTING LEARNING
259
Students with visual impairment > Ensure consistency in the arrangement of the physical environment so it is easy for the student to navigate independently. > Ensure each student’s personal equipment and belongings are set up in the same way each day. > Use large-print materials, Braille or audio materials, and give clear verbal instructions. > Give students additional time to complete tasks if necessary. > Vary tasks as students with a vision impairment may experience different levels of vision throughout the day due to fatigue from concentrating, and may need to be provided with both visual and non-intensive visual tasks. > Provide additional space for students using Braille or large-print books. > Provide additional lighting and position the student so that the light is behind them. > Reduce lighting. Students sensitive to glare or bright lights may also benefit from strong contrasts such as heavy lines on light-coloured paper or extra spacing between words and lines of written materials. > Use contrasting strips of black and white for edges such as posts, doorways and stairs. > Use a print magnifier.
Students with hearing impairment > You may need to provide access to amplification systems. > The student may need to be seated close to you if they lip-read or use sign language (ensure eye contact). > Make greater use of written instructions. > Minimise background noise. > Use visual aids.
Students with ADHD Students with ADHD can find it difficult to settle, stay on task and remain seated, and often have poor impulse control. Position the student to ensure that they have visual contact with the teacher/ESW at all times. > Seat the student as close as possible to the teacher. > Try to face the student away from the classroom so that they can see the teacher, but are not visually distracted by movement in the classroom/hallway or movement outside (window). > Ensure the environment is free of clutter and limit possible visual distractions – for example, use screens, modular furniture and the corner area of the classroom to create a quiet learning space free of distractions. > Remind the student of classroom rules. > If students are seated in groups, place the student with ADHD at the end rather than in the middle of the group; avoid seating the student opposite another student, as this will be too distracting.
Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder > Ensure consistency in the set-up of the physical environment. > Define the student’s physical space by placing the student so that they feel comfortable and in control of their personal space. > Ensure consistency in routines. > Minimise noise and visual distractions. > Make use of visual cues. > Meet the needs of multisensory learners – visual (seeing), auditory (hearing) and kinaesthetic – tactile (feeling). For example: – Provide visual clues for visual-special learners such as posters, charts, diagrams, pictures, cue cards, moving images and hands-on resources, which visual-spatial learners rely on heavily. – Provide listening to conversation, directions, music, rhymes, songs, chants for auditory learners. – Provide tactile information, such as textures and manipulative equipment, for kinaesthetic learners.
Students with additional needs may have impairments in multiple areas, requiring a wide range of adaptations and modifications to ensure their needs are met when designing small-group learning spaces.
Planning for safety The ‘human factor’ is undoubtedly the most difficult area to manage in relation to student safety. Students can be impulsive and have limited awareness of how unsafe behaviour may affect themselves or others. Students’ behaviour can change quickly and in unpredictable ways – indeed, it can change from day to day or hour to hour. Many students with disabilities are not able to consider the perspective of others – they are focused on the ‘here and now’ and may not have the ability to anticipate danger. It should be remembered that even older students, who are able to verbalise the need for safety rules, may still act impulsively and engage in behaviours that have the potential to cause serious injury. While it is the responsibility of the teacher to ensure student safety, ESWs must also act in ways that support and facilitate student safety. Effective planning allows you to anticipate potential risks and hazards by thinking through planned activities and routines to identify possible problems. Advanced planning should consider the sequence of events, the materials/ resources to be used by students, the physical setting (space available, furniture), the timeframe available for the activity, the degree of supervision required, the skills required by students to perform the activity and the specific skills and behaviours of each student who will be engaged in the activity. The Consider this box describes the elements that need to be comtemplated when planning for student safety.
SMALL GROUPS: PLANNING FOR SAFETY •
•
Define your role. How will you supervise the students? What information will you provide to assist students to engage in safe behaviours? Assess the risks. Identify environmental risk factors as well as potential behavioural risk factors – for example, consider the equipment/resources being used; consider the physical space – is it limited? Must the students remain seated? Will the student be able to move around freely? If the activity is
•
•
Consider This
conducted outdoors how will you define the physical boundaries? Plan for the transition of students to and from the activity. Will the students transition as a group, individually or in pairs? Establish a few simple rules for student behaviour. State what you want students to do (rather than not do). For example, remain seated; ask someone to pass equipment rather than reaching across others; talk in a quiet voice.
Risk assessment Each school will have in place policies and procedures related to risk assessment for students with additional needs. Consideration of risk will include how the student can be managed in a way that minimises risks to the student, teachers and other students. The goal of a risk assessment is one of inclusion rather than exclusion (refer to Chapter 4 for more detail).
SUPPORTING LEARNING
261
GO
further
Access a worked example of a riskassessment form for a student with additional needs in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
Identified risks must be managed to ensure the student is able to participate in the school and classroom setting to the best of their ability. A risk assessment may consider some or all the following: • Physical access and mobility. Does the student use a mobility device such as a wheelchair, crutches, scooter or walker? Does the student require the use of a mechanical device for movement – for example, when using the toilet? • Safe participation in the learning space (indoors or outdoors). • Students’ ability to understand safety and behave in a safe manner. Is the student able to recognise hazards and unsafe behaviour? • Communication. Is the student able to communicate when upset or distressed? • Violent behaviour. Are there students in the small group who may be violent to the ESW and/or peers? • Health issues. Are there students who have health issues that may place them at risk – for example, students who require daily medications, students who may injure themselves because of frequent seizures, students who are at high risk of infection? • Supervision. It is important to ascertain the degree and type of supervision required for each student. A risk-assessment matrix can be used to identify the hazards, assess the risks and determine control measures. When planning for safety, it is essential to consider not only the behaviour of students, but also that of adults. Identifying and predicting safety issues requires adults to: • understand the importance of adequate supervision and close attention to student behaviour • understand and apply knowledge of child development and behaviour as it relates to risk factors at each developmental stage • use effective communication strategies to give clear, adequate or developmentally appropriate instructions to students • take adequate safety precautions on behalf of the student • be aware of their own stress level or fatigue, which may result in loss of concentration, poor judgement or a lack of vigilance. It is also important to consider the age, developmental level and typical behaviours of individual students and the behaviour of the class as a whole. Understanding how students behave will assist in planning a safe environment. For example, is a student able to anticipate danger or understand cause and effect? How does the age of a student guide decision-making when planning for safety? For example, Kindergarten students will have limited ability to share resources and physical space; seven-year-olds may not yet have developed the ability to understand that there can be many ways of addressing a problem. They are bound by rules and are very much ‘black and white’ in their thinking – there is very little understanding of shades of grey! Older students can work cooperatively and make decisions independently. However, they are strongly influenced by their peer group and may engage in showing off or acting out for the benefit of their mates. It is essential to develop an understanding of the typical behaviours of students who present with difficult or challenging behaviours, and to know what commonly triggers inappropriate behaviours. This knowledge can be used to anticipate how the student might behave in a particular situation and how best to create a learning environment that minimises challenging behaviours.
Scenario
‘KNOWING’ STUDENTS CHEN
ESW John has been assigned a group of ten Year 7 students to work on a science project. One of the students in the group, Chen, has ADHD. John pairs Chen with Callie, who tends to have a calming influence on Chen. John makes sure that Chen is given self-directed, hands-on tasks that are easy for him to manage and that don’t require him to share resources or materials. KINDERGARTEN
ESW Trish is working with a group of twelve Kindergarten students, exploring 3D shapes. Trish has divided the students into small groups of four. Each group has been given a series of hands-on tasks. Trish has planned the
seating arrangement to ensure that children who can be disruptive are not seated at the same table. Trish has also ensured that there are plenty of resources so that sharing isn’t an issue. PIA
Pia (7 years) has a speech impediment, which makes it difficult to understand her. Pia is a bright student who is progressing well academically. Because of her speech impediment, Pia prefers to work alone and becomes frustrated when working in a group. She will often become angry and tearful. ESW Molly is aware of Pia’s frustration and ensures that, when engaged in group work, Pia is not placed in a situation where she is required to speak in front of the group.
Effective supervision Effective supervision is critical for ensuring students’ safety. ESWs must consider a range of factors in relation to the physical setting, and in terms of the abilities and typical behaviours of students. Good supervision involves constant vigilance. Engaging in lengthy conversations with other adults or undertaking other duties should be avoided when supervising students. In relation to the behaviour of students, factors that contribute to accidents or incidents may include: • the student’s level of mastery, especially in relation to physical skills – for example, the student’s ability to remain seated while completing a task • the mobility of the student – for example, where there are students with a disability that limits or restricts mobility, it is important to ensure that the physical space is free of obstacles that may cause the student to fall or trip, or that will make manoeuvring a wheelchair or walker difficult • the inability of the student to understand cause and effect, and anticipate the consequences of their behaviour. Some students may act recklessly or impulsively without any thought of danger to themselves or others. • the student’s inability to concentrate and stay on ask, or a propensity to be distracted easily. Often these students will walk around and annoy others, which can lead to retaliation by other students. • the student’s temperament – while most students are compliant, there will be students whose temperament causes them to be argumentative or defiant, or to be the class clown. • the student’s level of competence – students who struggle academically can easily become frustrated, and resist participating – or even refuse to participate – in class activities. Getting to know students allows you to adapt your supervision to accommodate, anticipate or at least be alert to possible challenging behaviours.
The gender factor Gender plays a role in the likelihood of accidental injury. Generally, the rate of accidental injuries is far higher in males than in females. This may be explained by the type of play in SUPPORTING LEARNING
263
Figure 11.13 Males are more likely to incur accidental injuries than females.
which males and females typically engage – for example, males are likely to be more active and engage in greater risk-taking and showing-off behaviour. Males also tend to engage in greater physical contact, such as pushing, poking and tapping (see Figure 11.13).
Establishing rules for safe behaviour The classroom teacher will have established rules for classroom behaviour. Before you begin working with students, you must be clear about how the teacher manages student behaviour and the rules that have been established to guide behaviour. Where possible, to provide consistency, ESWs should use the same behaviourmanagement strategies that are used by the teacher. Depending on the age of the students, ESWs should ensure that students understand and follow basic rules for listening and speaking – for example: • Wait for instructions before beginning work – ‘Look at me while I am talking, listen, concentrate and ask if you are unsure about what to do.’ Promoting active listening skills is a key strategy for keeping students safe in the classroom. • Look at, and listen to, the person speaking and allow the person to Source: Dreamstime.com/KrystynaWojciechowska-Czarnik. speak without interruption. • Use a quiet voice when speaking. • Be respectful of others – everyone has a right to their own opinion if it is respectful of others. Older students can be encouraged to use ‘I’ messages when challenging the opinions of others – for example, ‘I believe that …’; ‘I think that …’ Reinforcing courteous and respectful interactions and active listening contributes to a safe environment. Scenario
RULES Edward (10 years) has several learning difficulties and easily becomes agitated. Before commencing the smallgroup activity, the ESW reminds Edward of the class rules and also of the consequences of breaking the rules. Edward and the ESW have worked on some strategies that Edward can use to calm himself down. The ESW and Edward have also worked out some signals that the ESW can use when she thinks Edward’s behaviour needs to be
modified. This strategy allows Edward a sense of control over his own actions. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Safe behaviours can be established by working with individual students to assist them to regulate and modify their behaviours as needed. In this scenario, the ESW supports Edward to take responsibility for his own behaviours.
11.5 Learning tools and resources Learning tools and resources include a wide range of materials used to facilitate and support student learning in all curriculum areas, including resources to support students with additional needs – for example, IT equipment, adaptive equipment, play equipment and puzzles, writing materials and tools, reading books and other print materials such as charts and posters,
curriculum-specific resources in areas such as music and sport, lab equipment and machines for woodwork and metalwork. Learning tools and resources may be accessed from within the classroom, from a centralised store, from other classrooms, from specialist classrooms, from the school library or from websites. Scenario
USING RESOURCES WELL PODCAST
ESW Richard is working with a group of four Year 7 boys. The English teacher has asked Richard to sit with the group while they listen to a short podcast about poetry. Richard is aware that the boys are likely to be uninterested and disruptive. Richard and the teacher decide that Richard should offer the boys an incentive for staying on task. The lesson goes extremely well as the boys are very motivated by the promise of special time to read the latest skateboard magazines supplied by the teacher. THE INTERACTIVE WHITEBOARD
Later that day, Richard works with a small group of Year 7 students using the interactive whiteboard. The students are required to complete a series of mathematical tasks by working as a team, sharing ideas and using trial and error. The interactive whiteboard is an effective hands-on resource that keeps the students motivated and on task. Richard takes on the role of facilitator, supporting the students as they work through the tasks. MESSY FUN
Year 1 students are working on maths tasks. The students work in pairs and are required to cut and paste pictures from magazines to demonstrate their understanding of quantity and classification. ESW Mira has been allocated
three groups of students – her role is to support and supervise the students, and offer direction and guidance as needed. At the completion of the lesson, the students are having to assist in tidying the room, picking up any paper from the floor and putting all materials back in the correct storage area. CHOICES
On Wednesday afternoons, the Kindergarten students are free to choose from a range of self-directed art and craft activities. The students are expected to clean up when they are finished. ESW Jan is assigned to support Tia, who has a mild intellectual impairment. Tia functions best when tasks are highly structured, and she is given stepby-step directions. To encourage Tia to make her own choices, Jan sets Tia up with a range of collage materials and encourages her to create her own design. This is quite challenging for Jan as Tia continually asks her which collage items she should choose. On reflection, Jan thinks that it would have been easier for Tia had she limited the choice of collage materials to three or four items. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Learning materials and resources can be used in a variety of ways and adapted to suit the desired learning outcome, as well as the diverse needs and abilities of students.
Children and young people benefit from the use of practical hands-on learning resources when engaging in learning. It is important to match the resources to the learner and ensure that they are fit for purpose in relation to the learning tasks being undertaken. Figure 11.14 outlines what should be considered when assessing learning materials and resources. Figure 11.14 Assessing learning materials
Criteria
Assessment
Age/ability appropriate
Do the resources reflect the age of the student? For example, while a 16-year-old may have a reading age of 12 years, it is not appropriate to provide readers that don’t reflect the interests of 16-year-olds. The subject matter should reflect the maturity level of the student.
Suitability
The resources must allow the student to use existing skills and knowledge. For example, if a student is provided with access to an app to assist with spelling, the student must have the necessary skills to use the app.
SUPPORTING LEARNING
265
GO further Learn more about how resources can assist with inclusion in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
Criteria
Assessment
Fit for purpose
The resource must be readily useable in the learning context in which it is being provided – for example, an online dictionary for literacy or a calculator for maths.
Appropriate for purpose
The resource can easily be used for its intended purpose. For example, a reference book for research on Australian marsupials contains all the information required by the student in an easy-to-read format. The text size is large enough for the student and language used reflects the student’s current reading and comprehension level.
Adaptability or ease of use
Can the resource be adapted to suit the abilities of the student? For example, can a student with a physical disability physically manipulate the resource? Is the resource easily accessible? Is a website address provided and accurate so the student is not required to engage in an extensive search for the required information.
Adapting and modifying learning resources While schools have a wide range of learning tools and resources, there will be occasions when learning resources will need to be adapted or modified to suit student needs. Adapting and modifying learning resources allows students with additional needs to participate in classroom activities alongside their more able peers. Learning materials may need to be adapted or modified to accommodate students with physical challenges – for example, difficulty turning the pages of a book, unable to hold a pen or use a keyboard; sensory challenges – such as low vision or hearing loss; communication issues – poor speech, non-speaking, poor social skills; behaviour issues; and learning disabilities. Depending on the needs of the student and the available learning resources, strategies that can be used to modify or adapt learning materials may include: • presenting content visually rather than as text – for example, visual sequences of actions, graphic organisers that highlight only key information, posters, pictures, photos, drawing, real objects (concrete examples), videos • creating a first–then schedule • breaking tasks down into steps or a sequence using numbered cards • reducing the amount of work or the number of tasks that a student needs to complete • providing word banks from which students can select when working on literacy tasks; adding picture symbols to word banks • highlighting key words in a text using a highlighter pen • adding pictures to text, enlarging text, reducing the amount of text • providing a sequential checklist, which steps through how to use materials or how to complete a task • recording instructions, which students can replay as they work • replacing reading content with visual content – for example, video • using manipulatives such as magnetic letters as an alternative to writing • using graph paper to help space letters and numbers in writing and maths • using technology – including assistive technology – to support students to access and record information such as communication boards, computers, iPads • providing low-tech aids such as loop scissors, and grip holders for pencils or paint brushes (Bulloch 2003). Adapting and/or modifying learning materials will be an ongoing task, and can be a case of trial and error. Observing students using learning materials and, where possible, talking to them about things they find challenging can assist in determining the best way to modify or adapt materials to facilitate student learning.
Summary Your role as an ESW is to support the teacher to help students reach their maximum potential as learners. You will be required to assist in setting up learning activities and environments under the direction of the teacher. You may be required to manage and support small-group activities or work as a support to an individual student. When working with students, you may be required to provide feedback to the teacher in relation to student performance and use of learning materials. When working with students, you may also need to provide them with feedback while they are engaged in learning tasks. An important part of your role may include adapting or modifying learning materials to suit the specific needs of individual students. This is a skill that will develop over time as you gain experience in meeting diverse learner needs.
GO
Discussion question 1
Think of something you could teach to a small group of your peers. Examples could include how to knit or crochet a square; how to re-pot a plant; how to make an omelette; how to change a bicycle tyre; how to learn a new song. a Plan how you will teach this task using the teaching plan format.
further
b c
Implement your plan and ask for feedback from your peers. Discuss the process and outcome.
Learn more about planning how you will teach this task using the teaching plan in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
Self-check questions 1
2
3 4
5
6
The application and transfer of skills and knowledge requires higher order thinking skills such as problemsolving and critical thinking. How are these skills defined by Brookhart (2010)? Define the following terms: a Explicit learning b Implicit learning. Explain the role of prior knowledge in relation to the acquisition of new knowledge and skills. For this task, refer to Figure 11.5 Accommodating Learning Needs on p. 245. Explain why it is essential to use a range of strategies to accommodate and support student learning. Explain why it is important to be well prepared and well informed when working with small groups or individual children. Read each of the following scenarios and suggest one way in which the ESW could support the student to complete the task.
a
Azzam (14 years) always rushes through his work and as a result tends to make lots of errors. b Harper (7 years) seems unsure about what she needs to do. She looks around to see what others are doing. c Flynn (10 years) is always disorganised. He never seems to have all the necessary items ready to complete a task. d Jameelah (8 years) tends to lose concentration, then engages in disruptive behaviours. 7 What elements contribute to a quality physical learning environment? 8 List the factors that you may need to take into account when planning small-group learning spaces. List four things you can do to plan for student safety when working with small groups.
SUPPORTING LEARNING
267
Activities 1
Connect the critical thinking skills (on the left) to the examples of student learning.
Identifying and recalling information
After re-reading her report, Chelsea realises that the information is very disjointed. She edits the report so it flows in a logical manner.
Organisation and selection of facts and ideas
‘Who call tell me the names of the three main characters in our story?’
Using and applying facts, rules and principles
The class is exploring the concept of ‘fairness’ by reading and debating a scenario about a boy who steals because his family is poor.
Combining ideas to form a new whole
The class has brainstormed what the children know about recycling. The students must now identify the key information.
Developing opinions, making judgements or decisions
‘Now that we have surveyed the class, we need to analyse the data in order to identify which foods are most popular.’
Analysis – separating a whole into component types
Students are reminded to refer to the ‘Divisibility Poetry’ poster to help them to apply maths rules: ‘Add the digits to see if it is divisible by three.’
2 Watkins (2009: 3) suggests that educators can help students to focus on their own learning by using four key practices. Connect the key practice (on the left) to the examples: Talking about learning Experimenting with learning Noticing learning Reviewing experiences of learning
‘Kia, just look at how much your writing has improved since last term! You are doing so well!’ ‘Tell me how you transferred the survey results to the graph.’ ‘Now that you have finished the book report tell me what you have learnt about planning your work.’ ‘What is something you could try now?’
3 Task analysis is simply working through a task and breaking it down into small, manageable steps. Working in pairs, assume you are required to teach someone who has never used a washing machine how to wash clothing using a washing machine. What must the person know, understand and be able to do in order to carry out this task successfully?
4 For this task, go to the Scenario ‘Writing a descriptive sentence’ on page 249. ESW Josh is working with sixyear-olds Eden, Omar and Ollie. Thinking about the importance of providing feedback to the teacher, suggest what feedback Josh might provide.
Chapter 12 CONTRIBUTING TO PLANNING AND EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to demonstrate that, in relation to working in a school environment, you can: 12.1
understand the key purposes of assessment, the elements of effective assessment and the importance of record-keeping and reporting
12.2 understand the purpose of the Individual Education Plan (IEP) and the role of the ESW in supporting, measuring and implementing the strategies and goals of each IEP 12.3 gather and accurately record evidence of each student’s skills, knowledge and understanding, as directed by the teacher 12.4 use observation as an assessment tool, and undertake and professionally record objective observations of students 12.5 interpret observations to form a picture of students’ skills and knowledge, and provide informed contributions to reviews and case conferences in collaboration with teachers.
Introduction Teachers undertake a range of assessments over the school year to monitor and measure student progress. While ESWs are not responsible for assessment, they can play a key role by supporting the teacher to conduct it. ESWs can make a significant contribution to assessment by observing and documenting what students know, and what they can do and understand, as they engage in learning activities. Observations can provide a solid foundation for planning learning programs designed to enable students to practise and consolidate skills and knowledge. They also provide a foundation for scaffolding student learning – that is, learning new knowledge and skills by building on existing knowledge and skills. An essential skill when observing and documenting is the ability to accurately interpret the information gathered so that meaningful information about the student can be used to contribute to future planning.
CONTRIBUTING TO PLANNING AND EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
269
12.1 Assessment for planning Assessment is the process of gathering information from a variety of sources that accurately reflects how well a student is achieving the curriculum expectations in a subject (Ministry of Education 2006: 15). In a classroom setting, teachers use assessment Figure 12.1 Purpose of assessment to measure student progress in relation to curriculum outcomes; to monitor individual Where students are at in their learning progress of students as they work through the curriculum by comparing past and current knowledge, skills and understanding; to evaluate teacher practices and strategies; to evaluate specific Where they need to go next learning tools and resources; to monitor the effectiveness of programs; and to guide decisionmaking for ongoing planning. Figure 12.1 How they are going to get there describes the key purpose of assessment. On a school-wide basis, assessment takes place at different levels and for different purposes, including: • Best Start – a one-on-one assessment of the literacy and numeracy skills of students on entry into kindergarten • ongoing formative assessment within classrooms for the purposes of monitoring learning and providing feedback, to help teachers to inform their teaching and students to inform their learning • summative assessment for the purposes of twice-yearly reporting by schools to parents and carers on the progress and achievement of students • annual testing of Years 3, 5, 7 and 9 students’ levels of achievement in aspects of literacy and numeracy, conducted as part of the National Assessment Program – Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) • periodic sample testing of specific learning areas within the Australian Curriculum as part of the National Assessment Program (NAP) (adapted from Teach Thought 2017). Figure 12.2 shows different types of assessment strategies that may be used in schools.
Types of assessment Assessment of learning – summative assessment Link to the Australian Curriculum
Three types of assessment typically are used in schools: • assessment of learning – summative assessment • assessment for learning – formative assessment • assessment as learning – self assessment and peer assessment. Making a judgement about student achievement against a set of standards such as curriculum outcomes is referred to as assessment of learning. It is also called summative assessment and occurs after teaching has taken place. Typical examples of assessment of learning are the NAPLAN test and the NSW Higher School Certificate.
Figure 12.2 The key elements of effective assessment
Formative
Summative
Teachers to continually gather evidence of student’s skills, knowledge and understandings
Assessment of what students know and can do at a given point in time (e.g class quiz/test)
Diagnostic Typically used to identify specific literacy learning difficulties and provide a starting point for planning appropriate intervention
The key elements of effective assessment
Criterion-referenced Measures performance against goals, objectives and standards (e.g. literacy continua)
Interim/Benchmark
Norm-referenced
Evaluates student’s performance at various intervals (e.g. half-yearly exams)
Compares student’s performance against a set of norms (e.g. NAPLAN, Best Start)
Source: Adapted from Teach Thought (2017) Copyright ª 2019 TeachThought.
Assessment of learning typically is used as a tool to report student progress. It occurs when teachers use evidence of student’s learning (what they know, understand and can do) to determine if students have achieved the desired curriculum goals. In order for assessment to be useful and effective it must have a clearly defined purpose and be based on sound professional principles. Assessment of learning may also be used to plan additional learning goals for individual students and to provide evidence of student achievement to parents, the student and the broader community. Assessment of learning should enable students to demonstrate what they know and what they can do. Examples of valid assessment of learning strategies in the classroom will vary according to age/grade, but may include short tests and quizzes, projects, essays, report writing, class presentations, laboratories, design and art projects, and writing summaries. Assessment of student learning is an ongoing process that captures what students progressively know and can do over time.
Assessment for learning – formative assessment Assessment for learning is quite different from assessment of learning. Also known as formative assessment this form of assessment requires teachers to gather evidence of students’
CONTRIBUTING TO PLANNING AND EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
271
skills, knowledge and understanding as teaching is occurring to determine what students know, understand and can do in order to plan for future learning. Assessment for learning requires teachers to make inferences about the students, which occurs when teachers [practitioners] use inferences about each student’s knowledge, understanding and skills based on careful observation of students as they engage in learning experiences. Assessment for learning includes students actively reflecting on their own learning and providing feedback to the teacher through self-assessment and discussion.
Assessment as learning – self assessment, and peer assessment Assessment as learning includes both self-assessment and peer assessment. Student selfassessment is ‘the process by which the student gathers information about and reflects on his or her own learning … [it] is the student’s own assessment of personal progress in knowledge, skills, processes, or attitudes. Self-assessment leads a student to a greater awareness and understanding of himself or herself as a learner’ (Ministry of Education (2002) ª Queen’s Printer for Ontario). Assessment as learning occurs when students are their own assessors. Students monitor their own learning, ask questions and use a range of strategies to decide what they know and can do, and how to use assessment for new learning. Assessment as learning involves students actively engaging in the learning process alongside the teacher. The role of the teacher is to scaffold learning by working alongside students as they draw on their existing skills, knowledge and understandings, and with the help of the teacher, build new skills, knowledge and understandings. In this method of assessment both the teacher and the student are engaged in assessing performance. When students participate in self-assessment, they are developing the skill of critical self-reflection. Developing this skill encourages them to ask themselves questions such as, ‘What skills and knowledge can I demonstrate? What do I still need to learn? How am I going to learn these things? What learning goals can I set? What support do I need to get there?’ Students share what they can do and what they understand because of their learning by gathering a variety of evidence such as work samples or portfolios, journals, logs or videos. Figure 12.3 shows the key elements of assessment as learning. Figure 12.3 Elements of assessment as learning Before Discuss with students: • what they already know, understand and can do • what they are going to learn (objectives) • what they will do (outcomes)
During • Make a connection between prior knowledge and skills and new knowledge and skills • Provide feedback during the learning process • Scaffold learning
After Review: • what they have learned • what was successful • what was challenging • areas for further work • where to next?
Record-keeping and reporting All schools are required to maintain formal records of student progress and report each child’s progress to their parents/guardian in writing. When providing formal feedback, teachers must analyse assessment evidence and make a professional on-balance judgement based on summative and formative assessments. Students are assessed against the learning objectives, curriculum standards and learning outcomes of the Australian Curriculum. Learning outcomes are observable demonstrations of what a student knows and is able to do. Learning outcomes must be clear, specific and relate to the curriculum. Dimensions of learning outcomes include process dimensions (what the student can do – remember, understand, apply, analyse, evaluate and create); and knowledge dimensions (what the student knows – factual, conceptual, procedural and meta-cognitive, which means that the learner knows what they know and don’t know, and knows what to do in order to know (Macquarie University Learning and Teaching Centre 2018: 2, 3). Learning objectives are the planned steps/activities/strategies designed to achieve the learning outcome – for example, small-group discussion, worksheets, games. Curriculum standards for each Year level are used to compare the evidence gathered in relation to expected knowledge, understanding and skills. Monitoring student progress against curriculum standards is referred to as standards-referenced assessment. Linking assessment directly to curriculum standards allows teachers to determine whether a student is progressing at the desired level. The National Education Agreement (COAG 2015) requires all schools to provide parents and carers with plain language reports twice yearly that: 1 are readily understandable to those responsible for the student and give an accurate and objective assessment of the student’s progress and achievement; 2 include an assessment of the student’s achievement against any available national standards; and 3 include, for subjects studied, an assessment of the student’s achievement a reported as A, B, C, D and E (or an equivalent five-point scale) b clearly defined against specific learning standards; and c relative to the performance of the student’s peer group. The National A–E Grade Scale for Years K–Preliminary Stage 6 (Year 11) describes: • the depth of knowledge and understanding, and • the range of skills typically shown by students working at that standard. The National Grade Scale is available for review at https://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/ wps/portal/nesa/k-10/understanding-the-curriculum/awarding-grades/common-grade-scale. Teachers are also able to add comments to a student’s report. Figure 12.4 shows samples of teacher comments.
CONTRIBUTING TO PLANNING AND EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
Link to the Australian Curriculum
273
Figure 12.4 Sample student report SAMPLES OF STUDENT REPORTS English
Teacher comment Chloe has worked hard to make sound progress in all learning areas of English. She listens and responds to poems, stories and plays. Chloe communicates confidently and effectively in a range of situations, including groups and pairs. She is reading a range of texts with fluency and expression. Chloe enjoys reading to parents and teachers from our classroom library. She discusses with others her interpretation of what has been read. Chloe is slowly developing skills to write imaginative, informative and persuasive texts. She needs to improve her sentence structure, use of grammatical features and punctuation. Chloe must remember to use full stops and capitals in her writing. She has produced some interesting written pieces and can use feedback from her teachers and peers to improve her writing. Chloe spells familiar words consistently and uses knowledge of common letter patterns and other strategies when attempting to spell unfamiliar words. She is improving her handwriting and is able to join letters of consistent size.
Mathematics
Teacher comment Chloe has worked hard this semester to attain steady results in Mathematics. She is continually learning to identify place value of numbers up to three digits and order them in ascending and descending order. Chloe can count forwards and backwards by tens or hundreds. She is learning to select and use mental and written jump and split strategies to add and subtract numbers. Chloe needs support to generate, describe and record number patterns using a variety of strategies. She has a basic understanding of measuring length, using metres, centimetres and millimetres. Chloe can identify, compare, sketch and describe some 2D shapes. She uses simple maps and grids to represent position and follow routes. Chloe could benefit from revising the basic measurement facts so she can apply them to practical situations. She is benefitting from small group teacher demonstrations where she listens well and is working hard to understand and apply new concepts. She enjoys games on the interactive whiteboard.
General comment
General comment Chloe is a happy, bubbly and friendly student who is always willing to help the teacher and fellow students. She is a willing and dependable student helper and takes on areas of responsibility with enthusiasm and maturity. She participates in class activities, always trying her best. Chloe willingly speaks to the whole class, enjoying the reaction that her humour can bring. She is developing independent work habits, but often needs reassurance when beginning a new task or activity. She enjoys home reading and is interested in homework tasks. She is often a thoughtful friend and enjoys socialising in the classroom and playground. She exhibits creativity in visual and performing arts activities.
12.2 Assessment for learning: Individual Education Plan ESWs will often be assigned to support students who have an Individual Education Plan (IEP) in place. The purpose of an IEP is to ensure that each school meets the requirements of the Disability Standards for Education 2005 (DET 2005), which enshrine the right of every student to an education on the same basis as students without a disability. An IEP is a plan of inclusion designed to ensure students can remain in the classroom, learning alongside others; it is achieved by adjustments to the teacher’s planned program. An IEP identifies the student’s disabilities and/or learning needs as well as their abilities and strengths. It provides an opportunity to consider how the student’s disabilities and learning needs impact on the student’s education and the classroom experience:
What is it about the disability or learning needs that directly affects the learning process and/ or makes learning challenging for the student? • How can the regular program be adjusted to accommodate the learning needs of this student so that the student can continue to learn alongside their peers? For example, a student with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) may have limited oral communication skills; a student with physical disabilities may require mechanical devices in order to access the physical environment and learning resources; or a student with a conduct disorder may have difficulty interacting and socialising with other students. A beginning step for assisting students with additional needs is to determine their strengths, capabilities, interests and needs. This requires a team effort, and will include the classroom teacher, parents/guardian, the student and specialist support services (if required). Initially, information will be gathered about what is already known about the student’s abilities, level of functioning in the classroom and, in a social context, strengths, interests and areas of need. Information may be gathered from a number of sources, particularly if the student has accessed, or is accessing, support and/or health services on a regular basis. It is also important to identify any barriers that limit the student’s ability to participate in a regular classroom as well as to identify the student’s learning challenges. The next step in the process is to reflect on how these barriers can be removed or minimised to maximise the learning outcomes for the student. Depending on the nature of the student’s disability and learning needs, it is not always possible to overcome all barriers to learning. However, it is possible to minimise some of these barriers so that the student has the opportunity to perform to the best of their ability. •
Who has input? The aim when gathering information about a child or young person is to create a detailed picture of the student – it is important to remember that you are working with a child or young person who is a unique individual. The goal is not simply to gather a list of the student’s needs, but rather to capture the essence of a child or young person – personality, temperament, likes and aspirations. Your focus should be on the child or young person who has additional needs rather than focusing solely on the additional needs. The information gathered about the student will guide decision-making on educational goals and will inform the development of an IEP. The IEP sets out the measurable goals and objectives for the student and provides a framework for the teacher’s program and ongoing evaluation of the student’s progress. Building a profile or picture of the child or young person, and supporting the goals of the IEP, requires a team effort, which may include the child or young person, parents/guardian, teachers, ESW and specialist support professionals. The contributions that can be made by the members of this team are outlined in Figure 12.5. Identifying the needs and capabilities of the student often begins by talking to those who know most about the child or young person: the parents/guardians. A conversation with the parents/ guardian can often reveal detail about the student that simply can’t be identified using formal assessment.
CONTRIBUTING TO PLANNING AND EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
275
Figure 12.5 Contributing to the IEP
Contributor
Role
Parents/guardian can:
> Provide an overview of the student’s personality, temperament, strengths, interests, learning style, developmental history, personal care requirements, health status assessments and treatments, abilities and disabilities > Provide insight into the family’s goals and priorities for their child > Describe what a ‘good day’ or a ‘bad day’ might be like for the student > Provide insight into the student’s ability to function socially and in the school environment > Provide information on the student’s behaviour and effective strategies to manage behaviours > Provide relevant information about basic care needs (including medications and self-help skills) > Provide information about the student’s particular disability and needs, as well as abilities and strengths > Participate as an equal member of the team with regard to planning, decision-making and problem-solving > Identify any modifications to physical facilities that may be required to support the mobility of the student > Identify the specific equipment/aids that may be needed to support the student
The classroom teacher can:
> Provide leadership in relation to planning, decision-making and problem-solving > Work to support the smooth transition of the student as a member of the class – for example: – creating an atmosphere of acceptance by preparing other students for the arrival of their new class member – talking about how to interact and communicate – providing general information about specific disabilities and answering student questions – explaining modifications or adaptations to the physical environment – explaining how specialist equipment or aids will be used by the student – setting up a buddy system > Document the IEP > Implement and coordinate the program > Plan, adapt and implement learning activities to meet the student’s abilities and interests > Demonstrate a willingness to try new ideas, to take risks > Act as a role model for students and other staff > Facilitate peer interactions > Direct, guide and support the ESW
Special education teacher, therapists or specialist support/ medical professional/service can:
> Participate as an equal member of the team about planning, decision-making and problem-solving > Provide information and support to the classroom teacher > Assist with the dissemination of information to peers and with peer support programs > Assist in the development of the IEP goals > Assist in adapting curriculum, materials and equipment, and provide advice to others as needed > Act as a mentor to the classroom teacher and ESW
The ESW can:
> Contribute written observations > Support the teacher in the implementation phase of the program > Facilitate the student’s direct interaction with others > Participate as a valuable member of the team with regard to planning and problem solving > Act as a role model for students and staff > Ensure functional approaches to addressing therapy needs are evident in typical activities and interactions > Support the teacher to implement the IEP goals for the student
Contributor
Role
The student may:
> Participate in some decision making and problem solving, where appropriate > Provide insight into their own ability to function in the school environment > Provide information with regard to own abilities and needs > Participate in setting goals and working towards the achievement of those goals > Cooperate with the teacher, ESW and peers
CASE STUDY | Aaron Jones Part 1: About Aaron Aaron is 12 years old and has a learning disability. Aaron lives with his parents, his 14-year-old sister and his eight-year-old brother. Aaron and his family recently relocated to the area so that Aaron’s mother could take up a professorship at the local university. Aaron’s father, a GP, is employed in a local medical centre. At his previous school, Aaron had been integrated into the regular classroom with the support of an ESW and an itinerant special education teacher, who worked with the teacher and the ESW to plan and monitor Aaron’s IEP. A conversation with Aaron’s parents went as follows: ‘Tell me about his personality, likes, dislikes, strengths.’ ‘What would an ideal day look like for Aaron?’ ‘Tell me how Aaron coped at his previous school.’ ‘What adjustments do you believe are needed to assist Aaron with his learning?’ ‘What are your hopes/dreams for Aaron?’ ‘What are your main concerns/fears for Aaron?’ ‘What do you believe are Aaron’s key learning needs?’ ‘What do you find works best with Aaron when he is asked to do something he might not like to do?’ ‘What motivates Aaron?’
Feedback from Aaron’s parents The conversation revealed that Aaron’s parents want him to be happy. They would like him to make friends and they hope he can transition to the local high school next year. They also hope that he will be able to get a job when he leaves school and learn to live independently. The parents explained that Aaron is required to do a few jobs around the home to help him develop a sense of responsibility, to practise sequencing a task and supporting the development of life skills. Each week, Aaron’s mother puts ten 50 cent pieces in ‘Aaron’s jar’. Each time he fails to complete a task, a coin is removed from the jar. He can redeem a coin by doing extra tasks. Aaron’s tasks include setting the table for dinner, feeding the dog, putting out the garbage bins, making his bed, putting his clothes in the laundry basket, hanging up his towel after a shower, helping to prepare the family dinner on Sunday nights and tidying his room. The information gathered can be used to help determine goals and objectives for the student and will also assist in planning the routine of the school day. What Aaron said ‘I’m not clever like them [his family].’ ‘I can draw good but I’m no good at writing.’ ‘I get confused and forget in class.’ ‘Sometimes I don’t get time to finish [my work].’ ‘Sometimes I forget things.’ ‘Mum and Dad say, ‘‘Aaron, concentrate!’’’ ‘Other kids don’t like me.’
Formal assessments Aaron has undergone a number of formal assessments. His learning disability has no known medical cause. Aaron was slow to meet early childhood developmental milestones such as rolling over, sitting up, crawling and walking. His language was also slow to develop.
CONTRIBUTING TO PLANNING AND EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
277
Aaron is able to communicate, and to read and write, although in each area he performs well below the level of his same-age peers. Aaron has a short concentration span (except when drawing); he is easily distracted and disorganised. He finds it difficult to follow directions of more than one step and has difficulty planning and sequencing tasks. Aaron has poor social skills – he finds it difficult to share or take turns. He has difficulty working collaboratively with his peers and often refuses to engage in cooperative tasks or games.
Summary: What was learned about Aaron? After talking to Aaron’s parents, reading the previous teacher’s report and various assessment reports, the teacher was able to gain the following picture of Aaron. Aaron’s strengths and capabilities are: • He is able to communicate needs and wants. • He can speak in full sentences. • He is able to ask and answer questions. • He has a reading age of 8 years. • He is able to write 15–20 words legibly if he concentrates and is reminded of correct pen grip. • He enjoys gardening, swimming and bushwalking. • He has age-appropriate gross motor skills. • He is able to cope with most maths tasks.
Aaron’s learning needs: • • • • • •
Although he is able to communicate, Aaron has very poor social skills and finds it difficult to make friends. His poor concentration means he finds it difficult to stay on task and is distracted easily. Aaron finds it difficult to share and wait for a turn in group situations. Due to his poor planning skills, Aaron is very disorganised and finds it difficult to sequence tasks. He finds it difficult to follow verbal instruction involving more than one step. He does not like change – he becomes agitated if his routine is varied. For example, ‘It’s 6.33 p.m. We have dinner at 6.30 p.m. Dinner is three minutes late!’ ‘On Tuesdays I have a cheese sandwich for lunch.’ ‘I sit here every day. This is my chair, and this is my desk.’ ‘I always have three pencils just in case one breaks.’
The next step Aaron’s new teacher, Mr Craig, with the assistance of the Special Education Officer, and in consultation with Dr and Professor Jones, will devise an IEP for Aaron (Figure 12.6). The IEP will be discussed with Aaron’s parents before implementation to ensure that they are happy with the plan. Later, Mr Craig will work with the ESW, Jodie, to implement the plan. The Special Education Officer will liaise with Mr Craig and provide support as needed.
Figure 12.6 IEP student profile INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION PLAN – STUDENT PROFILE Student: Aaron Jones DOB: 10/11/XX
Year: 6
Background Information
Aaron recently moved to Blossom Street Primary School from City Primary, where he was referred to Education Support.
Teacher: Mr Craig
Diagnosis
Specific learning difficulties with no identified medical cause. Attention deficit. Poor auditory memory – poor planning, organising and sequencing skills. Aaron has poor social skills. Aaron is able to communicate, read and write, although in each area he performs well below his same-age peers. Aaron has a reading and spelling age of 8 years. Does not cope with change.
This section provides a summary of disabilities, health issues and learning difficulties (includes any social/behaviour difficulties).
INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION PLAN – STUDENT PROFILE Strengths
Weakness
Reading: Confuses similar words and letters, loses place, repeats words, does not read fluently, persists in using fingers to follow along, does not like to read. Spelling: Confuses letters and sounds. Concentration/distractibility: Aaron has a short concentration span (poor working memory); finds it difficult to stay on task and is easily distracted. Planning and sequencing: Aaron finds it difficult to follow directions of more than one step. Social skills: Inability to work collaboratively – finds it difficult to share or take turns; also finds it difficult to engage in cooperative games or games with rules. Resilience: Becomes agitated if routine changes.
Agencies and personnel involved with Aaron
Kim Bradley (Learning Support Coordinator – City Primary) Ph: 00023284359 Leon Smith (Area School Psychologist) Ph: 00023484361 Dr Jon (Paediatrician) Ph: 00023284650 Dr Paula (Child Psychologist) Ph: 00023284123
Long-term goals
Development of pro-social friendship skills involving turn-taking, sharing and collaborative interactions. Development of resilience to cope with change.
Relationship to curriculum
Personal and social capability: Self-management, self-awareness, social awareness, social management. Development of planning and organisational skills. Critical and creative thinking: inquiring – identifying, exploring and organising information and ideas; reflecting on thinking and processes. Development of reading and spelling skills: Composing texts through speaking, writing and creating; comprehending texts through listening, reading and viewing.
Short-term goals
Aaron will work collaboratively (sharing, turn-taking, asking and answering questions, offering ideas) with one other student with the support of the ESW. Aaron will follow a two-step instruction using the ‘look, listen, plan, act’ strategy. Aaron will complete daily tasks using a pre-planned sequence developed by Aaron with the support of the ESW. Aaron will use a ‘to do’ list each day to plan and sequence daily tasks. Aaron will work with the ESW to identify when he is feeling anxious about change. Aaron will work with the ESW to identify strategies he can use to help him remain calm. Aaron will use a range of strategies to improve his reading and spelling.
Able to communicate needs and wants. Can speak in full sentences. Able to ask and answer questions. Able to write 15–20 words legibly if he concentrates and is reminded of correct pen grip. Enjoys gardening, swimming and bushwalking. Has age-appropriate gross motor skills. Is able to cope with most maths tasks.
Identifies student’s skills and abilities.
Identifies areas where student is struggling and requires specific intervention.
Lists all services/ supports currently in place for the student.
Typically identified in collaboration with parents, educators and other key professionals. Longterm and short-term goals link to the General Capabilities of the Australian Curriculum.
Typically the starting point for planning. Goals should be specific, measurable, achievable, realistic/ relevant and timely (SMART). Goals may also provide specific information for teaching/learning strategies.
CONTRIBUTING TO PLANNING AND EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
279
INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION PLAN – STUDENT PROFILE
This is included to ensure that teacher– parent communication is consistent and ongoing. Acknowledges the key role of parents in supporting student learning.
Home–school liaison
Teacher and parents to communicate weekly via email to share and exchange information. Meet with parents, teaching staff and other services (as required) once per term to review progress. Parents to implement daily routine tasks for Aaron.
Classroom strategies
Give clear, specific instructions – pause and ask Aaron to repeat. Implement ‘look, listen, plan, act’ Pair Aaron with more able student to act as a role model for some work tasks. Provide positive reinforcement. Position Aaron’s desk so it is facing away from distractions. Source reading material and spelling words that reflect Aaron’s interests in gardening, swimming and bushwalking. Provide planned breaks between tasks as a reward for on-task behaviour.
Key teaching strategies
Demonstrate and support the use of explicit strategies to assist Aaron to socialise with peers and participate in small-group learning tasks. Use visual cues to sequence tasks. Use explicit instruction to teach Aaron ‘look, listen, plan, act strategy. Use explicit strategies to improve auditory memory. Revisit word attack skills – phonemics (separate sounds within words) and phonics (letter-to-sound relationships). Explicitly teach organisational skills. Implementation of the major teaching strategies will require the support of an ESW for four hours per day.
Identify specific teaching and learning strategies planned to maximise learning outcomes for the student. Can be changed, adapted or modified as needed.
SMART goals As shown, an IEP will reflect the collaborative nature of the information-gathering process – for example, between parents, other professionals who have been involved with the student, teachers and special education consultants. An IEP should specifically identify: • the expectations of the family • the specific learning goals and objectives for the student. Goals should be written using the SMART principle, which ensures that they are clear, unambiguous, easily observable and measurable (Figure 12.7). Goals should also be linked to specific curriculum areas and include: • the specific skills and knowledge related to the goals • the conditions under which the goals will be achieved (e.g. working one-on-one with an ESW; working as part of a small group; positioning Aaron’s desk and chair in a way that minimises distractions and assists Aaron to focus on his learning) • adjustments to the curriculum • the learning resources required • a timeframe for evaluation/review
Figure 12.7 SMART goals Specific
S
• The goal should relate to the acquisition of a specific skill or to specific knowledge and learning strategies that will be used to achieve these goals. • Aaron will sit at his desk when told it is time to start a new task. Measurable
M
• Goals must be observable or quantifiable, so they can be measured. • Aaron will complete each task before moving on to a new task.
Achievable
A
• Goals must reflect the skills, knowledge and capabilities of the student so that they are realistically achievable. • ‘Aaron is to sit quietly and look at the ESW each time he is given instructions.’ Realistic and relevant
R
• Goals must build on the student’s current skills, knowledge and capabilities. • ‘Aaron will write three sentences. Each sentence will contain a minimum of eight words.’ Time-limited
T
• Goals must be achievable by the student in a reasonable timeframe (reflecting the abilities of the student). This allows goals to be regularly monitored and adjusted if necessary. • ‘Aaron will complete one writing task each day for four weeks.’
the criteria for measuring achieved outcomes/student performance (SMART goals): level of competence to be demonstrated; level of accuracy required output (e.g. amount of work to be completed each day); evaluation strategies, which may include observation, testing, work samples, talking to the student • the requirements of the learning environment – teaching strategies, support resources (including an ESW) • responsibilities of team members • overall evaluation of the IEP – implementation, coordination issues, adjustments that could be made. •
CASE STUDY | Aaron Jones Part 2: Individual Education Plan Figure 12.8 provides a sample of an IEP for Aaron. Please note that this is a sample only and is not a complete IEP. The format and content of an IEP will vary and should be adapted to suit the needs of each school/student. Note: This is a sample plan only – in reality the plan would detail each of the major teaching strategies.
CONTRIBUTING TO PLANNING AND EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
281
Figure 12.8 IEP for Aaron INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION PLAN: PLANNING AND ORGANISING LEARNING STUDENT AREA OUTCOMES
Aaron will use a range of identified strategies each day to improve his daily organisational skills. Aaron will use the ‘look, listen, plan, act’ strategy each time before commencing a new task.
STRATEGIES
Discuss plans for each learning period (arrival, after recess, after lunch). With the support of the ESW/teacher, Aaron will create a chronological ‘To Do List’ using words and/or pictures. Aaron will use the check box on the ‘To Do List’ to tick each task as it is completed. Aaron will refer to the To Do List each time he has completed a task and verbalise to the ESW the next planned task. Aaron will place his pens, pencils, ruler etc. in the same place on his desk each morning. Aaron will only place on his desk the worksheet/resources needed for each specific task. Aaron will look at each new task with the ESW/teacher before commencing. Aaron will listen to the instructions, ask questions to clarify, and restate what he is required to do. Aaron will plan the sequence involved in each task. First, next, next... last. Aaron will use words or pictures to sequence the task and use this as a reminder of the step he needs to follow. Aaron will complete each task in the correct sequence.
RESOURCES
To Do List – paper, pens, pictures. Small cardboard squares, pens, pictures/glue.
STAFF
ESW ESW
EVALUATION
Daily ESW Weekly ESW & teacher Daily ESW Weekly ESW & teacher
INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION PLAN: SOCIAL SKILLS LEARNING STUDENT AREA OUTCOMES
Aaron will use specific strategies to help him self to remain calm and in control when faced with change. Aaron will work collaboratively with his peers when engaged in small group tasks.
STRATEGIES
With the support of the ESW, Aaron will recognise his own symptoms of stress – feeling anxious, scared, upset, worried – by making a worry poster, ‘When I get worried I ...’ Aaron will work with the ESW to plan things he can do when he experiences feelings on his worry poster to create a list of calming strategies ‘To calm myself I can ...’ With the support of the ESW, Aaron will use one or more of his calming strategies when he is worried by a change in routine. With the support of the ESW, Aaron will share limited resources when working in a small group. With the support of the ESW, Aaron will contribute to group planning and discussion.
RESOURCES
Paper/pens none
STAFF
ESW ESW
EVALUATION
Daily ESW Weekly ESW & teacher Daily ESW Weekly ESW & teacher
Signatures:
Student: Teacher:
Parent/s: Date:
Implementing the IEP Once an IEP is in place, the teacher will begin the implementation process. This may involve the support of other professionals as well as an ESW. Where an ESW is employed to assist in the implementation of an IEP, the classroom teacher will: • discuss the IEP with the ESW, addressing the goals and learning strategies • identify the lessons and tasks to be undertaken • identify the learning/teaching strategies that will be used • discuss how adjustments or modifications to the teaching and learning strategies are to be made and documented
CONTRIBUTING TO PLANNING AND EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
283
identify the performance criteria required timetable the delivery of learning experiences identify the specific resources to be used determine the evaluation/record-keeping requirements. During the initial implementation phase, it is important to keep in mind that a primary goal is inclusion: putting strategies in place that will support the student to participate alongside their peers in the classroom. In collaboration with the classroom teacher, the ESW will need to determine: • how to get to know the student (establish rapport) • the most appropriate ways to engage the student in the learning process • strategies to motivate the student to stay on task (praise/reinforcement/rewards) • how to provide prompts and feedback during supported learning sessions • the best strategies to ensure the student is given clear instructions and understands what is required – for example, the use of a communication book for non-verbal students • how to manage the student’s behaviour • how to assess the student’s response to the degree of difficulty and pace of the learning experiences. Children and young people learn best when they are engaged actively in the learning process. It is important to be aware that the role of the ESW is to support the student as a learner and problemsolver. This requires the ESW to become familiar with the student’s current level of functioning, the preferred learning style of the student and the avoidance strategies they may use. You may recall this from the work of Vygotsky (1978), who wrote about the importance of scaffolding learning by starting with the known and familiar to support the acquisition of new skills and knowledge. • • • •
Scenario
WRITING Hannah (14 years) is developmentally delayed. She has a reading level of 10 years and enjoys stories about animals. Hannah has poor fine motor skills and struggles to write in a legible manner. ESW Peta works with Hannah for two hours each day, with a focus on literacy skills. Currently, the goal for Hannah is to print in a legible manner. Hannah prefers to use cursive style when writing, but does not have the fine motor skills necessary to form and join each letter. Peta uses Hannah’s interest in animals to devise a range of writing experiences. With Peta’s support, Hannah is visiting the websites of various zoos and making lists of the foods provided for the different animals. Hannah has noticed that in some zoos the keepers have special food treats for the animals. She asks Peta whether she can help her to write an email to the zoos to ask
about the treats. Peta is required to keep samples of Hannah’s writing as a tool to evaluate her progress. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
In this scenario, the ESW has used the student’s interest in animals to develop a writing program. This helps to motivate the student and can lead to opportunities to extend and challenge the student. In this case, Hannah is supported by the ESW to explore her interest in the food treats used by the zoos. " DISCUSSION
In this scenario, the ESW has used the student’s interest in animals to support her handwriting skills. Suggest what Peta could do to expand on this interest and maintain a focus on handwriting.
When planning the implementation of the IEP, consideration must be given to a range of factors – for example, learning strategies, resources, sequencing and timing of tasks, and how to motivate and reward the student.
CASE STUDY | Aaron Jones Part 3: Planning ESW Jodie has met with Aaron’s teacher, Mr Craig, to discuss the implementation of Aaron’s IEP. During the meeting Jodie, made lots of notes, which she is now using to plan how she will go about working with Aaron. As she reads through her notes, Jodie realises that there is a great deal to consider before starting work with Aaron. Jodie’s notes are shown in Figure 12.9. Figure 12.9 Jodie’s notes Jodie’s notes Identify the learning strategies that will best fit Aaron’s learning style and support the achievement of the stated goals. Think about: • The timing and sequence of tasks. • How to get to know Aaron and understand what motivates him. • Aaron is easily distracted – need to consider the classroom environment and find a place where we can work that minimises distractions. • How will I keep him focused and on-task so that he gets his work finished? • What type of praise and/or rewards will I use? • Aaron has problems listening and understanding – how will I give him instructions and feedback? Use picture cards, signing, maybe? • How can I get Aaron thinking – what prompts might work for him? • What resources will I use? Consider IT resources? • I need to regularly check Aaron’s work for accuracy. • Make time to observe Aaron as he’s working with the teacher and other students – use these as part of my evaluation.
What does this tell us? Planning for students with multiple needs requires careful consideration. Teaching and support strategies need to be determined, and the sequencing and presentation of learning activities need to be undertaken. In this case study, Jodie has identified a range of factors that she will need to talk over with the classroom teacher so that she is well prepared to meet Aaron’s learning needs. Jodie will also need to be flexible when implementing her planned program. Jodie will need to adapt/adjust her planning based on how well Aaron responds to the planned activities.
The process of evaluation Regular monitoring and evaluation of the goals and objectives are critical aspects of the IEP. In order to best meet the learning needs of the student and ensure that the student is able to fully engage in the learning experiences, ongoing evaluation is essential. Evaluation will focus on the stated short-term SMART goals, the teaching strategies, the learning resources, the timing and pace of the student’s learning program and the response of the student.
CONTRIBUTING TO PLANNING AND EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
285
Evaluation can be undertaken both formally and informally, and may include written observations, work samples, photographs, feedback from the student and/or their family, and formal assessment.
12.3 Observing and documenting An important part of your role as an ESW will be to support the teacher to gather evidence of each student’s skills, knowledge and understanding. The teacher will systematically undertake formative and summative assessment throughout the year, designed to monitor and report on student progress. In relation to students with an IEP, ESWs can support the teacher to gather information by undertaking observations, noticing and reporting on what students say and do as they work on tasks, identifying tasks that students find particularly challenging, taking notice of how students use equipment and resources, and observing how students work with others. In a classroom setting, observations can be formal or incidental. Incidental observations occur when you observe something about a student’s performance while engaged with students as they undertake tasks. For example, you may be sitting with a group of students, supporting them to complete a maths task, when you notice that one of the students constantly asks you to repeat what you have said. Noting this and informing the teacher would be important, as it may indicate a hearing problem or an auditory processing issue. Incidental observation can also occur as you are having conversations with students. For example, something the student says may raise a concern about their learning, and may act as a prompt to ask the teacher for further information; it may also indicate that the student is not getting the level of support needed or that they are not being sufficiently challenged. Incidental observations may also occur when you notice something about a student in the playground on a regular basis. For example, the student always appears to be sitting alone; the student runs with an unusual gait; the student appears to always speak in a loud voice. Incidental observations should be documented objectively and dated. Examples are provided in the box below. Scenario
INCIDENTAL OBSERVATIONS 10/03/xx Today during our group maths activity, Eden continually asked me to repeat my instructions. She appeared to be having difficulty hearing me. 12/04/xx Every Monday and Thursday, I support Jessie in the playground at recess and lunch. I have noticed on most of these occasions that Zara sits alone. 10/05/xx Today during quiet reading time, Josh commented that he had read all the books in the library: ‘These books are too
easy for me!’ I will ask the teacher about this – maybe he needs more challenging books? 15/07/xx Today, for the first time, I noticed that Ellie initiated a conversation with another student. This is a big step forward in Ellie’s social skills development. " DISCUSSION
Observations are an integral part of the planning process. Suggest possible examples of what the ESW could do next based on the observations.
As an ESW, it is appropriate to record incidental observations and share them with the teacher where you have concerns about a student or where you have noticed something of relevance to their learning. The teacher will then make a decision about any action that needs to be taken.
Formal observations When written objectively, observations can provide valuable evidence of student performance across all curriculum areas and the General Capabilities. They can provide insight into student thinking, behaviour and relationships with peers. Observations can provide authentic, contextspecific information about each student or group of students because they are a record of what is happening in the here and now. For example, recording what a student says and does as they are interacting with their peers during informal activities is likely to provide greater insight into the student’s social skills than the completion of a checklist. Similarly, observing a student engaging in problem-solving with others will provide authentic information about how the student thinks and communicates information and ideas. Observations also reflect the concept of ‘the whole child’, as the student’s behaviour, actions, thinking, communication, use of resources/ environment and so on are all taken into account as part of the observation process. An observation is a snapshot in time and, when gathered over time and in sufficient quantity, can provide valuable evidence about student performance. When added to other forms of evidence, observations can help to complete an authentic picture of a student’s development. If you are required to observe a student, you should understand the purpose of the observation – that is, what information you are attempting to capture. Knowing what you are required to observe will help you to determine when it might be most appropriate to observe. In the example in Figure 12.10, the ESW was asked to observe Kem’s problem-solving skills. To do this, the ESW first chose to observe Kem playing a range of maths games involving problem-solving strategies. While this was an acceptable choice, it did not provide the information required. It did, however, reveal some other relevant information about the student being observed. It is important to be aware that you may not always obtain the desired information – in the case of Kem, he didn’t actively participate in the maths games and therefore the ESW was unable to contribute to the teacher’s knowledge of Kem’s problem-solving skills at this time. In the comments section, the ESW suggested the use of a new strategy to observe Kem’s problem-solving skills. An important part of observations is interpreting or analysing what has been documented. This is a skill that takes time to develop, and it is one that will improve with practice. Notice that the interpretations made by the ESW in this example are factual and objective. The observation provides evidence that Kem is struggling with processing skills, such as memory (he could not recall how to play the games), sequencing skills (he was not able to anticipate when it was his turn) and resilience (Kem was not prepared to seek or accept help; instead, he simply gave up).
Undertaking observations Observation is a valuable assessment tool. It can be undertaken at any time and provides on-thespot information about the student’s learning. Observations require the observer to gather incidental information about how the student responds to the learning environment, how they go about the task of learning and how they use learning resources. It requires the observer to ‘tune in’ to the student – that is, to look and listen carefully to what the student does and how they go about
CONTRIBUTING TO PLANNING AND EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
287
Figure 12.10 Anecdotal observation of student ANECDOTAL OBSERVATION Name of observer: Kate
Time: 9.30–10 a.m.
Date: 17/04/XX
Name of Student: Kem
Age: 8 yrs 4 mths
Class: 4M
Purpose of observation:
To observe Kem’s problem-solving skills
Setting:
Maths Group Game – students seated at table or on floor
Others present:
Seven other students plus ESW
Other relevant information:
The maths games are not new – all have been played before
OBSERVATION
Kem sat at the table and listened while ESW explained the activity and reminded the students how to play the three games. Kem did not respond when the group was asked if there were any questions. Kem did not actively decide which game to play. He remained at the table and nodded his head when another student asked. ‘Are you playing, Kem?’ This student then dealt out the playing cards. ‘You get to go first, Kem.’ Kem looked at the other student but did not start to play. ‘You have to pick up two cards, Kem!’ Kem picked up two cards and put them with his others. ‘Kem, now you have to throw one out! Hurry up!’ Kem threw out a card and watched until his turn came around again. ‘Kem, pick up. Don’t you know how to play?’ Kem picked up one card. ‘No pick up two!’ Kem then threw his cards on the table: ‘This is a dumb game. I’m not playing!’ Kem then moved to the floor where four students were playing another game. ‘Do you want to play, Kem?’ Kem: ‘No, I’ll just watch.’ The ESW then invited Kem to play a game with herself and two others. ‘Do you remember how to play this game, Kem?’ Kem: ‘Yes.’ As the game progressed, it was evident that Kem did not know to play. He attempted to copy the other students but his apparent lack of understanding of the rules made it difficult for him to continue. Each time the ESW asked whether he would like help or whether he had any questions, Kem said, ‘No’.
INTERPRETATION
Kem did not ask any questions. Kem did not actively choose a game to play. Kem waited until he was prompted before starting the game. Kem did not appear to recall the rules of the game. He needed to be directed how to play the game. Kem watched the others as they played. Kem did not appear to know it was his turn, nor did he appear to know what to do. Kem gave up – he did not ask questions or appear to use any strategies other than observing others to figure out how to play the game. Kem takes on a passive role. Kem indicated that he knew how to play this game; however as the game progressed it was evident that he didn’t know how to play. Again, Kem did not ask any questions. He refused help.
COMMENT
Kem was not able to demonstrate that he had any recollection of how to play the maths games. He did not seek help or ask questions. He refused help from the ESW. This activity didn’t reveal how Kem uses problem-solving skills as he wasn’t an active participant in the games. The observation showed that Kem appears reluctant to ask for, or accept, help when needed but did not indicate why this might be the case.
FOLLOW-UP
Prepare some more-structured maths problem-solving tasks for Kem to complete with the ESW. Investigate why Kem is reluctant to seek and accept help as needed.
a task. Listen to what the student says and also be aware of body language. Look at facial expressions, as they will reveal feelings – for example, whether the task is frustrating or enjoyable. Observations should be written in an objective manner. They should be free of bias, opinion and assumptions. The key message is to objectively record what you see. Interpretation of the observation is conducted after the observation has been completed. The following statements provide an example of an objective (bias/opinion-free) and a subjective observation (includes personal opinion). a Objective observation: ‘When asked to start his maths task, Aaron slumped forward on the desk and put his head on his crossed arms.’ b Subjective observation: ‘When asked to start his maths task, Aaron slumped forward on the desk and put his head on his crossed arms. Aaron does this because he is quite manipulative and will try anything to avoid work.’ Statement (a) is factual and does not include an interpretation of Aaron’s motives, while statement (b) includes the value judgement of the observer, which may or may not be correct. In this instance, at the time of interpreting the observation, the observer may, for example, comment that Aaron uses this delaying strategy often. This is a statement of fact and avoids any bias. By simply stating that Aaron uses this strategy often, the observer is providing us with additional, factual information. Observations contribute to the collective knowledge about the student – in essence, they help to form the big picture – who is this student, what are they like, how do they learn, what motivates them as a learner, what are the challenges and barriers to learning for this student? Observations can be used for several purposes: To get to know the student as a unique individual. This will assist in modifying learning • experiences to better match the needs of the student – for example, to gain information about the student’s temperament, personality, personal routines and rituals, their self confidence and self-esteem, likes, dislikes, interests, fears and the limits of their comfort zone. • To understand how the student behaves in various situations and how the student uses the environment. This can assist in providing the best possible learning environment and the most effective learning strategies for the student. • To determine the emotional wellbeing of the student. For many students with a disability, the learning environment can be stressful. Monitoring emotional wellbeing will assist in better meeting the emotional needs of each student. • To evaluate the effectiveness of the IEP in meeting the student’s interests, preferred learning style and skills. To be successful, the IEP must be implemented in a way that best meets the individual learning style of the student. Everyone will approach new experiences in different ways – some may observe, others may feel confident to use trial and error, still others will rely on adult support and guidance. Does the student persist at tasks, do they give up easily or are they hesitant to take on new challenges? • To understand the student’s current level of development and developing skills. Ongoing monitoring and observation of the student’s performance will provide direct evidence of their level of functioning, which in turn will assist in matching the learning goals to what is realistically achievable for the student. While there is no ‘best’ way of gathering and documenting information about students, it is important that the information-gathering process is sufficient in quantity to contribute to informed and accurate decision-making. The information gathered should be accurate and unbiased, and contribute to future planning. It needs to provide information about the student’s progress towards the stated learning goals in specific curriculum areas.
CONTRIBUTING TO PLANNING AND EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
289
Observation and professional conduct Any documentation about a student becomes the property of the school, and may eventually be filed with the student’s records. Documents may be accessed and read by others – the parents/ guardian, teachers and other professionals. It is therefore essential that any documentation be recorded in a professional and ethical manner.
Confidentiality All information gathered about a student should be regarded as confidential, and should not be discussed or shared with anyone who is not working directly with the student, without the written permission of the parent/s or guardian. Parents/guardians also have the right to read any written records, including observations or reports. Students’ written records should be kept in a secure place that can be accessed only by authorised staff.
Bias Observations and reports should be written in an objective manner to avoid bias or stereotyping of students. It would not be appropriate to use words such as ‘selfish’, ‘lazy’ or ‘spoilt’ to describe a student. Such labels are very subjective and may not accurately reflect the student or their situation.
Ensure accurate spelling, grammar and punctuation Any documentation about a student may be read by parents, colleagues and other professionals. It is therefore essential that documentation be free of spelling and grammatical errors. Attention to spelling and grammar reflects a professional approach to the task and also demonstrates respect for those who may read the document. Consider how you might feel if you were a parent and read the following observation. ‘Today Anna participated in a group game with three other students. While Anna was reluctant to share he did manage to complete the game and seemed to enjoy the experience. I think it would be good to for Anna to be engaged in more group experiences.’
Avoid jargon and generalisations All professions tend to use industry-specific jargon, and schools are no exception. Jargon helps teachers to communicate ideas and concepts in a shorthand way, and is acceptable when it is used among colleagues. However, when documenting information about a student it is important to limit the use of jargon, particularly if the documentation will be read by parents. It can be useful to develop a bank of words or phrases that are easy to interpret and are not ambiguous. For example, the statement ‘Aaron has poor cognitive processing’ would be understood more easily if written as ‘Aaron has poor memory and recall skills. He often forgets the rules for simple games.’ Generalised terms can be ambiguities and result in misinterpretation. For example, using ‘good’ or ‘poor’ to describe a student’s work tells the reader very little – for example, ‘Aaron did a very poor job on his maths tasks today.’ A more informative comment would be, ‘Aaron completed two of the 10 maths tasks correctly.’ Careful choice of words can make a remarkable difference when describing student progress. Consider the following examples, which contrast ambiguous statements with clear, easy-tounderstand information that provides useful information about student skills and knowledge.
AMBIGUOUS VERSUS CLEARLY EXPRESSED STATEMENTS AMBIGUOUS STATEMENTS
Anwar is a complex student whose cognitive skills require further investigation. Nida has good motor skills. Bella is a worrier and a real loner. Chidi’s language skills are poor. CLEAR AND EASY-TO-UNDERSTAND STATEMENTS
Anwar rarely completes any tasks attempted. He appears to lose concentration and can often be seen sitting and staring at nothing. An assessment to determine Anwar’s cognitive skills is recommended.
Scenario
Nida’s gross motor skills are well developed (running, jumping, climbing and ball skills) and are above what might be expected for a student of his age. Bella tends to spend most of her free time alone. She rarely attempts to interact with her peers. Chidi’s language skills are well below what might be expected for a seven-year-old. He has a very soft voice that is barely audible. He tends to use single words or gestures. When asked to label common objects, he appears to guess the answers. He finds it difficult to follow a two-step direction.
Narratives Narratives record behaviours and interactions. Narratives may include jottings, running records or anecdotal records. A narrative observation is a ‘story’ about a student’s learning – it records a learning episode or an incident. It is a record of observable behaviours. Narratives can focus on one student or on a group of students. They may focus on a learning episode such as counting by 2s or they may focus on an incident such as a conversation with a student about their learning.
Jottings Jottings are short notes made by the observer about significant behaviours or events that are observed. Some observers use ‘sticky notes’ to quickly jot down a comment made by a student, a verbal exchange between two students or a few words that can be used to later remind the observer what they wish to record. Jottings are done quickly but can be very useful when reflecting on a particular student.
Running records Running records are the most challenging and time-consuming of all observations. They require the observer to dedicate time solely to the task of observing and recording. The observer is required to document exactly what the student does and says within a specific period of time. This is not easy, especially when trying to record language. Consequently, running records are used sparingly and tend to be limited to situations where there are major concerns about a student’s learning or where there is a need to look closely at particular dynamics. Generally, running records focus on only one student at a time. They can provide a rich source of information to guide planning decisions.
Anecdotal observations Anecdotal observations are the most common form of observation as they are recorded after the event. Anecdotal observations are simply a story of an event. They provide information about a moment in time as the student or students are engaged in some aspect of learning. The observer is required to recall and document as much detail as possible soon after the observation occurs.
CONTRIBUTING TO PLANNING AND EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
291
CASE STUDY | Aaron Jones Part 4: Examples of types of records Figure 12.11 Jotting Date 21/03/17 Aaron completed three of the four tasks set for him today. He stayed on task most of the time and told me he was going to get all his work finished.
Figure 12.12 Running record RUNNING RECORD Student Name: Aaron Jones
Date: 23/03/XX
Task:
Pattern-making
OBSERVER:
Aaron is sitting at the table with three other students. The ESW is sitting next to Aaron. The group listens to the instructions for the lesson on pattern-making.
9.20 A.M.
The ESW talks to Aaron about making a pattern using lines and colours. She draws a simple pattern, which Aaron copies.
9.25 A.M.
Aaron looks around, then selects a felt pen and draws three horizontal parallel lines. He pauses and looks at the work of the other students. He draws two vertical lines in the same colour.
9.39 A.M.
Aaron again looks around at the other students’ work. Aaron stands and walks around to stand behind Lilly. ‘Show me,’ he says to Lilly. Lilly looks up but then returns to her pattern-making without comment. Aaron slowly walks behind each student, pausing to look at their patterns. Aaron returns to his chair, sits down and screws up his paper. ‘Stupid!’
9.48 A.M.
The ESW intervenes. ‘You’ve made a good start, Aaron, let’s think about what you need to do next to finish your pattern.’ Aaron: ‘I can’t do it – it’s too hard!’ Aaron puts his arms on the desk and his head in his arms.
9.56 A.M.
Figure 12.13 Anecdotal record Date: 23/03/XX After recess, Aaron worked on a writing task. He was required to select a topic of interest and write three sentences. Aaron immediately became anxious, saying he had a headache and couldn’t write. I referred Aaron to his worry poster and together we identified that he was anxious about the writing task. He used deep breathing and positive statements until he felt calm enough to proceed. After some discussion, Aaron decided to write about his fishing trip with his father on the weekend. We worked together on sequencing the task and Aaron was able to identify three things he could write about fishing. We also talked about how a sentence is constructed. Aaron was reminded how to hold his pen so that he did not get cramps in his hand. He was assisted to use his personal dictionary. Aaron wrote, ‘I went fishing with Dad. Dad has a big boat and it has a outboard motor. We catched 17 fish and I catched the most.’
Using checklists There are two types of checklist that may be used in the classroom: diagnostic and screening checklists. These are used to diagnose or assess particular skills, abilities or attributes. Typically, they will include evaluation tools that use yes/no responses, rating scales (such as ‘always, sometimes, never’) or descriptors of a particular skill or behaviour. Diagnostic or screening checklists are typically used by teachers, education specialists and other professionals. They can be a useful tool for establishing baseline information about an individual student, but may not always provide an accurate assessment of a student’s skills and knowledge; they should therefore be used in conjunction with other assessment strategies. Criteria checklists come in many different forms – for example, a simple list that acts as a reminder, such as a shopping list or list of items to be packed into a suitcase. A checklist can also be used to act as a guide to sequencing a step-by-step task where the order of each step is important – for example, when completing a series of maths tasks. If used with caution, checklists can be a useful tool in the classroom for teachers, ESWs and students. They can provide a quick snapshot of a student’s learning skills and knowledge. For example, a checklist can be used to evaluate the skills a student is using when reading, or to evaluate a student’s oral language. When used to assess a student’s skills and knowledge, they should always be used with caution as they may not provide a true or accurate assessment of the student. Scenario
CHECKLISTS READING
ESW Hannah used a screening checklist to identify the range of skills being used by Liam (8 years), a struggling reader. Hannah was not sure whether Liam was applying a range of strategies when attempting to read text. The checklist confirmed that Liam was relying on only one or two key strategies to help him work out challenging words. BEHAVIOUR
ESW Amanda used a behaviour checklist with Jesse (10 years) to record the range and frequency of behaviours of concern over a two-week period. The checklist confirmed
that Jesse frequently engaged in a wide range of aggressive and anti-social behaviours and that these behaviours tended to occur in the afternoons. Amanda felt that the evidence gathered from the checklist supported her concerns in relation to an escalation in Jesse’s aggressive behaviour. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Checklists can assist in pinpointing concerns in relation to an area of development or a lag in skills and knowledge acquisition. Checklists are useful if used in conjunction with other more authentic forms of assessment, such as observations and work samples.
12.4 Analysis and interpretation When a series of observations have been completed, they can be analysed to form a reasonably accurate picture of the student’s current skills, knowledge and understandings. This analysis can then be used as the basis of ongoing planning. After completing a series of observations, the next step is to ‘interpret’ or make sense of what has been observed. This is a challenging task that requires the observer to apply their knowledge of child development and how children learn. This knowledge is essential, but it is not enough to accurately interpret and assess a student’s learning. The observer must include a holistic perspective that draws on what they already know about the student – the social/cultural context, interests, temperament and learning style. When interpreting, it is important to think about what the observations tell us about the student – their skills and knowledge, learning style, disposition as a learner, visible barriers to learning, confidence, empathy, behaviour, resilience and ability to cope with change, CONTRIBUTING TO PLANNING AND EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
293
relationships with others, sense of humour, self-esteem, independence, self-care skills, ability to collaborate with others; persistence or flexibility, and communication skills. Noticing these characteristics allows us to capture the essence of the child or young person as a unique individual. In the example of Kem (Figure 12.10), his lack of confidence and resilience are significant barriers to learning. How each ESW sees, understands, interprets and analyses observations will vary according to a range of factors, such as professional skills and knowledge, cultural and personal values, beliefs and assumptions, and the relationship each ESW has with each student. These factors are referred to as filters or lenses – each of us sees the world through our own unique lens.
CASE STUDY | Aaron Jones Part 5: Analysis and interpretation Analysis of the running record for Aaron tells us the following information: • Aaron was able to sit and listen to the instructions. • Aaron was able to create a sequence for the task using words and pictures. • Aaron was able to use his sequence to commence the task, but instead of working through the sequence he looked at the work of other students. • Even though Aaron had started well by following the correct sequence, he was distracted by the work of the other students. He visually compared his own work with the work of his peers and then screwed up his pattern, declaring it to be stupid. (Other students had completed more steps in their pattern-making.) • Although Aaron was on track with his pattern-making, he appears to lack confidence in his own abilities. The ESW, Jodie was able to conclude that Aaron needed to be reminded/encouraged to work through the identified sequence of a task from beginning to end. This will support Aaron to complete a task and gain a sense of accomplishment. An analysis of the anecdotal record tells us the following information: • Aaron finds writing tasks stressful. He doubts his abilities, which causes him to become anxious. • Aaron can use deep breathing and positive ‘I’ messages to calm himself. • Aaron was able to complete a task with the support of the ESW. • Aaron needs assistance to understand what he is required to do, and how to proceed in a systematic manner. • Aaron demonstrated that he could recall a sequence of events and orally share this information in a logical manner. • Aaron can use storytelling (oral language) about his fishing trip to assist him to formulate sentences. The ESW was able to conclude that Aaron needs ongoing support to translate his words into text. Analysing or interpreting observations should not be over-complicated. The goal is to identify what the students know, what they can do and what they understand. Observations can also be used to identify how the student responds to various teaching strategies and activities. Another important goal of observation and analysis is to gain a deeper understanding of how the student engages in learning and responds to various learning strategies.
The Case Study (Part 5) provides examples of how observations can be analysed and interpreted to build an accurate assessment of Aaron’s progress. It can also be used to review existing goals and plan new goals.
Developing learning objectives Based on the goals of the IEP, the teacher will develop learning objectives for the student. These objectives may be the same as those for other students, or they may be objectives that have been modified to reflect the particular learning needs of the student.
• • • • • • • • • • • •
Learning objectives state: what the student will learn – for example, the definition of compound words the level of achievement – for example, uses compound words in a sentence how it will be measured – for example, correctly read aloud and write compound words. The learning objectives are then used to develop lesson plans, which will detail: the relationship to the curriculum prior knowledge required of the student teaching strategies – how the knowledge/skills will be introduced the physical environment/grouping of students the lesson plan sequence conclusion/transition what the student will do – how they will use the knowledge/skills in the classroom how the lesson will be evaluated – how the knowledge/skill will be measured resources to be used by the teacher/students. Each teacher will have their own style/template for lesson planning.
Attending a case conference Where you are working closely with a student with additional needs and participating in observing and documenting the student’s learning, you may be asked to participate in a case conference for the student. Case conferences for students with IEPs usually are held once per year (or as necessary). A case conference brings together all the people who are actively involved in the support of the student and will typically include the class teacher, parents/guardian, specialist support teachers, specialist support professionals/services (e.g. psychologist, physiotherapist, occupational therapist or a speech pathologist) and, where appropriate, the student. It may also include the ESW working with the student. Parents may also ask for an independent support person to attend, to act as an advocate for the child and their family. Case conferences are regarded as confidential, and should not be discussed with others who are not in attendance. Case conferences are usually run according to a strict agenda that ensures efficient use of time. The purpose of a case conference typically is to review the student’s progress, raise/address and problem-solve any concerns in the attainment of the goals for the student and discuss new goals. Other matters that may be discussed can include barriers to school attendance and how these are being addressed, funding, specialist equipment and resources, the student’s health and wellbeing, behaviour support and curriculum modifications. Typically, the case conference will be managed and chaired by a senior member of the school executive. This person is also responsible for arranging the case conference, minute-taking and coordination of any follow-up action as a result of the case conference. Where an ESW is invited to attend a case conference, the role would be one of sharing information about the child’s progress and answering questions raised by conference participants. Prior to attending a case conference, it is essential to discuss your role at the case conference with your class teacher. If an ESW has any concerns about the student’s IEP, these should be discussed with the teacher/school executive prior to the conference.
CONTRIBUTING TO PLANNING AND EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
295
CASE STUDY | Aaron Jones Part 6: The case conference Attending the conference are: Dr and Professor Jones; Ms Brown (deputy principal and chair); Mr Craig (teacher); Jodie (ESW); Kim Bradley (learning support coordinator – City Primary); Leon Smith (area school psychologist); Dr Paula (child psychologist). ESW Jodie is feeling very nervous – this is the first time she has attended a case conference. The purpose of the conference is to discuss strategies to support Aaron’s transition to high school. Of specific concern are his poor social skills and inability to cope with change. Ms Brown steers the conference through a review of Aaron’s progress. She asks Leon Smith and Dr Paula for their assessment of Aaron’s coping skills and the strategies they recommend to develop these skills. ESW Jodie is asked to report on Aaron’s progress in transitioning to and from recess and lunch, which he finds particularly challenging: ‘I give him a 10-minute warning prior to recess and lunch and we talk through what he needs to do. This seems to keep him calm and in control. However, if there’s a change due to wet weather or a special event, he can become quite anxious. When this happens, I get him to do his deep breathing and we talk through the change.’ As they are walking back to the classroom, Jodie asks Mr Craig to give her some feedback on her contribution to the case conference. He replies, ‘You did very well, Jodie. Your contribution to the discussion was really valuable and gave everyone a good insight into how Aaron still struggles in the school environment. I know you were very nervous, but you did well – you should be proud of yourself.’
What does this tell us? Jodie was able to make a positive contribution to the case conference – she was well prepared and was able to provide concrete examples of Aaron’s behaviour.
12.5 Transitioning a student with additional needs to a new school Where a student with one or more additional needs is transitioning to a new school – for example, from primary to high school – a well-planned inclusion process can assist the student to more quickly adapt to the new environment. Most schools will have in place a transition policy established to assist in the transition of students. A number of steps need to be considered when planning for inclusion: • pre-planning • orientation • supporting social interactions • preparing peers • adaptation and modifications • the physical environment.
Pre-planning Pre-planning will include the teacher, relevant support staff (which may include the ESW if assigned), the student (if appropriate) and the parents/guardian. First, it is important to become familiar with the circumstances and needs of the student and the family – for example, language spoken at home, cultural values, the student’s and family’s journey so far, the student’s history in relation to the additional needs, services that have been accessed or are currently being accessed, the student’s NDIS plan.
It is essential to understand the nature of the student’s additional needs – this includes physical and healthcare needs, learning needs, and strengths and abilities. For example, consider how the student will access and navigate the physical environment – consider what modifications or adaptations are needed to support ease of access to classrooms, library, assembly area, toilets and outdoor areas – this can be done with the assistance of the student and/or the parents. Consider the student’s learning style and learning needs – does the student require special equipment and/or resources? For example – does the student need a desk away from direct light, or facing away from distractions such as movement or noise? Do they need a special chair or a sloping desk top? Do they require assistive technology? Are they able to communicate verbally? If not, what system of communication is used by the student and how can this be accommodated? Does the student have specific healthcare or other care needs that must be accommodated? Does the student have specific behaviours that need to be managed? What learning support does the student need? Pre-planning provides an opportunity to work with those who are most familiar with the student to identify how best to plan a smooth transition for the student so they can adapt to the new environment in the most efficient manner, while at the same time ensuring the student’s social and emotional wellbeing is not overlooked. During the planning phase, the expectations of the parents/guardians and the student can be identified.
Orientation Depending on the nature of the student’s needs and strengths, an orientation program may include: • meeting one-on-one with the student and family to establish rapport • taking the student and family on a tour of the school, such as toilets, canteen, library, office and playgrounds • the layout of the classroom/s – use text or pictures to label key storage areas • providing a written or pictorial daily and weekly timetable, which includes recess and lunch times • displaying photos with the names of key personnel, such as the classroom teacher/s, ESWs, principal and deputy principal • assigning a student buddy or buddies to assist in orienting the student to the physical layout of the school. Each student’s orientation should be individualised to ensure that their needs are able to be met as far as possible. The orientation process needs to be flexible so that it can be adapted or adjusted as unforeseen issues arise.
Supporting social interactions It is also important to consider the social and emotional wellbeing of the student. A primary goal for any student is to participate to the best of their ability alongside their peers. The right to socialise and engage in play is fundamental to every child and young person. Students with additional needs may not socialise or play in the same way as other students. They may have limited communication skills, be less able to socialise with their peers and have limited imaginative play skills. It is important to ensure that students with additional needs can be as independent as possible in the school setting. This will require some trial and error to ensure that equipment, learning experiences and resources are appropriate to the student’s needs. They may find the playground facilities too difficult to negotiate, and may lack the skills to enter a play situation or socialise with other students. CONTRIBUTING TO PLANNING AND EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
297
While the ideal scenario is that every student will be an accepted member of the student community, the reality may be quite different. Forming friendships can be difficult for students with additional needs and as students move towards adolescence the need to be part of a group becomes extremely important. Identifying the student’s social skills can be achieved by talking to the parent or guardian, talking to the student (where possible) and observing the student in the classroom and in the playground. To promote the development of friendships, students can be supported to: • identify their own strengths and interests – what the student can share about themselves with others • use a range of strategies to communicate with peers • enter games/play situations with peers • contribute ideas for games • use problem-solving and conflict-resolution skills • be assertive without being aggressive • understand and accept their limitations, but at the same time identify and strive for achievable goals. Scenario
FOCUSING ON STRENGTHS NUWA
Nuwa (14 years) has a learning disability. She struggles with reading and writing, and has poor language skills. Nuwa is very creative and enjoys painting and dance. She has a small circle of friends and a very supportive family. Nuwa expressed an interest in trying out for the school play and was disappointed when told she would find the script too difficult. The drama teacher talked to Nuwa about the many different areas involved in the production of a play and suggested that Nuwa become involved in creating the scenery for the play. This allowed Nuwa to draw on her skills as an artist and participate as a member of the production team. NASSER
Nasser (10 years) has mild cerebral palsy, which impacts on his ability to run and kick a ball.
Nasser is continually disappointed that his peers exclude him from the lunchtime football games. He complained to the ESW that his friends were unfair. The ESW talked to Nasser about his strengths and what he could do. Nasser felt that he would be a good goalkeeper. The ESW helped Nasser to ask his friends to have a trial as goalkeeper, as this did not require as much running. The ESW also talked to Nasser about other outdoor games that he could play with his friends that did not involve running. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Knowing the interests and abilities of students allows educators to explore ways in which students can be included in regular school programs and activities.
Preparing peers To support the inclusion of a student with an additional need, it can be helpful to prepare other students by talking to them about the new student’s abilities, interests and needs. This may or may not be necessary, and will depend on the situation and the nature of the additional needs. Educating peers about the specific nature of a new student’s strengths, interests and needs can assist both the student and peers by: • role-modelling positive attitudes towards inclusion • providing information that supports communication between student and peers • providing information on what to expect and how to respond to specific behaviours • encouraging support and cooperation.
• • • • •
A peer support system can be developed that includes: out-of-class buddies peer modelling – use peers to help teach specific social skills peer tutors – formal program where peers act as tutors paired learning – students work in pairs with a more capable student acting as leader/mentor peer-support groups – students assist each other by providing friendship and social support. Scenario
PEER SUPPORT Students in a Year 6 class have organised themselves into small support teams to assist Lee, a classmate who uses a wheelchair. The students make sure there is always someone on hand to help Lee with his textbooks and other equipment. During breaks, Lee is surrounded by his peers, who try to include him in their activities and games. The principal has congratulated the class on their support, telling them they are a positive role model for all students.
Lee tells the ESW that he feels very supported by his mates, saying, ‘They don’t make a big deal out of the chair, but they’re always around if I need help.’ WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Inclusion occurs when students have positive role models and are supported and encouraged to act inclusively. In this situation, the principal has reinforced inclusive practices by praising the Year 6 students.
Students with additional needs who are new to the school may require an extended amount of time to adjust to the school environment and routines. This adjustment period will vary according to the individual student – some students will experience a smooth adjustment while others may have a bumpy start. Working on a transition program with the student and their family can help to identify and minimise specific transition issues for students with additional needs.
Adaptation and modifications Depending on the needs and abilities of the student, modifications can be made to tasks and learning materials. Figure 12.14 shows nine types of adaptations that could be used to support a student in the classroom. Students with processing difficulties, poor auditory skills or poor listening skills may find tasks that require the application of a logical sequence of steps (such as mathematical problems or science experiments) particularly difficult. ESWs can assist by providing step-by-step instructions or visually representing each step using cue cards. For example, ‘first, then, next’ as shown in Figure 12.15. Filtering, sorting and organising information can also be a challenge for students with processing problems. Such students will have difficulty summarising information, note-taking and organising notes. Their workbooks will typically be messy and disorganised. ESWs can work with students to physically organise student workbooks using dividers or tags. Students may also need assistance to identify relevant sections of textbooks, readers or other written reference materials. Often students will have difficulty identifying key information and may need assistance to flag or tag key points. ESWs can also assist students to develop effective time-management skills by working with students to prioritise and sequence learning tasks. This support may also be necessary to assist students to identify daily homework tasks. Ask the students questions to clarify their understanding of the task or the learning materials and encourage them to ask questions themselves. ESWs can encourage students to slow down and not rush through their work – to focus on accuracy rather than speed.
CONTRIBUTING TO PLANNING AND EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
299
Figure 12.14 Adaptations for classroom learning Input
Output
Time
Adapt the way instruction is delivered to the learner.
Adapt how the learner can respond to instruction.
Adapt the time allotted and allowed for learning, task completion or testing.
Examples: Use different visual aids; plan more concrete examples; provide hands-on activities; place students in cooperative groups.
Examples: Allow a verbal versus written response; use a communication book for students; allow students to show knowledge with hands-on materials.
Examples: Individualise a timeline for completing a task; pace learning differently (increase or decrease) for some learners.
Difficulty
Level of support
Size
Adapt the skill level, problem type or rules on how the learner may approach the work.
Increase the amount of personal assistance with a specific learner.
Adapt the number of items that the learner is expected to learn or complete.
Examples: Allow a calculator for maths problems; simplify task directions; change rules to accommodate learner needs.
Example: Assign peer buddies, teaching assistants, peer tutors or cross-age tutors.
Example: Reduce the number of social studies terms a learner must learn at any one time.
Degree of participation
Alternative goals
Substitute curriculum
Adapt the extent to which a learner is actively involved in the task.
Adapt the goals or outcome expectations while using the same materials.
Provide the different instruction and materials to meet a learner’s individual goals.
Example: In geography, have a student hold the globe, while others point out the locations.
Example: In social studies, expect one student to be able to locate just the states, while others learn to locate capitals as well.
Examples: Individualise a timeline for completing a task; pace learning differently (increase or decrease) for some learners.
Source: Ebling et al (1994).
Daily routines can be adjusted by, for example: • working with the parents/guardian to establish a predictable morning arrival and separation ritual • pairing the student with a more able student to assist in the transition to the playground • designating a place where the student can sit each day for recess and lunch • arranging a buddy to accompany the student when it is time to return to class after breaks or to different lessons/rooms • assisting with toileting prior to recess and lunch breaks. Be aware of strategies that the student may use to delay, distract or procrastinate. Use the
Figure 12.15 First, then, next visual sequence card
1
First Listen to what I need to do.
2
Next I can ask questions if I am unsure.
3
Then next I get started.
4
Last When I have completed everything, I am finished. If I get stuck, I raise my hand and ask for help.
student’s name to help them refocus: ‘Max, look at your textbook. I want you to read the last sentence to me. We agreed that you would finish this task today.’ It is useful to be aware of triggers that are likely to upset, frustrate or anger a student. Where possible, try to minimise or eliminate these triggers. For example, face the student away from the rest of the class to minimise distractions, or instead of giving the student a full sheet of maths tasks, present them one at a time so that the student does not become overwhelmed. This can easily be done by using a piece of plain paper to cover all but the first task. Have in place a strategy to assist the student to better manage their own feelings. For example, use an oil/water or sand toy, liquid motion toy or squishy ball to help relieve tension (see Figure 12.16). Figure 12.16 Tactile toys can help to relieve tension.
Sources ( L to R): iStockphoto.com/viki-melkiu; iStockphoto.com/koya79; iStockphoto.com/olesiabilkei; Shutterstock.com/By Joaquin Corbalan P; Shutterstock.com/By Sebastian Enache.
The physical environment A key aim of inclusion is ensuring that the student has the same opportunity to access all areas of school as well as access the same resources as their peers. Many older school buildings were not designed and built with inclusion in mind, making them inaccessible to some students with a disability. Physical barriers to inclusion of students with additional needs into mainstream schools/ classrooms can include factors such as a lack of disability parking, lack of ramps or doorways that may be too narrow for wheelchair or mobility aids, lack of lifts, lack of purpose-built toilet facilities, poor lighting or difficult-to-access playgrounds. Within the classroom, physical barriers can also present a challenge – for example, ease of navigation around the room so that the student can participate in small groups or gain access to classroom resources. Working alongside the parents/guardian and (if possible) the student can be a helpful way to identify physical barriers and consider ways by which they may be overcome. Chapter 18 explores examples of physical barriers to students with additional needs and how they may be overcome.
ONLINE RESOURCES SUPPORTING STUDENTS WITH ADDITIONAL OR COMPLEX NEEDS THAT ARISE FROM DISABILITY
•
State of Victoria (Department of Education and Training) 2016: https://www.education.vic.gov.au.
TRANSITIONING FROM PRIMARY TO SECONDARY SCHOOL
• •
Association for Children with a Disability Transition to Secondary School resource: https://www.acd.org.au/transitionto-secondary-school. Inclusive classroom school resource: https://www.acd.org.au/inclusive-classroom-school-resource.
CONTRIBUTING TO PLANNING AND EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
301
Summary This chapter introduced approaches to assessment with a particular emphasis on assessment for learning. IEPs are an example of how assessment for learning can be used to develop learning goals to meet individual student needs. ESWs can support assessment for learning by undertaking observations of students and using their skills and knowledge to analyse and interpret these observations to support the planning process. IEPs are developed by teachers in consultation with parents/guardians, specialist staff/services and, where appropriate, the student. SMART goals are developed for the students, and are used by the teacher to develop learning objectives and lesson plans. ESWs play an important role in supporting the teacher to implement lesson plans, by supporting individual students and/or small groups of students. Assessment for learning is an effective way of ensuring that planned learning experiences are designed to maximise student participation and student success. This can be achieved only when teachers, with the support of ESWs, observe how students learn, how they function in the classroom environment and how they use equipment and learning tools. It is also important to identify individual barriers to learning – often these barriers are emotional ones, such as poor self-esteem, a lack of resilience or a lack of confidence. ESWs can work with teachers to support students to overcome these barriers to learning.
Online resource Examples of lesson plans for different grades and across all curriculum areas can be found at Australian Curriculum Lessons: https://www.australiancurriculumlessons.com.au.
Discussion questions 1
Refer to the running record in Figure 12.12 on p. 292 and write an interpretation. 2 Based on the observation, state what you consider to be one of Aaron’s learning challenges. 3 If you were the ESW working with Aaron, what could you do to encourage him to attempt pattern-making? 4 At the IEP meeting, it was reported that Aaron made the following comments about himself as a learner. Based on Aaron’s comments write a statement about Aaron’s self-esteem.
‘I’m not clever like them [his family].’ ‘I can draw good but I’m no good at writing.’ ‘I get confused and forget in class.’ ‘Sometimes I don’t get time to finish [my work].’ ‘Sometimes I forget things.’ ‘Mum and Dad say, ‘‘Aaron, concentrate!’’’ ‘Other kids don’t like me.’ 5 As an ESW working with Aaron, explain why it is important to be aware of how Aaron sees himself as a learner.
Self-check questions 1
Briefly describe each form of assessment: a Assessment of learning b Assessment for learning c Assessment as learning 2 Define the following terms a Learning outcomes b Learning objectives
3 Individual Education Plan (IEP) a Outline the purpose of an IEP. b Briefly describe the concept of an IEP. c List possible participants in the development of an IEP. d Explain why the inclusion of the parents/guardian is essential when developing an IEP.
e
Outline the key contributions to the implementation and support of an IEP that can be made by an ESW. 4 Explain the meaning of each letter in the acronym SMART. 5 Observations a Explain the contribution observations can make to program planning. b Explain why it is important to write observations and reports in an objective manner. c What should be considered when interpreting a written observation of a student? 6 Case conference a What is the purpose of a case conference in relation to an IEP? b What additional matters can be discussed at a case conference?
c
What is the typical role of an ESW when attending a case conference? 7 Transition to a new school: a List the steps that should be considered when a student with an additional need is transitioning to a new school. b Who could be involved in planning the student’s transition? c What factors need to be taken into account when considering the transition of the student? d Why is it important to consider the social/emotional needs of the student? e What are the benefits of preparing peers/classmates to support the transition/inclusion of students with additional needs?
Activities 1
Rewrite each of the following statements in an objective manner. a Aaron is a lazy student who always finds reasons not to do his work. b Sari wastes time in class because she talks too much. c Aidan is a spiteful student who never wants to share equipment with other students. d Zhara is hopeless at maths!
2 For this task, go to Australian Curriculum Lessons at https://www.australiancurriculumlessons.com.au and click on the lesson plan link to ‘Sebastian Lives in a Hat’. Read the lesson plan and answer the following question. During Stage 2 of this lesson, the students sit ingroups of four and are encouraged to work collaboratively. With reference to the objectives for this lesson, suggest how an ESW could work with and support one group of students.
3 Connect the adaptation strategy (on the left) to the examples provided. input level of support difficulty size time alternative goal
Isla is allocated an ESW for two hours each day to assist her with classroom tasks. By the end of Term 1, the goal for Oliver is to learn half the number of new spelling words learnt by his class peers. Habiba is provided with modified maths tasks as part of her inclusion program. Joshua is provided with a checklist to remind him of the steps to follow when completing his writing task. Salma is only required to complete one of the three writing tasks. Amelia is allocated additional time to complete her science project.
CONTRIBUTING TO PLANNING AND EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
303
PART
C
LITERACY AND NUMERACY
Chapter 13 INTRODUCTION TO BECOMING LITERATE LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to demonstrate that, in relation to working in a school environment, you can: 13.1
GO
further
Go Further icons link to extra content for this chapter. Ask your instructor for the Go Further resource and deepen your understanding of the topic.
Demonstrate an introductory understanding of literacy (oral language, reading and writing) in the context of the Australian Curriculum: English, the General Capabilities (literacy), the Achievement Standards (literacy) and the National Literacy Learning Progressions
13.2 Identify ‘the big six’ of literacy learning. 13.3 Explain the interrelationship between oral language, reading and writing 13.4 Describe the role of the ESW in relation to supporting literacy skills, planning learning environments and providing literacy resources 13.5 Provide an overview of the processes used to assess literacy skills
Introduction Learning to be literate is not a skill that is acquired naturally; rather, it is something that must be taught. Literacy involves the integration of oral language, listening, reading, writing and critical thinking skills. Regular assessment – both formal and informal – is an important part of this learning process. as it allows educators and students to track their skills and knowledge and set goals for ongoing development. The ESW can play a vital role in supporting students and teachers in this most fundamental area of education.
13.1 The Australian Curriculum: English Literacy is defined in the Australian Curriculum (ACARA 2017) as ‘the capacity to interpret and use language features, forms, conventions and text structures in imaginative, informative and persuasive texts. It also refers to the ability to read, view, listen to, speak, write and create texts for learning and communicating in and out of school’. Literacy encompasses the knowledge and skills students need to access, understand, analyse and evaluate information, make meaning, express thoughts and emotions, present ideas and opinions, interact with others and participate in activities at school and in their lives beyond school. Becoming literate is not simply about knowledge and skills. Certain behaviours and dispositions assist students to become effective learners who are confident and motivated to use their literacy skills broadly. Many of these behaviours and dispositions are also identified and supported in other General Capabilities. They include students: • managing their own learning in order to be self-sufficient • working harmoniously with others • being open to ideas, opinions and texts from and about diverse cultures • returning to tasks to improve and enhance their work • being prepared to question the meanings and assumptions in texts.
Link to the Curriculum
The structure of the Australian Curriculum: English Each curriculum area includes a rationale, aims, curriculum content and achievement standards. Year level descriptions or bands descriptions provide information about the learning contexts that apply to the content descriptions and achievement standards (ACARA 2013b: 22). The Australian Curriculum: English Foundation to Year 10 is organised into strands, sub-strands and threads (ACARA 2015). There are three interrelated strands that support the use and understanding of Standard Australian English (English). Each strand interacts with and enriches the other strands in creative and flexible ways, with the fabric of the curriculum strengthened by the threads within each sub-strand. Together, the three strands form an integrating framework of disciplinary knowledge and focus on developing students’ knowledge, understanding and skills in listening, reading, viewing, speaking and writing from Foundation to Year 10.
INTRODUCTION TO BECOMING LITERATE
305
Key ideas The Australian Curriculum: English is based on the following key ideas and concepts. TEXTS Texts provide the means for communication. They can be written, spoken, visual, multimodal, and in print or digital/online forms. They also include all forms of augmentative and alternative communication – for example, gestures, signing, real objects, photographs, pictographs, pictograms and Braille (ACARA 2013b). CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE The Australian Curriculum: English provides students with a broad conceptual understanding of what a language is and its importance both in and out of school. This is achieved by: • exploring language features, visual features and text structures. These include language choices such as vocabulary and punctuation, sound devices such as alliteration and language devices in literary texts such as imagery. • promoting an appreciation of literature through: – enjoyable encounters with a wide variety of literary texts – exploring the different ways in which literature is significant in everyday life – a close analysis of literary works and the key ideas and values on which they are based – for example, the detailed stylistic – studying differing styles of literary work – comparing works of literature from different language, ethnic and cultural backgrounds – historical study of the origins, authorship, readership and reception of literary texts – exploration of the relationships between historical, cultural and literary traditions. COMMUNICATION PROCESSES Listening, reading and viewing are the language modes or communication processes through which individuals process, decode, comprehend, interpret and analyse spoken, written, visual and multimodal texts. SPEAKING, WRITING AND CREATING These are the language modes or communication processes through which individuals express and create spoken, written, visual and multimodal texts, including those made with the aid of augmentative and alternative forms of communication.
Australian Curriculum: English Language strands and sub-strands There are three strands and 13 sub-strands in the Australian Curriculum: English, which are shown in Figure 13.1. Across all strands are threads, which include the processes of reading and viewing, writing, and speaking and listening. Each strand contributes its own distinctive goals, body of knowledge, history of ideas and interests to the study of English, and each relates to material worth studying in its own right.
The National Literacy and Numeracy Learning Progressions In the Australian Curriculum: English (ACARA 2013), the General Capabilities describe what can reasonably be expected of students at a particular year/level. The curriculum content describes the knowledge, understanding and skills that are to be taught in each year level or stages of schooling (continua).
Figure 13.1 Overview of the strands, sub-strands and threads in the Australian Curriculum: English (F–10)
Strands Sub-strands and threads
Language
Literature
Literacy
Language variation and change > Language variation and change
Literature and context > How texts reflect the context of culture and situation in which they are created
Texts in context > Texts and the contexts in which they are used
Language for interaction > Language for social interactions
Responding to literature > Personal responses to the ideas, characters and viewpoints in texts
Interacting with others > Listening and speaking interactions (purposes and contexts)
> Evaluative language
> Expressing preferences and evaluating texts Text structure and organisation > Purpose audience and structures of different types of texts
Examining literature > Features of literary texts
Interpreting, analysing and evaluating > Purpose and audience
> Language devices in literary texts
> Reading processes
> Text cohesion
> Comprehension strategies
> Punctuation
> Analysing and evaluating texts
> Concepts of print and screen Expressing and developing ideas > Sentences and clause level grammar
Creating literature > Creating literary texts
Creating texts > Creating texts
> Word level grammar
> Experimentation and adaptations
> Editing
> Visual language
> Handwriting
> Vocabulary
> Use of software
> Spelling Phonics and word knowledge > Phonological and phonemic awareness
N/A
N/A
> Alphabet and phonic knowledge > Spelling Source: ACARA (2016: 4).
The Learning Progressions describe the steps of literacy and numeracy development. Unlike the general capabilities, they are not organised by year levels or stages of schooling. The Learning Progressions reflect Vygotsky’s (1978) concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD). That is, they can be used to describe what the student already knows and, with support, what the student can learn through teacher scaffolding, direct instruction and practice. The Learning Progressions acknowledge that each student has their own unique learning pathway. The National Literacy and Numeracy Learning Progressions describe common pathways or developmental sequences for the acquisition of aspects of literacy and numeracy development. They provide a tool to: • locate the literacy and numeracy development of students and identify the literacy and numeracy development that should follow • facilitate a shared professional understanding of literacy and numeracy development (ACARA 2018: 3, 6). The National Literacy Learning Progression has three elements, with each element divided into sub-elements, as shown in Figure 13.2.
INTRODUCTION TO BECOMING LITERATE
307
Figure 13.2 The National Literacy Learning Progression elements and sub-elements Speaking and listening
Reading and viewing
Writing
Listening
Phonological awareness
Creating texts
Phonic knowledge and word recognition Interacting
Grammar Punctuation
Fluency Spelling Speaking
Understanding text
Handwriting and keyboarding
ONLINE RESOURCES To learn more about the National Literacy Learning Progression, go to: https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/ resources/national-literacy-and-numeracy-learning-progressions/national-literacy-learning-progression.
General Capabilities
GO further Access a sample of the National Literacy Progression in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
In the Australian Curriculum (ACARA 2013a: 1), General Capabilities refer to an integrated and interconnected set of knowledge, skills, behaviours and dispositions that can be developed and applied across the curriculum to help students become successful learners, confident and creative individuals, and active and informed citizens. They are identified in learning area content descriptions and elaborations. There are seven General Capabilities in the Australian Curriculum: Literacy; Numeracy; Information and Communication Technology; Critical and Creative Thinking; Personal and Social Capability; Ethical Understanding; and Intercultural Understanding. Throughout their schooling, students develop and use the General Capabilities across all learning areas, in cocurricular programs and also in their lives outside school.
Learning continuum The concept of a learning continuum reflects what we know and understand from neuroscience about the capacity of the brain to learn continually throughout life. Learning occurs continually and incrementally along a learning continuum. The rate and pace of learning along the continuum is not fixed and constant: there may be plateaus and even setbacks, and different children learn at different rates. The idea of a continuum reinforces that becoming literate requires the integration of skills, knowledge, disposition and a positive attitude towards learning. Importantly, it also identifies the social context of literacy learning (Figure 13.3). A learning continuum curriculum provides information about the planned sequence of student knowledge and skills in each area of the curriculum – put simply, it tells teachers what
Figure 13.3 The learning continuum of the English Curriculum
Gram ma r
ge
Literacy
V is u
al
kn
tin
ge
ea
po
le d
g
ow
ow
n
Com
dk
le d
W or
Content of the Australian Curriculum: English
ough listening, rea s thr din ext t g ga din e g Text led kn ow o kn
dge wle
Com pre he n
eral capabilities: Literacy Gen
g win vie nd
comes before and what should come next in relation to curriculum planning. The continuum describes what students will learn (and should know) at each year level, from Foundation to Year 10. By comparing a student’s assessment outcome with the continuum, teachers can determine whether student outcomes are at, below or above the required grade level. The continuum will assist teachers to identify where students may require additional support or where they can be extended.
cr
d
si n
The curriculum content, presented as content gt ex an ts t descriptions, specifies the knowledge, understandings in g t i hrou r g h s p ea kin g, w and skills that teachers are to teach, and that young people are expected to learn across the years of schooling. Rather than being self-contained or fixed, disciplines are interconnected, dynamic and growing (ACARA 2016). There are also three cross-curriculum priorities related to contemporary issues: • Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures • Asia and Australia’s engagement with Asia • sustainability. Figure 13.4 provides an example of the content descriptions of the Australian Curriculum: English
Source: ACARA (2013a).
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
Figure 13.4 Example of levels of literacy concepts and elaborations – Foundation Year
Expressing and developing ideas
Elaborations
Recognise that sentences are key units for expressing ideas
> Learning that word order in sentences is important for meaning – for example, ‘The boy sat on the dog’; ‘The dog sat on the boy’ > Creating students’ own written texts and reading aloud to the teacher and others
Recognise that texts are made up of words and groups of words that make meaning
> Exploring spoken, written and multimodal texts and identifying elements – for example, words and images
Explore the different contribution of words and images to meaning in stories and informative texts
> Talking about how a ‘different’ story is told if we read only the words, or only the pictures; and the story that words and pictures make when combined > Exploring how the combination of print and images in texts create meaning
INTRODUCTION TO BECOMING LITERATE
309
Expressing and developing ideas
Elaborations
Understand the use of vocabulary in familiar contexts related to everyday experiences, personal interests and topics taught at school
> Building vocabulary through multiple speaking and listening experiences > Discussing new vocabulary found in texts > Bringing vocabulary from personal experiences, relating this to new experiences and building a vocabulary for thinking and talking about school topics Source: ACARA (2016: 15).
Achievement Standards The Achievement Standards state the knowledge and skills that students should be able to demonstrate at the end of each year/grade (Foundation to Year 10). For example, at Foundation level, in relation to the productive modes of speaking, writing and creating, students are expected to: • understand that their texts can reflect their own experiences • identify and describe likes and dislikes about familiar texts, objects, characters and events • communicate clearly in informal group and whole-class settings • retell events and experiences with peers and known adults • identify and use rhyme, and orally blend and segment sounds in words • use familiar words and phrases and images to convey ideas when writing • show evidence of letter and sound knowledge, beginning writing behaviours and experimentation with capital letters and full stops • correctly form known upper- and lower-case letters. Source: ACARA (2016: 23).
To explore the Australian Curriculum: English in detail, go to the Australian Curriculum website: https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/download.
13.2 The big six
Figure 13.5 The big six During reading activities
2 Phonemic awareness
Pre-reading activities
1
Oral language
Pre-writing activities
Phonological 3 awareness
THE BIG
SIX
4 Vocabulary
Post-reading activities
Konza and colleagues (2010: 7) state that it is the unequivocal conclusion of the major reviews into effective reading instruction that most children benefit from systematic and explicit teaching of each of the big six elements (see Figure 13.5). The big six are: 1 oral language – the foundation for the
development of literacy skills; a strong indicator of later reading, writing and overall academic achievement. Post-writing Comprehension activities Fluency 2 phonemic awareness – the ability to understand that words are made up of individual speech sounds, or phonemes (the smallest 6 5 During writing distinguishable speech sound) activities 3 phonological awareness – understanding the relationship between letters and sounds. Phonics learning focuses on how letters are linked to sounds, which form patterns for both decoding (reading) and encoding (writing/spelling). 4 vocabulary – words that are used and understood when heard, read or written.
5 fluency – the ability to read text automatically and accurately. It includes three components: accuracy, rate, and prosody (expression). 6 comprehension – the ability to read with understanding; includes skills such as inferring, predicting, summarising key ideas and critical reflection.
Konza and colleagues (2010) state that it is the unequivocal conclusion of the major reviews into effective reading instruction, that most children benefit from systematic and explicit teaching of each of the big six elements. Because these are foundational and essential skills for the development of competence in reading, writing and spelling, they must be taught early and explicitly – and taught well. According to Konza and colleagues (2010), children need strong vocabularies to understand the broad range of words in texts; they require strong grammatical skills to understand the complex sentences present in many texts; and they require the ability to reason and infer so the necessary links can be made between information in texts. The National Inquiry into the Teaching of Literacy (2005) states: The Committee recommends that teachers provide systematic, direct and explicit phonics instruction so that children master the essential alphabetic code-breaking skills required for foundational reading proficiency. Equally, that teachers provide an integrated approach to reading that supports the development of oral language, vocabulary, grammar, reading fluency, comprehension and the literacies of new technologies.
This recommendation is based on rigorous evidence-based research. The findings reflect the benefit from systematic and explicit teaching of each element of the big six (Figure 13.5). The components of the big six are explored further in Chapters 14 and 15.
The big six and literacy activities Literacy activities typically revolve around the acquisition of the skills and knowledge of the big six and can be grouped into six key areas (refer to Figure 13.5). Activities include: • pre-reading activities – designed to assist students to draw on prior knowledge while developing new knowledge and skills – for example, creating a web to record what they already know and understand, and what they would like to investigate; making predictions about a text based on the book cover, title or illustrations • during-reading activities – designed to direct and focus student learning and thinking while reading a text. This allows students to develop their understanding as they read, integrating their new understanding with existing knowledge – for example, students say aloud what they are thinking as they are reading; students predict and comment on the story while the teacher is reading aloud. • post-reading activities – designed to assess understanding of the text – comprehension and interpretation – for example, participating in a group discussion, answering questions related to the text; summarising or paraphrasing the major points of a story after reading the text.
GO
further
Access an example of a post-reading activity where the students were asked to recall the story ‘When the Snake Bites the Sun’ in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
13.3 Oral language Learning to read is a complex task. The brain is biologically primed to acquire language. In contrast to language, there are no brain structures designed by evolution to acquire literacy skills (Centre for Educational Research and Innovation 2008: 84, 86).
INTRODUCTION TO BECOMING LITERATE
311
Wilson (2014) describes the thought process the brain uses to deal with information. Wilson (2014: 4) says reading is ‘the process of melding three systems [of the brain] (visual, auditory and understanding/comprehension) that need to work together for children to learn to read’. To learn new skills and knowledge, the brain also needs frequent opportunities to practise new skills in context. Practising, or rehearsal, in turn supports memory retention. It is important to be aware of these facts when supporting reading development. Learning to read takes a great deal of time, direct instruction, practice, repetition and support. Like all other areas of development, the skills and knowledge needed to be a competent and confident reader develop over time. Reading, writing, listening and speaking skills are interrelated and interdependent – that is, skills development in one area supports skills development in all other areas (see Figure 13.6). Figure 13.6 Key literacy skills
Social and cultural context Motor skills Reading
Writing Listening
LITERACY Social interactions
Speaking
Thinking
READING AND WRITING ARE COMPLEX DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS Becoming literate requires the integration of cognitive, language, social and motor skills – for example, to listen without distraction the student must first have acquired skills of self-regulation, so they can concentrate, filter out unrelated background noise and pay attention to what is being said. Understanding and interpreting what is being said is a cognitive process that requires the student to interpret words, sentences and gestures, and apply informationprocessing skills such as sorting, storing and recalling information.
Consider This
To read with understanding and recall, and apply what has been read, require higher-order cognitive skills. Students must draw on their accumulated prior knowledge as readers and apply problem-solving skills when confronted with unknown words. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
All domains of development are interrelated and interdependent. In other words, when supporting the development of new knowledge and skills, educators must take into account the concept of ‘the whole child’.
The link between reading and oral language Vygotsky (1978) described language as the primary tool for the development of thinking and reasoning. He believed that language acquisition was the most significant milestone in cognitive development. According to Vygotsky, language (which is developed in a social context) leads learning. It is about communicating and transmitting cultural values, beliefs and practices – it is a social tool. Language is used to develop relationships with others, to convey meaning, and to share and exchange information, emotions, ideas and thoughts in a social and cultural context. Language develops when children are immersed in it from birth. For most children, it is acquired naturally without needing to be taught explicitly. As well as being fundamental to all aspects of learning, language is the foundation of literacy. Rowe (2006: 3) states: Because reading involves two basic and complementary processes – learning how to decipher print and understanding what the print means – the purpose of early reading instruction is to help children master the challenges of linking written and spoken language.
This is supported by Yopp and Yopp (2009: 14), who state: individuals who are unaware that speech is made up of small sounds – those who don’t notice and cannot mentally grab hold of and manipulate them – have difficulty learning to read a written system based on sound.
In the following scenario, Alicia discovers homophones and homographs and, with the help of her father, creates a list (Figure 13.7) to show the teacher.
Scenario
HOMONYMS AND HOMOGRAPHS Figure 13.7 Alicia’s homonyms
Alicia excitedly tells her kindergarten teacher: ‘At the weekend we went to stay at my Nan and Pop’s house in the country and we went to a fair. I said to my Dad, ‘‘Why is it called a fair?’’ It is like being fair? Then we started to think of words that are the same but aren’t the same, like a pear that you eat and a pair of shoes. I thought of lots, like bat – cricket bat and animal bat; wave in the surf and wave goodbye; fly like an aeroplane and fly insects. See – Dad helped me make a list. I told him the words and he helped me with the spelling, and I drew the pictures.’ WHAT DOES THIS CONVERSATION TELL US ABOUT ALICIA’S LITERACY DEVELOPMENT?
Alicia (6 years, 11 months) has a well-developed vocabulary and at the weekend she discovered homonyms (words that sound alike but have different meanings) and homographs (words that are spelt the same but have different meanings).
Alicia understands homophones – words that sound the same may have different meanings, depending on the context in which they are used. While at almost 7 years of age, most children can accurately use their growing vocabulary in the correct context, Alicia has demonstrated an advanced understanding of word knowledge. Not only can she use words in context as a tool for communication; she is able to think about the sounds of words and make a separate and deliberate mental connection between word sounds and word meanings. " DISCUSSION
Discuss how Alicia’s experience with her father supports her literacy development.
INTRODUCTION TO BECOMING LITERATE
313
The link between reading, oral language and writing Children who have difficulty discerning the sounds of oral language will not only have difficulty in learning to read, but also in learning to write. The interrelationship of reading, writing and oral language is supported by Fountas and Pinnell (2001: vi), who state: The interconnectedness of reading and writing is profound and inescapable. Fragmenting these complex literacy processes interferes with the greatest goal of literacy education – the construction of meaning from and through text. Using reading and writing together in harmonious concert enables learners to draw on these complementary processes at the same time to construct meaning.
Scenario
KEEP OUT! Joshua (almost 5 years) knows the power of written words. He has two older sisters who tend to alternately boss him around and baby him. It is mid-way through the summer holidays and Joshua and his sisters have been bickering all morning. After another argument, their father sends the children to their rooms for some quiet time. Around 25 minutes later, Joshua emerges from his room and asks for some sticky tape. He has made a sign for his bedroom door, directed at his sisters: ‘Keep out – no girls’ (see Figure 13.8).
Figure 13.8 Joshua’s ‘keep out – no girls’ sign
WHAT DOES THIS POSTER TELL US ABOUT JOSHUA’S LITERACY DEVELOPMENT?
Joshua demonstrates an understanding that he can express his thoughts and feelings using print and images. He also demonstrates awareness of the alphabetic principle – understanding that words are composed of letters that represent the sounds (phonemes) in spoken words; uses invented spelling and the relationship between letters and sounds (rules of print – left to right and spacing between words); has an awareness that words are composed of letters that represent the sounds (phonemes) in spoken words; and is able to correctly link letters to sounds (phonological awareness). Furthermore, Joshua is able to draw a picture that symbolises his written message.
13.4 The role of the ESW The role of the ESW in supporting literacy development will be directed and guided by the classroom teacher. ESWs are expected to act as role models to students – for example, to display enthusiasm for and enjoyment of reading; role-model verbal and non-verbal language skills such as making eye contact when speaking and engaging in back-and-forth conversation; modulating voice to suit the situation; or using facial expressions to convey meaning. ESWs must be able to read aloud with confidence, taking care to model the use of punctuation when reading. It is important for the ESW to provide students with timely and accurate feedback, support and encouragement as they attempt literacy tasks.
The role of the teacher is to plan, implement and assess teaching and learning programs to support each student’s literacy acquisition based on the literacy learning continuum of the Australian Curriculum: English. The teacher is also responsible for monitoring and documenting each student’s progress and reporting on their literacy acquisition in accordance with school policy and procedures. The teacher will identify appropriate instructional strategies and learning materials. The ESW’s role in supporting literacy development will vary according to the needs of the teacher and the students, but may typically include (under the direction and supervision of the teacher): • assisting students individually or in small groups – reading to students; listening to students read; helping students to use learning resources; prompting, guiding and directing as students attempt literacy tasks • providing specific, constructive, just-in-time feedback related to knowledge, understanding and skills that is meaningful to students, allowing them to reattempt, correct, improve or practise literacy skills • providing feedback that identifies students’ strengths • facilitate opportunities for students to engage in reflection and self-assessment • facilitating a calm, unhurried, relaxed environment • acting as a literacy role model • contributing to assessing and monitoring of the progress of students who are under-achieving in literacy • supporting the use of specialised augmentative communication and adaptive technology • setting up literacy activities for individuals and/or small groups • preparing learning materials. To support literacy acquisition, ESWs should be familiar with: • the elements, sub-elements and level of the Australian Curriculum Literacy continuum • the National Literacy Progression elements and sub-elements • the big six elements • commonly used literacy terminology • commonly used teaching practices and strategies to support literacy acquisition • the literacy program used by the school/class • resources that can be used/made to support literacy acquisition. While ESWs will work under the direction and guidance of the teacher, having a sound knowledge of the factors that contribute to literacy acquisition is essential. Scenario
SUPPORTING LITERACY ACQUISITION ESW Ted is assisting Ms Chan’s Year 2 students as they explore the features of poetry. Ms Chan has been reading ‘Feeling Sick’ by Karen Kearns to the class. The class enjoys the humour. Ted’s role is to work with a group of four students with the learning objectives of: • exploring rhyming words •
listening for a specific purpose.
‘Feeling sick’ By Karen Kearns I cannot go to school today, I feel a cold is on the way. Sneezing, coughing, a sore throat too,
INTRODUCTION TO BECOMING LITERATE
315
I feel there’s nothing I can do! The best thing is to stay in bed and cuddle up to my old ted. What’s that you say? It’s out-of-school-uniform day. A mini-fete and games to play! Wow! Suddenly I’m feeling great! Come on mum, we don’t want to be late! Each student is given a printed copy of the poem. Ted asks the students to listen carefully while he reads the poem to the children. He then asks the students to read along with him. Ted: ‘Who can tell me about rhyming words?’ Izzy: ‘I know! It’s words that sound the same.’ Ted: ‘That’s right, Izzy. Words that sound the same are called rhyming words. Let’s see if we can find some rhyming words in our poem.’ Ted gives the students highlighter pens and they reread the poem aloud, listening for and highlighting rhyming words. ‘Good listening! We’ve found lots of rhyming words. Let’s read them together.’
Next, Ted selects a word and challenges the students to help make a list of words that rhyme. Ted then asks the students to select their own word and see how many words they can think of that rhyme. Ted invites the students to share their rhyming words. The students then work together in the whole group to add to each student’s list. To conclude the lesson, Ted engages the students in a conversation about the poem. He opens the conversation by saying, ‘I wonder whether this child was really sick. What do you think?’ How does this scenario link to the curriculum? • Link to Curriculum Content for Year 2 – Learning area content descriptions: English – Link to the Literature Curriculum • Language devices in literary texts, including figurative language: Identify, reproduce and experiment with rhythmic, sound and word patterns in poems, chants, rhymes and song. • Listening and speaking interactions: Listen for specific purposes and information, including instructions, and extend students’ own and others’ ideas in discussions. (ACARA 2016: 1)
Planning learning environments for literacy Planning learning environments and activities to support literacy acquisition is a key role for ESWs. The classroom will typically reflect a literacy-rich environment – that is, it will include a wide range of literacy materials that reflect the interests and grade/stage level of students. A literacy-rich environment is one that encourages and supports speaking, listening, reading and writing in a variety of authentic ways through print and digital media. This includes classroom libraries, access to electronic media, comfortable places to read and write in small groups, and time to talk, listen and reflect. Visual posters with key content information, anchor charts to reinforce learning, word walls with high-frequency words and displays of student work also serve to create a literacy-rich environment in which students will be stimulated to learn (see Figure 13.9 for examples).
Small-group learning spaces for literacy Learning occurs best in a social context – that is, we learn best when we are able to share ideas, ask questions and engage in problem-solving with others. Learning should be a joy for children, not a chore. It should be fun (or at least pleasant) and promote a sense of confidence and competence. Children of all ages and abilities learn best when they feel safe, in control and unhurried. Remember that the acquisition of skills and knowledge is not a race to the finish line. The process of learning should be valued as much as the end result. The following list gives examples of how ESWs can create quality learning spaces.
Figure 13.9 Examples of literacy-rich environments
Source: http://margdteachingposters.weebly.com; iStockphoto.com/JohnnyGreig.
Create a comfortable space for independent and peer-assisted reading. Use a variety of settings, both indoors and outdoors – for example, table work, floor work, relaxing on cushions and rugs with shoes off. • Create a sense of fun with learning spaces – a reading area might become a jungle, a spacecraft, a boat; assume the role of book characters by wearing hats or funny shoes. • Create a well-organised library that is easily accessible; organise resources into genres or interest areas; use wall displays/posters of reading tips. • Think digitally – take advantage of electronic learning tools. Use digital technology such as iPads, e-readers, computers and interactive whiteboards. • Ensure that there is always an element of collaboration Figure 13.10 Classroom showing flexible small group learning spaces when working with small groups. • Ensure resources and learning materials are well organised and fit for purpose. Require all students to care for and respect learning materials. • Set up writing centres for up to four students – include a variety of paper, card, writing tools. • Accommodate the physical needs of students – some students learn best when sitting in a chair, while others may prefer to sit on the floor or walk around. • Where possible, use concrete resources and props such as a word wall and visual reading tips. Figure 13.10 shows how a classroom can accommodate flexible, small-group learning spaces. Source: Alamy Stock Photo/Matt Clayton-VIEW. • •
INTRODUCTION TO BECOMING LITERATE
317
Scenario
LITERACY LEARNING CENTRE ESW Carla has been assigned to Mr Potter’s Year 1/2 class. Most of the Year 2 students are functioning at or just above Stage 1. There are two students in the class who have diagnosed special needs and require additional classroom support. Several of the Year 1 students are functioning at the higher end of Stage 2 in relation to literacy skills. Mr Potter has asked Carla to help him set up a literacy learning centre. He explains that he wants small numbers of students to work in the centre on independent literacy tasks to allow himself and Carla to work with small groups. Each student will be provided with a folder where they access new tasks and file completed tasks. Students will be able to choose the order in which they complete their tasks and may work quietly with a peer if appropriate. Students will be expected to keep the learning centre tidy. The tasks will be changed regularly to reflect ongoing literacy objectives of the literacy curriculum. Mr Potter explains that the tasks can be individualised for each student based on their literacy acquisition. He tells Carla that he will work with the whole class to establish expectations and rules for behaviour in the literacy centre. Students will be expected to work independently without direct supervision.
Carla’s role will be to collect and check student work, monitor task completion, identify strengths and weaknesses, and report her findings to Mr Potter at the end of each week. Students will be accountable for their work by completing a running record of the work attempted and completed. Mr Potter believes that this will assist the students to become self-managed and self-directed workers. Mr Potter has asked that Carla periodically monitor the learning centre and provide direct instruction, demonstration and guidance as needed. The literacy centre will include resources such as a variety of reading materials – digital and print, writing materials, paper, tables and chairs, rugs, large cushions, noticeboard for teacher and student use, various storage spaces as well as IT equipment such as iPads, e-readers, computers and a printer. " DISCUSSION
Discuss what you would include in a literacy learning centre for primary school students. What would your centre look like? What activities could be accessed by students? How would students use the centre?
Learning resources Learning resources are an important tool in the classroom. They can be used to introduce and apply new knowledge, explore existing knowledge and practise skills. Learning resources are most effective when they are tailored specifically to learning goals and curriculum outcomes. There is a huge range of hands-on materials, as well as print-based and digital resources, to support literacy acquisition. Learning resources typically allow students to explore, investigate, research, practise and apply knowledge and skills. In a classroom setting, the teacher will be responsible for selecting learning resources and determining how they will be used by students and/or adult. Learning resources are easily and often freely accessible on the internet. For example, it is possible to access interactive games, videos, podcasts and printable materials on almost any subject or skills area. Websites for teachers, children and parents all offer an array of learning resources. Faced with this wealth of materials, it can be quite difficult to determine the best and most suitable learning resources for students. Figure 13.11 provides a checklist of questions that can help to assess the suitability and quality of learning resources. The list of questions is by no means exhaustive, but it does provide an idea of some of the criteria to use when required to select resource materials.
Figure 13.11 Sample checklist for the selection of quality learning resources CRITERIA
Y/N?
Is the materials fit-for-purpose – that is, does it match the purpose for which it is intended? Does the material reflect my learning outcomes for these students? Does it reflect the age/interests, abilities and skills of the students? Is it culturally appropriate? Is it free of bias and stereotyping? Is it easy for students to understand and use? Is it appealing to students? Does it meet the skill level of the students? Is it time-efficient? How is the resource designed to be used – by individuals/small groups/the whole class? IF THE MATERIAL IS WRITTEN: Is it written in Standard Australian English? Is the language used age/stage-appropriate? Does it follow a logical flow/sequence? Is it error free? Is it well set out? Does it require copyright permission to use/distribute? Can it be adapted/customised? Are illustrations/images suitable for the maturity level of the students?
Digital tools for literacy acquisition Digital tools such as iPads, e-readers, laptops and tablets are an integral part of classroom learning resources. They are easy to use and can be made accessible to a wide range of students, including many students with a disability. Digital tools are interactive and multisensory, which can make them more engaging for student learners. Digital tools used for literacy acquisition allow students to: • hear pronunciations • read words in a variety of authentic examples • practise spelling and writing • view photos and images related to words • engage in interactive games to reinforce word learning • play with and manipulate language • discover rhyming words • collaborate with classmates to create virtual word walls (Figure 13.12) (Combes 2016).
Figure 13.12 Digital learning can be a collaborative process
Source: iStockphoto.com/davidf
INTRODUCTION TO BECOMING LITERATE
319
Digital literacy tools can be used to supplement traditional reading materials; however, they should not replace the use of books or printed text. The importance of this has been highlighted by research findings that conclude there are some major issues when reading and making meaning from information on the screen. For example, Coiro (2003, 2009, 2011; Coiro & Dobler 2007), cited by Combes (2016), found that children in middle school required high-level literacy skills before they could engage with and make meaning from text (including images and multimedia) on screen. Combes also cites research by Aamodt (2009), Mark (2009) and Liu and colleagues (2009), which reveals that, in general, people read as much as 20–30 per cent more slowly from a screen. This is attributed to a greater effort being required, as the eyes compensate and tire from the rolling of the computer screen. Combes (2016) argues that current digital natives (students) associate technology with entertainment and fun, and therefore are more likely to become more easily distracted when using it for academic purposes.
Online literacy programs and apps A wide range of online commercial literacy programs, such as Reading Eggs, are used by schools throughout Australia. A variety of literacy apps also exist to support skills including comprehension, phonics, alphabet, spelling, vocabulary, punctuation and writing. Read-aloud sites enable students to listen to stories being read and/or to read along. Schools may also provide students with access to interactive literacy programs such as Bluster, Story Bot, Aesop’s Quest, Bookworm and Wenster Words. Commercial reading programs used in schools usually are research based – that is, the program reflects sound educational thinking and current knowledge and research about best practice in reading acquisition and has been rigorously tested and reviewed to ensure it delivers its stated objectives.
13.5 Literacy assessment Assessment of student literacy acquisition must reflect the General Capabilities for literacy. The Australian Curriculum achievement standards as well as the National Literacy Progression can be used to guide assessment. The Standards allow teachers to establish a baseline for the skills and knowledge (assessment criteria) that students should be able to demonstrate for each grade (year level). Areas of literacy skills and knowledge typically monitored include: • cognitive development – understanding knowledge, strategic skills and critical thinking • oral language development • concepts of print • phonological and phonemic awareness • knowledge of letters and letter/sound correspondence • spelling skills (phonics, orthography and morphology) • decoding and fluency skills • comprehension skills • compositional skills (written) • interests, habits and self-concept as a reader and writer (Department for Education and Skills, UK 2006: 44–5). Gathering evidence of students’ skills, knowledge and understanding of literacy can include a range of formal and informal strategies. The role of the ESW in supporting literacy assessment
will be explored in more depth in Chapters 14 and 15. Some examples of literacy assessment strategies that will be covered include: • asking questions to assess existing knowledge • observing students as they undertake a task • listening to students as they work collaboratively with others • engaging in incidental conversations with students as they are learning • engaging in follow-up discussion • reviewing students’ work together with the student and providing feedback • checking understanding, such as with recall quizzes • engaging students in self-reviews to independently assess their own learning • working in pairs or small groups of students.
NAPLAN The National Assessment Program – Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) tests are conducted in May for all students across Australia in Years 3, 5, 7 and 9. In relation to literacy, all students in the same year level are assessed on the same test items in the assessment domains of reading, writing, language conventions (spelling, grammar and punctuation) and numeracy. The test results are used by schools to assist in identifying students who require additional literacy support.
A note about NAPLAN At the time of writing, the NAPLAN program has attracted considerable criticism. It is anticipated that NAPLAN will undergo a major review in the near future.
NAPLAN literacy assessments NAPLAN literacy assessments include: • Language conventions: assess spelling, grammar and punctuation. The language conventions tests focus on the use and knowledge of language conventions in written Standard Australian English. There are two sets of minimum standards for language conventions: minimum standards for spelling and minimum standards for grammar and punctuation (NAP 2016a). • Reading: measures literacy proficiency across the English learning area in line with the Australian Curriculum: English. These tests focus on the reading of written English. Knowledge and interpretation of language conventions in context are also an important part of reading, and they are drawn upon in many reading questions (NAP 2016b). • Writing: students are provided with a ‘writing stimulus’ (sometimes called a prompt – an idea or topic) and asked to write a response in a particular text type. To date, the text types on which students have been tested have been narrative writing and persuasive writing. Informative writing is not yet tested by NAPLAN (NSW Department of Education and Training 2009). The National Literacy Progression is also a useful tool in assessment for learning, as it can assist the teacher to determine each student’s literacy development by accurately identifying the sequential skills and knowledge that need to be developed for the student to progress to the next level.
INTRODUCTION TO BECOMING LITERATE
GO
further
Access a list of useful links to the NAPLAN Minimum Standards and assessment tasks in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
Link to the Curriculum
321
ONLINE RESOURCES ASSESSMENT AND LITERACY TOOLS
A range of assessment tools are used by teachers to assess literacy skills. Because of the sheer volume available, it is not possible to present all of these in this text. To explore assessment tools, access the following websites: • The Literacy Bug: https://www.theliteracybug.com/ planning-and-assessment. At the bottom of this page you will see ‘Pages of Interest’ – click on ’Literacy Assessment Practices’. The first set of bullet points includes a list of assessment practices. Copy and paste any items from the list into your search engine for further information. • Year 6 Literacy Example short assessment items (Queensland Studies Authority): https:// teachingmattersamy.weebly.com/uploads/1/3/9/9/ 13999466/engish_assessment_activities.pdf
•
A range of literacy assessments strategies that can be used in the classroom can be found online. Some examples are listed below. – An example of a comprehensive reading checklist can be found at Ekwall-Shanker Reading Inventory: https://www.wou.edu/brownbr/classes/ sped_625_f_15/1_sped625_resources_f_15/ 4a_esri_rdg-wrtg_resources/1_esri_reading_resources/ 0_esri_6th_ed_reading_instrtns_v2_15-11.pdf – A summary Ekwall-Shanker reading inventory checklist is available at: https://www.wou.edu/ brownbr/classes/sped_625_f_15/4_infrmal_asmt_ resources/1_reading/1_reading_assessment_general/ shanker-ekwall_rdg_diagn_chklists.pdf
Summary Learning to be literate involves the integration of oral language, listening, reading, writing and critical thinking skills. Literacy must be taught – it is not a skill that is acquired naturally, such as learning to walk or talk. It requires explicit, direct and systematic instruction of the elements of the big six. Literacy skills are built over time through the process of scaffolding – that is, drawing on existing skills and knowledge to acquire new skills and knowledge with teacher instruction and support. The foundation of literacy development is oral language, which is the primary tool used for thinking and reasoning. We know that children who have difficulty discerning the sounds of oral language will have difficulty not only in learning to read but also in learning to write. Assessing literacy skills on a regular basis, both formally and informally, allows educators and students to track their skills and knowledge, and to set goals for ongoing development. It also allows educators to plan and implement intervention strategies as needed.
Discussion question Read the following news item and discuss the findings of the research. NAPLAN analysis reveals where you live is more significant than public vs private debate. Could the success of a school student depend not on whether they go to a public or private school, but simply on where they live? That’s the suggestion of think tank the Grattan Institute after it took a (very thorough) look at NAPLAN data.
The most worrying message is within every state and territory that the students who are making the least progress are those in disadvantaged schools. This story is consistent across all school sectors (government, Catholic and independent), although it is most obvious for government schools, the report card noted. Source: Robinson & Clark (2018) ª 2019 ABC.
Students who attend disadvantaged schools are children whose families tend to have a low income (low socioeconomic status). Yet there is no evidence to suggest that these
children are less capable than their more economically advantaged peers. Discuss these findings and suggest why these students are falling behind in their literacy skills.
Self-check questions 1 How is literacy defined in the Australian Curriculum? 2 Explain the function of the Learning Progressions. 3 List the sub-elements of the National Literacy Learning Progression: a Speaking and Listening b Reading and Viewing c Writing
4 What are General Capabilities as they relate to the Australian Curriculum? 5 Explain the concept of a learning continuum. 6 According to Wilson (2014), what are the three systems of the brain that need to meld together in order to learn to read? 7 Explain why language is the foundation of literacy.
Activities 1
Connect the big six concepts (on the left) to the descriptor. Comprehension
Fluency Vocabulary Phonemic awareness Phonological awareness Oral language
Understanding the relationship between letters and sounds. Phonics learning focuses on how letters are linked to sounds which form patterns for both decoding (reading) and encoding (writing/spelling). The foundation for the development of literacy skills, and a strong indicator of later reading, writing and overall academic achievement. Words that are used and understood when heard, read or written. The ability to read with understanding; includes skills such as inferring, predicting, summarising key ideas and critical reflection. The ability to understand that words are made up of individual speech sounds or phonemes. The ability to read text automatically and accurately; includes three components: accuracy, rate and prosody (expression).
2 Working in small groups, research one of the following literacy programs: Reading Eggs, Bluster, Story Bot, Aesop’s Quest, Bookworm or Wenster Words. Describe the program and its features, the target age groups, the skills included in the program and the activities provided. Share your information with the group. 3 Research a report on three literacy apps. Describe their primary learning goal/use, target age group
and the features that would appeal to the target age group. 4 Go to and explore the NAPLAN website: a List the key information on this site. b Regarding literacy, what is assessed by NAPLAN? c Regarding numeracy, what is assessed by NAPLAN?
INTRODUCTION TO BECOMING LITERATE
323
Chapter 14 WRITING AND LITERACY LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to demonstrate that, in relation to working in a school environment, you can: 14.1 access, read and correctly interpret current curriculum documents in relation to literacy (writing), including the Australian Curriculum: English, General Capabilities for Literacy, the Achievement Standards and the National Literacy Learning Progression 14.2 explain the stages of writing development, genres and instructional approaches for writing development
GO further Go Further icons link to extra content for this chapter. Ask your instructor for the Go Further resource and deepen your understanding of the topic.
14.3 describe a range of strategies that can be used to support grammar acquisition 14.4 describe a range of strategies that can be used to support spelling acquisition 14.5 describe a range of strategies that can be used to support handwriting and keyboarding skills acquisition 14.6 describe the general strategies used by the teacher to assess writing skills and the role of the ESW in supporting assessment.
Introduction Note: The term ‘genre’ has been replaced with ‘text type’ in the Australian Curriculum: English; however much of the literature on writing still uses the term ‘genre’. Throughout this chapter, ‘genre’ and ‘text type’ should be regarded as interchangeable terms. This chapter explores writing development, which occurs in a predictable, sequential manner as children begin to make the association between letters of the alphabet, spoken words and print. The English curriculum introduces children to a range of writing genres that are integrated across all curriculum areas, as well as to handwriting. The English curriculum also focuses on direct instruction in grammar, punctuation and spelling. Like writing development, learning to spell tends to follow a predictable sequential path as children move from invented spelling to the application of spelling rules. These rules are introduced gradually to students, who must learn their application in order to become ‘good’ spellers.
14.1 Writing development To understand the purpose of writing, the child must first understand the association between oral and written language – for example, children may see adults writing and using a shopping list, recording telephone numbers or composing an email. Children begin to understand that symbols (the alphabet) can be grouped together to represent words and convey meaning. This awareness is the beginning of the skills needed to crack the alphabetic code. Children will begin to attempt to make meaning from written words by using simple clues such as picture association or familiar signs and logos, such as those commonly seen in fast-food chains. Next children learn the alphabet and realise that letters (symbols) have associated sounds. Over time, they develop phonemic awareness, which enables them to experiment with letter sequences and sounds to create words. Typically, children begin to develop a keen interest in writing during the preschool years. This coincides with a dramatic increase in vocabulary and the ability to use language in quite a sophisticated manner. It is also a time when fine motor skills are refined and the child is able to concentrate and stay on task for longer periods of time. During this time, children become interested in rhyming words and ‘silly’ words – they begin to understand that words can be fun. They delight in playing with language – for example, by using a familiar word such as ‘cat’, children are able to produce a string of rhyming words such as ‘hat, mat, cat, pat, rat’. Rhyming word games help children to extend and consolidate their phonemic awareness. They begin to understand that by grouping letters together, specific sounds are formed to create words. Students can be encouraged to say words aloud so that they can hear the sounds in the word. This letter–sound relationship is referred to as alphabet coding, and this in turn leads to the development of word recognition. The link between reading and writing is simply a natural progression of the child’s awareness and understanding that print is a meaningful form of communication. This awareness develops on a continuum over an extended period of time and is supported by the child’s cognitive, language and motor development. There are three key stages in writing development, described briefly in Figure 14.1.
GO
further
Access examples of student work in each of the stages of writing development in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
Figure 14.1 The stages of writing development Emergent stage
Early stage
Developing fluency
• Understands that writing is a form of communication that can convey specific meaning. • Experiments with print. • Combines random letters to create ‘words’.
• Uses print to convey meaning. • Begins to understand that letters and groups of letters represent sounds. • Understands directionality when writing. • Begins to write meaningful words/phrases.
• Can now write for a variety of purposes and for a specific audience. • Employs a range of spelling strategies. • Writes in sentences and paragraphs.
Scenario
WRITING DEVELOPMENT I CAN WRITE!
Asher (2 years, 6 months) is busy with a pen and paper. ‘What are you doing?’ asks Dad.
‘I writing to Mum. See?’ Asher holds his page of ‘writing’ for Dad to see. Asher has created a series of squiggles and lines in random patterns to approximate writing.
WRITING AND LITERACY
325
‘Oh, what does it say?’ ‘It says, Asher a good boy!’ HOMEWORK
Sari (3 years, 3 months) and Java (5 years, 6 months) are sitting at the coffee table. Each has an exercise book and a set of pencils. Java: ‘I’m doing my homework, because I have to write lots of words.’ Sari: ‘Me too!’ Java: ‘No, you can’t write words. Only I can.’ Sari: ‘Yes me can! See?’ Sari has written a series of symbols, some of which approximate letters of the alphabet. She has written her symbols from left to right, showing that she has some knowledge of how words are formed. She has in places grouped her symbols and left spaces in between. By 5 and half years, Java has mastered how to write words. He knows that to be meaningful, the symbols must represent the alphabet accurately and be grouped in a specific sequence from left to right. Java: ‘That’s not writing that’s just scribble.’ Sari: ‘No it not. It says I love my teddy.’ Java: ‘No it doesn’t. I’m doing ‘‘at’’ words. Mine says h/ a/t, hat, m/a/t, mat, c/a/t, cat, p/a/t, pat, r/a/t, rat.’ (Java sounds and says each word.) Sari: ‘Oh let me see. Oh, that’s good writing Java!’ WHAT DOES THIS TELL US ABOUT HOW WRITING IS DEVELOPED?
Asher, Sari and Java demonstrate the sequential nature of writing acquisition.
At age two, Asher understands that symbols represent words but is not yet able to accurately reproduce letters of the alphabet. He is at the emergent stage of writing development. Nine months older than Asher, Sari also demonstrates her understanding that there is a relationship between print and oral language, and that print can be created for a specific purpose. Unlike Asher, Sari is now able to more closely approximate the printed alphabet. She is also demonstrating an understanding that to be meaningful, words must be written from left to right, with letters grouped together to form a word. Sari is entering the early stage of writing development. By age 5 years and 6 months, Java has mastered the skill of writing for meaning. Java is entering the fluency stage of writing development. He knows words are formed from left to right. He is able to accurately recreate letters and, most importantly of all, he now understands that letters and combinations of letters represent spoken sounds. This is referred to as the alphabetic principle, or cracking the code. " DISCUSSION
In order for Asher, Sari and Java to develop their writing skills, they must be immersed in print and exposed to print-rich experiences – that is, they must be constantly exposed to the relationship between print and meaning. This occurs when young children are routinely read to, when signs in the community are pointed out and read to them, and when they observe adults reading and writing for a purpose, such as a shopping list. What might be the consequences for young children who arrive at school without these print-rich experiences?
Writing and the Australian Curriculum: English The Literacy strand aims to develop students’ ability to interpret and create texts with appropriateness, accuracy, confidence, fluency and efficacy for learning in and out of school, and for participating in Australian life more generally (ACARA 2015). The focus on writing appears in the Creating Literature sub-strand and includes informative, persuasive and imaginative writing processes. The aim of this sub-strand is for students to learn how to use personal knowledge and literary texts as starting points to create imaginative writing in different forms and genres, and for particular audiences. Using print, digital and online media, students develop skills that allow them to convey meaning, address significant issues and heighten engagement and impact (see Figure 14.2).
WRITING AND LITERACY
327
Foundation
Creating texts Creating different types of spoken, written and multimodal texts, using knowledge of text structures and language features
Create short texts to explore, record and report ideas and events using familiar words and beginning writing knowledge (ACELY1651)
Creating Texts sub-strand
Sub-strand Create short imaginative and informative texts that show emerging use of appropriate text structure, sentence-level grammar, word choice, spelling, punctuation and appropriate multimodal elements – for example, illustrations and diagrams (ACELY1661)
Year 1 Create short imaginative, informative and persuasive texts using growing knowledge of text structures and language features for familiar and some less familiar audiences, selecting print and multimodal elements appropriate to the audience and purpose (ACELY1671)
Year 2 Plan, draft and publish imaginative, informative and persuasive texts containing key information and supporting details for a widening range of audiences, demonstrating increasing control over text structures and language features (ACELY1694)
Year 4
Plan, draft and publish imaginative and persuasive print and multimodal texts, choosing text structures, language features, images and sound appropriate to purpose and audience (ACELY1704)
Year 5
Plan, draft and publish imaginative, informative and persuasive texts, choosing and experimenting with text structures, language features, images and digital resources appropriate to purpose and audience (ACELY1714)
Year 6
Source: English Sequence of Content. v8.1 Australian Curriculum. www.australiancurriculum.com.au December 2015
Plan, draft and publish imaginative, informative and persuasive texts demonstrating increasing control over text structures and language features and selecting print and multimodal elements appropriate to the audience and purpose (ACELY1682)
Year 3
Figure 14.2 English: Sequence of content F–6 – Strand: Literacy; sub-strand: Creating text
LINK TO THE Australian CURRICULUM AN EXAMPLE OF THE ACHIEVEMENT STANDARD PRODUCTIVE MODES (SPEAKING, WRITING AND CREATING) FOR YEAR 5, IN THE AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM: ENGLISH
Writing •
When writing, they demonstrate understanding of grammar using a variety of sentence types. They select specific vocabulary and use accurate spelling and punctuation. They edit their work for cohesive structure and meaning (p. 174).
Creating literature •
Create literary texts using realistic and fantasy settings and characters that draw on the worlds represented in texts students have experienced.
•
Create literary texts that experiment with structures, ideas and stylistic features of selected authors.
Elaborations •
Using texts with computer-based graphics, animation and 2D qualities.
•
Consider how and why particular traits for a character have been chosen drawing upon fiction elements in a range of model texts - for example main idea, characterisation, setting (time and place), narrative point of view; and devices, for example figurative language (simile, metaphor, personification), as well as non-verbal conventions in digital and screen texts in order to experiment with new, creative ways of communicating ideas, experiences and stories in literary texts. Source: ACARA (2015: 70, 71)
The National Literacy and Numeracy Learning Progressions: Writing GO further Access an example of how writing is used across the curriculum in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor. In this example, Chloe (Year 4), records geographic information on her map.
Writing is one of the three key elements of the National Literacy Learning Progression. Its subelements are outlined in Figure 14.3. Each sub-element moves from simple to complex, as the student progresses through each stage of their learning. Figure 14.3 The sub-elements of writing in the National Literacy Learning Progression
Sub-element
Description
Creating text
The Creating Texts sub-element describes how students become increasingly proficient at creating texts for an increasing range of purposes. Students’ writing moves from representing basic concepts and simple ideas to conveying abstract concepts and complex ideas, in line with the demands of the learning areas. Creating Texts also includes Spelling, Punctuation, Grammar and Handwriting and Keyboarding (ACARA 2015: 31).
Grammar
This sub-element describes how a student becomes increasingly proficient at creating written texts with higher levels of grammatical accuracy. Students display an increasing ability to compose coherent and cohesive texts across all areas of the curriculum for a wide range of purposes, making sophisticated choices at the level of the whole text, the sentence and the word group level (ACARA 2015: 46).
Punctuation
This sub-element describes how a student becomes increasingly proficient at using punctuation to ensure clarity and ease of reading in the texts they produce. As students write more complex and technical texts, they will use increasingly complex punctuation to support meaning (ACARA 2015: 50).
Sub-element
Description
Spelling
This sub-element describes how a student becomes increasingly proficient at selecting and arranging letters to form accurately spelt words. Students develop increasing skill and proficiency in using spelling as a tool to understand and create meaning in texts. At higher levels of the progression, students monitor their own spelling and explain how spelling impacts upon meaning. Particular links exist between this sub-element and Creating Texts, Phonemic Awareness and Phonic Knowledge, and Word Recognition (ACARA 2015: 52).
Handwriting and keyboarding
This sub-element describes how a student uses handwriting and keyboarding skills with increasing speed, accuracy and fluency to compose and edit text, or complete tasks for different purposes. It describes how a student develops a fluent, legible handwriting style, beginning with unjoined letters and transitioning to joined handwriting. Students become increasingly confident, proficient and flexible with keyboarding and handwriting (ACARA 2015: 56). Source: The National Literacy Learning Progression. Australian Curriculum, https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/media/3634/national-literacy-learning-progression.pdfx
Figure 14.4 describes a progression of skills and knowledge developed by students at the beginning stage of creating texts. To learn more go to the National Literacy Learning Progression and search the document for additional information (https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/ media/3634/national-literacy-learning-progression.pdf). Figure 14.4 Example of creating texts in the National Literacy and Numeracy Learning Progressions
Type of text Vocabulary
> Writes own name and other personally significant words (family names, dog, house)
Crafting ideas
> Talks about the purpose of and audience for familiar imaginative and informative texts > Writes one or more ideas that are not necessarily related, using sentence fragments (labels a drawing) > Writes texts in different forms (lists, stories) > Combines visuals with written text where appropriate > Reads back own writing > Talks about own text and describes details
Text forms and features
> Writes some appropriate letter combinations to represent words (see Spelling and Phonic knowledge and Word recognition) > Includes noun–verb agreement in sentence fragments (see Grammar) > Writes from left to right using spaces between attempted words > Uses basic noun groups (my house) (see Grammar)
Vocabulary
> Writes a small range of familiar common words > Writes two- and three-letter high-frequency words > Includes learnt vocabulary in own texts > Asks for help with less familiar words Source: ACARA (2018).
The knowledge, understandings and skills described in Figures 14.2 and 14.3 (The National Literacy and Numeracy Learning Progressions, 2018) clearly show the inter-relationship between oral language, reading and writing.
WRITING AND LITERACY
329
Genres Genres refer to a style of writing for a specific purpose and for a specific audience. The text types included in the Australian Curriculum: English are factual texts, persuasive texts and literary texts. These text types are detailed in Figures 14.5, 14.6 and 14.7. Figure 14.5 Factual texts
Factual text type
Purpose
Features
Examples
Factual description
Describes a place or thing using facts
> Begins with an introductory statement
Landscape description
> Systematically describes different aspects of the subject > May end with a concluding statement
Factual recount
Retells events that have already happened in time order
> Begins with background information – who, when, where
Historical report
> Describes the series of events in time order > May end with a personal comment
Information report
Procedure
Classifies, describes and gives factual information about people, animals, things or phenomena
> Begins with a general classification or definition
Gives instructions on how to make or do something
> Begins with a statement of goal (could be the title)
Facts about whales
> Lists a sequence of related information about the topic > Ends with a concluding comment Recipe Instruction manual
> Lists materials needed in order of use > Gives a series of steps (instructions) in order > Each instruction begins with a verb in the present tense Procedural recount
Tells how something was made or done in time order and with accuracy
> Begins with a statement of what was made or done > Tells what was made in order
Documentary Retelling a science experiment and its results
> Written in the past tense Explanation
Explains how or why something happens
> Starts by naming the topic > Describes items related to the topic in their right order
The life cycle of a butterfly How gears work Labelled diagrams
> Explains how the items relate to each other and to the topic > May end with a concluding statement > May include visual images – for example, flowcharts and diagrams, which support what is written in words > Written in the present tense Source: Department of Education and Communities (2011) ª State of New South Wales (Department of Education), 2018. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
Persuasive texts are factual text types that give a point of view. They are used to influence or persuade others. Figure 14.6 Persuasive texts
Factual text type
Purpose
Features
Examples
Exposition
Gives reasons for a point of view to try and convince others of it
> Begins with a sentence that gives a point of view on a topic
A team’s argument for a debate
> Lists the arguments giving reasons and evidence for them > Uses convincing language e.g. ‘will damage’ instead of ‘may damage’
Discussion
Gives different points of view in order to make an informed decision
> Begins with some background information leading to the issue
Should cars be banned from the inner city?
> Lists arguments for and against, giving evidence for different points of view > Conclusion might sum up both sides or recommend one point of view
Source: Department of Education and Communities (2011) ª State of New South Wales (Department of Education), 2018. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
Figure 14.7 Literary texts
Literary text type
Purpose
Features
Examples
Literary description
Describes people, characters, places, events and things in an imaginative way
> Describes characteristic features of the subject – for example, physical appearance, behaviour
Description of a character or setting within a story
Retells events from novels, plays, films and personal experiences to entertain others
> Begins with background information – for example, character, time, place
Gives a personal opinion on a novel, play or film, referring to parts within the passage
> Describes how you feel about a novel, film, book or play
Review
Summarises, analyses and assesses the appeal of a novel, play or film, to a broader audience
> Describes how features – for example, characters, plot, language features, humour – may or may not appeal
Commentary on a film, play, book, etc.
Narrative
Tells a story using a series of events
> The scene is set in a time and place and characters are introduced
Picture books, cartoons, mystery, fantasy, adventure, science fiction, historical fiction, fairy tales, myths, legends, fables, plays
Literary recount
Personal response
> Often forms part of other pieces of writing
> Describes the events in time order > May end with a personal comment about the characters or events
> Lists what did and did not appeal to you > May comment on some of the features of the writing
> Usually has a problem that is addressed > May contain a message for the reader
A recount of a traditional story – for example, The Gingerbread Man A humorous and creatively interpreted recount of an ordinary incident that actually took place What did you like about that artwork and why? Describe why you do or do not like this story/poem
Source: Department of Education and Communities (2011) ª State of New South Wales (Department of Education), 2018. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
WRITING AND LITERACY
331
Scenario
EXAMPLES OF STUDENT TEXT NARRATIVE
PERSUASIVE
‘My dog Rosie is naughty. She digs up mum’s plants.’ ‘Alexa held her laser high above her head. She would not be defeated this time!’ ‘Harry was dripping wet and smelly. His paws were muddy.’ ‘The fruit was luscious. Juice dripped off the chin. The taste was an explosion of sweetness.’
‘In my opinion we should not have homework because . . .’ ‘I think we should all learn words in our local Aboriginal tribal language because . . .’ REPORT
RECOUNT
‘To make pancakes first you need . . .’ ‘The grass parrot is mainly green, with some purple and orange on the wings.’
‘Yesterday, when I was walking home I saw . . .’ ‘I went to the beach and I found a . . .’
EXPLANATION
PROCEDURAL
‘The life cycle of a butterfly ‘The Space Shuttle Challenger.’
‘Brushing your teeth for two minutes twice a day will keep them healthy.’ ‘Cows are milked twice each day. The farmer . . .’
14.2 Preparing to be writers ‘Learning to write has been likened by one researcher as similar to learning to play a musical instrument, it takes dedication, good teaching and lots and lots of practice to master’ (Scull, 2015). To become good writers, students must understand the key purposes of writing: to provide information and facts; share thoughts, ideas, feelings and experiences; and seek to persuade or influence a variety of audiences. Students must also understand that writing is a dynamic and interactive process. It requires students to draw simultaneously on a range of skills and knowledge, and it requires thinking, planning, reflecting and critical analysis. To become confident writers, students must be provided with explicit writing instruction. They must learn that writing requires the use of specific techniques. Teachers support writing development by introducing students to three key techniques, which include both skills and knowledge: knowing what good writers like to do; editing; and checking spelling. These processes are outlined in the Consider this box below. Consider This
WRITING TECHNIQUES WHAT DO GOOD WRITERS LIKE TO DO?
WHAT DO GOOD EDITORS DO?
• •
• • • • • • •
• • • •
They like to write. They write about things they know about or in which they are interested. They draw and ‘talk out’ their story (rehearsal). They decide who they are writing for and what their writing will look like. They share their writing with a partner, a conference group or the teacher. They read their first draft and ask, ‘Does it look right? Does it sound right? Does it make sense?’
They use capital letters appropriately. They check their punctuation. They check their spelling. They use complete sentences. They write legibly. They use interesting words. They let somebody else read their story.
WHAT DO GOOD SPELLERS DO?
• •
They read a lot. They write a lot.
• • • •
They look for patterns. They know many high-frequency words. They know if a word looks right. They listen for the sounds they hear.
• •
The processes approach Writing is a process that requires the application of a series of steps. Knowing these steps or procedures, and understanding their purpose, can help students to become effective writers. Figure 14.8 shows the five steps used to develop writing skills. Each step requires students to think, plan and reflect. Students can work on their writing skills individually, in pairs or small groups, or as a whole class. The role of the teacher and the ESW is to provide direct instruction, guidance and support.
Stage 1: Planning what to write
They know where to look to find a hard word (e.g. word dictionaries). They are willing to take risks.
Figure 14.8 The writing process
Plan
Publish
The writing process: working with peers and adults
This involves thinking and talking about what to write, thus generating ideas. Students must first understand the purpose Edit or reason for writing: ‘Why am I writing this text? What is the intended outcome?’ – for example, a factual report, a narrative, an adventure story, a list. They must decide on their intended audience: ‘Who will read my writing?’ When engaged in creative writing, students will draw on their own experiences and knowledge – for example, texts they have read, or themes and ideas from movies, television, YouTube, gaming and theatre. During the planning stage students will jot down ideas or be assisted to do so by the teacher or ESW. Students can be assisted with their draft by asking probing questions. For example, • What do you already know about the topic? • Can you identify any gaps in your content knowledge? • Where can you go to find more information to fill in content knowledge gaps?
Draft
Revise
Stage 2: Writing a draft To create a draft, students must be able to transfer their thinking into a logical written sequence. This is challenging for many students. Often the hardest part is getting started: ‘Where do I start? How will I sequence my ideas so that there is a logical flow? How much detail do I need? What words and phrases can I use?’ Questions that can guide students to write their draft will vary depending on the form/format being used – for example: • How will you introduce the topic? • How will you organise your plan? • In what sequence will you present the content? • What subheadings can you use to help you to develop the content?
WRITING AND LITERACY
333
What are the key points you want to cover? Who will be the intended audience? Students may find it helpful to use a graphic organiser to assist them with their draft.
• •
Stage 3: Revise the draft At this stage, students need to engage in critical thinking, which is a higher order skill that takes time to develop. The aim of revising is to encourage students to read what they have written and ask themselves a series of questions – for example, ‘Does it make sense? Does it stay on the intended topic? Is there a logical sequence and flow?’ (This is a higher order skill.) It can be helpful at this stage if the student reads their draft to another student (or has another student read it) and asks for feedback. Sharing and actively listening to feedback assists students to develop their critical thinking skills: ‘Is there a better way to say this? Could I add some adjectives to make my text more interesting. How can I give my writing a style all of my own?’
Stage 4: Editing
GO further Access examples of editing checklists in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
The revisions are now edited and necessary changes made. Older students can be encouraged to edit for grammar, spelling, sentence structure and layout. Punctuation can also be checked – capitals, full stops, commas, question marks, quotation marks, exclamation marks. Depending on the form/format, the student may also need to include illustrations, graphs or diagrams. When the student is happy with their final draft, they will be ready to publish. Teachers may provide students with editing tools such as a checklist or a list of commonly misspelled words. As students progress through each stage of schooling, they are required to use more complex and sophisticated editing skills. An example of the progression of editing skills is shown in Figure 14.9. Figure 14.9 Progression of editing skills
School Year
Skill progression
Year 3
They reread and edit their writing, checking their work for appropriate vocabulary, structure and meaning. They write using joined letters that are formed accurately and consistent in size.
Year 5
They select specific vocabulary and use accurate spelling and punctuation. They edit their work for cohesive structure and meaning.
Year 7
When creating and editing texts, they demonstrate understanding of grammar, use a variety of more specialised vocabulary and use accurate spelling and punctuation.
Year 9
They edit for effect, selecting vocabulary and grammar that contribute to the precision and persuasiveness of texts and using accurate spelling and punctuation. Source: ACARA (2017).
Figure 14.10 provides an example of a Year 2 editing activity focusing on capital letters, full stops and apostrophes.
Stage 5: Publishing
Figure 14.10 Example of an editing activity
Students now prepare their final document in the required format ready for others to read. Students can be encouraged to ask themselves the following questions: ‘How should I present my text? Should I add pictures/illustrations/diagrams to highlight or explain key points? Should I use sub-headings?’
Exploring genres Understanding that there are specific writing styles for specific purposes or functions requires students to explore writing genres. To develop this knowledge, students are exposed to a wide range of genres, which are used across all curriculum areas. Students explore the unique characteristics of each genre and how they are used for a specific purpose. They also learn, for example, how, where and when to include lists, instructions, graphics, illustrations, photographs and diagrams to support a specific genre. For example, consider the challenge of writing a recipe so that the reader is able to reproduce cooked food with some degree of accuracy and consistency. Following are a series of examples of different genres produced by students.
Procedure In Figure 14.11, Chloe (8 years) writes down her morning procedure. To do this, Chloe draws on high-level thinking skills – she needs to recall and describe the routine and ensure it is written in the correct sequence so it flows in a logical manner. Figure 14.11 Example of a procedure written by Chloe (8 years), describing her morning routine Morning routine procedure 1 Mum knocks on the door
GO
further
Access examples of genres that may be used in some curriculum areas for students in all years from Foundation to Year 10 in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
2 Get out of bed 3 Put on slippers and gown 4 Eat breakfast 5 Brush our teeth 6 Get dress(ed)
WRITING AND LITERACY
335
Compare and contrast In the next example (Figure 14.12) Kai and Asher (both 9 years) are required to compare the attributes of three groups: physical features; likes and dislikes; and favourite things. They are then required to identify whether these attributes are the same or different. This is a complex task that requires the boys to think about, identify, list and describe the sub-elements of physical features (hair colour, height, weight and so on). The boys then have to create a table that can easily be read and interpreted and determine a logical process to gather and record the information needed for their table. Finally, they have to interpret and draw conclusions about the information they have recorded: ‘We like lots of the same things, like music and sport. We both don’t like homework.’ Figure 14.12 Compare and contrast: Kai and Asher
Compare your physical features, likes and dislikes, favourite things with another student COMPARISONS
KAI
ASHER
Hair
Brown and curly
Blonde and straight
Height
140 cm
143 cm
Weight
33 kg
35 kg
Eye colour
Green
Blue
Favourite sport
Football
Football
Favourite food
Pizza
Hot chips
Favourite toy
Xbox
Xbox
Favourite TV program
Cartoons
Cartoons
Favourite animal
Tiger
Dolphin
Favourite music
Hip hop
Rap
Dislikes
Homework
Homework
Likes
Lollies
Lollies
Favourite footy team
The Swans
The Cats
Favourite book
The day my brain fell out
When dinosaurs walked the Earth
Things I’m good at
Drawing
Skateboarding
ALIKE
DIFFERENT
L L L L J L J J L J J J
ADD OTHER THINGS
L J L
WHAT WE LEARNED ABOUT OUR SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES:
Our main differences were in our physical features like eye colour and hair colour. We like lots of the same things like music and sport. We both don’t like homework!
Kai and Asher created a table using the data they collected about their likes and dislikes. It allowed them to easily make comparisons and draw conclusions.
Flow chart Figure 14.13 shows a flow chart developed by 12-year-old Elliot. Drawing on his own experience in the dog-washing, Elliot has identified and recorded each step in the process. Again, this is a complex task requiring use of a range of cognitive skills, such as recalling, planning and sequencing. Elliot has added his own tips, obviously based on personal experience!
Figure 14.13 Elliot created a flow chart to demonstrate the steps involved in washing his dog
How I wash my dog Sally 1. Get equipment ready. You will need: • a helper • dog shampoo • bucket and warm water • hose • lead attached to something so the dog doesn’t run away • towel • wear old clothes because you will get very wet.
2. Get dog and clip to lead attached to post.
3. Wet dog with warm water from bucket or from hose.
4. Put shampoo on and rub all over with both hands. (Don’t get soap in the eyes and wash underneath.) Source: iStockphoto.com/sonyae
7. Let dog off lead. (Run away because he will shake the rest of the water off!)
6. Towel dry.
Creating a flow chart also requires students to think about and identify key information or instructions. They need to consider the audience when developing a flow chart – they must assume that the reader will have no knowledge of the task and will be relying on the information in the flow chart. They will also need to consider how much information is required to ensure the flow chart is properly sequenced and easy to follow. It is important to show students an example of a flow chart and to talk about how each step is arranged in a logical manner.
5. Rinse with warm water or hose to get off all of the shampoo.
Figure 14.14 A guided fact file
Guided fact file Figure 14.14 is an example of a guided fact file. In this example, a group of four Year 4 girls are required to research a favourite band and record key facts. The students are also required to devise a format to record their facts, identifying what information to record and the order in which it should be recorded so that there is a logical flow. This can be quite challenging. In this example, the students must also collaborate as a team and agree on the information to be presented.
Facts about our favourite girl band Name of band:______________________________________________________________ Names of band members: ___________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ Who is the lead singer?______________________________________________________ Hit songs: _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ Who writes the music? ______________________________________________________ Some interesting facts about band members: ________________________________ How long has the band been together? ______________________________________ Where has the band performed? ____________________________________________ Who writes the lyrics? ______________________________________________________
Descriptive narrative Figure 14.15 is an example of instructions for a descriptive narrative. Year 7 students were required to work in pairs and create a narrative about an accident. To assist the students, the WRITING AND LITERACY
337
Figure 14.15 A descriptive narrative
teacher provided the first sentence and listed ideas and information that might be included in the narrative. Figures 14.13 to 14.15 provide examples of a range of genres to which students are introduced as part of the English curriculum. As an ESW, you may be required to work with students as they practise these genres. Your role will be one of support and guidance. Select one or two of these examples and write a list of open-ended questions that you could ask students to help them identify and organise the content of their writing task. The challenge is to support and guide rather than tell students what to do.
Instructional approaches and writing development As students progress through each stage of schooling, they build on their skills and knowledge to create a range of texts for a variety of purposes. An example of the progression of writing skills is shown in Figure 14.16. Figure 14.16 Progression of writing skills
Year group
Level of skill
Foundation
When writing, students use familiar words and phrases, and images to convey ideas.
Year 2
Students create texts, drawing on their own experiences, their imagination and information they have learnt.
Year 4
Students create structured texts to explain ideas for different audiences.
Year 6
Students create detailed texts elaborating on key ideas for a range of purposes and audiences.
Year 8
Students create texts for different purposes, selecting language to influence audience response. Source: ACARA (2017).
A balanced approach to writing development typically includes five key instructional approaches, each of which is designed to allow students to gradually build their skills and knowledge as writers over an extended period of time. As students progress, they move from a high to a low level of teacher support. Figure 14.17 shows the five instructional approaches.
Figure 14.17 Instructional approaches to writing High level of teacher support
Modelled writing
Shared writing
Interactive writing
Guided writing
Independent writing
Low level of teacher support
As an ESW, you may be required to use any of these instructional approaches as you support students at different stages with their writing skills.
Modelled writing instruction Modelled writing is a process used by the teacher to demonstrate how to create a text. The teacher typically will talk to the students during this process, describe what they are doing and highlight key elements of the text as it is being written. The teacher demonstrates ‘think aloud’ strategies used by a writer when constructing text: ‘I’m going to write about my dog. I’ll start with her name …’ When assisting beginning writers, the ESW would, for example, talk about where to start on the page – for example, top left – and comment on spacing between words, adding full stops and a capital letter for a new sentence and so on. For more experienced writers, the teacher might model conventions such as the use of speech, word choices or structure of the text. The role of the student during modelled writing is to watch and listen. The ESW may ask questions to reinforce specific writing elements.
Shared writing instruction Shared writing is a collaborative process between teacher and students, where the teacher and the students make joint decisions. The teacher and the students share the pen so that not all of the scribing is done by the teacher. The role of the teacher is to facilitate collaborative writing through scaffolding – by asking questions, making comments and acting as the scribe. ESWs can assist in this process by drawing on a shared experience when working with a small group of students – for example, ‘Today we are going to write about the colour run that was held yesterday. Let’s think of some things we might want to say. You tell me and I’ll write them
WRITING AND LITERACY
339
down.’ ‘Good work, some great suggestions. I’ll read what we have written and you let me know if you think it makes sense …What should we change?’ For younger students, shared writing may include the use of an easel and a large sheet of paper using a felt pen to write shared text. For older students, the ESW might encourage students to rephrase, add adjectives, reconsider the sequence, challenge word choice and so on: ‘I don’t think this sentence really captures the emotions of the character. Can anyone suggest how it could be rephrased? What words could we use to better describe how the character is feeling?’ During shared writing, the ESW acts as scribe while students provide the content.
Interactive writing instruction Interactive writing requires the student to write with support from the teacher/ESW, who may also act as a scribe. Interactive writing works best in small groups, where both teacher and students can interact easily. When supporting interactive writing, the ESW may review the process of writing (planning, draft, revise, edit, publish) and spelling strategies with the student. For older students, the ESW might challenge students to replace commonly used words or phrases, or discuss print conventions, how to paraphrase and so on. The role of the ESW is to facilitate, scaffold and challenge. The role of the student is to draw on their existing skills and knowledge as a writer, to take risks and to ‘have a go’.
Guided writing instruction Guided writing typically is conducted in small groups with students of similar writing abilities. Guided writing is also sometimes referred to as conferencing. When supporting guided writing, the role of the ESW is to scaffold (draw and build on existing skills and knowledge) the skills of each learner, and engage in direct teaching and instruction to address individual learning needs, such as spelling, vocabulary, sentence structure, grammar and organising ideas. For older students, the ESW might focus on the use of pronouns, verbs, adverbs, tense or direct speech. In relation to guided writing, the role of the ESW is one of support and encouragement, while the role of the student is to actively participate in discussion, ask questions and ‘have a go’. Figure 14.18
Independent writing The final stage of writing is independent writing, where the student draws on and applies their accumulated skills, knowledge and experiences as a writer. Students will be required to demonstrate their knowledge of various genres across the curriculum. The role of the ESW is to support, guide and actively encourage critical reflection. The role of the student is to apply the stages of the writing process, research and consult the teacher and seek support as needed. Figure 14.18 is an example of independent writing by Sienna (7 years, 6 months).
Many teachers use a concept known as the author’s chair. Students are invited, as authors, to share their writing with a group of peers, whose role is to provide constructive feedback. Regardless of the instructional approach, when supporting writing, it is the role of the ESW to facilitate, guide and encourage students. This includes direct instruction and intentional teaching of skills and knowledge. Importantly, ESWs should actively model and demonstrate the link between oral language and writing. ESWs will also play a critical role in observing and documenting students’ writing development and provide feedback to the teacher.
Understanding purpose and context As part of the planning process, students must consider the context in which they are writing and how context influences what they write. Like all other areas of learning, writing occurs in a social context. Students’ values and beliefs are influenced by the social and cultural context in which they live. Writing is a form of written communication and is governed by the same set of social/cultural rules and conventions of communication. As students develop their writing skills, they can be encouraged to engage in self-reflection before they begin writing. Figure 14.19 includes some of the self-reflection questions students can ask themselves as a way to clearly establish why they are writing a text and what they are going to write. Figure 14.19 Self-reflection questions
Self-reflection
Key questions
What is the purpose of my writing?
> Why am I writing this text? > What do I know about the topic?
Who is the target audience?
> What do I know about my audience? > What might my audience expect to learn from my text?
How will I organise my text?
> What text form should I use? > How will I set out my text – for example, headings, subheadings? > How will I represent my text?
What content should I include?
> What key information do I need to include? > What can I leave out? > What do I want to highlight or emphasise? > What language should I use? > What do I already know? > What do I need to research before starting? > Will I need to include illustrations?
Describing characters and events
> How will I describe my character/s? > What names will I give my character/s? > How will I describe the emotions/thoughts of my character/s? > Will I use speech in the first person? > How will I describe events? (what, where, when)?
Source: Adapted from: Department of Education WA (2013: 140, 141) ª Northern Territory of Australia (Department of Education) 2017. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
WRITING AND LITERACY
341
Figure 14.20 Example of an organisational chart for writing
Teachers support students to explore purpose and context by providing them with real-life examples to enable them to examine, discuss and identify the features of the text. The teacher facilitates this by asking open-ended questions and encouraging students to discuss and document their findings. Teachers will work with students to develop organisational charts to record the characteristics of a targeted genre. By working together, the teacher encourages students to critically analyse various genres. These charts, like word walls, act as a reminder and guide for students as they attempt writing tasks. Figure 14.20 shows an example of an organisational chart.
14.3 Grammar and punctuation Grammar is the structural rules used when putting words together to create phrases and sentences. A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought. It can be a statement, a question, an exclamation or a command. A sentence tells us what or who, then provides additional detail. Sentences usually contain nouns, verbs, adjectives and pronouns. A sentence begins with a capital letter and Source: http://working4theclassroom.blogspot.com/2012/09/0-0-1ends with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark. 41-234-centurionburton-1-1-274-14.html Like spelling, grammar must be learned in context. Children are exposed to the rules of grammar as they hear others speaking GO further and reading. The rules of grammar – such as sentence structure – as they relate to oral Access more language tend to develop without the need for direct instruction. When speaking, children information on sample lesson plans learn when to pause, to use inflections when asking questions and to convey information in for writing in your sentences rather than as a single string of spoken words. In contrast, when learning to write Go Further (and read) the rules of grammar must be explicitly taught. Figure 14.21 shows an example of a resource, available through your grammar activity. instructor.
Figure 14.21 Prepositions worksheet
Applying grammar to text Creating written text is not simply a means of transferring what we say into text. Creating texts requires students to make grammatical choices – that is, ‘How will I write this text so that it is fit for purpose and meets the needs of my target audience?’ Students who only rely on their knowledge of oral language will find it difficult to create meaningful text for a variety of purposes and audiences. Written text tends to be more formal than oral language. For example, in answer to the question, ‘Why did you throw your apple away?’, a student might respond ‘Because it tasted funny.’ While informal language is an acceptable as an oral response, it
would not be acceptable as a written response. The expectation is that students will use formal language when writing. In this case, a formal written response would be, ‘I threw my apple away because it tasted funny.’ Teachers will often use sentence starters as a way to help students formalise their written text.
Conjunctions and connections When students first begin to write, they will often join a series of phrases or thoughts with conjunctions and connectives (joining words) such as ‘and’, ‘because’, ‘so’ and ‘but’ – for example, ‘I went to the show with my brother and Mum and Dad and we had lots of fun and we got two show bags and I ate a hot dog but it made me sick and I threw up and Dad got cranky because it went on his shoes.’ Conjunctions such as ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘when’,’ how’, ‘nor’, ‘or’, ‘where’, ‘since’, ‘why’, ‘when’, ‘yet’, ‘because’, ‘before’, ‘after’, ‘as’ and ‘if’ are placed at the beginning of a clause – for example: • The boy missed the bus because he slept in. • The game was cancelled because it was raining. Connectives, such as ‘after that’, ‘for example’, ‘in other words’ and ‘in the end’, can be placed in various parts of the sentence. For example: • In the end, he knew his efforts were futile. • The earlier ideas, for example, using mud bricks, were quickly discounted. Sentences with two or more independent thoughts or clauses that are joined by a conjunction or connective are called compound sentences. For example: • I went to school today and while there, I fell down the steps. • I ate a cake today but it made me feel sick. Figure 14.22 shows commonly used connectives and conjunctions.
GO
further
Learn more about writing conventions related to grammar and parts of speech in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
Constructing sentences A sentence must include a subject (noun) and a verb, and express a complete idea, thought or message. It must start with a capital letter and end with a full stop, question mark or explanation mark. There are three types of sentences: • simple – single clause: ‘I went for a swim.’ • compound – two independent clauses joined by a conjunction. ‘I went for a swim at the beach today.’ • complex – an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses and a subordinating conjunction. ‘I went for a swim at the beach today because it was so hot.’ A sentence must be written in an ordered and cohesive manner so that it makes sense to the reader. Let’s go back to the earlier example: ‘I went to the show with my brother and Mum and Dad and we had lots of fun and we got two awesome show bags and I ate a huge hot dog but it made me really sick and I threw up and Dad got cranky because it went on his shoes.’ This sentence certainly gives us quite a lot of information and flows in a logical sequence.
Strategies to build sentences Students can be assisted to progress from simple to compound or complex sentences by using techniques that encourage them to build on their sentence using verbs, adverbs, adjectives and so on. This technique is given a variety of names, such as sentence stretching, power my sentence, make my sentence spark/shine and so on. Consider the examples in Figure 14.23.
WRITING AND LITERACY
343
Figure 14.22 Commonly used connectives and conjunctions Clarifying
Showing cause and effect
Indicating time
for example for instance in other words in fact in particular I mean instead
as a result therefore because however unless although so then since as
before after later previously next earlier while when since until soon after a while finally
Sequencing ideas
Adding information
Condition/concession
firstly then finally after that afterwards in the end finally to conclude to summarise briefly
also as well again along with besides too in addition
still however yet besides although otherwise anyhow instead if not even so despite this
Figure 14.23 Examples of sentence stretching
Sentence stretchers Who?
My dog runs fast.
What?
My dog runs fast along the wet sand.
Where?
At the beach my dog runs fast along the wet sand.
When?
After school we go to the beach and my dog runs fast along the wet sand.
Why?
After school we go to the beach because my dog loves to run fast along the wet sand.
THE BEACH Brax (10 years) is in Year 4. He finds writing very challenging and uses a number of avoidance strategies: ‘My hand hurts, I have a headache, I’m not feeling well, I’m no good at writing.’
Scenario ESW Helen has been asked to work with Brax to help him to extend simple sentences to include adjectives and greater detail. Brax has written the following sentence: ‘I Ike going to the beech’
Helen: ‘Great start, Brax. What do you like about going to the beach? Brax: ‘I like going on my boogie board. But sometimes the waves are no good and then me and Dad just swim.’ Helen: ‘What makes a good wave for boogie boarding?’ Brax: ‘Well, sometimes the waves break too far out and then they’re too small and sometimes they’re too big and rough. They have to be just middle size.’ Helen: ‘Wow, Brax, how do you know so much about waves?’ Brax: ‘Me and my Dad go to Nippers and my dad does beach patrols. He’s a volunteer life saver and he knows lots and he teaches me.’ Helen: ‘Well, Brax, I think I can help you to write about all of these interesting things. How about we have a go together?’ Brax: ‘Okay, but sometimes I don’t know how to write things.’ Helen: ‘That’s okay, I can help you with the writing if you can tell me what to say. Let’s aim for three sentences.’
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Brax has a great deal of knowledge that he could use for his writing. By asking open-ended questions, the ESW was able to get Brax to share his knowledge. Brax has used complex and descriptive sentences to share this knowledge, and this can be used by the ESW to support the writing process. The information shared by Brax tells us that he has quite extensive experience going to the beach. He also shared with Helen that ‘he doesn’t know how to write things’. This is an important insight into why Brax struggles with his writing. Notice that Helen didn’t address spelling or grammar (lke, beech and no full stop). " DISCUSSION
With reference to this scenario, discuss how taking time to talk to and listen to a student can support literacy development.
Power sentences Power sentences are also a way of providing students with a framework to build their sentences by using more descriptive words to create a mood or set the scene (Figure 14.24). Figure 14.24 Power my sentence: Make it . . . moody/scary/ funny. . . by adding adjectives, adverbs and conjunctions
We walked
through the bush
to the campsite
We walked slowly
through the thick bush
to the now abandoned campsite.
My sprained ankle meant we could only walk slowly
through the thick, dark bush
to the now eerily abandoned campsite.
My sprained and throbbing ankle meant we could only walk slowly
through the thick, spookily dark bush
to the now eerily abandoned and deathly silent campsite!
The example in Figure 14.24 can be modified or added to depending on the age/grade/ability of the student. Students at Foundation level, for example, might be encouraged to replace or add adjectives. For example, replace ‘big’ with ‘huge’; replace ‘said’ with ‘asked’. ESWs encourage students by asking questions that draw on their knowledge and experience: ‘Eva, remember yesterday you told me you went to the beach with your family and saw the migrating whales? You didn’t say the whales were big you said they were …? Yes, that’s right – you said they were enormous. I think that’s a much better word than ‘‘big’’ to describe elephants.’
Sentence checklist Learning the skills to construct a sentence and to progressively build more complex sentences takes time. A checklist can be used to assist students to review and build their sentence-writing skills. Figure 14.25 provides an example of a sentence checklist suitable for Foundation/Year 1 students. WRITING AND LITERACY
345
Figure 14.25 Simple sentence checklist Simple sentence checklist Does my sentence begin with a capital letter and end with a full stop? Is there a finger space between each word? Does my sentence make sense when I read it aloud? Are there any missing words? Are all words spelt correctly? Have I included punctuation? Have I used adjectives? Have I made good word choices? Have I included who, what, when, where, why?
Paragraphs and texts Paragraphs give structure to a piece of writing and organising information to suit the type of text and its purpose. Effective use of paragraphs assists the reader to navigate through the text and tell them when it has moved on to a new point. In formal writing, using the first sentence in a paragraph (the topic sentence) to align your ideas and structure is essential for conveying clear meaning in your writing (NSW Department of Education 2017). Each paragraph begins with an idea or topic, which the remaining sentences build on to provide additional information. Students can create a graphic organiser, flow chart or mind map to help them plan a logical sequence for their paragraphs: • The introduction introduces the reader to the topic. It is the place for an opening attention grabber, for example, ‘All that was left was a smouldering, sinking shell!’ • Middle paragraphs are the meat – they describe, explain, investigate etc. • The end paragraph concludes or draws together the main theme of the text. Conclusions can also raise questions or leave the reader guessing. Consider This
TEEL The NSW Smart Teaching Strategies website suggests that students need to be clear about the of purpose of paragraphs – that is, to combine information on a particular idea and demonstrate when there is a change/break. They must also be clear about the structure of a paragraph. The acronym TEEL is suggested as a useful way of helping students learn about the purpose of a paragraph.
• • • •
Topic Sentence – the topic, point or focus of the sentence Explanation – expand on the point and give more detail Evidence – support your idea with quotes, evidence and examples Link – link the point back to the overall theme of the text.
Punctuation Punctuation – such as commas, dashes, colons and semicolons – is a signal to the reader that indicates a pause, places emphasis, alters the function of the language or shows the relationship between elements of the text. Missing, incorrect or wrongly placed punctuation can result in unintentional meaning, as shown in Figure 14.26.
Figure 14.26 Is there such a thing as a slowfalling rock? SLOW FALLING ROCKS AHEAD!
SLOW! FALLING ROCKS AHEAD!
LINK TO THE Australian CURRICULUM PUNCTUATION AND THE CURRICULUM In relation to writing, students are introduced to punctuation at Foundation stage. Punctuation is a sub-element of the National Literacy Learning Progression, and is integrated into language and literacy in areas such as reading fluency, reading aloud, and understanding and creating texts, as well as exploring text forms and features. Figure 14.27 provides an example of content descriptions for punctuation in the Australian Curriculum: English (2015) for Foundation and Year 1. Figure 14.27 Content descriptions: Punctuation
Year group
Content descriptions
Foundaton
Understand that punctuation is a feature of written text different from letters; recognise how capital letters are used for names, and that capital letters and full stops signal the beginning and end of sentences (ACARA 2016: 14).
Year 1
Recognise that different types of punctuation, including full stops, question marks and exclamation marks, signal sentences that make statements, ask questions, express emotion or give commands (ACARA 2016: 25). Source: ACARA (2016).
Developing the ability to use punctuation takes time – many students find it difficult to move beyond capitals, full stops and question marks. Students can be supported to develop punctuation knowledge by seeing and talking about punctuation in a passage of text. For example, at Foundation level, students can go on a sentence, capital letter and full stop hunt. Reading aloud and emphasising the use of punctuation are also important. Asking students to listen when a passage is read with and without acknowledging punctuation helps them to better understand its purpose and function. Point out that punctuation helps us to pause and breathe when reading aloud. Older students can be challenged to read a passage where all punctuation has been removed – for example:
GO
further
Learn more about punctuation and see some examples of punctuation posters in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
mynameisorlaicametoaustraliafromnorwaywhereitisverycoldinthewinte rilikeaustraliabetterbecauseitiswarmandsunnybutimissmyfriends
Students can then be asked to reinsert punctuation and give a reason for its placement – a new thought/idea/statement; a natural pause; a question or exclamation; first-person speech and so on. Students can also read passages where the punctuation is incorrect and make the necessary changes. When working with punctuation, it is important to always relate it back to oral language. Listening to or reading a passage with and without punctuation allows students to use sensory information such as sight, sound and breathing to explore punctuation.
WRITING AND LITERACY
347
Supporting the teacher The role of the ESW in supporting writing may involve assisting the teacher when they are presenting to the whole class. It may also involve working with individuals or small groups. When the teacher is working with the whole class, the ESW may be asked to work with students who need support to focus, pay attention and stay on task: ‘Liam, we are looking at this paragraph.’ This may require the ESW to sit with or near these students. The ESW might simply make eye contact, ask the student to look at the teacher or their work, or reinforce a direction given by the teacher. The ESW might sit with a group of students, give prompts, ask questions and encourage the student to answer questions put by the teacher. The ESW might also demonstrate the task or tasks, point to information and reinforce the student’s actions: ‘Good, you’ve found the right text.’ The ESW might clarify the student’s understanding of the task or help the student to recall the necessary steps required to complete the task. ESWs can also assist students to access and use the appropriate resources or equipment. During whole-class lessons, the ESW may be required to observe students’ work and provide feedback to the teacher: ‘Tess had difficulty following directions/Fahia kept looking at Pia to see what she needed to do/Lennie held his pencil so tight he got cramps in his hand.’ When working with small groups, the ESW will specifically target support to individual students as directed by the classroom teacher. The primary goal is to support students to achieve the required lesson goals/outcomes by working to the best of their ability. The degree of support given to individual students will vary according to ability and teacher requirements.
Strategies to support writing
GO
further
Learn more about writing programs and resources in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
Depending on the needs and abilities of students, ESWs may be asked to assist with ensuring the immediate learning environment meets the needs of the student. This would include making sure: • the student has the correct tools for writing (e.g. a student may need to have a special grip attached to their pen, a writing slope or other specialised materials or assistive technologies) • the student can see and hear the teacher • visual and auditory distractions are minimised • the student is seated away from other students who may create a distraction • the student is ready to begin work • the student is attending to the teacher (by reminding the student to look at and listen to the teacher) • there is a reinforcement of instructions, directions or sequence of a task for the student • notes are taken for students if required (some students may need support to take notes while the teacher is talking or may need the ESW to take notes for the student) • instructions are adapted to enable them to be understood by the student • there is support for the student to use self-correction and self-editing • the student is encouraged to use available resources such as word walls, sentence openers and/ or a dictionary • the student is prompted when appropriate (by using a range of questions or statements to support writing development). The nature of these prompts will obviously depend on the needs, ability and age/year of the student. Consider, for example, the prompts in Figure 14.28, which provide the student with positive feedback or encourage thinking and problem-solving. It is essential to get to know the strengths of each student, their knowledge and skills, and how they are applied to learning tasks in the classroom. It is also important to understand the objectives, goals and learning outcomes for each lesson. What does the teacher want the students to know, do, practise, learn, explore or research?
Figure 14.28 Questions and statements to support writing development
Form of development
Questions/statements
Sentence development
I like this sentence because . . . I can see that in this sentence you have . . . Could you think of an adjective to go here?
Developing content
What other information would you like to add? Let’s think about how you have organised the information. What would be a good ending?
Improving writing
What could you add to make your story more interesting? What could you add to make your character more scary/funny? What words could you use to describe your character in more detail? What’s another word you could use for . . .? Let’s look on the word wall.
Building confidence
I like the way you . . . You have a great idea . . . You’ve used some very descriptive adjectives. Your story is very interesting/informative/funny. Tell me what you like about your story. What ideas do you have?
Punctuation
Let’s check the punctuation together using your checklist.
Spelling
Circle the words you think are not spelt correctly.
14.4 Spelling Spelling is a sub-strand of the English curriculum, an extract of which is shown in Figure 14.29. The highest number of instructional elements for spelling are addressed from Foundation to Year 10. Like all other areas of the curriculum, spelling content is sequenced so each new set of skills and knowledge lays the foundation for later skills and knowledge. As they experiment with written words, students begin to realise that for words to be understood, the letters must be placed in the correct sequence – known as letter knowledge. This understanding is the beginning of learning to spell. Students acquire this knowledge through direct instruction within a carefully sequenced curriculum that allows students to gain letter–sound knowledge of the various combinations and spelling rules in the language. Spelling is integrated across all areas of the curriculum. As an ESW, you will not be expected to know each of these elements; however, you should be aware that spelling instruction follows a typical sequence to allow students to gradually build their skills and knowledge as spellers. You should also be aware that progression in spelling is not linear, and students will go back and forth as they develop and build their skills as spellers.
GO
further
Learn more about the sequence of spelling instruction in the Australian curriculum in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
Learning to spell Learning to spell occurs alongside learning to write and, like reading, requires direct instruction. To become good spellers requires students to draw on and apply their accumulated knowledge of language and the way it is used when communicating. Like other areas of development, children’s readiness to learn to spell occurs in a typical sequence as they begin to understand that symbols (letters) represent spoken words.
WRITING AND LITERACY
349
Knowledge about how sounds (phonemes) of words are represented by letters or letter patterns, knowledge of meaning units within words (morphemes) and word origins
Spelling
Sub-strand
Understand that words are units of meaning and can be made of more than one meaningful part (ACELA1818)
Use visual memory to read and write high-frequency words (ACELA1821)
Know how to read and write some high-frequency words and other familiar words (ACELA1817) Recognise and know how to use simple grammatical morphemes to create word families (ACELA1455)
Understand how to spell one- and twosyllable words with common letter patterns (ACELA1778)
Year 1
Understand how to use knowledge of letters and sounds including onset and rime to spell words (ACELA1438)
Foundation
English: Sequence of content F-6 Strand: Language
Build morphemic word families using knowledge of prefixes and suffixes (ACELA1472)
Use knowledge of letter patterns and morphemes to read and write highfrequency words and words whose spelling is not predictable from their sounds (ACELA1823)
Understand how to use knowledge of digraphs, long vowels, blends and silent letters to spell oneand two-syllable words including some compound words (ACELA1471)
Year 2
Year 3
Know how to use common prefixes and suffixes, and generalisations for adding a suffix to a base word (ACELA1827)
Recognise and know how to write most high frequency words including some homophones (ACELA1486)
Understand how to use letter–sound relationships and less common letter patterns to spell words (ACELA1485)
Figure 14.29 English: Sound and Letter Knowledge sub-strand: Foundation to Year 6
Read and write a large core of high frequency words including homophones and know how to use context to identify correct spelling (ACELA1780)
Understand how to use knowledge of letter patterns including double letters, spelling generalisations, morphemic word families, common prefixes and suffixes and word origins to spell more complex words (ACELA1779)
Year 4
Explore less common plurals, and understand how a suffix changes the meaning or grammatical form of a word (ACELA1514)
Understand how to use knowledge of known words, base words, profixes and suffixes, word origins, letter patterns and spelling generalisations to spell new words (ACELA1513)
Year 5
Source: ACARA (2016: 7, 18).
Understand how to use knowledge of known words, word origins including some Latin and Greek roots, base words, prefixes, suffixes, letter patterns and spelling generalisations to spell new words including technical words ((ACELA1526)
Year 6
Stage 1: Precommunicative stage. Children begin to write random letters and shapes that represent letters. • Stage 2: Semiphonetic stage. Children begin to understand that specific letters represent specific sounds –for example, Sophie might write her name as ‘Se’. • Stage 3: Phonetic stage. Children use a letter or group of letters to represent every speech sound they hear in a word – for example, beach may be written as ‘bech’. • Stage 4: Transitional stage. Children begin to understand and apply common letter patterns. During this stage, we often see invented spelling where a child will draw on their phonetic knowledge to spell a word – for example, ‘lik’ for ‘like’ or ‘skool’ for ‘school’. • Stage 5: Correct stage. Children now apply common generalisations and letter–sound combinations; they also begin to remember sight words. The following figures show the progression of Macky’s spelling skills from Kindergarten to Year 1. In Figure 14.30, Kindergarten Macky writes, ‘I feel happy because learning makes my brain grow big.’ This shows that Macky is somewhere around Stage 2/3 in his spelling development. Almost six months later (Figure 14.31), Macky has moved to Stage 5. He will still continue to spell some words incorrectly and move between Stages 4 and 5. Each child will progress through these stages at their own unique pace. Some children will enter school at Stage 2 while others may have reached Stage 3 or 4. •
Figure 14.30 The progression of spelling skills – Kindergarten
Figure 14.31 The progression of spelling skills – Year 1
Spelling knowledge The skills and knowledge acquired when learning to read are also applied when learning to spell. Reading, writing and spelling skills develop concurrently. Learning to spell requires students to continuously build their skills and knowledge as readers, writers and spellers. They must learn spelling rules (and exceptions to spelling rules), as well as sight words, grammar and punctuation. Students must acquire (Department of Children, Schools and Families, UK, 2009): • phonemic knowledge – the relationships between letters (graphemes) and sounds (phonemes) • morphological knowledge – the conscious awareness of the sounds of language and the ability to talk about and manipulate those sounds; this includes knowledge of: – root words – contain one morpheme and cannot be broken down into smaller grammatical units (e.g. school, chair, boy, dog) and sometimes are referred to as the stem or base form – compound words – two root words combined to make a word (e.g. playground, football) – suffixes – added after root words, changing the meaning and often the spelling of a word (e.g. beauty – beautiful, happy – happiness); some suffixes, called inflectional suffixes (or WRITING AND LITERACY
351
inflections), modify words to indicate, for example, plurals (e.g. boy – boys, fox – foxes) or verb tenses (e.g. walk – walks – walking – walked) – prefixes – added before a root word, and change the meaning but rarely affect the spelling of a word (e.g. replace, mistake) • etymological knowledge – the origin of words; includes understanding that words with the same base meaning are spelt the same (e.g. bound/boundary) while words that have a different meaning are generally not spelt the same (e.g. seen/scenery) • visual knowledge – understanding the way words and letter combinations look. Students draw on their visual memory when looking to see whether a word ‘looks right’ – for example, if a word doesn’t include a vowel, it is not spelt correctly.
Spelling lists Teachers are provided with a core list of words for Grades K–6. Teachers and students will add to this list on the basis of interests, current events and curriculum content knowledge. Depending on the grade, students will be introduced to between 10 and 20 new spelling words per week. Before a new list of spelling words is given to the students, the teacher will conduct a pre-test. The students are then issued with the spelling list and are able to self-correct their work. Any words that are spelled incorrectly then become the student’s spelling goal for the week. Students are required to take their list home and learn their misspelled words using a strategy called ‘Look, Say the Word, Cover, Write, Check’. Students are expected to work on their spelling each night in preparation for a post-test scheduled for the following week. Students are also required to learn around 100 high-frequency and sight words, which are shown in Figure 14.32. High-frequency words are those that occur frequently in text, such as ‘the’, ‘my’, ‘and’, ‘him’ and ‘her’. Sight words are words that students learn without the need to apply decoding strategies that is, they are instantly recognised. Examples include ‘came’, ‘with’, ‘your’ and ‘this’. Many, although not all, sight words are also high-frequency words. Figure 14.32 High-frequency sight words a
friend
it
run
two
after
from
like
said
up
again
gave
little
saw
upon
and
get
looked
say
us
at
girl
love
school
use
away
give
made
see
very
because
goes
make
she
was
been
good
me
should
we
before
had
mum
so
went
big
have
my
stayed
were
boy
he
not
that
what
by
her
of
the
when
came
him
off
their
where
come
his
on
them
which
Source: NSW Department of Education (2011) ª State of New South Wales (Department of Education), 2018. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
Spelling strategies Becoming a good speller requires times and practice. It is important to support students to ‘have a go’ – that is, use their existing knowledge of words and language to attempt to spell an unknown word. Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton and Johnston (2016) suggest students be taught to analyse words as a way of helping them to understand the many rules associated with English spelling. Referred to as words study, this allows students to: • examine the logic and consistencies within our written language system • help students to master recognising, spelling, defining and using specific words • develop a general knowledge of English spelling patterns and conventions, which assist students to decode unfamiliar words, spell correctly and guess the meaning of unfamiliar words. Students also require specific word knowledge in order to recall the correct spelling: only specific knowledge of the spelling of ‘which’ and ‘witch’ makes it possible to know which witch is which. To be good spellers, students need both general and specific knowledge – the two are reciprocal and intertwined. Scenario
SPELLING LISTS Perri (Grade 3) uses ‘Look, Say the Word, Cover, Write, Check’, to practise her weekly spelling list. Each week the teacher gives the students a new list of words for their spelling book. Before giving out the list, the teacher reads the words and the students must attempt to spell each word, writing it in their pre-test spelling book. The students then self-correct their work. Students must then focus on learning all the words that were spelt incorrectly in readiness for the post-spelling test the following week. Perri correctly spelt 10 words. After the test, the students are given their spelling list. Perri circles the words she has spelt incorrectly and writes them in her personal dictionary.
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US ABOUT PERRI AS A LEARNER?
Perri was able to spell half of the words on the new word list. This tells us that Perri is recognising and remembering words as she is reading, and that she is likely to be applying decoding skills when attempting unfamiliar words. What it doesn’t tell us is whether Perri knows the meaning of each word and could correctly use each word in a sentence. Nor does it tell us whether Perri will be able to correctly recall how to spell these words in the following weeks.
According to Palmer and Invernizzi (2015), word study is built on the three layers of English spelling: • the alphabetic principle – the relationships between letters and sounds • letter patterns – combining letters to create single sounds such as ‘ch’, ‘sh’, ‘th’. Single sounds may also be represented by different letters/letter combinations (blends) – for example, ‘c’, ‘k’, ‘ck’. Letter patterns also relate to meaning – for example, ‘which’ and ‘witch’. • word meaning – when students are learning to spell new words, it is also important that they understand the meaning of the word and can use it in the correct context. In the case of Perri (see the above scenario), for example, does she know the meaning of the word ‘spiral’? Could Perri use the word in a sentence? If the answer to these questions is ‘no’, then for Perri learning to spell ‘spiral’ at this point in her spelling development makes little sense. Selecting and using the correct word for words that sound the same, are spelt differently and have a different meaning can be challenging for students – for example, ‘Queen Elizabeth II has reigned for over 65 years/‘Queen Elizabeth II has rained for over 65 years.’ When spoken, both sentences sound correct; however, when written one of them is obviously wrong!
WRITING AND LITERACY
353
GO further Access more examples of posters and diagrams to use with decoding strategies for spelling in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
Perfetti (2007) states that efficient and reliable retrieval of word meanings depends on accurate and complete representations of word features relating to speech sounds (phonology), spelling patterns (orthography) and word meanings (semantics) in memory. Seeing and understanding how words work, how to look for patterns and how to apply generalisations (and exceptions) are important spelling skills for all students.
Word ladders
Rasinski (2012: 5) suggests the use of word ladders as a tool to help students explore words in context and decode words: ‘when children add, take away, or rearrange letters to make a new word form one they have just made, they must examine sound symbol relationships closely. Using this kind of analysis helps students to learn how to decode and spell accurately’. Word ladders integrate spelling and word meaning which builds comprehension and allows words to be explored Figure 14.33 Counting up word ladder in context rather than in isolation. Word ladders can be used with the whole class, in small groups or with individual students. Students can work independently or with the support of the teacher/ ESW. Figure 14.33 shows some examples of word ladders. Students start at the bottom of the ladder and work their way up each rung, following the clues, and adding and changing letters as they go. The following list provides some examples of spelling strategies used to assist students to develop their spelling knowledge. Using these strategies may not always lead to the correct spelling; however, students typically will get part of the word correct and can then use other strategies such as word walls, spelling lists and organisational charts to self-correct their spelling. • Deconstruct words into syllables and highlight particular sound patterns. • Word mapping: Use a ‘y’ shaped arrow when two letters make one phoneme and no arrows connecting phonemes that make no sound (e.g. silent ‘e’). • For a base/root word, first identify the base. When students can identify the base/root word, they can then apply their knowledge of spelling rules to help them spell a word – for example, ‘reconstruct’, ‘unhappy’, ‘playing’, ‘bigger’. • Apply (spelling) analogy of words. When students Source: Copyright ª 2005 by Timothy V. Raskinski. Reprinted by permission draw on and apply their existing knowledge of of Scholastic Inc. words, it can assist them to spell new words. Students ask themselves: ‘Does the word I want to spell sound like a word I already know?’ For example, a student may want to write ‘black’ – it sounds like ‘back’, which ends in ‘ack’. Other strategies might include chunking, word families, and onset and rimes. • Use/create mnemonics, which are short rhymes or phrases that are used to help remember the spelling of irregular words – for example ‘Emma faced a dilemma’, or ‘Please keep quiet about my diet’. Other examples include:
•
• •
•
– There’s a in separate – Sally Ann Is Dancing – SAID Ask, ‘Does it look right?’ When students write a word and ask themselves, ‘Does it look right?’ they are drawing on their orthographic memory (mental picture) of the shape of words and letter combination. Consult an expert. Students can ask another student to check their spelling, or consult word walls, spelling lists, a dictionary or a computer spell check. Homographs, homonyms and homophones must be taught explicitly. A homograph is a word with the same spelling as another, but of different origin and meaning, for example wind (the wind blows), wind (wind the clock). A homonym is a word that has the same sound and spelling as another, but a different meaning – for example, ‘strike’ (verb), ‘strike’ (noun). A homophone is a word with the same sound as another but different spelling and meaning – for example, ‘bear’, ‘bare’. Morphemic knowledge needs to develop. For example, when decoding words, identify the prefix and suffix with their meanings, and identify the base word. Homonym
pear
pair
mail
male
flour
flower
Organisation charts Spelling charts are typically posters, graphics or lists displayed around the classroom that remind students of various grammar and spelling rules. Students can refer to them as needed to assist with spelling words they may find challenging. As an ESW, you will not be expected to have a detailed knowledge of spelling strategies; however, you will be expected to model the strategies used by the teacher to support spelling. As an ESW, your role is to scaffold spelling skills and knowledge and help students to apply a range of decoding skills. There is no single best strategy to teach spelling, nor is there a single best strategy to support spellers. Approaches to teaching spelling may vary slightly depending on the program being used by the school. When teaching spelling, teachers will take into account individual differences such as oral language skills, vocabulary and literacy experiences at home. There will be a range of spelling abilities in any classroom, and each student should be supported to work at their own pace and consolidate their spelling knowledge and spelling strategies before moving to the next stage. Students who struggle with spelling often become anxious, which increases the likelihood of spelling errors. For these students, providing a variety of spelling games that allow for repetition and practice is essential.
son
sun
knight night
night nig nigh i ht ht
Figure 14.34 Example of an organisational chart
Source: ª Copyright ABC Teaching Resources, http://erinschoolfuninfirst. blogspot.com/2013/09/reading-and-writing-organisational-charts.html.
WRITING AND LITERACY
355
14.5 Handwriting and keyboarding Link to the Australian Curriculum
Handwriting is a sub-element of the Literacy strand of the Australian Curriculum: English. Skills related to keyboarding to construct and edit print are located in the literacy sub-element Use of Software. These elements are described in Figure 14.35.
Figure 14.35 Handwriting and use of software in the Australian Curriculum: English Sub-strand
Handwriting Developing a fluent, legible handwriting style, beginning with unjoined letters and moving to joined handwriting
Use of software Using a range of software applications to construct and edit print and multimodal texts
Foundation
Produce some lower case and upper case letters using learned letter formations (ACELY1653)
Construct texts using software including word processing (ACELY1654)
Year 1
Write using unjoined lower case and upper case letters (ACELY1663)
Construct texts that incorporate supporting images using software including word processing programs (ACELY1664)
Year 2
Write legibly and with growing fluency using unjoined upper case and lower case letters (ACELY1673)
Write using joined letters that are clearly formed and consistent in size (ACELY1684)
Year 3
Write using clearly formed joined letters, and develop increased fluency and automaticity (ACELY1696)
Develop a handwriting style that is becoming legible, fluent and automatic (ACELY1706)
Year 4
Develop a handwriting style that is legible, fluent and automatic and varies according to audience and purpose (ACELY1716)
Use a range of software, including word processing programs, learning new functions as required to create texts (ACELY1717)
Year 5
Use a range of software including word processing programs with fluency to construct, edit and publish written text, and select, edit and place visual, print and audio elements (ACELY1707)
Use a range of software including word processing programs to construct, edit and publish written text, and select, edit and place visual, print and audio elements (ACELY1697)
Year 6
Use software including word processing programs with growing speed and efficiency to construct and edit texts featuring visual, print and audio elements (ACELY1685)
Construct texts featuring print, visual and audio elements using software, including word processing programs (ACELY1674) Source: (ACARA 2015: 14).
Handwriting and Keyboarding is also a sub-element of the National Literacy Learning Progression (ACARA 2018). This sub-element describes how a student uses handwriting and keyboarding skills with increasing speed, accuracy and fluency to compose and edit text, or to complete tasks for different purposes. It describes how a student develops a fluent, legible handwriting style, beginning with unjoined letters and transitioning to joined handwriting. Students become increasingly confident, proficient and flexible with keyboarding and handwriting. Keyboarding is also included in the content description for the Digital Technologies Curriculum. As an example, elaborations for Year 2 include exploring and identifying hardware and software components of digital systems when creating ideas and information – for instance, experimenting with different ways of providing instructions to use games software using a mouse, touch pad, touch screen, keyboard, stylus, or switch scanning device, and using different software to manipulate text, numbers, sound and images.
Keyboarding skills
GO
Although the curriculum requires students to use Word documents, most states and territories do not have a formal keyboarding program in place. The NSW English Syllabus for Handwriting and Using Digital Technologies includes a range of outcomes related to keyboarding, which consist of demonstrating the use of commonly used software for word processing, keyboard and mouse skills as well as how to access and use images when constructing texts. A range of online programs exist that can be used to teach keyboarding skills. Examples can be found at: https://getsmarts.weebly.com/handwritingkeyboarding.html.
Handwriting skills
further
Access a detailed outline of the Handwriting and Keyboarding subelement as described in the National Literacy Learning Progression in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
Research has shown that the act of handwriting is directly tied to academic achievement. When children struggle to write letters and words, it takes away from the content of their writing. These children often include less detail, rush through handwritten assignments and show avoidance behaviours. Handwriting is a complex task that requires the student to coordinate a number of functions – for example, form a meaningful phrase, recall the shape of each letter, recall the order of letters to form words, recall how to form each letter, remember to space each word, coordinate the hand and eye, use the correct grip and remember to move from left to right and from top left to bottom right. All these skills take time to develop and will occur at a unique pace for each student. The ability to produce clear and legible writing requires the coordination of a number of skills, which are outlined below. Sensory-motor skills include: • the ability to separate the functions of the two sides of the hand • the grip and pinch strength • fine motor coordination • hand–eye coordination • the development of a dominant hand • spatial awareness/integration – top/bottom, left/right • posture • proprioceptive skills – the ability to coordinate movement automatically (sensory integration) • bilateral control – moving two hands symmetrically to an object or moving two hands asymmetrically (one hand closer or further away) to or from an object – for example, using two hands when writing – one hand to hold the paper, the other hand to write. Visual-motor skills include: • visual tracking – the ability to control the fine eye movements required to follow a line of print • visual skills – the ability to copy and form letters, numbers and shapes • visual perception – the ability to use and interpret visual information – for example, the ability to understand that ‘a’ and ‘A’ are both the first letter of the alphabet • the ability to visually discriminate between letters, particularly visually similar letters – for example, db, pq, mw, nm.
WRITING AND LITERACY
357
Muscle tone and joint stability are necessary for: • proper writing control, which requires trunk stability and shoulder control (using back and shoulder muscles to steady the body allows greater control of the hand when writing) • handwriting movement (as handwriting is relatively slow, the shoulder muscles must be strong enough to hold the shoulder in a stable position to allow for smooth writing) • arm strength • finger strength and dexterity • the ability to isolate individual finger movements • the development of a mature grip, wrist rotation • the tripod grip (Figure 14.36), which uses the fingers Figure 14.36 Tripod grip to control the pencil and is the mature grip for handwriting (the pencil is positioned so that there is Right hand Left hand equal pressure between the thumb, the side of the middle finger and the tip of the index finger, and all fingers are slightly bent. A common error made by children is to grip the pencil too tightly and place too much pressure on the fingers). Good muscle tone and joint stability allows students to produce consistent: • letter alignment: Letters need to sit on the line rather than drift upwards or drift downwards in order to be Figure 14.37 Example of incorrect letter alignment legible (see Figure 14.37) • letter spacing: Each word must be equally spaced from the next word to make it legible. Eachwordmust be equallyspaced fromthenext wordtomakeitlegible • letter size: Keeping letter size consistent makes it easy to read and writing will flow more smoothly. KEeping lEttEr sizE consistEnt makeS it Easy to rEad • letter slant: Keeping letter slant consistent makes it easier to read and writing will flow more smoothly. Keeping letter slant consistent makes it easier to read. Cognitive skills include: • recognition and recall of letters, numbers, words and shapes • form perception – the ability to perceive and recall the shape and form of objects, pictures, letters and numbers • accurate and consistent letter formation. Reversals or mirror writing can occur. Some students may write some letters or whole words reversed or upside down. This can be a result of immature internalising of left and right or the lack of a dominant side. They may not have reached the understanding that letters must be oriented in a particular way and sequenced to make meaning clear.
Letter formation
Figure 14.38 Example of lower case and capital letters in Australian school font
For students with handwriting difficulties, breaking down letters into sub-groups is a useful way to teach handwriting skills. For the purposes of developing handwriting skills, letters are divided into sub-groups based on the similarities of movement; this assists students to develop greater awareness of how letters are formed. These sub-groups include: • the anti-clockwise letters: adgq, ceos, uy, f • the stick letters: l, i, t, j • the clockwise letters: m, n, r, h, p, b • the diagonal letters: k, v, w, x, z Source: ª The State of South Australia, Department Teaching correct letter formation involves providing learners of Education and Children’s Services. with opportunities to talk about the names and features of letters and the sounds they represent. In Australia, letter formation is prescribed using the Australian school font, examples of GO further which can be seen in Figure 14.38. Kindergarten students begin to learn Australian school font by tracing over word outlines. In Learn more about the Australian Year 2, students continue to develop these skills with the help of a writing guide. school font and an
Cursive handwriting The development of cursive handwriting allows students to write faster. Cursive writing requires the knowledge of how to link letters together. With practice, linking skills result in greater fluency of movement when handwriting. According to the Government of South Australia (2005), linking has specific rules, which include the following: • There is no link from upper-case letters to lower-case letters. • The correct starting place and direction of movement for each letter shape are the bases for the development of links. • The links are the outcome of a flowing handwriting movement rather than drawn deliberately. • Connections need to exist between letters in a word. • Any distortion caused to letter shapes through linking should be discouraged. • Small groups of letters should be practised rather than individual letters, as this is more likely to simulate the movements required for continuous writing. • Letters that link to the following letter should link directly from the end of the letter to the beginning of the next letter. • The position at which the letter finishes is important to linking. • Do not link to • The point at which the exit links to the following letter should be no higher than the exit of o. • There is no link from an s if you link to it – for example, • Do not link to The development of cursive handwriting skills requires explicit instruction and practice. As students practise, they should be encouraged to develop a natural rhythm using smooth continuous strokes.
WRITING AND LITERACY
example of handwriting practice for Kindergarten and Year 2 in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
359
Like any new skill, cursive writing takes time to master. Students should be encouraged to self-monitor their own progress by comparing earlier attempts with later work. Students can also be encouraged to set their own mini–goals for mastering cursive writing.
Observing handwriting ESWs may be required to observe, record and evaluate a student’s handwriting. This is best achieved by using a checklist (see Figure 14.39) which identifies the range of skills that could be observed. Checklists can be used for on-the-spot observation or as a tool to evaluate a sample of a student’s handwriting skills. To be considered valid and reliable, the student should be Figure 14.39 Handwritten observation checklist Handwritten observation checklist Student name:
Class:
Classroom teacher:
Date:
Observer’s name: Look for:
Comments:
Posture • Curve/tilt of head • Distance of head from paper • Placement of feet and legs • Level of shoulders Hand/arm • Pemcio; grip – tripod grip uses the fingers to control the pencil • Bilateral control – position of hand to hold paper while writing • Movement – fluid/jerky • Moves from left to right and top to bottom Starts at top left Spacing between words Word formation Word omitted Word spacing Word reversals Writing style – consistent or mixed (combining capitals, lower case, cursive and letter slants) Hand/arm • Use of lines and margins – consistent or inconsistent, appropriate or inappropriate • Total slope of finished word Other comments Source: Government of South Australia (2005).
observed on a number of occasions and accompanied by an evaluation of a number of handwriting samples. The combination of observations and writing samples will assist you to identify the strengths and deficits which can be used to formulate appropriate remedial handwriting strategies.
Dysgraphia Students who consistently struggle to physically form letters and words, or whose writing is consistently messy/illegible, may have a disorder known as dysgraphia. This is a handwriting disorder where the individual consistently struggles to write legibly because of poor letter formation (and often poor spelling). Unlike students who have mastered the mechanics of writing, those with dysgraphia will often forget what they have written or have difficulty organising their thoughts because they are so busy concentrating on the mechanics of writing. There are three recognised forms of dysgraphia: • Dyslexic dysgraphia is characterised by poor spelling and legible copied work; however, individual written work is illegible. Difficulties with letter directions may also be present. • Motor dysgraphia is accompanied by fine motor deficits, which render written work illegible (both individual and copied). Fine motor deficits present may include difficulty tying shoelaces, holding a pen and forming individual letters without extreme time, effort and attention. • Spatial dysgraphia is characterised by an issue of spatial awareness. A person with spatial dysgraphia would have illegible handwriting regardless of whether it was individual or copied. Pictures and drawn work are also illegible to an external reader (adapted from Patino 2018). Dysgraphia is assessed by administering a number of tests, including an IQ test, and tests of academic achievement, written responses and visual processing. Students with dysgraphia will often have: • visual-spatial difficulties such as left-to-right sequencing, writing horizontally, letter spacing (words all run together), writing on a line, discriminating and drawing shapes • poor fine motor skills, such as holding a pen, tracing, cutting, keyboarding, holding paper steady for writing • poor language processing skills – remembering their own ideas and directions of others, remembering and following rules of games • poor spelling skills – difficulty remembering spelling rules; unable to identify words spelt incorrectly; mixing upper and lower case; using a mismatch of print and cursive writing; unable to read their own writing; continually erasing and reattempting writing • poor grammar – unable to remember and apply grammar rules; mixing up tenses, failing to use punctuation • poor recall of text – difficulty recalling and retelling stories; sentences are jumbled; leaving out key information or facts (adapted from Patino 2018). Students can become extremely anxious and tense, which compounds their writing difficulties. When this occurs, students will become resistant to writing and may engage in a range of avoidance strategies (see Figure 14.40).
WRITING AND LITERACY
361
DYSGRAPHIA Jon has dysgraphia. Sample 1 demonstrates his inability to form letters and words. Sample 2 shows some progress – some words are legible and there is some separation of each word.
Scenario Sample 3 demonstrates that Jon can now write in a sentence – he is able to correctly space each word; however, he is unable to spell the words correctly. In sample 4, we see that Jon is using phonetic spelling; however, it is still difficult to read.
Figure 14.40 Samples of Jon’s writing
Students with dysgraphia display the following handwriting characteristics: inconsistent spacing (or no spacing) between words incomplete words or letters and consistently omitting words mixed writing style – combining capitals, lower case, cursive and letter slants inconsistent use of lines and margins – inappropriate indents unusual or extremely tight grip of pen slow and laborious letter formation poor bilateral coordination (using both hands – one to write, the other to steady the page). Figure 14.41 shows the range of strategies that can be used to support students with dysgraphia. Support strategies require a combination of remediation and compensatory strategies to assist cognitive, kinaesthetic and motor development. Children and young people with dysgraphia typically cope better when they can provide information verbally. They may benefit from the use of speech-to-text technology, graphic organisers and paper with raised lines. • • • • • • •
Proprioceptive dysfunction Simply put, proprioceptive skills are the ability to coordinate movements automatically. These skills are also referred to as sensory processing skills. An example is the ability to automatically handwrite legibly and fluidly without the need to think about each movement.
Figure 14.41 Supporting students with dysgraphia Assist the student to develop fluency – this may include visualising or verbalising the shape and formation of letters – for example a down stroke and circle for ‘d’ and down stroke for ‘b’. It may involve getting the student to practise by air writing or writing in sand or finger paint. Provide the student with a printout that shows the direction of each stroke in the formation of a letter. Show the student how to physically space words by placing the index finger of the non-dominant hand at the end of the word and placing a dot to indicate where to start the next word. Encourage the student to touch the bottom of each letter to the line on the page. Draw a line in light pencil above the printed line to indicate the size for lower case letters. Draw a second line in another colour to indicate the size of capital letters. Have the student pay attention to their posture and pencil grip. A photograph or illustration of correct pencil grip can act as a reminder. Have the student try to relax their wrist and use the shoulder for stability. Ensure that the chair and desk are at the correct height for the student. Use pencil grips, weighted pencils or novelty pencils if this assists the student. Show the student how to hold the paper with the non-dominant hand, how to slant the page and how to move the hand across the page and down the page. Remind the student to look at what they are writing. Encourage the student to verbalise what they find difficult about the mechanics of writing. Does the student: • get cramps or soreness in their hand, wrist or back • get sweaty palms • become anxious • find it difficult to see their writing? By talking about their symptoms, students can gain a sense of control and take charge of remedial strategies. Other strategies may include: • encouraging the student to create a draft using key words or phrases to help them retain their thoughts when writing • having the student verbalise what they are going to write about (conferencing with another student or ESW).
WRITING AND LITERACY
363
Sensory integration dysfunctions (SID) are caused when the brain and central nervous system have difficulty processing, or are unable to process, sensory information required to coordinate movement, and to understand and make sense of the world. Students with proprioceptive dysfunction tend to be clumsy, awkward and uncoordinated and will display the following behaviours in an inconsistent manner: • movements appear disjointed, non-fluid or awkward; there is poor balance and coordination • tactile defensiveness – avoids being touched; doesn’t like to get dirty; intensely likes/dislikes certain textures; may like to be dressed or wrapped tightly • goes about motor tasks in an atypical manner • unable to pace a task – rushes at turning a page, spills or drips paint because time has not been taken to wipe the brush; holds a pencil too loosely or too tightly; fails to coordinate movement of the arm along the page when writing • sits or stands in an unusual position when completing a task • engages in sensory-seeking behaviours such as walking or running too fast or too slowly; bolts at things; bumps into things; drops things; stomps feet when walking; constantly tapping feet or kicking feet against table or chair; loves squishy things such as slime; likes clothing and shoes to be firm rather than loose fitting • often falls over; has poor balance; may appear floppy or stiff and rigid • has difficulty with fine motor tasks such as dressing, tying shoelaces, drawing, colouring, completing puzzles, turning pages in a book, undoing cling wrap and unscrewing drink bottles • may be over-stimulated by visual displays in the classroom • engages in sensory-seeking behaviours such as constantly chewing on things – clothes (collar/ sleeve), pens, paper, fingers, nails, lips • constantly moving – tapping, rocking, swinging or shaking leg, drumming fingers, spinning or twirling • slouches, puts head in hands, lays upper body across desk • unable to tune out normal background noise or likes to have loud background noise • may have intense and unusual reactions to certain tastes or smells. Students with proprioceptive dysfunction may be over-sensitive or under-sensitive to sensory information. This is referred to as either hypersensitivity (intensive response) or hyposensitivity (low response). Some students also display both hypersensitivity and hyposensitivity. Various therapies are available for students with proprioceptive dysfunction – each student will have unique needs and respond to therapies in different ways. Hand-held sensory tools are a useful resource as they provide instant tactile stimulation that can have a calming effect on the student.
Additional information For additional information about sensory processing disorders, you may like to access the following websites: • Sensory Processing Disorder: http://www.sensory-processing-disorder.com/index.html • SPD Australia: http://www.spdaustralia.com.au/about-sensory-processing-disorder • Sensory Tools.Net Australia: http://shopau.sensorytools.net/as_fidget-tools • Sensibilities: http://www.senseabilities.com.au • Skill Builders: http://www.skillbuilders.com.au. An excellent resource for handwriting can be found at Handwriting in the South Australia Curriculum: https://www.education.sa.gov.au/sites/g/files/net691/f/handwritingprogram. pdf?v=1478236880.
14.6 Supporting assessment of writing and spelling: The role of the ESW As we have explored, learning to write is a developmental task that requires the integration of motor, language and social skills. Like all other areas of development, each student will progress at their own pace with a unique range of skills, strengths and knowledge. Students who consistently present with difficulties in written communication will usually have difficulty in forming numbers, letters and words. They may find it difficult to write spontaneously, and often their writing consists of jumbled word order or disconnected phrases that are difficult to interpret. Usually their writing will simply not make sense to the reader. Students who have difficulty writing may also have difficulty reading, as well as with information processing and the use of expressive language. They will also have difficulty recalling what letters and numbers look like so that the end result is illegible. Students who have an expressive writing disability may: • have failed to develop hand dominance • confuse left and right and/or have a poor sense of direction • frequently reverse letters and numbers • find it difficult to copy words or numbers • have poor organisational skills (desktop is disorganised, frequently misplaced belongings, forget where things belong). Where there is a concern that a student may have an expressive writing disability, the teacher will normally ask for a diagnostic assessment to be conducted by a specialist. The test can confirm the existence of an expressive writing disability but does not provide options for remedial strategies. Students writing skills can be assessed by using a rubric, which provides teachers with specific information about a student’s ability to: • understand the sense of audience and the engagement of the reader as they write • understand and use specific text features of for example, a persuasive argument or narrative • organise the text in a meaningful way using a variety of sentence structures, appropriate sequencing and text connectives to control the text • use typical grammatical features to meet the purpose of the writing. • use a range of language devices and precise vocabulary spell and punctuate. (NSW Department of Education, 2017) Figure 14.42 shows an example of a checklist that can be used by an ESW to undertake a general assessment of a student’s written work. Checklists can be adapted to suit the age, ability level and expected learning outcomes for individuals or groups of students. Figure 14.43 is an example of a simple checklist that could be used by students to review their written work. Again, the checklist should be adapted to reflect the skills and abilities of the students.
WRITING AND LITERACY
365
Figure 14.42 Assessing writing skills ASSESSING WRITING SKILLS Student name:
Class:
Date: Planning skills (pre-writing) • Able to articulate the purpose/reason for the written task • Able to identify the most appropriate genre • Able to plan a beginning, middle and end • Able to identify key words, phrases or concepts Written task • Writing reflects the purpose/reason for the written task • Writing shows an awareness of the audience • Writing reflects pre-planning Grammar and spelling • Demonstrates understanding of correct use of grammar and punctuation • Shows evidence of checking spelling of unfamiliar words • Vocabulary reflects topic/purpose of writing • Key words are explained (as appropriate) • Sentence structure is age/stage appropriate
Figure 14.43 Example of student writing checklist Reviewing my writing Things I can check
Things I can do
All words are spelt correctly. The genre I have used matches the purpose of my writing task. All sentences start with a capital letter and end with a full stop. I have used some new words. I have remained on topic. Another person has read and can understand my work. My writing has a beginning, middle and end. I have used at least one new word. I have used joining words other than ‘and’ and ‘but’. I have used the correct tense and plural form for verbs.
Gathering evidence of writing skills Evidence that may be gathered to assess each student’s writing development includes: • sample of independent writing • sample of spelling words, including invented spelling • dated writing samples • comments from students about their own writing skills (what they feel they do well and what they would like to improve).
A review of writing skills may include an assessment of sentence structure, spelling and grammar. Feedback to the student should focus on how to improve by working with the student to devise strategies that are appropriate to their needs and reflect the goals set by the teacher. When assessing students’ writing skills, it is important to be aware that the quality of writing will vary over time and may depend on a range of factors such as mood, interest, confidence and willingness to have a go. Students can be encouraged to keep a diary or record of their writing progress. This can be particularly important where the student becomes disheartened when writing tasks become more challenging. By reviewing past work, the student can be reminded of the progress they have made.
Assessment of spelling skills Most teachers will assess spelling using a weekly spelling list – incorrect words are retested after the student has been given the opportunity to revise. Spelling will also be corrected as students produce text for a range of purposes across the curriculum. Teachers will usually put a line through the word and write the correct spelling above it. Students will then transfer any misspelled words to their personal spelling list and/or dictionary.
ONLINE RESOURCES • • •
• •
•
ABC The Educators online resource: http://www. abcteach.com/directory/basics/writing/writing_prompts Wichita Vision Development Center: http:// childrensvisionwichita.com ESL Writing Wizard: http://www.writingwizard. longcountdown.com/handwriting_practice_ worksheet_maker.html. This website provides a gateway to a wide range of useful web links with teacher tips and lots of downloadable activities and worksheets. Handwriting for Kids: http://www.handwritingforkids.com/ handwrite. This website demonstrates how to form letters. K–3 Teacher Resources: http://www.k-3 teacherresources.com. There is a small annual membership fee to use this site. LD Online: http://www.ldonline.org/spearswerling/ The_Importance_of_Teaching_Handwriting. This site contains a wealth of information and links to other useful websites.
•
Teaching Handwriting: http://www.handwritingforkids. com/handwrite/index.htm. This site was developed by an occupational therapist and addresses left-handed writers, pencil grip, illegible handwriting, poor fine motor skills and cursive writing. It provides a range of worksheets and ideas for activities for skills such as letter formation, alignment, size and slope.
WEBSITES TO HELP YOU DEVELOP YOUR OWN GRAMMAR SKILLS
• • • •
BBC Skillswise: http://www.bbc.co.uk/skillswise Edufind.com: http://www.ef.com/english-resources/ english-grammar/english-grammar-guide The English Club.com: https://www.englishclub.com/ vocabulary/regular-verbs-list.htm University of South Australia: English language support (Grammar and punctuation): http://w3.unisa.edu.au/ study-skills/English_support.html.
WRITING AND LITERACY
367
Summary Learning to write is a skill that develops over time. The foundation of writing skills is oral language and, by extension, vocabulary. Students who struggle with oral language and/or have a limited vocabulary will also struggle with their writing. Talking to students, asking open-ended questions and acting as a scribe can support writing development. Knowledge of genres, grammar, punctuation and spelling also develops over time as students are provided with a wide range of opportunities to read, listen to language and use language in various situations.
Discussion question 1
For this task, refer to the scenario ‘The Beach’ on p. 344. a What type of writing instruction is Helen going to use? b Explain why asking Brax questions is a helpful way to improve his writing skills? c What could the ESW do first as part of the writing instruction?
d e f
How could the ESW use the concept of sentence stretchers with Brax? In the scenario, why might the ESW have chosen not to comment on Brax’s spelling and grammar? What information shared by Brax could Helen focus on for their next writing activity?
Self-check questions 1
Explain the meaning of the phrase ‘cracking the alphabetic code’. 2 Briefly describe each text type: a factual texts b persuasive texts c literary texts. 3 List the three techniques necessary for writing development. 4 The following questions relate to the five processes of writing. a List three questions that students could ask themselves about the purpose of their writing.
b
Assume you are working with a group of Year 6 students who are about to write a report for their school newsletter about their recent school camp. Suggest three questions/prompts that could be used to help the students organise their ideas. c List three questions students could ask when revising their draft. 5 List and describe the four key aspects of letter formation. 6 Explain why it is important for ESWs to use Australian school font for both printed and cursive text. 7 Explain the meaning of dysgraphia and the handwriting characteristics of students with dysgraphia.
Activities 1
Connect the instructional approach to writing (on the left) to the examples.
guided writing instruction
The ESW is working with a group of students who are all at approximately the same level in their writing development. Today the ESW will focus on the use of adjectives.
shared writing instruction
‘Today you are going to help me write about . . .’ ‘Callum, can you think of an opening sentence?’ ‘Great work. Bree, can you come and write some words to describe . . .?’
modelled writing instruction
The teacher demonstrates ‘think aloud’ strategies used by a writer when constructing text. ‘I’m going to write about . . . I’ll start by . . .’
independent writing
Today the ESW has been asked to walk around and assist students as needed as they write their own adventure story. Students are encouraged to ask for help as they require it.
interactive writing instruction
The ESW is working with a group of four students who are engaged in a writing experience. The ESW offers support as needed, asks questions and challenges students to improve their writing skills. ‘Ella, can you think of another word to describe the fairy besides ‘‘little’’?’ ‘Hesta, how can you check your spelling of ‘‘imagination’’?’
2 For this task, go online and refer to Figure 14.5: Factual texts (procedure) on p. 330. Also go online and access the Sample Lesson Plan – Procedural Writing (Day 3) in Figure 14.48 online. Assume that you are working with a group of Year 5 students who are going to write a procedure for making a pizza. Your role is to lead a guided writing session. Use the procedures for ‘recipes’ on the first page of this sample lesson plan and Figure 14.5: Factual texts (procedure) on p. 330 to list the questions/strategies you would use to guide the students through this experience. Your response should demonstrate the use of the five-step writing process (Figure 14.8). When completing this task, you may also like to refer to Figure 14.19: Self-reflection questions on p. 341.
3 Working in a small group, go to the Top Notch Teaching website: http://www.topnotchteaching.com. Search for ‘35 Spelling Games for Students of All Ages’. Select three spelling games and answer the related questions: a What is the name of the game? b What are the target spelling skills? c What is the target age range? d What resources are needed to make/access the game? e How could the game be used with a small group of students? 4 Assume that you have been asked by the teacher to work with a group of eight students to create a graphic organiser to generate ideas for a setting for a narrative text about a scary adventure. The students are familiar with graphic organisers.
Figure 14.44 Create a graphic organiser Time period (past, present, future)
Location
Setting for scary adventure
Weather conditions
Threatening elements (mythical creatures, aliens, wild animals, etc.)
WRITING AND LITERACY
369
Chapter 15 READING LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to demonstrate that, in relation to working in a school environment, you can:
GO
further
Go Further icons link to extra content for this chapter. Ask your instructor for the Go Further resource and deepen your understanding of the topic.
15.1
understand the stages of reading development, and access and read and interpret current curriculum documents in relation to reading acquisition
15.2 identify, define and apply the five elements of reading skills and knowledge: phonemic awareness; phonological awareness; fluency; vocabulary; and comprehension 15.3 identify the role of the ESW in providing reading support to students with the guidance of the teacher
Introduction This chapter provides an overview of the skills needed to become a competent and confident reader. Learning to read is a significant milestone, and is essential for future academic success. An understanding that letters form words and, when put together in a deliberate way, create meaning – like verbal language – is developed during the early years. By school age, most children can recognise and associate groups of letters as words that convey meaning. At this stage, most children can recognise and write their own name and recognise some common words seen in their daily environment. This learning usually occurs because of observation, imitation and immersion in a literacy-rich environment. Reading, however, is a skill that typically requires direct instruction.
MILLER
Scenario
Every night, Miller (2 years) chooses two bedtime stories from her bookcase. Tonight, Miller has selected one of her favourites, Dear Zoo, which she can ‘read’ herself. Her other selection is a new book she received for her birthday called Tickle, Tickle. Miller points to the word ‘zoo’ and says ‘zoo’. CAN MILLER READ?
Miller is not yet a reader; however, she is demonstrating emergent literacy skills. She knows that printed symbols represent words and that a group of printed words can create a story, which can be read and enjoyed.
15.1 Stages in reading development
Figure 15.1 Exposing children to literature at a young age assists them to make the connection between the spoken and written word.
Emergent literacy begins at birth, with children attending to the sound of human voices and, by 6 months, looking intently at pictures in books. Emergent literacy encompasses speaking, listening, looking, thinking, reading and writing. Children begin to make the connection between the spoken and written word when they are immersed in literacy (Figure 15.1). That is, they hear spoken language and see and hear print in many forms, such as fiction and non-fiction books, newspapers, magazines, advertising, food packaging, computers, television, and on clothing and fabric; they see others making and using print, such as writing a shopping list or making a sign or filling in forms; and they use a range of print-making tools like ink and felt pens, pencils, crayons and computers.
Stage 1: Emergent literacy Reading awareness begins when children become aware that a series of symbols (letters) can represent spoken words and the symbols convey specific meanings. Children usually begin to ‘read’ familiar sight words Source: Shutterstock.com/Stokmen. before they begin to write. For example, they will recognise their own name and words commonly found in the environment, such as names of fast-food chains, banks, petrol stations and stop Scenario THE SHOPPING signs. At this stage, young children can: LIST • listen to and discuss storybooks • understand that print conveys a message Ashlee (3 years) is at the supermarket with her • engage in reading and writing attempts father, who is checking the shopping list as he identify labels and signs in their environment walks along. • ‘I think we have everything on the list now, • participate in rhyming games Ashlee.’ • identify some letters and make some letter–sound matches ‘Let me see,’ says Ashlee as she takes the • use known letters or approximations of letters to represent shopping list from her father. Looking written language (especially meaningful words like their intently at the list and then at the shopping name and phrases such as ‘I love you’). trolley, she says, ‘Ice cream, yoghurt,
Stage 2: Experimental reading and writing Students develop basic concepts of print and begin to engage in and experiment with reading and writing. At this stage, students can: • retell simple narrative stories or informational texts • use descriptive language to explain and explore
apples and bread. Mummy writed this for us, didn’t she Daddy?’ What emergent literacy knowledge is Ashlee demonstrating? Ashlee understands that print has meaning – in this case, Ashlee pretends to read the list written by her mother using clues from the shopping trolley.
READING
371
I KNOW!
Scenario
Harry (4 years) and his father are sharing a familiar picture book. As his father is reading, Harry looks at the illustration and then points to the text, ‘That says, ‘‘and they pulled and pulled and pulled’’. I can read, can’t I, Dad?’ ‘Yes, Harry. You’re a good reader!’ his father replies. Harry has memorised the text, which he is able to reproduce accurately. How will this assist Harry to develop reading skills? Harry has learnt that written words convey meaning. He has also learnt that the illustrations in the book can be used as prompts
recognise letters and letter–sound matches show familiarity with rhyming and beginning sounds understand left-to-right and top-to-bottom orientation and familiar concepts of print • match spoken words with written ones • begin to write letters of the alphabet and some highfrequency words. • • •
Stage 3: Early reading and writing
Students begin to read simple stories and can write about a topic that is meaningful to them. At this stage, students can: • read and retell familiar stories • use strategies (rereading, predicting, questioning, contextualising) when comprehension breaks down Figure 15.2 Reading picture books can help children to • use reading and writing for various purposes on their develop an association between words and images. own initiative • orally read with reasonable fluency • use letter–sound associations, word parts and context to identify new words • identify an increasing number of words by sight • sound out and represent all substantial sounds in spelling a word • write about topics that are personally meaningful • attempt to use some punctuation and capitalisation (see Figure 15.2).
Stage 4: Transitional reading and writing Students begin to read more fluently and write various text forms using simple and more complex sentences. At this stage, students can: • read with greater fluency • use strategies more efficiently (rereading, questioning, and so on) when comprehension breaks down • use word-identification strategies with greater facility to unlock unknown words • identify an increasing number of words by sight • write about a range of topics to suit different audiences
use common letter patterns and critical features to spell words • punctuate simple sentences correctly and proofread their own work • spend time reading daily and use reading to research topics. •
Stage 5: Independent and productive reading and writing
WORKING IT OUT!
Scenario
Annan (7 years) is reading aloud to his mother from his school reader: ‘The car royled down the hill. ‘I don’t think it says ‘‘royled’’, that doesn’t make sense,’ his mother says. ‘Have another look, Annan. What sound do these letters make?’ ‘/r/ /o/ /l/l /ed/’ says Annan. ‘Ruled – no, rolled. The car rolled down the hill.’ ‘Good work, Annan!’ What reading skills is Annan demonstrating? Annan demonstrates both phonemic awareness and synthetic phonics skills.
Students continue to extend and refine their reading and writing to suit varying purposes and audiences. Students can: • read fluently and enjoy reading • use a range of strategies when drawing meaning from the text • use word-identification strategies appropriately and automatically when encountering unknown words SHARED READING Scenario • recognise and discuss elements of different text structures Tyler (10 years): ‘Mum, it says in my book that • make critical connections between texts convicts were sent to Australia for stealing a • write expressively in many different forms (stories, poems, hankie! And it says some convicts were reports) indented. What does that mean, Mum?’ ‘How is the word spelled, Tyler?’ • use a rich variety of vocabulary and sentences appropriate ‘i/n/d/e/n/t/u/r/e/d’. to text forms ‘You are almost right. The first part of • revise and edit their own writing during and after the word is indent. Have another look at the composing last part of the word and try again.’ • spell words correctly in final writing drafts. ‘ur/ed, /indent/ur/ed.’ As literacy skills develop, there is a gradual shift from ‘Indentured. Indentured means they were learning to read to reading to learn. This generally occurs as made to work as unpaid servants.’ ‘Oh, that’s not fair, just for stealing a students move into the primary school years. Typically, most hankie!’ students can engage in silent reading. They usually have What reading skills is Tyler developed an extensive sight word vocabulary, can use a range demonstrating? of word-attack skills and are more fluent readers. This Tyler reads with understanding and can coincides with refinement in auditory and visual perception isolate unfamiliar words. He can use his skills, greater self-regulation and self-efficacy skills, and the phonics skills to try to work out the word. ability to engage in formal logical thought as the student Tyler knows he can get support for his moves into the concrete operational stage of cognitive reading by asking questions development. What does a ‘good reader’ do? According to Maxsam GO (2015) a ‘good reader’ is a student who can: further • use conventions – understanding words, grammar and punctuation Access a scenario • comprehend what is being read using both the text and other clues such as illustrations demonstrating how important it is for • read between the lines – identify the settings, the characters, the tone, key concepts and so on children to read for • interpret information – analyse problems and draw conclusions pleasure in your Go Further • synthesise – merge new knowledge with existing knowledge to create new understandings, resource, available perspectives and ideas through your • express an opinion about the text – challenge ideas or identify bias. instructor.
READING
373
Reading instruction and the curriculum Link to the Australian Curriculum
The key aim of the Australian Curriculum: English as it relates to reading development is to ensure that students learn to listen to, read, view, speak, write, create and reflect on increasingly complex and sophisticated spoken, written and multimodal texts across a growing range of contexts with accuracy, fluency and purpose (ACARA 2016). The following statement from the General Capabilities (ACARA 2016) emphasises the gradual and integrated nature of learning to read: Students learn about language and how it works in the Language strand, and gradually develop and apply this knowledge to the practical skills of the Literacy strand in English, where students systematically and concurrently apply phonic, contextual, semantic and grammatical knowledge within their growing literacy capability to interpret and create spoken, print, visual and multimodal texts with appropriateness, accuracy and clarity.
GO
further
Learn more about the key elements of reading instruction in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
GO
further
Learn more about reading programs used in schools and to access a list of websites to explore in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
GO
further
Learn more about digital technologies and new literacies in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
The committee of the National Inquiry into the Teaching of Literacy (Department of Education, Science and Training, 2005) recommended that teachers provide systematic, direct and explicit phonics instruction so that children master the essential alphabetic code-breaking skills required for foundational reading proficiency. Equally, that teachers provide an integrated approach to reading that supports the development of oral language, vocabulary, grammar, reading fluency, comprehension and the literacies of new technologies. A balanced reading program is one in which students are provided with explicit skills that are developed systematically using a balanced and integrated approach. A balanced approach to reading instruction is supported by brain development research, which has found that phonological processing and the direct processing of semantics or meaning are of dual importance when reading. An example of a balanced reading program is the Four Resources Literacy Model (Victorian Department of Education and Training 2009), which includes: • code-breaking skills – knowledge of letter/sound relationships; concepts about print; spelling; punctuation; grammar; structural conventions and patterns • meaning-making skills – knowledge of literal and inferential meanings; use of background information, prior knowledge and previous experiences with similar texts to make meaning • text-using skills – recognition of the purpose, structure and features of texts; use of texts to increase knowledge and refine understanding; application of knowledge of texts to achieve purposes both inside and outside the school • text-analysing skills – teaching students to identify the techniques used to position readers, viewers and listeners; identification of opinions, bias, points of view; considering reactions to a text from varying perspectives; endorsing a position or presenting an alternative position to that taken by a text. Typically, students will have acquired these skills by the time they reach high school, and will begin to engage in more complex reasoning, logic, hypothesising and abstract thought as readers. To support students’ understanding of technology, Australia now has a Kindergarten to Year 8 compulsory Technologies curriculum. The focus of this curriculum is on understanding and using information systems information, which in turn will assist students when using technology as part of literacy development.
15.2 Reading skills and knowledge Reading programs focus on the systemic and sequential development of reading skills and knowledge in five key areas. Acquiring these skills requires direct instruction, discussion, reflection and practice. These skills are cumulative and interrelated – that is, students must continually draw on existing skills and knowledge to build new skills and knowledge as readers. They must also develop the ability to apply all of these skills simultaneously as they read. To achieve this, teachers introduce new skills and knowledge and support students to consolidate new skills and knowledge before progressing to the next element. Students are given the opportunity to practise, revisit and apply their developing skills using a variety of reading genres. As part of a balanced reading program, teachers also integrate oral language, writing, spelling and grammar as part of the reading program. The five element of reading skills and knowledge are: 1 phonemic awareness 2 phonological awareness 3 fluency 4 vocabulary 5 comprehension.
Phonemic awareness Phonemic awareness it the ability to understand that words are made up of individual speech sounds, or phonemes. Phonemes include single letters that represent sound, such as /t/, /k/, /h/ or combinations of vowels and consonants, such as /sh/, /th/, /oo/, /ch/. The number of phonemes in any language can vary from around 10 to around 140. There are 44 phonemes in the English language. Dempster and colleagues (2012: 25) state that blending together and segmenting phonemes are the most crucial phonemic skills for reading and spelling. The phonemic awareness of preschool children is the single best predictor of their future reading ability. Phonemic awareness is critical to reading success; it allows a student to: • identify and categorise sounds by recognising which words in a set of words start with the same sound • combine or blend separate sounds to say the word • break up or segment a word into its separate sounds • delete or add sounds to form new words • substitute sounds to make new words • isolate the first or last sound in a word. Students demonstrate phonemic awareness when they can: • identify words that begin with the same sound – for example, ‘tap’, ‘take’, ‘time’ and ‘tin’ all have a /t/ at the beginning. • isolate a single sound from within a word – for example, ‘cat’ begins with a /c/ sound and ends with a /t/ sound; ‘ball’ starts with a /b/ sound and ends with an /all/ sound • blend individual sounds into a word – for example, /b/ig, /f/ig, /j/ig. • break a word into individual sounds – for example, ‘shout’ – /sh/ /out/, ‘chip’ – /ch/ /ip/, ‘fantastic’ – /f/ /an/ /tas/ /tic/ • modify, change, or move the individual sounds in a word – for example, ‘hat’, change the /h/ to /b/.
READING
375
Figure 15.3 ‘If I gave a pig a cupcake’ phonemic awareness example
Figure 15.3 shows that us that Macky (5 years, 6 months) is demonstrating phonemic awareness when he attempts to write the word ‘would’. Although his spelling is incorrect, he demonstrates that he is able to isolate the single sound /oo/ writing ‘wood’ and the end sound /o/ in ‘throw’.
Supporting phonemic awareness
Figure 15.4 Words could be put to music as an activity to aid phonemic awareness.
Phonemic awareness can be supported by direct instruction and regular opportunities for practice and application. Playing with language, rhymes, beginning sounds and syllables is an essential first step in the process of learning to read (see Figure 15.4). Figure 15.5 describes the elements of phonemic awareness instruction that focus on teaching students to listen to and identify sounds in spoken words so they can be manipulated as a code-breaking skill. Phoneme blending and segmentation reinforce the connection between spoken and written words. This introduces the concept that single letters and specific letter combinations represent sounds – for example, /all/, as in /b/all, /c/all/, /f/all; or /an/, as in /b/an, /c/an/, /f/an/, /m/an/. Blending and segmentation allow students to play with word sounds – pulling words apart and putting them back together reinforces how phonemes (sounds) work together to create whole words. Figure 15.6 demonstrates how instruction in phonemic awareness supports other elements of literacy. Learning to connect phonemes to letter sounds (phonics) requires direct, well-planned instruction. Armbruster, Lehr and Osborn (2001) highlight an accumulation of research that indicates that phonemic awareness instruction improves children’s ability to read words, spell, write and comprehend what they are reading. The authors suggest that children who have phonemic awareness understand that sounds and letters are related in a predictable way, which in turn enables children to relate the sounds to letters as they spell words. Learning to blend phonemes with letters helps children to read words, while learning to segment sounds with letters helps them to spell words.
Figure 15.5 Phonemic awareness instruction – phonemic manipulation
Element
Explanation
Phoneme identity Initial sound
The ability to say the sound that begins words; for example, mum, mop, mug.
Phoneme identity Final sound
The ability to say the sound that ends words; for example, mum, mop, mug.
Phoneme isolation
Identifying the beginning sound – m/mum; d/dad; b/baby – and end sound – k/drink; t/cat; g/ dog
Phoneme blending (spoken language)
Blending various sounds to make a word – for example, /c/ /at/ cat; /l/ /ook/ look; /w/ /ould/ would; /p/ /ut/ put.
Medial phonemes
Identifying the middle sound with a single consonant – for example, /h/o/t and /h/u/m; /n/u/t and /n/e/t; /p/o/t and p/e/t.
Phoneme segmentation (spoken language)
Saying each sound in a word; for example, sheep sh/ee/p; goat g/oa/t; peach p/ea/ch.
Phoneme addition (spoken language)
Adding phonemes to the beginning or end of a word or a group of letters to create a new word – for example, /p/ink; /h/at; /w/as; /m/an.
Phoneme substitution (spoken language)
Substituting one phoneme for another phoneme to create a different word – for example, dress change/dr/ to /m/mess; thin change /th/ to /ch/chin.
Phoneme deletion (spoken language)
Delete a phoneme to change the word – for example, clean without /c/lean; blink without /b/link.
Figure 15.6 The relationships between phonemic awareness instruction and literacy development
Reading Learning to blend phonemes with letters helps children to read words.
Fluency • For children to understand what they read, they must be able to read words rapidly and accurately. • Rapid and accurate word reading frees children to focus their attention on the meaning of what they read.
Phonemic awareness instruction
Comprehension Word reading supports comprehension development.
Spelling • Understanding that sounds and letters are related in a predictable way supports spelling knowledge. • Learning to segment sounds with letters helps students to spell words.
READING
377
Consider This
EXAMPLE OF PHONEMIC AWARENESS ACTIVITY: THE ELKONIN BOX Elkonin boxes are a common tool used to assist students to develop phonemic awareness (Figure 15.7). Elkonin boxes are simply a set of boxes that allow students to physically segment words into phonemes.
Figure 15.9 Elkonin box 3
Figure 15.7 Elkonin box 1 Figure 15.10 Elkonin box 4
st
o
p Adapted from Blachman et al. (2000).
Say the word c/a/t – the students move the counters to represent the sounds they hear (Figure 15.8). Figure 15.8 Elkonin box 2 /c/
/a/
/t/
Ask the students to listen for beginning, middle and end sounds using the Elkonin box ‘Listen for the /t/ sound in the following words. Place a counter in the first box if you hear the /t/ sound at the beginning of the word; place a counter in the middle box if you hear the sound in the middle of the word; or place it in the last box if you hear the /t/ sound at the end of the word. Listen carefully: mat, top, rat.’ The Elkonin box can also be used to assist students to listen to, spell and write words (see Figures 15.8 and 15.10).
GO further Access an example of an Elkonin box being used by a Year 1 student to identify the number of syllables in each word in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
For example, ‘We are going to use the boxes to help us write some words. I want you to listen carefully to the sounds in the word. ‘The first word is stop. Say the word and tell me the first sound in stop. That’s right – it’s ‘‘st’’. How do we write the sound ‘‘st’’. Have a go. ‘Great, it’s ‘‘s t’’. When ‘‘s’’ and ‘‘t’’ are together they make the sound ‘‘st’’. Let’s write ‘‘st’’ in our first box. ‘Now listen carefully again: ‘‘stop’’. Say the word and tell me the next sound . . . ‘‘st’’ . . . o. ‘‘O’’ – that’s great! Let’s write ‘‘o’’ in the next box. ‘Now I want you to listen to the end sound – ‘‘stop’’. Say the word and tell me the last sound . . . ‘‘p’’ – good work! Can you write ‘‘p’’ in the last box? Let’s look at your box and see what it says . . . ‘‘st’’, ‘‘o’’, ‘‘p’’, stop. ‘I like the way you listen so carefully. Let’s try another word . . .’
Phonemic awareness instruction typically moves from simple to complex – for example, identifying initial sounds and single sounds before moving on to muddle sounds or sound blends. Similarly, students are introduced to only one or two types of phoneme manipulation at any one time, so they can grasp the concept and practise phonemic identification skills. Phonemic awareness instruction must be explicit – that is, students must be given clear instructions and clear directions for practice.
Phonological awareness Phonics involves making the connection between the single sounds (phonemes) and their related letter patterns (graphemes) when reading and writing. This letter–sound relationship is also referred to as the alphabetic principle. Dempster and colleagues (2012: 30) state that an understanding of the predictable relationship between sounds and the letters that represent them (graphemes) is at the heart of reading an alphabetic language.
Once children understand that words can be broken up into a series of separate sounds, they need to learn the relationship between those sounds and letters – the ‘alphabetic code’ or the system that the English language uses to map sounds onto paper. Phonological awareness skills are described in Figure 15.11 These skills are taught in a systematic and sequential manner, moving from simple to complex. Figure 15.11 Phonologic awareness Instructional element
Example
Syllable Awareness Every word can be broken down into syllables where every syllable has at least a vowel (a, e, i, o, u). Most syllables will also have an onset (consonants before vowel), and coda (consonants after the vowel).
GO
further
Learn more about introducing students to phonemic awareness instruction in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
Single-syllable words: yes, no, can Multi-syllable words: yes/ter/day; runn/ing; seg/ment/ing
The vowel and the coda together make up the rime of the syllable (the part that rhymes). Simple
Syllable awareness involves activities like counting, tapping, blending or segmenting words into their syllables. Rhyme awareness and production The awareness of words that rhyme and words that do not rhyme.
Hat/mat/cat/; Lie/my/cry
Thinking of and saying words that rhyme. Alliteration Sorting by initial and final sound – focus on the sounds (phonemes) not the letters.
‘f’ sound – phone/fancy ‘t’ sound – rat/wombat
Onset–rime segmentation Identifying the phonemes (sounds) of the words, not the graphemes (sound letter patterns). For example, some syllables may have multiple letters but only one speech sound (phoneme), such as ‘eye’ and ‘oar’.
Onset and rime Down: d/own Mouse: m/ouse
Initial and final sound segmentation Finding and naming the initial and final sounds of words. Blending sounds into words Complex
race: initial sound: ‘r’ , final sound ‘s’ kite: initial sound: ‘c’ , final sound ‘t’ frog: initial sound: ‘f’, final sound ‘g’ Retrieving the sound for each of the graphemes in the word /s/ /c/ /r/ /a/ /p/, then blend them together to decode the word.
Segmenting words into sounds Breaking up of words into their component sounds (phonemes). Students listen to a word and identify the individual sounds in the word.
sh/ar/k; ch/air; c/u/p; f/i/sh
Deleting and manipulating sounds Identifying the sounds in words and deleting or swapping sounds to make new words.
star – take away ‘s’ and add ‘t’: tart thin – add a ‘c’ sound: think wave – take away the ‘v’ and add ‘t’ sound: weight
Source: Department of Education and Training: Victoria (2018a) ª State of Victoria (Department of Education and Training). CC-BY-4.0 licence. READING
379
SUPPORTING PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS Educators can introduce games that: • encourage listening and word awareness • encourage listening to the syllables in words • encourage onset-rime awareness • encourage students to use rhyming words. EXAMPLES IN PRACTICE
‘Listen to me say a sentence. How many words did you hear me say?’ ‘Listen while I say a sentence. Tap the stick to show me how many words I said.’ ‘You say a sentence and I’ll tell you how many words you have said. Seven words. Am I right?’ Say compound words and ask the student to tell each part of the word. ‘sunflower; moonlight;
Consider This
grandmother; basketball; fireworks’. Say first word/say second word. Say a word and ask students to listen carefully, repeat the word slowly, saying and clapping each syllable, and clap each syllable: /veg/e/mite; /choc/o/late; /no/; /pen/ cil; /fun/ny; /rabb/it; /name/. Explore words that have the same middle or end sound but are spelt differently – for example, /eight/skate/; /four/door/; /two/shoe/. Say a word and ask students to name a word that rhymes. Introduce simple rhymes that students scan complete: ‘The goat wore a /coat/; The dog jumped a /log/. The bat ate the /rat/. Figure 15.12 shows an example of a student identifying rhyming words.
Figure 15.12 Rhyming words
GO further Learn more about the typical stages of phonological awareness in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
GO
further
Learn more about phonics games and activities teachers might use in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
Phonological awareness usually proceeds from larger to smaller units of sound. Phonological awareness allows students to make links between letter clusters and word sounds. This includes beginning sounds, onsets, syllables and morphemes. A table showing the typical stages of phonological awareness can be found on the book’s website.
Phonics instruction Teaching phonics involves assisting Figure 15.13 Sample of letter/sound activity students to understand the relationship between sounds and symbols (letters). When students have grasped blending and segmenting sounds orally, they can be introduced to sound–letter correspondence – that is, the process of translating symbols (alphabetic print) into corresponding sounds. This process is the beginning of learning phonics, also referred to as ‘cracking the alphabetic code’. Students should be introduced to single letters/sounds and given the opportunity to play with these, starting with initial letter/sound word activities, an example of which is shown in Figure 15.13.
Students develop letter-sound knowledge when: • teachers provide systematic and explicit instruction simultaneously teaching students how to name, sound and, as soon as possible, blend letters and write them in words • teachers clearly articulate letter names and sounds • students have the opportunity to articulate letter names and sounds • students practise and remember letter names and sounds on a Figure 15.14 Examples of phonetic writing daily basis • a different letter/phoneme is introduced every day in the students’ first term at school • a multisensory instructional approach is used, such as visual, auditory, kinaesthetic. Figure 15.14 shows that Macky and his two classmates are beginning to develop phonetic awareness, as evidenced by their writing. THE POOL PARTY Written by Macky Cooper and drawn by Macky Cooper. a The Pool Party wirtan/ written/ by Macky Cooper and drorn/ drawn by Macky Cooper My favourite fruit is strawberry. b My favourite fruit is sorowbere Further, Emmitt, Hornsby and Wilson (2013) point out that learning sound–letter relationships is a challenging task for young children because: • while there are 26 letters in the English alphabet, there are approximately 43–44 sounds • there is not a one-to-one relationship between letters and sounds, but rather between letter patterns and sounds. • a letter by itself represents no sound; letters represent sounds only when they occur in words • in written English, one letter may represent more than one sound • the one sound may be represented by different letters. Phonics instruction includes systematic and explicit instruction of all letter–sound correspondence in a well-defined sequence. This includes the letter–sound correspondence associated with: • individual consonants • individual vowels (short and long vowel sounds) • vowel and consonant digraphs (e.g. /oi/, /ea/, /ou/, /sh/, /ch/, /th/) • blends of letter sounds such as those commonly found at the beginning of words (e.g. /st/, /sm/, /bl/, /pr/) or in final stems or rimes (e.g. -ack, -end, -ill, -op) • vowel digraph spelling patterns (/oi/, /oy/, /ea/) – usually taught in later primary grades. When planning phonics instruction, teachers begin with letters: • that appear most frequently in print • that are most useful to children when they are writing
READING
381
that do not look or sound alike – for example, /p/ and /s/ whose sound can be elongated, either in isolation or within words, for easy identification (e.g., s, m, r, f, n, h, v, w) • that can be put together easily to create words – for example, word families such as /at/, /cat/, /mat/, hat, /bat/. Over time, students become familiar with letter–sound correspondences such as those shown in Figure 15.15, which range from simple to more complex. • •
Figure 15.15 Letter–sound correspondences, from simple to more complex t
c
s
b
a
as in tap
m i
as in sit
as in can
a
as in father
oy
y
as in my
ai
o–e
as in rope
z
c
as in city
g
ay as in gym
oa
k
x
r
p
th
d
e
as in ten
ch
igh
u–e
as in use
sh
aw
v
wh
ow
a–e*
as in ate
f
oi as in there
ar
as in cow
g
as in good
w
ph
ew
o
as in hop
j
qu
ir
as in girl
ng
as in sing
l
i–e
n
ee
kn
er
h
ea
ou
au
u
as in sun
y
as in five
th
as in think
as in author
as in yes
*A vowel followed by a dash and an e indicates the long sound for that vowel in a word where there is a letter between the initial vowel and the final e (e.g. i–e, as in ice, like; a–e, as in ape, make). Source: Ministry of Education. Ontario (2003: 9, 13) ª Queen’s Printer for Ontario.
Consider This
DIFFERENCES
Phonics and phonemic awareness are not the same. The differences are illustrated in Figure 15.16. Figure 15.16 Key differences between phonemic awareness and phonics Phonemic awareness
Phonics
• Speech-based
• Print-based
• Phonemes (sounds) to graphemes (letters)
• Graphemes (letters) to phonemes (sounds)
• Focuses on oral language and auditory discrimination
• Focus on alphabetic symbols and corresponding letters sounds (visual and auditory discrimination)
Several approaches can be used to teach phonics: • Synthetic phonics (whole word). Students are taught the relationship between letters and the speech sounds they represent. This is a part-to-whole approach that teaches children to convert graphemes into phonemes – that is, letters or letter combinations into sounds. For example, students decode a word such as /wombat/ into single sounds – /w/o/m/b/a/t/ – and then blend the sounds into a recognisable word. In this example, students may already recognise /b/a/t/ as /bat/. Synthetic phonics is regarded as the most effective method of instruction for most students. • Analytic phonics (letter–sound). Uses a whole-to-part approach – sounds are not pronounced in isolation; rather, students analyse letter–sound relationships in known words. Students are asked to identify the sound by referring to words they already know – for example, ‘What other words do we know that start with /d/? or ‘Notice that these words start with the letter /d/.’ • Embedded phonics. Students use letter–sound relationships with context clues to identify and spell unfamiliar words. For example, if reading a story about a wombat, students will learn to decode the word /wombat/ in the context of the story using letter–sound relationships. • Analogy phonics. Students learn to use parts of word families they already know to identify words they don’t know that have similar parts. For example, a student may know the word /make/ and use this to decode the unfamiliar word /stake/ by segmenting the shared rime and blending it with a new onset – /m/ake/, /st/ake/. • Onset–rime phonics. Children learn to identify the sound of the letter or letters before the first vowel (the onset) in a one-syllable word and the sound of the remaining part of the word (the rime) (Armbruster, Lehr & Osborn 2001: 12–13). • Phonics through spelling. Students are taught to segment the word into phonemes (sounds) and writing letters for each phoneme. Systematic phonics instruction is significantly more effective than non-systematic or no phonics instruction in helping to prevent reading difficulties among at-risk students and in helping children overcome reading difficulties. It should include teaching letter shapes and names, phonemic awareness and all major letter–sound relationships (Armbruster, Lehr & Osborn 2001: 12–13). It is important to be aware that while direct phonics instruction will form a significant part of any reading program, it must be complemented by other reading programs. Scenario
EXPLICIT INSTRUCTION – PHONICS Kindergarten teacher Christopher is providing explicit phonics instruction to the whole class. Today he is introducing the sounds associated with the letter combination /at/. ‘I want everyone to look at the words I have written on the smartboard.’ Christopher points to and reads each word – ‘/hat/, /cat/,/ mat/, /bat/’. ‘Now let’s read the words together, ‘/hat/, /cat/, / mat/, /bat/’. Let’s sound out the letters in each word. /h/a/t/, /c/a/t/, /m/a/t/, /b/a/t/. Look at each word and the letters in the word. Tell me which letters are the same in each word.’ Students: ‘/a/t/.’
‘That’s right, /a/t/. Well done! When we put /a/ and /t/ together, what sound does it make? Students: ‘/at/’. ‘Let’s check to see if you are right. We’ll all write the word /sat/. Let’s say it before we write it. ‘‘/sat/’’.’ Christopher waits while the students write /sat/. Christopher writes /sat/ on the smartboard: /s/at/ ‘Who can think of another word with the sound /at/?’ The students suggest and write the following words: /fat/, /pat/, /rat/, /sat/. Christopher uses a Venn diagram to show the relationship between /at/ words.
READING
383
WHAT HAS BEEN THE FOCUS OF CHRISTOPHER’S LESSON?
Figure 15.17 Venn diagram hat cat
fat at
pat
mat
rat
bat
sat
Christopher has provided explicit phonics instruction, using the rime /at/. He has built on the students’ knowledge of single sound phonemes. To conclude this lesson, Christopher reads a nonsense poem using words that rhyme with /at/.
Fluency The ability to read fluently, accurately and with expression allows students to focus on content (comprehension) rather than on the task of decoding each word. When learning to read fluently, a child must know where to pause or where to raise or lower their voice. Instead of reading word by word, the goal is to read words in groups (Konza et al. 2015: 2). Fluency develops over time as students become better at word recognition and at seeing connected texts rather than a series of words. The ability to read fluently also contributes to both understanding and enjoyment of reading for its own sake. Reading fluency includes three components: accuracy, rate and prosody. • reading accuracy refers to the ability to correctly name words and/or to use key strategies to decode unfamiliar words easily. • reading rate refers to the speed and fluidity used by the reader while maintaining comprehension of what is being read. • Prosody is the ability to read with expression. Dempster and colleagues (2012: 31) affirm that fluency reflects a pivotal point in reading development: ‘It is truly the point where learning to read transforms into reading to learn.’ They explain that students who do not develop fluency read very slowly and haltingly, and devote most of their cognitive attention to the subskills of decoding and word recognition. This places such a load on their working memory that they have no cognitive energy left to attend to what the text actually means. Memory limitations also mean that if a message is not transmitted within a certain timeframe, meaning is compromised. A rate of 90–100 words per minute is required for reading comprehension (Armbruster, Lehr & Osborn, 2001: 29), a rate usually developed by the end of Year 2 for simple text. Fluency will only develop when the student is able to recognise and read words accurately without the need to concentrate primarily on decoding. When this skill is acquired, students can focus on automaticity (automatic word recognition), which allows them to read with fewer pauses. Fluent readers also develop the skill to read several words in a phrase rather than reading each word on its own. Fluency also requires students to use syntactic skills such as recognising language patterns, using punctuation and phrasing: • Syntax is the sentence structure of a language. It governs how words are meaningfully ordered into phrases, clauses and sentences. For example, in English we say, ‘She went to bed’ rather than ‘Went she to bed’. • Syntactic knowledge is an unconscious understanding of the rules that govern word order. Children typically will acquire syntactic knowledge naturally as they learn to speak – for example, using the correct word order.
•
Syntactic awareness is a metalinguistics skill that is defined as the conscious ability to manipulate or judge word order within the context of a sentence, based on the application of grammatical rules. For example, if a student were given a series of words such as ‘to, went, she, bed’, they would demonstrate syntactic awareness by rearranging the words into a meaningful sentence – that is, ‘She went to bed.’
Measuring reader fluency Reader fluency can be measured using the following method: 1 Select three passages of text at a grade appropriate level. 2 Ask each student to read each passage aloud for exactly one minute. 3 Count the number of words read by the student in each passage, add them together and divide by three. This will give you the average number of words read per minute. 4 Count the number of errors for each passage, add them together and divide by three to obtain the average number of errors per minute. 5 Subtract the average number of errors read per minute from the average number of words read per minute. This will provide you with the average number of words correct per minute (WCPM) (Armbruster, Lehr & Osborn 2001: 26). The WCPM for each student can be compared with published standards to determine whether the student’s rate of fluency is grade level appropriate. Reading fluency tests should be conducted throughout the year so that each student’s progress can easily be assessed.
ONLINE RESOURCES You can read more about WCPM and see an example of a recording form on the following website: Reading A–Z: Scoring and Analyzing a Running Record: https://www.readinga-z.com/helpful-tools/about-running-records/scoring-a-running-record.
Becoming a fluent reader Becoming a fluent reader requires students to combine a number of skills, such as decoding words and phrases, sight word knowledge, comprehension and knowledge of how grammar affects meaning and expression. Fluency develops over a long period of time, and with practice students also learn to read with expression by dividing a text into meaningful chunks that include phrases and clauses, pausing and intonation. Direct instruction is an effective strategy for supporting the development of fluency. In the following scenario the teacher demonstrates how reading fluently supports reading comprehension. The teacher assists the students to identify and read short phrases as a strategy to increase fluency.
EXPLICIT FLUENCY INSTRUCTION – READING ACCURATELY AND AT A REASONABLE PACE Teacher: ‘I want you to listen to a poem. I am going to read it in a disjointed manner without pausing at commas or full stops.’
Scenario
The teacher reads without fluency to demonstrate difference in sound. ‘/Over the hill down/ the road around/ the corner came/ the toad dragonflies/ flitted dragonflies/ droned the toad reached/ the pond but/ was not/ alone/.’
READING
385
The teacher asks the class, ‘Did the poem make sense? Why not? What could I do to make it easier to understand?’ The teacher then reads aloud to model fluency. ‘Over the hill, down the road, Around the corner, came the toad. Dragonflies flitted, dragonflies droned, The toad reached the pond but was not alone.’ Teacher: ‘What happens when I read fluently and group phrases together? Let’s look at the punctuation in the poem. How does it help us to read more fluently?
A student responds and the teacher says: ‘That’s right, it shows us where to group words into phrases. ‘‘Over the hill,/ down the road,/ around the corner,/ came the toad./’’ Let’s read this together using the commas to pause.’ In this example, the teacher is explicitly focusing the students’ attention on how punctuation can be used to assist in reading a text fluently. " DISCUSSION
Why is it important to combine direct instruction and role modelling when focusing on a new reading skill?
Supporting reading fluency To support reading fluency, it is important that students are provided with reading material that is of interest and that is not too difficult for them. Constantly stumbling over unfamiliar words will not assist students to become fluent readers. Armbruster, Lehr and Osborn suggest that the texts should be at a student’s independent reading level – that is, the student can read it with about 95 per cent accuracy, or misread only about one of every 20 words. Interestingly, Armbruster, Lehr and Osborn (2001) state that there is currently no research evidence available to confirm that instructional time spent on silent, independent reading with minimal guidance and feedback improves reading fluency and overall reading achievement. Reading fluency can be developed by: • reading aloud (with adult support) and rereading the same text a number of times • modelling reading fluency by reading aloud to students on a daily basis • students reading aloud in groups • students reading aloud to a partner • reading a rehearsed text aloud to a group • choral reading – pairs of students reading the same text aloud at the same time • reading poetry and performing a dramatic script • listening to audio books, where students track the spoken word with the written word. The following are some ideas for older students: • Students select a short poem of their own choice, then create a PowerPoint presentation using images to represent the poem’s content. Show the PowerPoint and read the poem to a small group. • Scooping requires students to look at a passage and use a pen to underline or scoop a group of words together to create a series of scoops; this encourages students to read in short phrases rather than single words (see Figure 15.18). Figure 15.18 An example of scooping The four super heroes raced to the cliff top only to see that the creature had disappeared into the mist
Use readers’ theatre – each student is assigned a part in play which they read aloud, taking on the character assigned to them. Students can also be encouraged to write their own play. • Use paired reading – match students according to their reading ability, then provide each pair with the same text (matched to ability level). Students take turns reading to each other. The listener supports the reader as required. • Read a story book to younger students – practise intonation as well as fluency. • Select a popular children’s picture book, such as Pig the Pug, and challenge students to come up with different ways to read the story to a pretend audience of four-year-olds. •
Reading programs and fluency Reading programs that support fluency development include modelled reading, shared reading and guided reading. MODELLED READING When reading aloud, the teacher models fluency by demonstrating skills such as rhythm, phrasing, intonation, naturalness and use of voice for different characters/moods. Modelled reading allows students to listen to a fluent reader and hear how the sounds, patterns, intonations and rhythm of spoken language are translated from written language. Modelled reading also exposes students to different types (genres) and forms of text. It assists students to understand that reading can be a shared experience and is a way of accessing specific information, learning new information and sharing ideas, as well as a source of enjoyment. When teachers read aloud, they can stop and explore new words, investigate meaning and help students to make connections with what they already know, think or understand. Modelled reading includes three phases: before, during, after. 1 Before. Select the text. Identify a clear goal, purpose, objective or learning outcome. Reading aloud to students is not restricted to English curriculum – it will occur across the curriculum. For example, the teacher may read a non-fiction book to explore facts in natural science. In this situation, the teacher will have predetermined what information is to be conveyed to students and what students are expected to learn, apply, explore or investigate. The teacher can also identify key words and concepts. 2 During. When reading aloud, the teacher may pause and discuss a concept, word or fact. The teacher may ask questions such as, ‘I wonder what might happen next?’ or ‘What happens if … ?’ to generate discussion and allow students to share their ideas and knowledge. 3 After. The teacher may not plan any follow-up; they may link the text to other curriculum tasks or ask students to verbally recall the text.
READING ALOUD TO STUDENTS – SOME THINGS YOU COULD DO • • • •
Describe the genre – fiction/non-fiction. Draw students’ attention to the cover – does it give any clues as to content? Draw students’ attention to the name of the text and the author. Link the text to a specific learning objective or outcome.
•
• •
Consider This
Read with fluency, intonation, expression and enthusiasm – remember that you are acting as a reading role model. Read at a pace that is appropriate to your audience. Explore the table of contents, glossary and index – and how they could be used.
READING
387
• •
Where relevant, talk about any pictures, illustrations, diagrams, graphs, tables, etc. Ask questions to assess students’ comprehension: ‘What happened when . . .?’ ‘How many different species of sharks can you recall?’ ‘What did this story make you think about?’ ‘How did you feel when . . .?’ ‘How could you use the index to help you when you answer these questions?’
TIPS
Always read the text to yourself before reading it to students. Check that you are familiar with the language
and the content. Identify any words that may require explanation. Notice who asks questions, what students say and how students apply their existing knowledge. Before you begin, determine how you will measure/ evaluate whether you have achieved your key goals/ objectives/learning outcomes. " DISCUSSION
Why is it important for ESWs to be good reading role models?
SHARED READING Shared reading requires the teacher to read from a selected text, such as a big book or large-text book. Students are required to look at and follow the text as it is being read. Students will be encouraged to read silently, and to mouth or whisper the words as the teacher reads. At a predetermined point, or when students are ready, they read along with the teacher. Shared reading should be a non-threatening and positive experience. Shared reading is an opportunity for students to hear themselves read and to practise reading with fluency and expression. Shared reading should never be hurried – it is an opportunity to explore words in a meaningful context. It also allows the teacher to introduce new vocabulary and more challenging words to students. It provides opportunities for students to practise existing and new reading strategies such as semantic (Does it make sense?), syntactic (Does it sound right?) and graphophonic (Does it look right?) cueing or to apply their knowledge of punctuation. Shared reading ideas include: • reading bubbles – use sticky labels to add thought bubbles to images in the text (Figure 15.19), and ask students to tell a partner what they think the character is thinking or saying Figure 15.19 Adding thought bubbles
Carrie’s dog had disappeared. Every day Carrie stood at the end of the long road and waited for Dan to come home. Her father said that Dan was a stupid dog and he was never coming back.
Source: iStockphoto.com/bowie15
•
making predictions – students use the book cover to make a prediction about the content, and after reading the book discuss their prediction with other students.
GUIDED READING Small groups of students who are at around the same level in their reading ability work with the teacher to read a text. The focus of guided reading is reading with understanding, using problemsolving to work out unfamiliar words and sentence structures. The role of the teacher is to assist students to apply their existing reading skills by selecting books that are easily read but also offer a degree of challenge. The teacher will use prompts, provide information and ask open-ended questions to help students problem-solve words and meanings. A guided reading spinner is helpful here – a student spins the arrow and works with a small group to answer a guided reading question (Figure 15.20).
Figure 15.20 Spin a question
Describe the place where the main How was the town character lives saved?
Suggest a change to the end of the story
What did you most like about this story?
Vocabulary Vocabulary refers to the knowledge or words, including their structure (morphology), use (grammar), meanings (semantics) and links to other words (word/semantic relationships). Bromley (2007: 528), cited in Konza (2010: 4) states that vocabulary is a principal contributor to comprehension, fluency and achievement. Vocabulary development is both an outcome of comprehension and a precursor to it, with word meanings making up as much as 70–80 per cent of comprehension. Vocabulary knowledge includes oral vocabulary (words that can be spoken and understood) and reading vocabulary (words that can be read or written and understood). The foundations of vocabulary occur in the home environment when children are spoken to and read to, and when they engage in conversations with others. At one end of the spectrum, there will be children who commence school with an extensive and rich vocabulary while at the other end there will be children with very limited vocabularies. Included in this mix will be children who are bilingual, those who are English language learners and those who use augmented communication systems. An individual’s vocabulary is built over time and may continue to expand throughout the lifespan. Children’s vocabularies are developed by a range of experiences – for example, when they: • are exposed to new and novel experiences • read, are read to and are exposed to a wide range of genres • are supported to engage in meaningful conversation about topics that are relevant and of interest to them • are asked open-ended questions that challenge their thinking • explore topics across the curriculum • engage in research • interact with people from other cultures (Department of Education and Training Victoria 2018b). Reading and vocabulary are interdependent skills – one builds upon the other. According to Curtis (2004: 1) the skills that are associated with vocabulary knowledge are: • word identification (ability to decode words) • word analysis (understanding letters, sounds and roots, prefixes and suffixes that make up words), • syntactic awareness (grammatical use of a word) and • pragmatic awareness (how words are used to communicate).
READING
GO
further
Learn more about strategies to engage a student in reading in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
389
As students move from learning to read to reading to learn, they are exposed to vocabulary that may be new and unfamiliar. To understand and use new vocabulary, students must be able to explore and hear the word meaning in context. Figure 15.21 Students involved in a barrier game
• •
•
•
•
• • • • •
Supporting vocabulary development
Activities to develop vocabulary may include the following: • Play barrier games (Figure 15.21), where students work in pairs using a barrier such as a piece of cardboard. Each student has a similar document, but one student has more information than the other. The students must work together to share information in order to complete a game. For example, students both have a treasure map, but only one student knows the location of the treasure – they must work together, sharing information and asking questions, so the other student can locate the treasure. • Challenge students to suggest a ‘word of the day’ to add to their own vocabulary or that of the class. • Compile a key word list and its meaning related to a subject/topic/curriculum area. Use word cards – students select a random word card and must talk about the word on the card for 30 to 40 seconds. Write single words on a piece of paper and the meaning of the word on a separate piece of paper – crumple the papers and place them all in a bowl – students must try to beat the clock matching the word and the meaning. Explore synonyms – using two overlapping circles (like a Venn diagram), write two words that have a similar meaning, each in a separate circle. In the common area, write words that define or describe similarities, then in each circle write words that identify differences. For example, what might be the similarities and differences between a house and a high-rise unit? Give each student a set of identical picture cards. Depending on the age of the student, the pictures may range from simple everyday objects to visual images representing emotions. The students take turns to describe one picture card without revealing the actual image. Students might also be given a set of cards with each card containing three words that sound similar – for example, ‘howl, hole, hot’. The partner student must listen and locate the matching card. Provide cloze sentences with deleted nouns or adjectives for students to add. Explore word families and create word maps. Create a story using ‘new words’ provided by the teacher. For older students, discussion starter cards (If I could fly …), visual imagery or sets of cards that can be used to create a story can be useful ways to promote oral language. Provide unusual and unfamiliar objects for students to describe.
Scenario
RESEARCHING WORDS IN THE DICTIONARY Figure 15.22 shows a list of words that Chloe (Year 5) was required to define in a task designed to expand her vocabulary. Figure 15.22 Chloe expands her vocabulary by researching words in the dictionary.
" DISCUSSION
Consider the word list – do you consider the words to be relevant to a Year 5 student? Why might these words have been selected? Could you offer a list of words that may be more relevant? How important is it to ensure that new vocabulary is provided in a relevant context that is meaningful to students?
Comprehension Comprehension is a cognitive reading process that requires the reader to understand, interpret and respond to what is being read. It is important to be aware that being able to read a word does not necessarily mean that the student understands the meaning of the word. Comprehension is developed when students are challenged to explore what has been read – for example, engaging in meaningful discussion and critical reflection and debate. Bayetto (n.d.: 1) suggests that immediate questioning (oral and written) once students have finished reading should be avoided, as this narrows students’ responses. Instead, Bayetto suggests that the focus should be on thoughtful consideration and discussion of texts.
LINK TO THE Australian CURRICULUM COMPREHENSION SKILLS Key comprehension skills targeted in the Australian Curriculum include: • activating and using prior knowledge • • • •
identifying literal information explicitly stated in the text making inferences based on information in the text and their own prior knowledge predicting likely future events in a text visualising by creating mental images of elements in a text
READING
391
•
summarising and organising information from a text
• •
integrating ideas and information in texts critically reflecting on content, structure, language and images used to construct meaning in a text. ª Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) 2010 to present, unless otherwise indicated. This material was downloaded from the Australian Curriculum website australiancurriculum.edu.au/Glossary?a=E&t=comprehension%20strategies (accessed May 2015) and was modified. The material is licensed under CC BY 4.0. Version updates are tracked on the Curriculum version history page of the Australian Curriculum website. ACARA does not endorse any product that uses the Australian Curriculum or make any representations as to the quality of such products. Any product that uses material published on this website should not be taken to be affiliated with ACARA or have the sponsorship or approval of ACARA. It is up to each person to make their own assessment of the product, taking into account matters including, but not limited to, the version number and the degree to which the materials align with the content descriptions (where relevant). Where there is a claim of alignment, it is important to check that the materials align with the content descriptions (endorsed by all education Ministers), not the elaborations (examples provided by ACARA).
In order to develop comprehension skills, students must use a number of strategies. Emmitt, Hornsby and Wilson (2013: 5) suggest that alongside visual information, students must use nonvisual information – including their knowledge of language or syntax, and knowledge of the world, or semantics, to construct meaning from text. When reading to construct meaning, students can miscue or make a reading error. These miscues can lead to the following scenarios: • There is a change in the meaning of the text – for example, the meaning would change if a student were to read ‘The car cruised through the gate’ instead of correctly reading ‘The car crashed through the gate’. In this situation, the meaning has been lost and the remaining text will not make sense. In this situation, the teacher would need to encourage self-correction – ‘Go back and look at the word – does it make sense in the context of the storyline?’ • The exact text has not been read but the meaning has not been lost – for example, a student might read ‘The car smashed through the gate’. In this instance, the student may have predicted what was going to happen using visual clues such as an illustration of a car and a smashed gate. In this situation, the teacher may encourage self-correction or may choose not to interrupt the student’s flow, and can draw attention to the word when the student has finished reading the passage of text. Various strategies can be used to gain information and meaning from text. Herber (1978) devised a three-level guide continuum to support the development of comprehension skills, which was later developed further by Morris and Stewart-Dore (1984). These levels include: • literal comprehension – the reader seeks to understand what is written in the text. For example, locate the title, the author, a heading, locate information in a phrase or sentence: ‘Let’s see if we can find the section in the text that describes the farmhouse’; ‘Who illustrated this text? Can anyone tell what other books this person has illustrated?’ • interpretive comprehension – the reader is asked to engage in reflection and draw on existing knowledge to make inferences about the text. This is referred to as ‘reading between the lines’ and sometimes is referred to as ‘hidden comprehension’. Examples of interpretive comprehension skills may include: – creating a sequence of events from the texts – ‘What happened first, what happened next, then what happened …?’ – using visual cues to interpret information such as illustrations, drawings, photos, graphs and diagrams: ‘Look at the photos of these people. What expressions can you see on their faces? What do you think they might be thinking/feeling?’ – making links between various sentences to gather and interpret information: ‘In the first few sentences the author describes the farmhouse. Toward the end of the page he adds information about the animals on the farm. What does he tell us about the animals?’
using a range of vocabulary to explain key ideas and concepts communicated in the text: ‘Let’s create a list of words to describe the feeling created when reading this text’; ‘Using your own words, write a few sentences to describe your understanding of recycling’. • Inferential comprehension (also known as head comprehension) – requires readers to apply and evaluate knowledge from multiple texts, or within different areas of one text, or use their background knowledge about topics. Readers are required to read beyond the lines. Examples of inferential comprehension may include: – connecting different information across sentences, paragraphs and chapters – infer the meaning of information in texts – deduce main ideas, themes and concepts in texts – use a range of strategies – for example, context cues – to identify the meaning of unknown words – identify the purpose and meaning of metaphorical language devices – for example, similes – identify similar vocabulary meanings to link and connect ideas: ‘What is the main theme of the text?’; ‘List the sub-themes of this text’; ‘Use your own words to explain the following phrases from the text.’ An important comprehension skill is critical analysis, which allows the reader to consider the content of the text beyond what is written – for example, make deductions, theorise or hypothesise. Critical analysis is a higher order skill. It requires the student not only to draw on their existing knowledge of the text content, concept or ideas but also to draw on knowledge from other curriculum areas as well as their own general knowledge and opinions to inform and make better sense of what is being read. A good example of this might be asking a student to think about what they know happens to their body when undertaking strenuous physical activity such as football or running, and apply this to help them understand a text related to physiology. Students demonstrate critical analysis when they can, for example: • identify the intended purpose of a specific part of a text • identify the author’s point of view or the reader response expected by the author • identify their point of view and either defend or debate it against that of the author • infer reasons for the author’s use of persuasive language • demonstrate an understanding of themes in texts and make critical analysis of them • connect and make value judgements between the themes and plots of various texts • select alternative titles or manipulate plots for different contexts • demonstrate an understanding of characters’ motives • analyse the use and purpose of layout features and text conventions • analyse imagery to assist in deducing meaning • identify the authoritative source of information, ideas, points of view and purpose, and how these can affect the validity of the content and/or position of the writer • identify the facts that are chosen, left out and changed to form texts – for example, a scientific argument supporting an idea or belief system. •
Supporting comprehension skills Direct instruction to support comprehension development includes what is referred to as the ‘super six’ (shown in Figure 15.23).
READING
393
Figure 15.23 Teaching comprehension: The super six
Element
Approach
Example
1
Teachers provide explicit instruction to teach students to draw on their prior knowledge, or schema, as a strategy to help them comprehend a text.
Students are taught to: > make personal connections from the text with something in their own life (text-toself) – for example, ‘This text reminds me of the time I went on holiday to . . .’
Making connections – a process of shared thinking, includes sequencing, problem-solving, relating background knowledge
> make connections with another text (textto-text) – for example, ‘This story is like an article I read about time travel.’ > make connections with something in the known world (text-to-world) – for example, ‘This text reminds me of the program I saw on TV about the child soldiers’; ‘In this text the main character is worried about not being good at sport. What do you do when you are worried about something?’ 2 Predicting and inferring – includes comparing and contrasting, drawing conclusions
Students are taught to draw on their prior knowledge to make inferences and draw conclusions.
> use clues such as graphics, text and experiences to anticipate or predict the content of the text and to predict ‘what might happen next’ as they are reading > list five to 10 words that might be in the text
3 Questioning – includes self-questioning
Students are taught to ask questions of the author, about the text and about their own predictions, questions, and understanding of the text.
> pose and answer questions that clarify meaning and promote deeper understanding of the text.
4 Monitoring – sequencing, checking for understanding
Students are taught to think about their own thinking (metacognition). What do I understand? What am I unsure about? What can I do to help me understand?
> briefly explain or retell the story so far – for example, they can be taught a range of strategies, such as rereading to check for meaning, reading ahead to clarify their predictions, reviewing what they have read, discussing ideas with a peer.
5 Visualising – includes creating mental images
Students are taught to develop this skill when the teacher shares his/her own visual imagery or mental pictures invoked by the text. This may involve drawing on personal experiences.
> visualise a scene or image – for example, ‘the cave dripping with purple and green slime’; ‘hail hammering smashing and ripping the roof’; ‘the crowd, roaring with excitement as the ball flies towards the goals’
6 Summarising or synthesising – includes identifying key ideas, facts and relevant details
Students learn to identify the key ideas or information contained in the text.
> Students identify and accumulate the most important ideas and restate them in their own words – for example, ‘Write three sentences that summarise this story; ‘In three minutes explain what this story is about to your partner.’ > Ask students to list three to five facts contained in the story and three to five things the student has inferred from the story. > Students use graphic organisers/story maps to illustrate concepts and interrelationships among concepts in a text, using diagrams or other pictorial devices such as maps, webs, graphs, charts, frames and clusters.
Sources: NSW Department of Education and Training (2010: 5–6) ª State of New South Wales (Department of Education), 2019. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
Dempster and colleagues (2012) state that comprehension requires engagement with the text at a deep level, and an array of skills that go far beyond simple word recognition. Typically, good readers: • understand the purpose of their reading, and so choose a suitable strategy for reading – such as skimming, scanning or reading carefully • monitor their comprehension, so they can integrate what they are reading with their existing knowledge • focus on the relevant parts of the text, and are able to distinguish major content from detail • evaluate content as it is read. Comprehension skills build over time and can be developed when students are engaged in discussion, questioning, retelling or recalling, summarising and identifying key points and points of interest. Consider This
LOOKING FOR CLUES: EXPLICIT INSTRUCTION OF COMPREHENSION – THE ABILITY TO READ WITH UNDERSTANDING Students must be able to identify what they do understand and what they do not understand when reading text. Often a student will say ‘I don’t understand this/It doesn’t make sense to me’, when in fact what the student means is that they don’t understand some parts of the text. Teach students to become detectives and to look for clues that will lead to a better understanding or comprehension of text.
• • •
Clues may include: headings and subheadings pictures, diagrams and illustrations key words or phrases.
Look at the content that precedes or follows for clues. What are the main ideas? Can you use your background knowledge? Can you identify the key points/main facts?
Using questioning Asking students to answer questions about a text is a common strategy used by teachers to assess student comprehension. Questioning can challenge students to reflect on and test their own level of comprehension. It also allows students to apply prior knowledge to help them to explore and understand what they are reading. Scenario
ASKING QUESTIONS Grade 6 students were invited to discuss and answer questions related to the following text. Although the young man struggled to maintain his balance against freezing wind and rain, he kept on walking. He tried to think about why he was here and what he wanted to do. He needed to prove to everyone that he was not a loser. He was sick of the way the rest of the family ignored him. As he looked up at the looming cliff, he shouted, ‘I’m gonna show them all!’ Text-explicit question: Did the young man keep walking in the wind and rain?
Answer: Yes, the young man kept walking in the wind and rain – this is stated in the first sentence: ‘he kept on walking’. Text-implicit question: How was the young man feeling? Answer: The young man seemed angry and determined. This is implied by him shouting ‘I’m gonna show them all!’ Text-implicit question: What do you think the young man was trying to prove to his family? Answer: The young man was trying to prove that he could do something daring or dangerous on his own, like climbing the cliff.
READING
395
The text does not state that the young man is going to climb the cliff – it is implied. The reader might conclude that climbing the cliff (although not specifically stated in the text) is a way the young man thinks will show his family that he is not a loser.
HOW DOES THIS ACTIVITY SUPPORT COMPREHENSION?
This activity allows students to discuss their understanding and interpretation of the text. By sharing information, students can be exposed to different ways of thinking about a text.
Comprehension questions should challenge students’ thinking at an age-appropriate level. Open-ended questions that require students to reflect on and interpret what they are reading encourage them to think about their own level of comprehension. Figure 15.24 provides an example of a comprehension strategy used with Kindergarten children who were read a nonfiction passage about brown bears.
Figure 15.24 Kindergarten comprehension activity
15.3 Support reading in the classroom
Learning to read with understanding is a complex and challenging task that occurs over an extended period of time. Supporting reading development is a collaborative process between the reader and the listener. It requires a commitment from the student to make a genuine attempt to read and apply a range of reading strategies. It also requires the listener to support the student by asking questions, prompting and suggesting strategies to the student to help them problem-solve. While the strategies used to support reading development essentially remain the same regardless of the student’s age, the way in which information is conveyed will vary. It is important to be mindful that school-age children are becoming increasingly aware of their own abilities compared with their peers. Students who struggle with reading are very aware that they are not reading at the same level as most of their peers. This can lead to embarrassment, anger and resentment. Students can become reluctant readers because of a fear of failure and a sense of defeat, which can then turn into a downward spiral: ‘I can’t read so I won’t try. I don’t try so my chances of learning to read are low’. This spiral increases the likelihood of developing poor self-esteem and low self-confidence, which may lead to behaviours such as being the class clown, acting out, distracting others and general uncooperative behaviours. Feeling like a competent learner is critical for every student. As part of your role as an ESW, it is essential to support self-confidence and a ‘can do’ attitude to learning. This can only occur when you build a relationship with students based on mutual trust and respect.
GRACE Grace (12 years) does not like to read because she finds it ‘too hard’. During independent reading time, she often needs to be reminded to read quietly without interrupting others.
Scenario The ESW, Ava, has been observing Grace for several weeks and knows that Grace tends to spend most of her reading time decorating her journal sheets. Ava is aware that Grace is very interested in
horses and asks the teacher whether she and Grace can go to the school library to find some reading material on horses. The visit to the library results in a collection of four books – two fiction and two non-fiction. Over several weeks, Grace and Ava research a range of facts about horses and together they read the fiction books. As a result, Grace has become more confident and
enthusiastic about reading and has improved in all areas of reading development. WHY IS THIS AN EXAMPLE OF GOOD PRACTICE?
Ava has demonstrated respect for Grace as a competent learner. By focusing on Grace’s interest in horses, Ava has found a way to stimulate her interest in reading. Now Grace has a reason for wanting to read!
Students who struggle with reading will require direct and ongoing intervention and direct instruction to acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to be independent readers. Strategies that can be used to support students include: • introducing new skills and knowledge in a timely manner by building on existing skills and knowledge • clearly identifying the level of achievement/mastery required by the student • providing regular opportunities for systematic revision and practice • providing timely and specific corrective feedback to the student • systematic monitoring and documentation of student progress. For struggling readers to feel they are progressing, goals must be broken down into small steps that allow for rapid mastery. You may recall from Chapter 12 a discussion on SMART goals. SMART goals may need to be reviewed on a weekly or daily basis. For example, when working on phonics it is more effective to start with simple sounds that can quickly be mastered, such as /b/, /m/ and /p/, rather than beginning with more complex sounds such as /sh/, /th/ or /sm/. Small, rapid steps will empower students as learners and promote an ‘I can do it’ attitude. Working on SMART goals also provides greater opportunities for adults and students to work collaboratively. Scenario SMART GOALS As the student achieves mastery of one SMART goal, they can contribute to setting the next mini-goal. In six weeks, Tom (13 years) will be able to Commencing each lesson with systematic revision and say the 100 sight words chart automatically with no hesitations or self-corrects. practice of previously achieved goals is an effective learning In three weeks, Amy (15 years) will be strategy. Reinforcing existing skills and knowledge helps able to highlight five keywords in three students to make links with what they already know and are able subjects: English, Music and Science, with to do, and move ahead to more advanced skills – for example, ‘I support in these lessons. can identify /b/, /m/ and /p/; now I am going to learn to In three weeks, Hayley (14 years) will identify harder sounds like /sh/, /sp/ and /th/.’ Practice builds increase her concentration on reading tasks from five minutes to 10 minutes with support. confidence and provides opportunities for students to apply their knowledge and skills in different contexts.
Knowing your students It is considered best practice to take some time to get to know your students before engaging in a direct support role. While the reality of school funding means that this may not always be possible, it is important to at least establish a rapport with students. You can also ask your teacher to provide you with as much information as possible about the students’ strengths, interests and specific learning needs. There may also be an opportunity to meet with the parent/s. Taking time to learn about your students will assist you when planning activities. READING
397
GETTING TO KNOW YOU It is Term 3, and ESW Zara Adams has been appointed to the kindergarten room to work with Elliott (5 years), who is struggling with his literacy skills. Zara is introduced to the class, who are told that she is going to be coming in three days a week to help in the classroom: ‘Mrs Adams will sometimes work with small groups and sometimes work with one student.’ Zara is then introduced to Elliott. ‘Elliott, please say hello to Mrs Adams. I’d like you to show her where we keep our readers, and then can you show her your writing workbook?’ Zara sits with Elliott. ‘Thanks for showing me around Elliott. It’s a really nice classroom. What’s your favourite thing to do in class?’ Elliott: ‘I like to play with the Lego and build space jet fighters.’ Zara: ‘Wow! That sounds like lots of fun. What do you like to do at home?’ Elliott: ‘I like to play cricket with my big brother and we play football and ride our bikes.’ Zara: ‘I have a dog at home named Jessie. Do you have any pets?’
Scenario Elliott: ‘We have a bird called Charlie, a cat called Rainbow and a dog called Dingo. We used to have a rabbit, but he died.’ Zara: ‘You’ve got a lot of pets. Maybe I could help you to write about them when we are working together?’ Zara and Elliott continue to chat, and as they do so Zara is building up a picture of Elliott – his oral language skills, his likes and interests, and some family details. Zara has begun to develop a relationship with Elliott simply by asking questions and responding to his answers with genuine interest. WHAT CAN ZARA DO WITH THIS INFORMATION ABOUT ELLIOTT?
Zara could plan reading and writing activities that focus on Elliott’s interests. For example, she could incorporate the use of Lego in writing games; include topics such as football and cricket; or plan opportunities for mini breaks and/or take lessons outdoors, as Elliott likes outdoor play.
Building rapport with older students can be more challenging. It is important to be open, honest and genuine. Below, ESWs share their tips for working with older students. I always offer to shake the student’s hand when I first meet them and formally introduce myself. I like to tell the student that I am really looking forward to working with them. If appropriate, I try to share some general information about myself – you know, things like my favourite footy team or my role as a surf lifesaver. I always start the lesson by getting the student to say something positive about their week. They tend to grumble at first but then I find they’re looking forward to sharing good news with me. I try to only give genuine feedback – for example, ‘Thanks for paying attention today. I really appreciate it when you work hard’ or ‘I’m disappointed you didn’t put in your best effort today.’ I try to notice and question body language: ‘I see you rolled your eyes when I said, ‘‘Let’s get started’’. What’s that about? I like to set clear boundaries and expectations. I remind the student of these as needed and I try to be consistent in enforcing them. I make a point to start each day with a clean slate. I never carry over any negative emotions from a previous lesson. It’s best to move forward. I try to make learning fun.
Explicit instruction ESWs will be guided by the classroom teacher to provide reading instruction to individual students and small groups. This chapter has explored a range of strategies to provide explicit reading instruction. To be effective, explicit instruction should be given in small, manageable steps, and reflect the age, development and reading skills of each student. Key points should be emphasised – never make assumptions about a student’s understanding. When introducing new information, try to do so by scaffolding, or building on the student’s existing knowledge to acquire new knowledge – for example, ‘I know you can identify the first
sound in a word, now we’re going to work on listening to and identifying the last sound in a word. Remember when we worked on first sounds I said the word first and then you said the word and then I said it again?’ Introduce new concepts one at a time and ensure mastery before moving on to a new concept. This means assisting the student to consolidate their knowledge. This can be achieved when students are given multiple opportunities to practise the application of their knowledge in various contexts to ensure it has been generalised. A wide range of explicit instruction strategies can be used, some of which have already been explored in this chapter. Determining the most effective strategies will depend on the needs of the individual student, the student’s age and their abilities. The following list provides a summary of common key strategies. As you gain experience in teaching reading, you will be able to match these and other strategies to individual student needs. • Read it with your finger – the student points to each word as they read aloud. • Use coloured highlighters to isolate/highlight each word in a sentence. • Point to each word as the student reads, pause when an error is made, give the student time to correct the error and/or prompt the student. • Say the word, tap/clap the syllables. • Cover the word that has been misread – ask the student to read the sentence and try to work out the missing word. • Practise working with punctuation: ‘I want you to pause every time you see a full stop.’ • It a sentence is misread, ask the student, ‘Does that make sense? Let’s reread that sentence.’ • Isolate one or two words with two fingers – this allows the student to focus on specific words in isolation from the whole text. • Construct and deconstruct – the student dictates a sentence which the ESW writes on a piece of paper. Have the child cut the sentence into single words and place these in an envelope; now have the child remove each word, read it aloud and finally reconstruct the sentence. • Create a personal dictionary/vocabulary – the student builds their own list of new words, which can be revised daily. • Create personal word banks and flash cards based on the student’s interests. • Have the student use highlighter pen to identify challenging words, which can be added to their personal dictionary.
Giving timely corrective feedback Providing timely and specific corrective feedback to students is critical for struggling readers. Modelling, demonstrating, correcting and explaining are most successful when the student is engaged in the learning process – for example, ‘Let’s look at this sentence more closely, Callie [10 years]. You said, ‘‘The dog barked loudly.’’ Look at this word – what sound does it start with? That’s right, it’s /s/. What sound does ‘‘loudly’’ start with? Yes, ‘‘loudly’’ starts with /l/. I want you to sound out this word: /s/av/age/ly – ‘‘savagely’’. Good, now read the sentence again. Well done. It says ‘‘The dog barked savagely.’’’ In this example, the feedback is timely because it occurs as the student is reading. It is specific because it addresses the student error. It is corrective because it points out the error and provides a strategy to correct the error. It provides an explanation – the incorrect word does not start with /l/. This strategy also encourages students to attend to detail rather than make assumptions or guesses, and it reinforces Callie’s existing skills and knowledge, which she was able to draw upon to correctly read the word ‘savagely’. The student and the teacher have worked collaboratively to achieve the desired outcome.
READING
399
Hattie (2012) suggests that the goal of feedback must be to provide students with insight that helps them to improve their performance. This, says Hattie, requires the educator to: a tell the student about their current level of performance – what the student does well and areas for improvement. For example, ‘you are very good at recognising the beginning sound of words and now you need to work on recognising the final sound in a word.’ b tell the student what they can do to improve their performance – this can be used as a goal-setting tool. For older students this can be set as a challenge for them to work towards. Hattie (2012) suggests there are four key levels of effective feedback; these are described in Figure 15.25. Figure 15.25 Four levels of effective feedback
Level of feedback
Description
1
Feedback is information focused on: > correct or incorrect responses: ‘The correct word is ‘‘chapter’’.’
Task and product
> more or different information required: ‘You have said the main character is scared. Write about why she is scared.’ > providing more or different information relevant to the task: ‘Great, you have remembered the sequence of the story. Now can you tell me about the main characters in the story?’ 2 Process level
By asking open-ended questions and prompting, this feedback assists students to think about and draw on their existing knowledge to problem-solve: ‘You’ve skipped this word instead of trying to work out what it says. Let’s look at the word, what can you tell me about it? Good, it does start with ‘t’. What else can you tell me about this word?’
3 Self-regulation or conditional level
This feedback assists students to self-monitor their own learning processes and practise their self-correction skills: ‘I’m pleased you noticed that you made some errors in your reading and decided to start over.’
4 Self-level
This feedback is essentially praise. Praise alone tends to have little or no impact on improving learning performance. For example, simply saying ‘Good work’ doesn’t give the student any information other than that you are pleased with their work. Alternatively, say, ‘Good work – you worked your way through the text even though you found it difficult. You used your word-attack skills very effectively.’ Source: Hattie (2012).
When giving corrective feedback, it should be designed to give the student information that they can use in the ‘here and now’. When giving corrective feedback, think about: • using the pause-prompt-praise method – give the student time to think and self-correct, prompt self-correction effort, praise self-correction efforts • speaking in a respectful manner to the student • keeping feedback easy for the student to understand – keep it simple and to the point • giving one piece of feedback at a time and checking for understanding and allow time for the student to respond or ask questions • where possible follow the ‘just in time’ principle – give feedback as the student is working (if appropriate) • include demonstration and examples as well as verbal explanations • offer opportunities for practice • ensure student privacy (if needed).
Listening to students read An important part of the ESW’s role is listening to students reading aloud, and providing timely and appropriate support to the reader. Listening to a student read requires you to undertake a
number of tasks that will allow you to provide feedback, document the student’s progress, identify errors and use this information for future planning. These tasks will be carried out before reading begins, while the student is reading and when the student has completed the reading task. See Figure 15.26 for a comprehensive overview of observation requirements.
Monitoring and documentation ESWs may be responsible for systematic monitoring and documentation of individual student progress. Typically, monitoring strategies used by ESWs will be informal, and may include: • anecdotal records – objective documentation of what the student did and said, and how the student preformed • authentic tasks that provide the student with opportunities to demonstrate specific reading skills – for example, reading a recipe or reading instructions for a game • use of checklists or charts to record student outcomes • discussion with students to explore their perceived strengths and areas for improvement • contracts and contract review – the ESW and student agree on tasks/goals, and review these at set intervals • informal reading games – these allow for observation of reading skills • student portfolios – a collection of the student’s work, which shows outcomes of reading skills (adapted from ACT Cross Sectoral Assessment Working Party 2016). Systematic documentation is particularly useful in identifying progress, persistent errors or problems, and can be used to direct or modify SMART goals. Typically, ESWs will be provided with various checklists and templates to record reading progress. These templates may be developed by the teacher or may be commercially sourced. Figure 15.27 provides an example of the types of documents that may be used to record student reading. Where appropriate, documentation of student progress can be shared with the student – this provides opportunities for the student to engage in reflection and goal-setting. As well as identifying progress, regular monitoring and documentation inform instructional planning. This is important – especially where progress is not adequate to meet desired learning outcomes.
GO
further
Learn more about anecdotal observation by an ESW to assess literacy skills in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
GO
further
Access extra reading record examples and a scenario with an example of sharing documentation of student progress with a student in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
Attitudes to reading Students who are struggling readers will usually say they ‘hate reading’. In essence, what they hate is being different from other students, feeling nervous, anxious or embarrassed when asked to read, being labelled, not being able to complete their school work, finding ways to disguise their poor reading skills, and struggling to perform academically. As students mature, the anxiety associated with poor reading skills is likely to increase and become self-defeating: ‘I can’t read, so why bother trying?’ Having a conversation with struggling readers about attitudes and feelings towards reading can provide a great deal of information about the needs of the student and lead to more effective strategies to support reading. Like any other skill, learning to read requires an understanding of the whole child. In the following scenario, Ellen has developed a reputation as a ‘trouble-maker’.
READING
401
Figure 15.26 Reading observation checklist OBSERVING AND SUPPORTING STUDENT READING: CHECKLIST BEFORE READING BEGINS, NOTICE AND DOCUMENT IF THE STUDENT: • Asks questions or makes any comments about the text: this may demonstrate if the student is able to contextualise the text by identifying features such as title, illustrations, author, headings within the text, key or known words, or similarity to other texts. • Makes predictions: For example, ‘I think this book is going to be funny because the dog ends up on the roof.’ ‘I think this book will have lots of good information about sharks. It’s got lots of great photographs and labels.’ • Shows a strong positive or negative response to the reading task: Is the student enthusiastic, confident, ambivalent, anxious or cautious? The attitude students have towards reading will be a significant influence on their progress as readers. WHILE THE STUDENT IS READING, NOTICE AND DOCUMENT IF THE STUDENT: • • • • • • • •
• • • •
• •
• • • • • •
Scans each page before reading. Makes comments about illustrations/photographs/diagrams. Makes comments to show they’re able to draw on prior knowledge. Uses finger or other aid to track words. Tracks words with their eyes only. Notices and uses punctuation correctly by pausing or using voice intonation. Uses self-correction. Rereads a sentence or phrase to clarify meaning. For example, ‘Alice thought that making a kite would be /sample/. No, Alice thought that making a kite would be /s/im/ple. Alice thought that making a kite would be /simple/.’ Omits words. Substitutes unknown words for a word with a similar meaning. For example, ‘Jock thought his joke was /funny/ (instead of /hilarious/).’ Guesses words at random by using visual clues such as the first letter. For example, s/ample, instead of s/imple. Decodes by sounding out words. For example, correctly identifies beginning and end sounds, recognises common letter patterns such as ough, th, tion, blends sounds to decode whole word. Reads on when difficult words or phrase are encountered; or Slows down or stops when a difficult word is encountered. For example, looks to adult for help. Does the student respond when asked ‘What word do you think it is? What does it start with? What do you think might come next in the story? What makes sense? Look at the picture; does it give you any clues? Can you think of another word that looks like that? What is the word telling us about? What can you do to try to work out the word? You said ______ ; does that sound right?’ Reads with appropriate fluency and expression; or Reads with poor fluency – pauses, stops, runs sentences together, ignores punctuation Demonstrates comprehension of the text by responding appropriately when asked, What has happened so far? What information have you found out so far about sharks?’ Makes few errors. Makes frequent errors. Reads most high-frequency words.
AFTER READING, NOTICE AND DOCUMENT IF THE STUDENT: • Recalls and describes the main characters, setting, plot, key events or key information. Offers critical comments. For example, ‘The story was interesting, funny, scary.’ ‘The information was easy/hard to understand.’ • Assesses own performance. For example, ‘That was easy for me to read’ or ‘That was really hard to read. I sounded out the hard words.’ • Makes comparisons with other texts. For example, ‘This book is like the one I read about seahorses. I think the other book has more information about rocks than this one.’
Figure 15.27 Reading record example 1
Small group names: Perri Mardi Jordan
Date: 21/07/xx
Goal:
To read fluently with 90 per cent accuracy.
What we will work on:
• Increasing fluency • Pausing at punctuation • Using inflection in voice
Text used:
Extract from reader – ‘The Skate Park’
Perri
• Read fluently – no errors • Excellent comprehension • Voice monotone
Follow-up
• Work on inflection in voice
Mardi
• Tried to read quickly but made 13 errors • Good comprehension despite errors • Needs to work on accuracy
Follow-up
• Focus on accuracy
Jordan
• Found text very challenging • Needed help with 21 words
Follow-up
• Focus on word attack skills
Ellen is a struggling reader who wants desperately to fit in with her peers. At this age being part of the peer group is paramount. Being aware of and sympathetic to this stage of development is an important consideration when determining how best to support Ellen. Scenario
ELLEN Ellen (13 years) has developed a reputation as disruptive and a troublemaker. Her English teacher, Ms Brown, can see that Ellen struggles with her reading. However, each time Ms Brown attempts to offer additional support, Ellen swears or makes rude comments about Ms Brown’s clothing or appearance. Ms Brown is a new graduate and finds this behaviour rather intimidating. For now, Ms Brown decides she will ignore Ellen just to keep the peace. Why is Ellen rejecting the teacher’s help? As a young adolescent, Ellen would be very concerned about fitting into her peer group. She would likely find it
embarrassing to be singled out from her peers as having reading difficulties. Being disruptive in class and deflecting attention away from her reading may be Ellen’s way of coping with her reading difficulties. " DISCUSSION
Older students will often try to hide their lack of skills by acting out in some way. Discuss why it is important for educators to be sensitive to students’ feelings of inadequacy/embarrassment/lack of confidence. What might be a way in which Ms Brown could support Ellen without embarrassing her in front of her peers?
A self-assessment checklist to assist students to reflect on their feelings as readers is an effective way to engage students in examining how their feelings about reading may be impacting their reading progress. A visual questionnaire developed by Kay Dean (1993), from the University of Newcastle in New South Wales is an example of a simple but very effective and
READING
403
non-threatening way to assess students’ attitude towards reading (see Figure 15.29). The short questions can be read to the student, who is able to indicate their response by pointing to or circling a face symbol that indicates a feeling – happy, okay, not sure and worried. Consider This
READER SELF-ASSESSMENT FORMS
In reader self-evaluation, students used a standard form to self-assess and record their reading fluency. Figure 15.28 shows an example. Figure 15.28 Example of self-assessment form My fluency self-evaluation Name:
Date:
What I read: My evaluation
This needs more work
I am improving
I did a great job
Accuracy: • I read words correctly. Rate: • I read at a good pace – not too fast and not too slow. Expression: • I use my voice to create different tones. Punctuation: • I remembered to stop at a full stop and pause at commas. Phrasing: • I read in smooth phrases. Intonation: • I change the tone of my voice to match the text and make the text sound interesting. Stress: • I stress key words.
" DISCUSSION
Discuss how the use of a self-assessment form not only supports reading skills but also supports social/emotional development. Why might this be important?
Independent reading The ultimate goal of any reading program should be to promote the habit of regular independent reading for pleasure. When students read for pleasure, they will select their own books and read about topics or subjects in which they are interested and that they enjoy. Where students independently choose books that are above their reading skills level, they can be supported to develop strategies – such as conferencing with other students – to overcome reading challenges. Independent reading can be encouraged by asking students to maintain a reading journal, or create a graphic organiser or a mind map to represent their book, and providing students with
Figure 15.29 The student’s attitude towards reading
How do you feel when your teacher asks you to read aloud?
How do you feel about your reading skills?
How do you think your teacher feels about your reading skills?
the opportunity to share their reading by talking about their book to a group of other students. Teachers can also promote independent reading by implementing the Drop Everything and Read (DEAR) program. Scenario
DEAR OR RRR? Richard, a Year 2 teacher, is not convinced of the benefits of DEAR. He has several students in his class who are classified as struggling readers. He has observed that these children tend to simply look at the pictures, annoy other students or daydream during DEAR. Richard decides to introduce Round-Robin-Reading (RRR). This strategy provides an opportunity for all students to read aloud. Richard employs this strategy when students are exploring science and humanities/social science topics. This ensures that students are reading for
learning. Richard explains that non-fiction text offers students the opportunity to attempt new or difficult words as well as to explore new content knowledge. By being on the spot, Richard can guide and support all students. He is also adapting his expectations according to his knowledge of each student’s reading level. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
In this scenario, Richard demonstrates how oral reading can be individualised to reflect each student’s ability while still involving a shared reading experience.
Working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students The Aboriginal Literacy Foundation (2017) states: By almost all socioeconomic indicators, Australia’s Aboriginal children are the most disadvantaged group in the nation… (ABS, 2010). There is a significant gap in the English literacy rates of Indigenous and non-Indigenous people in Australia. Sadly, a large majority of Indigenous children in regional and remote areas struggle to read and write and fall well below the national literacy benchmarks.
According to Creative Spirits (2018), ‘the literacy rate gap between Aboriginal students and non-Aboriginal students is ‘‘large and persistent’’ (SBS, 2015), and varies greatly depending on remoteness. Across Australia in 2015, 78.7 per cent of Aboriginal students and 95.6 per cent of non-Aboriginal students achieved the literacy benchmark for Year 3; however, in the Northern Territory, only 42.5 per cent of Aboriginal students achieved the benchmark. The numbers are similar for numeracy in Year 3’.
READING
405
Low literacy rates, it is thought, can be attributed to failure to provide literacy instruction to previous generations, resulting in whole families with poor literacy skills. They can also be attributed to the way literacy is taught, which does not consider the cultural and learning context of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students. Parents and grandparents from the Stolen Generations remain suspicious of any white institutions, and may therefore refuse to enrol children in school. Cultural differences mean that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students may not respond to the classroom environment and learning strategies in the same way as other Australian students. For example, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children are taught not to make direct eye contact with adults, as it is considered disrespectful, which is in contrast to the behaviour expected of non-Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students also tend to be shy around unfamiliar adults, so are unlikely to engage in classroom discussion or volunteer an answer to a teacher’s question. Learning in Aboriginal culture is oral and visual, with storytelling being the main way information is passed from one generation to the next. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children are more likely to remain silent if they are struggling with a concept. This is because they may feel a sense of shame. It is important not to make assumptions or to generalise when working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students; however, it is reasonable to assume that they may feel disadvantaged and/or isolated because they form part of a minority group. To support inclusion, there needs to be a genuine attempt to reflect cultural diversity so that students see images of their culture within the school environment. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students typically have a strong sense of community, and older children are expected to care for and teach younger children in the immediate and extended family. Kinship ties are quite complex in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander families – for example, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children will refer to many people as ‘Auntie’ or ‘Uncle’. Sadly, domestic violence, alcohol abuse and child abuse/neglect are common in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander families. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children are more likely to experience out-of-home care than other Australian children. This can lead to high levels of anxiety, mistrust, poor school attendance rates and ultimately higher failure and drop-out rates than for other students. Like all students, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students must be treated with dignity and respect so that they can reach their full potential.
National Accelerated Literacy Program The National Accelerated Literacy Program (NALP) is a national literacy program designed to support literacy development among our most marginalised Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students. According to the NALP website (NALP 2018), the program is an approach to teaching reading and writing that: • ‘teaches students to be fully participating members of a literate society… • promotes the use of regular routines based on strategies that provide a context for classroom lessons… • lays the foundations of English literacy with continuous shared experiences through carefully chosen texts…. Through a whole book (in early childhood classes) or a passage from a book (for older year levels), fluent reading and discussion of a familiar text becomes a powerful resource for learning how the ‘ground rules’ of English literacy work in a classroom context.’ These ‘ground rules’ relate to understanding how schools work and how to look at and use books – knowledge that is taken for granted by teachers of non-indigenous students.
An important point of difference in the NALP is the teaching sequence model which is described as fluid, allowing teachers to move in and out as required. The teaching sequence is a group of interrelated teaching strategies which create a framework for highly effective teaching techniques using well-written, age-appropriate books. The students learn high-level literacy skills in context by developing common knowledge about the book. The teaching sequence model includes: • age-appropriate reading resources • literate orientation strategies – starting at a lower level by helping students understand what the text is about, which will often include looking at the illustrations; and moving to a higher level by reading and discussing the text • transformation – this involves writing part of the text on strips of card and displaying them on a board so that they can be cut into words, phrases or clauses and manipulated; this supports word recognition, grammar and punctuation as well as the development of the metalanguage shared by all literate users of English • spelling • writing.
Supporting reading assessment ESWs can support the classroom teacher to assess reading skills using a number of techniques designed to target specific skills; examples are described below.
Assessing comprehension and accuracy To assess accuracy, the ESW provides the student with a passage for the student to read aloud. The student is told that the ESW will mark on their copy any errors that are made while the student is reading. The student faces away from the ESW so that their focus is on reading and they are not distracted by the ESW marking errors. The ESW then shares the results with the student, discussing strengths and areas for improvement. The ESW looks for: omissions • • substitutions • self-correction • decoding skills • whether the student uses visual clues • whether the student applies punctuation • how the student attacks unknown words • whether the student stays on task • whether the reading is fluent/slow or tedious • whether the student looks to the adult for help. To assess comprehension, the student reads the passage aloud. The ESW then asks the student questions to determine their level of comprehension. The ESW may ask the student to retell the passage in their own words – main theme/idea, event, characters, problems/solutions, steps/procedures and so on. The ESW looks for: • whether the student uses any of the vocabulary contained in the passage • how much detail the student is able to recall.
READING
407
Figure 15.30 Example of a cloze activity
Cloze assessment Cloze assessment tasks require students to demonstrate their comprehension skills by selecting and inserting a word into a sentence so that the sentence makes sense. Figure 15.30 shows an example of a cloze task. In order to insert the correct word, the student must be able to work out the intended meaning or message. A student’s ability to retell a text in a logical manner, highlighting the key events and characters and using some of the vocabulary from the text, demonstrates that the student comprehends what has been read.
Phonology assessment In a phonology assessment, the ESW asks the students to listen to word pairs and identify whether the words are the same or different. The words presented should be phonemically similar – for example, /were/ and /wear/, /hot/ and /hat/, /lend/ and /bend/.
Semantic assessment This type of assessment requires students to demonstrate their understanding of how words, phrases and sentences can be put together to make sense and convey meaning. Often, semantic assessment will include picture sets in which the student is required to put the pictures in an order that conveys a logical sequence of events or tells a story. Semantic assessment may also include asking the student to listen to a sentence and indicate whether or not it makes sense – for example, ‘dog ran the hill lost’.
Syntactic assessment Syntactic assessment requires students to demonstrate their understanding of the rules that govern how words can meaningfully be arranged to form phrases and sentences. For example, the ESW may say aloud a sentence such as ‘up the hill the dog ran’, and ask the student to restate the sentence so that it makes sense: ‘The dog ran up the hill.’ Students can also be asked to combine two short sentences – for example, ‘Max loves oranges.’ ‘Max went to the shop and bought some oranges.’ The student might say, ‘Max went to the shop and bought oranges, which are his favourite fruit.’ Students may also be asked to create a more complex sentence from a simple sentence – for example, ‘Today was hot’ may be made into a more complex sentence such as ‘Today was so hot we all went for a swim after school.’
Miscue analysis A miscue in reading is simply saying something that is not actually in the text. It may also be omitting words or phrases. A miscue may be a single word or a phrase or even a substitution. Miscue analysis makes a record of each miscue (usually by making notations on a copy of the text being read) and provides insight into the miscue. Miscues are not necessarily a problem if the student can demonstrate that they are reading with understanding.
The use of miscue analysis as an assessment tool requires careful preparation. The text should be pitched slightly above the student’s current skill level. The ESW gives a copy of the text to the student to read and uses a second copy to record miscues and any attempts at self-correction. After the student has read aloud, the ESW can ask questions to determine the student’s comprehension level. Analysing miscues can provide insight into specific reading errors and reading strategies used by the student that may require intervention. For example, miscues may occur because words look graphically similar, such as ‘red’ and ‘read’, or ‘could’ and ‘would’. Miscues may also occur because of semantic errors such as substituting a word that is unfamiliar with a word that is familiar (and makes sense), such as ‘bought’ instead of ‘purchased’. Students may also substitute words that do not make sense in the context – for example, ‘the elephant’s skin is even thick’, instead of ‘the elephant’s skin is extremely thick’.
GO
Decoding skills
further
Decoding skills require students to apply their knowledge of letter–sound relationships and knowledge of letter patterns to correctly read written words. Students may be required to: • read isolated words • match a spoken word to a written word.
Access further online reading resources in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
Summary Learning to read is a complex social and cognitive task that requires explicit, direct and sequenced instruction, daily practice and timely support. Evidence-based approaches to reading instruction focus on two key abilities: word identification (decoding) and understanding text (comprehension). Along with oral language, research has also identified five key skills: phonemic awareness, phonetic awareness, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension. To be effective in supporting reading development, it is important to understand how reading develops and the strategies that can be used to support reading development. Each school will have one or more reading programs as well as a range of reading intervention strategies, with which you must become familiar; it is also important to build a repertoire of reading games and activities that you can use to support developing readers.
ONLINE RESOURCES •
Five From Five: Promoting effective, evidencebased reading instruction: includes videos and resources: http://www.fivefromfive.org.au/about
•
Reading Centre: Guides for helping children to learn to read – Years K–6: https://ahrc.eq.edu.au/ resources/what-works/reading
•
Literacy Teaching Toolkit: Schools: This resource provides practical advice and high-impact teaching practices that improve outcomes in reading, writing and speaking and listening. It covers three main elements of literacy: https://www.education.vic.gov. au/school/teachers/teachingresources/discipline/ english/literacy/Pages/default.aspx
READING
409
Discussion questions 1
Access a children’s book suitable for children under 8 years. Practise reading the book aloud to model fluency skills such as rhythm, phrasing, intonation, naturalness and use of voice for different characters/ moods. When ready, read aloud to a small group or one other student. Seek feedback on your fluency skills. As a whole group, discuss the challenges of
reading with fluency and what you can do to enhance your own skills. 2 Working in small groups, design what you believe would be a creative reading area for students in Grades 2–3 or 5–6. Describe how you would set up the environment, the furniture and furnishings you would include, and the additional resources you would provide.
Self-check questions 1 List and briefly describe the five stages of reading development. 2 Describe the skills that are demonstrated by a good reader. 3 What is the aim of the Australian Curriculum: English as it relates to reading development? 4 Describe the four elements of the Four Resources Literacy Model (NSW Department of Education and Training), which is an example of a balanced reading program. 5 List the five elements of reading skills and knowledge. 6 What is phonemic awareness and why is it critical to reading success? 7 Explain the meaning of phonemic awareness.
8 What is another term used to describe the letter– sound relationship? 9 Explain the following four terms as they relate to reading fluency: a accuracy b rate c prosody d WCPM. 10 Explain the three strategies that can be used to gain information and meaning from text and write one question that you could ask the reader (reader age may vary) in order to demonstrate this skill. 11 List and explain the ‘super six’ of direct instruction to support comprehension development.
Activities 1
Connect the element of phonemic awareness instruction (on the left) to the explanation. Medial phonemes
The ability to say the sound that begins words – for example, mum, mop, mug /m.
Phoneme deletion (spoken language)
Identifying the beginning sound – m/mum; d/dad; b/baby – and end sound – kuh/drink; t/cat; g/dog
Phoneme isolation
Identifying the middle sound with a single consonant – for example, /h/o/t and /h/u/m; /n/u/t and /n/e/t; /p/o/t and p/e/t
Phoneme substitution (spoken language) Phoneme identity (initial sound) Phoneme segmentation (spoken language)
Saying each sound in a word – for example, sheep sh/ee/p; goat g/oa/t; peach p/ea/ch. Substituting one phoneme for another phoneme to create a different word – for example, dress change/dr/ to /m/mess; thin change /th/ to /ch/chin. Delete a phoneme to change the word – for example, clean without /c/lean; blink without /b/link.
2 Working in a small group, develop a phonic worksheet and a phonics game suitable for Kindergarten students, focusing on individual consonants or individual vowels. You should: a write an objective for your game and worksheet (what the students will do). b write a learning outcome for your game and worksheet (what the students will learn) c describe how you will introduce your game and worksheet. d list any resources you might use. You may wish to access online resources to assist you with this task. 3 Test your reading fluency. Go to: http://www. rocketreader.com/cgi-bin/portal/fun_tests/perception. Complete the test and answer the related questions. a How did you feel prior to starting your test? b How would you feel if you were asked to share the results of your test with other students? c Now that you have completed this test, discuss with the group how you felt both before and after the test. What could an ESW do to reduce the anxiety students may feel when asked to complete a fluency test?
4 Go to the list of fluency resources available in the online resources for this text. Browse these resources, then select two and describe how you might use these resources with students in the classroom. 5 Go to ‘Supporting vocabulary development’ on p. 390 of this chapter. Select an activity from those listed and create a teaching resource/activity for a student in Year 6. Your activity/resource should relate to a curriculum area. Identify the vocabulary that the students will explore and explain how you would use this resource with students. 6 This activity requires you to access two websites that provide ideas for reading resources. Select a resource idea from each website – one suitable for students in Years K–2 and one suitable for students in Years 7–8. Your resource should include more than a worksheet. Provide a description of your resource, including: a its purpose in relation to specific reading skills/ knowledge b the target age group or abilities level c how it can be used by students d how the resource would be introduced
READING
411
Chapter 16 SUPPORTING NUMERACY DEVELOPMENT LEARNING OBJECTIVES
GO
further
Go Further icons link to extra content for this chapter. Ask your instructor for the Go Further resource and deepen your understanding of the topic.
When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to demonstrate that you can understand and apply your knowledge of the numeracy curriculum to: 16.1
support students to develop core numeracy concepts as directed by the classroom teacher
16.2 support students to develop and apply the language of mathematics 16.3 implement numeracy activities as directed by the classroom teacher 16.4 monitor and support students with difficulties in mathematics 16.5 document the numeracy development of students as directed by the classroom teacher 16.6 identify common difficulties in mathematics and document numeracy development.
Introduction This chapter focuses on understanding the basic concepts that form the foundation for numeracy development. It explores the underpinning skills, knowledge and concepts needed for the development of numeracy. It also examines how ESWs can support numeracy development and explores the importance of using multisensory learning opportunities to support students struggling with numeracy. As you explore the numeracy curriculum, you will notice that the terms ‘numeracy’ and ‘mathematics’ are often used interchangeably. Mathematics refers to specific mathematical knowledge – for example, knowing the times table, equations and number sense. Numeracy is the ability to apply mathematical knowledge in a wide range of contexts.
16.1 The numeracy curriculum ACARA (2017: 3) defines numeracy as encompassing the knowledge, skills, behaviours and dispositions that students need to use mathematics in a wide range of situations. It involves students recognising and understanding the role of mathematics in the world and having the dispositions and capacities to use mathematical knowledge and skills purposefully. Numeracy evolves as students begin to see possibilities for applying mathematical knowledge in their daily lives – for example, numeracy skills are very important when dividing a bag of lollies between two people!
Scenario
PAIRS Zephie (5 years) tipped all of her earrings onto her bed, sorted them into pairs and counted how many pairs of earrings she owned. She announced to her mother: ‘I have nine pairs of earrings and six other earrings.’ WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Zephie used her mathematical knowledge of quantity and pairs. She used her numeracy knowledge to sort, match and count each pair of earrings. She shows that she understands what constitutes a matching pair and what is not a matching pair. Zephie is likely to have developed this mathematical and numeracy knowledge informally through play, observation and real-life experiences. SHARING
Dara and Max (both 9 years) are twins. They have each been given a bag of lollies by their grandmother and are
Link to the Australian Curriculum
busily sharing them so that they each have the same number of lollies. First, they count the lollies. There are 21. Each child takes a turn at selecting and placing a lolly into their own pile. Dara: ‘Now there’s one left and I should have it because I’m older than you by three whole minutes!’ Max: ‘No! That’s not fair. We have to share.’ Dara: ‘Well we can’t because we can’t break this one in half – it’s too hard.’ Max: ‘I know – let’s give that one to Gran. That would be fair to both of us.’ WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Dara and Max demonstrate that they understand the concept of quantity, equal to and half. They also demonstrate that they are able to problem-solve.
The development of numeracy knowledge, skills and understanding requires the acquisition of: • facts – for example, functions: addition, subtraction, division, multiplication • concepts and understanding – for example, quantity, comparison, measurement, symmetry • strategies and procedures – planning and problem-solving, evaluating, using computations such as addition or subtraction, identifying key information, sequencing, making inferences, applying existing knowledge, asking questions.
The General Capabilities Numeracy is one of the seven General Capabilities of the Australian Curriculum. Figure 16.1 shows the key ideas for numeracy, which are organised into six interrelated elements in the learning continuum.
SUPPORTING NUMERACY DEVELOPMENT
413
Figure 16.1 The Australian Curriculum: Numeracy
r i cu
pabilities: Numer eral ca acy Gen
lum
Literacy
t ing Us remen u s ea m
IC
S
Pe r nd o c so na al a l an ial c i t i ing r d C Ca nk i h pab ilit y C r e a t i v e T
Numeracy
U re
sin
gs
a s o p a tia l nin g
ising and Recogn patterns and using relationships
Et h i c a l g din Uu n d e r s t a n
Successful Learner, Confident and Creative Individual, and Active and Informed Citizen
Interpreting stical information stati
Nu
Esti calcu mating whol lating and en um with be rs
s ag . es ,
Cu r
cy era m
Inte Und rcul ers tu tan d
ral ing
s i n th e A u s t r a l i a n
n ti o ac e nt r f c g e Usin s, per rat al a n d m i c de s ra ti o
s
b i l iti e
a p a b ili t y
n
apa
TC
Ge
lc e ra
The numeracy learning continuum describes the related mathematical knowledge and skills, which are contextualised so that students can apply this knowledge across a broad range of areas (Figure 16.2). At each stage of the learning continuum, students are required to demonstrate their application of mathematical knowledge, skills and understandings in a range of contexts. Figure 16.2 Six interrelated elements of numeracy
Element
Explanation
Estimating and calculating with whole numbers
This includes understanding and using numbers in context; estimating and calculating; and using money.
Recognising and using patterns and relationships
This includes recognising, describing, reproducing and extending patterns.
Using fractions, decimals, percentages, ratios and rates
This includes understanding of the meaning of fractions and decimals; their representations as ratios; rates and percentages; and how they can be applied in real-life situations.
Using spatial reasoning
This includes visualising 2D shapes and 3D objects; and interpreting maps and diagrams.
Interpreting statistical information
This includes collecting, recording, displaying, comparing and evaluating the effectiveness of data displays of various types; and interpreting chance events.
Using measurement
This includes estimating and measuring with metric units; and operating with clocks, calendars and timetables.
LINK TO THE Australian CURRICULUM To learn more about the numeracy elements go to the Australian Curriculum website: https://www.australiancurriculum. edu.au and search for: Learning Continuum of Numeracy. Source: ª Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) 2010 to present, unless otherwise indicated. This material was downloaded from the Australian Curriculum website australiancurriculum.edu.au/GeneralCapabilities/Pdf/Numeracy (accessed February 2015) and was modified. The material is licensed under CC BY 4.0. Version updates are tracked on the Curriculum version history page of the Australian Curriculum website. ACARA does not endorse any product that uses the Australian Curriculum or make any representations as to the quality of such products. Any product that uses material published on this website should not be taken to be affiliated with ACARA or have the sponsorship or approval of ACARA. It is up to each person to make their own assessment of the product, taking into account matters including, but not limited to, the version number and the degree to which the materials align with the content descriptions (where relevant). Where there is a claim of alignment, it is important to check that the materials align with the content descriptions (endorsed by all Education Ministers), not the elaborations (examples provided by ACARA).
The National Literacy and Numeracy Learning Progressions The National Literacy and Numeracy Learning Progressions describe common pathways or developmental sequences for the acquisition of aspects of literacy and numeracy development. The Numeracy Progressions include three key elements and 15 sub-elements, which are listed in Figure 16.3. Figure 16.3 Elements and sub-elements of the National Numeracy Learning Progressions
Number sense and algebra
Measurement and geometry
Statistics and probability
> Quantifying numbers
> Understanding units of measurement
> Understanding chance
> Additive strategies
> Understanding geometric properties
> Interpreting and representing data
> Multiplicative strategies
> Positioning and locating
> Operating with decimals
> Measuring time
> Operating with percentages > Understanding money > Number patterns and algebraic thinking > Comparing units (ratios, rates and proportion) > Interpreting fractions
You can download a copy of the National Numeracy Learning Progressions from the ACARA website: https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/media/3806/numeracylearning-progression.pdf.
16.2 The language of mathematics Alongside the acquisition of mathematical skills and knowledge, students must also acquire a vocabulary of mathematical words and phrases. The language of mathematics develops over time, and initially is acquired informally through play, exploration and talking to others. Consider the following examples: • Two-year-old Nora holds out both hands and says, ‘More please’. When she has eaten both cubes of cheese, she announces, ‘All gone’. • Five-year-old Java is asked to share his sweets with his sister. He carefully sorts the sweets into two equal groups. • Three-year-old Ellen is asked to put a cup next to each plate at the lunch table. Ellen demonstrates her understanding of one-to-one correspondence.
SUPPORTING NUMERACY DEVELOPMENT
415
Four-year-old Chelsea is asked to half-fill a small bucket with water. The preschool group sings ‘Five Little Ducks’, counting down from 5 to 1. These examples demonstrate that by the time children enter school, they have already acquired some mathematical language, which provides a foundation upon which to build their mathematical vocabulary. One of the challenges in the acquisition of this vocabulary is the interchangeable language used to describe a single mathematical application – for example: • addition: add, plus, total, sum of • subtraction: take away, minus, subtract, less, difference between • multiplication: multiple, times, groups of, lots of, multiply, product. To avoid confusion, it is extremely important that you clarify with the classroom teacher the mathematical language being used in the classroom and ensure this is reflected in your interactions with students. Always clarify the students’ understanding of mathematical language by asking a simple question – for example, ‘What’s another word we can use for ‘‘take away from’’?’ • •
Scenario
MINUS Sienna (7 years) is new to the school. Her family has recently moved from interstate. Sienna’s school records show that she is a bright student who achieves at above average in all curriculum areas. This morning, the teacher gave the students a quick verbal maths quiz. The ESW was surprised to see that Sienna correctly answered all questions except those related to subtraction. When the ESW discussed the quiz with Sienna, she discovered that Sienna was not familiar with the term ‘minus’. At her last school, she had only ever used the phrase ‘take away from’ in relation to subtraction. MATHS SPEAK
ESW Brian is working with a group of Year 4 students.
‘Today we are going to multiply two-digit numbers. Who remembers what we mean by the word ‘‘factor’’ when we are multiplying? ‘Yes, that’s right Dane. When we multiply one number by another number these numbers are called factors. ‘Who can tell me what the product is? ‘Great, Jess, it’s the number we get when we multiply one number by another number. ‘Here’s a simple one: What does the ‘‘x’’ mean? ‘Of course, it means times or multiply.’ WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Learning mathematical language, and its meaning and application, is an essential skill without which students are not able to participate in meaningful discussion of mathematics concepts.
Modelling mathematical language Modelling mathematical language in the classroom is the most effective way to introduce students to new vocabulary. It is also important to encourage students to use mathematical vocabulary in context as they are working on their numeracy skills. In the example ‘Maths speak’ in the box above, the ESW quickly checks the students’ prior knowledge of multiplication vocabulary. Questioning is an effective way of supporting the use and understanding of mathematics vocabulary. Questioning usually occurs informally as students are engaged in tasks. Openended questions encourage students to apply their mathematical language in a meaningful context. Consider the following examples: • How can we work out how many students are here today? • What could we use to measure the length of the classroom?
What method will you use to solve this problem? What numbers can you make with 1, 7 and 9? Are there the same number of even numbers and odd numbers between 11 and 33? How can you check to see whether you have the correct answer? How are you going to record each step? How did you get that answer? Can you visualise the ways you could represent the 12? These types of questions challenge students’ thinking and provide them with opportunities to verbalise mathematical ideas, problems and concepts. • • • • • • •
Consider This
THE LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS Like all subject areas or disciplines, mathematics has its own language, and to be successful in mathematics, students must learn to use this language. They must know the terminology and understand how it is applied. This is not an easy task, however, and many students struggle with this language. Mathematical language includes many words that sound the same as words with other meanings (or homophones), and many words with the same spelling as everyday words but different meanings as mathematical terms – for example:
• • • • •
sum and some plain and plane mode and mowed pi and pie serial and cereal. Adams, Thangata & King (2005)
Mathematics also uses words in the English language that may already be familiar to students in their everyday lives but have very different meanings in a mathematical context (Mejers & Trevitt 2010: 6–7). Consider the examples shown in Figure 16.4.
Figure 16.4 Mathematical words and their homophonic everyday meaning
Mathematical term
Everyday meaning
Angle
Point of view
Figure
A female form
Odd
Strange
Order
To make a selection from a menu
Property
Something you own
Rational
Sane
Volume
Sound
Word walls As new mathematical vocabulary is introduced, it is important to explain or demonstrate its meaning, show students how the word/s are written (symbols and print) and add the vocabulary to the relevant word wall. Most primary classrooms will have a maths word wall, to remind students of mathematical vocabulary – an example of which is shown in Figure 16.5. Students may also have their own mathematical vocabulary dictionary to help them to remember words and meanings.
SUPPORTING NUMERACY DEVELOPMENT
417
Figure 16.5 Mathematics word wall
To assist students to make the connection between mathematics vocabulary and their application, word walls can be divided into a range of categories, such as numbers, counting, addition, subtraction, multiplication, measurement, patterns, shapes, position, direction, movement, calculations, decimals and fractions.
ONLINE RESOURCES To assist you to develop your knowledge of mathematical language you may find the following resources useful: • Mathematical vocabulary checklists: Reception to Year 6. Department of Education UK: http://www. usworthcolliery.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/ Mathematical_vocabulary_checklists-_Reception_ to_Year_6.pdf. This is a very useful summary of mathematics vocabulary divided into key areas, such as counting, adding and subtracting, and problem-solving. • Primary numeracy glossary for parents: https:// www.theschoolrun.com/primary-numeracy-glossary-
for-parents. This website provides a definition of numeracy terms and allows you to click on each term to show an example of its application in practice. • Maths help sheets (Pre-K to K; primary; secondary): http://www.schoolatoz.nsw.edu.au/homework-andstudy/mathematics/help-sheets. These help sheets cover all areas of the curriculum. The downloadable PDFs provide an easy-to-understand explanation of concepts and how they are taught using an activity example. Each state/territory Education Department also has resources that can be accessed to support your understanding of numeracy learning.
16.3 The development of numeracy concepts This section looks at the development of core numeracy skills and knowledge, which form the foundation of mathematical knowledge from Kindergarten to Year 6. The development of numeracy skills and knowledge is progressive and accumulative, enabling students to solve increasingly complex mathematical problems. Core underpinning numeracy concepts include: • one-to-one correspondence • sorting, classifying, matching and ordering • number sense • understanding and using measurement.
Mathematical development is a cognitive process that occurs over time. It comprises: • factual knowledge – number facts that can easily be recalled, such as 2 + 2 = 4 • procedural skills – knowing ‘how to’, such as pointing at each object when counting or using fingers to help count • conceptual understanding – knowing ‘why’, including understanding mathematical relationships – for example, understanding that addition and subtraction are opposite tasks. Numeracy knowledge and skills develop over time as children experiment, use problemsolving and participate in real-life numeracy tasks each day. Figure 16.6 provides a general overview of the approximate timeline for the development of basic mathematical concepts. The timeline shows the developmental sequence of numeracy knowledge and skills, which lay the foundation for new knowledge and skills. Figure 16.6 Mathematical concept development
Number sense, numerals and quantity
Preschool
Middle childhood
Secondary school
> Develops number sense and awareness of numbers in the environment.
> Uses ordinal numbers to order objects.
> Counts forwards and backwards in an almost unlimited way.
> Recognises numerals up to 10. > Says the number names when counting. > Applies one-to-one correspondence by counting tangible objects by ones to 10, 20, 25. > Matches quantities and numerals for 1–5, then 6–9.
> Recognises and generates equivalent forms for the same number using physical models, words and number expressions. > Counts forward to 100, counts backwards from 100, counts forward or backward starting at any number between 1 and 100.
> Able to do the four operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) at least with small numbers. Multiplication and division are harder operations. > Starts recognising fractions more easily and is able to do some operations with them.
> Demonstrates that equal means ‘the same as’ using visual representations.
> Starts working more easily with decimals and using them with the four operations.
> Writes numerical representations.
> Uses place value concepts to represent, compare and order whole numbers using physical models, numerals and words, with ones, tens and hundreds.
> Algebra is introduced where symbols are replaced with letters.
> Can relate to simple concepts of addition or subtraction.
> Recognises and classifies numbers as even or odd.
> Begins to compare numbers of tangible objects using language (e.g. same, more than, less than).
> Uses algebra to do the four operations.
> Models, represents and explains addition as combining sets (part + part = whole) and counting on.
> Uses negative numbers in context.
> Begins to identify concepts of a fraction (whole and half) by using real objects.
> Uses conventional symbols to represent the operations of addition and subtraction.
> Counts with understanding and recognises how many in sets of objects. > Can identify the larger of two numbers.
> At a higher level, algebra is used to solve problems.
> Uses negative numbers in the four operations.
> Begins to identify the position of objects in a series (e.g. first, second, third, middle, next, last). > Begins to develop the ability to combine, separate and name how many objects.
SUPPORTING NUMERACY DEVELOPMENT
419
Preschool
Middle childhood
Secondary school
> Begins to understand more complex spatial relationships, such as part-to-whole relationships.
> Starts to complete and continue patterns using fractions, decimals, algebra, positive and negative numbers.
> Identifies, compares, and sorts two-dimensional shapes.
> Able to find area and perimeter of many plane figures.
> May be able to do simple sums in head (e.g. 2 + 2). > Understands the cardinal rule (the last number word in counting tells how many are in the set). > Begins to count classes or sub-sets of objects (e.g. 20 blocks: 7 red blocks + 3 green blocks + 5 yellow blocks + 2 blue blocks + 3 orange blocks = 20 blocks). > Begins to solve word problems (e.g. ‘If you have two hats and I give you three more hats, how many hats will you have?’). > Compares sets of equal, more, or fewer. Awareness of relations and patterns
> Begins to recognise, describe, reproduce, and extend simple patterns. > Matches, sorts and classifies objects based on their similarities and differences to compare objects, and notices obvious similarities and differences among items.
Awareness and use of geometry and spatial reasoning
> Recognises, names, describes and compares twodimensional shapes (e.g. circle, square, rectangle, triangle). > Matches two- and threedimensional objects.
> Begins to recognise, name and compare three-dimensional shapes (e.g. cylinder, cube, cone, sphere).
> Able to find the volume of many 3D solids.
> Sorts similar two- and threedimensional objects. > Identifies common twodimensional shapes. > Describes three-dimensional objects. > Identifies positions of objects in space using language (e.g. under, over, beside, behind, inside) to describe and compare their relative positions. Awareness and use of measurement
> Sorts and compares objects by size, length, weight, area, and temperature (e.g. bigger/ smaller, hotter/colder, longer/ shorter, more than/less than).
> Identifies units of time (day, week, month, year) and compares calendar elements.
> Sees the necessity for mathematical measurement in everyday living.
> Estimates and measures weight using non-standard units.
> Able to apply measurement to construction.
Preschool
Middle childhood
Secondary school
> Uses non-standard measurement units (e.g. unit blocks, paper clips, hand span).
> Estimates and measures lengths using non-standard and standard units.
> Aware of different body sizes, which can result in different heights and weights.
> Gathers and sorts data in response to questions posed by teacher and students.
> Able to see the necessity for data gathering.
> Uses common measuring instruments (e.g. measuring cups, simple balance scales). > Begins to use time-related words (e.g. day/night, yesterday/today/tomorrow). Analysis and interpretation of data
> Creates graphs using tangible objects or pictures. > Represents ideas or experiences using graphs.
> Able to manipulate data and responses into tables and graphs. > Able to calculate mean, mode, median and range to determine the relevance of gathered and displayed data.
> Uses graphs to answer questions.
Each child will develop new knowledge and skills at their own unique pace. Figure 16.6 is designed to demonstrate the cumulative nature of mathematical development – that is, existing skills and knowledge lay the foundation for new skills and knowledge.
One-to-one correspondence One-to-one correspondence is the ability to count by matching one object to one number. Each object that is being counted can only be assigned one number and the quantity of objects being counted in a group remains constant. One-to-one correspondence is fundamental to understanding quantity. Young children will naturally engage in one-to-one correspondence as they are playing and interacting with the environment.
EXAMPLES OF THE PROGRESSION OF ONE-TO-ONE CORRESPONDENCE Perri (18 months) has two dolls in her pram. She gives each doll a plastic bottle. Asher (3 years) puts a small plastic animal in each carriage of his train. Taylor (4 years) helps her mother to set the table. She puts a knife and fork on each placemat. Sari (5 years) is having a tea party. She places a soft toy animal on each chair.
Scenario
Connor (7 years) is asked by the teacher to place a set of felt pens on each desk. Mara (13 years) is on the organising committee for the school play. One of her tasks is to match the number of tickets sold, and those reserved but not yet paid for, with the number of seats required in the auditorium. She must also ensure that there are seats for non-paying guests.
One-to-one correspondence is an essential first principle in understanding the relationship between quantity and numbers (numerals). For example, if there are five pencils, the child demonstrates one-to-one correspondence by touching each pencil and assigning a corresponding cardinal number. Later, the child is able to demonstrate one-to-one correspondence with
SUPPORTING NUMERACY DEVELOPMENT
421
numbers by counting a group of objects and matching the quantity to the correct cardinal number (see Figure 16.7). Figure 16.7 Matching a visual to an ordinal number
1
2
3
4
5 Source: Shutterstock.com/Genestro.
Experimenting with one-to-one correspondence also introduces students to the concept of sets (see Figure 16.8). Students can pair each object in one set with one (and only one) object in another set. Figure 16.8 Introducing students to the concept of ‘sets’
Set A
Set B Each object in Set A can be paired with an object in Set B. Each object in Set B can be paired with an object in Set A.
One-to-one correspondence also supports the development of conservation of number (see Figure 16.9) – that is, no matter how many ways objects are grouped within the set, the number of objects in the set remains constant. Figure 16.9 Representation of number conservation – the number of marbles remains constant while looking visually different.
Source: Shutterstock.com/nata_danilenko.
Number sense Number sense is the ability to understand numbers and number relationships. Beginning number sense requires children to understand whole numbers (1–9) and 0. Number sense skills include rote counting, recognising numerals and assigning numerals to a corresponding fixed quantity, identifying and creating number patterns, and understanding ordinal numbers. A Year 1 student could, for example, demonstrate number sense by saying that: • a bracelet made up of 10 beads is similar in quantity to a bracelet made up of 12 beads • the number 8 comes after 7 and before 9 • the number 10 can be represented as (7 + 3) or (9 + 1) or (5 + 5) • if there are 10 lollies shared evenly between two children, each child would receive five lollies • the quantity 3 can be represented by: ‘three’; ‘3’ or (three objects) • if Dad gives me $1 for helping him wash the car, I would need to help wash the car 10 times to earn $10. These examples illustrate the ability to understand and manipulate numbers in a variety of situations and for a variety of purposes.
Rote counting Rote counting requires the student to understand that counting occurs using a sequence of numbers that remains constant – ‘1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 … 20’. Number sequences can be manipulated when counting, but each number sequence remains constant – ‘2 4 6 …’, ‘5 10 15 20 …’ Rote counting is not the same as understanding quantity.
Recognising numerals Recognising numerals (Figure 16.10) requires students to identify each numeral by naming numerals when they are shown in a random order.
Figure 16.10 Recognising numerals from random patterns
Number symbols (numerals) represent a fixed quantity A cardinal number denotes quantity – the number in a set. Students develop an understanding that a numeral represents a constant quantity (see Figure 16.11), which always remains the same – for example, the numeral ‘2’ will always represent a quantity of two – no more and no less. Figure 16.11 Numerals as a representation of quantity
=3
= 4 objects Source: Shutterstock.com/LeonART.
SUPPORTING NUMERACY DEVELOPMENT
423
In the above example, the number of fish in each set is also the cardinal number or highest number in the set. The cardinal number is the final number counted in a set. Students must also understand that the number of objects in the set remains constant regardless of how these objects are arranged (conservation of number). In the above example, the cardinal number for the first group of fish is 3. This number remains constant (unless fish are added or removed). When counting sets of real objects students can be encouraged to touch each item as it is counted. Students can be asked to start counting objects from a different starting point to show that the number of objects remains constant. Counting objects in a scattered pattern (Figure 16.12) requires the student to remember the starting point so that they can keep track of where they started. Students who have difficulty with this task will need to be provided with strategies to help them keep track of each object counted. For example, they may need to move each object out of the circle as it is counted. If counting from a worksheet, the student may need to draw a line through each object counted or place a marker on each object as it is counted. Figure 16.12 Counting sets
Source: Shutterstock.com/nata_danilenko
In a mixed group of items, students can be asked to start counting with a particular item, then move on to another one. For example, in Figure 16.13, begin counting with the red circle. Students can be challenged to count objects that are placed randomly around the room – for example, count the number of chairs, doors, windows, paint brushes or red pencils. This requires students to think about how they will go about this task so items aren’t missed or counted more than once. Students can count sets and find a set with the same number (an equal number) of objects or students can count objects and match them to the corresponding numeral. Students can count by posting counters into a container. This requires the student to remember the last number counted; they can only start over by removing all of the counters from the container. This encourages students to concentrate on their counting (Figure 16.14).
Figure 16.13 Counting activity
Figure 16.14 Using counters can encourage students to concentrate on the task
Dominoes can be used to help students recognise and match equal quantities (Figure 16.15). Figure 16.15 Dominoes require students to count and match numbers.
To count accurately and understand the concept of quantity, students must acquire an understanding of the following principles: • Each object to be counted must be given one and only one number name. • The number name list must be used in a fixed order every time a group of objects is counted – that is, you have to say 1, 2, 3, 4 in the same order each time. • The order in which the objects are counted doesn’t matter: the child can start with any block and count them. • The last number name used gives the number of objects in the set. • The arrangement of the objects to be counted does not affect how many there are (Department of Education and Training Victoria 2018).
Simple number patterns Understanding simple number patterns can be achieved by engaging students in physical activity such as copying a pattern of claps, or a sequence of movements such as ‘jump twice’, ‘hop once’, ‘clap three times and turn around’, and singing songs and rhymes that include number patterns such as ‘Five Little Ducks’, ‘Five Little Speckled Frogs’ and ‘There Were 10 in the Bed’. Students can also be involved in visually identifying number patterns – for example, ‘2 3 2 3 2?, 22 44 22 44 …?, 123 123 123 …?’ A more complex number pattern can require students to use problem-solving skills to find a solution – for example, ‘2 4 6 …?, 2 6 8 12 …?’ By secondary school, students can work on more complex number patterns – for example, 1 3 6 …? could lead to ?= 6 (by multiplying 1 by 3, then 3 by 2, then 6 by 1); ? = 10 (by adding 2 to 1, then adding 3 to 3, then adding 4 to 6). SUPPORTING NUMERACY DEVELOPMENT
425
Ordinal numbers Ordinal numbers are used to identity to position or order of objects – for example, objects in a line can be assigned a position such as first, second, third … last (Figure 16.16). Figure 16.16 Example of an ordinal number activity First
Last
Source: Shutterstock.com/nata_danilenko.
Understanding ordinal numbers requires students to identify the starting point – for example, in the row of monsters in Figure 16.17, the first monster will usually be the one on the far left and the last monster will be the one on the far right. Figure 16.17 Identifying first, last in a row of items First
Third
Sixth/Last
Source: Shutterstock.com/TeddyandMia.
Students could be asked to identify the first monster, the third monster and the last monster by writing the abbreviated form of ordinal numbers – for example, 1st, 2nd, 3rd. In this example, the last monster is also the sixth, and if the monsters were arranged in a vertical line rather than a horizontal one, students might identify the first as either the monster at the top or the one at the bottom. Figure 16.18 provides an example of a Year 5 student demonstrating her understanding of ordinal numbers. This task also requires the student to use her literacy skills to read and follow instructions. Figure 16.18 Understanding ordinal numbers
For younger students, a simple, fun ordinal activity would be to have students form a line and ask them to call their place in the line – for example, 1st, 2nd, 3rd. Give students tasks: 4th student claps hands; 5th student hops, 3rd student swaps places with 1st student.
Understanding mathematical symbols Initially, students will be introduced to basic symbols such as +, – and =, which they will use in number sentences. Again, the teacher will use real objects to illustrate the meaning of each symbol. In Figure 16.19, students are able to see and read the simple equations using tangible materials. Figure 16.19 Using tangible materials to represent numerals
plus
equals
5 robots plus 2 robots equals 7 robots 5+2=7
equals
take away
4 robots take away 1 robot equals 3 robots 4–1=3 Source: Shutterstock.com/fongman.
A next step would be to use a standard unit such as a cube to create number sentences, as shown in Figure 16.20. Figure 16.20 Number sentences
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+ +
+
+
+
= 8 (1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 8)
= 8 (2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 8) +
= 8 (3 + 3 + 1 + 1 = 8) = 8 (4 + 4 = 8)
Students can also write: 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 4 + 4 or 3 + 3 + 2 = 4 + 4 and so on. This strategy also builds number sense. It allows students to play with numbers and begin to realise that number sentences can be written in many different ways and still give the same answer. These number sentences are referred to as equivalent statements. Students will be given lots of practice to write their own number sentences and to calculate the correct answer for missing number sentences (see Figure 16.21).
SUPPORTING NUMERACY DEVELOPMENT
427
Figure 16.21 Number sentences
Missing number sentence
Student’s number sentence (multiplication)
17 + h = 23 – 3 = 20
can also be represented as 2 10 = 20
10 – h = 6 + 2 = 8
can also be represented as 2 4 = 8
7 + 3 = 5 + h = 10
can also be represented as 2 5 = 10
12 – 8 = 2 + h = 4
can also be represented as 2 2 = 4
Providing opportunities to practise these calculations will assist students to demonstrate their understanding of maths symbols.
Understanding number facts Number facts are basic addition, subtraction, multiplication and division calculations that students should learn to recall instantly with no working out (Figure 16.22). Figure 16.22 Example of addition and subtraction number facts in 10s, 20s or 100s
10s
20s
100s
7 + 3 = 10
11 + 4 = 15
If 7 + 3 = 10 then 70 + 30 = 100
3+4=7
17 + 3 = 20
If 8 – 5 = 3 then 80 – 50 = 30
5+3=8
13 + 5 = 18
7–3=4
12 – 2 = 10
8–5=3
15 – 3 = 12
6–5=1
14 – 3 = 11
Multiplication and related division facts for the 2, 3, 4, 5, 8 and 10 times tables can be seen in Figure 16.23 for an example. Figure 16.23 Example of multiplication and division facts for the 3 times table 23=6
and
63=2
4 3 = 12
and
12 3 = 3
8 3 = 24
and
24 3 = 8
Students also learn the connection between the 2, 4 and 8 times tables through doubling and halving – for example, if 2 3 = 6 then 2 6 = 12. Number facts are firstly taught using concrete objects, then representational objects then number symbols. Fact families show how a group of numbers is related – for example, for any set of each set of three different numbers, you can create two addition and two subtraction number facts that are related (see Figure 16.24).
Figure 16.24 Example of fact families with three numbers
2, 4 and 6 fact family
Fact family with 10, 5, 15
2+4=6
6–2=4
10 + 5 = 15
15 – 5 = 10
4+2=6
6–4=2
5 + 10 = 15
10 – 5 = 5
Two numbers can be used in a triangle to show that multiplication and division are inverse operations (7 3 = 21 and 21 3 = 7) and multiplication is commutative (7 3 = 3 7) (see Figure 16.25). A wide range of fact family worksheets can be accessed online.
Figure 16.25 Fact family triangles – example 3, 7, 21 3 x 7 = 21 21
7 x 3 = 21
Understanding symbols > (greater than), < (less than) X, ÷
Real materials can be used to assist students to understand the meaning of > 3 (greater than) and < (less than) (Figure 16.26 – for example, 38 < 51; 51 > 38. An easy way to avoid confusing these symbols is to always put ‘:’ next to the largest number and ‘.’ next to the smallest number, then connect the dots. For example, 41: > 20. or 20: < 4.; the ‘less than’ symbol is a similar shape to the letter ‘L’ for ‘Less’.
21 ÷ 7 = 3 7
21 ÷ 3 = 7
Figure 16.26 Using tangible materials to demonstrate greater or less than
> 5 is greater than 3
5>3
At a distance or in noisy settings, these students are likely to be able to detect speech but might have some difficulty in understanding it fully.
Moderate
> Will cause even greater difficulties in hearing and speech. Students with this degree of impairment will be at a disadvantage without a hearing aid. > May have difficulty distinguishing soft or distant speech or rapid-paced information. > May have difficulty distinguishing grammar such as possessives, plurals, tense. > May miss up to 50–75 per cent of classroom discussion. > May have difficulty following a conversation where there is more than one other person.
Students with mild or moderate hearing loss may tire more easily due to the effort of trying to hear. Severe to profound
> Attainment levels in language and academic skills are typically low. > Without amplification will miss 100% of classroom information > Unable to localise sound > Can’t distinguish between environmental sounds and human voice > Likely to have poor social skills > Requires an alternative means of communication
Unilateral hearing impairment
Normal hearing in one ear but a loss in the other ear. This can cause difficulties in language acquisition, as well as difficulties in reading and writing and following conversation.
Is there a hearing problem? Hearing development affects children’s speech and social development. If you suspect that a student has a speech problem, the first thing to check is the student’s hearing. According to Porter (2002: 2–5), children with a hearing loss may: • have frequent upper respiratory tract infections, coughs, colds or throat infections • currently have an ear infection • turn their head towards a sound or source • appear ‘blocked up’, snore and breathe through their mouth • have some craniofacial abnormalities, including a cleft palate • report or have a history of ear trouble • report earache, ‘popping ears’ or fullness in the ear • have periods of irritability or atypical aggression
appear to daydream, and be more ‘with it’ when close to a speaker want to sit near to the TV, or have the volume louder than usual watch a speaker’s face intently cup their ear with a hand not turn when called search for a sound source rather than locating it quickly ask for repetition of instructions or watch others misunderstand or be slow in responding give inappropriate answers be inattentive or restless show inconsistent listening behaviour, ‘switching off’ in noisy situations withdraw and not mix well have poor concentration and easily become tired have speech that is usually soft, loud or indistinct show evidence of fluctuating pace of learning. Children can also suffer intermittent hearing loss due to a head cold or ear infection. Usually this loss of hearing is temporary. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Otitis media Otitis media (OM) is the term used for middle ear infections; it is also referred to as ‘glue ear’. OM is caused by a viral or bacterial infection. It is generally associated with a build-up of fluid in the middle ear, causing the Eustachian tube to become blocked. Symptoms may include rubbing or pulling at the ear, earache, fever and a runny nose. OM can cause temporary conductive hearing loss. Frequent and recurring OM may need to be treated with the placement of ventilation tubes known as grommets into the eardrum. Grommets help the flow of air into the middle ear. As the eardrum recovers it will usually push the grommets out within six to 12 months. The risk of OM is 10 times higher for Aboriginal children than it is for non-Aboriginal children. The onset of OM in Aboriginal children is also much slower and with fewer symptoms than in non-Aboriginal children, making it more difficult to detect, which in turn means that it may go untreated, resulting in longer-term hearing loss.
Accommodations and modifications
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
There are a number of accommodations that can be made, depending on the degree of hearing loss: • Students may benefit from FM system hearing aids and other amplification devices and assistive technology. • Use closed captions when working with an electronic board. • Consider where the student can be positioned to maximise their hearing in relation to teacher instructions and teacher-led discussion; when working with a partner; when working in a small group; when working with an ESW. • Signal the student before speaking – the type of signal can be negotiated directly with the student. • Look at the student when speaking; speak clearly and at a relaxed pace (do not yell); ensure there is nothing obstructing the student’s view of the speaker’s face.
SUPPORT FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES
497
• • • • • • • • • • •
Ensure any directions are clear and short; give step-by-step information or instructions where possible and check regularly for understanding. Consider how to rephrase sentences if the student is not understanding. Use sign language if appropriate. Include appropriate body language such as gestures and facial expressions. Allow extra time for the student to interpret and respond. Use visual communication, visual aids, visual cue cards and graphic organisers if appropriate. Provide one-on-one instruction where information or topic is new to the student. Minimise background noise as much as possible. Use written communication to support verbal communication. Use a noise thermometer when working in a small group if other students become too noisy. Use visual phonics cards/posters. Scenario
HEARING IMPAIRMENTS CARA
Cara (9 years) has a mild to moderate hearing impairment. She relies on the FM system and her amplification devices for classroom instruction. The ESW supports Cara by preparing additional information using text and images, which Cara can access on her iPad. LUCA
Luca (15 years) has a mild hearing loss and uses noise-cancelling headphones when watching learning videos on his laptop. ZENNIE
Zennie (11 years) has a moderate hearing loss. She communicates using spoken and sign language. She likes
her ESW to sit opposite her when they are working together so she can check that she is on track and ask for support as needed. Zennie has a great sense of humour and made her own set of quirky cards, which she uses as part of communication strategy (Figure 18.3). WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Students with a disability can be extremely resilient and are capable of managing their own learning using a range of support resources and technologies. All these students have demonstrated that they are competent and resourceful learners. It is important to focus on each student’s strengths as well as their learning needs.
Figure 18.3 Communication cards
What’s the next step?
I am tired.
I need help!
" DISCUSSION
In the above examples, each student has been provided with the resources to support them as independent and capable learners. Explain why this should be a goal for every student.
18.3 Students with physical disability Physical disability, or orthopaedic impairment, includes a wide range of bodily impairments caused by, for example, genetic abnormality, disease, injury, birth trauma, congenital defects (including brain damage), amputation or burns. Common physical disabilities that may present in school settings include cerebral palsy, epilepsy, spina bifida and paraplegia.
Students with cerebral palsy Cerebral palsy (CP) is a non-progressive, permanent disorder of movement and posture caused by damage to the developing brain – it is not an inherited condition. People with CP may experience minor motor problems or severe motor impairment. Cerebral palsy distorts the messages sent from the brain to the muscles, and may result in mistiming of movement, increased muscle tension (called hypertonus) or reduced muscle tension (called hypotonus). Children and young people with CP will often display erratic and uncontrolled muscle movement. Cerebral palsy is generally categorised into four groups, shown in Figure 18.4. Figure 18.4 Categories of cerebral palsy Diplegia
Hemiplegia
Quadriplegia
Paraplegia
Diplegia all four limbs are affected, but legs more so than arms Hemiplegia one side of the body is affected Quadriplegia all four limbs are affected and the muscles of the face and mouth may also be affected Paraplegia both legs, but neither of the arms, are affected
Less Affected Areas
More Affected Areas Source: Cerebral Palsy League (2018).
There are also four main types of cerebral palsy: 1 Spastic cerebral palsy is the most common type of cerebral palsy and is associated with stiffness or tightness of muscles. 2 Dyskinetic cerebral palsy includes: – dystonia – characterised by sustained muscle contractions that frequently cause twisting or repetitive movements, or abnormal postures. – athetosis – characterised by uncontrolled extra movements that occur particularly in the arms, hands and feet, and around the mouth. Children may appear floppy when carried. 3 Ataxic cerebral palsy is associated with a lack of balance and coordination, such as unsteady or shaky movements (tremors). 4 Mixed-type cerebral palsy may involve a combination of types of cerebral palsy. Source: Cerebral Palsy League (2018).
SUPPORT FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES
499
According to Cerebral Palsy Australia (2018), other difficulties associated with CP may commonly include: • eyesight problems – most commonly a squint; this can often be corrected with glasses or an eye operation • possible hearing loss • affected speech in some children due to lack of control of mouth and tongue muscles, as well as impairment to the palate and voice box. Some children may have poor saliva control (dribbling). Difficulty with chewing and swallowing can lead to poor nutrition and/or weight problems • epilepsy – occurs in approximately one in three cases and may be controlled by the use of medication Consider this • intellectual or learning disability – may range from none to CEREBRAL mild to severe. Learning difficulties are related to the area PALSY of the brain affected by CP According to the Cerebral Palsy Alliance: • spatial perception difficulties – some children with CP • One in three people with CP is unable cannot perceive space and relate it to their own bodies to walk. (e.g. distances) or think spatially (e.g. visualise a three• One in four people is unable to talk. dimensional building). This is due to a problem in a part • One in 10 people has a severe vision impairment. of the brain and is not related to intelligence • Three in four people experience pain. • constipation – this may be due to a lack of mobility and/or • One in four people has epilepsy. an inability to tolerate high-fibre foods • One in two people has an intellectual • other less common issues may include osteoporosis, impairment. recurring chest infections, and, in males, undescended Source: Cerebral Palsy Alliance (2018). testes.
Gross motor function Children and young people with CP can present with mild to severe ‘muscle weakness, stiffness, awkwardness, slowness, shakiness, and difficulty with balance’. Some will also present with learning difficulties. Each child and young person – like any other child – will have a unique range of strengths and abilities. As the Royal Children’s Hospital (2008: 6) information guide states: The Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) is a method of describing the range of gross motor function in children with cerebral palsy. The GMFCS describes five ‘levels’ of motor function, with a particular emphasis on abilities and limitations in the areas of sitting, standing and walking. GMFCS levels I and II – able to walk independently GMFCS level III – requires sticks, elbow crutches or walking frame GMFCS levels IV and V – usually requires a wheelchair. Source: Royal Children’s Hospital (2008)
The mobility of children and young people with CP is commonly supported by: • braces for lower limbs • upper limb splints to improve arm function and hand grasp • the application of a plaster cast to stretch leg and foot muscles. Medication can also be used to reduce spasticity, and some children undergo orthopaedic surgery and/or plastic surgery to address bone deformities and tightening of soft tissue such as muscles in the legs and pelvis. Children and young people with CP typically are supported by occupational therapists, speech pathologists, physiotherapists, audiologists, paediatricians, nurses and other medical professionals as required.
Diagnosis There is no single cause of cerebral palsy. For most babies born with cerebral palsy, the cause remains unknown. However, a number of risk factors for cerebral palsy have been identified, including: • premature birth (less than 37 weeks) • low birth weight (small for gestational age) • blood clotting problems (thrombophilia) • an inability of the placenta to provide the developing foetus with oxygen and nutrients • RH or A-B-O blood type incompatibility between mother and baby • infection of the mother with German measles or other viral diseases in early pregnancy • bacterial infection of the mother, foetus or baby that directly or indirectly attacks the infant’s central nervous system • prolonged loss of oxygen during the pregnancy or birthing process, or severe jaundice shortly after birth (Cerebral Palsy Alliance 2018b). Assessment of CP includes the administration of the General Movements Assessment, which can be administered from birth until 5 months of age and is a strong predictor of cerebral palsy. Babies with CP will present with: • low muscle tone (the baby feels ‘floppy’ when picked up) • an inability to hold up their own head while lying on their stomach or in a supported sitting position • muscle spasms or feeling stiff • poor muscle control, reflexes and posture • delayed development (can’t sit up or independently roll over by 6 months) • feeding or swallowing difficulties • a preference to use one side of their body. Toddlers with CP will present with: • not walking by 12–18 months • not speaking simple sentences by 24 months.
Manual Ability Classification System The Manual Ability Classification System (MACS) is used to measure the manual ability of children and young people from four to 18 years. MACS assesses the child’s level of functioning in relation to daily life tasks (using both hands) and assists in determining the need for various supports and adaptors. There are five MACS levels (Cerebral Palsy Alliance 2018a): 1 Handles objects easily and successfully. At most, there are limitations in the ease of performing manual tasks requiring speed and accuracy. However, any limitations in manual abilities do not restrict independence in daily activities. 2 Handles most objects but with somewhat reduced quality and/or speed of achievement. Certain activities may be avoided or achieved with some difficulty; alternative ways of performance might be used but manual abilities do not usually restrict independence in daily activities. 3 Handles objects with difficulty; needs help to prepare and/or modify activities. The performance is slow and achieved with limited success regarding quality and quantity. Activities are performed independently if they have been set up or adapted. 4 Handles a limited selection of easily managed objects in adapted situations. Performs parts of activities with effort and with limited success. Requires continuous support and assistance and/or adapted equipment for even partial achievement of the activity. 5 Does not handle objects and has severely limited ability to perform even simple actions. Requires total assistance. SUPPORT FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES
501
Communication The Communication Function Classification System (CFCS) is used to classify the communication skills of individuals with CP. There are five CFCS levels as outlined in Figure 18.5. Figure 18.5 The five levels of the Communication Function Classification System (CFCS)
CFCS level
Explanation
1
The person can independently communicate with minimal communication misunderstandings with the receiver.
Effective sender and receiver with unfamiliar and familiar partners
2 Effective but slower paced sender and/or receiver with unfamiliar and/or familiar partners
3 Effective sender and receiver with familiar partners
4 Inconsistent sender and/or receiver with familiar partners
5 Seldom effective sender and receiver even with familiar partners
The person can independently communicate but the conversational pace is slow and may make the communication interaction more difficult. The person may need extra time to understand messages, compose messages and/or repair misunderstandings. The person alternates between sender and receiver roles with familiar (but not unfamiliar) conversational partners in most environments. Communication is not consistently effective with most unfamiliar partners, but is usually effective with familiar partners. The person does not consistently alternate sender and receiver roles. This type of inconsistency might be seen in different types of communications, including: (a) an occasionally effective sender and receiver; (b) an effective sender but limited receiver; (c) a limited sender but effective receiver. Communication is sometimes effective with familiar partners. The person is limited as both a sender and a receiver. The person’s communication is difficult for most people to understand. The person appears to have limited understanding of messages from most people. Communication is seldom effective, even with familiar partners. Source: Cerebral Palsy Alliance (2018a).
Accommodations and modifications Each student with CP will have individual learning and support needs that can be identified through a formal assessment and in discussion with the parent/s, students, therapists and assessment team. Accommodations may include: • the use of assistive technology – for example, iPad, computers, adapted keyboards, page turners, board makers (picture boards, schedule boards), communication devices (text-tospeech and speech-to-text software) • providing additional time to complete tasks – the student may tire more easily because of the effort required to control movements • a desk with adjustable height and slope; a chair that supports posture • writing devices to assist with pen grip • a physical environment that is easily accessible for students using walking aids/wheelchairs.
Scenario
COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES CARL
Carl (9 years) has mild CP. His communication skills have been assessed at CFCS 1, his manual abilities have been assessed at MACS 1 and his gross motor skills have been assessed at GMFCS II. Carl does not use a walking aid but does tire very easily. To accommodate his needs, Carl goes home after lunch when the other students return to the classroom. This allows Carl time to rest in the afternoons. MARTINA
Martina (8 years) has CP. Her communication skills have been assessed at CFCS 4, her manual abilities have been assessed at MACS 3 and her gross motor skills have been assessed at GMFCS III. Martina finds any kind of verbal interaction difficult and stressful. She uses a text-to-voice device and a board maker as her main forms of communication. When other students are engaging in oral language experiences, Martina works with the ESW on her reading. MEILI
Meili (10 years) has CP. Her GMFCS assessment is Level III. Meili uses elbow crutches and a walking frame.
She has a mild intellectual disability and needs to wear glasses. As a result of a risk assessment, the school has made a number of modifications to the facilities to provide Meili with safe and easy access to buildings, facilities and the playground. Ramps and railings have been added, mats in doorways have been removed, an anti-slip coating has been applied to some hard surfaces and hallways have been cleared of trip hazards. Some areas of the playground can’t be modified, and these areas have been made known to Meili and her family. The school has also provided Meili with a special chair that allows her to sit and stand more easily. She also has an adjustable desk, which is situated at the front of the room near the door. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Accommodations and modifications can be made to ensure that students with CP can be included in regular classrooms. Adapting physical facilities and adjusting the student’s timetable or attendance pattern demonstrate a commitment to inclusion.
ONLINE RESOURCES • •
Free cerebral palsy Infographic fact sheets can be downloaded from: What is Cerebral Palsy? https:// www.cerebralpalsy.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/WCPD_16_WhatisCP_Infographic_WORLD.pdf Cerebral Palsy Diagnosis and Treatment: https://www.cerebralpalsy.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/ WCPD_2016_CP_Diagnosis_Treatment_Infographic_WORLD.pdf
Students with spina bifida Spina bifida is a congenital orthopaedic impairment that means ‘cleft spine’ – an incomplete closure in the spinal column. It is the most commonly occurring permanently disabling birth defect, and it affects the development of the spine, the spinal cord and the brain. For everyone born with spina bifida, at least one spinal vertebra is only partly formed and the spinal cord at that point and below, as well as the skin around the site, are not properly developed. No two people are affected in the same way and the amount of damage to the central nervous system (brain and spine) varies from person to person. Approximately 90 per cent of people born with spina bifida also have hydrocephalus. Somewhere along the CSF pathways, the flow of cerebrospinal fluid has been obstructed. Hydrocephalus is the result of a blockage in the flow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) through the pathways of the ventricles of the brain, causing pressure on the brain.
SUPPORT FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES
503
Spina bifidia is diagnosed at birth. There are three main types of spina bifida: spina bifida occulta (hidden); spina bifida cystisa (cyst-like); and cranium bifida. Depending on the level of damage to the spinal column, spina bifida is characterised by: • complete or partial paralysis of the legs – student may use a wheelchair or walk with the aid of splints or crutches • loss of feeling in the legs (anaesthesia) – this can lead to pressure ulcers or burns • a build-up of fluid on the brain (hydrocephalus), which can cause seizures; can be controlled by a shunt • problems with the bladder (managed by catheterisation) and bowel • bone and joint deformities and spinal curvature • poor vision • learning difficulties such as problems with self-organisation and poor motivation, which require special educational support.
Effects of spina bifida The effects vary considerably from person to person. Spina bifida is commonly found in the lumbar and sacral spine. Because the lumbosacral spinal nerves control muscles and feelings in the lower limbs, people with spina bifida have some degree of paralysis. Most people need to use a wheelchair. Bladder and bowel functioning are also severely affected. Tethering is caused by tissue attachments that limit the movement of the spinal cord within the spinal column. Other common problems include curvature of the spine, decubitis, epilepsy, short stature, latex allergy, urinary tract infections, as well as many other problems caused by hydrocephalus. Frequent hospitalisations are needed to treat these problems (Spina Bifida Hydrocephalus Queensland 2016: 14). Students with spina bifida and/or hydrocephalus often have language difficulties that typically include: • poor comprehension • difficulty staying focused on language-related tasks • difficulty following a conversation • difficulty with word retrieval • difficulty with auditory recall and processing of information • difficulty with high-level language skills (e.g. inferencing, understanding jokes, indirect requests, figurative language, idioms, poems and sarcasm) • difficulty with picking up on non-verbal language (e.g. body language, facial expressions) • difficulty with social aspects of language (e.g. following the rules of conversation, topic maintenance, conversation repair, personal space) • difficulty with identifying the main ideas/points in a passage of information.
Accommodations and modifications Children with spina bifida require support to improve independent mobility as well as floor mobility, wheelchair skills, transfers and walking/upright mobility where relevant. Older children and young people may also require advanced wheelchair training and safe wheelchair transfer. Students may benefit from: • assistive technology for students with poor hand–eye coordination and fine motor skills such as speech-to-text, text-to-speech and word-prediction software • use of graphic organisers • wheelchair or walker access, such as wide doors and ramps to allow maximum access to all areas of the school
• • • • • •
a desk that is wheelchair friendly preferential seating near a power outlet and close to the door toilet facilities with wheelchair access and a designated area for personal care unencumbered floor space for easy access to all areas of the classroom extra time to move from one classroom to another individualised direct instruction and support where students have learning challenges such as poor non-verbal skills and poor executive functioning skills such as memory, attention, reasoning, organising and problem-solving skills. Scenario
INDIVIDUAL NEEDS HEATHER
Heather (14 years) has spina bifida. She uses a wheelchair and has a number of learning difficulties. Since puberty, Heather has had gradual weight gain and is now obese. While she has reasonable movement in her upper body, she refuses to engage in any kind of physical activity. Her mother has tried putting her on a diet, but this only creates tension at home. This year she has begun attending a Living Skills Program at a neighbouring high school. Heather has had difficulty adjusting to the program and is often sullen and uncooperative. The ESW, Kathy, knows that Heather is interested in makeup and hair styling. Kathy uses this interest to help motivate Heather to attend the Living Skills Program. AIDAN
Aidan (14 years) also has spina bifida and is paralysed from the waist down. He has multiple bone and joint
deformities and quite severe spinal curvature. Aidan’s health is poor. He has intermittent breathing and feeding complications. Aidan attends a special school and has formed a strong bond with his educators – especially Anna, his ESW. Aidan loves to research information about animals and nature. His hero is David Attenborough. Anna tries to incorporate Aidan’s interests when working with him in the classroom. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Both Heather and Aidan have spina bifida; however, they are very different learners with very different skills and abilities. Heather is a reluctant and challenged learner while Aidan is a focused and keen learner. Both students benefit when their individual interests are incorporated into their classroom learning experiences.
Students with dyspraxia (developmental coordination disorder) Dyspraxia is a developmental coordination disorder that is characterised by difficulty with coordination, including fine motor skills, hand–eye coordination, balance and manual dexterity. There is currently no known cause of dyspraxia. Students with dyspraxia will present as clumsy and uncoordinated, and will have poor organisational and communication skills. According to Dyspraxia Kids Australia Inc. (2018), the criteria for a diagnosis of dyspraxia are defined by the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (fifth edition) as: 1 Acquisition and execution of coordinated motor skills are below what would be expected at a given chronologic age and opportunity for skill learning and use; difficulties are manifested as clumsiness (e.g. dropping or bumping into objects) and as slowness and inaccuracy of performance of motor skills (e.g. catching an object, using scissors, handwriting, riding a bike, or participating in sports). 2 The motor skills deficit significantly or persistently interferes with activities of daily living appropriate to the chronologic age (e.g. self-care and self-maintenance) and impacts academic/school productivity, pre-vocational and vocational activities, leisure and play.
SUPPORT FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES
505
3 The onset of symptoms is early in the developmental period. 4 The motor skills deficit cannot be explained better by intellectual disability or visual impairment and is not attributable to a neurologic condition affecting movement (e.g. cerebral palsy, muscular dystrophy, or a degenerative disorder).
Accommodations and modifications Figure 18.6 includes typical symptoms of dyspraxia; the accommodations for these depend on individual student needs. Accommodations may include: Figure 18.6 Symptoms of and accommodations for dyspraxia
I have
I find it hard to
Accommodation or modification
Poor fine motor skills.
> Write neatly
> Writing paper with wide and/or raised lines
> Use a keyboard and handheld devices > Manage buttons and zips
> Graph paper to use when writing numbers to keep them in line
> Use utensils and scissors
> Slant board for writing > A variety of pencil grips > Voice-to-text software > A spacing tool for writing such as a craft stick > Notes/summaries to reduce the need for writing – use a highlighter for important information or to draw a left and right margin to indicate area for writing > Templates for written work
Poor gross motor skills.
> Ride a bike, scooter or skateboard
> Actively teach physical skills and provide time for practice
> Hop and skip
> Allow student to move around
> Maintain dynamic balance and change direction
> Position seating to minimise distractions
> Throw and catch a ball, play ball sports
> Perform tasks involving awareness of position in space Poor organisational skills
> Follow directions
> Review and practise rules for games before starting
> Start and complete a task
> Give only one- or two-step directions and check comprehension before proceeding
> Plan and sequence tasks > Follow rules for games > Recall information > Keep my work neat
> Have the student repeat instructions to clarify understanding > Create a checklist so the student can tick steps when completed > Provide a written or visual daily timetable so the student can anticipate the daily routine > Ensure consistency of routines as much as possible > Keep tasks short so the student feels a sense of accomplishment > Work one on one to create simple mind maps > Provide unhurried time to complete tasks > Use visual cues to remind student of task sequence
I have
I find it hard to
Accommodation or modification
Difficulty with communication
> Follow and contribute to conversations
> Use software to record instructions so that student can listen multiple times as needed
> Adapt my volume and pitch to suit the situation > Read non-verbal communication > Work collaboratively in a small group
> Create graphic organisers and/or communication devices to support communication > Provide the student with a pictorial or text-based checklist of tasks to undertake when working in a small group
18.4 Students with learning disabilities Learning disabilities include a broad range of issues, such as deficits in processing and planning skills; poor short- and long-term memory; poor concentration and retention skills; and difficulties with language and communication. Students with learning disabilities are also likely to have poor metacognitive skills – that is, the ability to think about their own thinking skills. The ability to think about one’s own thinking allows students to plan how to go about a task. For example, writing a word on a piece of paper to see if it ‘looks right’ is a common strategy when attempting to spell an unfamiliar word. Another example of metacognition is self-monitoring one’s own learning – for example, reflecting on the number of spelling errors made or the number of errors when calculating mathematical problems. Metacognitive thinking allows students to reflect on their learning as a deliberate strategy to improve learning. Metacognition requires self-awareness of how one thinks, the skills used in thinking and the knowledge used when thinking about or addressing a problem. For example, if a student is asked to create a series of verbs, they may think about their existing knowledge of a verb and apply a simple rule such as adding ‘-ing’ to create ‘doing words’ or verbs. Metacognition is a skill that allows students to identify their strengths as learners – for example, ‘I am good at maths, but not so good at English’ or ‘I can easily remember formulas but find it hard to recall names of famous people in history.’ Knowledge of students’ metacognitive skills can be used to assist them to better understand how to apply their existing knowledge to problem-solve or acquire new knowledge and skills. The teacher or ESW guides the student to reflect on what they can already do by asking probing questions, prompting and guiding the student to build new knowledge and skills. It is important to be aware that one area of development is affected by and impacts on all other areas of development. Students with a cognitive disability will also have difficulties with social skills, and may be impulsive and distracted easily. They are unlikely to have the skills necessary to work in a small group – for example, they may have difficulty with turn-taking, sharing, asking and answering appropriate questions, and on-task behaviour. Common learning disabilities include: • dyslexia – difficulty with reading; problems reading, writing, spelling, speaking • dyscalculia – difficulty with doing maths problems, understanding time and using money • dysgraphia – difficulty with writing – problems with handwriting, spelling, organising ideas (refer to chapter 13 for more information) • dyspraxia (Sensory Integration Disorder) – difficulty with fine motor skills; problems with hand–eye coordination, balance and manual dexterity • dysphasia/aphasia – difficulty with language; problems understanding spoken language, poor reading comprehension
SUPPORT FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES
507
Auditory Processing Disorder – difficulty hearing differences between sounds; problems with reading, comprehension, language • Visual Processing Disorder – difficulty interpreting visual information; problems with reading, maths, maps, charts, symbols, pictures (HelpGuide.org). •
Dyslexia The International Dyslexia Association (2013: 3) defines dyslexia as a language-based learning disability. Dyslexia refers to a cluster of symptoms that result in people having difficulties with specific language skills, particularly reading. Students with dyslexia usually also experience difficulties with other language skills, such as spelling, writing and pronouncing words.
Assessment Dyslexia may be diagnosed at around the age of 7 years, but can also be diagnosed as late as 11 or 12 years. Dyslexia is assessed using a combination of screening tools that evaluate IQ and literacy skills. Standardised reading tests are used to evaluate skills such as phonetic decoding skills, word reading ability and reading comprehension. Students with dyslexia may present with some, or all of the following difficulties (International Dyslexia Association 2013: 4–5): • learning to speak • learning letters and their sounds • organising written and spoken language • memorising number facts • reading quickly enough to comprehend • keeping up with and comprehending longer reading assignments • spelling • learning a foreign language • correctly doing maths operations. Signs of dyslexia in younger students may include: • difficulty with remembering simple sequences such as counting to 20, naming the days of the week or reciting the alphabet • difficulty understanding the rhyming of words, such as knowing that fat rhymes with cat • trouble recognising words that begin with the same sound – for example, that ‘bird’, ‘baby’ and ‘big’ all start with ‘b’ • pronunciation difficulties • trouble easily clapping hands to the rhythm of a song • difficulty with word retrieval – frequently use words like ‘stuff’ and ‘that thing’ rather than specific words to name objects • trouble remembering names of places and people • difficulty remembering spoken directions. Dyslexia is a neurological condition, and each student with the condition will have a unique set of strengths and difficulties. Dyslexia can have a profound effect on educational outcomes for students because it involves the key learning tools of language, reading, spelling and writing. Dyslexia is not associated with intellectual disability. Dyslexia may impact all areas of learning; because of this, students with dyslexia may feel anxious, have poor self-esteem and see themselves as failures.
Accommodations and modifications The International Dyslexia Association (2013) suggests a range of accommodations that can be used to support students with dyslexia, which may include: • keeping written directions short and specific and backing them up with oral directions • breaking tasks down into small chunks so the student is only required to focus on one element at a time • decreasing distractions – where there is a lot of information, emphasise key points and/or provide the student with a reading guide and a glossary • assisting the student to keep their place when working through a workbook by using a place marker such as a small diagonal cut at the bottom of the page • allowing the student additional time to complete tasks and offer opportunities for practice • using assistive technology if this suits the needs of the student • actively supporting learning by stepping out the tasks to be completed, demonstrating, providing samples, guiding and coaching • using a graphic organiser when giving instructions. A multisensory approach, known as Multisensory Structured Language or the OrtonGillingham instructional approach, encourages teachers to use a combination of auditory, visual and kinaesthetic-tactile learning strategies that maximise outcomes for students. To find out more about the Orton-Gillingham instructional approach, go to: Orton Academy: https:// www.ortonacademy.org/resources/what-is-the-orton-gillingham-approach. Scenario
LINDSAY’S LEARNING TRICKS Lindsay (13 years) has dyslexia. He struggles with spelling and reading, and sometimes gets words mixed up when speaking. Lindsay has been working with ESW Michael on strategies to help him with his spelling. Michael has helped Lindsay to make a ‘Learning Tricks’ book, which Lindsay can use to remind him of spelling, grammar and words he finds difficult to remember. Some of the items in Lindsay’s book of tricky spellings include: • i before e except after c but weird is just weird! (and so are some other words!)
• • • •
BECAUSE: Big Elephants Can Always Understand Small Elephants RHYTHM: Rhythm Helps Your Two Hips Move LAUGH And yoU Get Happy HEAR: you Hear with your EAR
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Each student with dyslexia will have unique learning challenges. In this scenario, Lindsay and the ESW have collaborated to create a learning tool that Lindsay can use to help him with his spelling.
18.5 Students with speech, language and communication needs Children and young people with speech, language and communication needs (SLCN) are at greater risk of school failure – particularly in relation to reading; they are also more likely to engage in disruptive, acting-out or anti-social behaviours and to be socially isolated. Figure 18.7 describes the common characteristics of children and young people with SLCN.
SUPPORT FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES
509
Figure 18.7 Common characteristics of children and young people with SLCN
Speech difficulties
Language difficulties
Communication difficulties
> Speech is difficult to understand
> Immature sentence structures
> Limited eye contact with listener
> Difficulties discriminating similar speech sounds, such as ‘bat and batch’ or ‘found and fought’
> Difficulty linking sentences using joining words such as ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘then’
> Problems refocusing on a topic of conversation if the conversation goes off track
> May stammer or stutter
> Difficulty in sequencing sentences so that they are meaningful to the listener
> May have a consistently harsh or highpitched voice
> Difficulty acquiring new vocabulary and using new words in the correct context
> May have difficulty using intonation – for example, used when asking a question or expressing an emotion
> Difficulty finding the right words to use
> Hearing impairment > Articulation disorders
> Limited vocabulary to describe emotions > Difficulty understanding complex sentences > Difficulty understanding idioms such as ‘it cost an arm and a leg’ or getting ‘cold feet’
> Difficulty ‘reading’ the speaker/listener – for example, doesn’t pick up on non-verbal cues > Difficulty keeping to the topic of discussion > Difficulty using language for problemsolving, negotiation and conflict resolution > Problems with language comprehension
> Aphasia (difficulty in articulating and understanding words) Source: Adapted from The Communication Trust (2011).
These can be masked by more dominant or more obvious difficulties, or may be hidden by the student. Thomas and Thorne (2011) identify a number of ‘red flags’ that may indicate a student is experiencing language difficulties. These include: • The student says the teacher is always talking too quickly. • The student gets mixed up when listening to multi-step instructions, or states frequently that the instructions are too complicated. • The student can do maths quite well until it comes to problems expressed in words. • The student has problems with sounding out new words or remembering what words mean. • It is hard for the student to put ideas in writing. • The student knows what they want to say; they just can’t get the words out. • The student avoids answering questions in class. It is important to be aware that no two students will have identical SLCN – even those with a diagnosed disability. A range of speech and language disorders require special intervention and therapy. Students with speech and language disorders are likely to have long-term problems, which will impact their academic performance. Speech and language disorders may include: • fluency problems such as stuttering or stammering • hearing impairment • voice disorders • aphasia (difficulty with talking, reading and writing) • articulation disorders • problems with language comprehension • expressive language disorders • learning difficulties.
Problems with speech production Of all speech problems, articulation disorders are the most easily detected. Students who have articulation problems will often struggle with beginning and end sounds. For example, a child might say ‘wunning’ instead of ‘running’ (substituting the /r/ sound with /w/) or ‘baee’ instead of ‘baby’ (leaving out the /b/ end sound).
Receptive or expressive language disorders Receptive and expressive language disorders relate to problems with comprehension or speaking. For example, with a receptive language disorder, the student may not be able to follow simple, age-appropriate directions or may become confused when asked a question. Students with an expressive language disorder will have difficulties putting word sounds into the correct order – for example, ‘vetagil’ instead of ‘vegetable’ or ‘yesdertay’ instead of ‘yesterday’. They may have problems using rules such as past tense, saying ‘wented’ or ‘goed’, or they may have a very limited vocabulary for their age.
Language delay Students with a language delay develop language at a much slower rate than other children. Before the age of three, it is often dismissed as ‘baby talk’; however, as the child’s language continues to lag, the delay becomes more noticeable – especially when compared with same-age peers. Depending on the nature of the communication disorder, the child’s social, emotional and intellectual development can be at risk. Students with expressive language disorders have difficulty with verbal expression (putting words together to formulate thoughts). Early signs and symptoms are: • word-retrieval difficulties • difficulty naming objects or talking ‘in circles’ around a subject due to a lack of the appropriate vocabulary • dyssomnia – misnaming items • difficulty acquiring syntax (the rules of grammar) • difficulties with morphology (changes in verb tense) • difficulty with semantics (word meaning).
Receptive language disorders Receptive language disorders include Central Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD), aphasia, comprehension deficit, delayed language, delayed speech; and difficulties in the ability to attend to, process, comprehend, retain or integrate spoken language. Early signs and symptoms may include: • echolalia (repeating back words or phrases either immediately or at a later time) • an inability to follow directions (following of routine, repetitive directions may be okay) • re-auditorisation – repeating back a question first, then responding to it. • difficulty responding appropriately to: – yes/no questions – either/or questions – when/why/how questions • not attending to spoken language
SUPPORT FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES
511
• • •
a high activity level use of jargon (sounds like ‘unintelligible speech’). use of ‘memorised’ phrases and sentences. Scenario
APHASIA Mason (15 years) has acquired aphasia due to brain damage when he was knocked by a car while riding his pushbike to school. Before his accident, Mason was a bright, articulate student who was well liked by his teachers and peers. Mason now struggles to find the right words when expressing himself. He often starts a sentence, but fails to complete it. Mason’s aphasia has caused him to become anxious, withdrawn and depressed. Although he now attends speech therapy, he is reluctant to attend school.
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Students with language and communication disorders will often have difficulty forming friendships. As a result, they may become increasingly socially isolated, develop poor self-esteem and fail to reach their full potential. " DISCUSSION
Mason’s aphasia is causing mental health issues. Taking his age and previous history into account, discuss why it would be important to address these issues as well as supporting his speech.
Voice disorders The major types of voice disorders are caused by: • vocal misuse or abuse • change of vocal cord mass; polyps, nodules, contact ulcers, haemorrhagic cords • vocal cord paralysis • neurological disorders – for example, Parkinson’s disease • removal of or damage to the larynx due to cancer or trauma. Early signs and symptoms are: • any intermittent or progressive change in voice quality – for example, the voice may sound hoarse, husky, breathy, nasal or monotonous • a complete or transient loss of voice • persistently inappropriate voice quality, pitch or loudness.
Articulation disorder Articulation disorders are characterised by errors or omission of sounds, substitution of one sound for another and distortion of sounds. These occur during the production of isolated speech sounds (phonemes) and are misarticulated at both the syllable and word level. Early signs and symptoms are: • the child not babbling but using a wide variety of sounds by 18 months • speech that is unintelligible to familiar people at 3 years • difficulty with later developing sounds (/s/, /sh/, /l/, /r/, /z/, /v/, /th/) by 5 years • the child being frustrated by their inability to make themselves understood • the parents being concerned about and unable to understand the child’s speech • disturbance of sucking, chewing or swallowing at any age. Articulation errors are typical of preschoolers, and are usually not cause for concern; however, some therapists believe early remediation prevents the errors becoming habits that can be difficult to change.
Central Auditory Processing Disorder Central Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD) is a receptive language disorder involving difficulties in the decoding and storing of auditory information (typically incoming verbal messages). This type of receptive language disorder is a result of genetic factors and/or early otitis media, though it may not be possible to find causal factors. There are many signs and symptoms of CAPD; however, a skilled audiologist would best be able to provide technological testing at age seven and beyond. Early signs and symptoms are: • difficulty following verbal directions • difficulty following a conversation • echolalia (repeating back words and phrases without comprehension) • re-auditorisation (repeating back what was heard, and then showing comprehension) • a student who says ‘huh?’ or ‘what?’ and requires more repetitions of verbal input messages • speech-sound discrimination difficulties, especially in noisy situations • being highly distractible and active • unintelligible speech, but with adequate vocal inflection and gestures • difficulty memorising names and places • difficulty repeating words or numbers in sequence • an appearance of being tuned out or not paying attention • difficulty with reading, spelling and writing • appearing disorganised and forgetful • possible difficulty remembering auditory information • possible speech or language ‘delays’ (adapted from Porter 2002).
ACCOMMODATIONS TO THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT Ronan (11 years) has CAPD. To assist him in the classroom, the teacher and ESW have created a quiet zone with enough room for four students, located in a carpeted area with screens to absorb sound. Ronan uses a communication board to assist him to remember and sequence tasks. He also wears headphones to reduce background noise when working independently.
Scenario
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Simple accommodations can be made to the physical environment to maximise participation of students with specific learning needs.
Childhood apraxia of speech (CAS) CAS is a rare and usually lifelong condition. Children with CAS have problems saying sounds, syllables and words. Although a child with CAS knows what they want to say, their brain struggles to correctly move their lips, jaw and tongue in order to speak clearly and be understood. (The Centre of Research Excellence in Child Language 2018). Children with CAS may also present with poor fine and gross motor skills, and have literacy difficulties, including reading, writing and spelling. Treatment for CAS is ongoing speech therapy.
Augmentative and alternative communication Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) is a process of augmenting normal communication with gestures, signing, pictures or symbols and printed words. It allows students SUPPORT FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES
513
with little or no language to communicate, and enables others to communicate with the student. Augmentative communication is used to support oral language or augment (replace) oral language. Students who might use AAC include those with speech or learning difficulties, and students with a physical disability such as cerebral palsy or brain damage that prohibits speech. Some students with autism will also require the use of AAC. AAC includes sign language and body language – gestures, facial expressions, finger or eye pointing. It also includes the use of communication aids such as picture cards, symbol charts or books and talking computers. Aids may be electronic, high-tech or manual. AAC aids are selected carefully to meet the individual needs of each student. Some students may use more than one AAC aid. In Australia, students who sign use Auslan (Australian Sign Language). Signing can be used with or without oral language. Additional information about Auslan can be found at the Auslan website, which contains information about the history of Auslan and includes a word bank with related video: http://www.auslan.org.au. AAC aids include the use of symbols such as Makaton, Do2Learn (Figure 18.8), PECS (Picture Exchange Communication System) photographs, line drawings, communication Figure 18.8 An example of a communication card
Source: Pyramid Education Consultants. https://pecsaustralia.com/shop/pecs-starter-kit-plus. PECSâ and Picture Exchange Communication Systemâ .
books and chat books. These aids can take the form of cards, charts or assistive technology (apps). Symbols used represent objects, actions, emotions, adjectives and phrases. They can be used with or without written words and phrases. Students can point at symbols with their fingers, use a keyboard, or use eye-pointing or a mouth stick if they are unable to use their hands/arms. AAC symbols can be used in the classroom for timetables, for specific tasks, to introduce new words or concepts, or for daily routines. The student can use the cards to express wants or needs, ask and answer questions, express emotions, share their thoughts and actively engage in learning and social interactions. If using picture cards (as seen in Figure 18.9) with students, it is important to undertake some training. Students who are already familiar with picture cards will often have an extensive bank of cards in different areas, such as personal care – toilet, food, drink; actions such as going outside; play; and concept cards in various subject areas. When using symbols with a student, you should follow the same basic rules used for oral communication: look at the student and make eye contact; follow the back-and-forth rule – allow the student time to interpret and respond; check for understanding. When working with a student who is proficient at using symbols, you may find that you need their help – don’t be afraid to let them know you are a novice! For additional information on AAC, go to: • Pyramid Educational Consultants (PECS): http://www.pecsaustralia.com • Makaton: http://www.makaton.org/aboutMakaton • Do2Learn: http://www.do2learn.com.
Figure 18.9 Visual aids such as picture cards can assist in communicating the activity clearly to students.
Communication strategies It is not possible in this context to explore all strategies to support communication and language disorders. Many students with an SLCN may have other additional needs and be working with a range of specialist support services such as physiotherapists, speech pathologists or occupational therapists. Students may work with itinerant teachers who are trained to provide specialised support to the classroom teacher and the student. The specific support needs of each student will vary. Some students will require augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) programs, others may cope with the support of an ESW in a regular classroom, while yet others may require a high level of support in a special school or unit. While the range of strategies that can be used to support students with SLCN will vary, there are some general strategies that ESWs can use to support and promote language and communication. See Figure 18.10 for examples of specific strategies and tips for supporting language and communication, then reflect on the scenarios in the boxes that follow to investigate how these strategies could be applied. It is essential to be aware that each student with SLCN will have both unique needs and strengths. Often they will have difficulties in other areas of learning. For example, a student with ASD is likely to encounter difficulties socialising with others, and working in a small group may be a significant challenge. It is important to talk to the classroom teacher and the student to gain a full understanding of the support needed and the preferred learning style of the student. With help, older students may be able to identify the type of support needed or preferred.
SUPPORT FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES
515
Figure 18.10 Examples of specific strategies and tips for supporting language and communication
Tips for communicating instructions Gain the student’s attention before talking
Use the student’s name and/or tap the student on the shoulder so that you can make eye contact before speaking. You may need to tell the student to keep looking at you while you are talking and remind the student to look at you when they are talking.
Get down to the student’s eye level when talking
Sit next to the student when talking (see Figure 18.11). Position yourself so that the student can watch your face as well as listen.
Speak clearly, using a normal speech pattern and voice tone
For example, ‘Look at me because I’m going to give you some information’. Pause and wait for the student to look at you. ‘We are going to work on addition.’ Pause and ensure the student is still looking at you. ‘You need to get out your counters.’ Pause and wait for the student to get the counters. ‘Now we are going to work together on this worksheet.’ Pause. ‘Let’s look at the first question together.’ Point to the question and check that the student is looking at the worksheet.
Use words and phrasing appropriate to the student’s level
Where a student has difficulty with comprehension, use short sentences – for example, ‘We are going to do some maths. Here are your counters.’
Give one instruction at a time. Give instructions or information in a sequential order
Give the student time to listen, process and respond to instructions. If necessary, check with the student to make sure the message has been received accurately – for example, ‘Put your pencil down. Good, now put your book on the shelf. Well done, Zac! Now go and sit on your chair.’
Use body language to help get your message across
Facial expressions and gestures such as pointing can help with communication.
Tell the student what you want them to do rather than telling them what not to do
For example, ‘Keep your feet on the floor when sitting on your chair’ tells the student what you want them to do, while ‘Don’t swing on your chair’ does not tell the student what to do.
Repeat information in different ways
For example, a first statement might be, ‘It’s time to pack away.’ The second statement might be, ‘Hari, put your pencils back into their container. Great work! Now put your book on the shelf.’
Give clear, unambiguous information
Some students may not be able to interpret a message unless it is very concrete and explicit – for example, if you said, ‘Big school boys know how to put their belongings away’ a student with a learning disability may think you were referring to someone else. A more explicit statement would be, ‘Owen, please put your jumper in your bag.’
Communicating tasks Give direct information in relation to your expectations
For example, instead of saying, ‘I hope you’re going to work hard today’, say, ‘Alexi, I want you to write two sentences today.’
Provide the student with an example of the task
For example, ‘We are going to do a crossword together. I have one to show you.’
Emphasise key aspects of the task
Students may only hear the first part of the instruction and may miss key information. If you say, ‘Write a sentence using a word that begins with w,’ the student may only hear ‘Write a sentence.’
Provide visual aids
These may be written in numbered points, a flowchart or a series of pictures – for example, ‘What do you need to do first?’ – the student can point to or name a picture/symbol. ‘What do you need to do next?’
Break down words into manageable speech sounds (syllables)
‘Listen while I say the word ‘‘com-mun-i-cat-ion’’. Let’s say the first part of the word.’
Act as a language role model
Do not correct the student’s language – simply paraphrase it. For example, the student might say, ‘Don’t wanna do it. Too hard!’ Rephrase by saying, ‘Oh, you don’t want to do it because you think it’s too hard. Let’s look at each step and see just what you can do.’
Tips for providing active support Provide ‘here-and-now’ feedback
Comment on what the student is doing. ‘I can see you’re using your picture dictionary to help with your writing, Perri. That’s very good thinking.’
Use AAC, where appropriate, to assist the student
If working on a maths task, have a set of numbers in words and numerals. If the student is required to undertake a task with multiple steps, use symbols or characters to show the sequence of tasks.
Ask for clarification
Where a student makes a statement or asks a question and it is difficult to interpret, ask the student for clarification by saying, ‘Can you tell me what you mean? Could you tell me again? Can you repeat what you just said so that I can listen carefully? Can you show me? Can you tell me what you need to do?’
Teach strategies to students
Students can be encouraged to engage in self-talk, which can help them to remember an oral instruction. ‘First I have to read the first question and ask for help if I need it.’
Demonstrate patience
Students who struggle with words, can’t find the right words or have difficulty forming a sentence require the listener to be patient. ‘Take your time, don’t rush. Think about what you want to say before you speak.’ Try not to jump in and finish sentences for the student – this doesn’t help their confidence or their oral language development.
Define/explain or demonstrate the meaning of new or unfamiliar words
Put the word in several different sentences so that it can be understood in context. Ask the student to put the word in a sentence. Write the word on a card and place it on the word wall or in the student’s personal dictionary. If the new word is a preposition or action verb, the meaning of the word can be shown in a concrete manner.
Supporting language and communication Face the student away from distractions
Where possible, arrange the seating so that the student is facing away from the main classroom. Also try to work in an area that is relatively quiet.
Manage behaviour
Be aware that non-compliance, acting out, or off-task behaviour may simply be a result of the student not understanding what is required and not having the language and/or confidence to ask for help. Praise appropriate behaviours.
Avoid putting students on the spot
Students who struggle with language and communication should not be placed in a situation where they may feel embarrassed in front of their peers.
Model and coach oral communication
For example, James tends to talk over the top of others or interject. The ESW reminds James to remain quiet and not interrupt when others are speaking. In some group discussions the ESW uses a talking stick. The only person who can speak is the holder of the talking stick.
Allow extra time for the student to get organised and begin tasks
Students with SLCN usually take longer to process information and will perform many tasks at a slower pace than their peers.
Revise with the student what they have written
Often an SLCN student will miss words but not be able to see this. Pointing at each word and reading aloud (one to one) allows the student to hear his or her words and provides a better chance of identifying whether they have missed some words – for example, ‘The boxer fell hit head hard on, does that sound right? Let’s read that again.’
Acknowledge that some tasks are challenging
Encourage the student to have a go: ‘I know you find it really hard to retell the story, but I know you can do it. Let’s start at the beginning. Tell me what happened first?’
SUPPORT FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES
517
Figure 18.11 The ESW should get down to the student’s eye level to communicate effectively.
18.6 Students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that results in poor concentration, impulsivity and often out-of-control behaviours. There is no single test for ADHD and the cause of ADHD is unknown, although some believe it is a genetic disorder. ADHD is characterised by: • inattention – inability to concentrate, inability to complete tasks, flitting from one thing to another, disorganised, unable to estimate the time needed to complete a task, often unsure of where to start • impulsivity – risk-taking/reckless behaviour, inability to listen to and follow instructions, extremes of emotions, accident prone, unable to wait for a turn, fails to consider consequences of actions for self or others, difficulty playing with others • hyperactivity – restless, fidgeting, making inappropriate noises or talking incessantly, can’t sit or stand still, climbs on everything. Treatment for ADHD includes drug therapy (usually methylphenidates and amphetamines), behaviour therapy, special diets and nutritional supplements. Often behaviour therapy will involve the whole family.
STRENGTHS-BASED APPROACH TO ADHD Jake (12 years) has ADHD and has been taking medication for many years to manage his symptoms. Jake is a bright boy but struggles in class. He finds it difficult to stay on task and is easily distracted. Jake likes to spend time with his father, who is a mechanic, restoring old cars. Jake knows a lot about car engines and has a passion for Holden cars. He knows the details of almost every make and model and loves to share this information with anyone who will listen. The ESW plans maths and literacy tasks around Jake’s interest in
Scenario
cars. He will often bring in car magazines for in-class reading and comprehension tasks. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
The strengths of students with ADHD often take a back seat to the many challenges they present to classroom teaching staff. Remembering to identify and focus on the student’s strengths can help to counterbalance some of the more challenging problems encountered when working with students with ADHD.
Classroom management GO
further
Access a detailed plan for working with a special needs student for the first time in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
Like all other disabilities, each student with ADHD will present with a unique set of strengths, needs, behaviours and challenges. A good starting point is to work with students to identify their strengths – that is, focus on what the student can do rather than what they can’t do. Practical considerations when working with students with ADHD may include: • positioning – sit the student near the teacher or ESW and face them away from visual distractions • communication – work with the student on an agreed communication signal as a reminder to stay on task • behaviour – use a range of techniques such as setting clear limits, offering rewards; use handson learning resources or behaviour contracts.
A wide range of strategies can be used to support ADHD students – not all will be successful, and often it is a matter of trial and error. Closely observing the student’s behaviour is essential. Look closely for triggers: • What sets the student off? • What seems to have a calming effect? • Which students seem to have a positive/negative effect on the student’s behaviour? • What does the student do to gain attention or when acting out? • What motivates the student’s positive and negative behaviours? • Which management strategies seem to have the desired effect? • Is there a pattern to the student’s behaviour – can this assist in predicting and averting inappropriate behaviour? • What curriculum areas does the student enjoy? • What curriculum areas are a challenge for the student? Through observation, you can gain a great deal of information about how the student functions, what motivates the student and what triggers undesirable behaviours. Observation must be a key priority in planning for the needs of ADHD students. Scenario
ACCOMMODATIONS FOR ADHD Charan (14 years) has ADHD. He takes regular medication to manage his condition and attends cognitive therapy. ESW Kate has been assigned to support Charan in class. Before commencing work with Charan, Kate spent time observing him in different classrooms. Kate’s observations revealed that Charan: • takes around 10–15 minutes to settle in each new class • always heads for a desk at the back of the room • always attempts to engage other students in silly behaviour as he moves from one room to another for class (such as taunting, shoving, speaking loudly about other students) • is slow to follow teacher directions in class and looks around to see what others are doing • appears to be not ‘with it’ on many occasions • mutters to himself when students are asked to work independently • ‘drops’ books, pens, ruler, etc. to gain attention or as a strategy to move about • fails to take notes from the teacher or from the whiteboard • often does not have the right textbooks and materials for the particular class • rarely completes any homework. To better accommodate Charan, Kate decides to: • use a reward system to encourage responsible behaviour when moving from room to room
•
•
•
• • •
teach Charan to check his timetable before each class so that he knows what he needs to take with him work with teachers to allocate a desk that Charan uses for each class that minimises distraction and is towards the front of the room review teacher instructions with Charan to ensure he knows what he is required to do – write step-by-step instructions and break down each task into manageable chunks work with teachers to provide notes in point form for Charan recommend that Charan be allowed to take short breaks during class time recommend that homework for Charan be reduced or eliminated – as an alternative, Kate can provide oneon-one tutorial support for each subject.
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Taking the time to observe students allows the ESW to better plan specific accommodations to meet individual needs. " DISCUSSION
Think about the observations and accommodations for Charan. Discuss how the accommodations will support Charan’s learning.
SUPPORT FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES
519
Students with ADHD require consistent, calm and sensitive support. Their behaviour can be challenging, trying and sometimes simply annoying, making it easy to forget that there is a genuine underlying reason for the lack of self-control. It is also important to be aware that students with ADHD may have poor sleep patterns and often will not get the amount of rest their growing body needs. Being tired can exaggerate or compound the behaviours of students with ADHD. The families of students with ADHD are also often tired and stressed, simply because raising a child with ADHD is extremely challenging. A supportive school environment is essential for both the student and the family.
18.7 Students with sensory processing disorders Sensory processing is the way that a person perceives, processes and organises the information they receive through their senses – hearing, sight, touch, smell, taste and movement. The brain uses sensory information to make sense of the world and respond in an appropriate manner. This process is called sensory integration, which allows the body to: • receive sensory information • interpret and process sensory information to determine an appropriate response. Sensory modulation is the term used to describe the way the body responds to sensory stimulation and information. Children and young people with atypical sensory modulation (SPD) have difficulty functioning in the regular environment because of their response to sensory stimuli. The term sensory processing disorder is commonly substituted for SPD. Children and young people with autism will typically have sensory processing issues. Atypical sensory modulation, or SPD, includes the following elements: • Sensory over-responsivity (hypersensitivity). This occurs when an individual has an exaggerated negative response to sensory input, often leading to avoidance and hypervigilance of the stimulus – for example, unable to tolerate wearing clothing where seams or tags touch the skin; unable to tolerate loud noise, bright light, certain flavours and smells; certain physical environments; fear of crowds, movement. • Sensory under-responsivity (hyposensitivity). This occurs when an individual may seem to be unaware of, or slow to respond to, a stimulus that would typically be expected to elicit a response – for example, under-responsive to pain, which can lead to injury when the person continues to engage in a behaviour that would normally elicit a strong pain response, such as touching a hot stove. • Sensory-seeking behaviour. This occurs when an individual has an unusual craving for, or preoccupation with, certain sensory experiences – for example, a person may repeatedly sniff their fingers or put non-food items in their mouth (Autism Spectrum Australia, Sensory Processing 2017). Some children and young people may have symptoms of both hypersensitivity and hyposensitivity. The consequences for children and young people with a sensory processing disorder may include anxiety, fear and avoidance, ritualistic behaviours and a tendency for sameness, and functional difficulties in areas such as self-care, behaviour and school participation. They may have extreme meltdowns such as screaming, holding their hands over their ears or running away from sources of stimulation. Again, those with autism often present with some of these issues. Children and young people with SPD will each present with their own unique set of symptoms and behaviours, with examples including:
• • • • • •
• • •
• •
resistance and extreme reactions to change – an unplanned change in routine often causes stress and may lead to a meltdown avoidance or reacting negatively to noises in the environment, such as a hairdryer, vacuum cleaner, drill, crying or screaming of other children or loud music avoidance of certain foods or only eating certain foods – a fixation on texture, taste, smell or temperature of foods, may obsessively smell and eat non-food items speaking loudly but often tuning out to what is being said difficulty paying attention, and commencing and finishing a task – starting and stopping requires change, which causes a great deal of stress tactile defensiveness – distress at having hair combed/cut or nails clipped. Students avoid touch, including manipulating objects. This can result in reduced fine motor skills and poor coordination impulsive behaviours – hypersensitive students may react without warning due to anxiety and stress associated with over-stimulation, putting themselves or others at risk focusing on detail but not being aware of the bigger picture constantly moving/fidgeting/rocking/swaying/spinning, sliding/climbing, running rather than walking, chews on everything, enjoys being upside down, engaging in risk-taking behaviours, easily excitable noticing and watching fast-moving objects such as fans vestibular (sense of balance and movement) dysfunction. A wide range of accommodations can be made in the classroom for students with an SPD.
ONLINE RESOURCES AT A GLANCE: CLASSROOM ACCOMMODATIONS FOR SENSORY PROCESSING ISSUES
•
•
Understood: https://www.understood.org/en/schoollearning/partnering-with-childs-school/instructionalstrategies/at-a-glance-classroom-accommodations-forsensory-processing-issues Does Your Student Have Sensory Processing Challenges? (checklist). Sensory Smarts: https:// www.sensorysmarts.com/StudentSPD.pdf
•
•
Sue Larkey video – Sensory resources to increase student engagement: https://suelarkey.com.au/general-sensoryresources. Sue Larkey is an Australian educator specialising in supporting educators to work with children with AHD, ASD and SPD. Sensory Processing Middletown: http://sensoryprocessing.middletownautism.com/resources. This site includes a number of videos describing various sensory resources and simple movement breaks.
18.8 Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder
GO
Autism Spectrum Australia describes Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) as a lifelong developmental disability characterised by marked difficulties in social interaction, impaired communication, restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours, and sensory sensitivities. The word ‘spectrum’ in this context means that the disability presents on a continuum from mild to severe. The cause of ASD has not yet been identified, but it is thought that genetics is a contributing factor. ASD affects four times as many boys as girls, although there is now some evidence that it goes undiagnosed in many girls. Symptoms of autism were first described in 1887, but it was not until 1980 that the condition was officially recognised and separated from the condition of childhood schizophrenia.
Access an historical timeline showing that the diagnosis and recognition of ASD have a long history in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
SUPPORT FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES
521
further
Current research Research into the causes and treatment of ASD and educational support for children with ASD is global, with increasing evidence that neurological and genetic factors contribute to the development of ASD. This section highlights some of the research being conducted in Australia and overseas. Follow the links provided to read more about it.
Telethon Kids Institute •
•
•
•
•
•
•
Australian Autism Biobank. The aim of this research is to collect detailed information on children with autism in Australia and to centralise this information so it is accessible to those who are involved in autism research. Studying the Facial Features of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. This study aims to determine whether children with ASD have different facial features from typically developing children and to determine whether children with certain behaviours are more likely to have facial anomalies. Australian Infant Communication and Engagement Study (AICES). This is a multisite, randomised clinical trial of a very early intervention for infants aged nine to 14 months displaying early social and communication delays. The Oxytocin Trial. This is a multi-site randomised controlled trial that aims to determine the efficacy of a novel biological intervention, oxytocin (OT) nasal spray, as a treatment for impaired social function in young children with ASD aged 3 to 6 years. Beyond Childhood: Understanding Autism in Adolescence and Adulthood. The aim of this study is to see how children have changed since they were diagnosed and to understand their achievements and challenges over time. Patterns of Autistic Traits Within Families: Grandparents Survey. This is an Australia-wide study recruiting grandparents. The aim is to measure patterns of autistic traits across generations within a family. More information on these research projects can be found at https://autism.telethonkids. org.au/our-research/current-research-studies.
Autism Spectrum Australia WE BELONG, and WE BELONG TOO. This is an Australian first study conducted by Autism Spectrum Australia (Aspect). It investigates the life experiences, aspirations, and service and support needs of these Australian adults. • Ageing on the autism spectrum. The aim of this project is to identify the service needs of older adults with ASD as they age. Phase 1 of the project will gather the opinions of older adults with ASD about their expectations for their future needs as they age. More information can be found at: https://www.autismspectrum.org.au. For information about other research, both in Australia and overseas, go to: • Autism Research: http://www.autismawareness.com.au/resources/research • Research Autism: http://www.researchautism.net/news •
Diagnosing ASD Diagnosis of ASD is typically carried out by psychologists and or psychiatrists using a range of standardised diagnostic tools. These tools, which are regularly revised, may include:
Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, Second Edition (ADOS) Autism Diagnostic Interview Revised (ADI-R) Childhood Autism Rating Scales, Second Edition (CARS-2) Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT) Developmental Behaviour Checklist (DBC) Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ) Psycho Educational Profile, Third Edition (PEP-3) Autism Behaviour Checklist (ABC). The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, or DSM-5, produced by the American Psychiatric Association (APA 2013) uses two criteria for a diagnosis of ASD. These are difficulties in social communication and restricted, repetitive behaviour or interests. Symptoms of each criterion are shown in Figure 18.12. To be diagnosed with ASD, the person must have difficulties in both areas and have had symptoms from early childhood, even if these aren’t picked up until later in childhood. • • • • • • • •
Figure 18.12 Symptoms of ASD
Difficulties in social communication
Restricted, repetitive behaviours or interests
> Rarely using language to communicate with other people
> Lining toys up in a particular way repeatedly
> Not speaking at all
> Having very narrow and intense interests
> Not responding when spoken to
> Needing things to always happen in the same way
> Not copying other people’s actions like clapping
> Having trouble with changing from one activity to another
> Not understanding gestures > Not using facial expressions to communicate > Not showing an interest in friends
> Showing sensory sensitivities like not liking labels on clothes, or licking or sniffing objects.
> Not engaging in imaginative play Source: Raising Children Network (2018).
An ASD diagnosis includes a severity ranking – level 1, 2 or 3. The ranking is used to identify the level of support needed by the child. The ranking reflects autism as occurring on a spectrum from severe (level 1) to mild (level 3); this is shown in Figure 18.13. A diagnosis will usually include a comprehensive parent interview, diagnostic tests and formal and informal observations.
Characteristics of ASD Each student with ASD will present with a unique set of behaviours and characteristics. It is important not to generalise or assume that all students with ASD will have similar behaviours and similar learning difficulties. Working with students with ASD is challenging and requires a team approach – educators, parents, therapist and other support professionals. ASD includes high-functioning studemts who share impairment in social interaction and stereotypical and repetitive movements but do not have a communication disorder. Until recent changes to the DSM, this was known as Asperger’s syndrome.
SUPPORT FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES
523
Figure 18.13 ASD severity ranking for diagnosis Social communication
Severity level 3
• Without supports in place, deficits in social communication causing noticeable impairments
• Inflexibility of behaviour causes significant interference with functioning in one or more contexts
• Difficulty initiating social interactions, and clear examples of atypical or unsuccessful response to social overtures of others
• Difficulty switching between activities
• Social impairments apparent even with supports in place • Limited initiation of social interactions; and reduced or abnormal responses to social overtures from others – for example, a person who speaks simple sentences, whose interaction is limited to narrow special interests, and who has markedly odd non-verbal communication • Severe deficits in verbal and non-verbal social communication skills cause severe impairments in functioning
Severity level 1
• Problems of organisation and planning hamper independence
• May appear to have decreased interest in social interactions – for example, a person who is able to speak in full sentences and engages in communication but whose to-and-fro conversations with others fail, and whose attempts to make friends are odd and typically unsuccessful • Marked deficits in verbal and non-verbal social communication skills
Severity level 2
Restricted, repetitive behaviours
• Very limited initiation of social interactions, and minimal response to social overtures from others – for example, a person with few words of intelligible speech who rarely initiates interaction and, when they do, will make unusual approaches to meet needs only and respond to only very direct social approaches
• Inflexibility of behaviour, difficulty coping with change, or other restricted/repetitive behaviours appearing frequently enough to be obvious to the casual observer and interfere with functioning in a variety of contexts • Distress and/or difficulty changing focus or action
• Inflexibility of behaviour, extreme difficulty coping with change, or other restricted/repetitive behaviours markedly interfere with functioning in all spheres • Great distress/difficulty changing focus or action
Source: Joshi (2013: 4–5).
Features associated with ASD include impaired social interactions, impaired communication and restricted, repetitive behaviours, interests and activities and maladaptive behaviours, which are outlined in Figure 18.14. It should be noted that autism occurs on a continuum ranging from high- to low-functioning. Each child or young person on the spectrum will present with their own unique set of strengths and challenges.
Figure 18.14 Common features typically associated with ASD
Feature
Details
Impairment in social interaction
> Indifference to people, places, events and objects around them > Limited use and understanding of non-verbal communication, such as eye gaze, facial expression and gestures > Difficulties forming and sustaining friendships > A lack of seeking to share enjoyment, interest and activities with other people > Difficulties with social and emotional responsiveness, including showing empathy
Impairment in communication
> A lack of functional communication > Delayed language development > Use of nonsense speech > Echolalia – repeating what others say > Use of stereotypic phrases – repeating the same phrase over and over and out of context so it makes no sense > Difficulties initiating and sustaining conversations > Stereotyped and repetitive use of language such as repeating phrases from television > Limited imaginative or make-believe play
Restricted and repetitive behaviours, interests and activities, and maladaptive behaviours
> Unusually intense or focused interests with advanced skills or expertise in a specialist topic, such as maths or music and memory/recall > Stereotyped and repetitive body movements such as hand flapping and spinning, walking on tiptoes > Repetitive use of objects such as repeatedly flicking a doll’s eyes or lining up toys > Self-harm such as head-banging, squeezing or pinching parts of their own body until a bruise is formed; biting, scratching or hitting self > Physical aggression – biting, scratching or biting others > Extreme inability to cope with change > Adherence to non-functional routines or rituals, such as insisting on travelling the same route home each day, or avoiding walking on lines in tiles, carpet, footpath; only eating certain foods
Inability to filter sensory stimuli (sensory integration disorder)
> Extreme sensitivity to noise, light, touch – the sound of a ticking clock, the clackity-clack of a fan, the sound of an idling engine or the soft hum of a machine may cause an extreme reaction.
Learning difficulties
> Students with ASD are likely to have learning difficulties (although this is not always the case) > Students may have problems with processing and generalising information, problem-solving > May need direct instruction to develop self-help skills such as toileting, using utensils to feed self, dressing/undressing, putting on and removing shoes and socks, dressing according to the weather conditions, following simple routines such as meals, bathing, brushing teeth, or washing and drying hands
Autism Spectrum Australia (2018c) states that individuals with ASD may also have unusual sensory interests such as sniffing objects or staring intently at moving objects; sensory sensitivities including avoidance of everyday sounds and textures; and intellectual impairment or learning difficulties.
ASD and communication Children and young people with ASD have difficulty understanding and connecting with the world. They may lack the skills necessary to communicate their wants and needs, or express their feelings. They may use unusual forms of communication such as words or phrases from music or
SUPPORT FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES
525
television. They may respond to a question by making a statement that does not relate to the question. They may be echolalic – repeating the speaker’s sentence or repeating a phrase or a single word. In the following Scenario, Liliya is echolalic and Joe responds to an invitation to play in a manner that his peers may find hard to interpret. Scenario
TUNING IN TO COMMUNICATION LILIYA
Liliya (13 years) is sitting at the table ready for her morning tea. ESW: ‘Liliya, would you like some apple or banana?’ Liliya: ‘Liliya, would you like some apple or banana?’ ESW: ‘I’ll give you some of both.’ Liliya: ‘10-4, 10-4.’ (The ESW knows this is Liliya’s term for ‘okay’.) JOE
Joe (14 years) is outdoors watching two students, Kirra and Jesse, kicking a ball to each other.
Jesse: ‘Want to play, Joe?’ Joe: ‘I count cars. I count cars. I count cars.’ Joe also signs ‘no’. This is Joe’s way of responding to Jesse and telling him he doesn’t want to play. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Liliya and Joe have their own unique ways of communicating. Their aversion to socialisation and poor communication skills often result in students with ASD being socially isolated.
ASD and behaviour Students with ASD often present with several challenging behaviours, and do not respond to commonly used behaviour-management strategies. Often, the only way students with ASD can let you know how they might be feeling is by engaging in extreme maladaptive behaviours such as flapping, screaming, physical aggression and self-harming. It is best practice to address one behaviour of concern at a time. An Individual Behaviour Plan (IBP), which focuses on one particularly challenging/maladaptive behaviour – usually determined by the class teacher in collaboration with parents and therapists – can be put in place. According to Willis (2006), when considering how best to respond to unwanted behaviours, it is essential to consider the way the student behaves (form) and why the behaviour is occurring (function). Eliminating the function or cause of the behaviour is often the most effective way to reduce the unwanted behaviour. Eliminating the cause assists the student to calm down and avoids any direct intervention with the student, which can often result in an increase in unwanted behaviour. Consider the examples of Jude and Eric in the following Scenario. Scenario
RESPONDING TO BEHAVIOUR JUDE
Jude (12 years) is screaming and flapping his hands. This is something he does regularly. His piercing screams are unsettling the other students. ESW Luke noticed that Jude had been watching the ceiling fan as it went around and around; however, the fan has since been switched off. • The form of Jude’s behaviour is screaming and hand flapping. • The function (reason) for his behaviour is because the fan has been switched off.
To manage Jude’s behaviour, Luke turns the fan back on – Jude immediately begins to calm down. ERIC
Eric (11 years) was making patterns with coloured tiles when another student approached and stood at the table facing him. Eric began to pinch himself and make a wailing sound. Without commenting on Eric’s behaviour, ESW Luke immediately moved the student to another activity. As soon as the
other student was away from Eric, the behaviour stopped. • The form of Eric’s behaviour is pinching himself and wailing. • The function of Eric’s behaviour is the invasion of his personal space by another student.
" DISCUSSION
Discuss how applying an analysis of the function and form of a student’s behaviour can assist in planning an appropriate response and/or modifications to the physical environment or daily routines.
Modifying the behaviour of any student can be a challenge. Modifying the behaviour of a student with ASD is even more challenging. There is a wide range of evidence-based practices that can be used to modify behaviours when working with students with ASD. There is no single best strategy – educators need to work with the student, the family and therapists to determine the most effective strategy for each individual. Figure 18.15 provides examples of some evidencebased practices that may be used. To be effective, any strategy used must be implemented exactly the way it has been designed, which may require specialised training. Figure 18.15 Examples of evidence-based practices
Practice
Explanation
Functional behaviour assessment (FBA)
Information gathered from an FBA can be used to devise a response to the behaviour with the aim of reducing the severity of the behaviour or eliminating it. Steps include determining: 1 the exact nature of the behaviour (what the student does) 2 what triggers the behaviour 3 the immediate consequences of the behaviour for the student (and others) 4 the function of the behaviour – what is the student trying to communicate? Factors to consider may include changing some aspects of the environment (triggers), anticipating and intervening before the behaviour occurs, identifying an alternative behaviour (what could the student be taught to do as an alternative to extreme behaviour?) and identifying alternative responses to the behaviour (changing your own behaviour).
Least-to-most prompting (prompting)
A system that uses a hierarchy of prompts (from least amount of help to most amount of help) to correct, modify or change a behaviour. The hierarchy (levels) of prompting is shown in Figure 18.16.
Social skills training (SST)
Group or individual instruction designed to teach learners with ASD ways to interact appropriately with peers, adults and other individuals. Most social skill meetings include instruction on basic concepts, role-playing or practice, and feedback to help learners with ASD acquire and practise communication, play or social skills to promote positive interactions with peers.
Task analysis (TA)
A process in which an activity or behaviour is divided into small, manageable steps to assess and teach the skill (see Chapter 11) – for example, toileting or hand-washing.
Visual support (VS)
Any visual display that supports the learner engaging in a desired behaviour or skills independently of prompts. Examples of visual supports include pictures, written words, objects within the environment, arrangement of the environment or visual boundaries, schedules, maps, labels, organisation systems, and timelines. Source: Wong et al. (2012: 20, 21).
SUPPORT FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES
527
Figure 18.16 Hierarchy of prompting
Supporting students with ASD According to Willis (2006: 22), five key strategies are used to work with students with ASD. These strategies include: • early intervention – structured support programs (home and/or centre based) for children prior to entering school • structured behaviour intervention – development of a plan to assist the student to manage their behaviour • sensory integration therapy – a program developed by an occupational therapist designed to assist the student to manage sensory input • speech/language therapy – a speech pathologist works with the student to develop a program to facilitate language and communication • special education – the student is placed in a regular school setting or a special unit. An IEP is developed to assist the student to reach their full learning potential. A program to support a student with ASD may include any combination of the above strategies, which may vary over time.
Accommodations and modifications The broad range of abilities and deficits of children and young people with ASD means that it is not possible to identify all accommodations and modifications that may be needed. Instead, the following general practices should be considered as a starting point for meeting the needs of students with ASD. • Daily timetable/routine. Providing students with a daily and weekly schedule will reduce anxiety in relation to transitions and give students a sense of control. Schedules can be written or visual, Source: Noodlenook, (2018). Copyright @ NoodleNook. depending on individual students’ needs and abilities. The aim is to assist the student to anticipate and understand the daily sequence of lessons and breaks. • Communication aids. Use assistive technology, visual aids or tactile aids alongside verbal communication and gestures to communicate information and support learning. • Sensory support. Provide students with a range of sensory tools/fidgets to help them manage and relieve sensory overload. Sensory tools can include stress balls, a hand-held massager, balloon balls, bendy men, blow pens, silly putty, chewy toys, blow-up cushions and foot pads, and weighted pads. It can also include activities such as climbing or an obstacle course. • Quiet area. Students with ASD benefit from withdrawing to a quiet space where they can be alone, calm down and regroup. The area should be quiet and dimly lit, face away from the classroom and include objects such as a weighted blanket, noise-cancelling headphones and fidget toys.
Regular time-out. Allow students to take a five-minute break every hour, or as needed. This helps students refresh and refocus, and thus avoid meltdowns. Students can also be provided with a choice board, which allows them to choose a calming/timeout activity. This gives students a sense of control and encourages them to monitor and manage their own stress levels. • Reduce noise and bright light. Provide seating that allows for indirect light and reduced noise (such as away from door or busy areas). • Emotional/stress monitor. Provide students with a visual prop so that they can easily signal if they are becoming distressed. • Unhurried time. Provide the student with unhurried time to complete tasks without the pressure of time constraints. • Organisation. Students with ASD can be forgetful and disorganised. Provide a plastic bin under the student’s desk where they can store personal items and school work. • Break down tasks. ASD students may need to have a task broken down into small, manageable steps. This can be done using visual prompts, or by providing templates or verbal cues. • Social skills instruction. Students with ASD often lack the ability to form friendships and understand social rules such as turn-taking, saying please and thank you, asking rather than taking, sharing, and so on. Providing daily reminders by demonstrating, modelling and using role-play assists students to apply these skills. Accommodations and modifications must be individualised for each student. Often parents will be able to assist in identifying strategies that will best support their child in the classroom. •
ONLINE RESOURCES Working with students with ASD requires a commitment to ongoing learning, as each student with ASD will have unique skills, interests and needs. Examples of websites that provide practical information, newsletters, tip sheets, support and links to resources that are useful when working with students with ASD are: • Autism classroom resources: http:// www.autismclassroomresources.com • The Autism Helper: http://www.theautismhelper.com • Autism Adventures: http://www.autismadventures.com
• • • • •
Autism Classroom: http://www. autismclassroomresources.com The National Autistic Society: http://www.autism. org.uk/about/strategies/visual-supports.aspx Autism Spectrum Australia: http://www. autismspectrum.org.au Autism Awareness: http://www.autismawareness. com.au Sensory Tools: https://sensorytools.net/collections/all.
18.9 Students with multiple disabilities Students with multiple disabilities may present with any combination of, for example, cognitive impairment and sensory impairment, such as hearing and vision loss, physical disabilities, neurological impairment and communication disorders. They may also present with challenging behaviours, such as verbal and physical aggression, self-harming, being highly distractible, selfstimulation and ritualistic behaviours, high-needs care and medical problems such as seizures. Students with multiple disabilities typically attend special education schools or special education units with purpose-built facilities and access to specialist equipment such as lifts, hoists, modified toileting and showering facilities. Some students can be accommodated within the regular classroom with appropriate modifications and accommodations.
SUPPORT FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES
529
Educational programs for students who have both cognitive and other multiple disabilities may focus on areas such as communication, concept development, functional reading and writing, mobility, daily living and personal care. Each student will be assessed to determine their learning abilities that can be addressed by an IEP or an Educational Adjustment Program (EAP). Shaddock and colleagues (2007: 10) suggest developing a differentiation program for students with multiple disabilities based on: • Content – what a student learns • Process – how the student learns, and how you support the learning process • Product – how the student demonstrates what they’ve learned • Readiness – prior mastery of knowledge, understandings and skills • Interests – the student’s curiosity and passion • Learning profile – how the student learns best. Shaddock, A., Giorcelli, L. & Smith, S. (2007). Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Australia (CC BY 3.0).
Communication strategies Using sign language Signing allows students with ASD who have no functional language the opportunity to communicate simple messages such as ‘no’, ‘eat’, ‘drink’, ‘more’, ‘thank you’ and ‘all done’. Auslan (Australian Sign Language) can be taught from a young age by introducing one sign at a time and gradually adding more if the child is responsive.
Using a communication book A communication book is a system of symbols designed specifically for each individual to communicate; it may include pictures, words, phrases or symbols representing phrases, greetings, questions, ideas or key messages. It may also include some verbal communication as well as signing and the use of an electronic communication device. A communication book is used by the student to communicate with others and by the speaker to communicate with the student. A communication book will contain everyday communications that are used frequently – for example, ‘I’m hungry. When’s lunch?’ ‘I need to go to the toilet.’ ‘How are you today?’ ‘Good thanks. How are you?’ Communication books are typically arranged so that those using the book can easily find and point to, or use eye-pointing at, the required symbols to convey a message. Pragmatic Organisation Dynamic Display (PODD), developed by Gayle Porter, is a commercially available communication book that provides templates and guidelines for the development of an individualised communication book. Information about the PODD systems can be found on the Cerebral Palsy Education Centre website: http://www.cpec.org.au/podd.html.
Using electronic communication devices A wide range of electronic communication devices are available for students. Selecting the right device is essential, and the device must be matched to the needs and abilities of each student. To see a range of electronic communication devices go to the Spectronics website: http:// www.spectronics.com.au/catalogue/communication-tools. Many of the Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) strategies discussed on pages 513–15 can also be used with students with multiple disabilities that include limited communication skills.
18.10 Students who are gifted While most of the discussion in relation to additional needs focuses on disabilities, it is also important to consider the needs of students who are gifted. Early intervention for students who are gifted can prevent under-achievement. Students who are gifted usually exhibit the following three characteristics: above-average intelligence; an unusually high level of development in abstract reasoning skills; and exceptional potential for learning and academic achievement. Like children with a disability, no two students who are gifted are alike – they are unique individuals. Being gifted does not necessarily give the student any special advantage over other students; remember, a child who is gifted has the same basic needs as any other child – to be loved, cared for and respected, have friends, and enjoy play and leisure. Students who are gifted may experience uneven development; they may, for example, have outstanding skills in reading or mathematics, but have poor fine motor skills, or have difficulty being responsible for their own belongings, or have difficulty making friends. These uneven areas of development are referred to as asynchronous. Students who are gifted will often think differently from their peers. These students are usually divergent and creative thinkers, who think deeply about big issues, problems and concepts. Perfectionism can be a problem for these students, as they may become frustrated, upset or angry if they are not able to achieve their personal learning goals. Other characteristics of students who are gifted may include: • early mastery of major childhood milestones such as sitting, crawling, walking and talking • advanced physical skills – good at all sports • advanced memory and recall skills • long attention span • advanced and creative problem-solving skills (thinking outside of the box), abstract thinking and conceptualisation skills • vivid imagination and storytelling skills, advanced creative arts skills • early reading and writing. Often students who are gifted face challenges in socialising with peers and developing friendships. This may be attributed to their general level of intensity, their own sense of being ‘different’, their temperament or their personality. Scenario
WORKING WITH GIFTED CHILDREN Michael (5 years, 3 months) has a reading age of 10 and an extensive vocabulary. Michael loves to write graphic novels and illustrate them himself. Michael has asked his father whether he can help him to make animated videos of his graphic novels. Michael does not interact with the other students. He appears lonely and bored, and is beginning to develop a range of undesirable attentionseeking behaviours. His teacher has tried to meet Michael’s learning needs by working with him to develop projects that he can explore and direct at his own pace. However, the teacher is concerned that this is further isolating Michael from his peers. She feels that Michael might be happier and more engaged if he spent the mornings in the Year 4 class
where he can work collaboratively with other students and then returned to his regular class in the afternoon. His parents are happy for Michael to be accelerated, but are worried about his lack of friends. They have also expressed concern about what will happen when Michael eventually completes his primary education. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
The current system of education does not cater well for students such as Michael. Accelerating him is one option, but it has obvious limitations and doesn’t address Michael’s lack of social skills. Like children with disabilities, meeting Michael’s educational needs is challenging.
SUPPORT FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES
531
Supporting students who are gifted Students who are gifted can be supported in the classroom by providing: • open-ended tasks that allow for deeper exploration and problem-based projects • integrated tasks that require deeper thinking and application of ideas, processes and theories • creative and critical thinking tasks in areas such as science, music, visual arts, drama or dance • access to a range of technology • skills to develop self-directed learning • mentoring and establishing individual learning goals.
LINK TO THE Australian CURRICULUM The Victorian Department of Education and Training (2018) recommends that schools adopt programs and approaches that include: • personalising the curriculum with opportunities to respond to the learner’s needs •
curriculum differentiation through changes in pace, depth, complexity and teaching method
• •
different models of grouping, for example, interest and subject acceleration specialised programs that offer students access to specialist expertise and facilities, including facilities available in the wider community, as part of deep engagement with a particular curriculum area select-entry accelerated learning programs designed for gifted and talented students who are capable of working at a significantly faster pace and to greater depth than their peers, whereby students usually complete Years 7–10 in three years
• • •
mentoring programs within or between schools to connect students with ‘like minds’ engaging students with strengthened personalised learning opportunities that provide greater breadth and depth of learning
Summary When working with students with disabilities, always put the individual first and the disability second. This encourages you to consider the strengths, interests and abilities of the student as well as the disabilities. It also reinforces the principle of working from what the student already knows and can do, rather than focusing on a deficit model. Remember: all learning begins with what we already know – that is, we draw on our existing knowledge and skills to learn new knowledge and skills. This principle is particularly important when working with students with disabilities. It is important to seek as much information as possible about the student and the particular disability so that you are well informed and prepared when supporting the student in the classroom. You will find working with students with a disability both challenging and rewarding. The many challenges will require you to be patient, thoughtful and supportive of even the smallest steps. The rewards will occur as you celebrate with the students the many small but important steps in their learning journey.
Discussion question 1
Read the Scenario ‘Responding to Behaviour’ on page 526 of this chapter. Discuss why, in both cases, the ESW Luke demonstrated best practice when responding to each student’s behaviour.
Self-check questions 1 Define the following terms related to vision. a Visual acuity b Near-sightedness c Strabismus d Amblyopia e Visual impairment 2 Describe the four levels of visual impairment. 3 Explain the impact of blindness or low vision on social development. 4 List the three levels of hearing impairment. 5 What is OM and why is it more severe in Aboriginal children? 6 Cerebral palsy: a What is cerebral palsy (CP)? b Describe the four types of CP. c List three other difficulties that are commonly associated with CP. d Describe how the mobility of children with CP is commonly supported. e List the five levels of the Manual Ability Classification System (MACS) used to measure the manual ability of children and young people aged from four to 18 years.
f
7 8 9 10
11 12
List the assistive technology commonly used to support students with CP. What is spina bifida? List the typical communication problems of children with spina bifida. What is dyspraxia? Describe possible characteristics of students with a learning disability. Speech and language disorders: a List the common red flags that may indicate a student is experiencing language difficulties. b Describe the characteristics of articulation disorders. c Define the term CAPD. d What is augmentative and alternative communication? What is ADHD and how is it characterised? Autism Spectrum Disorder: a What is ASD? b Describe the two criteria used by the American Psychiatric Association for a diagnosis of ASD. c List the five common features that characterise children with ASD. d Explain why children and young people with ASD have difficulty communicating.
Activities 1
For this task, go to Pacific Vision: http:// www.lowvision.com.au/# (Our products). Here you can access information on a wide range of hardware and
software that can be used to support students who are blind or have low vision. Discuss the products available and how they could be used in a classroom setting.
2 Identify the skills targeted for each accommodation or modification listed below. Accommodation/ modification
Fine motor
Gross motor
Communication
Organisational
Actively teach physical skills and provide time for practice Ensure consistency of routines as much as possible Position seating to minimise distractions Provide student with a pictorial- or text-based checklist of tasks to undertake when working in a small group Voice-to-text software
SUPPORT FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES
533
Accommodation/ modification
Fine motor
Gross motor
Communication
Organisational
Create a checklist so that student can tick steps as completed Use software to record instructions so that student can listen multiple times as needed A variety of pencil grips Allow student to move around Have student repeat instructions to clarify understanding Create graphic organisers and/or communication devices to support communication Slant board for writing
3 Connect the learning disability (on the left) to the brief description. Dysgraphia
Difficulty with language – problems understanding spoken language, poor reading comprehension
Dyscalculia
Difficulty with reading – problems reading, writing, spelling, speaking
Dyspraxia (sensory integration disorder)
Difficulty with writing – problems with handwriting, spelling, organising ideas
Visual Processing Disorder
Difficulty interpreting visual information – problems with reading, maths, maps, charts, symbols, pictures
Dysphasia/aphasia
Difficulty hearing differences between sounds – problems with reading, comprehension, language
Dyslexia Auditory Processing Disorder
Difficulty with maths – problems doing maths problems, understanding time, using money Difficulty with fine motor skills – problems with hand–eye coordination, balance, manual dexterity
4 For this task, go to the following websites: • Pyramid Educational Consultants (PECS): http:// www.pecsaustralia.com • Makaton: http://www.makaton.org/aboutMakaton • Do2Learn: http://www.do2learn.com Explore the range of products/resources available and discuss how they might be used in a classroom setting.
5 For this task, explore the websites on sensory processing disorders listed on page 521 of this chapter. Discuss the content of the sites and how you might use them to develop your skills and knowledge of sensory issues, how they impact on student learning and what strategies can be used in the classroom.
Chapter 19 SUPPORTING ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to demonstrate that, in relation to working in a school environment, you can: 19.1
understand the depth of cultural and linguistic diversity in the community
19.2 explain the stages in the acquisition of a second language 19.3 access, read and correctly interpret current curriculum documents in relation to English as an additional language or dialect (EAL/D), including the Australian Curriculum: English EAL/D, General Capabilities – Literacy and the EAL/D Learning Progressions 19.4 understand the strategies used to assess and support EAL/D learners 19.5 describe strategies to support language and communication, including cultural variations in non-verbal communication 19.6 reflect on the social context of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students and identify features of Aboriginal English.
GO
further
Go Further icons link to extra content for this chapter. Ask your instructor for the Go Further resource and deepen your understanding of the topic.
Introduction The Australian Curriculum uses the term English as an additional language/dialect (EAL/ D) to describe students for whom Standard Australian English (SAE) is a second or third language. SAE is defined by ACARA as ‘the variety of spoken and written English language in Australia used in more formal settings such as for official or public purposes, and recorded in dictionaries, style guides and grammars. While it is always dynamic and evolving, it is recognised as the ‘‘common language’’ of Australians.’ Other terms in use include English as a Second Language (ESL), English Language Learners (ELL), English as an additional language (EAL) and English as an additional dialect (EAD). For consistency, the term EAL/D is used throughout this chapter.
SUPPORTING ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS
Link to the Australian Curriculum
535
19.1 Cultural and linguistic diversity
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
Chapter 3 explored how cultural and linguistic diversity (CALD) in Australia contributes to the richness of our communities and life experiences. Every individual belongs to a cultural group that is made up of people who share similar values, beliefs and a pattern of behaviours that have been learned from other people within the cultural group. Cultural groups can be defined in terms of geographic location, language, class, race, nationality, ethnicity, religion, customs and artefacts. The Australian population is made up of people from many cultures, who together speak over 300 different languages. Many schools have students who come from homes where English is not the first (or even second) language; this includes students from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (2016), one in five Australians (21 per cent) speaks a language other than English at home. After English, the next most common languages spoken at home are Mandarin, Arabic, Cantonese and Vietnamese. Of those people who speak a language other than English at home, 3.5 per cent speak English not well or not at all. Across Australia, EAL/D students are likely to include students who: • are overseas or Australian born and speak a language other than Standard Australian English (SAE) • speak English at home but have not been exposed to written English • are Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people whose home language may include traditional languages, creoles and related varieties, or Aboriginal English (a mixture of Aboriginal languages and English) • can use SAE for academic purposes but struggle to use SAE for social interactions. These children and young people may begin school with little, some or no exposure to English; they may have little or no previous experience of schooling, have recently arrived in Australia or are commencing school in Australia with a cultural background that is not AngloAustralian; or have been living in an offshore or overseas detention centre. EAL/D students who, for a range of reasons, have had limited or no experience with schooling will have needs additional to learning SAE. For example, they may: • require high levels of support socially, emotionally and culturally as their social and cultural expectations may vary greatly – for example, in relation to accepted interaction between teachers and students – or they may have experienced situations of torture and or trauma • be unfamiliar with accepted classroom routines and the organisational aspects of learning, such as deadlines, dates and divisions of time • benefit greatly from bilingual support where available • take more time than other EAL/D students to understand the concepts and language required in the classroom and to complete classroom tasks • be unfamiliar with the purposes of reading and writing, and rely heavily on visual cues • be unfamiliar with some digital technologies or subject-specific equipment commonly used in Australian classrooms (ACARA 2012: 4). Tensions arise when the beliefs and values of one culture collide with those of another. These tensions may sometimes surface in school settings – for example, differences in child-rearing practices, and beliefs about children and the role of children in families. Consider the following cultural differences, which might cause tension among different ethnic or cultural groups: • In Western cultures, older children are not expected to take on the role of primary carer of younger siblings, while in some cultures this is considered to be an important responsibility
for older children – for example, many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children are expected to care for and guide their younger siblings. • Western cultures tend to promote early independence and focus on individuality, while many Asian cultures promote a sense of community and ‘the common good’, and frown on the pursuit of individual aspirations. • In Western cultures, children are often dependent on their parents well into adulthood, while in some cultures children are expected to work on the land or in paid employment at a very early age. This is often seen in the developing world, where families may live in extreme poverty. • In Western cultures, individual achievement is valued, celebrated and rewarded, while in many Asian cultures singling out children for praise is regarded as inappropriate as it is thought to make the child conceited and to have a negative impact on the child’s relationship with the group.
Cultural safety and cultural identity Chapter 3 explored the concepts of cultural competence, cultural safety and cultural identity – you may like to refresh your memory of these concepts before proceeding. Not only do EAL/D students have to learn the curriculum along with native English speakers; they also must acquire SAE language skills. Furthermore, students who are new to a country may also have to deal with culture shock and learning the social cues and rules of a new culture. As an ESW, you will be part of a whole-school strategy to not only teach EAL/D students English-language skills, but also social and cultural skills to help them succeed. Cultural values and beliefs shape the way people behave. Cultural traditions, values and behavioural expectations have a significant impact on a child’s self-concept, self-esteem and social behaviour. According to Shonkoff and Phillips (2000: 3), ‘Culture influences every aspect of human development’. Shonkoff and Phillips (2000: 128) further state that ‘in all cultures, language is one of the most powerful symbolic systems through which children learn to understand and interpret human behaviour’. A strong cultural identity gives children and young people a sense of belonging and promotes self-confidence. Emotional and social wellbeing is dependent on the acceptance of each student as a unique individual with different appearance, experiences, abilities and personality. Educators who value diversity ensure that their program and practices reflect positive attitudes towards ‘differences’. Martin (1999) uses the term ‘cultural safety’ to describe the level of acceptance, understanding and respect that families who are not from the dominant culture must feel before they can be comfortable with building relationships outside of the family. Having a sense of cultural safety supports the development of trusting relationships necessary for the student to confidently participate in English language learning.
Immigration Migration continues to be a major contributing factor to Australia’s population growth and workforce development. Australians now come from nearly 200 countries, and represent more than 300 ethnic ancestries (ABS 2016). Australia’s multicultural policy, The People of Australia (Department of Immigration and Border Protection 2014), reflects the democratic laws of Australia, which protect everyone’s right to practise and maintain their cultural heritage, traditions and languages. These rights are also enshrined in
SUPPORTING ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS
537
anti-discrimination legislation. The Australian Government’s Access and Equity policy aims to ensure government services meet the needs of people from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds so that they can participate fully in economic, social and cultural life in Australia. Support for immigrants includes translation and interpreter services, orientation services, such as intensive English language classes for adults and school-age children, registration with Medicare and Centrelink, medical support, enrolment of children in school and accommodation assistance. Families are also assisted with applying for a tax file number, opening a bank account, applying for a driver’s licence and accessing support services in their local area.
Culture shock The transition to a new country is not merely a physical one – it is also very stressful emotionally. This is true whether or not the transition is through legally planned migration or through forced migration. Culture shock is a term used to describe the emotional stress of migration or even temporary relocation to a new country and a new culture. Culture shock reflects the strangeness of being confronted with a new way of life where the changes include language, food and housing, as well as different values, customs and beliefs. There are said to be five distinct stages of culture shock, as shown in Figure 19.1. Figure 19.1 Five stages of culture shock
Honeymoon phase
This reflects the initial excitement of the new country.
Rejection phase
Reality sets in and immigrants must now deal with day-to-day difficulties such as not understanding colloquial expressions (e.g. ‘bring a plate’), not being able to buy the types of foods they could in their country of origin, feeling different and isolated, and second-guessing the decision to migrate.
Regression phase
Immigrants retreat to the known – only mixing with people from the same culture, resisting new experiences, complaining about the new country and its strange ways.
Recovery phase
Reverse cultural shock phase
Immigrants become more comfortable with the new country – learning the language, getting used to the customs, trying new experiences.
Immigrants return to their homeland and revisit their native culture.
Every immigrant will experience some level of culture shock. It is natural to miss one’s home and lifestyle, loved ones and friends. Refugees and asylum seekers, who have likely experienced a great deal of trauma and may have lived a very stressful existence in their country of origin (and/or in refugee camps), will also suffer culture shock and homesickness. Culture shock is experienced by both adults and children. Children, however, will more readily adjust to their new culture as long as their parents or guardians remain a secure emotional anchor. Children will also experience different sights, sounds and smells. They will experience the shock of not being around the familiar and the known. They may experience the loss of older family members, such as grandparents, and the loss of friends. Children not only have to adjust to a new language, but also to a new school. For some children, school and formal learning will be an entirely new experience. Families may find it difficult to understand school routines – for example, school uniforms, packing snacks and lunches, or understanding school rules. Non-Anglo children may experience racism and various forms of discrimination. Children must learn the cultural rules of socialisation and the ‘rules’ that exist between students outside the classroom. There will also be differences in values and beliefs about gender roles, particularly in relation to the expected behaviours (and freedoms) of males and females within and outside the family unit. Culture shock may also extend to the classroom. Consider, for example, the following changes that students may experience when adjusting to schooling in Australia: • students may not have prior experience of attending school or of attending school for full days • school rules, routines and timetables may appear to be extremely relaxed compared with other cultures • problem solving, collaboration and group learning may be regarded as unusual ways of ‘teaching’, particularly in contrast to other cultures where teacher-led/directed rote learning is common • students may feel put-on-the-spot if asked a direct question by the teacher • students may not be used to individual praise in front of other students and may feel embarrassed • students may not have experienced mixed gender classes • students may not have experienced sitting at tables in small learning groups • students may not have experienced a male/female teacher • students may not have experienced interactive learning where they are expected to take responsibility for their own learning. It is important to be aware that English as an Additional Language/Dialect (EAL/D) students who are also adjusting to a new culture and learning a new language will need a great deal of support. Adolescent children, who typically are striving for self-identity and independence, are a particularly vulnerable group among new immigrants. Children in this group must struggle with their cultural identity as well as their ‘new’ identity within their peer group. Adolescent children have a great need to ‘fit in’ and be a part of the norm (as evidenced in the following Scenario). This may lead to a rejection of their own culture and subsequent conflict within the family unit. It often leads to identity confusion. Rejection of both the old and the new culture can lead to behaviour problems until the adolescent is able to reach a stage of being comfortable with elements of both cultures. Biculturalism enables adolescents to operate with ease in two cultural contexts, while maintaining a sense of pride in their own ethnic background and identity.
SUPPORTING ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS
539
Scenario
CULTURE SHOCK Twins Deka and Ekon (14 years), their sister Jamille (11 years) and their parents have lived in four refugee camps during the last five years. The children have not been to school for around six years, and are finding it difficult to adjust to school in Australia. Although still learning English, the children are able to communicate sufficiently to be understood; however, they are finding the Australian accent difficult to understand. The children were very excited to come to Australia but are finding the school environment extremely challenging. They are fearful of authority and have learned not to make eye contact or ask questions. They tell their father that Australian children are very naughty in school because they ask many questions of their teachers and they don’t always pay attention. The children are also amazed that so many students have mobile phones and
lots of money to spend every day. They tell their father that the students must come from very rich families. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Adjusting to a new country and culture can cause culture shock. Deka, Ekon and Jamille are not only adapting to a new country and a new language; they are also adjusting to school life and to the Australian teenage subculture. " DISCUSSION
Discuss the concept of cultural shock. Think about the typical lifestyle of Australians – what might people coming from dissimilar cultures find confusing, confronting or challenging? How might you react if you were transported to a totally different culture? How might you go about adjusting to that culture?
The importance of bilingualism Family, language and culture provide the foundation of a child’s identity and sense of belonging. Language is not simply a form of communication – it is the primary way in which an individual’s culture is transmitted. As children learn the rules of language, they are also learning the social and cultural functions of language. Rogoff (2003: 310) reminds us that while language is universal, how it is used to communicate varies between cultures: Everywhere, people use words, silence, gestures, and gaze skilfully to communicate. Yet there also appear to be important differences in how much people talk and in how articulately they communicate non-verbally.
It is essential to encourage students to be proud of their cultural heritage and demonstrate genuine respect for the student’s first language. Students whose first language is not that of the dominant culture are not necessarily disadvantaged in relation to language development. They are, however, at risk of losing their cultural identity if their first language is not respected and maintained. The ability to use the language of the dominant culture, while still maintaining one’s home language, is a goal that should be supported by all educators. Children who are fluent in their native language are more successful at learning a second language. As long as children have a sound foundation in their first language, they usually have little difficulty in acquiring a second language. Similarly, children who are bilingual are able to acquire new words in both languages and use new words in the correct context. Bilingual children actually appear to have several advantages in their development, including problem-solving abilities, cognitive flexibility and increased self-esteem. It is important to be aware that cognitive skills (concepts and knowledge) developed in a student’s first language are retained. Bilingual children also simultaneously learn the cultural values and social behaviours associated with each language. De Houwer (1999: 1–2) summarises what is now known about children’s bilingual acquisition: • All children who are capable of learning a language will also have the ability to learn a second language. • Hearing two or more languages in childhood does not cause disorders or delays in language.
Children do not just ‘pick up’ a second language – they need regular and meaningful exposure to the second language. • Knowing the language of one’s parents is an important and essential component of children’s cultural identity and sense of belonging. • Bilingual children who have regular and rich exposure to both languages on a daily basis exhibit the same milestones in language development and at roughly the same ages as monolingual children. • Bilingual children should be provided with systematic exposure to both languages without radical changes. • Bilingual children can acquire the same proficiency in all aspects of their two languages over time as monolingual children, even though they have less exposure to each language. • Bilingual children may have different patterns of language development, particularly in relation to vocabulary in the short term. Sometimes bilingual children know fewer words in one or both languages in comparison with monolingual children of the same age – these differences are usually transitory. • Bilingual children may need additional support to develop social language skills. Some families have concerns about the effect of maintaining their children’s first language. Often parents will stop using their first language around their children, thinking this will help their children to learn English. Misinformation about the benefits of maintaining the child’s home language, and its importance in relation to learning a second language, are common. Parents should be encouraged to speak their children’s native language in the home to ensure the children develop proficiency in their first language (see the Scenario box). It is very reassuring for children and families to be able to converse in their home language when they first commence in a school. Although it is not always possible, some schools have bilingual staff or can access support staff or interpreter services. Other schools may find that they have to rely on the goodwill of other parents or members of the community to assist as interpreters. If such support is not available, it would be necessary to access a commercial interpreter service. •
Scenario
SPEAKING ENGLISH After settling in Australia, Ethiopian parents Ashebir and Niyyat were determined that their children would learn to speak both Amharic and English. However, after only one year in Australia, they tend to speak mostly English to their children. Ashebir: ‘My boss told me I should only speak English to my children. He says, ‘‘You are in Australia now mate, you must speak English!’’’ Niyyat: ‘I worry about my children suffering at school. I don’t want the other children to make fun of them. Children can be so cruel at times. We are confused about what to do. We have been told different things. My oldest child’s teacher said we should speak English at
home so that the children can learn English. But at the child-care centre they tell me it is important to speak our own language at home so that the children can speak both languages. I don’t know what to do. I worry for my children. I want them to be happy and to fit in. It is hard enough that they have different-coloured skin. They must be able to speak like the other children.’ WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Families are often under a great deal of pressure to learn and speak English. There is a general misperception that bilingualism is a disadvantage for children whose first language is not that of the dominant culture.
19.2 Acquiring a second language While it is extremely important for children to be fluent in their home language, it is equally important that they be fluent in the language of the dominant culture – in Australia, SAE. SUPPORTING ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS
541
School success depends on students being able to manage the formal academic language used in education. Students who are not able to acquire language at this level are more likely to have poor educational outcomes. Gibbons (1993: 17) argues that children who are not competent in their home language may struggle to acquire English at the level needed for the processing of challenging cognitive tasks. She makes a clear distinction between the ‘language of the playground’ and the ‘language of the classroom’. ‘If there is a gap in a learner’s language resources, then the thinking processes that are dependent on them will also be restricted.’ When children and young people are learning English as an additional language or dialect, they are not only acquiring knowledge of the spoken language, but also acquiring knowledge of the dominant culture. They must learn the often quite subtle social rules of language and how to apply these rules when interacting with peers. In a report on EAL/D children, the Department for Education and Skills, UK (2006: 15) states: Generally speaking, children learning an additional language can become conversationally fluent in the new language in two to three years, but may take five years or longer to catch up with monolingual peers in the development of cognitive and academic language.
Stages in the acquisition of a second language The acquisition of a second language generally occurs in one of two ways (Papadaki-D’Onofrio 2003: 46). Simultaneous acquisition occurs when children are exposed to a second or third language from birth. Sequential or successive acquisition occurs when children begin to learn a second language after a first language is partially or fully established. Research indicates that students’ levels of language and literacy competence in their first language influence their rate of second language learning, possibly their ultimate levels of attainment in the language and the success with which they perform cognitively demanding literacy tasks in the second language. According to Papadaki-D’Onofrio (2003: 46–9), there are five stages in the development of a second language for EAL/D students, outlined below.
1 The silent stage Some children will go through a silent period where they may not speak in either their first language or English. It is thought that this silent stage allows children to develop a sense of confidence as an English language learner. During this time, it may be obvious that the child understands but still does not attempt to speak English. There is no definitive timeframe attached to this stage; however, pressuring the student to speak during this time will interfere with their language development and extend the period of silence. On the other hand, the student should not be left alone or ignored. They are not being uncooperative; they are looking, listening and absorbing language ready for the time when they will speak. During the ‘silent period’, the quality of interactions with adults is very important. Strategies that can be used to support the student during the ‘silent period’ include: • talking to the student even if there is no response • including the student in small groups with two or three other students • asking a variety of questions • including other students as the focus of conversation • using songs • learning a few simple phrases and counting in the student’s first language
• • • • •
encouraging the student to respond non-verbally giving lots of praise for effort offering opportunities for the student to repeat what has been said (if willing) providing many opportunities for interaction with other students providing lots of opportunity to role-play – a good way to practise language.
2 The mixing languages and code-switching stage During this stage, the child will mix words and sounds from both languages even if the person they are talking to is using only one language. This is usually because the child does not yet have a sufficient vocabulary in one or both languages to express themselves entirely in one language. Borrowing of words from each language is temporary.
3 The separation of languages stage As children begin to separate the two languages, they will use the language of the person to whom they are speaking.
4 The dominance of one language over another stage Children who learn English will often insist on speaking only in English, even when at home. This often occurs when children begin school, as they do not want to appear different. They may also be reluctant to use their first language at home.
5 The stage of rapid shift in balance When children are fluent in both languages, they are easily able to shift confidently from one language to the other. Hill and Miller (2013: 14, adapted from Krashen and Terrell 1983) also describe a series of predictable stages in English language acquisition of students learning to speak English as a second (or third) language. Figure 19.2 describes each stage. Figure 19.2 Approximate stages of English language acquisition
Characteristics
Pre-production
Early preproduction
Speech emergence
Intermediate fluency
Advanced fluency
> Minimal comprehension
> Limited comprehension
> Good comprehension
> Excellent comprehension
> Near-native level of speaking
> Non-verbal: nods ‘yes’ and ‘no’, draws and points
> One- or two-word responses
> Simple sentence, grammatical and pronunciation errors
> Few grammatical errors
> Uses key words Present-tense verb usage
> Misunderstands jokes/idioms
Timeframe
0–6 months
6 months–1 year
1–3 years
3–5 years
5–7 years
Teacher prompts
> Show me . . .
> Yes/no questions
> Why . . .?
> Circle the . . .
> Either/or questions
> How . . .?
> What would happen if . . .?
> Decide whether . . .
> Where is . . .
> Lists and labels
> Explain . . .
> Retell . . .
> Who has . . .
> One- or two-word answers
> Why do you think . . .?
Source: Hill & Miller (2013). Copyright ª Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Reprinted with permission.
SUPPORTING ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS
543
Scenario
A MATTER OF INTERPRETATION Dhakir (5 years) has lived in Australia for three years. He speaks fluent Arabic and conversational English. Dhakir came home from his first day of Kindergarten and told his mother that his teacher thinks he is red. Dhakir explained that when the Kindergarten students were lining up to go back into class after lunch, his teacher pointed to him and said, ‘Dhakir, you are Kinder Red – you need to
be in this line with the red children.’ ‘I am not red! I am brown!’ WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Although Dhakir speaks conversational English, his interpretation of his teacher’s comments shows us that he is not yet understanding the idioms of the language.
19.3 The Australian Curriculum: English – English as an additional language or dialect
Link to the Australian Curriculum
English as an Additional Language or Dialect (EAL/D) focuses on language learning and the explicit teaching of the structure, linguistic features and sociolinguistic and sociocultural aspects of Standard Australian English (SAE). Through close study of language and meaning, students of EAL/D explore how learning in and through English language and literature influences their own and others’ personal, social and cultural identities and thought processes. They develop skills that enable them to use different registers of spoken and written SAE so they can communicate effectively in a range of contexts and for a variety of purposes in order to become effective cross-cultural users of language and dialect. The key language skills included in the EAL/D curriculum include: • phonological, non-verbal language features • orthographic, lexical, grammatical, semantic, sociolinguistic competence • sociocultural understanding. A description of these key language skills can be accessed from the ACARA website: https:// www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/senior-secondary-curriculum/english/english-as-anadditional-language-or-dialect/language-table.
General Capabilities General Capabilities covered in EAL/D include literacy, numeracy, information and communication technology (ICT) capability, critical and creative thinking, personal and social capability, ethical understanding and intercultural understanding. Figure 19.3 provides a brief description of these General Capabilities. To read a full description of the General Capabilities covered in EAL/D, go to the ACARA website: https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/senior-secondary-curriculum/english/ english-as-an-additional-language-or-dialect/representation-of-general-capabilities.
Figure 19.3 General Capabilities and EAL/D
General capability
Explanation
Literacy
Literacy skills are developed in conjunction with language learning through a focus on comprehending and creating written, spoken, visual and digital texts or a combination of these, and using and modifying language for different purposes in a range of contexts.
Numeracy
Numeracy skills are developed by practising and applying the skills of interpreting and analysing, comparing, making connections, posing and proving arguments, making inferences and problem-solving as students create and respond to a range of texts.
Information and communication technology (ICT) capability
Students use digital tools to create and respond to texts. This allows them to practise and consolidate their English-language skills.
Critical and creative thinking
Students analyse and evaluate issues and ideas presented in texts.
Personal and social capability
Helps students to understand and more effectively manage themselves and to understand different personal and social experiences, perspectives and challenges.
Ethical understanding
Students engage with ethical dilemmas presented in texts, considering reasons for actions and the implications of decisions. They examine and question values, attitudes, perspectives and assumptions in texts, comparing these with their own.
Intercultural understanding
Encourages students to make connections between their own experiences and the experiences of others. They study how cultural concepts, beliefs, practices and perspectives are represented in a range of textual forms and for a variety of purposes and audiences. Source: ACARA (2012).
Learning Progressions The EAL/D Learning Progressions include broad descriptions of the characteristics of learner groups in each of four phases of English language learning. EAL/D students of any age may be in any of the language learning phases. These phases are described in Figure 19.4. Figure 19.4 Learning Progressions: EAL/D phases
Learner group
Characteristic
Beginning English
Students with some print literacy in their first language. Incudes the sub-category Limited literacy background, to describe the reading/viewing and writing behaviours typical of students with little or no experience of literacy in any language
Emerging English
Students who have a growing degree of print literacy and oral language competency with English
Developing English
Students who are further developing their knowledge of print literacy and oral language competency with English
Consolidating English
Students who have a sound knowledge of spoken and written English, including a growing competency with academic language Source: ACARA (2012: 8–9).
SUPPORTING ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS
545
The Learning Progressions are used as a tool to describe the English language proficiency of EAL/D students in the areas of listening, speaking, reading/viewing and writing. ACARA emphasises that it may take students a long time (years) to work through each phase of the progressions. It also emphasises that each student will move through these progressions at their own unique pace. The English as an Additional Language or Dialect Teacher Resource Overview and EAL/D Learning Progression (August 2012) can be downloaded from the ACARA website: http://docs.acara.edu.au/resources/English_as_an_Additional_Language_or_Dialect_ Teacher_Resource_05_06_12.pdf.
Bridging units There are four progressive bridging units in the EAL/D curriculum (Foundation to Year 10), which focus on developing communication skills in a range of contexts across the language modes of SAE. An overview of these units is presented in Figure 19.5. Figure 19.5 EAL/D Bridging units
Bridging unit
Student level
Focus
1
Emerging phase
Development of oral communication skills
2
Late emerging phase
Consolidating communication skills in a range of contexts across the language modes of SAE
3
Developing phase
Responding to and creating extended texts in familiar contexts in SAE
4
Late developing phase
Responding to and creating connected extended texts in personal, social, community and workplace contexts in SAE Source: ACARA (2012).
To read a detailed description of these units go to: the ACARA website: https:// www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/senior-secondary-curriculum/english/english-as-anadditional-language-or-dialect/structure-of-english-as-an-additional-language-or-dialect.
19.4 EAL/D programs in schools The development of English at school requires the acquisition of three major dimensions of language competence, including listening, speaking, reading and writing. Specifically, it requires learners to develop: • pragmatic competence – the ability to use language appropriately and acceptably according to purposes, audiences and situations. It focuses on the relationship between the language users and their communicative context. It draws on knowledge and skills in relation to cultural and linguistic awareness and the functions of language use. • organisational competence – the ability to control correctly and coherently the formal structures of language. It focuses on the relationship between language and its expressed meanings. It draws on grammatical knowledge and skills, vocabulary, the graphophonic systems of language and the construction of complete spoken or written texts (Curriculum Corporation 2006). Traditionally, school-based EAL/D programs focus on students learning English in the context of the curriculum. This allows students to progress both their English and their
curriculum knowledge and skills by introducing content-relevant vocabulary as well as focusing on grammatical structures and other features of the English language. EAL/D students are also learning English in a cultural context – within the school, the community and in the home. The cultural aspects of language are a critical component of successful EAL/D programs. Depending on the phase of English-language skills, the following teaching strategies may be used: • Intensive one-to-one or small group sessions. Students are withdrawn from classrooms for a period of time for intensive English lessons. These sessions may include students of different ages. Small groups may focus on oral language, reading and/or specific subject areas (secondary level). • Intensive support in the classroom. An EAL/D specialist supports the teacher, ESW and student in the classroom. The primary goal is to provide intensive language support alongside regular curriculum delivery. This strategy may include a bilingual teacher/ESW who works with the student in both English and the student’s home language. • Resource support. A specialist EAL/D teacher/ESW provides a range of specialist resources for the classroom teacher to support EAL/D students. These resources may include commercially available learning materials, made resources, online EAL/D resources and hand-held consoles with EAL/D applications. Most EAL/D students will benefit from a mixture of intensive and in-class support. Obviously, the teaching strategies will depend on the needs of the students and the resources available to the school. Figure 19.6 provides links to EAL/D information and resources in government schools. Figure 19.6 Links to EAL/D programs in government schools in Australia ACT
http://www.det.act.gov.au/teaching_and_learning/english-as-an-additional-language-or-dialect
NSW
http://www.schools.nsw.edu.au/learning/yrk12focusareas/ealdeducation/index.php
NT
http://www.education.nt.gov.au/teachers-educators/students-learning/tml-program
QLD
http://education.qld.gov.au/schools/grants/state/targeted/esl.html
SA
http://www.decd.sa.gov.au/literacy/pages/esl/about/?reFlag=1
Tas
http://www.education.tas.gov.au/parents_carers/schools-colleges/Programs-Initiatives/Pages/English-as-anAdditional-Language-(EAL)-Program-.aspx
Vic
http://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/diversity/eal/Pages/default.aspx
WA
http://www.det.wa.edu.au/curriculumsupport/eald/detcms/portal/
New Arrivals Program Schools are able to apply for government funding under the New Arrivals Program (NAP). The NAP is aimed at providing intensive English language classes for students who are newly arrived and have a non-English speaking background. The goal is to prepare them so they can participate successfully in mainstream courses. The funding can be used by the school as they see appropriate and might include support such as a specialist EAL/D teacher, interpreters, EAL/D teaching materials and training for teachers.
Preparing for EAL/D students Working with EAL/D students requires a whole-school approach to supporting bilingualism by modelling attitudes of respect and acceptance of all languages. Before a student arrives at the SUPPORTING ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS
547
school, it can be very helpful to access information on the student’s culture, including the culture’s child-rearing practices and a list of its key words. Elgas and colleagues (2002: 18) believe that children and young people who are learning English as an additional language should be provided with: • open-ended concrete learning experiences that allow students to easily engage in play without needing to speak English (e.g. play dough, art, craft, matching and sorting games) • long periods of uninterrupted play time with frequent opportunities to interact with other students and adults • a curriculum that provides opportunities for students to reuse and practise learned words and phrases in a range of different contexts (e.g. following up a story with a related dramatic play scenario) • an organised room where materials are visible, inviting and accessible • a predictable routine that offers opportunities to label actions and objects and to hear and use key phrases associated with routines (songs or non-verbal gestures will give students visual and auditory clues so they can follow routines with the class) • an atmosphere of ‘welcome’ where all students and adults are treated with respect • experiences that match the student’s cognitive skills – experiences must remain challenging and satisfying for the student • experiences in which the teacher can observe, listen to and respond to the student’s verbal and non-verbal communication by labelling, gesturing, paraphrasing and explaining using single words, short phrases and full sentences, and opportunities to engage in singing and rhyme that involve repetition of words and phrases • opportunities to engage in teacher-led small-group experiences to promote communication. Imagine what it feels like to enter a room where everything is unfamiliar and the people do not speak your language. The room contains furniture and furnishings that reflect a culture very different from your own. As you gaze around, you cannot see anything that is familiar to you. Even the smells are different. For most of us, that would be a very daunting experience. For children, it can also be a very frightening one. To overcome this, schools can create an environment that reflects a multicultural perspective by including images and objects from a variety of different cultures. This can help students to feel more comfortable and welcome. Feeling accepted, valued and part of the school is essential for all students. A whole-school approach promotes acceptance, exploration, celebration and respect for differences.
CASE STUDY | Lavindra Part 1 Lavindra (7 years) is from Sri Lanka and speaks Tamil. Her family fled their home eight years ago to avoid internal conflict between warring factions. Lavindra was born in a refugee camp and has never attended school. She has lived with her mother, father, maternal grandmother, aunt and four siblings in a variety of camps, all characterised by extreme poverty, violence and corruption. Until her arrival in Australia, Lavindra had never lived in a house, had never had more than one set of clothes or shoes and had no toys or books. The family practises the Hindu religion. Lavindra’s father was an experienced, well-respected tailor before leaving his country. Lavindra is watching the other students at the collage table. The ESW approaches and says, ‘Lavindra, would you like to do a collage?’ As she talks, she points and gestures at the collage table. Lavindra smiles and nods as the ESW motions for her to sit down at the table. The ESW stays nearby, saying to the other students, ‘Lavindra is going to join you and do a collage’.
Lavindra continues to watch the other students. Lilly says, ‘Lavindra, here’s a brush for you. You have to put the paste on first and then you stick things on. Okay?’ Lavindra smiles and begins to create her collage. Lilly periodically smiles and encourages her. ‘Good work, Lavindra!’ When she is finished, Lilly shows Lavindra where to put her collage to dry. Later the ESW says to Lilly, ‘Lilly, I saw you helping Lavindra at the collage table. Thank you for helping her. It was very kind of you to be her friend.’ Lilly smiles broadly and skips away saying, ‘Lavindra is my friend.’
What does this tell us? The ESW assumes Lavindra can participate with the group without direct support and encourages her to do so. By scaffolding (using gestures and phrases), the ESW adjusts her communication to facilitate Lavindra’s understanding and help her participate. • Lavindra learns that this is a place where she can participate alongside her peers. The environment is safe and supportive. • The ESW positively reinforces Lilly for supporting Lavindra and encourages this developing friendship. Lavindra is a beginning English language learner. She is now living in a culture that is totally foreign. The language is unfamiliar and there are different sounds, sights and smells. Lavindra has lived her life in a tent or in makeshift accommodation with no running water or electricity. She has never been away from her family – has never been to a school, a park, a supermarket; she has never lived in a house, had toys or books or even slept in her own bed. Culture shock will be an inevitable part of Lavindra’s experience. She will require high levels of emotional and social support. • •
Getting to know the EAL/D student The starting point for assessing EAL/D students is getting to know the student, the family and the culture. This includes the student’s background information (i.e. the student’s journey; how the student came to be in Australia – immigration, refugee, illegal immigrant, temporary visa; the experiences of the student and the family – many refugees and illegal immigrants have experienced great hardship, deprivation, religious persecution, terrorism and extreme illtreatment). Knowing the student’s story can assist teachers and ESWs to better understand and meet the needs of each student. Background information on the student will usually include: • date of birth, country of birth, country/countries of residence prior to arrival in Australia; this may include refugee camps and detention centres • date of arrival in Australia and visa status • family situation – parents/guardians/siblings. Is the family together or separated? • language/s spoken at home (mother and father). Where families have lived in more than one country before arriving in Australia, children may have acquired a second or third language. • whether anyone speaks/reads/writes English in the home • key cultural and religious practices/beliefs. This information will assist in understanding and meeting the cultural/religious needs of the student. • education history – what, if any, formal education has the student experienced? • initial language assessment (listening, speaking, reading, writing). Gathering information about the student allows teachers and ESWs to gain a greater understanding of the student and their family. It will also assist in building respectful and trusting relationships with the student and their family.
SUPPORTING ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS
549
Assessing EAL/D students
Link to the Australian Curriculum
The ESL Scales are a formal assessment tool that describes the English-language development of ESL learners. The ESL Scales have been developed based on four assumptions: 1 that the acquisition of English is a precondition for successful schooling in Australia for students whose first language is not English 2 that the English language starting point for ESL learners is different from that of students from English-speaking backgrounds 3 that ESL learners’ points of entry to Australian schools differ from those of Australian-born students from English-speaking backgrounds: – ESL learners enter school at any year of schooling and not only at the prep/Kindergarten/ reception level. – ESL learners’ entrance to school is typically their starting point in English. Valid judgements about the language learning of ESL students require reporting on students that reflects degrees of achievement in lower levels of English language proficiency at the higher levels of schooling. 4 that ESL students’ patterns of development in listening, speaking, reading and writing differ significantly from those of students from English-speaking backgrounds. There are three strands in the ESL Scales: • Oral Interaction (includes eight levels) • Reading and Responding (includes seven levels) • Writing (includes seven levels). Each strand also includes a beginning level for students who are not yet literate in any language to the level expected at that age.
English as an Additional Language/Dialect (EAL/D) Progress Map The English as an Additional Language/Dialect (EAL/D) Progress Map is a Western Australian planning, monitoring and assessment tool for all students where English is an additional language/dialect. The EAL/D Progress Map is used to describe student progress across listening, speaking, reading and viewing and writing modes in four phases of schooling - early childhood, middle childhood, early adolescence and late adolescence. Students are classified as beginning (Levels 1 & 2), emerging Levels 3 & 4), developing (Levels 5 & 6) or consolidating (Levels 7 & 8) English language learners. Assessment at each level includes: 1 Intercultural understandings 2 Linguistic features and structures – Listening – vocabulary, clarification, questioning, sound knowledge – Speaking – vocabulary, pronunciation, additional language acquisition skills, – Reading/viewing – vocabulary, codes and conventions, comprehension, fluency – Writing – vocabulary, spelling, punctuation, editing. The EAL/D Progress Maps can be found at Department of Education, WA: http://det.wa. edu.au/curriculumsupport/eald/detcms/navigation/assessment-and-reporting/eal-d-progressmap/#toc2. This site also includes EAL/D teaching and learning resources, including resources for working with ATSI students for whom Australian Standard English is a second language/ dialect.
Figure 19.7 EAL/D sample checklist Simple sentence checklist Follows simple instructions of directions where the context is obvious (directions supported with gesture). Recognises familiar isolated words in spoken texts. Uses a few words connected with immediate interests or needs (lunch, computer, library, email). Demonstrates an understanding of explanations using non-verbal means to communicate. Asks for clarification or interpretation from first language speakers, e.g. seeks explanation of classroom instructions or routines. Responds to questions about an explanation text with teacher support. Identifies single items of information from short explanation texts, e.g. objects, parts. Understands basic sequential markers in sequential explanations, e.g. first, then, next. Source: ª State of New South Wales (Department of Education), 2019. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
In-class assessment Informal classroom assessment can provide a rich source of information when assessing EAL/D students. For example, information can be gathered about how the student socialises and relates to other students in the class and understands classroom routines, and the general level of participation of the student across all classroom activities. Informal classroom assessment is also less intrusive and less threatening for EAL/D students. Examples of classroom assessment strategies are outlined below. • Observations should occur in a variety of contexts – for example, whole-class activities, group or project work and working collaboratively with another student – and across all curriculum areas. This allows the observer to gain information about the student’s receptive and expressive language skills. Observations can provide evidence of: – receptive language proficiency – for example, the student’s ability to listen to, interpret and follow teacher directions and instructions – how the student engages with resources and equipment – how the student interacts with peers – expressive language proficiency – for example, asking and answering questions, labelling. • Informal questioning as students are engaged in various tasks can be used to assess understanding of language, comprehension, concepts, relationships and application of knowledge and ability to sort, order, classify and problem-solve. • To assess reading and comprehension skills, students can be provided with cloze texts including sentences where a word is left blank and the student fills in the missing word (see Chapter 15). • Written work samples can be used to assess word skills, understanding vocabulary, grammar, spelling and sentence structure. • Oral reading assessment may include single words, phrases, sentences or short passages, depending on the English proficiency of the student. • Dictation can be used to assess comprehension, spelling and auditory processing skills.
SUPPORTING ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS
551
Strip stories are a strategy that assesses comprehension. The student is required to read a number of sentences, each of which is written on a single cardboard strip, and place the sentences in a logical sequence. • When using K-W-L charts, the teacher works collaboratively with the student to identify existing skills, knowledge and understanding at the beginning of a unit of study and again at the completion of a unit of study. (K-W-L stands for I know/what I want to know/what I’ve learned.) •
CASE STUDY | Lavindra Part 2 Lavindra is learning English for the first time. She has had no experience of formal education and limited exposure to ageappropriate print literacy in her home language. She has observed her parents reading in Tamil. Figure 19.8 ESL Assessment Scales results (sample) ORAL INTERACTIONS LISTENING Pointer: Follows simple directions Looks for visual clues – in small groups she will watch and follow others Responds to facial expressions and gestures Shows listening behaviours by looking intently at speaker Signals comprehension even when not understanding spoken English (nods and smiles) SPEAKING Mimics one or two words but without demonstrating awareness of meaning Uses gestures, home language and facial expressions Gains attention of teacher or peers, e.g. pointing, using first language READING Shows an awareness of the difference between pictures and words Shows interest in looking at books, focusing mostly on illustrations Demonstrates reading-like behaviours, e.g. points to words and illustrations WRITING Demonstrates writing-like behaviours (writes or draws when others write or draw) Shows awareness that English writing consists of words formed by letters Source: NSW Department of Education and Training (2005: 4, 5, 10, 16, 51, 52, 53)
What does this tell us? The EAL/D Assessment confirmed Lavindra as a beginning English learner.
EQ Bandscales for EAL/D learners The EAL/D Assessment The EQ Bandscales for EAL/D learners are used in some jurisdictions as a tool to assess an EAL/D student’s English language proficiency and determine the resources needed to support the student. The Bandscales describe six levels of language development in each of the four macro skills of listening, speaking, reading/viewing and writing. A copy of the EQ Bandscales can be found at: https://education.qld.gov.au/student/Documents/bandscales-eald-learners.pdf#search=bandscales.
SUPPORTING ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS
553
Descriptions
Speaking
takes an active and productive part in all social and academic learning activities (within the range of ability expected at their phase of schooling). sustains participation in interactions in SAE in an expanding range of contexts expected at their phase of schooling. interacts socially with familiar SAEspeaking adults and peers in most informal contexts (e.g. discussing events with the teacher and peers in the school vehicle/at the shop; on an excursion with teachers/adults).
participates in faceto-face interactions in SAE on familiar classroom or personal interest topics but with frequent breakdowns in fluency and meaning due to limited SAE resources.
uses routine and rehearsed social SAE (e.g. everyday polite requests such as ’Can I get a drink, please?’)
begins to use parts of routine and formulaic social language (e.g. says ’good morning’).
labels some objects and uses occasional words related to classroom needs (e.g. pencil; Miss)
Source: Department of Education, Queensland (2019: 5)
The student:
The student:
The student:
The student:
Level 6 student is becoming a competent user of SAE in most social contexts. Use of SAE in learning contexts is sound but gaps need filling. Level 4 student is extending the range of language beyond own immediate social environment and experimenting with learning through SAE.
Level 4 student is extending the range of language beyond own immediate social environment and experimenting with learning through SAE.
Level 3 student is developing a range of social and classroom language and is moving into learning through SAE.
The student:
Level 2 student is beginning to experiment with own short SAE utterances.
Becoming competent in SAE
Consolidating use of SAE
Developing use of SAE
Beginning to participate in SAE
The student:
Pre-Level 2 student is beginning to understand and use some familiar SAE words and phrases.
Beginning to use familiar SAE
The student:
Level 1 student uses occasional single SAE words
New to Standard Australian English (SAE)
Figure 19.9 Sample of EQ Bandscales
Practical strategies to support EAL/D learners The role of the ESW in relation to EAL/D students will typically be one of support to students and the preparation of learning resources. Figure 19.10 describes the main role and responsibilities of the classroom teacher and the role of the ESW when working with EAL/D students. Figure 19.10 Supporting EAL/D students
GO
further
Access examples of the wide range of teaching support resources that can be used to support EAL/D students to develop English Language skills in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
The role and responsibilities of the teacher
The role of the ESW
• Adapts learning experiences/resources to meet EAL/D needs • Supports EAL/D students as English-language learners • Adapts assessment strategies to meet EAL/D needs • Keeps assessment records of learning that occurs in home language as well as in English • Works collaboratively with parents • Provides opportunities for students to explore their own culture • Provides activities that reflect a multicultural perspective • Promotes anti-bias in the classroom
• Assists in adapting learning resources to meet EAL/D needs • Engages in team-teaching by translating tasks to EAL/D students by working alongside teacher • Supports EAL/D students in their learning by explaining concepts or directions in the learners’ first languages (if possible) • Supports the participation of EAL/D students in the classroom • Assists teachers to communicate with parents and other family members if possible • Acts as a language role model – uses accurate pronunciation and grammar
As well as specific teacher-directed tasks, EAL/D students will benefit from role models. They will look to the ESW, teacher or classmate models for an example of what to do, how to do it (including the sequence of a task) and what materials or resources to use. ESWs can support EAL/D students in a variety of ways – for example: • speaking slower, not louder – students need to process the words separately and form an understanding; for EAL/D students, this requires some extra time • checking for understanding by asking questions • keeping instructions short, preferably starting with action verbs: ‘Draw …’; ‘Pick up …’ Long instructions overwhelm EAL/D students. • making sure to pause frequently when giving instructions. This provides time for students to think about the instructions and ask questions. • introducing new concepts and vocabulary in a meaningful context – for example, using pictures of common objects to name and classify • writing key vocabulary on a word wall • setting up learning centres that focus on a theme or concept • engaging in one-to-one conversation, questioning • engaging in small-group role-plays • developing a range of visual prompts to guide student learning – for example, creating a flow chart to show steps in making a craft item or steps in the daily routine/timetable • using concrete materials to support concept development – for example, plastic numbers, counters, number cards (numerals and words) to aid in learning names of numerals, items of clothing to label, plastic fruit and vegetables, tools, household items, different types of balls/bats • using music and movement to introduce new words (e.g. ‘Heads and shoulders, knees and toes’)
reading to the student; listening to the student read and asking questions – for example, ‘What happens when …?’; ‘What was the dog’s name?’ • acting as a scribe to model writing – for example, Gharam (8 years) dictates, ‘Me have brother. He baby.’ The ESW writes and reads aloud, ‘I have a baby brother.’ •
CASE STUDY | Lavindra Part 3 The classroom teacher, specialist EAL/D teacher and ESW have identified a range of teaching strategies that can be used with Lavindra.
Teaching strategies for Lavindra: • • • • • • • • •
Role-playing part of a story using repetitious dialogue from the text – for example, a picture book. Naming and displaying real objects and asking Lavindra to choose a similar thing from a set of picture cards: ‘This is a plate. Show me another plate.’ Using a repetitive chorus with visual cues or prompts to model target language: ‘My name is Miss Jenkins, hello, hello, hello, My name is Lavindra, hello, hello, hello.’ Naming colour cards and matching objects to colour cards – crayons, counters, teddies. Sitting opposite Lavindra and using the whole hand to point to your own eyes, nose, mouth, etc. Indicate that Lavindra should mirror and say words. Using common objects for Feely Box activities. Lavindra pulls object from the bag, the ESW labels the object, then Lavindra repeats, ‘This is a dog.’ ‘This is a spoon.’ ‘This is a pen.’ Listening to rhymes and imitating gestures – for example. ‘Everybody do this, do this, do this. Everybody do this just like me.’ Using sequencing pictures and placing in the correct order. Focusing on language, identifying who, what, where, when during shared reading of a picture book – for example, Who Sank the Boat? by Pamela Allen.
19.5 Supporting language and communication As students acquire English-language skills such as grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation, they are also acquiring the skills to use English in a variety of contexts and for a range of purposes, both formal and informal. Informal language includes interpersonal communication and conversational English that would be used in social interactions and informal class discussion (e.g. sharing and exchanging ideas, expressing personal opinions, offering ideas or suggestions). Formal language consists of academic vocabulary, procedural language typically found in textbooks, manuals and instructional documents, or subject-specific language (scientific or mathematical terminology). Formal language may be required for the presentation of oral reports, recounting specific facts, debating or explaining formal processes. EAL/D students must develop oral and written language skills – that is, listening, speaking, reading and writing. You may recall Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development (1978), which is based on the principle of the zone of proximal development (ZPD). Using the ZPD concept allows adults to scaffold language and encourages communication development by building on
SUPPORTING ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS
555
the student’s existing skills, knowledge and experiences. In school settings, EAL/D students are supported to learn English language skills using a range of supportive strategies. These include: • controlled support – teacher-led activities that scaffold student learning in targeted language areas • guided support – students are provided with a wide range of activities that allow them to practise their developing language skills with the support of the teacher • independent support – students are provided with opportunities to practise their developing language skills with minimum support from the teacher.
Communication strategies When communicating with EAL/D students, it is important to adapt your communication style to meet the students’ needs and to provide students with a range of communication experiences, both formal and informal. While each student will be unique in relation to their skills and needs, some common communication strategies are outlined in Figure 19.11. Figure 19.11 Communication strategies
Strategy
Implementation and results
Allow for wait time
EAL/D students will typically translate spoken English into their own language before responding. Allow time for this to occur by pausing at the end of each sentence.
Use short sentences
Repeat the sentence if the student appears not to understand what is being said. Repeating a short sentence rather than immediately rephrasing a sentence gives the student the opportunity to hear the sentence more than once. Constant rephrasing introduces new words, which may be very confusing for the student.
Avoid the use of jargon and Australian slang
EAL/D students will have difficulty finding an equivalent meaning for jargon and slang words or colloquial sayings. For example, new English learners may find words such as fridge, footy and hassle hard to understand.
Explain key words in context
This is particularly important in subject areas where words have a specific meaning.
Encourage practice
Provide opportunities for EAL/D students to use new vocabulary through ongoing practice.
Check for comprehension
Before continuing, stop and check the student’s understanding. For example, observe what the student is doing and observe their language and facial expression. (A blank or puzzled look would indicate a lack of understanding.)
Use written and spoken language simultaneously
Write or highlight key words.
Use visual aids
Help the student make associations between spoken and written words.
Communicate with the student in their first language (where possible)
Do this to check progress and understanding.
Give specific and timely feedback
Address errors in grammar and pronunciation by rephrasing rather than correcting. For example, the student may say, ‘To shop I went.’ Rephrase by saying, ‘I went to the shop.’
Engage EAL/D students in smallgroup learning experiences
This allows them to practise their skills and promotes peer interaction.
Cultural variations of non-verbal communication Non-verbal communication of various types is practised in all cultures. People of all ages pay a great deal of attention to facial expressions, voice tone and body posture. Often, non-verbal communication can be more powerful than spoken words. Most people, when trying to communicate with someone who does not share the same language as them, rely on a combination of words, gestures and other ‘visual’ means of communication. This can be effective to a point but is not a reliable way to communicate. Problems arise when cultures have different practices relating to eye contact, personal space, physical touch and gestures. In many cultures, factors such as gender, age and position in society also dictate conventions in relation to acceptable communication practices. Educators cannot be expected to know the nuances related to the rules of communication for every culture; however, it is important to be aware that nonverbal communication can be very powerful and some cultures have strong taboos about gestures and touching. Making an effort to obtain information about culturally sensitive rules of communication can help to avoid misunderstandings and offending others. Gestures are used in all languages but are not universal in their meaning. What may be an inoffensive gesture in the Australian context may be offensive in another culture. For example the ‘thumbs up’ sign generally means ‘okay’ in Australia, but it is a rude and offensive gesture in Islamic and Asian countries. For this reason, it is essential when working with students and families from non-English speaking backgrounds that you are familiar with gestures that may cause offence. This also extends to touching – as a general rule, you should refrain from touching a student. This is a simple protective behaviour technique but also ensures that you do not breach specific cultural boundaries. For example, in some Asian cultures touching a child’s head is forbidden for religious reasons. To learn more about culture and gestures go to: http:// www.buzzle.com/articles/hand-gestures-in-different-cultures.html.
19.6 EAL/D and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students Indigenous people contribute to Australia’s cultural diversity and provide a rich history of beliefs, values and cultural practices that are yet to be fully recognised and embraced by other Australians. Many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people still face substantial barriers that are in part a result of other Australians’ failure to recognise and value the unique nature of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander culture and differences in learning style. Consider the following statement (cited in Fleer & Williams-Kennedy 2001: 69) by an Aboriginal parent when talking about formal education: ‘When the children go to school, they take their families with them.’ This is quite a powerful statement which reflects beliefs about learning as a shared responsibility that goes well beyond that which is taught in schools. Even though the child is physically in a different place, the spirit of the family – the values, beliefs and ways of learning – go with the child. While it is important not to generalise, and to consider the strengths and abilities of each student (Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander or children of other backgrounds) as a unique individual, there remain significant gaps in educational opportunities and outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students.
SUPPORTING ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS
GO
further
Access Case Study: Lavindra Part 4, to see how learning about Sri Lankan culture and customs helped Trish, the ESW, to support Lavindra in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
557
The National Indigenous Reform Agreement 2018 (NIRA), first developed in 2008, was created to close the gap in Indigenous disadvantage across six years. The targets set for the NIRA include: 1 Close the gap in life expectancy within a generation (by 2031). 2 Halve the gap in mortality rates for Indigenous children under 5 within a decade (by 2018). 3 Ensure 95 per cent of all Indigenous four-year-olds are enrolled in early childhood education by 2025. 4 Halve the gap for Indigenous students in reading, writing and numeracy within a decade (by 2018). 5 Halve the gap for Indigenous people aged 20–24 years in Year 12 attainment or equivalent attainment rates by 2020. 6 Halve the gap in employment outcomes between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians within a decade (by 2018). 7 Close the gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous school attendance within five years (by the end of 2018) (AIHW 2018). NAPLAN figures are used to monitor the progress of Reform Number 4 – reading, writing and numeracy. The National Agreement Performance Information 2016–17 Report shows that the percentage of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students at or above the national minimum standard in reading, writing and numeracy for Years 3, 5, 7 and 9 is 75.5 per cent compared with 94.75 per cent of other Australian students. This outcome shows that, to date, the reforms have not closed the gap in terms of performance outcomes (Productivity Commission 2017: 174–7).
ABORIGINAL AND TORRES STRAIT ISLANDER CHILDREN AND HEALTH AND WELLBEING Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children still face major issues in relation to their health and wellbeing. These issues significantly influence school outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students. The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2012) presents the following snapshot of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children: • The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children who were developmentally vulnerable on one or more domains was twice that of other Australian children (48 per cent compared with 22 per cent). • The greatest difference between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children and other Australian children was on the language and cognitive skills domain – Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children were more than three times as likely to be vulnerable on this domain (29 per cent compared with 8 per cent). • There was greater variation in attendance rates for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students across school sector (64 per cent compared with 96 per cent), and state and territory (88 per cent compared with 95 per cent) than for other students.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Consider This
The teenage birth rate among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women was more than five times the rate for other Australian women. Live-born babies of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander mothers were twice as likely as those born to nonIndigenous mothers to be of low birthweight. Twenty-two per cent of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children were likely to be exposed to tobacco smoke in the home compared with 7 per cent of other Australian children. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children were 11 times more likely than other Australian children to be in the out-of-home care system. The injury death rate for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children was three times that for other Australian children. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children were eight times as likely as other Australian children to be the subject of substantiated abuse or neglect. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children aged 10–14 were almost 24 times as likely as other Australian children to be under juvenile justice supervision.
In recognition of the barriers facing Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students, the Commonwealth Government has developed the National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Education Strategy (2015). This strategy identifies seven priority areas to improve educational opportunities and outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students, one of which is a focus on Literacy and Numeracy. This priority area states: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children’s English literacy and numeracy proficiencies are developed by applying proven, culturally inclusive, responsive and personalised approaches to learning, such as English as an additional language or dialect (EAL/D) in order to improve their educational attainment, life choices and options.
Compared with other Australian students, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students still face extreme barriers and inequities, which decrease their life chances and reduce educational outcomes.
Aboriginal English Indigenous children living in rural and remote areas of Australia may speak Aboriginal English or Kriol at home. Aboriginal English dialects range from being close to Standard Australian English at one end of the spectrum to being Creole at the other end of the spectrum. Creoles are spoken by many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people across Australia. For example, Kriol is the name of a creole predominantly spoken in some areas of the Northern Territory and Western Australia. Yumplatok and Torres Strait Creole are names of a creole which is predominantly spoken by Torres Strait Islanders in the Torres Strait and on mainland Australia. Creoles are languages which develop from pidgin languages. Pidgin languages emerge as a way for people who do not have a common language to communicate. If over time a pidgin develops into a more complex, stable language and is acquired by children as a first language, it is then defined as a creole. Creoles adopt elements of the languages spoken in the surrounding environment. They are equal to any of the world’s languages — they are complex, rule-governed systems of communication and can express an infinite range of ideas.
Features of Aboriginal English While Aboriginal English is used throughout Australia, there are variations in dialect that are localised to specific geographic areas. Some common features of Aboriginal English described by Eades (2000: 4–5) include: • There is no /h/ sound – for example ‘ow are you?’ rather than ‘How are you?’; ‘e’ for ‘he’ or ‘she’. • Replace the /f/ sound with a /p/ or /b/ sound. • Replace the /v/ sound with /b/ or /p/. • Replace the /th/ sound with /t/ or /d/. • There is no use of verb for present/past – ‘e ome’ rather than ‘He’s gone home.’ • The word ‘deadly’ is used to mean ‘very good/excellent’. • Avoid asking direct questions; instead, wait politely until others are ready to share information. This is very different from SAE, in which direct questioning is seen as an important learning strategy. • The use of pauses or silence in a conversation is considered to be a sign of comfortable interaction in Aboriginal English. This contrasts with SAE, where silences in conversation are often considered to be awkward and something that should be avoided. Read more about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages in Chapter 6.
SUPPORTING ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS
559
Code-switching Code-switching occurs when an English language learner reverts to their home language when speaking. This occurs when the speaker doesn’t know the correct English word or phrase. It can also occur unintentionally as the person speaking is usually thinking in their home language and converting their thoughts into English. There will also be occasions when there is no word or phrase in English that is deemed to be equivalent to the home language word or phrase. In the Aboriginal context, code-switching occurs when a speaker uses SAE in formal settings such as school or work and then switches to Aboriginal English or their own language when at home or within the Aboriginal community. Doing this successfully requires the speaker to understand and apply subtle differences in the cultural meanings of words and expressions. Code-switching can also occur within a single sentence. This type of code-switching may occur because the student is unable to think of the appropriate word in English or in response to the cultural context in which the spoken language is being used. For example, an Aboriginal student may switch from SAE to Aboriginal English when another Aboriginal student joins in a discussion.
Implications for the classroom Eades (2000: 6) states: Although the differences between Aboriginal English and Standard English may not seem great in many areas, there are subtle differences, especially in the way that language is used, which are important to the identity of Aboriginal children. Respecting, valuing and understanding Aboriginal ways of using English is a significant step in respecting, valuing and understanding the identity and self-esteem of these children.
GO
further
Learn more about why Aboriginal Education Services are different, depending on the state or territory in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor. Find links online to research the services in your area.
Most Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children will have been exposed to variations of SAE (Australian and American English) through television, videos, movies and the internet. They are generally considered to have English as a second dialect – thus the ‘D’ in EAL/D. These children can communicate effectively in their home environment and in the broader Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander community, but may have difficulty using and understanding SAE, which is used in schools, in printed texts and in informal settings. Speakers of SAE may have difficulty understanding Aboriginal English. If asked a direct question, the student may feel a sense of shame because they have been ‘singled out’ from the group. Other cultural practices, such as long periods of silence when communicating, being silent before responding to a question and avoiding eye contact with elders, should be acknowledged and respected. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students are unlikely to ask for help if they are unsure of what to do or how to respond to a question, and may respond only briefly when asked to share information – not because they are unable to elaborate, but because brevity is valued. In contrast, most teachers are seeking full and detailed responses from students as a way of assessing student knowledge. English programs for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students must recognise that the student’s home language may be different from Standard Australian English. Programs should focus on a two-way exchange of information by supporting students to use their existing language skills and knowledge of language to learn SAE (see Figure 19.12). To be successful in mainstream schooling, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students will need support to develop the specific grammar and vocabulary knowledge, and language skills, used in school curricula. As students progress through the school system the ability to use academic, curriculum/subjectspecific language is essential for school success.
Figure 19.12 Students are read stories in Standard English
Source: [L] Alamy Stock Photo/Janine Wiedel Photolibrary; [R] Alamy Stock Photo/Bill Bachman.
Scenario
ABORIGINAL ENGLISH Freddy (11 years) lives with his mother, older brothers, younger sister and maternal grandmother in a small country town. Freddy’s mother works part time at the Aboriginal preschool. His older brothers are both working on rural properties. His older sister is in Year 12 and wants to be a primary school teacher. Freddy loves fishing. He has four fishing rods and has asked his sister to buy him a new one for his birthday. Freddy tries to go fishing every day. He has several favourite spots on the river and tells his mother that he has some secret spots. Despite his mother’s efforts, Freddy communicates using Aboriginal English. He says he hates school because it’s too hard and he can’t understand the teacher. He is not looking forward to transitioning to high school in a nearby town and tells his mother that high school is ‘only for the white fellas’. Freddy’s mother tells him that he has to get a good education so he can get a good job. ‘Na, gunna go fishin’ when I get big man. Fishin’s deadly!’
‘Well, you’re not a big man yet and I want you to go to that school.’ Freddy smiles and looks across to his grandmother. ‘Whadda you think, Nanna? Fishin’s deadly, ain’t it?’ Nanna responds to Freddy in her Aboriginal language and her comment makes Freddy laugh. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Although Freddy has good role models, he does not see formal education as a useful pathway. He speaks in mainly Aboriginal English and is also able to understand and speak the Aboriginal language of his mother and grandmother. " DISCUSSION
Freddy’s lack of skills in using and understanding SAE will become an increasing barrier as he moves into high school. Discuss what could be done to support students like Freddy to acquire the language skills he will need to succeed academically.
Summary Working with EAL/D students is both challenging and rewarding. For most students, the process of learning to fluently speak and understand English will take around two to three years. Students not only need to learn SAE, but must also understand the many idiosyncrasies of the Australian dialect and Australian slang. EAL/D students must not only learn to speak English, but also how to adapt to a culture that may be very different from their own and become used to a school system and ways of learning that might seem very foreign to them.
SUPPORTING ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS
561
ONLINE RESOURCES • •
•
•
•
ESL Teachers Board Resources, lesson plans, printables: http://www.eslteachersboard.com/ ESL Speaking Games, activities and teacher resources: https://eslspeaking.org/category/eslgames-kids/ Using sentence frames to get all students writing Assists EAL students to develop writing skills: https://hojosteachingadventures.com/ Busy Teacher FREE ESL Essentials: Classroom games and teaching resources: https:// busyteacher.org/how-to/ Edutopia English Language Learners; a wide range of information: https://www.edutopia.org/topic/ english-language-learners
•
•
•
•
Edutopia 5-Minute Film Festival: 7 Videos for ELL Classrooms: videos with instructional strategies https:// www.edutopia.org/blog/film-fest-ell-video-resources Edutopia 12 Fun Speaking Games for Language Learners: https://www.edutopia.org/discussion/12fun-speaking-games-language-learners English as a Second Language websites for children Links and information about websites for EAL/D students: https://www.esl.yourdictionary.com WIDA Can do descriptors (Grades K-12) the descriptors what language learners can do at each stage of their English language development (Note this website reflects US school grades): https://www.wida.wisc.edu
Discussion question 1
A strong cultural identity gives children and young people a sense of belonging and promotes selfconfidence. Discuss how ESWs can help to maintain
the cultural identity of students for whom English is a second language when working on the students’ English skills.
Self-check questions 1 How is Standard Australian English (SAE) defined in the Australian curriculum? List the key language skills included in the EAL/D curriculum 2 List the four key groups that make up EAL/D students in Australia. 3 Describe the skills of EAL/D students in each of the following stages: a Beginning English b Emerging English c Developing English d Consolidating English 4 Explain the importance of cultural identity and cultural safety for EAL/D students.
5 Explain why it is important to maintain the student’s home language. 6 Describe the five stages in the acquisition of a second language for EAL/D students. 7 Explain the meaning of pragmatic competence and organisational competence in relation to English language learning. 8 What are the ESL Scales? List the three strands of the ESL Scales. 9 Describe the difference between informal and formal language in relation to EAL/D learners. 10 Why is it necessary to include Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children living in rural and remote areas of Australia as EAL/D learners?
Activities 1
Go online to the list of Aboriginal Education Services for each state and territory. Explore the website available for your area and briefly describe the services that are provided.
2 Page 561 of this textbook provides examples of websites that you can access, which provide resources and information to support educators working with EAL/D students. Access one of these sites (or find your own) and prepare an outline of what the site offers to share with your learning colleagues.
Chapter 20 SUPPORTING BEHAVIOUR LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to demonstrate that, in relation to working in a school environment, you can: 20.1
understand the role of the family, culture and temperament in socially acceptable and unacceptable behaviour
20.2 have an awareness of how safe and supportive environments influence student behaviour 20.3 have knowledge of student behaviour policies and school discipline, and how they can be accessed 20.4 describe the range of behaviours on the behaviour continuum and have knowledge of the underlying causes of challenging behaviours 20.5 have knowledge of key behaviour management principles and strategies 20.6 have knowledge of common challenging behaviours and strategies to respond 20.7 use a range of strategies to observe, document and interpret student behaviours 20.8 explain how to establish and implement a behaviour intervention plan, including developing SMART goals to support student learning
GO
further
Go Further icons link to extra content for this chapter. Ask your instructor for the Go Further resource and deepen your understanding of the topic.
Introduction Learning to behave in a socially acceptable manner is a developmental skill that begins in early childhood and continues until adulthood. This requires the child to develop social and emotional competence through consistent, loving and respectful relationships – first within the family unit, through the transmission of cultural values, beliefs and child-rearing practices, and later with peers, teachers, coaches and important others. Relationships in the school environment will contribute significantly to the child’s social and emotional development, and are critical for shaping independent and emotionally healthy young adults.
SUPPORTING BEHAVIOUR
563
Kaweski (2014: 42) defines behaviour as ‘the actions or reactions of a person, in relation to his or her environment, experiences or needs. Behaviour can be conscious or unconscious, overt or covert, voluntary or involuntary.’ This definition places behaviour in a context that helps us to understand that children and young people may not always be in control of their behaviour, and reminds us that behaviour occurs not in isolation but rather in a social context where external influences shape behaviour. Kaweski argues that behaviour is not a problem that must be fixed; instead, it is a reaction to an unmet need. In turn, the ways children and young people experience reactions to and consequences of their behaviour will influence future behaviours.
20.1 The family, culture, temperament and expectations What is acceptable and responsible behaviour for students aged from five to 18 years? What does it look like? How should children and young people behave in a school setting? Responses to these questions will vary depending on your personal values, family practices, cultural values and beliefs, education and life experience. For example, you might include behaviours such as: • being kind, and considerate of others • demonstrating age/ability-appropriate prosocial skills, such as the ability to share, take turns or cooperate • respecting the rights of other people • respecting the property of others • using ‘good manners’ when speaking to adults • expressing feelings in a socially acceptable manner. Of course, behaviour expectations must vary based on the age of the student, the abilities of the student and each student’s social and cultural background. It is important to treat all students fairly and to apply the same general rules or expectations. Taking all of this into consideration, it becomes clear that managing student behaviour is quite a complex task if it is to be done with empathy and fairness. Ultimately, the goal of any behaviour-management practice should be to support the development of self-regulation, which is a critical factor in the development of socially acceptable behaviours. As you will recall, self-regulation is the ability to persist at new and/or challenging tasks; the ability to cope emotionally with life’s challenges, frustrations and disappointments; the ability to calm down after feeling angry or upset; and the ability to monitor and control one’s own behaviours. Students will not always make the right behaviour choices – this is a normal part of development. When students make ‘wrong’ choices, it can be used as a learning opportunity: ‘Why did you make that choice? What might be a better choice the next time you’re in a similar situation? What can you do to redeem yourself? How can you make it better for the other person?’ Encouraging this type of reflection must be done in an age-appropriate way. It can be helpful for some, although not all, children and young people simply because the ability to reflect on and talk about one’s own behaviour can be a very difficult and often confronting task. Gartrell (2004), based on the work of Dreikurs (1968), argues that regarding the unacceptable behaviours as ‘mistaken behaviours’ places behaviour in the context of incomplete development of a
skill. To support this idea, Gartrell argues that if a student makes a cognitive or language error, teachers will use their professional knowledge and appropriate learning strategies to guide the student towards developing an understanding or skill. For example, you would never consider ‘punishing’ a younger student who said, ‘I wented to the beach yesterday’. Gartrell suggests that a child who ‘behaves mistakenly’ to solve a problem or conflict should not be punished, but rather guided towards learning appropriate behaviour. Gartrell’s argument is a compelling one, as it reminds us that children and young people are learners when it comes to behaviour. The expectation that a child will behave in a socially appropriate manner increases as the child matures. However, this expectation should be accompanied by an understanding of social and emotional development and how the developing brain impacts on the ability to make the ‘right’ behaviour choices. We know, for example, that repeated exposure to stresses that are overwhelming may result in significant maladaptation or disorder. We also know that the frontal lobe, which in part controls behaviour and impulse control, develops slowly during the adolescent period and is not yet mature, which may explain why adolescents engage in risk-taking behaviours (see Chapter 7). As students approach adolescence and move into young adulthood, they must also cope with peer pressure, which has a powerful influence on behaviour. It is important for all students to acquire developmentally appropriate skills to manage their own behaviour. Consideration of factors such as the student’s level of development, personality, temperament, self-esteem, self-concept and self-efficacy will provide an insight into the factors that may contribute to the student’s behaviour. Children and young people with low self-esteem are more likely to engage in antisocial behaviours, while those with low self-efficacy are likely to be extremely negative about their own achievements. These students are more likely to be loners, lack resilience and find it difficult to make and maintain friendships. Resilience allows children and young people to cope with setbacks and attempt new challenges (see Chapter 8). Understanding the reason why a student behaves in certain ways should not in itself become an excuse for poor behaviour. Rather, it should serve to guide decision making in relation to the most appropriate strategies to respond to and manage the behaviour. Your job as an educator is to identify the reasons for the behaviour and, where possible, act to address underlying issues (see Figure 20.1). Being aware of the underlying causes of behaviour does not necessarily make managing behaviour any less challenging; however, understanding what motivates and triggers behaviours helps educators to develop realistic expectations of what can be achieved in the school environment to modify and/or change some behaviours. Where there are serious underlying emotional issues, behaviours are unlikely to change until these issues have been addressed. Unfortunately, this is often outside the role and expertise of teachers and school counsellors.
The family A child’s relationship with their family is the single most important influence on how they are socialised and how they learn to understand what constitutes socially acceptable and unacceptable behaviour. The relationships that children form with family members, and especially the mother–child relationship, are critical factors in emotional development. The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2012: 19) states that ‘the most significant contributor to children’s social and emotional wellbeing, however, was having parents who talked with their children about feelings and how to cope with them’.
SUPPORTING BEHAVIOUR
565
Figure 20.1 Why I behave this way
I’m unable to express my feelings verbally
I like feeling superior to others
A time when I helped someone else with their learning . . . I am impatient and intolerant of others
I don’t know how to ask for help.
I have a low self-esteem. My dad says I’m stupid and useless.
I don’t think anyone is listening to me – I feel I’m being ignored.
I don’t understand what you want me to do – you speak too quickly and use words that I don’t understand. A time when I persevered with my learning . . .
I can’t cope with loud noises, clutter, bright lights or movement.
I am hungry, scared, hurt, sad or angry.
I don’t know how to respond appropriately to the feelings of others
My home life is violent,chaotic and unstable.
I have a disability. I can’t always control my behaviour.
The only time I feel out of I feel incontrol controland I I like the is when I use don’t know how sensation physical or verbal to use my of hitting, words. kicking, punching aggression. and throwing things, it makes me feel I can’t powerful. The only way remember to get your what I’m supposed attentionis to do, so I just to be bad. do stupid things.
I find it difficult to relate positively to peers and adults
No one wants to bemy friend. I’m lonely.
Source: iStock.com/Shelly Perry.
Understanding how families relate to their children and manage children’s behaviour assists in better understanding the student and anticipating how the student may react to various situations. It is important to be mindful that there will be occasions when the behaviourmanagement strategies used by the school conflict with those of the family. This will usually occur where there are extreme differences – for example, overly permissive parents or harsh disciplinarians who, in extreme cases, may physically and/or emotionally abuse the child or young person.
The child’s home environment Many of the contributing factors that influence behaviour are beyond the educator’s ability to change, such as the child’s home environment. For example, a child’s or young person’s behaviour will be affected significantly if they are consistently exposed to chronic adverse experiences such as domestic violence, substance abuse, extreme stress due to parental absence,
illness (including mental illness) or poor parenting. Abuse, neglect and poverty are also significant contributing factors. Desautels (2018) tells us that these adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) create neurobiological changes, triggering a fear response in the brain. This fear response presents in children and young people as aggression, defiance, and oppositional behaviours. Desautels states that young people with ACEs have brains that are in a constant state of alarm, in which consequences don’t register properly. We must teach the behaviours we want to see, laying the groundwork for prevention systems and strategies.
Culture Expectations in relation to children’s behaviour and discipline practices vary between and within cultures. In Australia, teachers typically manage behaviour based on white, middle-class expectations of how children should behave. Understanding how a student’s culture influences their behaviour can assist teachers to better understand student behaviour and take this into account when managing behaviour. There are a number of cultural variations in behavioural expectations, including the following. • Eye contact. In some cultures – for example, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander, Chinese, Japanese and Iranian – children are taught that it is not polite to make direct eye contact with persons of authority as this is a sign of disrespect to those in authority. In contrast, most Western countries – Australian Anglo-Saxons included – believe that eye contact is a sign of politeness and interest in the speaker. • Directing questions to the teachers. In some Asian cultures, asking the teacher questions is considered to be impolite or disrespectful. • Language barriers. In homes where English is a second or third language, students may misunderstand or simply not understand behavioural expectations. When asked whether they understand what they are required to do, students will answer ‘yes’ to be polite or to ‘save face’, when in fact they have not understood the teacher. • Smiling. In some cultures, such as that of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders, children may smile when being reprimanded as a sign of respect for authority or to avoid offence. • Sense of time. In some cultures, such as those in India or Africa, time, deadlines and schedules are of limited importance. Students may appear lazy or uninterested because they arrive late or don’t hand in tasks in the timeframe set by the teacher. • Saving face and shaming the family. Many Asian countries – particularly China – place great emphasis on ‘face’ and humility. A common behaviour-management practice in junior classrooms is the use of a sticker system to reinforce each student’s positive behaviours on a classroom noticeboard. For some Asian-Australian families, this may be a source of public humiliation and loss of face, especially if the child has none or very few stickers.
Emotional literacy By school age, children have a beginning understanding of the cultural and social rules and expectations related to behaviour. Children develop emotional literacy – the ability to express and manage emotions and knowing how to respond appropriately to the emotions of others. This is a long-term developmental task that not every individual achieves in their lifetime.
SUPPORTING BEHAVIOUR
567
Examples of child-rearing attitudes and behaviours that shape children’s emotional literacy include: • love, respect, trust and support versus criticism and violence • guidance versus punishment • positive versus negative feedback • discipline versus natural and logical consequences • role modelling/demonstrating versus telling/directing/taking over • respectful two-way communication versus dominant one-way communication • empathy and respect versus bias • using mistakes/failures as opportunities for learning versus judgement. According to Denham and colleagues (2009, cited in AIHW 2012: 14, 15, 16, 17), factors that influence children’s behaviour must also be considered in the context of children’s social and emotional development; they include four key dimensions: 1 social and emotional competence – social competence includes cooperative and prosocial behaviours, helpfulness, the ability to initiate and maintain positive relationships and the ability to resolve conflict; emotional competence includes awareness of, and the ability to act appropriately on, one’s own emotions and the emotions of others, as well as the ability to regulate emotional experience within oneself (intrapersonal) and to be effective in interactions with others (interpersonal) 2 attachment – emotional attachments to significant others 3 self-perceived competence – how children see their own abilities (cognitive, physical, social) compared with other children 4 temperament – how children react, interact and behave (temperament is part of personality and is biologically based, but is also influenced by the child’s environment) (Kearns 2017: 304).
Temperament Sanson and Oberklaid (2013: 4) define temperament as ‘the differences between individuals, visible from birth, in how they typically behave and react to their social surroundings’. Temperament is regarded as a lifelong trait or characteristic of each individual, which is thought to be a product of both biology and life experience. It relates to how children behave – their style of behaviour – rather than what they do, and plays an important role in how children develop and how they adjust to various contexts (family, school and so on) throughout their lives (Prior et al. 2000: 3–4). The Australian Temperament Project (ATP) research identified several key dimensions of temperament, including: sociability – the tendency of a child to be shy or outgoing in new situations and when meeting new people; reactivity – how strongly a child reacts to experiences and to frustration; and persistence – the extent to which a child can stay on task and control their attention, despite distractions and difficulties … These dimensions also reflect the capacity of an individual to manage, or self-regulate, their own feelings, attention and behaviour. (Sanson & Oberklaid 2013: 4)
The ATP research (Prior et al. 2000) found that no single adverse temperamental characteristic predicted later behavioural difficulties; instead, a number of adverse temperamental characteristics combined with environmental factors contribute to difficult behaviours. On average, boys were found to be more aggressive than girls. Behaviours at age 3 to 4 years that were found to be indicators of later behavioural issues included both internalising behaviours (anxiety, depression and
social withdrawal) and externalising behaviours (aggression, oppositional behaviour, hyperactivity and attention problems). Prior and colleagues (2000: 27) point out that children who show ‘serious levels of aggressive and antisocial behaviour such as destructiveness, fighting, lying, and defiance when they are young’ are at risk of significant problems later in life. Intervening during the early years of these children’s lives is crucial (Kearns 2017: 304–5). Scenario
RESPONDING TO BEHAVIOURS OF CONCERN FAMILY VIOLENCE
Frank (12 years) lives with his mother and her partner. He has two siblings, a younger sister and a half-brother. The relationship between his mother and her partner is characterised by domestic violence and alcohol abuse. Frank used to have regular contact with his natural father until he moved interstate. Frank’s mother and partner use rough discipline – they yell and swear at Frank and tell him he is worthless and useless. He has been locked out and left to sleep on the verandah on several occasions. Frank has little regard for authority. He is rude and disrespectful to his teachers and is often involved in playground fights. CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
Raveen (14 years) and her family have lived in Australia for 10 years. Raveen’s father is extremely strict with his children and believes that girls must be quiet and submissive. Raveen has reacted to this by becoming more and more rebellious. Recently she was caught smoking in the girls’ toilets. She begs the teacher not to tell her parents, saying that she will be beaten by her father. LEARNING DISABILITY
Harry (15 years) has learning difficulties. It takes Harry a long time to learn new information and he struggles with reading and spelling. Harry covers up his learning difficulties by being the class clown. He will also do almost anything to win the favour of his peers. He constantly shows off and commits various offences such as ‘tagging’ the classroom wall or deliberately
breaking school equipment. When questioned about his behaviour, Harry is rude to his teachers, often swearing at them. OUT-OF-HOME CARE
Sara (14 years) lives with her aunt and uncle, and their four children. Sara was in and out of foster care for the first 10 years of her life due to neglect by her parents until finally settling with her aunt and uncle. Sara sees her mother intermittently but has no contact with her father. Although her family are loving and caring, Sara is very distrustful of others. She is often angry and tends to flare up over seemingly minor things. Sara’s temper has caused her a great deal of bother with the teachers, who regard her as a troublemaker. Sara is often on lunchtime detention and lately she has been refusing to go to school. Her aunt and uncle are finding it difficult to manage her behaviour. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Understanding the personal circumstances of each student provides valuable information about the factors that contribute to inappropriate and/or unacceptable behaviours. Pitonyak (2005) notes, ‘Trying to understand someone’s behaviour outside of the context of the person’s life is fundamentally disrespectful to the person.’ While Frank, Raveen, Harry and Sara must demonstrate appropriate behaviour standards, it is important to consider contributing factors when determining how best to respond. Source: Reprinted by permission of Skyhorse Publishing, Inc.
20.2 Learning environments To function at their best, students must feel emotionally safe and secure. A safe, emotionally supportive educational environment must consider both the physical and emotional/social dimensions in order to provide for the student’s health, safety and wellbeing. Safe learning environments contribute to the development of high self-esteem, self-confidence and resilience.
SUPPORTING BEHAVIOUR
569
To create an emotionally safe learning environment, adults working with children and young people must convey a genuine sense of respect, trust and commitment to student wellbeing. Each student must be valued as a unique individual with unique abilities, strengths and interests. There must be respect for the student’s family, including cultural and religious beliefs and home language/s. To support children’s mental health and well-being, school must be a place where students feel safe and respected. Schools should be an environment where students are able to seek and receive support that empowers them to work through personal issues and concerns. Adults must act as positive role models, assist students to problem-solve, apply appropriate conflict-resolution strategies and work towards age/ability-appropriate self-regulation. Adults must be empathic and consider each situation from the perspective of the student. So what does a safe, emotionally supportive environment for students look like? • All students are treated with dignity and respect. There is an expectation that students will treat teachers and other staff (as well as each other) with dignity and respect. • There is a climate of trust and cooperation. • Teachers and other adults act as positive role models and actively teach strategies such as problem-solving and conflict resolution. • There is a zero-tolerance policy in relation to bullying. • Every student is supported to reach their full potential. • There are clearly defined rules and standards for acceptable behaviour. Students are encouraged to participate in establishing and monitoring these rules – for example, classroom and playground rules. • There are fair and consistent consequences for unacceptable behaviour. • The school community builds a sense of collegiality. Students are encouraged to develop a sense of pride and ownership in their school. • The environment is supportive of each student doing their best – creating unhealthy competition among students is avoided. Cassel (2018) states that strong relationships increase student motivation and reduce behavioural issues, and they improve student achievement and classroom climate. According to Be You (2019), relationships of trust are fostered when teachers work with students to support them to explore and build a range of skills, including: • self-awareness – recognising their own feelings and building self-confidence • social awareness – understanding and respecting similarities and differences • self-management – developing self-regulation • responsible decision-making – thinking and choosing wisely • relationship skills – learning how to get along with others, including learning effective communication skills, developing conflict-resolution skills, learning to cooperate with others, understanding how to build friendships. These skills link directly to the General Capabilities – personal and social capability learning continuum, as described in Figure 20.2.
LINK TO THE Australian CURRICULUM PERSONAL AND SOCIAL CAPABILITY LEARNING Figure 20.2 General Capabilities Element: Self-awareness Sub-element: Recognise emotions Subelement
Level 1a Students
Level 1b Typically, by the end of Foundation Year, students:
Level 2 Typically, by the end of Year 2, students:
Level 4 Typically, by the end of Year 6, students:
Level 5 Typically, by the end of Year 8, students:
Level 6 Typically, by the end of Year 10, students:
Describe the influence that people, situations and events have on their emotions
Explain how the appropriateness of emotional responses influences behaviour
Examine influencing on and consequences of their emotional responses in learning, social and workrelated contexts
Reflect critically on their emotional responses to challenging situations in a wide range of learning, social and work-related contexts
Level 3 Typically, by the end of Year 4, students:
Level 4 Typically, by the end of Year 6, students:
Level 5 Typically, by the end of Year 8, students:
Level 6 Typically, by the end of Year 10, students:
Explain the influence of emotions on behaviour, learning and relationships
Forecast the consequences of expressing emotions inappropriately and devise measures to regulate behaviour
Consider control and justify their emotional responses, in expressing their opinions, beliefs, values, questions and choices
Level 3 Typically, by the end of Year 4, students:
Self-awareness element Recognise emotions
Recognise and identify their own emotions
Identify a range of emotions and describe situations that may evoke these emotions
Compare their emotional responses with those of their peers
Element: Self-management Sub-element: Express emotions appropriately Subelement
Level 1a Students
Level 1b Typically, by the end of Foundation Year, students:
Level 2 Typically, by the end of Year 2, students:
Self-management element Express emotions appropriately
Recognise and identify how their emotions influence the way they feel and act
Express their emotions constructively in interactions with others
Describe ways to express emotions to show awareness of the feelings and needs of others
Identify and describe strategies to manage and moderate emotions in increasingly unfamiliar situations
Source: ACARA (2013).
SUPPORTING BEHAVIOUR
571
In addition, supporting the development of self-regulation will assist student to acquire the following sub-element skills: • Develop self-discipline and set goals • Work independently and show initiative • Become confident, resilient and adaptable • Appreciate diverse perspectives • Contribute to civil society • Understand relationships • Communicate effectively • Work collaboratively • Make decisions • Negotiate and resolve conflict.
RESPECTFUL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT The school sports carnival included a Special Olympics for students attending the Special Education Unit at the school. Students from the unit were honoured alongside their peers at an awards assembly. Each student who participated in the Special Olympics was awarded a certificate of appreciation by the school principal and the school captains. Parents were invited to attend and one of the students from the Special Education Unit spoke on behalf of her peers. The presentation was followed by a special morning tea.
Scenario
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
In this example, the school is modelling and demonstrating respect for diversity. The presentation sends a clear message to the school community that every student, regardless of ability, is valued and respected. " DISCUSSION
Discuss how an event such as the Special Olympics promotes positive whole-school student behaviour.
20.3 Student behaviour policy Students who behave in an age/ability-appropriate manner, and understand and comply with behaviour limits, are more likely to reach their full potential as learners. Supporting and promoting appropriate behaviour of children and young people requires a team effort. It requires the collaboration of senior executives, teachers, support staff, students and parents. It must also be supported by well-defined policies and procedures that set out clear expectations of students, parents and teachers in relation to standards of behaviour and the procedures that will be used when these standards are breached. All schools are required to have in place a student behaviour policy that clearly sets out the procedures for managing student behaviour. Depending on the jurisdiction, this policy may have different names, as shown in Figure 20.3. To access a copy of these policies, go to the Education Department website for your state/territory. Figure 20.3 Student behaviour policies
State/territory
Policy
ACT
Safe and Supportive Schools Policy
Qld
Safe, Supportive and Disciplined School Environment Policy
NSW
Behaviour Code for Students
State/territory
Policy
NT
School Wellbeing and Behaviour Policy
SA
Behaviour Management and Discipline Policy
Tas
Learner Wellbeing and Behaviour Policy
Vic
Student Engagement Policy
WA
Student Behaviour Policy
The policy usually encompasses the expected or desired behaviour of students, teachers and the senior executive, as well as the role of parents in supporting school rules and the code of conduct. Embedded in the policy should be the concept of procedural fairness – that is, decisions are made fairly and transparently, considering all available and relevant information. All parties involved are given the right to have their say (student, teacher, principal, parents). Student behaviour policies usually incorporate principles such as: • a ‘whole-school community’ approach – involves executive, teachers, students, parents and the broader community • the personal, social and learning needs of students • the importance of a safe, nurturing and caring school environment • the importance of preventative strategies to promote positive behaviours • the value of early intervention when behaviour problems are identified • acknowledging, respecting and promoting diversity and tolerance of differences • the promotion of resilience and self-respect • ensuring equity and fairness in behaviour management practices • the rights, safety and health of all members of the school community.
STUDENT BEHAVIOUR POLICIES IN PRACTICE Existing student behaviour policies demonstrate the principles outlined above. For example: SOUTH AUSTRALIA
The aim of the SA Behaviour, Management and Discipline policy is to: • provide opportunities and support for students to succeed • support students to accept responsibility for their own behaviour • work with staff, parents and students to create learning communities that support the rights of students to learn and the right of teachers to teach
•
Consider This
develop a behaviour code as a statement of the school community’s values and expectations in relation to student behaviour and school’s management of student behaviour.
ACT
A primary goal of the Safe and Supportive Schools Policy, ACT is to ensure schools are inclusive places where students, families and staff feel accepted, valued and connected to their school. This includes the core values of respectful relationships, fair and equitable processes and embracing diversity.
Policies for unacceptable behaviour Policies and codes of behaviour may also define what is deemed to be unacceptable behaviour, and the consequences of unacceptable behaviour. Unacceptable behaviours may include refusal to follow instructions, disregard for school rules and any behaviour that is likely to negatively impact the safety, welfare or health of members of the school community. Unacceptable
SUPPORTING BEHAVIOUR
573
behaviour will also include damage to school property or behaviour that is likely to bring the school into disrepute. In most instances, the school will implement an individual behaviour management plan (IBMP) to address the student’s behaviour by setting realistic goals and putting in place strategies to assist the student to change or modify their behaviour. Where student behaviour is extreme, the student may be suspended or excluded from school. For example, the Department for Education and Child Development, SA states on its website: Principals can suspend students when they have reasonable grounds to believe that the student: • has committed or threatened to commit a violent act • has persistently refused to follow the school’s behaviour code and this threatens the good order of the school • has threatened the safety and wellbeing of others – e.g. through harassment, verbal abuse, bullying • has committed an illegal act • is interfering with the rights of others • is persistently and wilfully inattentive and indifferent towards their school work. Source: Government of South Australia ª Copyright Government of South Australia 2019. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
It is important to become familiar with the specific policies and code of conduct in each school community in which you are involved. Each school will consider the unique characteristics of its own school community when applying these policies. These documents can be accessed from the internet. Taking time to read these documents and discuss behaviour management strategies used by teachers will provide you with a sound framework for understanding how behaviour is managed in school settings. To access the student behaviour policy for your state/territory go to your government Education Department website.
Applying policies: The difference between guidance/ discipline and punishment Guidance can be defined as supporting a student to develop an understanding of what is expected in terms of socially acceptable behaviour, taking into account the individual student’s development, circumstances and the context in which the behaviour occurs. Guidance is a positive behaviour-management strategy that helps the student develop the skills to monitor and regulate their own behaviour without the need for adult intervention. It acknowledges that unacceptable behaviour is a function of unmet needs. Desautels (2018) reminds us that, unlike punishment, discipline is proactive and begins before there are problems. It means seeing conflict as an opportunity to problem-solve. Discipline provides guidance, focuses on prevention, enhances communication, models respect and embraces natural consequences. It teaches fairness, responsibility, life skills and problem solving. Punishment is a strategy that motivates the student to behave in a way to avoid punishment or disapproval. Punishment is not effective in helping students regulate their own behaviour and does not acknowledge the existence of unmet needs. Figure 20.4 sets out the benefits of ‘guidance’ as opposed to ‘punishment’. Guidance as a behaviour management strategy typically occurs along a continuum from limited or no intervention to direct intervention. The following Consider this box provides an explanation of the guidance continuum.
Figure 20.4 Guidance versus punishment Guidance/discipline
Punishment
Emphasises what to do and sets an example to follow
Often emphasises what not to do by adults who frequently insist on blind obedience
An ongoing process of interaction between adults and students
May be a spontaneous on-the-spot reaction of adults who decide and act
Seen as a positive response, which helps students develop responsibility and selfcontrol
Often negative and punitive in ways that may undermine trust, autonomy and initiative
Fosters a student’s ability to think and problem-solve, which bolsters self-esteem
Has the potential to diminish self-esteem when adults depend on extreme controls
Based on a caring, nurturing approach, which acknowledges and respects student’s feelings and needs
Frequently spontaneous and impulsive, often causing feelings of shame and humiliation
Viewed as collaboration
Often results in power assertion by adults Source: Gordon & Browne (1996: 18) ª Allyn and Bacon, reprinted and electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
THE GUIDANCE CONTINUUM 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10, where 1 = least intervention, 10 = most intervention 1 Ignore. Let the students sort it out for themselves. This option can be used when the educator assesses that the students are safe and will benefit from trying to resolve the problem themselves. Remember that learning to get along is a social skill that requires lots of practice – educators who always intervene are denying students the opportunity to practise their negotiation skills. For example, if you see two students arguing over shared resources, don’t rush in: wait and see whether they can sort it out themselves. 2 Listen and watch. Make sure you hear what the students are saying. Become aware of the issues. Make sure students see you are watching and available to offer support if needed. 3 Act as reporter. Say what you notice and hear: ‘It looks like there’s a problem’, ‘I can hear that you are arguing about who should go first’. 4 Acknowledge desirable behaviour. Catch students when they are behaving well and acknowledge/ encourage this behaviour so they develop an understanding of what you want them to do: ‘I see that you worked out your argument, well done!’ This is probably the most important strategy when guiding behaviour. Appropriate behaviour will persist if
Consider This students are given timely, specific feedback about what they did well. Acknowledgement can be concrete, verbal or non-verbal. The goal is to move from external acknowledgement to a stage where students monitor and evaluate their own behaviour based on judgements of what they know to be acceptable or not acceptable. 5 Step in/set limits. Educators can help students to understand what behaviours are acceptable and what behaviours are not acceptable by giving clear and appropriate explanations that take into account the child/young person’s age and abilities. Protect physical or emotional security: ‘Please stop pushing’, ‘We use words, not our hands’, ‘I can’t let you hurt other students’, ‘Running inside causes accidents – remember to walk when inside.’ 6 Ask questions. This is helpful where students are able to discuss their behaviour and can assist in identifying ways to try to change the behaviour. ‘Is there a problem?’, ‘How do you feel about that?’, ‘What is happening here?’, ‘What can I do to help?’, ‘Can you tell me what’s happening?’, ‘Why are you arguing/upset?’ 7 Brainstorm. Encourage students to state what to do: ‘How could we solve this problem?’, ‘Who has a good idea?’, ‘What could you do so that you will both be happy?’, ‘What could you do instead of pushing?’ Offer
SUPPORTING BEHAVIOUR
575
ideas: ‘Maybe you need to ask another student for help’; ‘Perhaps you could both set up the table.’ 8 Offer choices. ‘You have two choices. You can sit here quietly and finish your work or you can go and sit by yourself if you think you are going to continue to be distracted. Tell me what you are going to do.’ This strategy is particularly effective for children who are disorganised and disruptive.
9 Take action alongside. The educator takes the lead, is firm and directs students by taking action and enforcing consistent boundaries: ‘Here’s what we’ll do together’, ‘I want you to . . .’ 10 Do it yourself. Take command and tell students what to do: ‘It seems too difficult for you to work at this table. You need to go and sit at the other table so you can concentrate.’ Source: Adapted from Gordon & Browne (1996).
The guidance continuum is a helpful tool when used in conjunction with a student-behaviour policy. Determining how best to respond to different behaviours is not an easy task, particularly when consideration must be given to the underlying causes or contributing factors that shape behaviour – for example, how should behaviour-management and discipline policies apply to students whose learning difficulties or disabilities influence behaviour? The goal with any behavioural response should be to support students to recognise and change unacceptable behaviours and improve self-regulation skills in a caring and respectful manner.
20.4 Different perspectives on behaviour How individuals perceive the behaviour of others will determine the response to the behaviour. Kaweski (2014: 47–8) also points out that ‘two different people can view the same behaviour and come away with entirely different interpretations of what happened and why. We tend to jump to conclusions without thoroughly understanding the numerous factors that would help us to arrive at a more valid conclusion.’ Responding to and managing behaviour involves an emotional and cognitive response. Just as individual personality and temperament will influence children’s behaviour, individual personality and temperament will influence how adults respond to children’s behaviour – this is simply the human factor. To balance the human factor, Kaweski suggests that before deciding how to respond to unacceptable behaviour, educators should consider ‘nine respectful notions’ (described in Figure 20.5). Figure 20.5 Nine respectful notions Understanding
Does the student understand the required behaviours?
Communication
What is the student attempting to communicate by their behaviour?
Unmet needs
What are the unmet needs of the student?
Self-determination
What actions have been put in place to include the student in decision-making?
Hidden benefit
What are the benefits to the student of the consequences or actions taken as a result of the behaviour?
Survival strategies
Did the student’s behaviour stem from a sense of survival or self-preservation?
Family and cultural practices
In what ways is the student’s behaviour a reflection of their family and cultural background?
Roles
Does the student behave in a positive manner around some people? Ask who and why.
Medication
Is the student on medication which may have side-effects? Is the behaviour a result of not taking medication? Source: Kaweski, W. (2014: 49). Reprinted by permission of Skyhorse Publishing, Inc.
Scenario
RESPECTFUL NOTIONS UNDERSTANDING
ROLES
Adam (14 years) has been diagnosed with Asperger’s syndrome. He does not understand how to generalise rules. When stopped by a teacher for running along the verandah and reminded of the ‘no running inside’ rule, he responds, ‘I know that rule. No running inside. This is not inside, this is the verandah. It’s not strictly inside. The rule should say no running inside or on the verandah – that would be correct.’
Connie (13 years) is considered to have many challenging behaviours. She is often sullen and uncooperative in class. However, when in Ms Brown’s science class, she is a model student. Connie says, ‘Ms Brown treats me like a real person. She says she wishes she had my beautiful red hair. She makes everyone feel special. I like Ms Brown. I wish she could be my teacher all the time.’ WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
SURVIVAL STRATEGIES
Sara (10 years) has been caught stealing food and money from the backpacks of other students. Sara lives with her mother and two younger siblings. Her mother often gambles what little money she has on poker machines. There is often no food in the house. CULTURAL PRACTICES
Ishmal (8 years) has three older sisters. As the only male child in the family, he is very much indulged. There are very few limits placed on his behaviour. As a result, Ishmal becomes angry and abusive when his needs and wants are not immediately met at school.
The behaviour of Adam, Sara, Ishmal and Connie is shaped by powerful factors that are outside their control. Applying Kaweski’s ‘nine respectful notions’ is a sound example of how these behaviours can be explored, interpreted and understood from varying perspectives. Being aware of what contributes to a student’s behaviour is an important consideration when determining an appropriate response strategy. " DISCUSSION
Each of these students behaves in a way that reflects their unique abilities and social context. Explain why it is important to be aware of what drives or motivates student behaviours.
The behaviour continuum Children and young people will demonstrate behaviours that range from delightful to destructive. The range of behaviours that may be encountered in the classroom will be as broad and varied as the students themselves. At one end of the continuum are students whose behaviour is well regulated. These students are generally happy, cooperative and respectful. In between are a range of behaviours that may be regarded as annoying or frustrating. At the extreme end, students can display behaviours that are violent, abusive, bullying and threatening. There will also be students who engage in self-destructive behaviours due to depression or other forms of mental illness.
Withdrawn, over-cautious or timid behaviour Some students are reluctant to attempt new tasks because of fear of failure or lack of confidence. They may avoid participating in group work and worry about making mistakes. These students may need support to form friendships, develop confidence and promote self-esteem. Provide
SUPPORTING BEHAVIOUR
577
positive reinforcement by breaking tasks down into small steps to promote confidence; pair the student with a more confident buddy; work with students to identify strengths; acknowledge that making ‘mistakes’ is simply part of the learning process. Scenario
ANXIOUS Udo (12 years) is an average student but lacks confidence in her abilities. She becomes extremely anxious when faced with a new task to a point when she becomes unable to perform. As soon as the teacher asks the class to work on a new task, Udo panics: ‘I don’t know what to do. Can you help me? I forgot what we have to do.’ Udo gets herself so worked up that at times she becomes physically ill. The teacher provides Udo with notes for each new task and the ESW works with Udo to create step-by-step instructions. The ESW also reminds
Udo of her existing skills and knowledge and how these can be applied to the new task. This strategy has helped Udo to be less anxious. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Anxiety can reduce student participation and limit the student’s ability to reach their full potential. Working with the student to develop strategies to cope with anxiety is an effective way to build the student’s self-confidence.
Attention-seeking and disruptive behaviour
GO
further
Learn more about demonstrating behaviour that reflects an unmet learning need in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
The term attention-seeking behaviour is often used to describe a wide range of behaviours such as repeatedly calling out, talking over others and out-of-seat behaviour. The term ‘attention-seeking’ is not a helpful one, as it usually implies nuisance behaviours when in fact this type of behaviour indicates the student has an unmet need. The first goal should be to identify that unmet need rather than simply focusing on eliminating the behaviour. Putting in place consequences for attention seeking may in fact only serve to reinforce the attention-seeking behaviour. Identifying and responding to the student’s need for attention is more likely to change the behaviour than applying negative consequences for the behaviour. For example, praising and acknowledging on-task behaviour is more likely to result in a reduction in attentionseeking behaviour than applying negative consequences. Other strategies include ensuring that the tasks the student is being asked to complete match the skills and ability level of the student and engaging the student in collaborative goal-setting for the completion of tasks, which signals that the student is valued and trusted.
Lack of confidence – complains work is too hard Students may lack confidence, or have planning and/or processing difficulties – difficulty understanding the directions given by the teacher, difficulty sequencing or knowing where to start or simply finding the task too difficult. In these circumstances, it will be necessary to assess the abilities and strengths of each student to more closely match the tasks to their abilities and learning style – for example, breaking tasks down step by step and using a graphic organiser to support sequencing of tasks into manageable chunks.
ASSESSING LEARNING NEEDS Linh (5 years, 6 months) is not coping with Kindergarten. The teacher has noticed that Linh is often disorganised and never seems to be quite ‘with it’. Linh looks to
Scenario other students to see what she is supposed to be doing and even then she struggles to complete (or even commence) a task.
Linh’s teacher arranges a formal assessment where it is revealed that she has extensive auditory processing difficulties. Linh is now supported in class by an ESW following an IEP developed by the class teacher and the special education resource teacher.
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
While it was clear that Linh was not coping, the underlying cause was not clear. Referring Linh for an assessment identified her learning needs and allowed the teacher to put in place an individual plan to support Linh’s learning needs.
Persistent teasing, tormenting or annoying others Often students who display this kind of behaviour lack confidence, have poor self-esteem and have not developed the skills needed to develop and sustain friendships. This behaviour can be addressed by working with the student to name and describe these inappropriate behaviours and devise alternative behaviours for the student to attempt. For example, instead of saying something negative, think of something positive to say. Scenario
CHANGING BEHAVIOURS Reggie (10 years) is regarded as annoying by teachers and students. He always seems to be tormenting others, making negative comments and generally being unpleasant. His teacher, Mr Humphries, has observed that Reggie does not have the social skills necessary to interact effectively with others. Reggie is not a team player, and he blames others if he doesn’t succeed. He tells tales, laughs when others make mistakes and rarely praises others. As a result, Reggie has no close friends and most of the time he is excluded or simply tolerated by his peers. Mr Humphries has started to work with Reggie on the development of prosocial skills. The goal is to help Reggie develop the skills needed to form positive relationships with others. Each week, Mr Humphries and Reggie set a behaviour goal. This week Reggie is
required to make one positive comment to another student each day. Together, Reggie and Mr Humphries review his progress. Next week, Reggie will be required to notice and make a list of the positive behaviours of others. Reggie is making slow but consistent progress. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
It should not be assumed that all students know how to develop and sustain friendships. Children and young people who lack the skills to relate positively to others often become isolated and engage in various acting-out behaviours. To change these behaviours, it is necessary to use direct instruction that provides students with the opportunity to practise and reflect on their behaviour with a supportive mentor.
Regular outbursts of anger This behaviour may include yelling out, swearing, verbal abuse, name-calling, whining, nagging and sulking. It indicates low self-esteem and a lack of confidence. The student may be feeling frustrated at not being able to keep up with classmates and they may be unable to express their feelings in a socially acceptable manner. Stop for a moment and think about what it might be like to go to school each day knowing that the work is too hard, you can’t understand the instructions and you don’t have the skills needed to ask for help – this would be enough to make anyone angry and unhappy! There is no point attempting to reason with a student who is angry. It is important to pick your battles and let some behaviour go, however annoying or frustrating that may be. Where possible, create a space where the student can withdraw, calm down, regroup and later rejoin the class. Later, when the situation has calmed down, talk to the student to try to identify the cause of the anger, what you can do to reduce or eliminate this cause and how you can help the student
SUPPORTING BEHAVIOUR
579
to express these emotions in a more acceptable manner. (Obviously this strategy will depend on the ability of the student as well as the student’s age.) Scenario
CHILLOUT ZONE Shah (15 years) has Asperger’s syndrome. He attends the local high school, which also has a special education unit attached. Shah copes quite well at school as long as he is able to maintain his daily routines and rituals. He has committed his weekly timetable to memory and knows the exact time when each bell should ring throughout the day. If any bell is late, he will announce this to anyone who might be listening: ‘It’s 12.02 Australian Eastern Daylight Saving time, the bell should ring at 12. Two minutes late, two minutes late. That’s not good.’ Shah does not like any form of physical contact and if he is accidentally touched or pushed he can go into meltdown. To manage this, Shah is allowed to leave the room five minutes before the bell so he can move to the next room before the corridors become crowded. Today, however, he encounters a Year 7 class returning to their room after doing some maths problems outdoors. Shah becomes extremely distressed when the students bump him as they are going upstairs. He sits on the stairs and curls himself into a ball with his hands over his head, screaming and rocking. The bell has now gone,
and other students start moving onto the stairs, making the situation worse for Shah. Shah eventually calms down enough to accompany a teacher to the ‘chillout zone’ – a private area in the library that has been set up to allow Shah and other students to sit quietly. The area has been set up with a beanbag, armchair, cushions and a variety of sensory objects such as squeezy balls, oil and water wheels, fidget pads, sensory putty, spinning tops and wooden massagers. Shah immediately takes a squeezy ball in each hand and sits on the beanbag. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Students who are easily angered or rapidly become distressed lack the self-regulation necessary to manage their own behaviour, and therefore need guidance and support from caring adults. Having a chillout zone where students can be alone, calm down and regroup gives them a sense of control. It also allows students to take ownership of their own behaviour and conveys respect for the student’s need for quiet time away from others.
20.5 Guidance and discipline strategies All adults working with children and young people are required to respond to behaviours in a professional manner. This will require you to draw on your child development knowledge, knowledge of behaviour-management policies and practices and knowledge of the individual student, along with any known factors that may be contributing to the behaviour. The classroom teacher is responsible for ensuring that behaviour standards established for the whole school are maintained and supported in the classroom. Teachers will also establish behavioural expectations for their class, develop appropriate management strategies and determine consequences for unacceptable behaviour that reflect the underpinning values of the school’s student behaviour policy. The role of the ESW is to support the classroom teacher in managing behaviour. This may include observing, monitoring, acting as a role model, reinforcing desired behaviours and generally applying management strategies as directed by the teacher. ESWs are often in a position where they may observe behaviours not seen by the teacher – for example, when working one on one or in a small group. ESWs should report any concerns about a student’s behaviour to the teacher, who will determine what – if any – intervention or action will be taken. The goal of any behaviour-management strategy should be to maximise each student’s learning potential and create a pleasant working environment for everyone. Behaviourmanagement strategies must support each student to understand what is expected and required
in relation to behaviour and to apply this understanding as they go about their daily interactions with adults and peers. As children mature, expectations around behaviour change. Adults will expect greater self-regulation, while children and young people will expect greater freedom to make their own choices. These divergent expectations are often the cause of conflict between adults and children/young people. It is the role of teachers, ESWs and parents to assist students to behave in a manner that meets the school’s expectations in relation to acceptable behaviour. Fortunately, for most students this is not a difficult task. However, there will be students who, because of their challenging behaviour and without intervention, will struggle to reach an acceptable level of selfregulation. Without support, these students will become increasingly marginalised within the school setting and later within the community. If unacceptable behaviour is regarded as the demonstration of unmet needs, then strategies to manage those behaviours must begin by identifying the cause or the reasons for the behaviour. Obviously, any behaviour of concern must be considered in the context of: • what is known about the student – age, abilities, history, background, typical behaviours, temperament and personality • what is known about a typical child’s development • what is known about the antecedents of the behaviour and the context in which the behaviour occurred • the current expectations in relation to student behaviour • the values of the school community • the current strategies being used to manage and guide the student’s behaviour • environmental factors such as noise, physical space, lighting, odours and clutter. For students with additional needs, other factors to take into account include: • communication skills – expressive and receptive • processing skills – how messages are received and understood • ability to cope with unscheduled change • responses to sensory stimuli • physical skills and abilities. The challenge is to develop strategies that will improve the student’s behaviour and support the student to take an appropriate degree of responsibility for improving their own behaviour while taking contributing factors into account. It is important to be aware that there is no single strategy that can be applied effectively to manage student behaviour. All adults working with students must have a large repertoire of guidance and management strategies that can be applied according to the needs of the student and the situation in which the behaviour occurs.
Behaviour management strategies Managing behaviour is a skill that develops over time. Everyone who works with children and young people will be challenged at some point by inappropriate student behaviours. There is no single best solution and no single best response. A good way to develop your behaviourmanagement skills is to continually reflect on your own practices by asking yourself a series of questions (Figure 20.6).
SUPPORTING BEHAVIOUR
581
Figure 20.6 Reflective questions on behaviour management practices
Reflective questions
Practices
Strategy: Emotional responses > What changes can I make in my own behaviour that might change the student’s behaviour? > Did I overreact? Was my reaction driven by my assumptions/ judgement of this student? (I don’t particularly like this student, I find this student annoying.) Am I simply asserting my power? > Do I use proximity control by simply standing/sitting near the student and making eye contact? > Would it have been better to have simply ignored the behaviour?
> Samir (12 years) is tapping his ruler on the table. Rather than tell him to stop, try: ‘Samir, your writing topic last week was really interesting. Could you write some more about your trip to India? I would love to know more about your experiences.’ > Respond to situations calmly and without anger. Turn away and take some deep breaths before addressing the student. > Sometimes the best strategy is to do nothing, ignore the behaviour and be ready to reinforce positive behaviour when it occurs.
> Do I know each student well enough to anticipate their behaviours by picking up on their cues? Strategy: Consistency of approach > Do I verbalise inappropriate behaviour as a learning tool? > Do I use effective non-verbal messages or cues such as raised eyebrows or shaking my head, frowning, placing a finger on my lips, placing hands on my hips or signalling ‘no’ or ‘stop’ with my hand to indicate that the behaviour must stop?
> ‘Tarren, you are speaking too loudly. You need to use a quiet voice, so you don’t disturb others.’ > ‘Kai, please listen to me. I want you to sit down now.’ > ‘Omar, remember the classroom rule is to ask to borrow things from other students rather than simply taking them.’
> Do I use assertive statements when required?
> ‘Sara, tell me the rule about returning books to the shelf.’
> Do I use redirection where appropriate?
> ‘We won’t be going to the library after our session today because the teacher is away. You can choose a game to play until it’s time for lunch.’
> Do I always set clear limits and discourage students from arguing about tasks or directions I have given? > Am I consistent in reminding students of classroom rules? > How do I use questioning to remind students of the required behaviour? > Do I always ensure consistent and predictable routines when working with students? Do I always let the students know when there is a change in routine or alteration to the planned schedule? Strategy: Encouraging responsibility > Are there ways I could have helped this student to start over rather than focusing on the behaviour?
> Teach the students to say, ‘Stop. I don’t like it when you take my things without asking.’
> Should I be actively teaching this student coping strategies?
> Talk about ways to handle anger by deep breathing, writing in a journal, creating a poster with ideas to manage anger or talking to someone who can help.
> How do I encourage students to tune into their bodies and recognise the signs of anger or tension, such as tightening jaw, clenching fists and change in heart beat? > How do I help students to constructively manage their feelings? > What choices can I offer which will allow the students to have more control over their environment? > How do I promote trust and respect for all individuals? > How can I encourage students to understand how their actions or words affect others?
> ‘I can see you’re getting tense because you’re clenching your jaw. How about we take a break? Close your eyes and try to breathe deeply.’ > It is important that, within the limitations of their skills and abilities, students are assisted to acknowledge and take ‘ownership’ of their behaviour. This strategy supports students to reflect on their behaviour and, with support, to identify ways they might better manage their behaviour.
> Am I encouraging positive self-talk by helping students to use selftalk to work their way through a problem?
> Encourage students to listen when others are speaking; remind students that name calling or making a joke about a student who walks, talks, dresses or learns differently is not acceptable.
> Do I really encourage students to ask for help and to help each other?
> ‘Talk to me about what you’re doing.’
> Do I encourage students to take responsibility for their behaviour?
> ‘Don’t forget to let me know if you need help, Marnie.’
> Am I a good model?
> Talk in a quiet voice; use materials and equipment with care; speak to others in a respectful manner.
Reflective questions
Practices
Strategy: Positive reinforcement > Do I notice and praise positive behaviours when they occur? > What sort of concrete rewards could I use to motivate students to behave in a positive manner?
> ‘I noticed that you helped Sarim put all the books away this morning. That was very kind of you.’
> How can I make learning fun?
> Rather than saying, ‘If you don’t listen you won’t know what to do’, you might say, ‘I need you to listen so that you’ll know what to do.’
> Do I try to incorporate student interests when planning my work with the students?
> ‘I know you find maths hard. You should be very proud of your effort today. Well done!’
> Do I consistently use positive language when communicating with students? > What positive motivation strategies do I use? Do I tell the students that I believe in their skills and praise their efforts? > How can I encourage older students to accept their limitations but also recognise their strengths? > Do I make sure I break tasks down into small achievable chunks so the task is manageable and achievable? > Do I have a well-stocked ‘bag of resources’ ready for immediate use? Figure 20.7 shows examples of items that might be found in a resource bag.
Scenario
SETTING CLEAR BOUNDARIES Pat has been working as an ESW for 20 years. He says managing student behaviour has been his biggest challenge and steepest learning curve. Pat likes to pass his knowledge and experience on to newly appointed ESWs: • I can tell you that no two situations will ever be exactly the same and no two students will respond in the same way to management strategies. • I try to give students choices. Like choosing the order in which assigned tasks are completed. • I use role-plays – they can work well with some students and it adds an element of fun. I might say, ‘Today I’ll be you and you can be me. I’ll start.’ They sometimes reply, ‘Mr Pat this is too hard for me – can’t we do something else?’ • Where appropriate, I use humour. I believe a light, funny comment or statement can often defuse tension or frustration and allow everyone to feel a bit more comfortable. Be careful, because what you think is funny may not be funny to the student involved. You don’t want them to think that you are laughing at their expense. Never use sarcasm and don’t embarrass students. • I use rewards targeted at the interests of the student: ‘When you complete the set tasks you can spend five minutes playing a game on the iPad.’ • I have learned over the years that students are very focused on the concept of ‘fairness’ and it is essential
•
•
•
•
•
that you act in a way that is seen to be fair to everyone. I always try to apply behaviour-management strategies consistently. Students are very quick to point out any inconsistencies in behaviour management strategies!’ I talk to students with a ‘can do’ attitude. I get them talking about what they can do rather than what they can’t do. I will say to a student who is worried about a task, ‘Okay, you might find this hard but let’s give it a go and see what happens. I’m here to help.’ I let students know I mean business by changing the tone of my voice. It usually works for me. When I use my formal voice, they know I mean business! I try to use only genuine, timely and specific praise and try to catch the student doing the right thing. For example, I might say, ‘I noticed you helped Anton to clean up his paints this morning. That was really kind of you Thomas.’ I encourage the student to work with me to problemsolve. Working collaboratively with a student sends a very clear message that you respect and value the student as a problem-solver. I try to appeal to students’ values. I try to build relationships with the students based on mutual trust and respect and then use this to appeal to their sense of responsibility. I might say, ‘I know when you swear at me that you are angry and upset but I still don’t like it, it makes me feel uncomfortable.’ Or, ‘I know you’re feeling frustrated, but if you tear up your work you will have to do
SUPPORTING BEHAVIOUR
583
•
•
it again.’ Or, ‘I know you want your friends to like you. When you get loud and bossy they don’t want to be with you.’ Every time I work with a group of students, I establish clear rules for behaviour. I make it clear what is and isn’t acceptable so that students know what is expected of them without any surprises. My best advice is to reflect on how you interact with students and how you react to their behaviours. Talking to colleagues and taking advantage of professional development has really helped me to develop my behaviour-management skills.
Figure 20.7 Resource bag
WHAT DOES THIS TELL US?
Managing behaviour is a daily challenge – the skills required are built over time and can be improved through self-reflection, discussion with colleagues and professional development. " DISCUSSION
Discuss the examples of behaviour management strategies described in this scenario and in Figure 20.6. Explore which you would feel most comfortable using and which you find challenging. Share ways that you can build on your behaviour-management strategies.
Using natural and logical consequences
Using behavioural consequences as a behaviourmanagement strategy can help many students to develop responsibility for their own behaviour. It helps them to make a link between their own actions and the outcomes of those actions. It also assists students to reflect on past experiences in order to modify their own behaviour. For students with additional needs, such as ASD or ADHD, making the relationship between action and consequences (cause and effect) explicit is essential. Using appropriate behaviour consequences will, over time, assist the students to modify their behaviour and develop the skills required to make positive behaviour choices. It is important to be aware that the specific behaviour consequences should be individualised to reflect the needs and abilities of each student. An essential consideration is the student’s ability to manage their own behaviour – for example, a student with ADHD will have less control over their own behaviour than a student who does not have ADHD. There are two types of behavioural consequences: natural and logical. • Natural consequences occur as the result of the student’s own behaviour – without intervention by an adult. • Logical consequences require the intervention of an adult and usually focus on mutual rights, mutual respect and responsibility. Logical consequences must closely ‘fit’ the student’s behaviour and the adult should give the student a clear choice and follow through with the consequences. Examples of natural and logical consequences are provided in the following Scenario.
Scenario
NATURAL AND LOGICAL CONSEQUENCES EXAMPLES OF NATURAL CONSEQUENCES
Mirra (10 years) tends to become loud and bossy when working in a small group. As a natural consequence, the students in her group respond by excluding her from their discussion. Harley (6 years) has bought along his special animal figures to show the class. The teacher suggests that Harley puts the figures in his bag before going to lunch because they might get lost when he is playing. Harley ignores this advice and is now crying because three figures are missing. EXAMPLES OF LOGICAL CONSEQUENCES
Julia (15 years) repeatedly fails to complete her English projects. As a logical consequence, she is required to spend the second half of her lunch break in the library working on her projects. Ussef (10 years) always acts out during assembly. He talks loudly, pokes and pushes other students and generally makes a nuisance of himself. As a logical consequence, Ussef must sit next to his teacher, away from the other students in his class. " DISCUSSION
Discuss the use of natural and logical consequences – do they both have a place in school behaviour-management strategies?
Things to consider when using natural and logical consequences: • There should be a clear cause-and-effect relationship that is made obvious to the student: ‘If this behaviour occurs the result will be . . .’ • Logical consequences should be applied in a timely manner: ‘If you don’t end your computer game when the timer rings in five minutes you will not be allowed to play computer games for the remainder of the school week.’ • Consequences should be firm but not punitive or threatening: ‘I asked you to put your monster figure in your bag until recess. Now I will look after it and give it back to you at lunchtime.’ • Consequences should directly reflect the behaviour: ‘You took Ella’s calculator without first asking permission and now it is broken. You need to work out how you are going to replace it.’ • Where appropriate, students can be given a choice: ‘You can either put your monster figure in your bag until recess or give it to me to mind.’ • Consequences should be reasonable – that is, the consequence should be proportionate to the behaviour. Remember that the goal is to assist the student to learn new behaviours.
Behaviour-management strategies to avoid
GO
The role of the ESW is to support the student to develop socially acceptable behaviour and age/ ability-appropriate self-regulation. This will naturally develop for most students, as they mature because of social interactions with family, friends, school and the broader community. Some students, however, will struggle to self-regulate without direct instruction. Adults who are responsible for the care and wellbeing of students should always treat every student with dignity and respect. This can sometimes be difficult when a student behaves in ways that challenge our fundamental beliefs and confront our personal values. However, the role of adults is not to judge, but to manage students and guide them to develop behaviours that will allow them to be accepted members of the school community and to reach their full potential. Often students will act out because they feel powerless. It may not seem this way when a student is being physically or verbally abusive, but the reality is that these students are usually extremely vulnerable and have unmet emotional needs. Being out of control is not a pleasant state, and rarely leads to a person feeling better about themselves. In fact, students and young people can become frightened by their own anger and lack of self-control. It is important to follow these behaviour-management guidelines: • Never use any form of physical punishment. When managing behaviour, avoid any form of physical contact with students. Sadly, even putting your hand on a student’s shoulder as a gesture of comfort can be misconstrued.
SUPPORTING BEHAVIOUR
further
Access a Scenario that explores use of natural consequences in your Go Further resource, available through your instructor.
585
Never use sarcasm or put-downs, or humiliate a student – especially in front of their peers. This is simply an assertion of power and has no place in a school environment. • Avoid threatening body language such as pointing, rolling your eyes, gesturing, standing over the student and folding your arms, or invading the student’s personal space. Covert eye contact can, however, be a very useful strategy. For example, making eye contact with the student and giving a subtle shake of the head or a reinforcing nod can be a very valuable management strategy. • Never turn your back on a student who is talking to you. This is simply common courtesy, which should be afforded to every student. If you have to quickly attend to a situation, always excuse yourself (as you would if speaking to another adult): ‘Excuse me please, Harry. I will just be a few moments.’ When returning: ‘Sorry Harry, please continue. I’m really interested in what you have to say.’ • Never deliberately put a student in a situation where you know they will fail. Again, this is simply assertive power over the student. For example, never ask a student who is a struggling reader to read aloud to others. • Never label a student as a liar, cheat, thief, stupid, slow or incompetent. Labels tend to stick. It is not your role to judge students. It is your role to support students. • Never immediately demand that the student explain their behaviour. First, try to make the situation safe for the student, other students and yourself. Leave the discussion until after the student has calmed down and you can talk to the student in private. • Never openly compare a student with others. Comparisons serve no purpose. Students are very astute at knowing where they rank in the class. Comparisons should only be made privately about the student’s own progress: ‘Elise, you got 18 out of 20 for your spelling. That’s such a big improvement. You should be very proud!’ • Never engage in an argument with a student – adults rarely win! It is better to walk away when a student begins to argue. Talk about the issue at a later time. • Never make negative comments about the student’s family/culture. Again, this is simply showing the student courtesy and respect. • Avoid dwelling on past behaviours. Address inappropriate behaviours as they occur and then move on. A good rule of thumb is to start each day with a clean slate. You may have had a bad day with a student the day before, but dwelling on it or carrying over those feelings will not help. It is better to greet the student with a smile and expectations of a good day. This also helps the student to move on, save face and start over – an opportunity we all deserve. Being aware of what to avoid is just as important as knowing what to do when managing behaviour. Remember, all behaviour is learned – students learn behaviour by observing and copying from others, and this includes inappropriate or undesirable behaviour. •
20.6 Challenging behaviours Our perception of what is or isn’t challenging behaviour occurs on a continuum and will depend on the situation in which the behaviour occurs. For example, it may be appropriate for students to talk, walk around and share ideas if they are working on a collaborative project. However, the same behaviour may be considered unacceptable if the expectation is that students sit quietly and work independently.
Our perception of challenging behaviour will also depend on the skills, knowledge and experience of those working with the student – ESWs highly skilled in managing behaviour may have a different perspective on what is a challenging behaviour compared with less-skilled or novice ESWs. Our definition of challenging behaviour will also be influenced by cultural values and beliefs about what might be considered acceptable/unacceptable. The abilities, age and skills of each student will also influence our perception of challenging behaviours. For example, a student with ADHD is likely to have many more challenging behaviours than a student without ADHD. All students will at some point behave in ways that adults find annoying or unacceptable – for example, not paying attention, refusing to do what is expected or asked for, leaving tasks incomplete, not sitting still, tormenting others, refusing to share, having temper tantrums, not working cooperatively with others or showing off. Although these behaviours might not be ‘acceptable’, they are quite ‘normal’, and are more likely to be considered annoying rather than challenging. So what is challenging behaviour? Kaweski (2014: 43) defines challenging behaviour as ‘an expression of an unmet need or an intolerable situation coupled with the student’s inability to skilfully solve the issue in a more acceptable manner’. The Department of Education, Victoria (2018) acknowledges the difficulty in defining challenging behaviours, stating that ‘there is no common set of behaviours that can be universally regarded as challenging’. The department goes on to describe what might be considered challenging behaviour as ‘something that either interferes with the safety or learning of the student or other students or interferes with the safety of school staff’ (ª State of Victoria (Department of Education and Training). CC-BY-4.0 licence). Examples of challenging behaviour include: • withdrawn behaviours, such as shyness, rocking, staring, anxiety, school phobia, truancy, social isolation or hand flapping • disruptive behaviours, such as being out of seat, calling out in class, tantrums, swearing, screaming or refusing to follow instructions • violent and/or unsafe behaviours, such as head banging, kicking, biting, punching, fighting, running away, smashing equipment or furniture/fixtures • inappropriate social behaviours, such as inappropriate conversations, stealing, being overaffectionate, inappropriate touching or masturbation. ª State of Victoria (Department of Education and Training)
These examples highlight the range of behaviours that might be considered challenging. The examples are by no means definitive, and would need to take into consideration each student’s individual circumstances. Gantz (2009: 128–34) has developed a model to describe stages of misbehaviour and related stages of discipline (as seen in Figure 20.8). The Gantz model suggests that behaviours such as aggression, immorality and defiance would fall into what could be considered challenging behaviours. Gantz describes the use of preventative, supportive and corrective discipline to address behaviours but also acknowledges the need to take into account both the external factors that may contribute to misbehaviour as well as assessing the needs of each student.
SUPPORTING BEHAVIOUR
587
THREE STAGES OF DISCIPLINE
FIVE LEVELS OF MISBEHAVIOUR
Figure 20.8 Five levels of misbehaviour and three stages of discipline Aggression
The most severe form of misbehaviour, including physical or verbal attacks by students
Immorality
Acts such as cheating, lying and stealing
Defiance of authority
Refusal to follow directions and rules
Class disruption
Calling out, getting out of seat, general fooling around
Goofing off
For example, daydreaming, failure to attend/ participate and non-completion of tasks
1 Preventative discipline This refers to the steps that can be taken to preclude misbehaviour occurring in the first place
• Ensuring that the tasks developed match the ability and interests of the student • Arranging the physical environment to take into account student needs, minimise distractions and create a pleasant working environment • Developing age/ability-appropriate rules that are stated in positive rather than negative terms • Using positive reinforcement – both verbal (‘You have done an excellent job on the maths tasks, Liam’) and non-verbal (smile, thumbs up or handshake) • Use of graphic reinforcements, such as star charts and smiley faces • Use of tangible reinforcers – for example, a token system that can be traded for a special reward such as extra time on the computer
2 Supportive discipline This refers to the steps that can be taken at the first sign of misbehaviour
• Responding immediately with a warning or reminder: ‘Lucy, remember you need to ask permission to be out of your seat. Please sit down.’ • Using non-verbal communication, such as a frown, stare or gesture • Using physical proximity – walk nonchalantly to the student and stand close
3 Corrective discipline This refers to steps taken to restore order once misbehaviour occurs
• Invoking consequence of misbehaviour: ‘Lucy I have already reminded you not to leave your seat without permission. This afternoon you will miss out on free activity time.’ • Contracting by meeting with the student after the incident has occurred and developing a mutually agreed contract – the contract should include the target behaviour, consequences of non-compliance, reward for compliance and a timeframe • Using time out – the student is removed from the situation and relocated to a designated area. The goal of time out should be to allow the student to calm down, think about their behaviour and prepare to start over. Remember that the goal is to work towards self-regulation rather than punitive action that embarrasses or humiliates a child. Source: Based on Gantz (2009: 128–34).
Responding to challenging behaviours There will be times when you will need to respond immediately to challenging behaviours. Students with social and emotional difficulties will quite often test their boundaries and try to assert themselves in ways that may be threatening or even dangerous to themselves or others. If such behaviour occurs when the teacher is not present, you must take immediate steps to calm the situation. As previously emphasised, before commencing work with a student, you should: • know and understand the behaviour-management strategies being used in the classroom • establish clear limits and behavioural expectations – identify rewards and consequences • be familiar with any concerns in relation to the student’s behaviour • be aware of what triggers inappropriate behaviour and what calms the student • practise using a neutral voice and a relaxed manner – focus on the behaviour, not the individual, and never judge the student • know what to do if confronted by a student who is angry or upset – for example, if you assess that other students may be at risk of harm, have them leave the immediate area and seek immediate teacher intervention • choose your battles – try to ignore the behaviour and focus on calming the student by using ‘I’ statements, such as ‘I can see you are angry/upset. I would like to talk to you but I need you to calm down.’ If a student swears at you or calls you names (see the section on swearing below), try to focus on what is upsetting the student rather than what the student has said. Try not to ‘buy into’ this type of provocative behaviour • keep the focus on the root problem – for example, ‘I’m sorry you are so upset/angry. I know this is hard for you. Can we talk about it? Let’s stop and take some time out.’ When students argue or fight with each other, try to separate them if possible by directing them to move apart. (You should not attempt to use any type of physical force to separate students.) Be firm and assertive: ‘Stop and move away from each other right now!’ If this is not likely to work and you are the only adult present, send another student for help. This will usually defuse the situation. Don’t assign blame or make assumptions about who is to blame. It is better to try to calm everyone down, take time out and then discuss the situation when the students have had a chance to settle down and cool off. Generally, the classroom teacher will take over and address the situation. The ESW may be asked to describe what happened (what you saw and heard). When doing this, stick to the facts and do not direct blame unless it is very clear that there was an unprovoked aggressor and a victim. Students who are constantly disruptive may behave in this way simply because they have not been shown how to behave in an appropriate manner. It must be remembered that misbehaviour is often mistaken behaviour. For example, a student who craves attention may act out in inappropriate ways to get this attention. Often it can be effective to use time out for the student to recover (not as a punishment) – to enable them to stop, refocus and start over. Use logical consequences – for example, remind students that the work must be completed and that if it is not completed in the assigned time, the student may have to remain behind at recess or lunchtime to complete it. The following sections look at specific behaviours and possible responses.
Swearing During middle childhood and adolescence, swearing – particularly for boys – often develops because of peer pressure. Swearing is learned from peers, family members, television and movies.
SUPPORTING BEHAVIOUR
589
Students will often swear simply because they know it is unacceptable or because it is regarded as a normal form of communication within the peer group. Walk past any high school during the lunch break and you are likely to hear some very colourful language! Swearing is also a way of demonstrating assertiveness and independence. However, by adolescence most students will apply rules about swearing. For example, they will (mostly) refrain from swearing in front of significant adults, such as family, other parents and teachers. When swearing occurs in class, it is important to remind students of the ‘no swearing’ rule clearly and directly, without making it a big issue. If swearing continues, there are usually clearly defined consequences.
Telling lies Developmentally, by middle childhood most children can distinguish between truth and lies. Refer to the concept of theory of mind discussed early in this textbook. For students in middle childhood, there will still be grey areas. Children lie for various reasons – for example, to be more popular among peers or to get themselves out of trouble, because they don’t want to hurt someone’s feelings, because they think that it’s what the other person wants to hear or to protect others. In situations where lying becomes habitual, it is important for adults to look for reasons why this might be occurring. Addressing lying with students is a difficult task and needs to be done sensitively, and with a view to helping the student talk about the specific circumstances. What has motivated the lying, what are the needs of the student, how can the situation be addressed so the student maintains their dignity and is able to move forward?
Stealing By middle childhood, most children understand that stealing is regarded as unacceptable behaviour. Like lying, children may steal for a number of reasons such as jealousy, envy, as a ‘payback’ for peer conflict or because, sadly, they simply see no other way of getting their needs met. Stealing is often a symptom of family, social and/or emotional problems. An ESW should refer stealing to the teacher to address underlying problems.
Cheating Unfortunately, the world (like the school) is a competitive place and winning is regarded as a legitimate and valued goal in many cultures (particularly Western culture). Competitiveness is a characteristic of middle childhood. Students strive to be ‘the best’ and ‘winning’ is an important goal. By middle childhood, adult reassurance that ‘winning is not important’ may sound very hollow to a student who rarely experiences success and is surrounded by a culture that celebrates winners. Students may resort to cheating if they feel they are no match for the other students. For some students, cheating may be the only chance they have of ‘winning’ and feeling successful. Cheating may be symptomatic of a lack of self-confidence, poor self-esteem, a need to be noticed or fear of failure. It is important to address the underlying cause and needs of the student. If students are competitive, they can be challenged to compete against themselves by striving to beat their own personal best record for various tasks.
Telling tales Telling tales or its colloquialism, ‘dobbing’, seems to reach its peak around the age of 5 or 6 years, when children have developed a strong sense of right and wrong but are not yet able to
appreciate that there may be shades of grey. Students who ‘dob’ may do so because they are seeking adult approval or because they have a need to exert power and control over others, or simply because they are firmly in Piaget’s pre-operational stage of cognitive development and are still reliant on centred thinking. Engaging with students who persistently tell tales by giving them the attention they seek will reinforce such behaviour. These students benefit from direct instruction to support the development of problem-solving and conflict-resolution skills.
Using behaviour contracts Behaviour contracts are useful as a short-term strategy to enable students to focus on modifying their behaviour in small, manageable steps. Behaviour contracts encourage students to identify their unacceptable behaviours and work with the teacher towards developing more acceptable behaviours. It must be remembered that the ultimate goal in any behaviour-management program is the development of self-regulation. Behaviour contracts should therefore be regarded as a short-term strategy or part of a range of strategies to reduce unwanted behaviours and increase desired behaviours. Behaviour contracts, written in collaboration with the student (if possible), can be an effective strategy to manage behaviour. Behaviour contracts should clearly define the desired behaviour/s – that is, what you want the student to do. This makes it easy for both the student and the teacher or ESW to identify when the student is (or is not) demonstrating the appropriate behaviour. The contract should clearly define the agreed reward for compliance and the agreed consequences of non-compliance. For some students, the use of concrete rewards is a positive reinforcer and provides extra motivation for the student. A behaviour contract should be written in clear, easy-to-understand language and define the time frame for which the contract applies. The process used to monitor and record behaviour should be identified and be the responsibility of both the ESW and the student. Figure 20.9 in the following Scenario shows a simple example of how to record positive behaviours as part of a behaviour contract process. It is important to set a date to review progress and, if necessary, adjust the contract. Where possible, the review process should be a collaborative one between the student and the teacher/ESW. This encourages a sense of ownership for behaviour and empowers the student to take control of changing their behaviour. In the following example, Jamal and the ESW will use a simple sticker chart to monitor behaviour – a smiley sticker for compliance. The stickers will only be awarded for compliance behaviour at the end of each period throughout the day: morning, recess, lunch and afternoon. It is agreed that when Jamal has received three smiley stickers in a two-day period, he will be rewarded with 15 minutes of time to work on the production of his comic book. Scenario
BEHAVIOUR CONTRACT Jamal’s teacher, Mr Black, has asked the ESW, Pete, to work with Jamal (10 years) to develop a behaviour contract. Pete explains the process to Jamal and, in collaboration with Jamal, lists the behaviours that could be improved. After some discussion, it is agreed that Jamal will work on the following behaviour goals:
• • •
Jamal will keep his hands to himself when in the classroom. Jamal will complete tasks set by the teacher. Jamal will remain seated unless given permission to move around the room.
Three weeks into the behaviour contract, both Pete and Jamal are pleased with the change in Jamal’s
SUPPORTING BEHAVIOUR
591
behaviour. Jamal has taken responsibility for sticking to his side of the agreement extremely seriously. The contract was reviewed after four weeks. Jamal’s behaviour had greatly improved. Mr Black and the ESW
observed that Jamal was highly motivated by the sticker chart. Jamal spoke in positive terms about his improved behaviour and appeared to be more attentive and willing to complete set tasks.
Figure 20.9 Behaviour contract chart
JAMAL’S BEHAVIOUR CONTRACT CHART Jamal will keep his hands to himself when in the classroom. Jamal will complete tasks set by the teacher. Jamal will remain seated unless given permission to move around the room. WEEK
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
1 2 3 4
To respect the privacy of students, behaviour contract charts should not be put on display in the classroom; rather, they should be kept in a place that can be accessed by the student and the teacher/ESW.
Responding to confrontation and violence Dahlberg and Krug (2002, cited in Queensland Schools Alliance Against Violence (QSAAV) 2010: 5) define ‘interpersonal violence’ as: The intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against another person or against a group or community that results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment or deprivation. ª State of Queensland, (Department of Education and Training), CC-BY-4.0 licence.
According to QSAAV, this definition links ‘intention’ to committing the act, regardless of the outcome. The definition also includes all acts of violence, whether public or private, reactive or proactive, criminal or non-criminal. QSAAV also states that there may be a considerable disparity between intended behaviour and intended consequences. For example, if a six-year-old with poor self-regulation physically lashed out at another student, would this be considered intentional? If a 15-year-old student punched a hole in the wall out of sheer frustration, would that be seen as intentional? If a 10-year-old with ADHD upended his desk and accidentally injured another student, would that be considered intentional? When students become extremely angry, they can be confrontational and may resort to acts of physical or verbal aggression. Try to remain calm but assertive, and try not to escalate the
student’s behaviour. Maintain eye contact with the student, use the student’s name and talk in a calm manner. Don’t argue with the student – simply listen. If the student becomes aggressive, tell them in a firm voice to lower their arms or step back. If there are other students in the immediate area, direct them to move away quickly and quietly. Seek help as quickly as possible. To protect yourself, you may need to back away (do not turn your back on the student). If possible, place a barrier between yourself and the student – for example, stand behind a desk. If a fight occurs between students, you should not attempt to physically intervene. Again, move other students away from the immediate area and call for help.
Prevention of violence A key preventative measure is recognising warning signs and triggers that may lead to violent outbursts. According to the Association of Teachers and Lecturers (ATL) (2011: 9), factors that may indicate signs of violent or dangerous student behaviour include: • a previous history of violence, possibly under the influence of alcohol, drugs or solvents • tense or agitated appearance; dilated pupils; exhibiting an over-sensitive reaction to correction or instruction; giving abrupt replies to questions, often with gesticulations; exhibiting increased voice pitch and volume; showing signs of muscular tension in the face and limbs • unnaturally quiet and withdrawn or alternatively excitable and boisterous restless behaviour involving pushing, noisiness or jostling • being threatening or verbally abusive – deliberately provocative behaviour such as namecalling and attention-seeking. Student violence can be frightening for everyone involved – including the student who is violent. As an ESW, you will not be expected to address student violence, which usually will be managed by the principal, teacher, school counsellors and parents/guardians.
20.7 Documenting and assessing challenging behaviours As previously stated, there is no single ‘best practice’ in relation to management strategies for challenging behaviours. There are, however, measures that should be followed to gain a picture of the behaviours and their underlying causes. These include: • identifying and objectively describing the specific behaviours of concern • identifying the triggers – what factors are the tipping point for the student? • identifying the underlying unmet needs of the student • describing the typical teacher and peer responses to the student’s behaviour • identifying any factors that may be reinforcing the behaviour • devising a plan to manage, reduce and change the behaviour • identifying how the plan will be monitored and reviewed.
Observing student behaviour The most effective way to understand student behaviour is to closely observe the student over time, at different periods of the day, in different physical spaces and in different learning/social
SUPPORTING BEHAVIOUR
593
situations. It is important to look closely at the factors that influence student behaviour, such as the physical setting, routines/timetable and the influences of other adults and students.
The principles of observation An accurate, holistic picture of each student is developed when the following ‘principles’ of observation are followed: • Allow sufficient time to get to know the student and establish a relationship before beginning ‘formal’ observations. • Take into account how the presence of the observer impacts the student’s behaviour and what is recorded. Often, the ESW will be a partner in the experience; at other times, observations will need to be made from a distance. • Decide on the best time to observe development and learning – this is usually during normal classroom activities. • Collect information over time and in different settings to ensure an accurate representation of the student’s behaviour. ‘One-off’ observations can be misleading. Frequent observation is essential for monitoring and assessing student progress, changing abilities and interests. Observations must be accurate and should include the following details: • the student’s name, age and/or date of birth • date and time of observation • situation or setting in which the observation is occurring • names and ages of other students present • what the student does as well as language and interactions that occurred. Contemporary documentation relies heavily on ‘narratives’, descriptions or ‘stories’. Observers must look for, ‘notice’, listen carefully and record all the relevant details necessary to understand the student’s needs and interests. Curtis and Carter (2000) provide guidelines for recording information about students in this way, as outlined in Figure 20.10. Figure 20.10 Guidelines for recording observations
Skill
Requirements
Objectivity
When observing students, you should strive to be objective and non-judgemental; however, observing without judging is a very difficult task. It is almost impossible to be totally objective. What we ‘see’ is coloured by our cultural values, beliefs and life experiences. Consider the following observation of Kane: ‘Kane is gripping his pencil tightly as he writes. He is frowning and leaning over his work. Suddenly he slams his fist on the table, screws up his page and throws it on the floor, saying ‘‘This is just stupid!’’’
Specificity
Include specific details, such as the context of the observation – for example, ‘It is just after recess and all the students in the class are working on their story writing. Kane is sitting at a table with three other students who are all working quietly.’
Directness
Record direct quotes. These can provide a lot of information about the student’s learning – for example, ‘After the angry outburst Kane lays his head on the table and covers his eyes. ‘‘I hate writing – it’s dumb and stupid and I don’t have to do it!’’’
Mood
Mood cues are important. They tell us a lot about how a student is feeling – for example, ‘Kane was frowning as he wrote. He appeared to be gripping the pencil tightly.’
Completeness
Incidents have a beginning, a middle and an end. A recording should describe the setting, who was involved, the actions in the order they occurred, the responses, interactions and the ending; for example, ‘After a few minutes the ESW asked Kane if he would like to go with her to get a drink of water. Kane stood up and walked to the door. He waited for the ESW and they left the room together.’
Gathering evidence to describe and document behaviour should be done carefully and deliberately. Assumptions about the student should be put aside so that a clear ‘picture’ of the behavioural concerns can be documented. The bigger picture – that is, the social and cultural context – can then be taken into account when determining how to move forward to support and guide the student to develop appropriate behaviours that will be sustained in the long term and lead to positive outcomes for the student. The following pages provide a case study of Kane, which is used to demonstrate and explore observation and documentation strategies.
CASE STUDY | Kane Part 1: About Kane Kane (11 years) lives with his mother and two older sisters (14 years and 16 years) in a rented apartment. The family is on income support and his mother has chronic asthma. Kane’s mother left her husband four years ago, because of alcohol-fuelled domestic violence, taking the children with her. Kane has witnessed a great deal of domestic violence – on many occasions, neighbours called police to intervene. Kane’s mother has needed medical treatment on numerous occasions after being assaulted by her former husband. Kane sees his father intermittently – they sometimes go to a football game or to the movies. Kane’s 16-year-old sister has run away from home twice, constantly argues with her mother and regularly truants from school. Kane’s development is uneven. He has a reading and spelling age of 8 years. Kane is a loner – he finds it difficult to relate to other students and is easily frustrated. Kane has a short temper and lashes out when he finds himself in a difficult situation. He will swear at other students and punch them if he is angry. When he becomes frustrated with written work, he will tear out pages from his workbook and rip them into tiny pieces or screw them into a tight ball and throw them across the room. The teacher often responds to Kane’s angry outbursts by sending him to sit alone in the book area. Kane has a vivid imagination and is a talented storyteller. He can produce very detailed drawings of dragons and other mythical creatures.
Areas of concern in relation to behaviour • • • •
Kane has difficulty relating to same-age peers. Kane appears not to have the necessary social skills to interact with others. Kane engages in inappropriate behaviour to gain the attention of his teacher. Kane often responds to interaction with peers in an aggressive manner.
Documentation of student behaviour must be reliable, valid and free from bias: • Reliable. To be considered reliable, documentation must be accurate and consistent. This can only be achieved by drawing on a range of information collected over time and in different situations. • Valid. Documentation is valid only when it is based on observations that contain sufficient information to form a fair ‘picture’ of student behaviour. • Free from bias. Observations and interpretations must be accurate, objective and free of bias and prejudice.
Techniques for observing and recording behaviour The following observation techniques provide examples of how HEWs can gather evidence of student behaviour.
SUPPORTING BEHAVIOUR
595
ANECDOTAL RECORD An anecdotal record is a descriptive recollection of an observed behaviour or event. It does not record every detail, but rather highlights the most relevant points. An anecdotal record is recorded after the event. Figure 20.11 is an example of an anecdotal record. Figure 20.11 Anecdotal record Name: Kane
Age: 12 yrs
Time: 10 a.m.
Place: Classroom
Date: 27.02.XX
Observer: Educational Support Worker Kane was assigned to work on some maths tasks with a group of six students. The students were working with counters to solve addition and subtraction tasks. For around 10 minutes Kane simply observed the other students. He did not make any comments nor did he attempt any tasks. The following incident then occurred. Max: ‘Kane, you'd better hurry up and help or else you’ll be in big trouble.’ Kane did not respond to Max. Max: ‘I’m telling on you Kane. We’re all supposed to be helping and you’re just watching!’ As Max stood up to go to the teacher Kane grabbed his legs and Max fell to the floor. Max retaliated by punching Kane. The two boys wrestled on the floor until the class teacher intervened. Kane was sent to sit alone at his desk. Kane put his head in his arms and repeatedly said to himself (in a quiet voice), ‘I hate Max. I hate Mrs Brown.’
RUNNING RECORD A running record gives a written account of everything a student does or says in a fixed period (Figure 20.12). Running records are very time-consuming and often difficult to compile, Figure 20.12 Running record Target Student: Kane
Age: 12 yrs
Time: 11.30 a.m.
Place: Library
Date: 01.03.XX
Observer: Educational Support Worker Kane is sitting at a table with three other students, Nardia, Jessie & Dillan. Kane is slightly turned away from the students with his body twisted at an awkward angle. Nardia and Jessie are listening to Dillan who is talking animatedly about his book on dinosaurs. Kane appears to be listening to Dillan but does not make eye contact with him or make any comments. Mr Green, the library teacher, approaches the group. ‘Dillan, this is quiet reading time.’ As soon as Mr Green walks away Kane turns to Dillan: ‘That’s a baby book you’re reading. Dinosaurs are for babies!’ Dillan: ‘No they’re not! You just got a stupid book about dogs!’ Kane quickly grabs Dillan’s book and knocks it to the floor. Nardia and Jessie tell Kane he’s naughty. Nardia goes off to find Mr Green. Kane stands up and walks behind a bookcase and sits on the floor.
especially if there is a lot of action taking place. They also require the observer to be fully occupied with the recording. TIME SAMPLE Figure 20.13 is an example of a time sample. Observations are taken at set times and for a particular length of time – for example, the ESW observes and records Kane’s behaviour for two minutes every half hour between 9 a.m. and 10.45 a.m. Figure 20.13 Time sample Target Student: Kane
Age: 12 yrs
Date: 01.03.XX
Place: Classroom Observer: Educational Support Worker 9.15 a.m.
The students have been asked to select a book, read it and then write about it. Kane is at the reading table looking through a book about wild animals. He is alone. He takes the book back to his table, flips the pages quickly then closes the book. He begins to draw a picture (of a tiger?).
9.45 a.m.
Kane is working with some sorting materials. He has sorted the counters into colours and is lining each set of counters into rows. He is talking softly to himself (cannot hear what he is saying). Mrs Brown approaches: ‘Kane you’re supposed to be using those counters to do your maths. Now please get started.’ Kane looks directly at Mrs Brown and using his arm in a sweeping motion scatters the counters across the table and onto the floor. He maintains direct eye contact with Mrs Brown. Mrs Brown: ‘Kane pick the counters up and then go and sit by my table.’ Kane flops to the floor and starts to pick up the counters. He throws them onto his desk. Mrs Brown: ‘Kane, that’s not the way to pick up the counters. Go and sit next to my table now.’ Kane smiles and walks to the table and lies underneath it. Mrs Brown ignores this behaviour.
10.15 a.m.
Kane is at his desk. He has lined all of the items on his desk in a row and is touching each one in a repetitious action. The other students are working on patterns. Kane picks up his ruler and starts to tap it on the table. He looks at the teacher. Mrs Brown ignores this behaviour. The tapping gets louder. Mrs Brown walks over to Kane and takes the ruler. Kane then begins to drum on the table with his fingers.
10.45 a.m.
The students are told they may go outside for recess. Kane runs to the door, pushing others out of the way, saying ‘Move dumbheads’.
A time sample provides a clear picture of Kane’s behaviour; however, the ESW will need a number of such observations before a pattern of behaviour emerges. EVENT SAMPLE Figure 20.14 shows an event sample, which records a specific, pre-selected behaviour. Event samples are useful for identifying the conditions under which a particular behaviour occurs and the frequency of the behaviour. From the event sample in Figure 20.14, we can see that Kane does not engage in any interactions with peers and spends his time playing alone or watching others.
SUPPORTING BEHAVIOUR
597
Figure 20.14 Event sample Target Student: Kane
Age: 12 yrs
Date: 03.03.XX
Time: 12–2.50
Place: Playground 10 minute time intervals
Observer: Educational Support Worker Behaviour
12 noon
12.10
12.20
12.30
12.40
12.50
I
I
I
I
I
I
Playing alone Watching others play Interacting with peers
I
Interacting with adults
Figure 20.15 provides another event sample. It is important to record some observations, such as aggressive, destructive and disruptive behaviours, detailing: • the number of times the behaviour is occurring on a daily and/or weekly basis; it is also important to measure the time intervals between the behaviours • the duration of the behaviour – the length of time the student engages in the particular behaviour • the intensity of the behaviour – whether the student becomes uncontrollable; whether they are able to be calmed quickly; whether they become highly agitated. Figure 20.15 Event sample for disruptive behaviour Target Student: Kane
Age: 12 yrs
Date: 02.03.XX
Time: 9–10:45 a.m.
Place: Classroom
Observer: Educational Support Worker Behaviour
9–9.15
9.15–9.30
9.30–9.45
9.45–10.00
10–10.15
10.15–10.30
10.30–10.45
Out of seat
III
I
II
III
II
I
Disrupting others
II
I
I
II
II
Physical taunting
I
Verbal taunting
II
I I
I
I
I
Kane was very unsettled. He displayed frequent out-of-seat behaviour and disrupted the work of other students as he wandered around the room. On three occasions he tapped students on the head to gain their attention. He made negative comments about the work of others. He also used name calling such as ‘dumbhead’, ‘idiot’ and ‘ugly face’ when taunting others.
CASE STUDY | Kane Part 2: Observing and recording Kane’s behaviour Read together, the observations (Figures 20.11–20.15) tell a ‘story’ about Kane, which allows us to see that Kane becomes tense when attempting a writing task. He appears to set himself high (and perhaps unrealistic) expectations, becomes frustrated and gives up easily. This series of observation tells us that Kane needs support with writing tasks. He needs help to set himself realistic and achievement goals. He also needs support to build his resilience. Kane’s angry outbursts are a result of his frustration – he is not setting out to be deliberately aggressive.
Organising the information Once you have completed a number of observations over a period of time, you will need to organise the information so that it can be analysed and interpreted. One way to organise observations is to create a separate portfolio for each student. This can be as simple as a concertina folder divided into sections such as work samples, individual work plans, observations, reports, individual planning sheets and evaluations.
Functional behavioural assessments (FBA) The Centre on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) promotes the use of functional behavioural assessments (FBA) as a process of determining, describing, predicting and identifying the purpose of students’ behaviour. Information gathered from an FBA can be used to devise a response to the behaviour with the aim of eliminating or modifying the behaviour. According to Sugai (1999), an FBA is a systematic process for developing statements about factors that contribute to the occurrence and maintenance of problem behaviour, and serve as a basis for developing a behaviour support plan to eliminate or modify the behaviour. This is explained by the following beliefs: • Behaviours are maintained by the consequence of events (function), such as positive or negative reinforcement. For example, if a student misbehaves and is rewarded by others laughing, then the consequence of the event is that the student’s misbehaviour is reinforced (by laughter) and will continue. • Behaviours are a consequence of antecedent events – that is, what happens before the behaviour occurs. For example, if a student is continually ignored by the teacher (antecedent event), the student may act out in order to gain attention. • In order to change a student’s behaviour, it is essential to consider the antecedents, the consequences and the context in which the behaviour occurs. Sugai (1999) argues that the intensity of behaviour-support plans must be matched to intensity of problem behaviour. He also stresses the importance of clearly defining the behaviour that is of concern: it must be clearly defined, measurable and provide an objective description of individual, groups or sequences of related behaviours. An FBA must also clearly describe the frequency, duration and intensity of the behaviour.
Reframing Reframing is another term used for a functional assessment, and allows adults to rethink challenging behaviours and consider how best to respond. Reframing can be a useful strategy SUPPORTING BEHAVIOUR
599
where chronic behaviour has not responded to other management strategies. Reframing gives ESWs the opportunity to develop new strategies to manage the behaviour. Porter (2001: 77–8) suggests that there are six steps in the reframing process, detailed below. STEP 1: IDENTIFYING CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR Identify the challenging behaviour: exactly what is the student doing and how is it impacting others? We will use Kane as an example to illustrate points. Simply stating that Kane is ‘antisocial’ is not helpful. It is necessary to specifically identify the behaviour that is of concern – for example, ‘Kane rarely interacts with other students. Kane often resorts to the use of physical aggression to resolve conflict. Kane is easily frustrated when he is unable to complete set work.’ Describe what is occurring: record who does what, when they do it, and who gets involved in trying to fix the problem. What function does the behaviour serve for the student? What does the student usually obtain and what does the student gain from the behaviour? Does the student usually obtain the outcome they want or avoid an undesirable outcome? STEP 2: SELECT OBSERVATION STRATEGIES The challenging behaviour should be observed in several different settings or situations – for example, individual tasks, group tasks or transition times. Observation in a variety of situations will allow the adult to observe where the challenging behaviour occurs, what happened immediately before, who was involved, the specific activities taking place and the time when the behaviour occurred. It will also provide the adult with information about what is occurring when the student is not exhibiting the challenging behaviour. This information is equally important, as it allows the adult to develop a much clearer understanding of how the student is functioning. When observing, the adult should consider how the daily teaching program is impacting or influencing the student’s behaviour. For example, the challenging behaviour may occur most often when there is minimal supervision and direction. The adult might decide it would be particularly useful to observe what Kane does when he is working in a small group. What does Kane do when he can’t complete a task? STEP 3: IDENTIFY YOUR PRESENT EXPLANATION FOR THE BEHAVIOUR – WHY IS THE BEHAVIOUR OCCURRING? This is the point at which the observer can think more deeply about why the behaviour might be occurring. Using all the information gathered, the observer should be able to identify possible motivations or reasons for a student’s behaviour. There could be a number of reasons for Kane’s behaviour: temperament, feeling overwhelmed, low self-esteem or difficulty expressing his feelings in an appropriate manner. STEP 4: DESCRIBE PRESENT CORRECTIVE ATTEMPTS – DESCRIBE THE ADULT RESPONSE AND ITS EFFECT The teacher’s present response of isolating Kane for his angry outbursts has not resulted in any changes in his behaviour. STEP 5: GENERATE A NEW EXPLANATION Look at what is maintaining the behaviour rather than what might have triggered it. For example, does the behaviour elicit a particular response from adults? In the case of Kane, the teacher isolates Kane, which may in fact reinforce his behaviour as he no longer has to participate with the other students. STEP 6: CHANGE HOW YOU RESPOND Develop new ways to respond to the targeted behaviours that will result in positive changes in the student.
20.8 Establishing and implementing a behaviour intervention plan A behaviour intervention plan (BIP), like an IEP, is a plan of inclusion. It defines the barriers to participating in an educational setting and allows teachers (and families) to identify what makes the school environment challenging for the student. It identifies the adaptations or adjustments that can be made to support the student to modify and change their behaviour. This will include accommodations such as posters showing step-by-step reminders of what the student can do when angry or upset, or providing the student with a visual organiser to assist the student to predict and follow the daily timetable. It also includes modifications such as creating a quiet space where the student can spend some time alone. A BIP will require similar information to an IEP – for example, the student’s background, health issues, diagnosed disabilities, assessment result, student’s strengths, interests and weaknesses; agencies involved, long-term and short-term goals and home–school liaison. In addition, a BIP will include: Figure 20.16 Example of a poster supporting students to modify their behaviour When I feel
Angry
annoyed
Frustrated
use a fidget toy
take a break and have a drink of water
I can
close my eyes and practise my deep breathing
•
• • • • • • •
a description of the behaviours of concern – what the student does/says; where the behaviour typically occurs; the frequency and duration of the behaviour; the intensity of the behaviour; whether there are any identifiable patterns to the behaviour identification of the student’s needs – what are the needs that are not being met and how can these be identified and acted upon? the behaviour-management strategies that have been used in the past and their effectiveness a list of known behaviour triggers – what are the typical circumstances? a description of any early warning signs, such as talking quickly, becoming agitated, pacing, mumbling to self how the student currently communicates needs, concerns and distress how the student responds to adult intervention and consequences whether the student is able to make the connection between their behaviour and the consequences
SUPPORTING BEHAVIOUR
601
•
• • • •
identification of short-term goals: – the behaviours required – the skills the student needs – for example, how to calm oneself when angry or upset, how to communicate when upset, anxious, worried, angry and so on adaptations and modifications, such as reducing or removing potential triggers the positive consequences that can be applied for desired behaviours the strategies that will be used to modify or reduce the behaviour the consequences that will be applied for behaviours.
Setting goals and objectives To be effective, goals for a BIP should be devised specifically to meet the needs and abilities of each student. Consideration should be given to what is realistically achievable by the student in a specific timeframe. The goal of any BIP should be to improve the student’s self-esteem and promote selfregulation. A BIP should aim to put in place concrete, well-defined strategies that can guide and support the student to make deliberate choices to engage in positive rather than negative behaviours. The technique of using SMART goals, as explored in Chapter 7, can be used. SMART goals should be clear and unambiguous. They can be evaluated and adjusted easily if it becomes apparent that they are not working, are not realistically attainable or are no longer relevant to the student’s needs.
CASE STUDY | Kane Part 3: Setting goals for Kane In the case of Kane, the behaviours of concern include poor social skills, anger and aggression towards others (poor self-regulation) and low self-esteem, which means that Kane avoids tasks and tends to give up easily when faced with challenging tasks. Goals for Kane might include: supporting his social and emotional development in order to build his self-esteem • successfully completing a written task • • using words instead of hitting others. Based on the goals, a number of specific objectives can be devised that could be put in place to help Kane to achieve the stated goals. In order for Kane to be a successful learner, he must regard himself as capable. A primary task for the teacher is to support Kane’s social and emotional development. For example, developing self-confidence is essential if Kane is to fully engage in learning, as well as develop friendships, improve his ability to interact positively with peers and use his language to express his emotions rather than lash out at others. It is also important at this point to look closely at Kane’s strengths and interests, and to incorporate these into planned activities. For example, knowing Kane enjoys drawing and storytelling – an objective might include: ‘Kane will create a told story for the ESW to record which he will then illustrate.’ Another specific objective for Kane might be: ‘Kane will say ‘‘stop’’ instead of lashing out if he is unhappy with a peer.’ Kane constantly destroys his written work. The objective is: ‘Kane will complete a writing experience without destroying his work.’ How will this be achieved? Kane has poor spelling skills and becomes easily frustrated when he makes mistakes. The ESW could work with Kane to create a personal dictionary or have Kane use the computer when recording text. Kane could be shown how to use the spell check. The ESW could also act as a scribe and record text dictated by Kane. The revised objective will be: ‘Kane will dictate a story for the ESW to record or type his story on the computer and use the spell check.’ This would give Kane the opportunity to successfully complete the task and also provide the ESW with the opportunity to reinforce positive behaviour. The ESW and Kane could work together on words that Kane was not able to spell without the added frustration Kane experiences when attempting to write text.
Creating SMART goals Figure 20.17 SMART goals for Kane Specific
The goals specifically identify the required behaviour – for example, ‘Kane will sit at his allocated table and complete two set tasks each morning between 9.15 a.m. and 10.15 a.m., without touching others.’
Measurable
The goals must be written so that they are observable and therefore easily measured – for example, ‘Did Kane complete the tasks set by the teacher?’
Achievable
The goals must reflect the ability, temperament and needs of the student. In the case of Kane, limiting the goal to two tasks is reasonable and attainable.
Relevant
The goals must be relevant to the student’s situation and the classroom routine. Setting Kane a target of completing two tasks each morning allows him to participate in the normal daily routine.
Time limited and timely
Setting a time limit also makes the goal more achievable for the student. In the case of Kane, he has been given a realistic timeframe to complete two tasks. The timeframe is not open-ended, nor is it too short. It will assist Kane to develop time-management skills while enabling him to work at a steady pace.
Determining behaviour-intervention strategies A range of intervention strategies may be put in place as part of the BIP. These may include adaptations and modifications as well as direct behaviour-management strategies. Other suggestions range through verbal and/or concrete reinforcement, role-modelling, suggesting, directing and redirecting, reminding, explaining and coaching. Explicit intentional teaching of behaviours includes conflict resolution, deep breathing or taking time out to calm down. Intentional teaching of social and emotional skills includes useful hints on how to be a friend, working collaboratively with others, attempting new or challenging tasks without giving up, and identifying one’s own strengths and skills.
Using a team problem-solving approach A team approach to a behaviour intervention plan assists in ensuring objectivity and a greater likelihood of consistency when implementing planned strategies. It also provides opportunities to discuss progress, issues and road blocks as they occur. Working as a team on solutions to manage behaviour allows for the sharing of skills, knowledge and experience. A team approach provides opportunities to share monitoring and evaluation processes.
CASE STUDY | Kane Part 4: Documenting Kane’s BIP Figure 20.18 is a sample of some of the information that may be included in a BIP. In this sample, you can see clearly identified which behaviours are being targeted, a list of the observable behaviours that Kane will be encouraged to achieve, the strategies that will be used to support these behaviours and the evaluation strategies that will be used. Note that in this plan Kane will be required to work with the ESW to document how his behaviour is improving, as well as setbacks, and what he can do to change his behaviour.
SUPPORTING BEHAVIOUR
603
Figure 20.18 Behaviour intervention plan Name of Student: Kane Smith
Class Teacher: Mrs Brown
Date: 22/03/XX
GOAL Description of behaviours Physically and verbally abusing others Non-completion of written tasks Destroying written tasks Out-of-seat behaviour Behaviour goals Kane will complete all tasks in the time allocated. Kane will accept errors or mistakes by not destroying his work. Kane will follow teacher directions, routines, class rules. Kane will follow the classroom conflict resolution strategies. Kane will use positive interactions with his peers. Kane will share ideas, information, and complete tasks when working in a small group. Strategies Arrange seating so that Kane is facing the teacher. Teacher/ESW to give verbal praise for appropriate behaviour. Teacher/ESW to ignore minor inappropriate behaviours where possible. Teacher/ESW to give verbal reminders and/or use cue cards. Teacher/ESW to provide Kane with ongoing strategies to manage temper and aggressive outbursts. Teacher/ESW to implement a reward system. Kane to set daily goal for improvement. Provide a quiet retreat area where Kane will withdraw from the class for five minutes, calm himself and prepare to rejoin the class. Kane will develop a portfolio about himself, his family and his achievements. Evaluation strategies Daily tally sheet to record compliance and non-compliance (this is to be completed by teacher and Kane). Written observations. Kane will be required to use a behaviour journal to record his progress, identify any setbacks and suggest things he can do to change his behaviour (on a weekly basis). To assist Kane with this task the ESW will act as a scribe. It is expected that all students will behave responsibly in accordance with the school’s Code of Conduct. Consequences for unacceptable behaviour will be withdrawal of afternoon free-choice activity time; writing an apology; email sent to parents; in extreme situations sent to Principal to explain poor behaviour. Principal on positive progress, work on project of interest for 15 minutes with another student, listen to music or recorded stories for 15 minutes. Consequence of not meeting set goal: Withdrawal of a special privilege. Teacher:
Student:
Parent:
Review date:
Monitor student progress and review strategies An essential element of any behaviour management plan is the process of continual implementation, monitoring, review and planning, as shown in Figure 20.19. During the process of monitoring and reviewing a student’s progress, the teacher and the ESW may work together to refine the goals, review the effectiveness of the strategies being used and set new objectives for the student. Documenting a student’s responses to the BIP and recording gradual changes can also be an excellent incentive for the student. Figure 20.19 Cycle of a BIP Functional assessment
Planning
Monitoring evaluation
Implementation
Challenging behaviour is learned over a period of time and is often difficult to change. Students go through a process of ‘unlearning’ before they can apply new skills. Challenging behaviour can be habit forming, so learning new ways to behave takes time. Some students will respond quickly to a BIP; for many, however, the challenging behaviours will escalate in response to changes in the way these behaviours are managed. Students must not only unlearn their behaviours; they must also adapt to the changed management of their behaviours and also learn new behaviours – this takes time and patience, and cannot be hurried. To evaluate the effectiveness of a BIP, it is necessary to undertake a new functional assessment and compare this to the original functional assessment. This will provide a very clear picture of any changes that have occurred in the student’s behaviour. It should also identify the effectiveness of any action taken to modify the environment and attempts to eliminate or modify known triggers for the behaviours. This process allows you to clearly see what the behaviours looked like before intervention and what they look like for a period of time after intervention. It should indicate: • changes/decreases in challenging behaviours (quality and quantity) • evidence of new behaviours and/or skills • evidence of achievement or working towards primary goals (in Kane’s case social and emotional development) • consistency in the effectiveness of the behaviour management strategies as well as changes/ modifications to the environment • the student’s perspective (if appropriate) – in the case of Kane, he can be encouraged to reflect on how his behaviours have changed and the positive benefits of these changes, such as developing friendships.
SUPPORTING BEHAVIOUR
605
CASE STUDY | Kane Part 5: Kane’s emotional and social development EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT The class is working on a production for the end-of-term concert. It is going to write and tell a story about dragons and other mythical creatures. The teacher and the ESW see this as a great opportunity to work on Kane’s social and emotional development. Kane will work with six other students and the ESW on creating a backdrop for the story. ESW Pete will support Kane to interact with his peers and work collaboratively to design and produce the backdrop. Pete has paired Kane with Jarrod, who is very easygoing and also keen on drawing dragons. Pete talks to Kane about how to work cooperatively and begins each session by leading a review and planning discussion. Pete role-models sharing ideas – talking about planning, colour and design, and the importance of working together. The project takes six weeks to complete and during that time Pete has seen real improvement in Kane’s confidence, willingness to take risks with his drawing and interactions with his peers. Both Pete and the class teacher are pleased with Kane’s progress. Pete: ‘This project allowed Kane to work on building positive relationships with his peers. Working alongside Jarrod was great for Kane. When Jarrod made a mistake or wasn’t happy with his drawing, he said so, laughed or expressed frustration but then just got on with fixing it. He was also very supportive of Kane and didn’t let him get away with giving up if something went wrong. Jarrod was great for Kane. He’d say, ‘‘Come on Kane, give it a rest, no one’s perfect man, not even me!’’ Jarrod made Kane laugh. It was wonderful to see Kane gaining some real confidence.’
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Pete: ‘I’ve been working with Kane to identify the skills needed to make and sustain friendships. I really had to spell it out for Kane as he didn’t really have a clue how to make friends. We actually made a list of things that people do to be friendly and then we tried to put them into practice. We’re not there yet but I see Kane making a real effort to use the skills we’ve been working on. ‘These skills include: • complimenting others • stopping and thinking before speaking • if you can’t think of something positive to say, then not saying anything • sharing ideas and listening to the ideas of others • when someone talks to you, saying something back to keep the conversation going (this has been tough for Kane – he often can’t think of what to say so we are working on open-ended questions) • being aware that not everyone will want to be your friend and that’s okay. Kane: ‘Pete has been helping me to make friends and not be so angry all the time. It’s been good because I never thought anyone would want to be my friend but now I think Jarrod is my friend and so are some of the other kids. Jarrod is a funny guy. He says to me, ‘‘Hey man, don’t get all heated up, just stay cool’’.’
DISCUSSION There are five parts to this case study spread throughout the chapter. 1 Revisit and discuss each case study entry to build an understanding of the factors that contribute to Kane’s behaviour. 2 Discuss the strategies used by the teacher and ESW to modify Kane’s behaviour and develop his self-esteem.
Summary The goal in any behaviour-management plan is to build the student’s self-esteem and increase self-regulation – this supports the student to be in control of their own behaviour and make positive behaviour choices. The degree to which this can or will be achieved depends on a range of factors that are often outside the control of the teacher, the ESW and the student. The journey towards self-regulation can be a long one. Fortunately, over time, most children and young people are able to learn and apply the rules for socially acceptable behaviour. However, because of temperament, disability, family and environmental factors, many students struggle to manage their behaviour and regulate their emotions. These students challenge the skills of educators; however, it must be remembered that these are the students who are most in need of adult support.
Discussion questions 1
Discuss the meaning of the following statement: ‘Behaviour does not occur in isolation but in a social context.’ 2 Each of us has expectations of what might be considered ‘acceptable’ and ‘unacceptable’ behaviours based on age and circumstances. Discuss these expectations, sharing examples of your own beliefs. Identify and discuss why you hold these beliefs.
3 Discuss the three stages of discipline from Figure 20.8. As an ESW, at which stage do you feel you might have the most influence or greatest opportunities for intervention? 4 The Queensland Schools Alliance Against Violence (QSAAV) defines interpersonal violence as ‘the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual’. Discuss the meaning of intentional in this definition. Share and discuss examples of what you may interpret as ‘intentional’ violence.
Self-check questions 1 Behaviour management: a What should be the ultimate goal of any behaviour-management practice? b Explain the meaning of what Gartrell (2004) describes as ‘mistaken behaviour’. c Explain why it is important to understand the reason why a student may behave in a certain way. 2 For this task, refer to the examples of challenging behaviours provided by the Department of Education, Victoria on page 587 of your textbook and also Figure 20.8. Discuss these examples and think about what you might consider challenging. 3 Also consider the five levels of misbehaviour in Figure 20.8. Do you agree with this ranking – would you rank these behaviours differently? 4 What role does the family play in how children learn about behaviour expectations? 5 List examples of chronic adverse experiences that are likely to have a negative impact on behaviour. 6 Explain the term ‘emotional literacy’. 7 According to Denham and colleagues (2009) (see page 567), what are the four key dimensions of
8 9 10
11 12 13 14
children’s social and emotional development that influence their behaviour? Explain the meaning of ‘temperament’. How can educators promote an emotionally safe learning environment? Relationships of trust between teachers and students support the development of a range of skills. Briefly describe each of these skills: a Self-awareness b Social awareness c Self-management d Responsible decision-making e Relationship skills Explain/discuss the key differences between guidance, discipline and punishment. Explain the concept of natural and logical consequences. Explain why educators may have varying definitions of what constitutes ‘challenging behaviours’. Describe the purpose of behaviour contracts.
SUPPORTING BEHAVIOUR
607
Activities 1
Page 570 of your textbook provides examples of what a ‘safe, emotionally supportive environment for students’ looks like. Dividing into groups, select one example and discuss why it is an example of a safe, emotionally supportive environment for students. Report the key points of your discussion to the group. 2 Figure 20.3 lists the name of the policy related to behaviour for each state and territory. Search online for an example of the policy relevant to your location and identify and discuss the key features of the policy. 3 For this task, refer to the guidance continuum on page 575. Identify the most appropriate response to each student’s behaviour (may use a combination of responses). Explain your choice of response. a Ashlee and Kirra (6 years) are the best of friends and the worst of enemies. As they are working on their painting, you overhear them arguing about who is the fastest runner. While their voices are getting
louder, they appear not to be disturbing the other students. b Victor and Joe (9 years) are fighting over a piece of equipment. ‘I had it first. Give it back.’ Victor pulls the bat from Joe, causing Joe to fall over. c April (11 years) has been disrupting the other students in the small group. She has been asked to stop and has been given a warning. 4 For this task, refer to the scenario ‘Setting clear boundaries’ on page 583. In this scenario, Pat, an ESW with 20 years’ experience, passes on his knowledge of behaviour management to newly appointed ESWs. Discuss the strategies Pat has used to manage behaviours. Why are these strategies likely to be effective? 5 For this task, refer to ‘Behaviour Management Strategies to Avoid’ on page 585. Discuss the behaviours to be avoided, focusing particularly on why they should be avoided.
REFERENCES CHAPTER 1 Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) (2013a), General Capabilities in the Australian Curriculum, ACARA, Canberra, https://k10outline.scsa.wa.edu.au/home/ p-10-curriculum/general-capabilities-over/general-capabilitiesoverview/Australian-Curriculum-General-Capabilities.pdf. —— (2013b), The Shape of the Australian Curriculum: Version 4.0, ACARA, Canberra. —— (2016) Australian Curriculum: English, Version 8.3, ACARA, Canberra, https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10-curriculum/english. —— (2018), Introduction to the National Literacy and Numeracy Learning Progression, ACARA, Canberra. Australian Human Rights Commission (AHRC) (2012). ‘Know your rights: About us’, https://www.humanrights.gov.au/our-work/ commission-general/publications/know-your-rights-about-us. Dahlberg, G. & Moss, P. (2005), Ethics and Politics in Early Childhood Education, Routledge, London. In Putting Children First, the magazine of the National Childcare Accreditation Council (NCAC) Issue 29 March 2009 (Pages 9–11). (p. 1). Fair Work Ombudsman (2018), National Employment Standards, https://www.fairwork.gov.au/employee-entitlements/nationalemployment-standards.
https://www.humanrights.gov.au/employers/good-practice-goodbusiness-factsheets/quick-guide-australian-discrimination-laws. Cancer Council Victoria (2014). Sample SunSmart Policy for Schools, http://www.sunsmart.com.au. Department of Education and Children’s Services, SA (2007), ‘Duty of care owed by teachers’, section 1 of Administrative Instructions & Guidelines, SA Government, Adelaide, http://www.decd.sa. gov.au/ docs/documents/1/DutyofCare.pdf. Department of Education and Early Childhood Development, Victoria (2011), ICT Acceptable Use Policy, Victorian Government, Melbourne, http://www.education.vic.gov.au/Documents/school/ principals/infrastructure/ictacceptableusepolicy.pdf. Department of Education, Tasmania (2018), Employment Principles, https://documentcentre.education.tas.gov.au/Documents/ Employment-Principles.pdf. Department of Education, WA (2018). Duty of Care for Students, http://det.wa.edu.au/policies/detcms/navigation/safety-and-welfare/ duty-of-care-for-students. Kidsafe Queensland (2016), ‘Playground safety’, http://www. kidsafeqld.com.au/playground-safety.
Kennedy, A., (2009), ‘Ethics: a part of evryday practice in child care’, Putting Children First, the magazine of the National Childcare Accreditation Council (NCAC) Issue 29 March 2009 (Pages 9–11). ª 2018 Australian Children’s Education and Care Quality Authority.
Mitchell, R., Curtis, K. & Foster, K. (2017), Hospitalised Injury and Health Outcomes of Children in Australia (2002–2012), Australian Institute of Health Innovation, Macquarie University, Sydney Nursing School, University of Sydney, North Western Mental Health & School of Nursing, Midwifery & Paramedicine, Australian Catholic University, http://www.paediatric injuryoutcomes.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/ 06/Australian-child-injury-report_FINAL-070617.pdf.
NSW Department of Education (2016), The Code of Conduct, https://education.nsw.gov.au/policy-library/associated-documents/ The-2014-Code-of-Conduct-approved-by-Minister-1-July-2014updated-Dec-2016-not-tracked.pdf.
National Asthma Council Australia (2015), ‘Asthma action plans’, http://www.nationalasthma.org.au/health-professionals/asthmaaction-plans. Content adapted with permission from the National Asthma Council Australia.
CHAPTER 2
United Nations (1990), Convention on the Rights of the Child, United Nations, Geneva, Australian Human Rights Commission, https:// www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx. ª Australian Human Rights Commission 2017. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
Allergy and Anaphylaxis Australia (2012), ‘What is anaphylaxis?’, http:// www.allergyfacts.org.au. ª Allergy and Anaphylaxis Australia Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy (ASCIA) (2010), ‘What is allergy?’, ASCIA Education Resources (AER) Patient Information, Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy, http://www.allergy.org.au/images/stories/aer/ infobulletins/2010pdf/AER_What_is_Allergy.pdf.
Vale, S., Smith, J., Said, M., Dunne, G., Mullins, R. & Loh, R. (2013), ‘ASCIA guidelines for prevention of anaphylaxis in schools, pre-schools and childcare (2012 update)’, Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, vol. 49, no. 5, pp. 342–5, http://www.allergy.org.au/images/stories/ pospapers/ASCIA_guidelines_anaphylaxis_2012.pdf pp. 342–3.
Australian Education Act 2013, Department of Education and Training, https://www.education.gov.au/australian-education-act-2013.
Victoria State Government (2018), School Policy Advisory Guide – Education and Training, http://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/ principals/spag/safety/Pages/dutyofcare.aspx.
Australian Human Rights Commission (AHRC) (2014), A Quick Guide to Australian Discrimination Laws, AHRC, Sydney,
Williams, A. & McWilliams, C. (2014). MGMT2, 2nd Asia-Pacific edn, Cengage Learning, Melbourne.
609
CHAPTER 3 Ashman, A. & Elkins, J. (2012), Education for Inclusion and Diversity, 4th edn, Pearson, Sydney. Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) (2016), Census of Population and Housing, ABS, Canberra. CC-BY-4.0 licence. Australian Catholic University (2015), ‘15 idioms commonly used in Australia’, https://internationalblog.acu.edu.au/15-idiomscommonly-used-in-australia. ª 2017 Australian Catholic University. Australian Human Rights Commission (AHRC) (2003), Social Justice and Human Rights for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, information sheet, AHRC, Sydney, http://www. humanrights.gov.au/ sites/default/files/content/social_justice/infosheet/infosheet_sj.pdf. —— (2010), Bringing Them Home, Australian Human Rights Commission, Canberra, https://www.humanrights.gov.au/sites/default/files/content/ education/bringing_them_home/Individual%20resources%20and %20activities/10_RS_Australia_overview.pdf. —— (2014), Face the Facts: Cultural Diversity, AHRC, Sydney, https://www.humanrights.gov.au/sites/default/files/ FTFCulturalDiversity.pdf. ª Australian Human Rights Commission 2017. CC-BY-4.0 licence. —— (2016), Building Belonging: A Toolkit for Early Childhood Educators on Cultural Diversity and Responding to Prejudice – Educator Guide, AHRC, Sydney. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) (2012), A Picture of Australia’s Children 2012, AIHW, Canberra, http:// www.aihw.gov.au/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id= 10737423340. Ball, J. (2015), Cultural Safety in Practice with Children, Families and Communities, School of Child and Youth Care, University of Victoria, Victoria, Canada, http://www.ecdip.org/docs/pdf/ Cultural%20Safety%20Poster.pdf. Changing Minds, Hall’s cultural factors, http://changingminds.org/ explanations/culture/hall_culture.htm. Cooper, J., He, Y. & Levin, B.B. (2011), Developing Critical Cultural Competence: A Guide for 21st-Century Educators, Corwin Press, Thousand Oaks, CA. Department of Community Services (NSW) (2009), Working with Aboriginal People and Communities: A Practice Resource, NSW Department of Community Services, Sydney, http://www. community.nsw.gov.au/docswr/_assets/main/documents/ working_with_aboriginal.pdf. Dodson, M. (1993), Annual Report of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Justice Commission, Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC), Sydney, http://www. austlii.edu.au/au/other/IndigLRes/1993/3/index.html. Eades, D. (n.d.), Aboriginal English: Language Varieties, http://www. hawaii.edu/satocenter/langnet/definitions/aboriginal.html. Eckermann, A.-K., Dowd, T. & Jeffs, L. (2009). ‘Culture and nursing practice’, in J. Crisp & C. Taylor (eds), Potter and Perry’s Fundamentals of Nursing, 3rd edn, Mosby Elsevier, Sydney, pp. 118–24.
Equal Opportunity Commission of South Australia (2011), Equal Opportunity at Work: A Handbook for Employers in South Australia, Government of South Australia, Adelaide, https:// eoc.sa.gov.au/sites/default/files/inline-files/EO%20at %20Work_1.pdf. Jalongo, M.R. & Isenberg, J.P. (2012), Exploring Your Role in Early Childhood Education, 4th edn, Pearson Education, London. Koori Human Services Unit (2008), Improving Care for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Patients: Resource Kit, Department of Human Services Victoria. Please Note: The term ‘Koori’ is the word Aboriginal people of Victoria, parts of NSW and Tasmania use for themselves. The term was used for the purpose of the quote. We acknowledge the diversity of Aboriginal Australian people. Secretariat of National Aboriginal and Islander Child Care (SNAICC). http://www.supportingcarers.snaicc.org.au/connectingto-culture/cultural-safety/ (Accessed September 2015). LeBaron, M. (2003), ‘Cross-cultural communication’, in G. Burgess & H. Burgess (eds), Beyond Intractability, Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, http:// www.beyondintractability.org/essay/cross-cultural_communication. Loden, M. & Rosener, J.B. (1991), Workforce America!, Business One Irwin, Homewood, IL. Martin, K. (1999). ‘When ‘‘why?’’ becomes ‘‘why not?’’: Cultural safety and Aboriginal early childhood services’, Every Child, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 6–7. NSW Health (2004), Communicating Positively: A Guide to Appropriate Aboriginal Terminology, NSW Health, Sydney, http:// www.health.nsw.gov.au/aboriginal/Publications/pubterminology.pdf. Safe Work Australia (2015), ‘Mental health’, https:// www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/topic/mental-health. Samson, D. & Daft, R.L. (2015), Management, 5th Asia-Pacific ed., Cengage Learning, Melbourne. Secretariat of National Aboriginal and Islander Child Care (SNAICC) (2012), What is Cultural Safety?, http://www.supportingcarers. snaicc.org.au/connecting-to-culture/cultural-safety. Copyright ª 2019 Secretariat of National Aboriginal and Islander Child Care Inc (SNAICC). VicHealth (2013), How Cultural Diversity Can Be Good for Business, Victorian Health Promotion Foundation, Melbourne. Victorian Equal Opportunity and Human Rights Commission (VEOHRC) (2013), Reporting Racism: What You Say Matters, http://www.humanrightscommission.vic.gov.au/media/k2/ attachments/Reporting_Racism_Web_low_res.pdf. Wentling, R.M. & Palma-Rivas, N. (1998, ‘Current status and future trends of diversity initiatives in the workplace: Diversity experts’ perspective’, National Center for Research in Vocational Education Graduate School of Education, University of California at Berkeley, www.nrccte.org/sites/default/. . ./diversity_in_the_workforce_experts_ perspective.pdf. Williams, R. (1998). Cultural Safety: What Does It Mean for Our Work Practice?, Faculty of Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Studies, Northern Territory University, Darwin.
Zion, S., Kozleski, E. & Fulton, M. (2005), Understanding Culture, National Institute for Urban School Improvement, Olympia, WA, https:// www.researchgate.net/publication/296486383_Understanding_Culture. ª Urbanschools.org.
CHAPTER 4 Black Dog Institute (2014), Workplace Wellbeing Fact Sheet, http:// www.blackdoginstitute.org.au/docs/WorkplaceWellbeing.pdf. Comcare (2008), Officewise: A Guide to Health and Safety in the Office, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, https:// www.comcare.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/39570/ Officewise_OHS1_Apr_10.pdf. ª Commonwealth of Australia 2018 CC-BY-4.0 licence. Guetzloe, E. (2006). ‘Practical Strategies for Working With Students Who Display Aggression and Violence’. CYC Online. Issue 86, March. http://www.cyc-net.org/cyc-online/cycol-0306-guetzloe.html. National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) (2012), Staying Healthy: Preventing Infectious Diseases in Early Childhood Education and Care Services, 5th edn, NHMRC, Canberra. ª Commonwealth of Australia 2018 CC-BY-3.0 AU licence. NSW Department of Education and Communities (2012), ‘Legal liability and rights of staff in relation to serious incidents which involve potential risk of injury to persons on departmental premises’, Legal Issues Bulletin, no. 19, p. 2. ª State of New South Wales (Department of Education), 2018. CC-BY-4.0 licence. NSW Department of Education and Training (2018), Guidelines Issued Under Part 5a of the Education Act 1990 for the Management of Health and Safety Risks Posed to Schools by a Student’s Violent Behaviour, NSW Government, Sydney, https:// www.det.nsw.edu.au/media/downloads/legislation/mhsguidelines.pdf. Product Safety Australia (2015), Chemicals in Consumer Products, https://www.productsafety.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/ 975127/fromItemId/973881. Safe Work Australia (2011a), Model Code of Practice: Hazardous Manual Tasks, Code of Practice: Hazardous Manual Tasks, Safe Work Australia, Canberra, http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/doc/ model-code-practice-hazardous-manual-tasks. ª Commonwealth of Australia 2018 CC-BY-4.0 licence. —— (2011b), How to Manage Work Health and Safety Risks Code of Practice, Safe Work Australia, Canberra, https:// www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/system/files/documents/1702/ how_to_manage_whs_risks.pdf. —— (2012). Guide to the Model Work Health and Safety Act, Safe Work Australia, Canberra, http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/ SWA/about/Publications/Documents/621/Guide_Model_WHS_ Regulations.pdf. ª Commonwealth of Australia 2018 CC-BY-4.0 licence. —— (2016), Guide for Preventing and Responding to Workplace Bullying, Safe Work Australia, Canberra, https://www. safeworkaustralia.gov.au/doc/guide-preventing-and-respondingworkplace-bullying. ª Commonwealth of Australia 2018 CC-BY4.0 licence.
Standing Council on School Education and Early Childhood (SCSEEC) (2013), National Safe Schools Framework, Education Services Australia, Melbourne, http://www.safeschoolshub.edu.au/ documents/nationalsafeschoolsframework.pdf. State of New South Wales (2015), Work Health and Safety Policy, NSW Government, Sydney. Workfast (2017), Safe Lifting in the Workplace, https://workfast. com.au/blog/toolbox-talk-safe-lifting-information. WorkSafe ACT (2010), Safe Work Procedures, http://www. health.gov. au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/9D831D9E6713F92ACA2 57BF0001F5218/$File/0-5yrACTIVE_Brochure_FA%20SCREEN.pdf. —— (2012), Making Your Small Business Safer & Healthier, WorkSafe ACT, Canberra, http://www.worksafety.act.gov.au/publication/view/1099. WorkSafe Victoria (2014), A Guide for Employers Preventing and Responding to Work-related Violence, http://www.worksafe. vic.gov.au/safety-and-prevention/health-andsafety-topics/ occupational-violence.
CHAPTER 5 Australian Institute of Family Studies (AIFS) (2014a), Australian Legal Definitions: When is a Child in Need of Protection?, CFCA Fact Sheet, AIFS, Canberra, https://aifs.gov.au/cfca/publications/ australian-legal-definitions-when-child-need-protection. ª Australian Institute of Family Studies. CC-BY-4.0 licence. —— (2014b), Pre-employment Screening: Working with Children Checks and Police Checks, https://aifs.gov.au/cfca/publications/ pre-employment-screening-working-children-checks-and-policechecks. —— (2014c) Who Abuses Children?, https://aifs.gov.au/cfca/ publications/who-abuses-children. ª Australian Institute of Family Studies. CC-BY-4.0 licence. —— (2017), Child Abuse and Neglect Statistics, https://aifs.gov.au/ cfca/publications/child-abuse-and-neglect-statistics. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) (2014). Child Protection Australia: 2012–13, AIHW, Canberra, http:// www.aihw.gov.au/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=60129548164. Butchart, A., Phinney Harvey, A., Mian, M., Furniss, T. & Kahane, T. (2006), Preventing Child Maltreatment: A Guide to Taking Action and Generating Evidence, World Health Organization and International Society for Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect, Geneva. Child Family Community Australia (CFCA) (2014), Effects of Child Abuse and Neglect for Children and Adolescents, CFCA Fact Sheet, https://www3.aifs.gov.au/cfca/publications/effects-childadolescents-and-neglect-children-and-adolescents. Children’s Hospital Westmead (2014), Shaken Baby Syndrome, Kids’ Health Fact Sheet, http://www.schn.health.nsw.gov.au/parents-andcarers/fact-sheets/shaken-baby-syndrome. Department of Communities, Child Safety and Disabilities Services Qld (2015), Practice Guide: The Assessment of Harm and Risk of Harm, https://www.communities.qld.gov.au/resources/childsafety/ practice-manual/pg-assess-risk-of-harm.pdf.
REFERENCES
611
Department of Education NT (2018), Guidelines: Mandatory Reporting of Harm and Exploitation of Children, NT Government, Darwin, https://education.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/ 257986/mandatory-reporting-of-exploitation-of-harm-andexploitation-guidelines.pdf. Dolgin, K. (2014). The Adolescent: Development, Relationships and Culture, 13th edn, Pearson Education, Harmondsworth. Government of South Australia (2017), Protective Practices for Staff in Their Interactions with Children and Young People: Guidelines for Staff Working or Volunteering in Education and Care Settings 2017, Government of South Australia, Adelaide, https://www. education.sa.gov.au/sites/g/files/net691/f/protective_practices_ for_staff_in_their_interactions_with_children_and_young_people.pdf. Higgins, D.J. (1998), ‘Multi-type maltreatment: Relationships between familial characteristics, maltreatment and adjustment of children and adults’, unpublished PhD thesis, Deakin University, Melbourne. Lasher, L.J. & Sheridan, M.S. (2009), Munchausen By Proxy: Identification, Intervention and Case Management, Haworth Press, Binghampton, NY. Miller, D. & Brown, J. (2014). ‘We Have the Right to Be Safe’: Protecting Disabled Children from Abuse, National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, London, http://www.nspcc. org.uk/preventing-abuse/research-and-resources/right-to-be-safe. Copyright ª 2019 NSPCC. National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) (2017), Talk PANTS and Stay Safe, http://www.nspcc.org.uk/ preventing-abuse/keeping-children-safe/underwear-rule. Copyright ª 2019 NSPCC.
Feinstein, S. (2009), Secrets of the Teenage Brain, Skyhorse, New York. Mental Health Daily 2015, ‘At what age is the brain fully developed?’, 18 February, https://mentalhealthdaily.com/2015/02/18/at-whatage-is-the-brain-fully-developed. National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (NSCDC) (2004), A Science-Based Framework for Early Childhood Policy: Using Evidence to Improve Outcomes in Learning, Behavior, and Health for Vulnerable Children, http://www.developingchild. harvard.edu. Rogoff, B. (2003), The Cultural Nature of Human Development, Oxford University Press: New York.
CHAPTER 7 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) (2016), Australia’s Health 2016, AIHW, Canberra, https://www.aihw.gov.au/getmedia/ 9844cefb-7745-4dd8-9ee2-f4d1c3d6a727/19787-AH16.pdf. aspx?inline=true. CC-BY-3.0 licence. Capon, J. (1984), Perceptual-Motor Lesson Plans, Level 1, Front Row Experience. Byron, CA. Department of Education, WA (2013), Fundamental Movement Skills: Book 1, Western Australian Government, Perth, http://det.wa.edu. au/stepsresources/detcms/navigation/fundamental-movement-skills. Dolgin, K. (2014), The Adolescent: Development, Relationships, and Culture, 13th edn, Pearson Education, Harmondsworth. Jackson, S. & Goossens, L. (2006), Handbook of Adolescent Development, Psychology Press, Bristol.
Our Community Pty Ltd (2018), Child Safety Toolkit: How to Create a Child Safe Organisation, https://acfid.asn.au/sites/site.acfid/files/ resource_document/child_safety_toolkit_2018.pdf.
Jenkins, W. (2012), ‘The motor-cognitive connection: Early fine motor skills as an indicator of future success’, Scientific Learning, 19 April, https://www.scilearn.com/blog/early-fine-motor-skills-cognitiveskills. ª 2018 Scientific Learning Corporation.
Price-Robertson, R. (2012), What is Child Abuse and Neglect? AIFS, Canberra, http://www.aifs.gov.au/cfca/pubs/factsheets/a142091/ index.html. ª Australian Institute of Family Studies. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
Jensen, E. (2005) Teaching with the Brain in Mind, 2nd edn, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Alexandria, VA. Copyright ª Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
State Government of Victoria (2018), The ‘Failure to Disclose’ Offence, Betrayal of Trust Factsheet, http://assets.justice.vic. gov.au/justice/resources/ea484f74-feb7-400e-ad68-9bd0be8e2a40/ failure_to_disclose_betrayal_of_trust_factsheet_2017.pdf. United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) (2018), A Summary of the Rights Under the Convention on the Rights of the Child, Fact Sheet, https://www.unicef.org/crc/files/ Rights_overview.pdf.
CHAPTER 6 Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979), The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Duchesne, S., McMaugh, A., Bochner, S. & Krause, K. (2013), Educational Psychology for Learning and Teaching, 5th edn, Cengage Learning, Melbourne.
Leisman, G., Moustafa, A. & Shafir, T. (2016), ‘Thinking, walking, talking: Integratory motor and cognitive brain function’, Front Public Health, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4879139. Sigelman, C.K. (1999), Lifespan Human Development, CA: Brooks Cole, Pacific Grove. Van Praag, H. (2009), ‘Exercise and the brain: Something to chew on’, Trends in Neuroscience, vol. 32, no. 5, pp. 283–90.
CHAPTER 8 Bandura, A. (1986), Social Foundations of Thought and Action, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Be You (2019a), Resilience Fact Sheet. https://beyou.edu.au/factsheets/wellbeing/resilience. ª Commonwealth of Australia 2019. —— (2019b). Anxiety Fact Sheet. https://beyou.edu.au/fact-sheets/ mental-health-issues-and-conditions/anxiety. ª Commonwealth of Australia 2019.
—— (2019c), Mindfulness Fact Sheet. https://beyou.edu.au/factsheets/wellbeing/mindfulness. ª Commonwealth of Australia 2019.
Relationships, Working Paper No. 1, Center on the Developing Child, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) (2007), Background on Social and Emotional Learning (SEL), University of Illinois, Chicago, IL, http://casel.org/wp-content/ uploads/2011/04/EDC_CASELSELResearchBrief.pdf.
Ontario Maternal, Newborn and Early Child Development Resource Centre (2012), Best Start: Building Resilience in Young Children, http://www.beststart.org/resources/hlthy_chld_dev/pdf/ BSRC_Resilience_English_fnl.pdf.
Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR) (2005), National Framework for Values Education in Australian Schools, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, http:// www.curriculum.edu.au/values/val_national_framework_for_ values_education,8757.html.
Piaget, J. (1965), The Moral Judgment of the Child, The Free Press, New York.
Dolgin, K. (2014), The Adolescent: Development, Relationships, and Culture, 13th edn, Pearson Education, Harmondsworth. Dreikurs, R. (1968), Psychology in the Classroom, 2nd edn, Harper & Row, New York. Duchesne, S., McMaugh, A., Bochner, S. & Krause, K. (2019), Educational Psychology for Learning and Teaching, 6th edn, Cengage Learning, Melbourne. Eisenberg, N. (1986), Altruistic Emotion, Cognition and Behavior, Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ. Erikson, E. (1963), Childhood and Society, W.W. Norton, New York. Gardner, H. (1993), Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice, Basic Books, New York. Gilligan, C. (1982), In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Goleman, D. (2006), Emotional Intelligence, Bantam Books, New York. Hunter Institute of Mental Health (2010), Response Ability Vocational Education & Training Resources: Children’s Services, Hunter Institute of Mental Health, Newcastle. Jackson, S. & Goossens, L. (2006), Handbook of Adolescent Development, Psychology Press, Bristol. Jensen, E. (2005), Teaching with the Brain in Mind, 2nd edn, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Alexandria, VA. Kohlberg, L. (1976), ‘The cognitive-developmental approach to moral education’, in A. Garrod (ed.), Learning for Life: Moral Education Theory and Practice, Praeger, Westport, CT. Lawrence, D., Johnson, S., Hafekost, J., Boterhoven De Haan, K., Sawyer, M., Ainley, J., Zubrick, S.R. (2015), The Mental Health of Children and Adolescents. Report on the second Australian Child and Adolescent Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing. Department of Health, Canberra. p.25. https://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/ publishing.nsf/Content/ 9DA8CA21306FE6EDCA257E2700016945/%24File/child2.pdf. ª Commonwealth of Australia 2015. National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN) (2018), ‘About child trauma: The National Child Traumatic Stress Network’, https:// www.nctsn.org/what-is-child-trauma/about-child-trauma. National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (NSCDC) (2004), Young Children Develop in an Environment of
Prior, M., Sanson, A., Smart, D. & Oberklaid, F. (2000), Pathways from Infancy to Adolescence: Australian Temperament Project 1983–2000, Australian Institute of Family Studies, Melbourne. Rest, J.R. (1979), Development in Judging Moral Issues, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN. —— (1986), Moral Development: Advances in Research and Theory, Praeger, New York. Shonkoff, J. & Phillips, D. (2000), From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development, National Academy Press, Washington, DC. Values Education Good Practice Schools Project (2008), At the Heart of What We Do: Values Education at the Centre of Schooling. The Final Report of the Values Education Good Practice Schools Project – Stage 2, http://www.curriculum.edu.au/verve/_resources/VEGPSP2_final_3.pdf. ª Commonwealth of Australia 2008. Warhol, J. (ed.) (1998), New Perspectives in Early Emotional Development, Pediatric Institute Ltd, Johnson & Johnson, Washington, DC. Weiten, W. (2001), Psychology: Themes and Variations (with InfoTrac), 5th edn, Cengage Learning, Melbourne.
CHAPTER 9 Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) (2013a), General Capabilities in the Australian Curriculum, ACARA, Canberra, https://k10outline.scsa.wa.edu.au/home/p-10-curriculum/ general-capabilities-over/general-capabilities-overview/AustralianCurriculum-General-Capabilities.pdf. —— (2015), Australian Curriculum: English, https://www. australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10-curriculum/english. —— (2018), Critical and Creative Thinking, https://www. australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10-curriculum/general-capabilities/ critical-and-creative-thinking. Bruner J.S. (1974), Toward a Theory of Instruction, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Chomsky, N. (1976), Reflections on Language, Temple Smith, London. Duchesne, S., McMaugh, A., Bochner, S. & Krause, K. (2019), Educational Psychology for Learning and Teaching, 6th edn, Cengage Learning, Melbourne. Johnson, E. (2015), ‘Children’s engagement with talk to enhance learning in the primary school classroom: Literature review, https:// thecriticalblog.wordpress.com/2015/05/14/childrens-engagementwith-talk-to-enhance-learning-in-the-primary-school-classroomliterature-review.
REFERENCES
613
Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA) (2008), Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians, http://www.curriculum. edu.au/verve/_resources/national_declaration_on_the_ educational_goals_for_young_australians.pdf. CC-BY-4.0 licence. National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (NSCDC) (2004), A Science-Based Framework for Early Childhood Policy: Using Evidence to Improve Outcomes in Learning, Behavior, and Health for Vulnerable Children, http://www.developingchild.harvard.edu. —— (2011), Building the Brain’s ‘Air Traffic Control’ System: How Early Experiences Shape the Development of Executive Function, https://developingchild.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/ How-Early-Experiences-Shape-the-Development-of-ExecutiveFunction.pdf. Piaget, J. (1936), Origins of Intelligence in the Child, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London. Rogoff, B. (2003), The Cultural Nature of Human Development, Oxford University Press, New York. Skinner B.F. (1957), Verbal Behavior, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Sprenger, M. (2008), The Developing Brain: Birth to Age Eight, Corwin Press, Thousand Oaks, CA. Understood (2013), Executive Function 101, The National Center for Learning Disabilities Inc., https://www.understood.org/en/learningattention-issues/child-learning-disabilities/executive-functioningissues/ebook-executive-function-101. Vicker, B. (2009), Meeting the Challenge of Social Pragmatics with Students on the Autism Spectrum, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, https://www.iidc.indiana.edu/pages/Meeting-the-Challenge-of-SocialPragmatics-with-Students-on-the-Autism-Spectrum. Vygotsky, L. (1978, English translation), Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Mental Processes, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Yang, S. & Lust, B. (2009), Discovering Child Language and Cognitive Growth, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, http:// www.human.cornell.edu/hd/outreach-extension/publications.cfm.
CHAPTER 10 Bee, H. & Boyd, D. (2004), The Developing Child, 10th edn, Pearson Education, Sydney. Bodrova, E. & Leong, D.J. (2007), Tools of the Mind: The Vygotskian Approach to Early Childhood Education, 2nd edn, Merrill/Prentice Hall, Columbus, OH. Bruner J.S. (1974), Toward a Theory of Instruction, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Dalli, C., White, E.J., Rockel, J., Duhn, I., with Buchanan, E., Davidson, S., Ganly, S., Kus, L. & Wang, B. (2011), Quality Early Childhood Education for Under-Two-Year-Olds: What Should It Look Like? A Literature Review, report to the Ministry of Education, Wellington (NZ), http://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/publications. Dolgin, K. (2014), The Adolescent: Development, Relationships, and Culture, 13th edn, Pearson Education, Harmondsworth.
Doyla, G. (2010), Vygotsky in Action in the Early Years, Routledge, Abingdon. Gable, S. & Hunting, M. (2001), Nature, Nurture and Early Brain Development, Information sheet GH6115, MU Extension, University of Missouri-Columbia, New York, http:// extension.missouri.edu/p/GH6115. ª Curators of the University of Missouri. Gardner, H. (1993), Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice, Basic Books, New York. Hendrick, J. (1991), Total Learning: Developmental Curriculum for the Young Child, 3rd ed., Allyn & Bacon/Merrill Education, Boston, MA. Hohmann, M. (1997), Educating Young Children: Active Learning Practices for Preschool and Child Care Programs. High/Scope Educational Research Foundation, Detroit, MI. Klein, L. & Knitzer, J. (2006), Effective Preschool Curriculum and Teaching Strategies, Pathways to Early School Success: Issue Brief No. 2, National Center for Children in Poverty, New York. Lowry, L. (2016), ‘Tuning In’ to Others: How Young Children Develop Theory of Mind, The Hanen Centre, Toronto, http:// www.hanen.org/helpful-info/articles/tuning-in-to-others-howyoung-children-develop.aspx. ª 2016. The Hanen Centre. Used with permission. All Rights Reserved. McGreal, S (2013), ‘The illusory theory of multiple intelligences’, Psychology Today, November, https://www.psychologytoday.com/ intl/blog/unique-everybody-else/201311/the-illusory-theorymultiple-intelligences. Mustard, J. (2008), Investing in the Early Years: Closing the Gap Between What We Know and What We Do, Adelaide Thinker in Residence,: Department of the Premier and Cabinet, SA Government, Adelaide, http://www.thinkers.sa.gov.au/lib/pdf/ Mustard_Final_Report.pdf. ª Copyright The Government of South Australia, CC-BY-3.0 AU licence. National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (NSCDC) (2004), A Science-Based Framework for Early Childhood Policy: Using Evidence to Improve Outcomes in Learning, Behavior, and Health for Vulnerable Children, http://www.developingchild.harvard.edu. ª 2007 Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University. Nuffield Mathematics Project (1973), Mathematics – the First Three Years: A Handbook for Teachers, Newgate Press, London. Piaget, J. (1936), Origins of Intelligence in the Child, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London. Rogoff, B. (2003), The Cultural Nature of Human Development, Oxford University Press, New York. Schiller, P. (2010), ‘Early brain development research review and update’, Exchange, November/December, pp. 26–30, https:// www.childcareexchange.com/library/5019626.pdf. Shonkoff, J. & Phillips, D. (2000), From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development, National Academy Press, Washington, DC. Understood (2013), Executive Function 101, The National Center for Learning Disabilities Inc., https://www.understood.org/en/
learningattention-issues/child-learning-disabilities/executivefunctioningissues/ebook-executive-function-101. Verenikina, I., Vialle, W & Lysaght, P. (2005), Understanding learning and development. Macksville, David Barlow Publishing, NSW. Vialle, W., Lysaght, P. & Verenikina, I. (2008), Handbook on Child Development, 2nd edn, Social Science Press, Katoomba, NSW. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Mental Processes, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
CHAPTER 11 Berk, L. & Winsler, A. (1995), Scaffolding Children’s Learning: Vygotsky and Early Childhood Education, National Association for the Education of Young Children, Washington, DC. Brookhart, S. (2010), How to Assess Higher-Order Thinking Skills in Your Classroom, ASCD, Alexandria, VA. Bulloch, K (2003), Adapting Materials and Strategies for Special Needs Students, http://www.educationoasis.com/visitor-resources/ articles/adapting-special-needs. Collins, R. (2014), ‘Skills for the 21st century: Teaching higher-order thinking’, Independent Schools Queensland, vol. 12, no. 14, http:// www.curriculum.edu.au/leader/teaching_higher_order_ thinking,37431.html?issueID=12910. Cowdray, M. (2013), Children’s Learning in Primary Schools: A Guide for Teaching Assistants, Routledge, Oxford. Jensen, E. (2005), Teaching with the Brain in Mind, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Alexandria, VA. Copyright ª Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Rubin, N. (2012), Critical Thinking Skills, https://nancy-rubin.com/tag/ critical-thinking. Understood (2013), Executive Function 101, The National Center for Learning Disabilities Inc., https://www.understood.org/en/learningattention-issues/child-learning-disabilities/executive-functioningissues/ebook-executive-function-101. ª 2013 National Center for Learning Disabilities, Inc. Vygotsky, L. (1978), Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Mental Processes. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Watkins, C. (2009), ‘School leadership today: Leading learning: pedagogy’, Learning About Learning, vol. 1, no. 3, http://www.teachingtimes.com. Wood, D.J., Bruner, J.S. & Ross, G. (1976), ‘The role of tutoring in problem solving’, Journal of Child Psychiatry and Psychology, no. 17, pp. 89–100.
CHAPTER 12 Council of Australian Governments (COAG) (2015), National Education Agreement, Commonwealth Government, Canberra. Department of Education and Training (DET) (2005), Disability Standards for Education 2005, https://www.education.gov.au/ disability-standards-education-2005.
Ebeling, D.G., Ed.D., Deschenes, C., M.Ed., & Sprague, J., Ph.D. (1994), Adapting curriculum and instruction, The Center for School and Community Integration, Institute for the Study of Developmental Disabilities. Janney, R. & Snell, M. (2000), Modifying Schoolwork, Paul H. Brooks, Baltimore, MD, http://njcdd.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/ 08/tools-teacherspart2.pdf. Macquarie University Learning and Teaching Centre (2018), Writing Learning Outcomes, https://online.usc.edu.au/bbcswebdav/orgs/ Blended_Learning/public/Assessment/Writing%20learning% 20outcomes-Macquarie%20University.pdf. Ministry of Education [Canada] (2006), The Ontario Curriculum, Grades 1–8: Language, Queen’s Printer for Ontario, Toronto, ON. NSW Education Standards Authority (2017), About the Common Grade Scale, https://arc.nesa.nsw.edu.au/go/k-6/common-grade-scale. NSW Education Standards Authority (2018), Advice on Assessment: Principles of Effective Assessment, https://syllabus.nesa.nsw.edu.au/ support-materials/advice-on-assessment. Primary National Strategy (2004), ‘Day-to-day assessment strategies’, in Excellence and Enjoyment: Learning and Teaching in the Primary Years, https://www.lancsngfl.ac.uk/curriculum/assessment/download/ file/04%20Day%20to%20Day%20 Ass%20Strategies.pdf. TeachThought (2017), The Elements of a Literacy-Rich Classroom Environment, http://www.teachthought.com/literacy/the-elementsof-a-literacy-rich-classroom-environment. Vygotsky, L. (1978), Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Mental Processes. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
CHAPTER 13 Aamodt, S. (2009), ‘A test of character: Does the brain like ebooks?’, New York Times, http://roomfordebate.blogs.nytimes.com/ 2009/10/14/does-the-brain-like-e-books. Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) (2013a), General Capabilities in the Australian Curriculum, ACARA, Canberra, https://k10outline.scsa.wa.edu.au/home/p-10-curriculum/ general-capabilities-over/general-capabilities-overview/AustralianCurriculum-General-Capabilities.pdf. —— (2013b), The Shape of the Australian Curriculum: Version 4.0, ACARA, Canberra. —— (2016) Australian Curriculum: English, Version 8.3, ACARA, Canberra, https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10-curriculum/ english. —— 2017, Australian Curriculum General Capabilities: Literacy, https:// australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10-curriculum/general-capabilities/ literacy. —— (2018), National Literacy Progression, http://australiancurriculum. edu.au/media/3673/national-literacy-learning-progression.pdf; https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/national-literacyand-numeracy-learning-progressions/national-literacy-learningprogression/reading-and-viewing/?subElementId= 50898&scaleId=0.
REFERENCES
615
Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (2008), Understanding the Brain: The Birth of a Learning Science, OECD, Geneva, https://www.oecd.org/site/educeri21st/ 40554190.pdf. ª Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Coiro, J. (2003), ‘Reading comprehension on the internet: Expanding our understanding of reading comprehension to encompass new literacies’, The Reading Teacher, no. 56, pp. 458–64. —— (2009), ‘Promising practices for supporting adolescents’ online literacy development’, In K.D. Wood & W.E. Blanton (eds), Promoting Literacy with Adolescent Learners: Research-Based Instruction, The Guilford Press, New York, pp. 442–71. —— (2011) ‘Predicting reading comprehension on the internet: Contributions of offline reading skills, online reading skills, and prior knowledge, Journal of Literacy Research, vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 352–92. Coiro, J. & Dobler, E. (2007), ‘Exploring the online comprehension strategies used by sixth-grade skilled readers to search for and locate information on the internet’, Reading Research Quarterly, no. 42, pp. 214–57. Combes, B. (2016), Digital Literacy: A New Flavour of Literacy or Something Different?, https://www.slav.vic.edu.au/synergy/volume14-number-1-2016/reflections-and-actions/611-digital-literacy-anew-flavour-of-literacy-or-something-different.html. ª School Library Association of Victoria. Fountas, I.C. & Pinnell, G.S. (2001), Guiding Readers and Writers, Grades 3–6, Heinemann, Portsmouth, NH. Konza, D., Pond, L., Michael, M. & Fried, L. (2015), Implementing the Big Six: Practical Applications for the Classroom, Fogarty Learning Centre, Edith Cowan University, Perth, https://www.pall.asn.au/ wp-content/uploads/2015/09/5-Implementing-the-Big-Six.pdf. Liu, Y.H., Thomas, P., Gedeon, T., Bacic, M. & Li, X. (2016), ‘Natural search user interfaces for complex biomedical search: 2014 ALIA Research Grant Award final report’ (unpublished). Mark, G. (2009), ‘The effects of perpetual distraction: Does the brain like e-books?’ New York Times, http://roomfordebate.blogs.nytimes. com/2009/10/14/does-the-brain-like-e-books. National Assessment Program (2016a), NAPLAN: Language Conventions, https://www.nap.edu.au/naplan/language-conventions. —— (2016b), NAPLAN: Reading, http://www.nap.edu.au/naplan/ reading. National Inquiry into the Teaching of Literacy (2005), Final Report, Attorney-General’s Department, Canberra. ª Commonwealth of Australia 2019. CC-BY-4.0 licence. NSW Department of Education and Training (2009), From Assessment to Programming: Assisting Students Requiring Additional Support in Reading, Disability Programs Directorate: Learning Assistance Program, http://www.schools.nsw.edu.au/media/ downloads/schoolsweb/studentsupport/programs/disabilipgrms/ assessprogad.pdf. ª State of New South Wales (Department of Education), 2019. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
Robinson, N. & Clark, E. (2018), ‘NAPLAN analysis reveals where you live is more significant than public vs private debate’, ABC News, 23 October, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-10-23/ naplan-analysis-reveals-state-education-report-card/10404316. Rowe, K. (2006), ‘Teaching reading: Findings from the National Inquiry’, Research Developments, no. 15, Art. 2, https://research.acer.edu.au/ cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1030&context=resdev. ª Australian Council for Educational Research. Vygotsky, L. (1978), Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Mental Processes, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Wilson, L. (2014), The Second Principle: A Dozen Important Brainbased Concepts, http://thesecondprinciple.com/teaching-essentials/ a-dozen-important-brain-based-concepts. Copyright ª The Second Principle. Yopp, H.K. & Yopp, H. (2009), ‘Phonological awareness is child’s play’, Young Children, vol. 64, no. 1, pp. 12–18. Copyright ª 2009 by the National Association for the Education of Young Children.
CHAPTER 14 Access Center (2008), Accessing Skills Toward Successful Writing Development, Reading Rockets, Arlington, VA, http:// www.readingrockets.org/article/22026?theme=print. Andrell Education (2018), Big Write and VCOP, http:// www.andrelleducation.com/big-writing. Arena, J. (2007), How to Write an IEP, 4th edn, Academic Therapy, Novato, CA. Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) (2016), Australian Curriculum: English, Version 8.3, ACARA, Canberra, https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10-curriculum/english. —— (2017), English: Sequence of Achievement, http://docs.acara.edu.au/ resources/English_Sequence_of_achievement.pdf. —— (2018), The National Literacy and Numeracy Learning Progression, ACARA, Canberra, https://www. australiancurriculum.edu.au/ resources/national-literacy-and-numeracy-learning-progressions/ national-literacy-learning-progression/writing/?subElementId= 50988&search Term=keyboarding#dimension-content. Bean, W. (2008), Writing Assessment K–12: Frameworks for Evaluating Students’ Writing Development – Part 1, Assessment K–6, IRA, Atlanta, GA. Bear, D., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S. & Johnston, F. (2016), Words Their Way: Word Study for Phonics, Vocabulary, and Spelling Instruction, 6th edn, Pearson Education, Harmondsworth. Department for Children, Schools and Families, UK (2009), Support for the National Strategies –Primary: Spelling, 2nd edn, UK Government, London. ª Crown copyright. Acknowledge the source of the Information in your product or application by including or linking to any attribution statement specified by the Information Provider(s). Contains public sector information licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0.
Department of Education and Children’s Services (2006), Handwriting in the South Australian Curriculum, 2nd edn, Hyde Park Press, Adelaide, https://www.australianschoolfonts.com.au/ assets/resources/handwriting-2nd-ed-2007-sa.pdf. ª The State of South Australia, Department of Education and Children’s Services. CC-BY-4.0 licence. Department of Education and Communities (2011), Text Types (Different Types of Writing), Fact Sheet, https://www.det.nsw. edu.au/eppcontent/glossary/app/resource/factsheet/4108.pdf. Department of Education, WA (2013), First Steps: Writing Resource Book, Department of Education WA, Perth. Finally in First (2011), Decoding Strategies for Parents and More, http:// finallyinfirst.blogspot.com/2012/07/decoding-strategies-for-parentsmore.html?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=email &utm_ campaign=Feed:+FinallyInFirst+(Finally+in+First). Government of South Australia (2006), Handwriting in the South Australian Curriculum, 2nd edn, https://www.australianschoolfonts. com.au/assets/resources/handwriting-2nd-ed-2007-sa.pdf. Government of South Australia (2014), Consultative Draft DECD Numeracy and Literacy Unit – May, http://sapsp7.weebly.com/ uploads/2/4/7/3/24735495/genre_maps_of_the_australi.pdf. Literacy Planet (2006), Frequently Asked Questions: Literacy Planet for Schools, https://www.literacyplanet.com/au/schools/faqs. NSW Department of Education (2011), Basic Sight Words (and High Frequency Words) – Reading, https://www.det.nsw.edu.au/ eppcontent/glossary/app/resource/factsheet/4109.pdf. —— (2016), Spelling, https://education.nsw.gov.au/teaching-andlearning/student-assessment/smart-teaching-strategies/literacy/ language-conventions/stage-3/spelling. —— (2017), Smart Teaching Strategies: Paragraphs, https:// education.nsw.gov.au/teaching-and-learning/student-assessment/ smart-teaching-strategies/literacy/writing/stage-4/paragraphing/ internal-structure-paragraphs. ª State of New South Wales (Department of Education), 2019. CC-BY-4.0 licence. —— (2017), Writing, https://education.nsw.gov.au/teaching-and-learning/ student-assessment/smart-teaching-strategies/literacy/writing. ª State of New South Wales (Department of Education), 2019. CC-BY-4.0 licence. —— (2018), Spelling Overview, http://www.faulconbrip.schools.nsw.edu.au/documents/24141888/24148634/ spelling_scope_and_sequence_spelling. NSW Education Standards Authority (2018), English K–10 Content, https://syllabus.nesa.nsw.edu.au/english/english-k10/content. OCDSB Ministry Resources (2008), A Guide to Effective Literacy Instruction, Grades 4 to 6, Vol. 6, Queens Printer, Ontario, http:// www.eworkshop.on.ca/edu/resources/guides/Guide_Lit_456_Vol_6_ Writing.pdf. Palmer, J. & Invernizzi, M. (2015), No More Phonics and Spelling Worksheets, Heinemann, New York.
Patino, E. (2018), ‘Understanding dysgraphia’, Understood, https:// www.understood.org/en/learning-attention-issues/child-learningdisabilities/dysgraphia/understanding-dysgraphia. Perfetti, C.A. (2007), ‘Reading ability: Lexical quality to comprehension’, Scientific Studies of Reading, no. 11, pp. 357–83. Rasinski, T. (2005), Daily Word Ladders: Grades 2-3: 100 Reproducible Word Study Lessons That Help Kids Boost Reading, Vocabulary, Spelling & Phonics Skills Independently! Scholastics Inc: New York (p. 7) Copyright ª 2005 by Timothy V. Raskinski. Reprinted by permission of Scholastic Inc. —— (2012), Daily Word Ladders: 80+ Word Study Activities That Target Key Phonics Skills to Boost Young Learners’ Reading, Writing & Spelling Confidence, Scholastic, New York. Reading Rockets (2018), ‘Spelling: In depth’, in Reading 101: A Guide to Teaching Reading and Writing, http://www.readingrockets.org/ teaching/reading101-course/modules/spelling/in-depth. Reading to Learn (2018), The Reading to Learn Program, https:// www.readingtolearn.com.au. Royal Children’s Hospital, Melbourne (2005), Developing a Pencil Grip. Kids Health Information, Department of Occupational Therapy, https:// www.rch.org.au/uploadedFiles/Main/Content/ot/InfoSheet_A.pdf. Scull, J. (2015), ‘Learning to write in Year 1 is vital’, Edu Research Matters, https://www.aare.edu.au/blog/?tag=teaching-writing. Copyright ª 2014, Australia Association for Research in Education. Victorian Government (2018), The Literacy Toolkit, https:// www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/ discipline/english/literacy/writing/Pages/default.aspx. We are Teachers (n.d.), 25 Awesome Organisational Charts for Teachers, https://www.weareteachers.com/25-awesomeorganisational-charts-for-teaching-writing.
CHAPTER 15 Aboriginal Literacy Foundation (2017), ‘FAQs’, http://www. aboriginalliteracyfoundation.org/about/faqs. Copyright ª 2017 Aboriginal Literacy Foundation. ACT Cross Sectoral Assessment Working Party (2016), Teachers’ Guide to Assessment, https://www.education.act.gov.au/__data/ assets/pdf_file/0011/297182/Teachers-Guide-To-Assessment.pdf. Armbruster, B.B., Lehr, F. & Osborn, J. (2001), Put Reading First: The Research Building Blocks for Teaching Children to Read, University of Illinois Press, Champaign, IL. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2010), The Health and Welfare of Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/lookup/ 4704.0Chapter365Oct+2010. Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) (2016), Australian Curriculum: English, Version 8.3, ACARA, Canberra, https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10-curriculum/english.
REFERENCES
617
—— (2018), Australian Curriculum: Digital Technologies, Rationale Awaiting Final Endorsement, http://v7-5.australiancurriculum. edu.au/technologies/digital-technologies/rationale.
Hempenstall, K. (2004), ‘International trends in enhancing literacy attainment’, Psychology and Disability Studies, RMIT, http:// www.rmit.edu.au/staff/kerry_hempenstall.
Barone, D. & Wright, T.E. (2008), ‘Literacy instruction with digital and media technologies’, The Reading Teacher, vol. 62, no. 4, pp. 292–302, http://www.readingrockets.org/article/literacyinstruction-digital-and-media-technologies. Copyright ª 2019 WETA Public Broadcasting.
Henry, L. (2006), ‘SEARCHing for an answer: The critical role of new literacies while reading on the internet’, The Reading Teacher, vol. 59, no. 7, pp. 614–27, http://www.literacyladder.net/uploads/2/3/7/ 9/23797212/searching_for_an_answer_the_critical_role_of_new_ literacies_while_reading_the_internet_henry.pdf. ª 2006 International Reading Association.
Bayetto, A. (n.d.), Comprehension, Australian Primary Principals Association, https://www.appa.asn.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/ Comprehension-article.pdf. Blachman, B.A., Ball, E.W., Black, R. & Tangel, D.M. (2000), Road to the Code: A Phonological Awareness Program for Young Children, Baltimore, MD, Brookes. Carroll, J. (2011), ‘From encyclopedias to search engines: Technological change and its impact on literacy learning’, Literacy Learning: The Middle Years, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 27–34, https:// www.alea.edu.au/documents/item/180. ª 2019 ALEA. Creative Spirits 2018, Aboriginal Literacy Rates, https://www. creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/education/aboriginal-literacyrates#ixzz50Ax17PHF. ª Jens Korff, Creative Spirits 2000–2018. Curtis, M.E. (2004), ‘Adolescents who struggle with word identification: Research and practice’, in T.L. Jetton & J.A. Dole (eds), Adolescent Literacy Research and Practice, The Guilford Press, New York, pp. 119–34. ª State of New South Wales (Department of Education), 2019. CC-BY-4.0 licence. Dempster, N., Konza, D., Robson, G., Gaffney, M., Lock, G. & McKennariey, K. (2012), Principals as Literacy Leaders: Confident, Credible and Connected, Australian Primary Principals Association, https://www.appa.asn.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/PALL.pdf. ª 2019 Australian Primary Principals Association.
Herber, H. (1978), Teaching Reading in the Content Areas, PrenticeHall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Konza, D. 2010, Understanding the Reading Process: Research into Practice, Government of South Australia, Adelaide, https:// www.ecu.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/663696/SA-DECS_Understanding-the-Reading-Process.pdf. CC-BY-4.0 licence. Konza, D., Pond, L., Michael, M. & Fried, L. (2015), Implementing the Big Six: Practical applications for the Classroom, Edith Cowan University, https://www.pall.asn.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/5Implementing-the-Big-Six.pdf. Kosanovich, M. (2012), Using Instructional Routines to Differentiate Instruction: A Guide for Teachers, RMC Research Corporation, Center on Instruction, Portsmouth, NH, http://www.readingrockets. org/sites/default/files/Using%20Instructional% 20Routines%20to %20Differentiate%20Instruction.pdf. Copyright ª 2012 by the Center on Instruction at RMC Research Corporation. Maxsam, V. (2015), Teaching Reading. Foundational Principles for the Classroom, Maxsam Educational Consultants, https://www.bol.com/ nl/p/teaching-reading/9200000046153394. Miners, Z. and Pascopella, A. (2007), ‘The new literacies’, District Administrator, October, http://www.readingrockets.org/article/newliteracies. Copyright ª 2019 WETA Public Broadcasting.
Department of Education, Science and Training (2005), Report of the National Inquiry into the Teaching of Literacy, Commonwealth Government, Canberra.
Morris, A. & Stewart-Dore, N. (1984), Learning to Learn from Text: Effective Reading in the Content Areas, Addison-Wesley, Sydney.
Department of Education and Training Victoria (2018a), Literacy Teaching Toolkit: Phonological Awareness, https://www.education. vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/discipline/english/ literacy/readingviewing/Pages/litfocusphonological.aspx#link27. ª State of Victoria (Department of Education and Training). CC-BY-4.0 licence.
National Accelerated Literacy Program (NALP) (2018), What is AL?, http://www.nalp.edu.au/what-is-accelerated-literacy/overview-final.html. ª The Australian Government.
—— (2018b), Literacy Teaching Toolkit: Vocabulary, https:// www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/ discipline/english/literacy/readingviewing/Pages/litfocusvocab.aspx. ª State of Victoria (Department of Education and Training). CC-BY-4.0 licence. Eagleton, M.B. & Guinee, K. (2002), ‘Strategies for supporting student Internet inquiry’, New England Reading Association Journal, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 39–47. Emmitt, M., Hornsby, D. & Wilson, L. (2013), The Place of Phonics in Learning to Read and Write, ALEA, Sydney, https://www.alea. edu.au/documents/item/773. ª 2019 ALEA. Hattie, J. (2012), Visible Learning for Teachers: Maximising Impact on Learning, Routledge, Abingdon.
NSW Department of Education (2017), Smart Teaching Strategies: Paragraphs, https://education.nsw.gov.au/teaching-and-learning/ student-assessment/smart-teaching-strategies/literacy/writing/ stage-4/paragraphing/internal-structure-paragraphs. NSW Department of Education and Training (2010), Teaching Comprehension Strategies, NSW Government, Sydney. Ontario Early Reading Strategy (2003), A Guide to Effective Reading Instruction: Kindergarten to Grade 3, Ministry of Education, Ontario, http://www.eworkshop.on.ca/edu/resources/guides/ reading_k_3_english.pdf. Pressley, M. (1998), Reading Instruction that Works: The Case for Balanced Instruction, New York, Guilford Press. Rowe, K., National Inquiry into teaching of literacy (Australia) (2005), Teaching Reading, p.14, https://research.acer.edu.au/ tll_misc/5/. ª Australian Council for Educational Research.
SBS (2015), ’Indigenous education gap stands out in latest NAPLAN results’, SBS/NITV, www.sbs.com.au/nitv/article/2015/12/02/ indigenous-education-gap-stands-out-latest-naplan-results. Trevallion, D. (2014), ‘Connecting to Australia’s first digital technology curriculum’, The Conversation, 24 February, https:// theconversation.com/connecting-to-australias-first-digitaltechnology-curriculum-23507. Copyright ª Dr Deborah Trevallion. Victorian Department of Education and Training (2018), Four Resources Model for Reading and Viewing, https://www.education.vic.gov.au/ school/teachers/teachingresources/discipline/english/literacy/ readingviewing/Pages/fourres.aspx. ª State of Victoria (Department of Education and Training). CC-BY-4.0 licence.
CHAPTER 16 Adams, T.L., Thangata, F., & King, C. (2005). ‘Weigh’ to go! Exploring mathematical language. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 10(9), 444–448. Arky, B. (2014), ‘Understanding visual processing Issues’, Understood, https://www.understood.org/en/learning-attention-issues/childlearning-disabilities/visual-processing-issues/understanding-visualprocessing-issues. Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) (2017), National Numeracy Learning Progression, https:// www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/media/3806/numeracy-learningprogression.pdf. Department of Education and Training, Victoria (2018), Learning to Count, https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/ teachingresources/discipline/maths/continuum/Pages/ learntocount.aspx. ª State of Victoria (Department of Education and Training). CC-BY-4.0 licence. Expert Panel on Student Success in Ontario (2004), Leading Math Success, http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/document/reports/ numeracy/numeracyreport.pdf. ª Queen’s Printer for Ontario. Hohmann, M. (1997), Educating Young Children: Active Learning Practices for Preschool and Child Care Programs, High/Scope Educational Research Foundation, Ypsilanti, MI. Hott, B., Isbel, L. & Montani, T. (2014), Strategies and Interventions to Support Students with Mathematics Disabilities, https:// www.council-for-learning-disabilities.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/ 12/Math_Disabilities_Support.pdf. Meiers, M. & Trevitt, J. (2010), ‘Language in the mathematics classroom’, The Digest, no. 2, pp. 6–7, http://www.nswteachers.nsw.edu.au/ IgnitionSuite/uploads/docs/The%20Digest%20Issue%202%20 2010.pdf. Copyright Australian Council for Educational Research. National Assessment Program (2016), Minimum Standards: Numeracy, https://www.nap.edu.au/naplan/numeracy/minimum-standards. NSW Education Standards Authority (2018), Planning for Success in Secondary Mathematics, http://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/ portal/nesa/k-10/learning-areas/mathematics. Platz, D. (2004). ‘Challenging young children through simple sorting and classifying: a developmental approach’, Education,
Fall, https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-124940266/ challenging-young-children-through-simple-sorting. Posamentier, A. (2013), 9 Strategies for Motivating Students in Mathematics, https://www.edutopia.org/blog/9-strategiesmotivating-students-mathematics-alfred-posamentier. Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) (2011), Planning, Teaching and Assessing the Curriculum for Pupils with Learning Difficulties: Mathematics, QCA, London. Seeley, C., Hagelberger, B., Schielack, J. & Krehbiel, K. (2005), Using Calculators in Elementary School: Teaching Children Mathematics, National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Reston, VA. Shaw, J. (n.d.), ‘Sorting, classifying, and patterning: Critical to mathematical understanding in Kindergarten’, Houghton Mifflin Math, http://www.eduplace.com/state/pdf/author/ shaw2_hmm05.pdf, p. 3. Watson, J. & Beswick, K. (eds) (2007), Proceedings of the 30th Annual Conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia Mathematics: Essential Research, Essential Practice, https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED503746.pdf.
CHAPTER 17 Ashman, A. & Elkins, J. (2012), Education for Inclusion and Diversity, 4th edn, Pearson Australia, Sydney. Australian Alliance for Inclusive Education (2018), What is Inclusive Education? http://allmeansall.org.au/for-educators. Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) (2018), Students with Disability, https://www.australiancurriculum. edu.au/resources/student-diversity/students-with-disability. Department of Education, Queensland (2018), Policy: Inclusive Education, http://ppr.det.qld.gov.au/pif/policies/Documents/ Inclusive-education-policy.pdf. ª State of Queensland, (Department of Education). CC-BY-4.0 licence. Department of Education and Training (2015), Fact Sheet 2: Disability Standards for Education 2005, https://docs.education.gov.au/ documents/fact-sheet-2-disability-standards-education-2005 (accessed June 2018). ª The Department of Education and Training. CC-BY-4.0 licence. Education Institute (2018), What is Disability? Disability Standards for Education: A Practical Guide for Individuals, Families and Communities, University of Canberra, Canberra, https:// resource.dse.theeducationinstitute.edu.au/content/what-disability. Emerging Minds (2014), Children and Grief (Primary School, Ages 6– 12), https://emergingminds.com.au/resources/children-griefprimary-school-ages-6-12. Foreman, P. & Arthur-Kelly, M. (2014), Inclusion on Action, 4th edn, Cengage Learning, Melbourne. Konza, D. (2008), Inclusion of Students with Disabilities in New Times: Responding to the Challenge, University of Wollongong, http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1036&context= edupapers.
REFERENCES
619
Lawrence, D., Johnson, S., Hafekost, J., Boterhoven de Haan, K., Sawyer, M., Ainley, J. & Zubrick, S. (2015), The Mental Health of Children and Adolescents: Report on the Second Australian Child and Adolescent Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing, Department of Health, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra. Life Without Barriers (2018), Person Centred Practice Approach, https://www.lwb.org.au/about-us/publications-and-resources/ person-centred-practice-approach. ª Life Without Barriers. Malaquias, C. (2018), Recognition of Unconscious Prejudice as a Barrier to Inclusion of Students with Disability, Australian Alliance for Inclusive Education, http://allmeansall.org.au/recognitioninvoluntary-implicit-prejudice-barrier-high-expectations-inclusionstudents-disability. Queensland Catholic Education Commission (2014), Inclusive Practices in Catholic Schools in Queensland, http:// qcec.catholic.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/ InclusivePractices PositionStatement2014-2019.pdf. Richards, G. & Armstrong, F. (2008), Key Issues for Teaching Assistants. Working in Diverse and Inclusive Classrooms, Routledge, New York. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2017), A Guide for Ensuring Inclusion and Equity in Education, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002482/ 248254e.pdf. pp. 12, 13, 32. CC-BY-SA 3.0 AU. Vaz, S., Wilson, N., Falkmer, M., Sim, A., Scott, M., Cordier, R. & Falkmer, T. (2015), ‘Factors associated with primary school teachers’ attitudes towards the inclusion of students with disabilities’, PLoS ONE, vol. 10, no. 8, pp. 1–12. CC-BY licence. What is Disability? Disability Standards for Education: A Practical Guide for Individuals, Families and Communities. University of Canberra. https://resource.dse.theeducationinstitute.edu.au/content/whatdisability (accessed June 2018). Copyright University of Canberra.
CHAPTER 18 American Psychiatric Association (APA) (2013), The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edn, (DSM-5), APA, Washington, DC. ª Copyright, American Psychiatric Association. Autism Spectrum Australia (2018a), Ageing with Autism Spectrum Disorder, https://www.autismspectrum.org.au/sites/default/files/ PDFuploads/Ageing.pdf. —— (2018b), We Belong, https://www.autismspectrum.org.au/content/ we-belong-0. ª Autism Spectrum Australia (Aspect). —— (2018c), What is Autism?, https://www.autismspectrum.org.au/ content/what-autism. ª Autism Spectrum Australia (Aspect). —— (2017) Sensory Processing, pp. 1–2. https://www.autismspectrum. org.au/sites/default/files/Factsheet_Sensory%20processing_ 20170306.pdf. ª 2019 Autism Spectrum Australia (Aspect). Centre of Research Excellence in Child Language, The (2018), Childhood Apraxia of Speech (p. 1) (accessed June 2018). http:// dyspraxiakidsaustralia.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/ fact_sheet_childhood_apraxia_of_speech-copy.pdf. ª 2019 Dyspraxia Kids Australia Inc.
Cerebral Palsy Alliance (2018a), Manual Ability Classification System, https://www.cerebralpalsy.org.au/what-is-cerebral-palsy/severityof-cerebral-palsy/manual-ability-classification-system. —— (2018b), What is Cerebral Palsy? How Cerebral Palsy Affects People, https://www.cerebralpalsy.org.au/what-is-cerebral-palsy/ how-cerebral-palsy-affects-people. Cerebral Palsy Australia (2018), Website, https://cpaustralia.com.au. Cerebral Palsy League (2018), Types of Cerebral Palsy, http:// www.cpl.org.au/news/learning-centre/cp/types-of-cerebral-palsy. Communication Trust, The (2011), Don’t Get Me Wrong, https:// www.thecommunicationtrust.org.uk/media/174/dontgetmewrong.pdf. Dyspraxia Kids Australia Inc. (2018), Dyspraxia Explained, http:// dyspraxiakidsaustralia.org.au/dyspraxia/#link1. International Dyslexia Association (IDA) (2013), Dyslexia in the Classroom: What Every Teacher Needs to Know, IDA, Baltimore, MD. Jones, A., M.Ed, Prompting hierarchy — How I got duped!, Noodlenook, 2018, http://www.noodlenook.net/promptinghierarchy/ Copyright @ NoodleNook. Joshi, R. (2013), The New Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) Diagnostic Criteria as Defined by the DSM-V, Aspect Victoria, https://www.autismspectrum.org.au/sites/default/files/Vic/ The%20DSM%205%20Autism% 20Spectrum%20Disorder %20criteria.pdf. ª Autism Spectrum Australia (Aspect). Learning Disabilities and Disorders. HelpGuide.Org. https:// www.helpguide.org/articles/autism-learning-disabilities/learningdisabilities-and-disorders.htm (accessed June 2018). ª Helpguide.org. Mandal, A. (2018), Autism History, https://www.news-medical.net/ health/Autism-History.aspx. National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (2004), Blindness/Visual Impairment Fact Sheet 13 (FS-13), http:// www.parentcenterhub.org/repository/visualimpairment/#types. Noodlenook (2018), ‘Prompting hierarchy – How I got duped!’, http://www.noodlenook.net/prompting-hierarchy. Porter, L. (2002). Educating Young Children with Additional Needs, Allen & Unwin, Sydney. Project Autism (2018), History of Autism, http://projectautism.org/ history-of-autism. Raising Children Network (2018), Autism Diagnosis, http:// raisingchildren.net.au/articles/dsm-5_autism_diagnosis.html. Royal Children’s Hospital, Melbourne (2008), Cerebral Palsy: An Information Guide for Parents, 5th edn, Department of Developmental Medicine, Royal Children’s Hospital, Melbourne, https://www.mcri. edu.au/ sites/default/files/media/documents/cres/cpbooklet_0.pdf. Royal Institute for Deaf and Blind Children (RIDBC) (2018), Vision, https://www.ridbc.org.au/blindness. Copyright ª Royal Institute for Deaf and Blind Children. See/Hear (1998), Orientation and Mobility Training: The Way to Go, http://www.tsbvi.edu/seehear/fall98/waytogo.htm. Carolina
Martinez, O & M Specialist, TSBVI with help from Kate Moss, Family Support Specialist, TSBVI, Texas Deafblind Outreach. Shaddock, A., Giorcelli, L. & Smith, S. (2007), Students with Disabilities in Mainstream Classrooms: A Resource for Teachers, Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations, Canberra. p. 10. Licenced under Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Australia (CC BY 3.0). Sole-Smith, V. (2014), The History of Autism, Meredith Corporation, https://www.parents.com/health/autism/the-history-of-autism. Spina Bifida Hydrocephalus Queensland (2016), Educating a Child with Spina Bifida and/or Hydrocephalus P–12, https:// static1.squarespace.com/static/5926168ef7e0ab55ef3dc982/t/ 593e519dd482e99f138140f2/1497256351020/ Booklet+Educating+a+Child+with+SBH.pdf. —— (2018), About Spina Bifida and Hydrocephalus, https:// www.spinabifida.org/spina-bifida-and-hydrocephalus. Statewide Vision Resource Centre (2018), Educational Support for Vision Impaired Students with Additional Impairments, http:// svrc.vic.edu.au/wp-content/resources/PLvi_additional-booklet.pdf. Telethon Kids Institute (2018), Autism and Related Disorders: Current Research Studies, https://autism.telethonkids.org.au/our-research/ current-research-studies. ª 2019 Telethon Kids Institute. Thomas, A. & Thorne, G. (2011). What are Some Common Problems with Language? Centre for Development and Learning, http:// www.cdl.org/resource-library/articles/problems_language.php? type=subject&id=7. Victorian Department of Education and Training (2018), Supporting Students with Additional Learning Needs. Teach gifted and talented students. http://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/ learningneeds/Pages/gifted.aspx (accessed June 2018) ª State of Victoria (Department of Education and Training) CC-BY-4.0 licence. Vision Australia (2018), Vision Tests, https://www.visionaustralia.org/ information/eye-health/vision-tests. Copyright ª Vision Australia. Willis, C. (2006), Teaching Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder, Gryphon House, Beltsville, MA, p. 22. Wong, C., Odom, S. L., Hume, K., Cox, A.W., Brock, M.E., Plavnick, J.B., Schultz, T.R., Fettig, A. & Kucharczyk, S. (2012), Evidencebased Practices Update: Reviewer Training, University of North Carolina, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, Chapel Hill, NC, https://autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/sites/ autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/files/imce/documents/ table7_working_definition_ebp.pdf.
CHAPTER 19 Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) (2016), Cultural Diversity: Who We are Now, http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/ Latestproducts/2024.0Main%20Features22016. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) (2012), English as an Additional Language or Dialect Teacher Resource Overview and EAL/D Learning Progression, http:// docs.acara.edu.au/resources/English_as_an_Additional_Language_or_ Dialect_Teacher_Resource_05_06_12.pdf. —— (2018), Australian Curriculum: English – Glossary, https:// www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10-curriculum/english/glossary. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) (2012), A Picture of Australia’s Children, https://www.aihw.gov.au/getmedia/ 31c0a364-dbac-4e88-8761-d9c87bc2dc29/ 14116.pdf.aspx?inline=true. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. CC-BY-3.0 licence. —— (2018), National Indigenous Reform Agreement, http:// meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/668643. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. CC-BY-3.0 licence. Cultural Atlas (2018), Sri Lankan Culture, https:// culturalatlas.sbs.com.au/sri-lankan-culture/sri-lankans-inaustralia#sri-lankans-in-australia. De Houwer, A. (1999), Two or More Languages in Early Childhood: Some General Points and Practical Recommendations. Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, DC. Department of Education, NSW (2019), EAL/D Oral Language Assessment, https://education.nsw.gov.au/teaching-and-learning/ curriculum/multicultural-education/english-as-an-additionallanguage-or-dialect/planning-eald-support/english-languageproficiency, p. 3. Department of Education, QLD (2019), Bandscales State Schools for English as an additional language or dialect (EAL/D) learners, https://education.qld.gov.au/student/Documents/bandscales-ealdlearners.pdf#search=bandscales, p. 9. ª State of Queensland, Department of Education. CC-BY-4.0 licence. Department of Education, Training and Employment (Qld) (2013), Capability Framework. Teaching Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander EAL/D learners. http://indigenous.education.qld.gov.au/ SiteCollectionDocuments/schools-educators/eald-capabilityframework.pdf (accessed June 2018), p. 16. ª The State of Queensland 2018. CC-BY.4.0. Department of Education, WA (2015), EAL/D Progress Map. A guide to teaching, learning, monitoring and assessment of English as an additional language/dialect students. Middle Childhood Years 3 to 6, p. 1. Department for Education and Skills, UK (2006), Excellence and Enjoyment: Learning and Teaching for Bilingual Children in the Primary Years: Introductory Guide, Belmont Press, Norwich. ª Crown copyright 2006. Contains public sector information licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0. Department of Education and Training (2015), The National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Education Strategy, http:// www.scseec.edu.au/site/DefaultSite/filesystem/documents/ ATSI%20documents/DECD__NATSI_EducationStrategy.pdf.
REFERENCES
621
Department of Education, Victoria (2018), Manage Student Behaviour, https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/ behaviour/student-behaviour/Pages/default.aspx. Department of Immigration and Border Protection (2014), The People of Australia: Australia’s Multicultural Policy, https:// www.runnymedetrust.org/uploads/events/people-of-australiamulticultural-policy-booklet.pdf. Eades, D. (2000), Aboriginal English, Primary English Teaching Association, Sydney. Elgas, M., Prendeville, J., Moomaw, S. & Kretchmer, R. (2002), ‘Building a sense of belonging’, Child Care Information Exchange, no. 143. Curriculum Corporation (2006), ESL Scales, http:// www.itcouldnthappentome.com.au/microsites/DECDC/resources/ otherResources/ESL%20Scales.pdf. Fleer, M. & Williams-Kennedy, D. (2001), Building Bridges: Literacy Development in Young Indigenous Children, Australian Early Childhood Association, Canberra. Gibbons, P. (1993), Learning to Learn in a Second Language, Heinemann, Portsmouth, NH. ª 2019 Heinemann. Hill, J. & Miller, K. (2013), Classroom Instruction that Works with English Language Learners, ACSD, Alexandria, VA. Copyright ª Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Reprinted with permission. Krashen, S.D. & Terrell, T. (1983), The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom, Pergamon Press, Oxford. National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Education Strategy (2015), Education Council. The Council of Australian Governments (COAG), www.educationcouncil.edu.au; http://www.scseec.edu.au/ site/DefaultSite/filesystem/documents/ATSI%20documents/ DECD__NATSI_EducationStrategy.pdf. ª The Department of Education and Training. CC-BY-4.0 licence. NSW Department of Education and Training (2005), ESL Steps: ESL Curriculum Framework K–6, NSW Government, Sydney. pp. 4, 5, 10, 16, 51, 52, 53. ª State of New South Wales (Department of Education), 2019. CC-BY-4.0 licence. Papadaki-D’Onofrio, E. (2003), ‘Bilingualism/multiculturalism and language acquisition’, Theories in Child Care Information Exchange, no. 153. Productivity Commission (2017), National Agreement Performance Information 2016–17: National Indigenous Reform Agreement, December 2017. Produced for the Steering Committee for the Review of Government Service Provision, https://www.pc.gov.au/ research/supporting/national-agreements/indigenous-reform/ indigenous-reform-agreement-2016-17.pdf. Rogoff, B. (2003), The Cultural Nature of Human Development, Oxford University Press, New York. Shonkoff, J. & Phillips, D. (2000), From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development, National Academies Press, Washington, DC. The National Academies Press. https:// doi.org/10.17226/9824. Copyright ª National Academy of Sciences.
CHAPTER 20 ACT Government (2018), Safe and Supportive Schools Policy SSS201611, https://www.education.act.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/ 0007/848437/Safe-and-Supportive-Schools-Policy-2.pdf. Association of Teachers and Lecturers (ATL) (2011), Violence, Threatening Behaviour and Abuse: Advice and Information for Members in England and Wales, The Education Union, London, http://www.new2teaching.org.uk/tzone/images/ ATL_Violence_threatening_behaviour_and_abuse_tcm7-26211.pdf. Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) (2013a), General Capabilities in the Australian Curriculum, ACARA, Canberra, https://k10outline.scsa.wa.edu.au/home/p-10curriculum/general-capabilities-over/general-capabilities-overview/ Australian-Curriculum-General-Capabilities.pdf. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) (2012), A Picture of Australia’s Children 2012, AIHW, Canberra, http://www.aihw. gov.au/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=10737423340. CC-BY3.0 licence. Be You (2019, KidsMatter Evaluation final report, http:// resources.beyondblue.org.au/prism/file?token=BL/0717. Cassel, S. (2018), ‘Simple relationship-building strategies’, Edutopia, https://www.edutopia.org/article/simple-relationship-building-strategies. ª Edutopia.org; George Lucas Educational Foundation. Desautels, L. (2018), ‘Aiming for discipline instead of punishment’, Edutopia, https://www.edutopia.org/article/aiming-disciplineinstead-punishment. ª Edutopia.org; George Lucas Educational Foundation. Dreikurs, R. (1968), Psychology in the Classroom. 2nd edn, Harper & Row, New York. Gantz, J. (2009), Teaching 101, 2nd edn, Corwin Press, Thousand Oaks, CA. Gartrell, D. (2004), The Power of Guidance: Teaching Social-emotional Skills in Early Childhood Classrooms, Delmar, Clifton Park, NY. Gordon, A. & Browne, K. (1996), Guiding Young Children in a Diverse Society, Allyn and Bacon, Boston, MA. Government of South Australia (2018), Behaviour, Management and Discipline, https://www.sa.gov.au/topics/education-and-learning/ schools/school-life/behaviour-management-and-discipline. Kaweski, W. (2014), Teaching Adolescents with Autism: Practical Strategies for the Inclusive Classroom, Skyhorse Publishing, New York. Reprinted by permission of Skyhorse Publishing, Inc. Kearns, K. (2017), Frameworks for Learning and Development, 4th edn, Cengage Learning, Melbourne. Pitonyak, D. (2005) in Kaweski, W. (2014), Teaching Adolescents with Autism. Practical Strategies for the Inclusive Classroom. New York: Skyhorse Publishing. p. 49. Reprinted by permission of Skyhorse Publishing, Inc. Porter, L. (2001), Children are People Too. A Parent’s Guide to Young Children’s Behaviour, 4th edn, East Street Publications, Adelaide.
Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports (2018), PBIS in the Classroom, https://www.pbis.org/school/pbis-inthe-classroom. Prior, M., Sanson, A., Smart, D. & Oberklaid, F. (2000), Pathways from Infancy to Adolescence: Australian Temperament Project 1983–2000, Australian Institute of Family Studies, Melbourne, http://www.aifs.gov.au/institute/pubs/resreport4/ main.html. ª Australian Institute of Family Studies. CC-BY-4.0 licence. Queensland Schools Alliance Against Violence (QSAAV) (2010), Working Together: Understanding Student Violence in Schools, Queensland Government, Brisbane, http://apo.org.au/files/ Resource/5310t3410.pdf. CC-BY-4.0 licence.
SA Government (2018), Behaviour, Management and Discipline, https:// www.sa.gov.au/topics/education-and-learning/schools/school-life/ behaviour-management-and-discipline (accessed June 2018). ª Copyright Government of South Australia 2019. CC-BY-4.0 licence. Sanson, A. & Oberklaid, F. (2013), ‘Infancy and early childhood’, in S. Vassallo & A. Sanson (eds), The Australian Temperament Project: The First 30 Years, AIFS, Melbourne. ª Australian Institute of Family Studies. CC-BY-4.0 licence. Sugai, G. (1999), ‘Addressing individual challenging behavior through function-based support: PowerPoint presentation’, Center for Behavioral Education & Research. University of Connecticut: Storrs, CT, https://slideplayer.com/slide/6163657.
REFERENCES
623
GLOSSARY Aboriginal English A mixture of Aboriginal languages and English. Academic self How do I perform at school? What subjects do I like?
Assessment as learning Includes self-assessment and peerassessment of the student’s progress; intended to generate new learning.
What am I good at? What are my goals for the future?
Assessment for learning see Formative assessment
Accommodation The individual adjusts their existing scheme when the scheme does not fit a new object.
Assessment of learning see Summative assessment
Accuracy (reading) Refers to the ability to correctly name words and/or to use key strategies to decode unfamiliar words easily.
Active listening Skills that demonstrate to a speaker that the listener is really trying to understand their message.
Adaptation The individual uses prior knowledge and skills to acquire new knowledge and skills.
Albinism An inherited condition that results from the body’s inability to produce normal amounts of a pigment called melanin. It affects the eyes and skin of some individuals, and only the eyes of others.
Assimilation The process of incorporating a new object or event into an existing schema or way of dealing with the world. Ataxic cerebral palsy Associated with a lack of balance and coordination, such as unsteady or shaky movements (tremors). Athetosis A form of cerebral palsy characterised by uncontrolled extra movements that occur particularly in the arms, hands and feet, and around the mouth. Children may appear floppy when carried.
Attachment issues An inability to trust others and difficulty forming healthy relationships throughout life. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Typically
Algebra Involves understanding patterns, relations and functions.
includes excessive, impulsive, restless and sometimes aggressive behaviour.
Algebraic thinking Understanding variables and sets (the relationship
Attention-seeking behaviour May include behaviours such as
between objects).
repeatedly calling out, talking over others and out-of-seat behaviour.
Allegation A statement without proof that someone has perpetrated abuse against a child or young person.
Attitudes A way of thinking that influences behaviour – may be
Alliteration Two or more words with the same initial consonant, used for linguistic effect.
Attributes Mathematical characteristics of objects, established by making comparisons of similarities and differences.
Alphabetic principle Understanding that words are composed of letters that represent the sounds [phonemes] in spoken words.
Auditory perception The ability to receive, process and make sense of information that you hear.
Amblyopia Often referred to as ‘lazy eye’; one eye is weaker than the
Auditory Processing Disorder Difficulty hearing differences
other, and the other eye takes over. Usually treated by placing a patch on the stronger eye to strengthen the weaker eye.
between sounds; problems with reading, comprehension, language.
Analogy phonics Students learn to use parts of word families they already know to identify words they don’t know that have similar parts.
Analytic phonics Uses a whole-to-part approach – sounds are not pronounced in isolation; rather, students analyse letter–sound relationships in known words. Anaphylaxis The most severe form of allergic reaction, often involving more than one body system. Anxiety A feeling of being overwhelmed by the expectations of oneself and others; having irrational fears and generally lacking selfconfidence.
Apprenticeship A term used by Rogoff to refer to the role of the child as a member of the community. The process of apprenticeship involves becoming familiar with and participating in the social and cultural norms of the community.
Articulation The ability to produce speech sounds. Assessment The process of evaluating skills and knowledge.
positive, negative or neutral.
Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) A process of augmenting normal communication with gestures, signing, pictures or symbols and printed words. Australian Education Act 2013 The principal legislation for the provision of Australian government funding to government and nongovernment schools; sets out broad expectations for compliance, to ensure funding accountability to the Commonwealth and to school communities. Australian Education Regulation 2013 Outlines the financial accountability and other conditions that are required by approved authorities in order to receive funding under the Australian Education Act 2013.
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) Typically includes impairments in language, social interactions and behaviour; a lifelong developmental disability characterised by marked difficulties in social interaction, impaired communication, restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours, and sensory sensitivities.
Balanced reading program A program in which students are provided with explicit skills that are developed systematically using a balanced and integrated approach.
Behaviour The actions or reactions of a person in relation to their environment, experiences or needs; can be conscious or unconscious, overt or covert, voluntary or involuntary. Behaviour intervention plan (BIP) Similar to an IEP. A plan of inclusion that defines the barriers to participating in an educational setting and allows teachers (and families) to identify what makes the school environment challenging for the student; also defines the adaptations or adjustment that can be made to support the student to modify and change their behaviour.
Behaviourist (language development) Language is acquired by operant conditioning – imitation and reinforcement.
Belief(s) What is accepted as true; sometimes beliefs are not based on fact and need to be challenged or examined carefully – for example, that boys should not play with dolls.
Bias Attaching preconceived or prejudiced beliefs, values and attitudes to a person or particular group.
Big six Elements of reading instruction: oral language, phonemic awareness, phonological awareness, vocabulary, fluency and comprehension. Cardinal number In a set of objects, the number of objects in the set. Central Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD) A receptive language disorder involving difficulties in the decoding and storing of auditory information (typically incoming verbal messages).
Cephalocaudal development Refers to the direction of the body’s physical growth, reflected in the order in which parts of the body become larger and the order in which functions and structures become more complex. Cephalocaudal development progresses from head to foot. Cerebral palsy (CP) A non-progressive, permanent disorder of movement and posture caused by damage to the developing brain.
Challenging behaviour An expression of an unmet need or an intolerable situation coupled with the student’s inability to skilfully solve the issue in a more acceptable manner.
Childhood trauma The experience of an event by a child that is emotionally painful or distressful, which often results in lasting mental and physical effects (The National Institute of Mental Health, US). Chronosystem The outermost circle of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory; the social and historical timeframe in which the child’s life is set.
Cloze assessment tasks Require students to demonstrate their comprehension skills by selecting and inserting a word into a sentence so that the sentence makes sense.
Code-breaking skills Use knowledge of letter/sound relationships, concepts about print, spelling, punctuation, grammar, structural conventions and patterns.
school or work and then switches to Aboriginal English when at home or within the Aboriginal community.
Cognitive or mental flexibility The capacity to nimbly switch gears and adjust to changed demands, priorities or perspectives.
Cognitivist In language development, language is acquired through the process of thinking.
Communication Ability to use and respond to spoken and written English in a social context and an academic context.
Communication book A system of symbols designed specifically for each individual as a way to communicate; it may include pictures, words, phrases or symbols representing phrases, greetings, questions, ideas or key messages. Communication disorders Speech and language problems that may include difficulties following two- or three-step directions, an inability to follow or join in conversations with peers and adults, or poor vocabulary.
Complex trauma Exposure to multiple traumatic events and includes the wide-ranging, long-term effects of this exposure. Comprehension The ability to read with understanding; includes skills such as inferring, predicting, summarising key ideas and critical reflection.
Conceptual understanding Knowing ‘why’, including understanding mathematical relationships – for example, understanding that addition and subtraction are opposite tasks. Conflict resolution The process of handling conflict and resolving a disagreement between people.
Conservation of number No matter how objects are grouped within a set, the number of objects in the set remains constant.
Consonant All letter sounds in the alphabet apart from vowels (a, e, i, o, u) are known as consonants.
Continuous process There is recognition that support and care require a continuous process of listening, learning and further action, and are not a one-off event, as well as recognition that people with disability have futures, and that their aspirations will change and grow with their experiences.
Controlled support Teacher-led activities that scaffold student learning in targeted language areas. Covert racism Disguised or subtle acts that discriminate against a person or people based on their race. Crisis Erikson’s theory states that an individual must accomplish a critical task or ‘crisis’ at each stage of development. Each crisis represents a milestone or turning point in psychosocial development. Critical analysis Allows the reader to consider the content of the text beyond that which is written.
Code of conduct A statement of commitment to a set of expected
Critical thinking Being able to apply wise judgement using skills such as
professional behaviours of a group, reflecting a range of values such as fairness, empathy, respect, integrity, morality and honesty.
reasoning, questioning and investigating, observing and describing, comparing and connecting, finding complexity and exploring viewpoints.
Code-switching In the Aboriginal context, occurs when a speaker
Cultural awareness The ability to reflect on how our own cultural practices and views influence our beliefs and values.
uses Standard Australian English (SAE) in formal settings such as
GLOSSARY
625
Cultural competence The ability to understand, communicate and interact with people across cultures.
Dispositions Our way of acting towards others or thinking about
Cultural diversity The variation between people in terms of ancestry, ethnicity, ethno-religiosity, language, national origin, race and/or religion.
Disruptive behaviours Include being out of seat, calling out in class, tantrums, swearing, screaming or refusing to follow instructions.
Cultural and linguistic diversity (CALD) Refers (but is not
Diversity Understanding that each individual is unique and recognising
restricted) to the range of ethnicities, races, languages, traditions, countries or regions of origin, dress, values, religion, beliefs and world views that exists.
our individual differences.
Cultural responsivity The ability to learn from and respect other cultures.
Cultural safety An environment that is safe for people: where there is no assault, challenge or denial of their identity, of who they are and what they need.
Cultural sensitivity Awareness of the sensitivities around cultural differences, requiring critical self-reflection on one’s own cultural values, attitudes and beliefs, as well as the beliefs and biases of other cultures.
Culture A common set of norms and values shared by a group. Culture shock A term used to describe the emotional stress of migration or even temporary relocation to a new country and a new culture.
Curriculum Typically specifies content and skills – that is, what children should know (knowledge content) and what they should be able to do (skills content). It often describes the type of learning that will take place and the expected outcomes that will be achieved by the learners. Custody order Generally refers to orders that place children in the custody of the state or territory department responsible for child protection, or a non-government agency.
Dangerous incident (‘near-miss’) Any incident in relation to a workplace that exposes a worker or any other person to a serious risk to that person’s health or safety or that is likely to create a serious risk to health or safety in the future – for example, exposure to a toxic chemical.
Decoding The skill required to make sense of written words.
things – for example, enthusiasm, curiosity, persistence or flexibility.
Domains of development Also referred to as ‘areas of development’; includes the social, cognitive, language, emotional and physical domains. Due diligence Taking all reasonably practical precautions to minimise the risk of accidents and injury in the workplace. Duty of care The requirement to act with due care and consideration for the welfare and wellbeing of others.
Dyscalculia Difficulty with doing maths problems, understanding time and using money. Dysgraphia A handwriting disorder where the individual consistently struggles to write legibly because of poor letter formation (and often poor spelling). Dyskinetic cerebral palsy Includes dystonia and athetosis. Dyslexia A language-based learning disability; refers to a cluster of symptoms that result in people having difficulties with specific language skills, particularly reading. Dysphasia/aphasia Difficulty with language; problems understanding spoken language; poor reading comprehension. Dyspraxia A developmental coordination disorder that is characterised by difficulty with coordination, including fine motor skills, hand–eye coordination, balance and manual dexterity.
Dyssomnia Misnaming items. Dystonia A type of cerebral palsy characterised by sustained muscle contractions that frequently cause twisting or repetitive movements, or abnormal postures.
Early intervention Structured support programs (home and/or centre based) for children prior to entering school.
thing or action.
Educational Adjustment Program (EAP) A process for identifying and responding to the educational needs of students with disability who require significant education adjustments related to specific impairments.
Digital native A person brought up with digital technology, and so familiar with computers and the internet from an early age.
Embedded phonics Students use letter–sound relationships with
Descriptive narrative A written narrative that describes an event,
Direct comparison Involves directly aligning the attributes to be compared.
Direct context communication Communication that is quite straightforward and individualistic.
context clues to identify and spell unfamiliar words.
Emergent literacy The developing skills required to understand the meaning of words in print. These include speaking, listening, looking, thinking, reading and writing.
Direct discrimination When a person is treated less favourably than
Emotional development Learning to express feelings; development of a sense of self, self-esteem and self-concept.
another person in a similar situation because of their race, colour, descent, national or ethnic origin, or immigrant status.
Emotional literacy The ability to express and manage emotions and
Disclosure Revealing that some form of child abuse has occurred. Discrimination Unfair treatment in the workplace involving a person’s identity – for example, sex, age, culture, religion, sexual preference, disability, politics, medical condition.
knowing how to respond appropriately to the emotions of others.
Emotional self-regulation Includes the ability to persist at tasks; the ability to cope with challenges, frustration and disappointment; being able to calm down after being hurt, angry or upset; and the ability to control one’s behaviour and manage conflict.
Employment award A ruling handed down by either the Fair Work
Finalised guardianship or custody order An order involving the
Commission or a state industrial relations commission, granting all wage earners in a particular industry or occupation the same minimum pay rates and employment conditions.
transfer of legal guardianship to the relevant state or territory department or non-government agency.
Employment contract A contract between an employer and an employee to establish the rights and responsibilities between the two parties, including wages and conditions.
Enactive stage Bruner’s stage of cognitive development – learning through play and discovery (action-based).
Fine motor development The development of small muscle groups – for example, in the hands, fingers, toes and around the lips and tongue.
Fluency Comprises three components: accuracy, rate and prosody (expression). Fluency disorders Speech and language problems that may include repetitions or interruptions such as stuttering or stammering.
English as an additional language/dialect (EAL/D) Students whose language or dialect predominantly spoken in the home is not Standard Australian English.
Focus on outcomes The focus is on achieving positive outcomes for
Equilibration The most general developmental principle in Piaget’s
Form In relation to ASD, the way the student behaves.
people with a disability.
theory, which states that an organism always tends towards biological and psychological balance. Development progresses towards an ideal state of equilibrium, which is never fully achieved.
Formative assessment Gathering evidence of students’ skills,
ESL Scales Provide a benchmark for the measurement of proficiency in Standard Australian English for EAL/D learners. The ESL Scales are linked to the English syllabus, enabling teachers to identify what level of English-language proficiency the EAL/D student will need to access the curriculum outcomes.
Foster care A form of out-of-home care where the caregiver is authorised and reimbursed by the state/territory for the care of the child.
Ethical dilemma A choice between two moral imperatives – neither of which is clearly acceptable or preferable.
Etymological knowledge The origin of words; includes understanding that words with the same base meaning are spelt the same while words that have a different meaning are generally not spelt the same. Executive function Developed primarily in the prefrontal cortex of the brain; includes working memory, flexible thinking and inhibitory control (self-control). Exosystem The third circle in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory; the social system one step removed from the child – for example, family friends, parents’ workplaces.
Experience Activity or task.
knowledge and understanding as teaching is occurring to determine what students know, understand and can do in order to plan for future learning.
Frequency of communication Involves engaging in back-and-forth exchange so that one person is not dominating the interaction. Function In relation to ASD, why the behaviour is occurring. Functional behavioural assessment A systematic process for developing statements about factors that contribute to the occurrence and maintenance of problem behaviour, which serves as a basis for developing a behaviour-support plan to eliminate or modify the behaviour.
General Capabilities An integrated and interconnected set of knowledge, skills, behaviours and dispositions that can be developed and applied across the curriculum to help students become successful learners, confident and creative individuals, and active and informed citizens.
Generalised Anxiety Disorder Worrying and feeling anxious about almost everything.
Explicit learning What we commonly read, write and talk about.
Genre A category of literary writing.
Exploratory talk Children engage in conversations with others (peers or adults) to discuss ideas and clarify thinking.
Geometry Includes understanding the properties of shapes, surfaces,
Expressive language The ability to use spoken language to communicate needs, feelings and ideas.
Externalising difficulties Where the child presents as having a challenging temperament, is impulsive or reactive, has a reduced ability to problem-solve, and experiences attention difficulties, hyperactivity and oppositional and/or aggressive behaviours.
Factual knowledge Number facts that can easily be recalled, such as
points, lines and angles; involves the ability to recognise and describe the attributes of two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) shapes and describe spatial relationships.
Grammar The structural rules used when putting words together to create phrases and sentences.
Grapheme The smallest element of writing. A unit of sound of one or more letters – for example, ‘I’, ‘a’, ‘in’.
2 + 2 = 4.
Gross motor development The development of the large muscle groups – for example, in the legs, arms, back and chest.
Factual texts These texts inform, instruct and provide facts and
Guardianship order Conveys responsibility for the welfare of the
information.
child to the guardian.
Figure–ground discrimination The ability to screen out irrelevant
Guidance Supporting a student to develop an understanding of what is
visual details and focus selectively on chosen detail.
expected in terms of socially acceptable behaviour, taking into account
GLOSSARY
627
the individual student’s development, circumstances and the context in which the behaviour occurs.
Inclusion Attitude or act of acceptance of diversity and differences. The term is used to embrace all aspects of diversity within the school community and the broader community.
Guided mathematics Requires minimal input from adults. The teacher/ESW introduces the learning experience and reviews relevant skills and understandings related to the experience. Students are encouraged to discuss their ideas and understanding and problem-solve using a range of support materials.
Inclusion of others As identified by the individual, recognition of family members, friends, significant others and other service providers in supporting the individual and fostering connections with the community.
Guided participation Refers to knowledge that is acquired by taking on new roles and responsibilities under the guidance of a coach or mentor.
Inclusive and accessible Support is provided for inclusion in all areas of life and accessibility to all areas of the community.
Guided support Students are provided with a wide range of activities that allow them to practise their developing language skills with the support of the teacher.
Inclusive workplace A workplace that embraces the diversity of its
Harm Where abuse is an action against a child, refers to the detrimental effect or impact of that action on the child.
Hazard Any object, action, process or system that could lead to someone developing an illness or becoming injured. Hearing disorders Problems with hearing that may be indicated by difficulty in hearing certain sounds, such as beginning, middle or end sounds.
Heredity The genetic blueprint passed down from one generation to the next.
Hierarchy of control A method of risk management in which the
employees.
Independent support Students are provided with opportunities to practise their developing language skills with minimum support from the teacher. Indirect comparison Involves comparing two objects that cannot be aligned directly – for example, the height of a doorway to the length of a desk. Indirect discrimination Occurs when employers or service providers put in place conditions, requirements or practices that appear to treat everyone the same but actually disadvantage some people because of their race, colour, descent, national or ethnic origin, or immigrant status. Indirect/high-context communication Extensive use of non-verbal
most effective level and reliability of control measures is determined and applied.
language to convey meaning.
Holistic and individual-centred care Focuses on the strengths, skills, abilities and interests of the child or young person, and takes social and cultural influences into account.
Individual Behaviour Management Plan (IBMP) A plan tailored to an individual student with the goal of systematically modifying their environment with the goal of changing their behaviour over time.
Homograph A word with the same spelling as another but a different
Individual differences While development generally occurs in a predictable sequence, each child will develop at their own unique pace.
meaning.
Homonym A word that has the same sound and spelling as another, but a different meaning.
Homophone A word with the same sound as another but different spelling and meaning. Human agency The individual’s ability to think and act in ways that shape their experiences and life chances.
Hyperactivity Restless, fidgeting, making inappropriate noises or talking incessantly, can’t sit or stand still, climbs on everything.
Iconic stage Bruner’s stage of cognitive development – creating mental images without the need for concrete materials (image-based).
Implicit learning Things we learn through life experience, habit, games, experiential learning and other ‘hands-on’ activities. Impulsivity Risk-taking/reckless behaviour, inability to listen to and follow instructions, extremes of emotion, accident prone, unable to wait for a turn, fails to consider consequences of actions on self or others, difficulty playing with others. Inappropriate social behaviours Include inappropriate conversations, stealing, being over-affectionate, inappropriate touching or masturbation.
Inattention Inability to concentrate, inability to complete tasks, flitting from one thing to another, disorganised, unable to estimate the time needed to complete a task, often unsure of where to start.
Individual Education Plan (IEP) A document that identifies a student’s unique learning needs, details the educational goals for the student and outlines the specific strategies that will be used to work towards achievement of the goals. Inferential comprehension (also known as head comprehension) Requires readers to apply and evaluate knowledge from multiple texts, or within different areas of one text, or to use their background knowledge about topics. Inhibitory control The skill we use to master and filter our thoughts and impulses so we can resist temptations, distractions and habits, and learn to pause and think before we act. Information processing The process of collecting, sorting, storing and recalling information in ways that are meaningful and allows the individual to make sense of the world.
Intent of communication The ability to generate information such as commenting, asking questions or negotiating in an age-appropriate manner. Interactionist In relation to language development, language is acquired as a result of interactions between the environment and (a) information processing or (b) social interactions.
Internalising difficulties Where the child presents as inhibited and over-controlled – for example, anxious/nervous, fearful and/or withdrawn, worries excessively, is pessimistic and has poor peer relationships.
Interpretive comprehension The reader is asked to engage in
Literal comprehension The reader seeks to understand what is
reflection and draw on existing knowledge to make inferences about the text.
written in the text.
Investigation The process whereby the relevant department obtains more detailed information about a child who is the subject of a notification.
Key learning areas (KLAs) Key discipline areas of the National
Literary texts These texts entertain or elicit an emotional response by using language to create mental images. Logical consequences Similar to natural consequences but include adult intervention in applying the consequences.
Curriculum that describe key knowledge, skills and understanding for each discipline, including English, Mathematics, Science, Health and Physical Education, Humanities and Social Sciences, the Arts, Technologies and Languages.
Logico-mathematical knowledge Knowledge that is developed in the
Kriol Especially in relation to Aboriginal English, the language
necessarily limited to distance vision.
developed when a pidgin language is expanded to become the first language (i.e. the native language is replaced by a combination of the native language and the language of another people).
Macrosystem The second outer circle of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological
Language A system of communication using spoken or written word. Language and cultural understanding What the student understands about the situational and sociocultural contexts that affect the way English is used and interpreted.
Language processing disorders Problems with processing language that may include difficulty in comprehending and/or using spoken words. Receptive language disorders may be indicated by a child being unable to follow a sequence of commands, while expressive language disorders may present as difficulties with the sequencing of sounds.
Learning continuum Learning occurs continually and incrementally
mind by thinking about an object; enables children to develop ideas about the relationship between objects and is an essential skill for reasoning.
Low vision Generally refers to a severe visual impairment, not
systems theory; includes cultural values, laws and customs of the community in which the child and family live.
Maltreatment Refers to non-accidental behaviour towards another person that is outside the norms of conduct and entails a substantial risk of causing physical or emotional harm.
Mathematics Refers to specific mathematical knowledge and skills – for example, knowing the times table, equations and number sense.
Maturation A person’s biologically determined developmental pathway. Meaning-making skills Knowledge of literal and inferential meanings; use of background information, prior knowledge and previous experiences with similar texts to make meaning.
throughout life, although the rate and pace are neither fixed nor constant.
Mental health A positive capacity relating to the social and emotional
Learning objectives The planned steps/activities/strategies designed
wellbeing of individuals and communities.
to achieve a learning outcome.
Mental illness A health issue that can significantly affect how a person feels, thinks, behaves and interacts with other people.
Learning outcomes Observable demonstrations of what a student knows and is able to do.
Learning Progressions Describe the steps of literacy and numeracy development in the Australian Curriculum: English. Unlike the General Capabilities, they are not organised by year level or stage of schooling.
Learning Support Plan (LSP) A document that sets out specific areas of academic support for a particular student.
Legally blind Indicates that a person has less than 20/200 vision in the
Mesosystem The second inner circle of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory; serves as links among microsystems, such as the relationship between home and school, parents and friends. Metacognition The awareness of the existence of a ‘thinking process’. Microsystem The innermost circle of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory; includes roles and interpersonal relationships – especially family.
better eye or a very limited field of vision (20 degrees at its widest point).
Mindfulness The ability to pay attention, with judgement given to
Letter knowledge Understanding of upper and lower case.
what we are thinking and feeling in the here and now.
Letter patterns Combining letters to create single sounds.
Miscue In reading, saying something that is not actually in the text.
Letter–sound knowledge Phonics instruction is an essential component of a comprehensive literacy program because it is a highyield strategy to draw upon when attempting to name words that are not immediately known.
Miscue analysis Recording each miscue (usually by making notations on a copy of the text being read) and providing insight into the miscue.
Literacy Defined in the Australian Curriculum as ‘the capacity to interpret and use language features, forms, conventions and text structures in imaginative, informative and persuasive texts. It also refers to the ability to read, view, listen to, speak, write and create texts for learning and communicating in and out of school.’ Literacy rate gap The large and persistent difference in literacy levels between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal students in Australia; increases with remoteness.
Mistaken behaviour Dreikurs argued that ‘mistaken behaviour’ occurred because of the child’s basic needs not being met and a need to fit in to the social group. Mixed-type cerebral palsy May involve a combination of types of cerebral palsy.
Mnemonics Short rhymes or phrases that are used to help remember the spelling of irregular words.
Modelled mathematics Using adult-directed small-group instruction, students are encouraged to draw on prior knowledge, ask questions,
GLOSSARY
629
engage in discussion and hands-on practice/exploration and problemsolving.
Modelling Demonstrating a skill; a process by which an individual learns by observing the behaviour of others.
Moral development The understanding of right and wrong related to societal expectations; the development of a conscience and selfimposed standards of behaviour. Morality Concerned with fundamental questions of right and wrong, justice, fairness and basic human rights.
Morphological knowledge The conscious awareness of the sounds of language and the ability to talk about and manipulate those sounds.
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) An anxiety disorder in which people have unwanted and repeated thoughts, feelings, images and sensations (obsessions) and engage in behaviours or mental acts in response to these thoughts (compulsions), often in an attempt to get rid of the obsessions. One person, one plan Planning is coordinated across all domains of a person’s life, including all specialist services being accessed as well as informal supports and networks, insofar as the person wants this to happen. One-to-one correspondence The ability to count by matching one object to one number.
or does for the period of the observation.
Onset–rime phonics Children learn to identify the sound of the letter or letters before the first vowel (the onset) in a one-syllable word and the sound of the remaining part of the word (the rime).
Nativist Language is acquired naturally through the presence of a
Opportunistic occasional predators More likely to commit abuse
Language Acquisition Device (LAD) that is present from birth.
when a lack of appropriate controls, such as a code of conduct or reporting procedures, obscures personal responsibility for the abuse.
Narrative A written sequential account of everything a student says
Natural consequences The student experiences the natural outcomes of their behaviour. Natural mathematics Consists of three discrete parts: the teacher directs students to engage in mental routines; students are presented with a real-life problem; students are invited to discuss their solutions and how they arrived at the outcome.
Near-sightedness A lack of ability to see distant objects (the child usually will hold objects up close to their eyes).
Neglectful behaviour Refers to the failure (usually by a parent) to provide for a child’s basic needs.
Optic nerve atrophy Deterioration of the optic nerve. Oral language The foundation for the development of literacy skills; considered to be a strong indicator of later reading, writing and overall academic achievement. Oral vocabulary Refers to the words that we use in speaking or recognise in listening. Ordering The ability to arrange objects or events in a logical order – being able to identify what comes next. Ordinal number A number that indicates the place or order in a
Neurons Babies are born with 100 billion nerve cells (neurons). Every
sequence.
neuron has an axon that sends information out to other neurons and several dendrites that receive information.
Orthography Spelling patterns.
New Arrivals Program (NAP) The NAP is aimed at providing intensive English-language classes for students who are newly arrived and have a non-English-speaking background.
Non-verbal communication Facial expressions and gestures. Not substantiated Where an investigation concludes that there was no reasonable cause to suspect prior, current or future abuse, neglect or harm to the child.
Notifiable incident The death of a person, a ‘serious injury or illness’ or a ‘dangerous incident’ arising out of work carried out by a business or undertaking or at a workplace.
Otitis media (OM) A term used for middle ear infections; also referred to as ‘glue ear’.
Over-extension Generalising word meaning from a specific instance to a more general category – often broader than it should be.
Overt racism A conscious, intentional and public act intended to harm a person or a group of people because of their race. Partially sighted Indicates some type of visual problem that has resulted in a need for additional support. Participatory appropriation Knowledge that is acquired through observation and interaction in sociocultural activities.
Notification Contacts made to an authorised department by persons
Peer-assessment A form of assessment as learning undertaken by
or other bodies making allegations of child abuse or neglect, child maltreatment or harm to a child.
fellow students.
Number sense The ability to understand numbers and number relationships.
Numeracy The knowledge and application of number concepts. Nurture The role of adults to love and protect children so that they can grow up with a sense of being valued as individuals. Object permanence The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be perceived directly.
Observational learning Learning by observing how others behave.
Perceptual motor development The ability to receive, interpret and respond successfully to sensory information. Perpetrator A person who has been determined to have caused (intentionally or unintentionally) by acts of omission or knowingly the maltreatment of a child.
Person at the centre The person with disability is central to all planning and decision-making.
Personal priorities and strengths There is a strong focus on the person’s abilities, interests, dreams and aspirations, and the supports
required to realise them. There is also strong recognition of the person as a unique individual who is influenced by age, gender, culture, ethnicity, belief system, social and income status, education, family and any other factors that make them unique.
Personal protective equipment (PPE) Clothing, equipment or substance designed to protect a person from injury, infection or illness.
Personality The traits that make each person unique. Persuasive texts Text types that give a point of view; they are used to influence or persuade others.
Phobia An intense and irrational fear of an object, thing or event.
Pragmatics Also known as social language. The ability to communicate effectively with others for a range of purposes and in a range of situations. Prejudice Pre-judgement; making up your own mind about something or someone without adequate knowledge or information; a belief that is often founded on incorrect information, biased values and family beliefs based on fear, ignorance and misinformation. Presentational talk Children present their knowledge of a topic in response to questioning from the teacher or are required to present information to an audience.
Private speech A child uses private speech for the purposes of self-
Phoneme The smallest distinguishable speech sound.
direction, self-control and problem-solving.
Phonemic awareness The ability to understand that words are made
Problem-solving Using a range of strategies to solve a problem by considering a range of possible solutions.
up of a sequence of sounds.
Phonemic knowledge Refers to the specific ability to focus on and manipulate individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words.
Procedural skills Knowing ‘how to’, such as pointing at each object
Phonics Involves making the connection between the single sounds (phonemes) and their related letter patterns (graphemes) when reading and writing.
Professional knowledge Specialised knowledge and its application to
Phonics through spelling Students are taught to segment the word
become aware of their body by receiving sensory feedback from involuntary movement of the joints and muscles.
into phonemes (sounds) and writing letters for each phoneme.
Phonological awareness Recognition that a word may contain a number of different sounds; understanding the relationship between letters and sounds. Phonology Speech sounds. Phonology assessment Requires students to listen to word pairs and
when counting or using fingers to help count. practice.
Proprioception An innate sensory motor skill that allows infants to
Proprioceptive dysfunction Students tend to be clumsy, awkward and uncoordinated, and will display a number of sensory and tactile behaviours; they may be over-sensitive or under-sensitive to sensory information. Prosody The ability to read with expression.
identify whether the words are the same or different.
Proximodistal development The progression of physical and motor
Physical development (motor development) A complex process
development from the centre of the body towards the extremities.
involving muscle tissue, tendons, bones, joints and nerves.
Psychological/emotional self Am I likeable? How do I manage my emotions? How do I deal with disappointment or conflict? Am I happy, kind, friendly, helpful, empathic?
Physical knowledge Information about the qualities/attributes of objects and what they are used for; acquired by sensory exploration, learned facts, experimenting and observation. Physical self What do I look like compared with others? What physical skills do I have? Am I attractive? Physically abusive behaviour Any non-accidental physically aggressive act towards a child.
Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) Used to teach functional communication skills. The system includes six phases of social communication moving from simple to complex communication using picture cards, pictures and word cards and phrase cards.
Plasticity The brain’s ability to reorganise and adapt to influences, interactions and challenges in the environment.
Positive outlook A focus on positives rather than negatives; having a ‘can do’ attitude.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Can develop as a consequence of a traumatic experience or event such as a serious accident, a natural disaster, witnessing extreme violence, being attacked or bullied; often accompanied by flashbacks and extreme mood swings.
Psychosocial development Erikson’s theory explains how development is influenced by a combination of an individual’s biological makeup and the environment. Public speech A child’s public speech, although still egocentric, is used primarily for communicating with others. Punctuation Symbols, such as full stops, commas and question marks, used to divide written text into sentences and clauses. Punishment Punitive techniques used to enforce discipline. Quality of voice Refers to how speech sounds when it is spoken. Rate (reading) Refers to the speed and fluidity used by the reader while maintaining comprehension of what is being read.
Rational counting The sequence of words is matched in one-to-one correspondence with the objects to discover the number of objects in a set.
Reading accuracy Assesses the number of errors made by the student when reading a selected text. Reading comprehension Decoding (the ability to translate text into speech).
GLOSSARY
631
Reading fluency Develops over time as students become better at word recognition and at seeing connected texts rather than a series of words; includes three components – accuracy, rate and prosody.
Scaffolding Providing structure and support; a method of teaching,
Reading isolated words Allows assessment of decoding skills as the
School refusal Children who develop school refusal are usually so anxious about going to school that they will develop psychosomatic illnesses such as a headache or upset tummy.
student cannot rely on contextual cues.
Reading rate The speed and fluidity used by the reader while maintaining comprehension of what is being read.
designed to teach a child something new by utilising what they already know or can do.
Self-assessment The process by which the student gathers
Reasonably practicable A legal requirement meaning what you are
information about and reflects on his or her own learning.
reasonably able to do to ensure the health and safety of workers and others like volunteers and visitors.
Self-awareness The realisation that one is a separate being;
Receptive language Understanding or comprehending the meaning Reciprocal determinism A person’s behaviour both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment.
Self-concept The process of evaluating oneself – ‘Who am I, what am I like, what do others think of me, what will I become?’ Selfconcept is multidimensional – it is a process of thinking critically in order to evaluate oneself in a range of areas.
Reframing Another term used for a functional assessment.
Self-confidence Trust in one’s own abilities, judgement and actions.
Regular review and continuous improvement The individual’s
Self-control Control over oneself or one’s actions and feelings.
program is reviewed regularly with them and their support network to assess ongoing changes and learnings, and to ensure that planned activities are being achieved and are still relevant to their goals.
Self-efficacy An understanding of one’s own personal competence to deal with challenging situations.
of spoken language.
Relationship skills Include learning effective communication skills, developing conflict-resolution skills, learning to cooperate with others, understanding how to build friendships.
Relationships of similarity Thinking about and analysing the attributes (characteristics/properties) of objects by making comparisons of similarities and differences; assists students to classify groups of objects or things.
Residual current devices (RCDs) Safety switches, such as a circuit breaker, reduce the risk of electrical shock because they are designed to immediately switch off the supply of electricity when electricity ‘leaking’ to earth is detected at harmful levels.
Resilience An individual’s ability to overcome setbacks and persevere in the presence of difficulty or hardship.
Respect for culture Respect for the individual’s social customs and traditions, language, culture, and religious beliefs and practices.
Responsible decision-making The ability to make constructive choices about personal behaviour and social interactions based on ethical standards, safety concerns and social norms.
Retelling A student’s ability to retell a text in a logical manner, highlighting the key events and characters and using some of the vocabulary from the text.
Risk An action with the potential to result in harm to persons or property.
Risk assessment A systematic evaluation of the potential risks that may be involved in a projected activity or undertaking. Rote counting The number words are repeated in the correct sequence without reference to the actual quantity of objects.
Safety Data Sheet (SDS) A document that provides detailed information about a hazardous chemical.
recognising one’s own feelings and building self-confidence.
Self-esteem The measure of how much an individual likes or values the characteristics that make up the image they have of them and their ability.
Self-management Regulating one’s emotions to handle stress, control impulses and persevere in overcoming obstacles; setting and monitoring progress towards personal and academic goals; expressing emotions appropriately. Semantic assessment Requires students to demonstrate their understanding of how words, phrases and sentences can be put together to make sense and convey meaning.
Semantics Word meanings. Sense of agency An individual’s sense of control or self-confidence. Sense of responsibility/participation A feeling of purpose and selfmotivation to attempt challenges.
Sensory Messages received via information from the senses – sight, sound, taste, smell and touch.
Sensory integration The process by which the brain uses sensory information to make sense of the world and respond in an appropriate manner.
Sensory integration dysfunction (SID) Caused when the brain and central nervous system have difficulty processing, or are unable to process, sensory information required to coordinate movement, and to understand and make sense of the world. Sensory integration therapy A program developed by an occupational therapist designed to assist the student to manage sensory input. Sensory modulation The term used to describe the way the body responds to sensory stimulation and information. Sensory over-responsivity (hypersensitivity). This occurs when an individual has an exaggerated negative response to sensory input, often leading to avoidance and hypervigilance of the stimulus.
Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD) A neurological condition where individuals find it difficult to process sensory information (sound, touch, movement, light). Sensory-seeking behaviour This occurs when an individual has an unusual craving for, or preoccupation with, certain sensory experiences. Sensory under-responsivity (hyposensitivity). This occurs when an individual may seem to be unaware of, or slow to respond to, a stimulus that would typically be expected to elicit a response.
Separation anxiety Difficulty separating from the family without becoming anxious.
Serial perpetrator predators High-frequency chronic offenders who choose victims based on situational factors and are likely to actively manipulate environments to create opportunities to abuse.
Seriation The organisation of objects in terms of specific criteria such as weight, height and length.
Serious injury Includes any injury that requires immediate treatment as an in-patient in a hospital.
Sexually abusive behaviour Refers to any sexual activity between an adult and a child below the age of consent; non-consensual sexual activity between minors; sexual activity between a child under 18 years and a person in a position of power or authority; or any sexual activity that a child does not fully comprehend, is unable to give informed consent to or for which the child is not developmentally prepared.
Shared commitment A strong commitment to supporting the individual to realise their goals and aspirations.
Shared mathematics Learning is made explicit by highlighting key
Social values Those values that society as a whole supports or rejects – for example, gun laws, capital punishment, homosexual marriages or euthanasia. Social values are often the basis for developing laws or codes of conduct for particular professions. In this way, social values influence the legal and ethical framework in which we live and work. ESWs need to be aware of their own ‘social values’ – for example, the view that same sex couples should not be allowed to adopt children. Socialisation The process of psychologically growing into a society, in which an individual acquires the behaviours, attitudes, values and roles expected of them.
Sociocultural context Refers to all the factors that influence a person’s development and behaviour. Spastic cerebral palsy The most common type of cerebral palsy, associated with stiffness or tightness of muscles. Special education The student is placed in a regular school setting or a special unit. An IEP is developed to assist the student to reach their full learning potential.
Speech The spoken form of language; the production of sounds (articulation) and voice quality. Speech disorders Speech and language problems that may include substitutions or distortions. Speech/language therapy A speech pathologist works with the student to develop a program to facilitate language and communication. Spina bifida A congenital orthopaedic impairment that means ‘cleft spine’ – an incomplete closure in the spinal column.
ideas and encouraging students to explore connections with other mathematical ideas.
Standard Australian English (SAE) The common language of Australia, which is used in Australian schools.
Situational perpetrators Commit abuse in reaction to environmental factors and often behave impulsively when overcome by temptation or a temporary failure of self-control.
Standards-referenced assessment Monitoring student progress
Social awareness Understanding and respecting similarities and differences.
Social-conventional knowledge Information gained through direct social transmission – for example, language, learning the labels for common household objects, learning about social norms such as manners, dress rules, laws and customs.
against curriculum standards.
Stereotype A standardised idea or concept, or preconceived image or view, of a person based on certain characteristics. Stereotypes do not take individual differences into consideration, which can result in discrimination. Strabismus A misalignment of the eyes because of an imbalance in the eye muscles; often one or both eyes appear to be crossed. Strands, sub-strands and threads The organising principles of the
Social environment Family, education, religion, culture and economic
Australian Curriculum: English.
status.
Strategies Understanding of the structures and features of language: pronunciation, sounds, letters, sentences, comprehension, fluency.
Social interaction An exchange between two people; an important part of social functioning.
Social justice Refers to the concept that all people have the right to opportunities that will increase their ‘life’ chances and allow them to be happy, productive members of society. Social self Do I have a range of social networks and friendships? Do I participate in a range of activities and experiences with others? Can I communicate effectively with people of different ages? What are my core values and beliefs?
Social skills Students become aware of the human interaction skills involved in effective group cooperation when working in a small group.
Structured behaviour intervention Development of a plan to assist the student to manage their behaviour.
Student-centred learning Adapting teaching strategies to meet individual needs and the varied learning styles of students.
Substantiated After investigation, it is concluded that there is reasonable cause to believe that the child has been, was being or is likely to be abused, neglected or otherwise harmed. Summative assessment Making a judgement about student achievement against a set of standards such as curriculum outcomes (also known as assessment of learning).
GLOSSARY
633
Symbolic stage Bruner’s stage of cognitive development – using
Value(s) The worth placed on an object, behaviour or
abstract ideas (language-based)
custom; the judgements we make about what is important; our personal ‘standards’ – for example, that all children should be taught manners.
Synapses The connections used by the brain to develop new brain cells; activated when stimulation occurs.
Syntactic assessment Requires students to demonstrate their understanding of the rules that govern how words can be arranged meaningfully to form phrases and sentences.
Syntactic awareness A metalinguistics skill that is defined as the conscious ability to manipulate or judge word order within the context of a sentence, based on the application of grammatical rules.
Variables The use of algebraic symbols in mathematics: letters replace unknown numbers or quantities.
Violent and/or unsafe behaviours Include head banging, kicking, biting, punching, fighting, running away, smashing equipment or furniture/fixtures.
Visual acuity Clearness or clarity of vision.
Syntactic knowledge An unconscious understanding of the rules that
Visual discrimination The ability to perceive depth, colour and
govern word order.
movement.
Syntax The sentence structure of a language. It governs how words are ordered meaningfully into phrases, clauses and sentences.
Visual impairment Diminished ability to see clearly.
Synthetic phonics Students are taught the relationship between
combinations look.
letters and the speech sounds they represent. This is a part-to-whole approach that teaches children to convert graphemes into phonemes.
Task analysis Working through a task, breaking it down into small, manageable steps.
Temperament Refers to the traits that determine how an individual reacts, interacts and behaves.
Temporal ordering The ability to place events into the correct sequence.
Text-analysing skills Teaching students to identify the techniques used to position readers, viewers and listeners; identification of opinions, bias, points of view; considering reactions to a text from varying perspectives; endorsing a position or presenting an alternative position to that taken by a text.
Text-using skills Recognition of the purpose, structure and features of texts; use of texts to increase knowledge and refine understanding; application of knowledge of texts to achieve purposes both inside and outside the school.
Texts Provide the means for communication. They can be written, spoken, visual, multimodal, and in print or digital/online forms.
Visual knowledge Understanding the way words and letter Visual perception The ability to make sense and meaning out of what you see.
Visual Processing Disorder Difficulty interpreting visual information; problems with reading, maths, maps, charts, symbols and pictures. Vocabulary The words that are understood when language is heard or read.
Voice disorders Speech and language problems that may include a husky, hoarse, breathy or strained voice.
Vowel A letter (sound) of the English alphabet (a, e, i, o, u). Whole child Each domain of development is influenced by, and dependent on, all other domains of development. WHS management system A system of managing, recording, analysing and ensuring the health and safety of individuals in the workplace. Word meaning When students are learning to spell new words, it is also important that they understand the meaning of the word and can use it in the correct context.
Theory of Mind (ToM) The term used to describe an awareness that each of us has our own separate thoughts and that we may view things from different perspectives.
Work health and safety (WHS) legislation Occupational health
Thinking and problem-solving The ability to engage in problemsolving and finding new ways to approach challenges.
Working memory The capacity to hold and manipulate information in our minds over short periods.
Totally blind Students who have no light perception and learn via Braille or other non-visual media.
Withdrawn behaviours Include shyness, rocking, staring, anxiety, school phobia, truancy, social isolation or hand flapping.
Transductive reasoning Reasoning that moves from particular to particular, and results in thinking that lacks adult logic.
Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Referred to by Vygotsky as
Unacceptable risk of significant harm Refers to significant harm that has not yet occurred but is likely in the future, given risk factors identified in the present.
and safety law aimed at protecting the health, safety and welfare of people in the workplace.
the lower limit that the child can achieve in terms of learning without adult support, compared with the upper limit that the child can achieve in terms of learning with support from an adult or more knowledgeable older child.
INDEX AAC aids 514–15 abandonment 147, 181 abilities 228–9, 298, 482, 587 barriers to 275 focus 478 mixed 252 multiple 216 sensory 492–3 underestimation of 209 ability 258 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities child abuse in 114 role of kinship 62–3 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples 46 ‘the Aboriginal problem’ 61 barriers 557, 559 colonisation, impact of 59–61 family structure 62 heritage 59 housing – overcrowded and inadequate 114 kinship 62–3, 406 languages/dialects 63–4, 559–61 otitis media and 497 perspectives – changing 62 perspectives – contextual 58–62, 406 preferred name 58 terminology 64 understandings 62–3 working with 58–64 see also Indigenous people; Torres Strait Islander people Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Justice Commissioner 60 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students 557–61 English programs 560 health and wellbeing 558 implications for classrooms 560–1 opportunities/outcomes gaps 557–8 working with 405–7 Aboriginal English 64, 559–61 ABS Census of Population and Housing 45 abstract thinking 133, 223–4 abuse 59–60, 147, 484 disability and 113 disclosure of 117–18 perpetrators 107–8 possible indicators of 109–15 reasons for occurrence 105–9
severity of 112 substance abusers 114 triggers 106–7 types of 109–10 see also child abuse academic achievement see achievement academic performance 140–1, 201 academic self 170 academic vocabulary 555 acceptance 55, 480 access, physical 262 accidents 38 behavioural contributions to 263 due to hazards 31–2 see also injury accommodation(s) 180–1, 601 of differing abilities 482 of students with disabilities 476–7 within classrooms 529 accommodations 206 for ASD 528–9 for dyspraxia 506–7 to environment 513 for hearing loss 497–8 of learning needs 245–6 of students with ADHD 519 of students with disabilities 502–3, 509 of students with visual impairments 494–5 accountability 8–12, 24–6, 37 see also ethical conduct accreditation 476 accuracy 289–90, 356 assessing 407 versus speed 250, 299 achievement 176, 357 under-achievement 531 barriers to 478 continuous low achievement 173 goal achievability 603 mastery 397 Achievement Standards 310, 320 achievement tests 203 acoustics 257–8 acting out 149, 157, 262, 396, 403, 585 action patterns 206 action symbols 230 actions 240–6 active listening 196, 264 activities 167, 240–6 illegal 181
introducing 247 for literacy 311 physical activity recommendations 149 rest and activities balance 145 restricted/repetitive 524–5 teacher-led 556 unwillingness to get involved in unfamiliar 179 activity planning 397 adaptability 167 adaptation 206, 261, 299–301, 601, 605 adaptability of materials 266 of the brain 219 for classroom learning 300 of learning resources 266 to meet needs see student-centred learning of physical environments 150, 297 addition 416, 418, 446–7 sets for 444–6 adjectives 190 adjustment 274, 476–7, 530, 601–2 administration, EWSs’ role 2, 6 adolescence 147–8, 160, 170, 539 brain development during 135–6 developmental marker of see sexual orientation language development during 192 adolescent development 126–36 adult-directed small group instruction 462 adulthood 160 adults 212, 570 advocacy 482–3 practical 483 Aesop’s Quest 320 age 43, 174, 258, 557, 587 status of 47 Age Discrimination Act 2004 24 age-appropriate development 128 age-appropriateness 195, 220, 227, 265, 407, 476 rules and limits 153 agencies 121 of government 67, 121 interagency protocols 121 agency, sense of 173 Agenda for Sustainable Development 478 aggression 171, 179, 181, 526, 529, 587–8 agility 133 aids 494 albinism 491
635
alcohol abuse 406 alcohol use/abuse 9, 114, 178 Alfred Binet 202 algebra 415, 433–5, 461 algebraic thinking 430 allegation 101 Allergy and Anaphylaxis Australia 34 allergy management 33–4 alliteration 306 alphabet 325, 357 alphabet coding 325 alphabetic principle 314, 353, 378 see also letter–sound relationship alternative seating positions 150 ambiguity 291 amblyopia 491 analogy phonics 383 analysis 194, 248–9, 287, 293–6, 332, 408–9, 527 for concept development 234 analytic phonics 383 anaphylaxis management of 33–4 signs and symptoms 34 Anaphylaxis Action Plan 34 anecdotal evidence 255–6 anecdotal records 288, 291, 401, 596 anger 396, 485, 579–80 Anglo-Australian cultural heritage/laws 46 annoying others 579 anorexia 148 antecedent events 599 anti-discrimination legislation 24–7, 44 by state/territory 26 anti-social behaviours 169 anxiety 108, 120, 179–80, 361, 406, 485–6 heightened 485 manifesting in childhood 179 anxiety disorders 177, 487 appraising 194 apprenticeship 216 apraxia 513 Arabic 536 arbitration 93 areas 453, 457 artefacts 132 articulation 186 articulation disorders 512 Asperger’s syndrome 523 assembly areas 73 assertiveness 115, 590 assessment 5, 407–8, 470, 527, 601 ACARA see Australian Curriculum and Assessment Authority of behaviour 593–600 for dysgraphia 361 of dyslexia 508
of EAL/D students 550–3 formal 277–8 functional 605 key effectiveness elements 271 of learning materials 265–6 levels 270 of literacy see literacy assessments of needs 578–9 for planning 270–4 post-notification 120 purpose of 270 reading self-assessment forms 404 of risk see risk assessment school-wide basis 270 of skills see skills assessments types of 270–2 of writing and spelling 365–7 assessment as learning 270, 272 elements 272 assessment for learning 270–2, 274–86 assessment of learning 270–1 assimilation 61, 206–7 assisted learning 212 assistive devices 89 assistive technology 482 Association of Teachers and Lecturers (ATL) 593 assumptions 45, 219–20, 398, 406 asthma management 35 asylum seekers 539 attachment(s) 171, 180, 568 issues 111 secure 219 attendance rates 406 attention 156–7, 181–2, 222, 225, 227, 234 Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 177, 258, 260, 487, 518–20 strengths-based approach to 518 attention-seeking behaviour 578 attitudes 52–3, 166, 479–80 ‘can do’ attitude 156, 174, 180, 396 parental 486, 568 to reading 401, 404–5 to school/learning 154 attributes 13, 43, 133, 229–30, 233, 430 auditory perception 144–5 skills 146 auditory sense 142 augmentative and alternative communication (AAC)/strategies 306, 513–15, 530 Auslan (Australian Sign Language) 514 Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy (ASCIA) 33–4 Australian Alliance for Inclusive Education 480–1 Australian Bureau of Statistics 536 Australian Childhood Immunisation Register (ACIR) 33
Australian Curriculum 136, 308, 320, 415, 472, 476 comprehension 391–2 cross-curriculum priorities 309 curriculum content 240, 309–10, 460 language and 194 Measurement 453 numeracy elements and sub-elements 460–1 numeracy learning continuum 414 personal and social capability learning 571–2 programs and approaches 532 punctuation and 347 Standards scope coverage 476 Australian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (ACARA) 413, 477 Australian Curriculum: English 305–10, 321, 328 content 309–10 EALD curriculum 544–6 key ideas 306 language strands and sub-strands 305–7 learning continuum 308–9, 315, 356 reading instruction 374 structure 305–9 writing 326–8 Australian Education Act/Regulation 2013 24 Australian Human Rights Commission Act 1986 24 Australian Human Rights Commission (AHRC) 24, 44, 54–5, 61, 477 Australian Institute of Family Studies (AIFS) 103, 107–8 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 107, 114, 149, 558, 565 substantiated abuse 114 Australian population 536–8 Australian school font 359 Australian Sign Language (Auslan) 514 Australian slang 556 Australian Standards 81 Australian Temperament Project (ATP) 568–9 Australianisms 50 authentic tasks 401 authenticity (being genuine) 397 authorities 121 author’s chair 341 Autism Spectrum Australia 522 Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) 258, 260, 521–9 associated features 525 behaviour and 526–7 characteristics 523–9 communication and 525–6 diagnosing 522–3
research 522 severity ranking 523–4 symptoms 523 autonomy 47, 159 avoidance strategies 361–2 awards 7 awareness 45, 56, 143, 225–6, 230 awkwardness 145–6, 364 axons 217 babbling 190 babushka dolls 130 back-and-forth exchange 194 back-and-forth rule 515 backup plans see contingency planning balance 143 balanced reading program 374 Bandura, Albert 156–7 bar graphs 440–1 basic human needs 127 Be You 176, 179, 182 beauty 44 bed-wetting 485 behaviour 110, 132, 135, 168, 240–6, 261, 293, 308, 537 ‘acceptable’ versus ‘normal’ 587 ASD and 526–7 boundaries 164 cause elimination 526 considerations 262 description of 604 desired 573 difficult or challenging see challenging behaviour disruptive 578, 587–8 diversity of 1–2 ethical see ethical conduct frequency, duration and intensity of see functional behaviour assessment inconsistent 364 incorrect or inappropriate 121, 157, 587 internalised 234–5 maintaining 599 modification of 527 overcautious 577–8 persistent atypical 110 perspectives 576–80 policy 572–6 professional 9 protective 121–2 reasons for 600 repetitive 91, 523–5 responding to 526–7 restricted 523–5 ritualistic see rituals rules for safe 264 self-defeating 401
social environment reciprocal influences 156 social values–gender-linked behaviour, link 154 supporting 563–605 threatening 93–7 triggers 95, 605 uncharacteristic 116 uncooperative 396 unreasonable 91–2 unsafe 587 violent 587 withdrawn 577–8, 587 behaviour continuum 577–80 behaviour contracts 591–2 behaviour intervention plans (BIPs) 601–4 cycle 605 inclusions 601–2 behaviour management 5–6, 153, 168, 526, 565–6 behavioural goals 604 guidelines 585–6 behaviour management practices 582–3 behaviour management strategies 574, 581 to avoid 585–6 direct strategies 603 behavioural change 180, 579 pre- and post-intervention behaviours 605 support 601 unexpected 116 behavioural consequences 584–5 behavioural corrective measures 593, 600 behavioural disability 480 behavioural expectations 564 cultural variations 567 behaviours of concern 569 beliefs 11, 43, 45, 51–3, 64, 126, 132, 160–1, 166, 168, 172, 226, 313, 480, 483, 537, 557, 587 of families 153 fixed 153 belonging, sense of 62, 176, 256 benchmarking 405 bereavement 485 best practice 526, 593 for confidential documents 12 knowing students 397 knowledge-informed 15 skills, knowledge, weaknesses and gaps in knowledge 469 in transferring and positioning students 88 Best Start 270 betrayal 108 Beyond Blue 176 bias 56, 58, 289–90, 480, 595 diversity and 53–5 big picture 289
big six 310–11 bilingualism 547–8 importance of 540–1 biological factors 132–3 biological hazards 76 blending 376 blood 84 Bluster 320 body image 143, 145, 147–8, 174 body language 49, 197, 514 negative 92 body posture 557 body/kinaesthetic intelligence 215 bone density 147 Bookworm 320 boundaries 164, 583–4 Braille 306, 494 brain, the 141–2, 148, 150, 166, 258, 492, 503 at 5–6 years 223 at 7–8 years 223 at adolescence 223–4 bottom up build 134 child development and 134–6 circuitry 217–18 corpus callosum 222–3 development of 139 frontal lobes 135, 170, 222–3 functional refinement 223–4 hard-wiring/wiring 186, 224 left and right hemispheres of 145, 222–3 from middle childhood to young adulthood 222–4 transition to young adulthood 224 universal principles’ 187 brain breaks 150, 246 brain development 133, 135–6, 142, 496 critical periods, sensitive periods and plasticity 218–19 environment and 219–20 key features 223–4 optimal 202 brain research 134, 217–25 education and 224–5 brainstorming 462, 467 breathing deeply 603 brevity 560 bridging units 546 briefing 4 Bringing Them Home [report] 60, 62 British Commonwealth 46 Bronfenbrenner, Uri 129 Bruner, Jerome 212–13 bulimia 148 bullying 52, 58, 91–2, 115–16, 149, 156, 163, 171, 178 in the workplace 91–3
INDEX
637
calculations 418 calculators 457–8 calendars 455–6 calmness 73, 118, 264, 589, 603 ‘can do’ attitude 156, 180, 396 Cancer Council Australia 35, 85 cannabis 178 see also alcohol use; drugs use; substance abusers Cantonese 536 capabilities 275 capacity 453 cardinal number 231 care 148, 155, 294 high-needs 529 holistic and individual-centred 478–9 supporting 2 see also duty of care care plans development 88–9 career planning 9 carers 12 case conferences 296 attending 295 case studies Aaron Jones – analysis and interpretation 294 Aaron Jones – case conference 296 Aaron Jones – parts 1, 2 and 3 277–83, 285 Aaron Jones – records 292 development 606 documentation 603–4 Kane 595, 599 Lavindra – parts 1, 2 and 3 548–9, 552–3, 555 causal factors 110 cause and effect 168, 234 Central Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD) 513 centred thinking 591 cephalocaudal development 139 cerebellum 150 cerebral palsy (CP) 499–501 CFCS levels 502–3 difficulties 500 MACS levels 501 types of 499 challenging behaviour 170, 262, 529, 586–600, 605 defined 587 identifying 600 responding to 589–91 chance 461 change 91, 139, 240, 293 in development 128 difficulty with 179 motivation to 157 see also behavioural change
charities 44 charts 401 cheating 590 checklists 250, 293, 319, 345–6, 360, 365–6, 401–2, 551 chemical hazards 76 chemicals, hazardous 80–1 Chief Protectors 61 child abuse 114, 180, 406 legal definition 104 prevalence of 101–2 Child and Adolescent Mental Health Survey 177 child development 126–36 the brain and 134–6 core concepts 128 culture and 132–3 principles of 127–9 Child Family Community Australia (AIFS) 111 child maltreatment 101, 107–8 consequences of 111–12 child protection 6, 28, 94, 100–22 from abuse, neglect and bullying 114 authorities 121 notification as first step towards 118 notification procedures 28 statistics 102 terms 100–1 Child Protection Act 1999 (Qld) 105 Child Protection Australia 2015–16 Annual Report 101–2 child protection (CP) legislation 28, 100–5 child sex abuse offenders 108 child sexual abuse 28, 103 child-first principle 481 childhood apraxia of speech (CAS) 513 childhood obesity 148–9 childhood trauma 180–1 child-rearing attitudes 568 child-rearing practices 47, 153–5, 168 children 396 educator–child relationship 188 as ‘empty vessels’ 187 first languages 556, 559 forced removal 59–61 gifted see students who are gifted home environment 566–7 of mixed race 61 at risk 110, 118–21, 478 working with 13, 531–2 Working with Children Check for 28 children and adolescents, mental health of Australian 177–9 children and young people best interests of 117–19 with disabilities see students with disabilities
experiences 484–7 protecting 114–22 children living with domestic violence 110 Children’s Court 120–1 chillout zone 580 choice 161, 208, 476 Chomsky, Noam 187 chronosystem 130 circuit breakers 90 clarifying 299 class 132 class clowns 396 classifying 230, 232–3, 430–3, 501–3 classroom management 518–20 classroom talk 195–8 classrooms 256 assessment use 270 implications for 560–1 pragmatics and 195–6 rules for 5 supporting physical development in 150 supporting reading in 396–409 tools see learning tools and resources cleaning 85 see also housekeeping clinical depression 112 cloze assessment 408 clustering 227 coaching 216, 603 code of conduct 9–10 code-breaking skills 374 codes of practice 67, 72 Hazardous Manual Tasks 87 codes/coding 9, 82, 310, 325 cracking 187 see also decoding skills; encoding code-switching 543, 559 cognition 168, 189, 312 cognitive development 139, 141, 144, 186, 195, 201–2, 209–10, 216, 225 cognitive–physical development link 142 foundations see schemas influencing factors 201–2 intellectual 126–7 significant ideas (Piaget) 208 stages 203–4 Vygotsky’s theory of 186, 313, 555–6 see also language cognitive flexibility 220 cognitive skills 159, 222, 224, 226, 312, 358 cognitive theories 188, 203 collaboration 4–5, 8, 95, 194–6, 198, 227, 252, 255–6, 294, 397, 399, 479, 526, 603 Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) 169
colleagues working with culturally diverse 56, 58 working with experienced 14 working with LGBTIQ 58 see also teams/teamwork colonisation, impacts 46, 59–61 colour 144–5 colour-coding 82 comfort 118 comfort zones 179 commenting 194 common law 60 Commonwealth Government 67, 559 Commonwealth legislation 24–6, 67–8 communication 13, 17, 45, 48–50, 114, 186, 194, 262, 492, 523–5, 559 ASD and 525–6 augmentative and alternative 306, 513–15 barriers 63 clear 4 cognitive development connections 188 difficulties 510 direct versus indirect 48 poor 92 practices 482 predisposition to 188 processes 306 SLCN student needs 509–17 strategies for 50–1, 515–17, 530, 556 style 556 supporting 555–7 timing of 49 also under specific communication types communication aids 514, 528 communication books 530 communication disorders 193 Communication Function Classification System (CFCS) 502–3 community 58, 132, 216, 478 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities 60, 62–3, 114 human rights responsibility 44 sense of 406 spiritual and cultural basis 60 wellbeing of 177 commutativity 447–8 comparison 194, 453–4 compare and contrast 336 functional assessment new–old 605 with peers 147–8, 396 of sets 442–4 Vygotsky–Piaget 212–13 comparison words 232, 431 competence/competencies 13, 45–6, 156, 169, 179, 219, 311, 460, 546 in learning 396–7 limited concern 480
in numeracy 471 own 480 self-perceived 568 competition 146, 590 complements to 10 448–9 completeness 594 complex trauma 180–1 compliance 24, 31, 67, 75, 591 food safety compliance 33 WHS compliance 69 compound words 351 comprehension 311, 391–6, 408 assessing 407 supporting 393–5 concentration 227, 250, 257, 263 concept attainment 189 concept development 229–34, 419–21 representing via lexicon 190 from specific to general 229 Concepts 478 concepts consolidation 208 conceptual knowledge 413 application 466 conceptual understanding 306, 419, 464 conceptualising 467 conciliation 93 concrete operational stage 204–5 concrete reinforcement 603 conduct disorders 177 professional 14 Conduct Disorder 487 confidence 58–62, 293, 367, 577–8 lack of 578–9 see also self-confidence confidentiality 6, 12, 19, 118, 290, 295 confidential information 9 see also privacy conflict 48–9, 64, 91, 110, 155, 158–9, 539, 581 competing priorities 16 conflict resolution 169, 174, 570, 591, 603 conflicts of interest 9 confrontation 118, 592–3 confusion 160 conjunctions 343–4 connections 217–18, 240, 343–4, 359, 394 consent 33, 290 absence of 121 consequences 108–9, 158, 584–5 conservation of number 422 consonants 375–6 constructivist theory 205 consultation 477 contextual considerations 48, 58–62, 132, 192, 316–17, 341–2, 406, 414, 568 age-equivalent context 476 key words in context 556
contingency planning 247–8 contract 401 for behaviour 591–2 for employment 7 review of 401 contrast 336, 494 control/control systems 90, 141 of behaviour 178 control of risk see risk control of emotions 223 inhibitory control 220 injury risk controls 88 of movement 139 visual motor control 143 controlled support 556 Convention on the Rights of the Child (UN) 27, 36, 115 conventional morality 162–3 conventions 195, 557 of language 321 conversation 49, 263, 286 development 491 pauses or silence in 559 conversational English 555 conversational skills 194–5 cooperation 158, 160, 252 coordination 143, 146, 148, 364, 505–7 core values 166 correct stage 351 correcting 399 corrective discipline 587–8 corrective feedback 400 correspondence 380–2 Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation 62 counselling 177–8 counting 418 counting back 446 counting on 445–6 counting to 100 444–5 country of origin 45 courage 11 courtesy 264 covert racism 54 co-workers 93–4 creating 306 Creating Literature 326 Creating Text 327–9 creative thinking 194, 532 Creoles 63, 559 Crimes Act 1958 100 criminal charges 37, 95 crises 158–60 crisis intervention 96 critical analysis 332, 393 Critical and Creative Thinking 308 critical periods 218–19 critical reflection 9, 224
INDEX
639
critical self-reflection 53–4 critical thinking 170, 192, 194, 241, 532 criticism 92 cross-cultural communication 48–50 perspectives – contextual 48 cross-curriculum priorities 309 cruelty 112 cue cards 299 cues 251 cultural and linguistic diversity (CALD) 536–41 cultural competence 45–6 cultural context 162, 168, 210, 547 cultural diversity 44–51, 56, 58, 406, 557 cultural identity 46–7, 132–3, 537 cultural influences 478 cultural issues 106–7 cultural practices 61 cultural proficiency 45 cultural responsiveness 11 cultural responsivity 46 cultural safety 47–8, 56–7, 537 cultural values 64, 130, 313, 537, 587 culture 44, 132, 134, 406, 480, 486 behaviour and 567–8 child development and 132–3 communication across 48–50 cultural meanings of words/ expressions 560 dominant or prevailing 47, 483 of families 153 transmission of 213 uniqueness of 557 culture shock 538–40 cumulative review 466 curiosity 109 curricula content coverage 460 development and 136 language support in 560 numeracy 413–16 see also Australian Curriculum; Digital Technologies Curriculum curriculum development 476 curriculum outcomes 270 cursive handwriting 359–60 custody orders, finalised 101 customs 130, 132 daily routines 300, 528 danger 179 dangerous goods and/or hazardous substances (DGHS) 80–1 dangerous incident 70 data 81, 461 data analysis 439–41 data collection 28, 439–41
death 485 debate 195, 555 decimals 414, 418, 459 decision making 163 guided 28, 275 with procedural fairness 10 responsible 169 decoding skills 384, 409 see also codes/coding deep breathing 603 defiance 179, 587–8 delays 300–1, 490 delegation 18 delivery (of curriculum) 476 demands 90 democracy 11, 52 demonstrating 89, 399, 482 dendrites 217 Department of Education and Early Childhood Development, ICT policy 37 depression 108, 112, 148, 177, 181, 485, 487 symptoms 180 depth 144 description 230, 232–3, 249, 431, 453, 604 descriptive narratives 337–8 design instruction 466 development 491 activities for 14 cornerstone see self-regulation curriculum and 136 domains 126–7, 150, 201, 312 dynamic social and cultural contexts 132 factors 159 human development 126 influences on 131–2 in middle childhood 146 motor see physical development over time 128 to own biological clock 201 pace, sequence and stages 128 prenatal 148 professional 5, 14 reading development 371–4 regression in 485 skills development 182, 233 theories of 155–61 uneven 531 of vision 490–1 writing development 325–31 also under specific developmental arena development and learning adolescent 126–36 child 126–36 cognitive 201–36 emotional 153–82 language 201–36
physical growth and 139–50 social 153–82 see also learning and development developmental coordination disorder 505–7 developmental delays 490 developmental domains 468 developmental milestones 126, 128 developmental problems 485 developmental profiles 128 developmental skills 182, 233 developmental tasks 312 developmental theories 202–17 historical perspective 202 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) 523 diagnostic checklists 293 diagnostic tools 522–3 dialects 63, 559–60 see also EAL/D students diaries see work diaries 367 difference 174 attitudes towards 480 cultural differences 406 developmental differences 128 individual 134 same or different concepts 217, 232 sense of 531 in values, beliefs and attitudes 55 ‘different’ 232 differentiation programs 530 digital literacy tools 319–20 Digital Technologies Curriculum 356 dignity 36, 44, 56, 60, 121, 166, 406, 585, 590 direct action 44 direct comparison 454 direct discrimination 55 direct instruction 186, 376, 397 direct questioning 559–60 directing/redirecting 195, 314–15, 463, 603 directing SMART goals 401 multi-step directions 227 direction 418, 435 directionality 143 directness 594 disability 43, 53, 114, 365, 486, 499–506 abuse and 113 child-first versus disability-first 481 continuum 521 definitions 476 diagnosed disabilities 601 disability-related legislation 26–8 multiple 490, 529–30 sensory and physical, support for 480 students with 476–87, 489–532 Disability Discrimination Act 1992 25–7, 476
Disability Standards for Education 2005 (Standards 2005) 26–7, 476 disadvantage 24, 480 Indigenous disadvantage 406, 558 individualised demands accommodation without 480 disappointment 176, 178–9 ‘rescue’ from 178 discipline 6, 153, 587 discipline strategies 580–6 disclosure 100 of abuse 117–18 actions on 118 barriers to 113–14 don’t leave child alone (post-abuse disclosure) 118 discomfort 56 discovery 212–13 discriminating 357 discrimination 37, 54, 56, 58, 60, 92 anti-discrimination legislation 24–6 complaints regarding 24 elimination 476–7 grounds for 24–5 discussion 153, 178, 196, 226, 251, 256, 342, 401, 463, 555 disease see infection and disease disempowerment 114 dismissal 9, 37, 92 disorders 142, 177, 193, 487, 505–7 also under specific disorder dispositions 308 dispute resolution 93 distraction 167, 226–7, 263, 300–1, 464 being distractible 529 being distracting 396 distributive property 459 diversity 11, 25–6, 94, 484 of abilities 1–2 bias and 53–5 of child-rearing practices/techniques 153 cultural see cultural diversity inclusion and 43–4 primary, secondary dimensions 43 within family units 155 working with diverse people 55–8 dividers 299 division, distributive property 459 divorce 485 dobbing 590–1 documentation 4, 18, 286–93, 401 of BIPs 603–4 of challenging behaviour 593–600 of concerns 116–17, 595 information archival/disposal 39 of numeracy development 472 reliable, valid and bias-free 255, 595
storage 12 of student progress 401 systematic 401 template 71, 116, 401 Word documents 357 written 12 domains of development 126–7 domestic violence 111, 114, 406, 484–5 possible indicators of children living with 110 witnessing 104, 181 dominance 144–5, 209, 543 profiles 145 doubt 159 Dreikurs, Rudolf 157–8 dress codes 9 Drop Everything and Read (DEAR) program 405 drugs use/abuse 9, 114, 155, 178 due diligence 5, 69–70 during-reading activities 311 duty of care 9, 30–2, 35, 69 breaches 30 student safety and 31 dysgraphia 361–2, 469 dyslexia 469, 508–9 dyslexic dysgraphia 361 dyspraxia 505–7 diagnosis 505–6 symptoms 506–7 Dyspraxia Kids Australia Inc. 505–6 EAL/D Progress Map 550 EAL/D students see English as an Additional Language/Dialect (EAL/D) students early adolescence 126 early intervention 528, 531 eating 178 difficulty with 180 echolalic students 526 ecological systems theory of development 129–31 education 11, 47, 60 best practice approach see inclusion/ inclusivity brain research and 224–5 embedded and overlapping dimensions 478 inclusive 480–1 obligations to provide 476–8 preparing peers/educating about new students 298 professional 13 right to 27, 274, 477 special education schools/units 529 values education 164–5 Education Departments 28 education legislation 26–8 education providers, obligations 476–7
education support workers (EWSs) accountability areas 8 attributes 13 being organised 15–16 contributing to IEPs 276 expectations, clarifying 3–4 observations and 294 responsibilities 4–6 roles 2–6, 136, 196–8, 246–56, 286, 314–21, 347, 460–2, 554, 580 scope 3 teacher-assigned duties 3 Tips 398 understanding 144 well prepared/well informed 247 Educational Adjustment Program (EAP) 530 educational programs 530 contributing to 270–301 review of 5 educator–child relationship 188 educators 478 critical understandings 217 effective supervision 263–4 ego 44 ego integrity versus despair 160 egocentric language 211 egocentric speech 188 elaboration 227, 309–10, 328 elderly people 160 Elders 63–4 electrical hazards 89–90 electrocution 89 electronic communication 38–9, 178, 530 Elkonin box 378 emails 39 embarrassment 196, 396 embedded phonics 383 embracing 480 emergency first aid 81 emergency kits 34 emergency planning 72–4 emergency procedures 31, 69, 72, 75 emergent literacy 371 emerging adulthood 160 emissions 89 emotional abuse, possible indicators of 110 emotional competence 568 emotional development 126–7, 153–82, 606 theories of 155–61 see also learning emotional display rules 168–9 emotional literacy 567–8 emotional problems 484 emotional reinforcement 153 emotional relationships 112 emotional self 170 emotional self-regulation 167
INDEX
641
emotional skills 603 emotional support 148–9 emotional wellbeing 166–75, 297 emotions 176, 223 emotionally well-adjusted 182 ongoing emotional upset 180 ‘pool’ of emotional states 166 empathy 9, 162, 166, 169, 174, 226, 293 employees 12, 56 suspected abuse of children by 121 employers accountability to 8 WHS responsibilities 69–70 employment contract 7 discrimination in 24–5 pre-employment screening 28, 102–3 Tasmanian principles 25–6 employment awards 7 enactive representation stage 189 enactive stage 212 encoding 227, 229, 310 encouragement 176, 196, 252, 314, 556 versus praise 158 energy levels 145, 246 engagement 198, 395, 403, 467, 556 in debate 195 in learning 196 English as an Additional Language or Dialect (EAL/D) 544–6 English as an Additional Language/Dialect (EAL/D) students 536, 539, 555–61 practical support strategies 554–5 preparing for 547–8 see also dialects English as second language/dialect 2, 560 English language 486, 536 Aboriginal English 559–61 conceptual understanding 306 contextual use of 555 as second language 2 speaking 541 standards of see Standard Australian English written English 321 see also EAL/D students English language learners, supporting 535–61 English Syllabus for Handwriting and Using Digital Technologies (NSW) 357 enrolment 476 environment 156 brain development and 219–20 emotional 201–2 free from harm 121 in harmony with 59 home environment 566–7 interaction with 129, 159
language elements in surrounding see Creoles legislative see legislative environment literacy-rich 317 physical see physical environment safe see safe environments of school see school environments; school settings a shaper 186 environmental factors 129, 132–3 EQ Bandscales 552–3 equal opportunity 25–7 Equal Opportunity Commission of South Australia 56–7 equal opportunity legislation 24–6 equality 52 right to 477 equilibration 206 equilibrium 205 equipment 85, 89, 494 for personal protection see personal protective equipment (PPE) specialist 494, 529 equity 25–6, 476, 478, 480 ergonomics 85–90 hazards 76 Erikson, Erik 158–61 error 401, 407, 409, 471 spelling errors 367 estimation 145, 414, 456 ethical conduct 8–12, 24 aspect 12 of EWSs 9–11 see also accountability ethical considerations 121 ethical dilemma 11 addressing 11–12 ethical obligations 476–8 Ethical Understanding 308 ethics 25–6 impacting factors 11 statement of 9 ethnicity 46, 53, 132, 174 ethnics 9 etymological knowledge 352 European settlement 59 evacuation 69, 72–5 see also emergency procedures evaluation 28, 156, 194, 270 monitoring of 605 processes 285–6, 603 of risk 76 of self 170 strategies 604 event samples 597–8 evidence 255–6, 472 evidence gathering 272, 320–1, 366–7, 595
evidence-based approach 95 evidence-based practices 527 evidence-based research 311 exclusion 58, 92, 478, 484–5 see also inclusion/inclusivity executive functioning 135, 170, 220–2, 240, 464 exercise 150 lack of 149 exits 73 exosystem 130 expectations 106, 154, 160, 168, 179, 297, 480, 537 of behaviour 564–9 experiences 167, 205, 389 desired student knowledge, understanding and actions 240–6 early 202, 217 genetic makeup altered by 219 hands-on 209 of learning 19 of life 64, 478 own 189 personal 51–5, 480 prior 207, 228 sharing 603 experimentation 146 expertise 179 explanation 194, 399, 482, 556, 603 of behaviour 600 explicit instruction 359, 383–6, 395, 398–9 explicit ‘keeping safe’ skills 115 exploration 212, 356, 415 exploratory talk 195–7 expressive language 186 expressive language disorders 193, 511 expressive writing disability 365 expulsion 95 extrinsic motivation 463–4 eye contact 50, 63, 194–5, 406, 491–2, 515, 593 practices relating to 557 face/face-saving concept 49 facial expressions 49, 195, 492, 514, 557 facilitation 252–3 fact families 450 facts 223, 337, 413, 459, 555 factual knowledge 419, 464 factual texts 330 failure 160, 169, 176, 178–9, 195 avoidance 157 ‘rescue’ from 178 failure-to-thrive children 148–9 Fair Work Act 2009 7, 25 Fair Work Australia 93 fairness 9–10, 46, 52, 226, 478
false allegations 121–2 false beliefs 226 familial roles 47 families 46, 480, 486, 557 accountability to 8 adoptive 155 behaviour and 565–7 blended 155 child abuse perpetrators within 118 developmental cornerstone 130 extended 62–3, 155, 406 family intervention 95 forced removal of children from 59–61 mob 63–4 with poor literacy skills 406 relationships/interactions 5, 195 role 178 units 155, 539 family diversity 155 family law 30 family support 176 family ties 47 fast foods 149 fate concept 49 fear 58, 112, 147, 179, 181, 484–5 feedback 4, 170–1, 250, 277, 314, 367, 401, 482, 556 corrective 400 giving timely 256, 399–400 goal of 400 from movement 143 providing to students 256 providing to teachers 255–6 sensory 142 types of 256 fine motor coordination 143 fine motor development 139, 146 fine motor skills 141, 464 fines 9 finger aerobics 150 finger pointing 514 firewalls 39 first aid 81 first guided practice 468 first languages 541, 556, 559 first-aid certificates 69 flapping 526 flashbacks 179 flexibility 220, 294 flexible thinking 464 flow charts 336–7 fluency 311, 356, 384–9 rapid shift in language balance 543 reading programs and 387–9 fluency disorders 193 food insecurity 486 foot-eye coordination 143
force 96–7 formal assessments 277–8 formal observations 286–7 formal operational stage 204–5 formative assessment 270–2, 286, 470 foster care 155 foundation skills 221 Four Resources Literacy Model 374 Four-Component Model 163 four-stage teacher-led strategy 468 fractions 414, 418, 437–8 freedoms 44 frequency of communication 194 friendship 52, 129, 155, 176, 298, 485, 529, 531 BFF 175 importance of 174–5 function 461 functional assessment, for BIP effectiveness 605 functional behaviour assessment (FBA) 527, 599 functional language 530 functional relationships 232–3 fundamental movement skills see gross motor skills funding 24, 397, 547 furniture/furnishings 258, 548 games 145, 222, 325, 361, 401 software 356–7 gaps 405 closing the 557–61 Gardner, Howard 213–16 gathering 4 gender 53, 168, 174, 521, 557 abuse and 113 differences 145 physical growth and 139 gender factor 263–4 gender roles 47, 154 gender-linked behaviour 154 General Capabilities 136, 194, 240, 305–6, 308, 413–15, 544–5, 570–2 for literacy 320 Generalised Anxiety Disorder 179 generalising 172, 188–9, 234, 241, 290, 406, 523 generativity versus stagnation 160 genetic factors 129, 176, 209–10 genetic makeup 219 genetic predisposition 139 genre 330–1 exploring 335–8 geometry 415, 435–6 gestures 49–50, 195, 219, 306, 492, 514, 557 practices relating to 557
glare 257, 494 ‘glue ear’ see otitis media goal setting 401, 602–3 tool 400 goals 4, 194, 289, 295, 367 alternative 300 behavioural 604 career 9 curriculum-linked 280 mini 360, 397 modified step-wise 482 personal 531 realistic 602 refining 605 unclear 17 see also SMART goals good housekeeping 85 goofing off 588 gossiping 12, 58, 92 government 559 funding 24 human rights responsibility 44 linking rules 359 Safe Work Australia establishment 67 see also Commonwealth Government government agencies 121 government schools 24, 182 government welfare 44 grades/grading 136 grade-related outcomes 245 grammar 186, 192, 290, 311, 321, 328, 367, 407, 555, 560 punctuation and 342–9 grandparents 155 see also parents graphemes 351 graphic instruction 482 graphic organisers 346, 404–5 graphs 440–1 grief 485 grommets 496–7 grooming and presence 47 gross motor coordination 143 gross motor development 139, 146 gross motor function 500 gross motor skills 139–41 group care 155 group counselling 177–8 groups 43, 112, 181 flexible grouping 482 harmony of 49 of information 229 kinship groups 62–3 peer groups 486 size and composition 196 small see small groups small group instruction 462
INDEX
643
growth 128, 133, 139 disproportionate 147 gender differences 145 physical see physical growth rate of 145, 148 spurts 146, 223 guardians 290 contributing to IEPs 276 guardianship orders 101 finalised 101 guidance 9, 28, 30, 170, 179, 241, 253, 264, 275, 314, 320, 398, 478–9 continuum 575–6 defined 574 guidance–discipline–punishment distinctions 574–6 recording observation, guidelines 594 guidance strategies 580–6 guided decisions 565 guided fact files 337 guided mathematics 463 guided participation 216 guided practice 210, 468 guided reading 389 guided support 556 guided writing instruction 340 Guidelines for Mandatory Reporting for Schools 119 guilt 159–60, 181 habits 605 hand preference 144–5 hand-eye coordination 143 hand-washing 84 handwriting 329, 356–64 characteristics 362 observing 360–4 harassment 58, 92, 476 examples 92–3 in the workplace 91–3 harm 28, 31, 92 environment free from 121 risk of 28, 77, 101, 103, 105, 118–21 types of 101 see also self-harm harmonisation, of laws 67 hazardous chemicals 80–1 hazards 32, 74, 262 defined 76 electrical 89–90 identifying 76–83 noise 89 potential 77 student accidents and injuries from 31–2 head injuries 109–10 head nodding 50 health 60, 154
issues 111, 262 poor 486 health and safety 67–97 health issue information 601 health and wellbeing 148, 178 health risks 149 hearing 142, 144, 468–9 hearing disorders 193 hearing impairments 186, 259–60, 490–8 hearing problems 496–7 heating 257 height 147 helping others 44 heredity 133 heredity factors 148–9, 201 heterosexuality 147 hierarchy of control 79–80 hierarchy of needs 44 higher order needs 44 higher-order mental functions 219–20, 223, 234–6 higher-order skills 458–9 high-needs care 529 hoist and sling 88 holistic and individual-centred care 478–9 home environment 566–7 homelessness 149, 155, 485 homonyms/homographs/homophones 313, 355 homophobia 58 homosexuality 147 honesty 9–11, 46, 52, 397 hopelessness, sense of 179 hostility 112 housekeeping 85 housing 60 human agency 156 human development 126 human factor 261 human rights 44, 60, 92 breaches 24 violations 44 see also Universal Declaration of Human Rights human rights legislation 24–6, 44 humiliation 160 humour, sense of 13, 46, 166, 294 hypersensitivity/hyposensitivity 364, 520 hypothesising 194, 241 ‘I’ messages 261 ‘I’ statements 589 iconic representation stage 189 iconic stage 212 ideas 160, 309–10, 329, 346 creating 356 key 462 preconceived 56
presenting 194, 559 sharing 555 identification 230 identity 46–7, 132–3, 160, 537 Aboriginal 60 versus confusion 160 see also cultural identity idioms 50 illegal immigrants 549 illegibility 365 illness 91 serious 485 images 145, 229, 356 imaginative play 154 imitation 156, 187, 195 immigration 537–8 immorality 587–8 immunisation 85 immunisation status 33 impairment 186, 259–60, 490–8 multiple 177 visual 490–5 implementation continual 605 establishing and implementing BIPs 601–6 of IEPs 283–4 impulse control 220 incentives 605 incidental observations 286–7 incidents behavioural contributions to 263 documentation of 19 WHS notifiable incidents 70–1 in-class assessment 551–2 inclusion planning 274, 296–301 inclusion/inclusivity 11, 43, 274, 601 benefits 481 as a challenge 483 diversity and inclusion 43–4, 478 inclusion policy 27, 478–9 key aim 301 legislation regarding 26–8, 479–83 physical barriers to 301 planning for see inclusion planning in practice 478, 480–3 for small-group learning 259–61 Standards support for inclusion 27 of students with disabilities 27–8 supporting 406 inclusive workplace 56 independence 63, 159–60, 194, 223, 294 independent reading 404–5 independent support 556 independent writing 340–1 indicators 109–14 possible 109–11, 115 Indigenous people 557
Indigenous disadvantage 60, 558 see also Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples; Torres Strait Islander people indirect comparison 454 indirect discrimination 55 Individual Behaviour Management Plans (IBMPs) 4, 526, 574 individual counselling 177–8 Individual Educational Plans (IEPs) 3–4, 274–86, 295, 530 implementing 283–4 profiles 278–83 individualisation 297, 405, 480, 529 individuals/individuality 132, 134, 226, 478–9, 481 care principles 478–9 intelligence blends 216 notification responsibility of 119 uniqueness of 557–8 wellbeing of 177 industry 160 inequity 559 infants 159 infection and disease 69, 83–5 transmission modes 83 inference/inferring 194, 272, 394 inferential comprehension 393 inferiority 145, 160 inflection 342 information 226–7, 234 access to 19 archiving or disposing of 39 confidential 9 distribution or dissemination of 38 generation 194 health issue information 601 incomplete 17 manipulation 464 meaningful chunks 229 on an as-needs basis 121 organising 599 privacy and 36 recalling and using see working memory relevant 464 retention 39 retrieval 39, 228 security of 38 sorting 241 sources 275 storage 19, 39, 241 timing of communicating 49 two-way exchange of 560 Information and Communications Technology (ICT) 37, 308 information gathering 241, 270, 275, 280, 289, 549
information management 37 privacy considerations 38–9 information processing 197, 225–9, 241 information sharing 4, 49, 64, 121 permission for 12 inhibition 222, 464 inhibitory control 220 initiative 159–60 initiatives 176 injury 31–2, 69, 83, 116 gender factor role 263–4 hazard-related 31–2 head injuries 109–10 minimising 67, 69 musculoskeletal 86–7 suspicious or unexplained 110 types of 32 in workplaces see workplace injury see also accidents inner balance 44 input–output 141–2, 229, 275, 300 insecurity 486 instruction 186, 195, 374, 376, 385–6, 395, 398–9, 529 adult-directed small group instruction 462 communicating 516 explicitness of 466 instructional approaches 338–41 instructional documents 555 of phonemic awareness 376–8 of phonological awareness 379–84 step-by-step 89, 299 varied 482 see also direct instruction; explicit instruction integration 141–2 of senses 141–2 of skills 225, 365 integrity 9, 11, 46, 52 intellectual disability 480 intelligence 133, 202–3 as adaptation 206 eight spheres of 213–16 intensity 167 intent of communication 194 intention 592 intentional teaching 213, 603 interactionist theory 188–9 interactions 45, 132, 168, 216, 224–5, 297–8, 470, 555, 559 domination of 194 with environment 129, 159 with families 195 meaning-making through 188–9 social see social interactions interactive writing instruction 340 Intercultural Understanding 308
interest 228, 367 interests 145, 174, 275, 298 children’s best interests 100, 117–19 conflicting see conflicts of interest focus 478 of students 117–19, 397–8, 523–5, 601 internalisation 209–10 internet 38, 178, 318 online literacy programs and apps 320 interpersonal communication 555 interpersonal intelligence 215 interpersonal skills 13 interpretation/interpreting 194, 287, 293–6, 414, 439–41, 544, 595 interpreter services 51 interpretive comprehension 392–3 intervention 28, 56, 95–6 BIPs 601–6 direct and ongoing 397 early 528, 531 notification as first step towards 118 pre- and post-intervention behaviours 605 strategies for 465–9, 603 intimacy versus isolation 160 intolerance 480 intranet 38 intrapersonal intelligence 215 intrinsic motivation 156, 463–4 investigation 28, 101 IQ tests 203, 361 irony 192, 223 isolation 169, 600 jargon 50, 196, 290, 556 job titles 2 joint construction 468 joint stability 358 jottings 291 journals 272, 404–5 judgement/judging 118, 161, 181, 273 culturally biased value judgements 47 ‘just in time’ principle 400 justice 11, 44, 46, 161 ‘keeping safe’ strategy 115 Key Learning Areas (KLAs) 472 keyboarding 329, 356–64 Kidsafe 32 kinaesthetics 142–3 kindness 52 kinship 62–3, 406 KISS principle 469–70 knowledge 9, 44, 47–8, 240–6, 308, 413, 453, 466, 470 application 462 consolidating 399 of EWSs 13–15
INDEX
645
existing see prior knowledge professional 14–15 reading skills and 375–96 reinforcing 397 sharing 603 strengths and deficits 467–8 of students 263, 278, 397–8, 549 transfer of 466 knowledge acquisition 241 process 205 theories 205 Kohlberg, Lawrence 162 Kriol 559 labelling 81, 179, 431, 481 land rights 59–60 language 46, 216, 313, 325, 491, 559 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages 63–4, 559–61 brevity in 560 code-switching 559 in common 559 comparison language 232 conventions, minimum standards for 321 curriculum and 194 difficulties 510 formal 343, 555 functional 530 home language 541, 560 informal 555 interchangeable 416 as literacy foundation 313 of mathematics 415–18 mixed 543 prompts 462–3 roles 210–11 second 541–4 separation stage 543 SLCN student needs 509–17 speech and language – same or different? 186–7 supporting 555–7 ‘unfolding’ with age 187 see also Auslan; cognitive development; dialects; sign language also under specific languages language acquisition 311, 313 developmental contributions to, and impact on 190 rate and proficiency 186, 190 by school-age 191 language acquisition device (LAD) 187 language activating support system (LASS) 188 language barriers 49–51 language delay 511–13
language development 126–7, 186–98 lags 193–4 perception skills implications 144 progression 190–4 theories 187–90, 209 see also learning language processing disorders 193 language skills 159, 192, 365, 555–6 predictable and sequential development 193 language strands, sub-strands and threads 305–7 language symbols 231 late adolescence 126 late early childhood 126 lateralisation 222–3 laterality 143 laughing at others 92 law 30, 60 Anglo-Australian laws shaping society 46 common law 60 family law 30 see also legislation; policy law of negligence 30 laws 130 harmonisation of 67 lazy eye see amblyopia leadership 55, 196, 216 learners 244 active, independent learners 2 all mattering, and equally 478 dynamic 210 emotionally secure and confident 201 of English language 535–61 self-directed 196 learning 128, 150, 166, 468–9 assessment as, for and of learning under specific assessment biological and sociocultural nature 132 challenges 144, 224, 492 contexts 406 as a cumulative journey 196 difficulties 525 evidence of 470 factors informing 224–5 goals 4 hands-on 482 impact of language and speech disorders on 193 implications 207–8 to learn 244 making learning explicit 242 maximising potential 580–1 philosophy 4 planning 246–56 process 213, 216, 316 scaffolding of see scaffolding
as shared responsibility 557 strengths and deficits 467–8 style 557 success in 470 supporting 2, 240–66 ‘unlearning’ 605 ways of 240 learning and development 126–32 intertwining of 126 professional 13 supporting 126–36, 139–50, 153–82, 186–98, 201–36, 240–66, 270–301 learning barriers 293, 478 learning continua 308–9, 315, 356, 414 learning disabilities 507–9 learning disability 480 learning environments 256–8, 316–18, 569–72 setting up 257–8 learning experience strategies 19, 462 learning experiences 224, 556 learning materials 5, 264, 318–19 assessment of 265–6 see also resources learning mindset 250 learning needs 245–6, 278, 469–71, 476 assessing 578–9 identifying 469–71 learning objectives 273 developing 294–5 learning outcomes 275 dimensions 273 learning process 198 Learning Progressions 307, 545–6 EALD phases 545 learning spaces 259–64, 316–17 Learning Support Plans (LSPs) 4 learning tools and resources 264–6 least-to-most prompting 527 left-brain thinkers 145 legal considerations education, obligations to provide 476–8 mandatory reporting requirements 28, 119 legal obligations 11, 33, 72 legal proceedings 28 legally blind 491 legislation 24–9 anti-discrimination 24–7, 44 child protection 28 Commonwealth see Commonwealth legislation disability- and education-related, and inclusive 26–8 for human rights, anti-discrimination, and equal opportunity 24–6, 44 mandatory 28, 103
privacy 36–9 public health 32–6 WHS legislation 67–71 work health and safety see WHS legislation see also law; policy; states/territories also under specific Acts legislative environment, working in 24–39 legislative requirements 103, 479 length 453–4 lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex and queer (LGBTIQ) peoples 486 working with 58 lesson planning 4 lesson plans 460 letter knowledge 349–50 letter patterns 353 letters 351, 358, 365 formation 359 linking 359–60 see also alphabet letter–sound knowledge 349–50 letter–sound relationship 325, 351, 380–2 liaison 4, 55 lies 226, 590 life experiences 64, 168 Life Without Barriers 478–9 lifting procedures 70, 87 lighting 257, 494, 529 harsh or poor 257 limbic–hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal (LHPA) pathway 219 linguistic-verbal intelligence 213 listeners 117, 396 ‘universal listeners’ 186 listening 197, 264, 555, 593 actively 196, 264 to students reading 400–1 Literacy 308, 326 literacy 192 becoming literate 305–21 defined 305 foundation see language instruction–development relationships 377 planning learning environments for 316–18 small-group learning spaces for 316–17 writing and 325–67 see also numeracy literacy acquisition 320–1 digital tools for 319–20 supporting 315–16 literacy activities 311 literacy assessments 320–1 NAPLAN 321 literacy learning centre 318 literacy learning continuum 315 literacy rate gap 405 literacy skills 311–12
literal comprehension 392 literary texts 330–1 literate orientation strategies 407 living conditions 154 lockdown 72–5 Locke, John, ‘blank slates’ 202 logic 192, 227 logical order see ordering logical consequences 158, 585 logical thinking 223–4, 235 logico-mathematical intelligence 214 logico-mathematical knowledge 205 logs 272 long-term memory 228 loss 485 love 112, 201 low vision 491 lower mental functions 209–10 loyalty 174 Mabo v Queensland 60, 62 machinery safe operation of 89 see also equipment macrosystem 130 mainstream schooling 560 Major Depressive Disorder 487 maladaptive behaviours 524–6 maltreatment 101, 104, 107–8, 111–12 management of asthma, allergies and anaphylaxis 33–5 of behaviour see behaviour management classroom management 518–20 of information and systems 37–9 of medications 33–5 or risk see risk management strategies 593, 600 of violence or threats of violence 95 WHS management system 90–1 of work 15 see also self-management Managing the Work Environment and Facilities Code of Practice 72 Mandarin 536 mandatory reporting requirements 28, 119 manners 47 Manual Ability Classification System (MACS) 501 manual handling 86–9 manuals 555 marginalisation 13, 406, 478, 483, 486 marital status 43 Maslow, Abraham 44 mass 453–4 massacre 59 mastery 160, 263, 360, 397, 399 matching 230, 232–3, 430–3
materials 5, 264, 462 access to 482, 494 adaptability of 266 hands-on 318 suitability/fitness for purpose 265–6 see also learning materials; resources mates see friendship; peers mathematical language 415–18 mathematical literacy 460–1 mathematics 462–3 concept development 419–21 defined 412 ‘hate maths’ 461 knowledge of 464–72 language of 415–18, 463 mathematical symbols 427–8 modelled 462 presentation 471 terms 417 maturation 128, 147–8, 205 of brain and synapses 222–3 maturity 133, 139, 147, 186 meaning 44, 229, 314, 326, 353 homophonic 417 meaning-making 188–9, 320 meaning-making skills 374 measuring/measurement 270, 414–15, 418, 453–7, 461, 603 reading fluency 385 tools 453–7 mechanical devices 88 media 149 mediated perceptions 234 mediation 93, 235 Medicare Australia 33 medications management 33–5 Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians (MCEETYA) 194 meltdowns 529 memory 220, 223, 227–8, 287 menstruation 145, 147 mental age 202 mental computations 458–9 mental flexibility 220, 222 mental functions 234–6 mental health of children and adolescents in Australia 177–9 problems 111 resilience and 175–82 mental health disorders prevalence 177 schools and families, roles in 177–8 mental health programs 182 mental health status 179 mental illness 57, 487 mental processes 143 mental routines 463
INDEX
647
mentoring 14, 216, 482 merit 25–6 mesosystem 130 messages 171–2, 190, 251 metacognition 224, 240, 507 meta-language 407 microsystem 130 middle adolescence 126 middle childhood 126, 145–6, 160 brain development during 135–6, 222–4 language development during 190–2 physical development during 146 migration 537–8 milestones 126, 128 mindfulness 181–2 minority groups 406 minus 416 mirror writing 358 misbehaviour 157 Gantz model 587–8 miscommunication 48 misconduct 9 miscue 392 miscue analysis 408–9 missions 61 mistaken behaviour 157, 564–5, 589 mistakes 178, 188, 471 mistrust 159, 406 mixed dominance 145 mnemonic 354 mobility 262–3, 492–3 enhancing 88 mobility devices 89 Model Codes of Practice 31, 67 Model Work Health and Safety (WHS) Act 2011 (Model WHS Act) 31, 67–8, 70 aims 68 contravention 69 Model Work Health and Safety (WHS) Regulations 2011 (Model WHS Regulations) 31, 67–8, 76 as Model WHS Act implementation ‘how to’ 68 modelled mathematics 462 modelled reading 387–8 modelled writing instruction 339 modelling 153, 156, 245, 399, 462, 468, 481 implicitly 166 mathematical language 416–17 role-modelling 603 modifications 261 for ASD 528–9 of behaviour 295, 527 for dyspraxia 506–7 of environment 297, 494–5, 529 of equipment 494–5 for hearing loss 497–8
of learning materials 299–301 of learning resources 266 of students with disabilities 502–3, 509 see also adjustment money 453 counting 450–4 monitoring 28, 272, 394 for compliance 69 continual 605 emotional/stress monitors 529 knowledge/literacy skills areas 320 ongoing progress monitoring 401, 467, 605 of risk 76 sharing processes 603 of students with disabilities 476–7 see also review/reviewing mood 167, 367, 594 mood swings 179 moral development 161–6 emergence of 164 feminist perspective 163 supporting 164, 166 moral development stages 162 moral dilemmas 163 moral obligations 11 moral reasoning 161 morality 9 morphological knowledge 351 most-to-least prompting 528 motivation 156, 463–4, 466 motor cognition 143 motor development see physical development motor dysgraphia 361 motor skills 140–1, 145, 159, 365 movement 144, 418, 468–9 coordination of 362 role in learning 150 movement breaks 246 moving 142 multiplication 416, 418 distributive property 459 multisensory learning 467–9 muscles 139–40, 146 increased size 147 small-muscle groups 141 tone 358 musculoskeletal injury 86–7 music 145 musical intelligence 214 mutual trust 55 myths 56 name calling 92 naming 230 NAPLAN literacy assessments 321 narratives 291, 337–8
National Accelerated Literacy Program (NALP) 406–7 fluid teaching sequence 407 National A–E Grade Scale for Years K–Preliminary Stage 273 National Assessment Program – Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) 472 criticisms 321 minimum standards numeracy 461 periodic testing 270 National Asthma Council Australia 35 National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN) 180 National Compliance and Enforcement Policy 31, 67 National Education Agreement 273 National Employment Standards (NES) 7 National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) 85 National Indigenous Reform Agreement 2018 (NIRA) 558 National Literacy and Numeracy Learning Progressions 306–8, 415 Writing 328–9 National Literacy Learning Progression 356 National Literacy Progression 320–1 National Safe Schools Framework 94 National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (NSCDC) 219–20 National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) 112, 115 nationality 132 Native Title Act 62 Native Title Amendment Act (Cth) 62 nativist theory 187 natural consequences 158, 585 natural mathematics 463 naturalistic intelligence 215 NDIS plans 296 near doubles 459 near-miss 70 near-sightedness 491 needs 44, 298 additional see students with additional needs basic 127, 531 human needs 44 learning 245–6, 469–71, 476 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 44 of students see student needs negative attitudes 56 negativity 468 neglect 406, 484 legal definition 104 possible indicators of 110, 115 prevalence of 101–2 severe 181
neglectful behaviour 104 negligence 30 negotiation 49, 194 nervous system 142 nervousness 401 neural mechanisms 202 neurons 134, 217 neuroscience 186, 308 New Arrivals Program (NAP) 547 nightmares 485 noise 89 noise reduction 529 non-English-speaking backgrounds (NESB) 49–50 non-government agencies 121 non-government schools 24, 182 non-standard units 454 ‘non-traditional’ family unit 155 non-verbal communication 48–9, 186, 194–5 cultural variations 557 meanings 50 non-violent crisis intervention 96 normalisation 481 norms 44, 483 nose secretions 84 notification/notifiable incidents 28, 30, 70–1, 100 as first step towards intervention/ protection 118 formal notification 119 notification procedures 28, 30, 119–21 post-notification procedures 120–1 NSW Department of Education and Training 95 NSW Education Standards Authority 468 NSW English Syllabus for Handwriting and Using Digital Technologies 357 NSW Higher School Certificate 270 number facts 428–9 number patterns 425 number sense 415, 423–5 number symbols 231 numbers 231, 356, 365, 418, 421–2, 461 splitting based on place value 459 Numeracy 308 numeracy 305–21, 325–67, 371–409 application 462 concepts development 418–59 curriculum elements and sub-elements 460–1 defined 412 documenting development 472 domains 321 six interrelated elements of 414 strategies for supporting 462–4 see also literacy
numeracy curriculum 413–16 numeracy development, support 413–61 numeracy learning continuum 414 numerals 421–2 as fixed quantity 423–5 recognising 423 nurture 112 nutrition 148, 154 poor 148, 486 obesity, childhood see childhood obesity object permanence 203 object symbols 230 objective observation 289 objectives 273 setting 602–3, 605 objectivity 289–90, 594, 603 objects 432–3 observation 116, 153, 156, 195, 246, 255, 272, 286–93, 401–2, 492, 519 of handwriting 360–4 one-offs 594 principles of 594–5 professional conduct and 290–3 purposes 289 reading checklists 402 recording guidelines 594 requirements 401 on-the-spot 360 of student behaviour 593–600 techniques 595–9 undertaking 287, 289 observation strategies 600 observational learning 156 Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) 177, 180 office ergonomics 85–90 general principles 86 old age 160 older students 242,398, 403 olfactory sense 142, 469 ‘on the same basis’ 476 one-to-one correspondence 421–2 online programs and apps 357 onset–rime phonics 383 open-ended real-life problems 463 openness 397 opinion 43, 261, 555 opportunistic occasional predators 108 opportunities daily 462 gaps 557–61 for knowledge and skills growth 462 for learning 470–1, 476, 557 for practice 148, 312 ‘on the same basis’ 476 window of learning opportunity 224
optic nerve atrophy 490 optimism 46 oral language 310–14, 347 interrelationships 313–14 oral reports 555 oral sense 142 oral vocabulary 195 order of operations 433 ordering 234, 430–3 orders (court) 28 notification and 28, 30 ordinal numbers 426 organisation charts 355 organisational skills 13, 15–17, 135, 222, 250, 529, 546 organisations, roles within 91 orientation 43, 74, 143, 147–8, 297, 492–3 orthography 354 orthopaedic impairments 259 otitis media (OM) 496–8 outcomes 245, 270, 273, 275, 357, 557–8, 600 outdoor learning spaces 257 output see input–output overextension 189 overt racism 54 ownership 256 pairs 413 paragraphs 346 parental expectations 154 parents 12, 93–4, 290 adoptive 155 attitudes about physical activity 148 contributing to IEPs 276 same-sex 155 partially sighted people 491 participation 56, 145, 225, 275, 300, 476 as active, independent learners 2 barriers to 478, 601 equitable 480 sense of 176 unwillingness 179 participatory appropriation 216 partnerships 47–8 patience 13 patterns 145, 206, 353, 414, 418, 425, 461 of behaviour 597 PECS (Picture Exchange Communication System) 514 pedagogical practice 213 pedagogical strategies 155–6 peer (group) pressure 110, 149, 181 peer assessment 272 peer conflict 110 peer groups 174, 262, 403 peer mentoring 482
INDEX
649
peer pressure 163, 589–90 peer rejection 175 peer relationships 148, 486 peer support 299, 482 peer support programs 115–16 peer support systems 299 peers 63, 145, 195–6, 396, 481–2, 485–6, 492 comparisons with 147–8, 396 competition among 146 preparing for inclusion support 298–9 people 364 diverse 55–8 marginalised 13, 483, 486 whole persons 478–9 see also Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples; Indigenous people People’s Walk for Reconciliation 62 percentages 414 perception 141–2, 144, 492 of challenging behaviour 587 skills 142–5 perceptual dominance 209 perceptual motor skills 142–3 perfectionism 531 performance 4, 140–1, 201 see also academic achievement performance review 9 performance tests 203 permission 290 perpetrators 101, 107–9 perpetual motor development 139 persistence 167, 294 person conducting a business or undertaking (PCBU) 69, 72, 74, 85, 91, 93 Personal and Social Capability 308 personal beliefs 160 personal bias 56, 58 personal competence 13 personal experience 51–5, 480 personal information 36 personal knowledge 47–8 personal protective equipment (PPE) 81, 83, 89 personal responsibility 49 personal skills 603 personal space 195, 258 practices relating to 557 personal space concept 49 personal values and beliefs 11, 480 personality 133, 166–8, 481, 531 perspectives 48, 51–5, 58–62, 226, 261, 576–80 feminist perspective 163 persuasion 153, 192 persuasive texts 330–1 philosophy 4 phobias 179
phonemes 187, 310, 351 phonemic awareness 310, 325, 375–8 instruction 376–8 phonics, distinction 382 supporting 376–8 phonemic knowledge 351 phonemic manipulation 377 phonemics, significance 408 phonetic stage 351 phonics 382–3 through spelling 383 phonics instruction 380–4 phonological awareness 310, 378–84 instruction 379–84 phonology 354 phonology assessment 408 photographs 306 phrases 190, 408 physical abuse 109 physical access 262 physical activity recommendations 149 physical aggression 526, 529 physical attributes 133 physical barriers 301 physical development 126–7, 144 areas 139 brain development influences on and by 139 cognitive–physical development link 142 factors that influence 148–50 in middle childhood 146 process 139–45 supporting 150 physical disability 480, 499–506 physical environment 150, 297, 300–1, 494 safe navigation of 492 physical force 96–7 physical growth, development and 139–50 physical hazards 76 physical knowledge 205 physical needs 44 physical problems 111, 484 physical self 170 physical settings 263 see also school settings physical touch, practices relating to 557 physically abusive behaviour 104 Piaget, Jean 188, 203–9, 225, 234 criticisms 209 pictograms 306 pictographs 306 picture cards 515 picture symbols 231 Pidgin languages 559 pity 480 place value 459 Plan B see contingency planning
plans/planning 17, 135, 222, 285 activities 397 Anaphylaxis Action Plan 34 assessment for 270–4 best laid plans 17–18 BIPs 601–6 care plan development 88–9 for career see career planning continual 605 contributing to 270–301 emergency planning 72–4 establishing and implementing 601–6 individualised plans see Individual Educational Plans for learning 246–56 lesson planning 4, 460 planning space, considerations 259 for safety 261 schedules and weekly plans 4, 17 see also behaviour intervention plans plasticity 218–19 plateaus 308 play 154, 159–60, 415 on words 192 pointing 514 police 120 police checks 103 policy 8 application 574–6 assimilation policy 61 child protection policy 103 compliance and enforcement policies 31, 67 embedding 478 emergency-situation response policies 31 guidelines 30 ICT policy 37 inclusion policy 27, 478–9, 483 key 6 national 31 NIRA reform 558 school policies 28–9, 38, 74–5, 93, 95, 103, 118 student behaviour policy 572–4 WHS policy 67, 74–5 workers compensation policy 67 workplace policies 28–9 see also legislation; practice; procedures, protocol Policy Statements 478 politeness 49, 194 political opinion 43 pool party 381–2 popularity 175 population 536–8 portfolios 272, 401, 599 position 418 positive attitude 52, 159, 176
positive emotional reinforcement 153 positive interactions 224–5 positive purpose 47–8 possibilities 145 postconventional morality 162 posters 601 post-reading activities 311 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) 179 poverty 154–5, 486 power 49, 157 power sentences 345 Practices 478 practice(s) 9, 313, 557 child-rearing 47, 153–5, 168 communication 482 cultural 61, 195 educational 126 ethical 478 evidence-based 527 good 396–7 guided 210, 468 inclusive 478, 481–2 learning 242 wellbeing practices 11 see also best practice; codes of practice; policy; procedures, protocol practising 139, 148, 150, 156, 187, 207, 287, 312, 359, 397, 400, 462, 556 see also imitation Pragmatic Organisation Dynamic Display (PODD) 530 pragmatics 194–8, 546 praise 158 precommunicative stage 351 preconventional morality 162 prediction 195, 234, 388, 456 pre-employment screening 28, 102–3 prefixes 352 pregnancy 148 prejudice 56, 480, 485 prenatal development 148 preoperational stage 204–5, 234, 591 pre-planning 296–7 see also plans/planning pre-reading activities 311 pre-schoolers 159–60 presentational talk 195 pressure (peer/media) 149 preventative discipline 587–8 pride 156 principal (school) 69–70 principle of commutativity 447–8 print 494 prior knowledge 206, 213, 228, 240, 397–9, 416, 462 prioritising 17 competing priorities 16 unclear priorities 17
privacy 592 of EWSs 12 information systems and 37–9 record-keeping and 37–8 Privacy Act 1988 36 privacy legislation 36–9 private schools 483 private speech 211–12 privileges, withdrawal of 153 probability 415 probing questions 468 problem eating behaviours 178 problem-solving 154–6, 170, 174, 176, 222, 224, 240–1, 287, 396, 401, 460, 463, 467, 591 team approach to 603 procedural skills 419 procedure 335 procedures, protocol 8, 47–8, 453, 466 correct lifting procedures 87 emergency procedures 31, 69, 72 hand-washing procedure 84 interagency protocols 121 intergenerational protocols 57 lifting procedures 70, 87 mandatory employee-screening procedures 28 medication storage and administration 33 notification procedures (child protection) 28, 30, 119 post-notification procedures 120–1 procedural fairness 10 procedural language 555 procedural skills 464 school procedures 74–5, 93, 95 step-by-step procedures 466 well-defined 572 WHS systems, policies and procedures 74–5 work procedures 70 written procedures 74 see also policy; practice process 47–8 procrastination 17–18, 300–1 Product Safety Australia 81 production (behaviour) 156 professional conduct 290–3 professional development under development professional knowledge see knowledge professional practice see practice profiles 128 programs adjustment programs 530 balanced reading program 374 differentiation programs 530 EAL/D programs 546–55 educational programs 270–301, 530 English programs 560
mental health programs 182 online literacy programs and apps 320 peer support programs 115–16 reading programs 387–9 resilience programs 182 progress see student progress promiscuity 149, 178 prompts 396, 462–3, 527 hierarchy 528 pronunciation 555 proprioception 142 proprioceptive dysfunction 362–4 proprioceptive sense 142 prosecution 44 prosocial moral reasoning 163 prosody 384 prostitution 181 protection see child protection protective behaviours 121–2 Protective Practices for Staff in Their Interactions with Children and Young People 122 protest 44 proximodistal development 139 psychological abuse, possible indicators of 110 psychological problems 111 psychological self 170 psychosocial development 159–61 psychosocial hazards 76 puberty 147 public health legislation 32–6 public schools 483 punctuation 290, 314, 321, 328, 347, 407 grammar and 342–9 punishment 158, 574–5 versus guidance 575 pushing/poking 264 Qualifications and Curriculum Authority UK 471 qualitative change 128, 139 quality 367, 480 quality learning spaces 316–17 quality of voice 186 quantitative change 128 quantity 231, 421–2 quantity concept versus rote counting 231 work output concern 480 Queensland Department of Education 479, 483 Queensland Schools Alliance Against Violence (QSAAV) 592 questions/questioning 194–5, 240, 349, 394, 396, 416–17, 468, 559–60 answering, Tips for 236 for comprehension 395–6
INDEX
651
leading questions 118 open-ended 196, 250, 463 reflective 582–3 supporting mental functions 235 quiet areas 528 race 43, 46, 53, 132 Racial Discrimination Act 1975 25 racial taunts 52 racism 54, 56, 59, 485 rapport 225, 397–8 rates 414 rational counting 231 ratios 414 reactivity 167 readers 396 fluency measurements 385 fluent 385–6 listening to 400–1 self-assessment forms 404 self-directed 14 readiness 128, 148 reading 293, 321, 371–409, 555 aloud 407 attitudes to 401 digital versus traditional materials for 320 domains 321 ‘hate reading’ 401 observation checklists 402 oral language–reading interrelationship 313–14 oral language–reading–writing interrelationship 314 perception skills implications 144 supporting in classrooms 396–409 teaching 399 reading and writing early 372 experimental 371–2 independent and productive 373 transitional 372–3 reading assessment 404 supporting 407–9 reading comprehension 384 reading development stages 371–4 supporting 396 reading fluency 385 supporting 386–7 reading games, informal 401 reading instruction 374 reading rate 384 reading skills, knowledge and 375–96 real objects 306 real-life situations 462, 467 open-ended real-life problems 463 reasonable adjustment (RE) 477
reasonable care 31 ‘reasonably practicable’ 30, 68–9 reasoning 135, 161, 192, 194–5, 206–7, 225, 229, 414, 531 reassurance 118 recall 225–36, 241, 365 see also working memory receptive language 186 receptive language disorders 193, 511–12 reciprocal determinism 156 recognition 228 reconciliation 62 reconstruction 228 record-keeping, privacy and 37–8 records/record-keeping 18, 273–4, 287, 292 examples 403 guidelines 594 information retention and storage 39 over time periods 596–9 post-event see anecdotal record prescribed content 38 student records 12 techniques 595–9 writing progress records 367 recounting fact 555 recruitment 28 red flags 510 redirecting 603 reference frames 482 referral 120, 178 reflection 9, 224, 275, 332, 341, 401, 403, 582–3 reform (NIRA) 558 reframing 599–600 refugees 539 registration 28 regressive behaviours 110 regulations 222 Australian Education Regulation 2013 24 Model WHS Regulations 68 regulatory framework 37 rehearsal 227 reinforcement 153, 156, 187, 250, 264, 397 relationship skills 115, 169 relationships 91, 168, 201–2, 294, 313, 325, 414, 435–6 bi-directional influences 130 difficulty with 106 educator–child 188 emotional 112 with families 5, 486 family-defined 62 functional 232–3 human 134 between human needs and human rights 44 intercultural working 63 with peers 148, 486
recognising see concept development respectful and trusting 166, 484, 549 spatial 230 symbolic 230–1 with teachers 486 unpredictable/frightening 148–9 within family units 155 within information 226–7 relationships of similarity 430 relaxation 150 relevance, of goals to student needs 602–3 relevant information 464 reliability 595 religion 43, 53 remediation 361–2 remembering 227–8 remembering processes 228 reminders 601, 603 Report on the Second Australia Child and Adolescent Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing 177 reports/reporting common concerns of reporting 120 of disclosure 118 mandatory requirements 28, 103, 119 oral 555 plain language reports 273 reporting concerns 116–17 teacher comments on reports 274 representational thought 206–7 reputation 170 research ASD research 522 ATP research 568–9 brain research 134, 217–25 evidence-based 311 importance of 225 skills 222 resentment 396 reserves 61 residual current devices (RCDs) 90 resilience 2, 13, 153, 182, 293 mental health and 175–82 resilience programs 182 supporting development 176 resource support, EWSs’ role 6 resources 4, 9, 37, 247–8, 301, 470, 482 curriculum-specific 265 hands-on 265 learning materials and resources 5, 264–6, 318–19 modifying 266 use 265, 494 respect 9–11, 13, 36, 43, 49, 52, 56, 58, 60, 63, 114, 118, 121, 166, 194, 225, 264, 406, 481, 585 respectful acknowledgement 178
respectful notions 576–7 response, to stimuli 228 responsibility, sense of 176 rest 145 retention 156, 312 retreat 94 retrieval 39, 228 revenge 157 reversals 358 review/reviewing collaborative 591 continual 605 of contract 401 cumulative review 466 educational programs 5 of learning and strategies 244 performance 9 strategies review 605 of writing and spelling 367 revision 333–4, 397 rewards 591 rhythm 359 rhythmicity 167 ridicule 92 right-brain thinkers 145 rights 9, 114 to education 27, 274, 476–7 to equality 477 human rights legislation 24–6 of Indigenous Australians 60 land rights 59 no understanding of 114 ‘on the same basis’ 476 of stakeholders 24 United Nation’s UDHR 44 risk 484 defined 76 to health 149 identifying 78 at-risk children 110, 118–21, 478 unacceptable 105 risk assessment 31, 76, 78–9, 88, 261–3 considerations 262 forms 78 risk assessment matrix 79 risk control 69, 76, 79–80 risk factors 113, 178–9 risk management 76–80, 88 principles 76–8 process 77 steps 76 risk minimisation 67, 87 risk of harm 28, 77, 101, 103, 118–21 defined 105 risk-assessment matrix 262 risk-taking behaviour 135, 146, 170–1, 178, 181, 264
rituals 180, 529 Rogoff, Barbara 216–17 role modelling/models 148–9, 157, 164, 168, 482–3, 570, 603 of ESWs 314 role-play 222 root words 351 rote counting 231, 423 rounding 445 routines 300, 463 Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody 62 Royal Institute for Deaf and Blind Children 490 rubrics 365 rules 5, 168–9, 186, 222, 234, 264, 359, 408, 515, 529, 539, 557 about swearing 590 for safety 261, 264 for spelling 349 universal 187 see also games running records 291, 596–7 rural and remote areas 63, 559 sabotage 92 safe environments 92, 121, 570 Safe Work Australia 57, 72, 78, 87–8, 90–2 purposes 67 safety 67, 93–5, 256, 261 cultural 47–8, 56–7, 537 human factor 261 ‘keeping safe’ strategy 115 planning for 261 rules for 261, 264 safe environments free from harm 121, 494 safely operating machinery 89 safety issues 56–7 of students see student safety in the sun see sun safety WHS legislation 30–1, 67–71 of work see workplace safety see also duty of care; policy; procedures, protocol Safety Data Sheets (SDSs) 81 safety signs 81–2 safety switches 90 saliva 84 ‘same’ 232 same or different concepts 186–7, 217, 232 samples 597–8 sanctions 9 sarcasm 92, 192, 223, 226 scaffolding 134, 188, 196, 212–13, 221, 241–4, 339, 398–9, 470–1, 482 see also zone of proximal development
schemas 206–7 significant ideas (Piaget) 208 schemes 208 school community 55 safe 95 school environments, transforming 256 school executive 295 school readiness 141 school refusal 180 school settings 3, 103 duty of care 30 dynamic nature 12 EAL/D programs in 546–55 funding 397 government schools 24 legislative framework 24–39 mainstream schooling 560 policies, protocol and procedures see policy; procedures, protocol prerequisite for effective learning in 94 role 177–8 as support source 178 visitors to 12 working in 2–19, 24–39, 43–64, 67–97, 100–22 school-age children 396 speech and language skills 191 Schooling Resource Standard (SRS) 24 screaming 526 screening 28, 102–3, 293 searching 228 seating arrangements 258 second guided practice 468 second language acquisition 541–4 stages 542–4 secondary sex characteristics 145 Secretariat of National Aboriginal and Islander Child Care, The (SNAICC) 47 security 44 seeing 142 segmenting 375–6 segregation 60 seizures 529 self 160 accountability to 8 language centred on see egocentric speech sense of 132, 153 self-absorption 160 self-actualisation 44 self-assessment 272, 403–4 self-awareness 44–5, 169, 571 self-care 294 self-concept 148, 170–1 self-confidence 2, 132, 140–1, 147, 153, 173, 201, 468 lack of 179, 485 self-consciousness 145, 147
INDEX
653
self-control 141 self-determination 60 self-directed learners 196 self-efficacy 156, 173–5 self-esteem 2, 115, 140–1, 148, 171–3, 201, 294, 396, 484–5 low 181 self-harm 108, 149, 526, 529 self-image, poor 181 self-loathing 149 self-management 141, 169, 571–2 self-monitoring 507 self-motivation 13, 176 self-reflection 53–4, 341 self-regulation 134–5, 164, 168–70, 182, 222, 226–7, 585, 591 difficulty with 180 self-stimulation 529 semantic assessment 408 semantics 353 semiphonetic stage 351 senses 142 sensitivity 56 sensorimotor difficulties 464 sensorimotor perception 141–2 sensorimotor stage 188, 204–5 sensory disability 480 sensory integration 141–2, 520 sensory integration disorder 525 sensory integration dysfunctions (SID) 364 sensory integration therapy 528 sensory messages 141 sensory modulation 520 Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD) 142 symptoms/behaviours 520–1 sensory processing disorders 520–1 sensory stimulation 224 sensory support 528 sensory-motor skills 357 sensory-seeking behaviour 520 sentences 196, 249, 342, 408 constructing 343–6 short 556 stretching 344 structure 187, 367 separation anxiety 177, 179, 485 sequence 139, 162, 190, 232, 299, 358 universal 190 sequencing 194 serial perpetrator predators 108 seriating 230, 234 serious illness 485 services lack in support services 480 provision 25–6 see also education providers setbacks 308
sets/sub-sets 442–53 sex 43, 133 sex characteristics 145 Sex Discrimination Act 1984 25 sexual abuse 103, 112, 114, 118 consequences of 108–9 perpetrators 108–9 possible indicators of 110 sexual harassment 92 sexual maturity 133, 147 sexual orientation 43, 147–8 sexually abusive behaviour 104 shades of grey 161 shading 85 shame 159, 181, 406, 485 shapes 145, 418 shared mathematics 462 shared reading 388 shared writing instruction 339–40 shifting 464 short-term memory see working memory showing off 146, 264 shyness 112, 406 sight words 352 sign language 514, 530 significant risk of harm 105 signs/signage 81–2, 251, 306, 593 silence 50, 63, 406 silent stage 542–3 similarity 442–53 Simon, Theodore 202 situational perpetrators 108 skills 115, 146, 159, 192, 195, 222, 308, 409, 464, 492–3, 560, 570, 587, 603 application 462 being organised see organisational skills development 233 of EWSs 9, 13–19 existing 240 focus 478 for information processing 228–9 integration 225, 365 professional 15 reinforcing existing 397 sharing 603 for twenty-first century living 240 skills assessments 366–7 Skinner, B.F. 187 slang 50, 196, 556 sleeping, difficulty with 180 small groups instruction 462 learning experiences 556 learning spaces 259–64, 316–17 small-group learning 259–64, 316–17 facilitating 252–3 inclusion and 259–61
SMART goals 280–1, 397, 401, 603 smelling 142, 468–9 smells 229 smoking 178 sociability 167 social awareness 169 social communication 523–4 social competence 568 social context 308 social conventions 195 social development 126–7, 153–82, 496–7, 606 theories of 155–61 see also learning social environment 156 social function 522 social influences 478 social interactions 2, 216, 220, 297–8, 521, 524–5, 555 social issues 106–7 social justice 60–1, 226, 480 social language see pragmatics social learning theory 156–7 social needs 44 social norms 483 social origin 43 social phobia 177, 179 social problems 111, 484 social responsiveness 11 social roles 194 social rules 529 social skills 175, 226, 365, 492, 529, 603 social skills training (SST) 527 social speech 188 social systems 130 social values 154, 166 social wellbeing 297 social-constructivist theory 189–90 social-conventional knowledge 205 social-cultural environment 201 socialisation 131, 153–5, 171, 205, 491, 565 socialising 188, 275, 297, 485, 492, 531 impact of language and speech disorders on 193 society 46, 160 sociocultural context 132, 216, 313 sociocultural factors 106–7 sociodramatic play 159–60 socioeconomic status 154–5, 174 software 356–7 sorting 232–3, 430–3 sounds 187, 190, 219, 229, 356, 496 see also letter–sound relationship space/proximity 46 space(s) 195, 256, 258, 316–17, 461, 557 for learning 259–64 planning considerations 259
spatial awareness 143, 230 spatial dysgraphia 361 spatial reasoning 414 spatial relationships 435–6 speaking 306 special education schools/units 528–9 special education teachers 547 contributing to IEPs 276 specificity 594, 597, 603 speech 188, 196, 306, 496–7 conversion of reading materials to 494 difficulties 510 production problems 511 sounds see phonology speech and language – same or different? 186–7 student needs 509–17 written language–spoken language, simultaneously 556 speech, language and communication needs (SLCN) 509–17 speech disorders 193 speech/language therapy 528 speed 250, 356, 359 spelling 290, 321, 329, 349–64, 367, 407 assessment of 365–7 learning 349, 351 perception skills implications 144 spelling charts 355 spelling knowledge 351–2 spelling lists 352 spelling patterns see orthography spina bifida 503–5 spine 503 spiral curriculum 213 split strategy 459 sports 145–6 staff, designated 38 see also workers stage-based theory 209 stages of cognitive development 203–4 Bruner’s 212–13 significant ideas (Piaget) 208 Vygotsky’s 212 stages of moral development 162 stagnation 160 stakeholders 477 rights of 24 Standard Australian English (SAE) 305, 321, 536, 544, 559 standard of living 61 standards 24, 27 achievement standards 320 minimum standards 321, 461 standardised diagnostic tools 522–3 standards of behaviour 52 also under specific standards
Standards 2005 27 standards-referenced assessment 273 Standing Council on School Education and Early Childhood’s (SCSEEC) 94 statement of ethics 9–10 statements 291, 349, 589 states/territories agency support 67 child protection authorities 121 child protection legislation 28, 100 food safety compliance 33 keyboarding program lack 357 notification procedures 119 reporting requirements 70 resources meeting Standards 477 school policies 29 WHS legislation and administration 67–9 static balance 143 statistics 415 status 49 stereotypes 53, 56, 481 stimulus 187, 204, 217, 219, 224, 228 ‘stimulus–response’ process 187 Stolen Generations 61, 406 Story Bot 320 storyboards 242 storytelling 406 strabismus 491 strategic thinking 458–9 strategy 466, 478 for accommodation 245–6 for avoidance issue 361–2 behaviour-related 603–4 to build sentences 343–4 communication strategies 50–1, 515–17, 530, 556 to delay, distract or procrastinate 300–1 for deriving textual information and meaning 392–3 for ethical dilemma resolution 11–12 for evaluation 604 for false allegation minimisation 121–2 ‘fitting-in’ strategies 174 humour, teasing and acting surprised 63 to identify hazardous manual tasks 86 for instruction 399 for intervention 465–9, 603 learning experience strategies 19 for literacy assessment 321 for low self-efficacy improvement 173–4 management strategies 593, 600 materials adaptation strategies 266 for monitoring 401 needs-based design 367 observation strategies 600 pedagogical strategies 155–6 for questioning 235
for reading 396 remedial handwriting strategies 361 for remembering 227–8 reviewing 244, 605 risk-reduction 81 for safety 115 for spelling 353–4 for student violence 95–6 supportive 196, 235–6, 348–9, 363, 397, 460, 462–4, 554–5 teaching strategies 253–4, 547, 555 using 462 well-defined 602 whole-school strategy 537 for writing 348–9 strengths and weaknesses 133, 275, 397, 467–9 one’s own 148, 603 strengths focus 298–9, 478 strengths-based approach 518 stress 121, 179, 181, 202, 220 emotional/stress monitors 529 symptoms 91 in the workplace 90–7 see also anxiety stress management 176 stressors 134 structural analysis 187 structured behaviour intervention 528 Structures 478 student background 601 student behaviour policy 572–6 student needs 13, 275, 296, 364, 367, 401, 509–17, 531, 549 student performance see student progress student progress 255, 287, 290, 401, 550 documentation, review and monitoring of 255, 270, 320–1, 367, 401, 605 measuring 270 student safety duty of care and 31 safety in the sun 35–6 student support 4 EWSs’ role 2, 5–6, 250–3 student violence 94–7 student-centred learning 245 students 95–7 accountability to 8 contributing to IEPs 277 diversity of 484 incidents relating to 19 interests, strengths and weaknesses 397, 601 knowledge, understanding and actions expectations 240–6 knowledge of 397–8 older 398
INDEX
655
as own assessors 272 portfolios see portfolios strengths and deficits 467–8 students who are gifted 531–2 students who struggle with mathematics, support for 464–72 students with additional needs 14, 261 defining/identifying 483–7 nature of needs 297 supporting 2, 13, 476–87, 489–532, 535–61, 563–605 transitioning to new school 296–301 students with ADHD 260, 487, 518–20 students with Autism Spectrum Disorder 260, 521–9 supporting 528 students with cerebral palsy 499–501 diagnosis 501 students with disabilities 112–14, 129, 476–87 inclusion for 27–8 inclusivity planning considerations 259–60 manual handling and 87–9 protection from abuse, neglect and bullying 114–15 support for 2, 489–532 teacher competence when working with 480 see also children and young people with disabilities also under specific disability students with dysgraphia handwriting characteristics 362 supporting 363 students with dyspraxia (developmental coordination disorder) 505–7 students with hearing impairments 260, 496–8 students with learning disabilities 507–9 students with multiple disabilities 490, 529–30 students with orthopaedic impairments 259 students with physical disability 499–506 students with sensory processing disorders 520–1 students with special needs 259–60 students with speech, language and communication needs 509–17 students with spina bifida 503–5 students with visual impairments 260, 490–5 subjective observation 289 subject-specific language 555 substance abusers 178, 181, 485 see also alcohol use; drugs use substantiated/non-substantiated 101 substitution 409 subtraction 416, 418, 446–7 sets for 444–6
suffixes 351–2 suggesting 603 suicidal thoughts 108, 112 sullenness 112 summarising 394 summative assessment 270–1, 286, 470 sun safety 35–6 SunSmart Membership Program 35 super six 394 supervision 28, 75, 262–4 support 9, 90, 170, 314 active support provision 517 for assessment 365–7, 407–9 for behavioural change 601 for communication 555–7 for comprehension 393–5 of development 150 emotional 148–9, 174 kinship groups 62–3 for language 189, 555–7, 560 for learning 240–66, 460, 478, 554–5 level of 300 for mathematics 464–72 for moral development 164, 166 for numeracy 460–4 one-to-one 13, 470–1 peer support and programs 115–16, 299 for phonemic awareness 376–8 for phonological awareness 380 for reading 396–409 for reading fluency 386–7 sensory 528 for social interactions 297–8 for students 13, 363, 476–8, 528, 532 supportive discipline 587–8 for task completion 250–3 for teachers 348–9 for thinking (higher-order) 236 for vocabulary development 390–1 for writing and spelling 365–7 support staff 478 see also teachers suspension 95 swearing 92, 589–90 symbolic relationships 230–1 symbolic representation stage 189, 212 symbols 143, 188, 230–1, 425, 462, 515, 530 > (greater than), < (less than) 429–30 symmetry 436 sympathy 162 synapses 134, 217, 222–3 syntactic assessment 408 syntactic awareness 385 syntactic knowledge 384 syntax 384 synthesising 394 synthetic phonics 383
systematic revision 397 systematic searching 228 taboos 47, 557 tactile sense 142, 469 tales 590–1 talk (classroom) 195–8 talking 195, 415 talking sticks 251 tangible materials 457, 462 tapping 264 target behaviours, response to 600 task analysis (TA) 248–9, 527 tasks 17–18, 141, 312, 401, 462 allocation 4 beginning, middle and end 250 breaking down 529 challenging 156, 603 cloze assessment tasks 408 communicating 249–50, 516 day-to-day 52 easy 160 hazardous 86–7 non-mutually exclusive 223 open-ended 532 presentation 466 staying on-task 156, 227, 252 tasting 468–9 teacher attitudes 480 teacher modelling 468 teachers 178, 195, 212, 485 accountability to 8 contributing to IEPs 276 EWSs working with 4–5 roles and responsibilities 4–5, 315, 478, 554 supporting 348–9 see also support staff teaching EWSs’ non-teaching role 6 intentional 213, 603 philosophy 4 practice see pedagogical strategies teaching strategies 253–4, 547, 555 teams/teamwork 13, 55, 194, 275, 523, 572 team approach to problem-solving 603 team sports 145 teasing 579 technology 356, 482 TEEL 346 Telethon Kids Institute 522 telling tales 590–1 temperal ordering 234 temperament 110, 166–8, 263, 481 behaviour and 568–9 descriptors of 167 temperature 258, 453
temporal ordering 433 tense 188 tension 361 tests/testing 194, 202–3, 270 across domains 321 for dysgraphia 361 text 229, 306, 327–8, 346, 356 form and features 329 grammar application 342–3 pitched a little high 409 text-analysing skills 374 textbooks 555 textures 229 text-using skills 374 theft 161, 590 theories 126, 155–61, 202–17, 555 importance of 225 theory of cognitive development 209, 555 Theory of Mind (ToM) 209, 225–6, 590 theory of multiple intelligences (MI) 213–16 therapy 364 thinking 51, 133, 166, 176, 192, 195, 225, 235, 241–2, 463–4, 531–2, 591 out loud 196–8 suicidal thoughts 112 ways of 240 thought 108, 112, 143, 186, 206–7, 210, 223, 312 thought bubbles 388 threatening behaviour 93–4 violence/threats of violence 95–7 threats 178 time concept 49, 231–2, 252, 453 allotted time 300 duration and 232 individualised demands 480 time limits 603 time stealers 17–18 unhurried time 529 wait time 556 time management 16–18 time out 529, 589 time samples 597 timeframes 495 timeliness 314, 399–400, 556, 603 timetables 4, 601 timidity 577–8 tobacco use 9 toddlers 159 tolerance 480 topics 346 tormenting 579 Torres Strait Islander people 559 heritage 59 see also Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples; Indigenous people totally blind 491
touching 142, 219, 468–9, 557 toxic chemicals 81 toxic stress 181, 220 traditions 46, 132 training 9, 14, 61, 81, 88–9, 194 diversity responses during early 478 limited concern 480 for orientation and mobility 492 PPE use 83 WHS 69, 74–5 transformation 407 transitional stage 351 transitions 179 issues identification 299 to new school 296–301 to young adulthood 224 translators 51 trauma 111, 180–1 see also stress traumatic events 180 treaty 62 trial and error 266 tripod grip 358 ‘trouble-makers’ 401 trust/trustworthiness 10, 55, 118, 159, 171, 174, 201, 481, 484 breach of trust 108, 112, 121 position of 12 truth versus lies 590 see also respect ultraviolet (UV) radiation 35, 85 exposure to 85 unacceptable behaviour policies 573–4 unacceptable risk of significant harm 105 uncertainty 484 uncooperative behaviour 396 uncoordinated people 364 under-achievement 478, 531 understanding(s) 45, 114, 190, 208, 234, 240–6, 306 professional knowledge assisting with 14 of safety 262 Underwear Rule, The 115 United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities 477 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child 477 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 478 United Nations (UN) 36, 44, 115, 477–8 human rights declaration see Universal Declaration of Human Rights units of measurement informal or formal 456 standard 453, 457 see also measuring/measurement
units of work 460 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) 44 ‘unlearning’ 605 vaccination 85 validity 595 values 11, 43–5, 51–3, 64, 132, 160–1, 166, 313, 483, 537, 557 cultural see cultural values of families 153 national 46 social values–gender-linked behaviour link 154 underpinning 9–10 values education 164–5 variables 430, 434 ventilation 257–8 verbal abuse 92 verbal aggression 529 verbal communication 48, 186, 194 verbal instruction 482 verbal language pragmatics 194 verbal reinforcement 603 vestibular sense 142 victimisation 476 victims 107 Victorian Equal Opportunity and Human Rights Commission (VEOHRC) 54 videos 272 Vietnamese 536 violence 59, 94–5, 112, 181, 262 domestic see domestic violence responding to 592–3 student violence 94–7 by students 95–7 threats of 92, 95–7 workplace violence 93–4 vision 219, 468–9 vision development 490–1 visitors (to school) 12 visual acuity 490–1 visual aids 556 visual cues 251 visual discrimination 144–5 visual impairment 260, 490–5 visual instruction 482 visual knowledge 352 visual organisers 601 visual perception 144–5, 492 skills 144, 146 visual processing skills 464–5 issues 465 visual props 529 visual representations 299, 466 visual sense 142 visual skills 357, 469, 493
INDEX
657
visual support (VS) 527 visualising 394 visual-motor skills 357 visual/spatial intelligence 215 vocabulary 186, 192, 195, 310–11, 325, 329, 555, 560 of mathematical words and phrases 415–16 vocabulary development 389–91 supporting 390–1 vocalisations 190 voice 186 voice disorders 193, 512 voice tone 557 volume 453–5 voluntary movement 143 volunteers 28 suspected abuse of children by 121 vomit 84 vowels 375–6 vulnerability 106, 155, 484, 539 Vygotsky, Lev 186, 189–90, 209–12, 227, 313, 555–6 wait time 556 warning signs 593 weaknesses see strengths and weaknesses weekly plans 17 weekly schedules 4 weight 145, 147, 453, 455 welfare 69 wellbeing 16, 75, 91, 94, 148, 155, 166–75, 177, 297, 558 supporting 2 see also health and wellbeing; mental health; safety Wenster Words 320 wheelchairs 89 whole body 469 whole child 129–31, 401, 478–9 whole numbers 414 rounding 445 whole person 478–9 whole-school approach 95 whole-school strategy 537 WHS legislation 30–1, 67–71 functional range 69 WHS management system 90–1 Wik decision 62 willingness (to have a go) 141, 367 Word documents 357 word games 325 word ladders 354–5
word meaning see semantics 187 word pairs 408 word walls 417–18 words 143, 190, 229, 232, 342, 351–2, 365 double meanings and plays on 192 joining 343 work output quality/quantity concerns 480 safe systems of 92 ‘too hard’ 578–9 work diaries 18–19 users 19 Work Health and Safety Act 2011 92 work health and safety (WHS) 5 notifiable incidents 70–1 policy and procedural intent 67, 74–5 systems, policies and procedures 74–5 work management 15 workbooks 299 workers immunisation 85 WHS responsibilities 70–1 working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students 58–64, 405–7 with children and young people 13, 398, 480, 531 with colleagues 56, 58 with diverse people 55–64 EWSs working with teachers 4–5 with gifted children 531 in legislative environments 24–39 mathematically 461 with other agencies 121 in safe environments 30–1 in school environments 2–19, 24–39, 43–64, 67–97, 100–22 with students with disabilities 480 working memory 135, 220, 229, 464 Working with Children Check 28, 103 workplace entitlements 7 workplace injury 67, 69 workplace policies 28–9 workplace safety 69 see also work health and safety workplace stress 90–1 workplace supervisor see principal workplace tensions 64 workplace violence 93–4 workplaces bullying in 91–2 cultural safety in 56–7 diversity in 56–7
harassment and bullying in 91–3 inclusive 56 mental illness and 57 safety-based WHS legislation 30–1 stress in 90–7 WorkSafe ACT 70, 77 WorkSafe Victoria 93 worth, sense of 44, 155 writer/communicator 213 writers 332–42 Writing 328–9 writing 306, 407, 555 assessment of 365–7 domains 321 drafts – editing and revision 333–4 by hand see handwriting literacy and 325–67 narrative and persuasive writing 321 oral language–reading–writing interrelationship 314 perception skills implications 144 planning 333 processes approach 333–5 publishing 335 skills assessment 366–7 techniques 332–3 understanding purpose and context 341–2 utensils for 150 writing stimulus 321 written English 321 written language–spoken language, simultaneously 556 see also reading and writing writing development 325–31 instructional approaches and 338–41 stages 325 written accounts see running record written communication 365 written procedures 74 written symbols 466 yelling 92 young adulthood, brain development during 222–4 young people experiences 484–7 working with 13 Working with Children Check for 28 see also children; children and young people zone of proximal development (ZPD) 189, 210, 241, 245, 307, 555–6
This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. The publisher reserves the right to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest. Important notice: Media content referenced within the product description or the product text may not be available in the eBook version.