Tradition & change on the Northwest Coast: the Makah, Nuu-chah-nulth, southern Kwakiutl, and Nuxalk 9780295966281, 9780295963969

Citation preview

Tradition & Change on the Northwest Coast

Tradition & Change on the Northwest Coast The Makah, Nuu-chah-nulth, Southern Kwakiutl and Nuxalk

RUTH KIRK

University of Washington Press Seattle

The Royal Bench Colteabia Museum

To Ada and Margaret and Felicity —and all the elders —for their forebearance and faith

Copyright © 1986 by The Royal British Columbia Museum

90 91 4 3 2 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form by any means without permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer, who may quote brief passages in a review. University of Washington Press Seattle

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kirk, Ruth.

Tradition and change on the Northwest Coast. Bibliography: p. Includes index.

1. Indians of North America— Northwest Coast of North America— Social life and customs. I. Title.

E78.N78K57 1986 979.5'00497 86-9284 ISBN 0-295-96628-9

Design by Fiona MacGregor Typeset by Typeworks

Printed and bound in Hong Kong

Contents

Foreword 7 Preface 8

Acknowledgements 10

PART I PEOPLE OF THE TRANSITION

Chapter 1 ‘Today’s Elders 12

PART II THE WORLD THAT WAS

: Chapter 2. Kinship, Rank and Privilege 36 Chapter 3. Ceremonials and Religion 57

A Sense of Place and Past 89

Chapter 4 Daily Life 105 Chapter 5 Dealing with Others: Trade, Conflict and Marriage 139 PART III TIMES FLOW

Chapter 6 Seeing the Past from the Present 158

To Carry on the Legacy 185 Chapter 7 The Dawn of a New Era 201] Chapter 8 A Changing World 214

Chapter 9 ‘Today and Tomorrow 244

Index 252

Selected Bibliography 250

-. \ \iva‘S|\|

TT ; a i _~--a LY \, | Alaska 0 \. \ . e a . ~ ~~ ~~ — ~~ — — — —_ — —_— — —_— — —_ |

~ NATIVE GROUPS |

Q;

X\ \

y Y iS) \ ‘ *. ? \ } OCEAN 6 | —,

oO \

ee ree \ oe BAY | QUEEN ft " l ye ; s) SO) ou \

200 A \\ :

4

aN y] 40 ff 100) 5) Lou \s : v J) Nf QO 180) km ec e ee FH,

0

CHARLOTTE NX vL ISLANDS CS ENN Fraser River NN4 “O°Me NSs geUFm XALK ~ te wt ee @ Kimsquit Vo “ff N \ ~ ( Bentinck Arm Bella Coola \ "0 [23 Bella Coola River Bella Bella gow oe % \y Jwf ! Od GS ow we wo nqay Opetchesaht “ Apf . ww 0 50 100 150°.ni ~~AN < I

——— vs

oY

0 50 100 150 kin.

Foreword The native people who lived on the Pacific Coast of | pologists could be presented in a popular format in a British Columbia—as well as in the northwest corner of way that was acceptable to them. Washington and in coastal Alaska adjacent to British The participants in the first book of this experiment Columbia—inhabited a region with a remarkable were obvious and happy choices: Ruth Kirk, successful wealth of natural foods. This plenty gave them time author in natural history and anthropology; and four and energy not needed for survival and made possible _ specialized and willing anthropologists on the mua remarkable cluster of human cultures, each some- seum’s staff, Richard Inglis, Robert Levine, Peter Macwhat similar yet distinctive, and each one rich in social nair and Kevin Neary, who are in the same order an

ceremony, myth, art and theatre. archaeologist, a linguist and two ethnologists.

The three groups of people who are the focus of this Ruth Kirk has the rare ability to assemble academic book—the Nuu-chah-nulth, Southern Kwakiutl and information from many sources, then to blend the Nuxalk—were chosen for several reasons. While they _ whole into good prose for the general reader while still differ in important ways, they share similar coastlines, maintaining the factual integrity of the reports. Firstmany common foods and technologies, and some so- hand experience and investigation are always among cial characteristics through casual contact and mar- _ her sources as well, and from the first she insisted that

riages. this book must be partly an Indian account about being

The need for popular information on native British Indian. Native people with strong cultural ties to the Columbians was served for several decades by a set of | old ways have supplied the author generously with in-

ten small books in the British Columbia Heritage formation on how it once was to be Indian, as well as Series, subtitled Our Native Peoples, produced by the _ how it is to be one now in a rapidly changing world. Provincial Archives of British Columbia. By the 1970s The museum joins the author in thanking these these texts were dated in social attitude and outdated people. Their generosity has given to this book a in factual content, so the Royal British Columbia Mu- warmth that comes with comfortable conversations seum planned to produce ten new volumes, each writ- over tea in a living room or while digging out and ten by the most appropriate anthropologist available. eating roots in a traditional gathering place. This produced just one manuscript, which the mu- I think it remarkable that the sciences have no firm seum subsequently published as an excellent work _ tradition for taking their understandings effectively to breaking much new ground. The West Coast People by the public. The Royal British Columbia Museum, howEugene Arima was not attached to an anthropological ever, because of its mandate but also in recognition of series, however, for by this time the plan had of neces- __ its debt to its audiences, has a number of communica-

sity evolved into something different. tion programs that strive for effective ways to inform In this new approach, cultures located in somewhat _ the public, a function that is after all very much a need similar environmental conditions were to be clumped _ of the sciences as well. Throughout most scientific inappropriately into a book, possibly to be followed by a _ stitutions, including museums, it is the public that series of four or five volumes. Since the books desired makes most scientific effort possible, because public were to be that uncommon kind described as good funds control the extent of most such efforts including

science well written for the public, the solution ap- whether there will be any efforts at all. peared to be an account written by an experienced and This book, then, is partial payment of a debt to successful writer in the life sciences (a term here in- — British Columbians for their support of anthropology tended to include the social sciences) who would be in- in this province. If it gives readers accurate informaformed by anthropologists throughout the writing tion with enjoyment, then this project is a success. process. The first essential of the finished product was

that it be a popular account; the great unknown was Yorke Edwards, Director (retired) the extent to which the academic knowledge of anthro- Royal British Columbia Museum 7

Preface This book deals with continuity. It seeks to highlight May these decisions, and all the others, work tothe distinctive nature of three of the separate lan- gether to increase understanding and to illuminate guage groups that live along the central British Co- native tradition and change along the Northwest lumbia coast and the adjoining northwestern tip of Coast. Washington State. These people—the Nuu-chahnulth (including the Makah of Washington State), the I would like to acknowledge the generosity that unSouthern Kwakiutl and the Nuxalk—partly share lan- __derlies these pages, the collective giving of accumuguage roots and largely share a particular world view lated experience and wisdom that has come from Inand social structure. They are representative of all dian people and also from non-Indian ethnologists, Northwest Coast cultures, and consequently, curators archaeologists, linguists and historians. I know my

at the Royal British Columbia Museum felt it rea- role is as compiler more than author, and I feel a sonable to write about these three groups in a single deep sense of obligation in representing others and volume. The book attempts an overview based on at have tried to do so faithfully.

least 10 000 years of these peoples’ presence on the It is pleasant to publicly acknowledge the many

coast. people who have helped with this book and to thank I hope the book rings with the admiration I feel for them. It also is somewhat daunting, for the list is long

the cultures and individuals represented and for their and the indebtedness greater than mere naming refusal to accept assimilation. Not even the social implies. upheaval of losing nine out of every ten people to Sadly, we no longer can hear the voices of many raging epidemics in the nineteenth century, not even — elders except in memory and, in some cases, on tape. the disorientation of changing to new, cash economy Among these elders, for me and for this book, are: in with a more complex technological base, not even the | Bella Coola, Margaret Siwallace and Felicity Walkus; acceptance of a new cosmology and religion—none of along the coast of the Olympic Peninsula, Ada these broke native pride in the past or native ties to Markishtum, Nora Barker, Mabel Robertson, Harold ancestral lands and waters. This is the remarkable Ides, Harry McCarty, Ted Hudson and Hal George.

continuity that fills these pages. There also are many, now gone, who are represented

The presentation will not please everyone, for one by written manuscripts and published autobiograbook cannot include all the information available. phies and on tapes at the Provincial Archives of BritAdditionally, there is enormous audacity in an out- ish Columbia. They are identified by name within the sider attempting to summarize anyone’s cultural his- _ text. tory—and a counterbalancing difficulty when “in- Scores of native people have allowed me into their siders” attempt the task, for, either way, who is to homes and taught me, giving insight into their lives,

speak for all? I acknowledge the pitfalls. or posed for my camera; and others have graciously Finally, a word concerning spelling. We recognize authorized the use of material and photographs. that any English-based system inevitably does vio- Some are long-time friends, others the friends of lence to the pronunciation of aboriginal vocabulary. friends. These many include: among the Southern Native languages have many sounds that are lacking Kwakiutl, Agnes Alfred, Basil Ambers, Flora Cook, in English and therefore require the specialized spell- | Richard Hunt, Tony Hunt, Robert Joseph, Flora and ing that linguists use to record native language mate- James Sewid, Daisy Sewid Smith, and J. J. Wallas; rial. However, since this special spelling is difficult for among the Nuxalk, Louise Hilland, Ed and Sandy the rest of us to follow, we have chosen to use acon- Moody, Joanne Schooner and Cecilia Siwallace;

ventional spelling system, even though it fails to ac- among the Nuu-chah-nulth and Makah, Edward curately convey the pronunciation of native words. Claplanhoo, Lida and Roger Colfax, Lloyd Colfax, For similar reasons of general accessibility, we are not Ben David, Winnifred David, Edith and John Hotusing footnotes or presenting a complete bibliog- towe, John Ides, Isabel Ides, Hubert Markishtum,

raphy. Alice Paul, Larry Paul, Tim Paul, Charles Peterson,

8

PREFACE

Helen Peterson, John Thomas, Art Thompson, sible to assemble and print the large selection of Marina Tom, Ruth Tom, Bernice Touchie, Margaret black-and-white photographs.

and Adam Shewish, Jane Sterritt-Jones, and Jessie Outside the museum staff, anthropologists Bill and Peter Webster. To all, my deep appreciation. Holm and Carolyn Marr, archaeologists Roy Carlson, At the Royal British Columbia Museum, Yorke Phil Hobler, Gary Wessen and Al Mackey, linguist Edwards, former Director, heads the list of those Peter Wilson and ethnobotanist Nancy Turner all upon whom this book has depended, and Richard In- helped with the manuscript, contributing valuable inglis, archaeologist, has given more patient, continuing formation and suggestions. Hilary Stewart made input than any other one person. In addition, guid- drawings specifically for this volume. ance, information and criticism have come from mu- To all these persons and others who are not named, seum ethnologists Peter Macnair, Alan Hoover and _ and to the authors of published and taped material Kevin Neary; linguists Robert Levine and Barbara _ that I have consulted, goes awareness that these pages Efrat, as well as Don Prescott of the Linguistics Divi- are something we have created together; also acsion; archaeologists Don Abbott, James Haggarty, knowledgement of my responsibility for whatever Grant Keddie and Thomas Loy; and historian Robert weaknesses may linger despite the opportunities and

Turner. Harold Hosford gave overall encourage- help so generously given. Every account passes ment and specific editing suggestions; Doris Lundy through the filter of whoever does the recording, handled innumerable manuscript and illustration compiling, writing: I have tried to be meticulous, but details; and Dan Savard, Andrew Niemann, Burton _ there is no way to succeed totally or to everyone’s satStorey, Grant Holland and Cairn Crockford at the — isfaction, my own included. A book is only a book. Royal British Columbia Museum and Bob Soderlund Culture comes from human convictions and experiof the Nuu-chah-nulth Tribal Council made it pos- ences; it fits only partially onto paper. Ruth Kirk

WAKASHAN LANGUAGE FAMILY SALISHAN

| LANGUAGE FAMILY Bella Colla

Northern Southern spoken by Nuxalk (formerly

Wakashan Wakashan Bella Coola)Comox people Pentlatch

Secheh spoken by

; Coast Salish

Squamish Straits Salish | 2°°? le Halkomelem

Haisla Heiltsuk Kwakwala Makah Nibanaf spoken Okanagan

spoken by spoken by spoken by spoken by — Nitinat J by spoken by Okanagan people Haisla people Healtsuk Southern Makah people Nuu-chah-nulth Shuswap

(formerly Kwakvwutl people (formerly spoken by Shuswap people Bella Bella) Westcoast or Lillooet

people Nootka) people spoken by Lillooet people Thompson

spoken by Thompson people

9

Acknowledgements A number of publishers, organizations, persons and institu. chives of British Columbia. Notes by George Hunt, tions have generously given permission to reprint material in Newcombe Family Papers, vol. 40, file 16 and MSS from copyrighted works and sources, as noted below. 1077, by permission of Provincial Archives of British Columbia. Noticias de Nutka: An Account of Nootka

“Ethnology of the Kwakiutl by Franz Boas, in Sound in 1792 by José Mariano Mozino, translated by Thirty-Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Iris Higbie Wilson, American Ethnological Society Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution Monograph no. 50, by permission of University of 1913-14, by permission of Smithsonian Institution Washington Press. “Livelihood of Indians of Nootka” Press. Report on Barkley Sound by George Blenkin- by August Murphy, MS, by permission of Archives sop, Indian Affairs R.G. 10, vol. 3614, file 4105, 1874, Deschatelets. Nootka Texts: Tales and Ethnological Narby permission Provincial Archives of British Colum- — ratives with Grammatical Notes and Lexical Material by bia. Log of the Columbia, 1790-1792 by John Boit, in Edward Sapir and Morris Swadesh, by permission of

Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, the authors’ Executors, Philip Sapir and Dr. October 1919 to June 1920, vol. 53, by permission of | Evangelina Arana, and Linguistic Society of America. the society. Fighting with Property by Helen Codere, Interview with Bill Scow, tape 1014-1, by permission American Ethnological Society Monograph no. 18, by of Provincial Archives of British Columbia. Prosecupermission of the society. “Franz Boas and the Bella lon or Persecution by Daisy Sewid-Smith (My-yah-

Coola in Berlin” by Douglas Cole, in Northwest dn- nelth), by permission of the author. Guests Never thropological Research Notes, vol. 16. no. 2, by permis- Leave Hungry. The Autobiography of James Sewid, a

sion Of NARN. Interview with Agnes Cranmer, tape Awakiutl Indian by James P. Spradley, © 1960, by 1015-1, by permission of Provincial Archives of permission of Yale Univeristy Press. Bella Coola Stories British Columbia. “Contemporary Accounts of — edited by Susanne Storie, Report of the B.C. Indian Nootka Culture” edited by Barbara S. Efrat and = Advisory Committee 1968-69, by permission of First W. J. Langlois, in Sound Heritage VII: 2, by permis- Citizens’ Fund Administration. Bella Coola Ceremony sion of Provincial Archives of British Columbia. and Art by Margaret Stott, Canadian Ethnology Serv“Kerf-Bent Boxes: Woodworking Techniques and ice Mercury Paper in Ethnology no. 21, by permisCarving Tools of the Northwest Coast” by Susan J. sion of National Museum of Man, National Museums Davidson, in Fine Woodworking, “© 1980 The Taunton of Canada. “Frederick Christian Thornberg” by FrePress, by permission of The Taunton Press. “The derick Christian Thornberg, in Sound Heritage 33, by Fort Victoria Treaties” by Wilson Duff, in B.C. permission Provincial Archives of British Columbia. Studies no. 3 (autumn 1969), by permission of Bes. An Account of a Voyage to the North West Coast. of Smoke from Their Fires by Clellan S. Ford, © 1941, by Amerca im 1795 and 1796 by Alexander Walker, permission of Yale University Press. “Reminiscences edited by Robin Fisher and J. M. Bumsted, by perof a Whaler’s Wife” edited by Erna Gunther, in mission of Douglas & McIntyre. dy Far As 1 Know: Pacific Northwest Quarterly 33, by permission of PNQ Reminiscences of an Ahousat Elder by Peter Webster, by

and University of Washington. The Outer Shores: Part permission of the author and Campbell River 1, Fd Ricketts and John Steinbeck Explore the Pacific Coast Museum and Archives. Interview with Peter Webster,

edited by Joel W. Hedgpeth, by permission of the tape 2392-6, by permission Provincial Archives of editor and Mad River Press Inc. Diary (1882-89) of | British Columbia. Kate Hendry, MS, by permission of Provincial Ar-

10

Part I People of the Transition

CHAPTER ONE ide the ferry between Vancouver and Vic; toria, or fly aboard the bush planes that Today S BE lders serve the British Columbia coast, and you often hear the soft voices of Indian elders speaking

their own language. These are people for whom English is a language learned at residential school or through other alien contacts. They are living links with a past that is thousands of years old. “We were all the time going places by canoe,” an elderly native woman told me as she switched off the television news. She started to reminisce about travelling with her grandmother to trade baskets at the Hudson’s Bay Company store in Victoria:

Even we children knew how to sit still in a canoe. Maybe those days were better. Everything we needed we had right around us. Fish to dry, herring eggs, seal oil, berries ... even whale meat. What we didn’t have, we could trade for. It was easier than now, with cash.

In the past canoe travel linked one coastal village

with another, yet each community was almost a separate social, political and economic unit. Today

Oe eee a4 “~, Me eye |

Two women return from digging clams, easily paddling their small canoe and us heavy, wet load. VANCOUVER PUBLIC LIBRARY, 14101

12

:-_— ee2 agy 2 , se LL S d h Id h )

TODAY S ELDERS

a ed floatplanes and roads, schools and television brin

. 7 _ . a\Yee Se AOC: ie a 4\L Neale AmSCOCétapead £C Gi hihisfMemories British Columbia in Vi :. .aA OF Oe «ie “as 4an jn ee fh eo ‘oy age,tora: a ee iSsege» »Poe F ’ ig : © I’ve read certain articles about ... drafty houses with

: Fi : we i, Fog ye bodg ye. | d

—s 7 - - hia | | 4 4 old cedar shakes on the sides. . . . But it wasn’t that bad.

.3.. g“if aThey hada qcubby-holes of cedar shakes ... ye - feie a.Ve ga ss eS matting PO 7 if to covermade ¢os.oo_ithi«< iia ©. € iand cedar your out bedding. You werent

a a ee MA altogether exposed to the draft. You were well pro-

oyna | =< i Te e = tected.

:eee : : a: vo e te 8 S 2 2 ee Poe ee

oo 2s 2 . . : ee ee : oo . ... eo llrhrr—“‘“‘iOOOOOCOiw®SW .. oS a a. 7 oe — —r—O—r—t—t—“‘“‘COOOOONONONCNO'CdwCisCCaCts

ee ee ee ee BEES ee ee ges 2, rrrr—C—“‘#EECCOCC_CC U-=—Cohle.ll _ . i WW9W9-=—DUmhmBe | = 8 ye ie CO 4 / 2 le :

lt 3. 9 £#—-,, oe el Ct a —lr—r—r—“—wi—C:i*s:;wsS~sSCsirésCrisér;sCOCsCiésN:siC”C ee oe . 6 DrrrCti“ rr—Ci