Trade name creation: Processes and patterns [Reprint 2017 ed.] 3111000796, 9783111000794

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TRADE NAME CREATION PROCESSES AND PATTERNS

JANUA LINGUARUM STUDIA M E M O R I A E N I C O L A I VAN WIJK DEDICATA

edenda

curat

C. H. VAN S C H O O N E V E L D INDIANA UNIVERSITY

SERIES

PRACTICA 58

1968

MOUTON THE HAGUE · PARIS

TRADE N A M E CREATION P R O C E S S E S A N D PATTERNS

by

JEAN PRANINSKAS UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

1968

MOUTON THE H A G U E · PARIS

© Copyright 1968 in the Netherlands Mouton & Co., Publishers, The Hague. No part of this book may be translated or reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm or any other means, without written permission from the publishers.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER: 68-13344

Printed in the Netherlands by Mouton & Co., Printers, The Hague.

To the memory of Helen Beveridge Brennan

PREFACE

This study was undertaken in a spirit of pure research — otherwise known as curiosity — rather than for the purpose of coming to grips with any pressing problem of linguistics or marketing. Among other occupations, I practice the sometime lofty one of homemaking, which in post-war USA has been largely reduced to the making of wise choices from among the 20,000 and more new consumer products and services placed on the retail market each year. Consequently, I have become very much aware of the strategic role of the trade name in a rapidly expanding and highly competitive economy. Concomitantly, my work as a teacher of language led me to peripheral studies in the discipline of mass communications, embracing just a germ of the theory and practice of advertising. Thus when the suggestion was made that someone should undertake an analysis of trade names, my interest was sufficiently aroused to produce this work. I am indebted to Henry R. Kahane for suggesting the study, and to Charles E. Osgood for guidance and direction in seeing it through. Others who contributed generously of their time and widely-recognized talents are Robert B. Lees, linguist, and Charles H. Sandage, advertiser. Thanks are also due Howard Maclay and Lee Hultzen for helpful suggestions regarding procedure and to George Scuffas for valuable editorial comment. In addition, I should like to express my gratitude to the various public relations people to whom I addressed inquiries for their prompt and courteous replies, and to numerous cooperating store managers for their patient forbearance in allowing me to loiter, to scrutinize merchandise I hadn't the slightest intention of purchasing, and to ask impertinent questions about the contents, origins, and effects of the products on their shelves. Finally, I thank my many colleagues and other friends whose unflagging interest helped me pursue the project to its completion.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface

7

Introduction

11

1 Graphemics

21

2 Morphemics

36

3 Syntactics

57

4 Semantics

77

5 Aesthetics

89

6 Summary, Findings and Conclusions, Implication

100

Bibliography

103

Appendix - The Corpus

106

INTRODUCTION

0.0 In February 1961, Lippincott and Margulies, industrial design and marketing consultants, addressed themselves to what they considered to be a "... mounting crisis in marketing — the problem of finding new names for new products".1 They began their article in this way: Naming a product used to be fun. Everybody from the board chairman down to the errand boy got into the act. Out of all the names suggested, about ten would be selected as finalists. Then, after great soul searching, the president would discard all those suggestions and pick the name suggested by his wife. This was apt to be something like 'Bam' or 'Bang', and in the good old days of the fifties it would probably do pretty well for itself. Things aren't so simple any more. The number of available names is shrinking (some one-half million trade names are already registered; fifty new applications are being received every day). At the same time, the importance of the name is increasing as products become increasingly similar in function, in ingredients, and even in their advertising and promotion. In some cases the product name is rapidly becoming the product's sole claim to identity, one of the tangible elements on which the product image is built, and without which it could not exist. Change the advertising, change the distribution, change the packaging, change the promotion, change even the product itself, and you may have lost nothing but instead gained in sales appeal. But change the product name, and you are starting all over again. If JOY were called by another name, it might not cease to smell so sweet, but it would cease to be itself. Thus convinced by Lippincott and Margulies and by others2 of the importance of trade names to the marketing operation, and convinced by our study of the economic forces in society 3 of the importance of the marketing operation to the maintenance of the flourishing American economy, we decided to examine a sample of apparently satisfactory trade names currently in use in an attempt (1) to discover the processes, both conscious and subconscious, by which they had been created, (2) to classify the underlying patterns of formation, (3) to determine in which ways, if any, these pro1

Lippincott and Margulies, p. 47. ' As early as 1923 Claude Hopkins, outstanding advertiser of his day, wrote: "The question of a name is of serious importance in laying the foundation of a new undertaking. Some names have become the chief factors of success. Some have lost for their originators four-fifths of the trade they developed." Hopkins, pp. 95-97. ' See particularly Sandage, pp. 31-38.

12

INTRODUCTION

cesses and patterns differ from other lexicon-producing processes, and thus (4) to test the claim of "crisis". We learned that the term trade name is a somewhat generic one, which is used to refer to any name created for the specific purpose of furthering trade. Thus a trade name may be a product name, a brand name, a "line" (a sub-category of brand) name, or the name of a business establishment, large or small, incorporated or unincorporated. All of these types occur in the corpus and indeed it would be impossible to sort them out entirely, and fruitless to try, since by the linguistic process of extension the name of a successful product often becomes the name of a whole line of similar or related products. Nor is the opposite phenomenon unknown. There are several instances on record of a corporation changing its name to the name of one of its successful products.

0.1 The Corpus. - The corpus consists of a list of 2000 trade names collected in the following ways: The first 500, more or less, were culled from magazine advertisements. The magazines were carefully chosen to represent different consumer groups. For "mass" we used Life and The Saturday Evening Post, for "class", Vogue, Esquire, and The New Yorker. Advertisements aimed at young people were found in Seventeen·, those for farm families in The Farm Journal. Recent copies of Family Circle and Woman's Day were culled, as were those of Popular Mechanics, Hardware Age, Business Week, and the Gift and Art Buyer. Product and brand names were also collected from articles in Consumer Reports, though that journal carries no advertisements, and from the listings in the mail order catalogues of Damar of New Jersey and Miles Kimball of Wisconsin. It was soon discovered, however, that this method of data collection was extremely time-consuming and fraught with distractions, and it was abandoned in favor of collecting "on location" so to speak, in the retail stores where products are sold. Again an attempt was made to be comprehensive. We visited super markets, drug stores large and small, hardware stores, camera shops, variety stores of three different chains, one stationery and office equipment establishment, a sporting goods shop, and the housewares and notions departments of three large department stores. The great majority, then, approximately three-fourths, of the trade names in the corpus were collected in this way. A few, particularly names of small business enterprises, were found in the yellow sheets of telephone directories or on street signs visible through bus windows; a few more were contributed by interested friends. Thus though we cannot claim that our sample was randomized in any statistical sense, we believe it to be representative. We took as our guide the daily activities of all normal and free American citizens: they eat and sleep, wear clothes, groom their bodies, care for their health, their children, their houses and gardens and pets; they read and write, listen to radio, watch television, go to movies and other entertainments, and

INTRODUCTION

13

travel to distant places in cars, buses, trains, planes, and ships. Names of products and services used in all of these activities were included in the corpus. In determining our limitations we decided to ignore all use of color and of different types and sizes of print in the display of these trade names. It was our intention also to rule out names containing numbers as being peripheral to our theme. We discovered, however, in our preliminary examination of the corpus, that a few such names had crept in and we allowed them to stay for we found no difficulty in accommodating them. We arbitrarily ruled out all trade names which consist solely of unaltered personal names, such as Studebaker and Betty Crocker, and we did not include names of products which we could not either see and handle or read detailed descriptions of, for we were particularly interested in the relationship of "word and thing". These were the only limitations set in the collection of the corpus. In accordance with the teachings of Kenneth Pike regarding the procedures to be followed in analyzing a linguistic sample,4 we made the assumption that the corpus was complete in the sense that it included examples of trade names made by all the different processes by which trade names are created, and examples of all the different patterns which result, with exceptions only as stated just above. 0.2 The Sources of Trade Names. - Our first perusal of the material was done for the purpose of discovering linguistic sources, and we quickly came to the conclusion, in concurrence with Roger Brown, that "The usual method of creating a new name is to use words or morphemes already in the language, either by expanding the semantic range of some word or by recombining morphemes."5 Despite the well-publicized case of Eastman's creation of KODAK® and a few almost equally successful imitations, such as KOTEX and KIVAR7 we can state that, with the exception of the obviously onomatopoetic sss-τ for a steam-iron cleaning fluid and WISHY WASH (see 4.33), a semantic extension with echoic qualities, we found no trade names which appeared to be motivated by a natural relationship between sound and product. 0.21 Machine-Made Trade Names and Other Enigmas. - We did find, however, a group of 33 items, or 1.65 %, for which we could not with any assurance establish linguistic sources. Noticing that among these certain syllables recurred very frequently, and noticing further that more than a third were products of the same corporation, Ε. I. DuPont de Nemours, we wrote to the advertising department of that corporation, and to a few others, to enquire whether, as we had heard rumored, their recently-coined trade names had been computer created. The answer, from DuPont, was direct and affirmative. From a brochure prepared by its advertising department in 1959 we quote: "The standard procedure for selection of candidate words is for the 4 Pike, p. 68. • Brown, p. 139. • For the complete story see Mencken (1), p. 172. ' Nolan, entire article.

14

INTRODUCTION

advertising manager to look over the lists in F. Miller's office. These show a great many Company trademarks not in use and over 100,000 other names which have been devised by electronic computer." If, as we suspect, most of the items we were not able to etymologize are indeed computer products, then we must note that the computer unit is the syllable and that we find syllables of the following types: CV, VC, CVC, CCV, and CCVC. This list, of course, does not exhaust the syllable patterns of English. The DuPont trade names to which we refer are ANTRON, CANTRECE, DACRON, KRYLON, LYCRA, MYLAR, NEBURON, ORLON, TEFLON, TELAR, ZOBAR, a n d ZORON.

Celanese Corporation of America was less specific. "The endings -al, -el, and -on are often used in naming fibers. The first part of a name may be made up of letters which represent some of the chemical components of the product or they may be the initials of one of the researchers, or they may not stand for anything at all." 8 The items we must place in this unspecific category are ARNEL, CIELLA, CORVAL, KORLANE, NYTREL, TARALAN, VYCRON, VYRENE.

Similar statements were received from American Cyanamid Inc., Norwich Pharmacal Company, Royce Chemical Company, Shell Chemical Company, and the Upjohn Company in explanation of the names AMOLIN, ANIDON, ATRAZINE, COROBEX, CRESLAN, DESENEX, DRISTAN, and DIELDRIN. We received no enlightenment from Corn Products Division of Best Foods which present us with the unfathomable ARGO (Jason's ship, to be sure, but what possible connection with corn starch?), BOSCO, KARO, and RIT — all of which are older than computers, as also is KEDS the origin of which U. S. Rubber claims to have no record, SARAKA we suspect to be an anagram we haven't solved though it could quite as well be computer-born or an Eastman type creation. 0.22 The Provenience of Trade Name Elements. - Having thus disposed of the 33 enigmatic items, we turn our attention to a broader concept of source, i.e. to a consideration of the stocks and/or levels of language from which the various components of trade names derive. As a result of certain historical facts specific to the users of English, stock and level are often, though by no means always, parellel. Formal and technical words are often of classical provenience, colloquial expressions from native Anglo-Saxon stock, but many ordinary monosyllabic words derive from Latin, e.g. act, curve, fact, joke, strict, urge, vim. It has been estimated that the Greco-Latin element in English, including borrowings from the French, accounts for more than three-fifths of the total linguistic stock, the Anglo-Saxon accounting for less than one fifth, and miscellaneous borrowings from other sources for the rest.9 A count of the origins of the 14,740 words in the fourth edition of Skeat's Etymological Dictionary 8 From a letter from Nan Doron, Educational Department, Celanese Corporation of America, November, 1961. » Kent, pp. 5-6.

INTRODUCTION

15

yields quite similar percentages: Anglo Saxon 22.6, French 26.4, Latin 15.8, Greek 11.2, other 24.10 No such accounting can be made for levels of vocabulary. The borders of standard written and standard colloquial, of dialect and standard, of colloquial and slang are so ill defined and fluid as to render any attempt futile. Yet individual items can be classified within a context of time, place, and circumstance as shall soon be seen. The hybrid nature of English vocabulary is well exemplified in its trade names. We find compounds formed entirely of English components, such as CHORE GIRL, FLYCAKE, MOON DROPS; of English and Greek or Greek and English — ICE-O-DERM, NEOUTE; of English and Latin — PLEXIGLAS, VIBROCRAFTERS, SILVIKRIN; of Greek and Greek — HEPTACHLOR ; of Latin and Latin — PORTOPEDS, AUDIVOX ; and very many of Greek and Latin — METRECAL, PANOVITE, AUDOGRAPH, DICTYCIDE. An attempt to quantify the various stocks is beyond the scope of this study. We will, rather, note the various strains, that we may have a clear picture of the material with which the name-makers work. 0.221 Classical Roots and Stems. - The tradition of the conscious formation of new English words from Greek and Latin roots and stems is unbroken from the period of the Renaissance. All that has changed, and the change has been gradual but approaches completion, is that at its inception all scholars were proficient in Latin; it was their medium of communication, and many had a wide knowledge of Greek as well. In many areas of learning today the native speaker of English still turns to the classical word-hoard for material to express his newly discovered concepts and to name his newly invented products, even though his lack of familiarity with the languages from which the formatives derive often results in their being combined in quite unorthodox ways. The name-makers carry on this tradition — that of combining classical elements in unclassical ways — and continue to form hybrids to challenge future etymologists. It is simply the presence of these elements as name components that we note here, as evidence of the continuing influence of Greek and Roman culture on the for-the-largepart oblivious, twentieth century American consumer. 0.2211 Latin Elements in the corpus used recurrently as constituents of compounds and not obscured: aqua, audio audi ~ audo), cide, dent, dorm, duo, dura, flor, fort, lact, latio, lava, luci, lustri, magna, oct, ole, ora, ped, plex, port, quad, quant, quatr, quin, rota, somn, son, spectr, stimul, sulf, terra, therm, tri, uni, verta, vibr, vita, voca, vox. 0.2212 Greek Roots and Stems so used: aero, aero, alpha, astro, chem, chlor, chrom, chron, deca, derm, dicty, dyna, gera, glyco, graph, hepta, hydro, hygro, metr, micr, myc, neo, oxy, pan, phono, phos, poly, pyr, stat. 0.222 The Vigorous Anglo-Saxon. - Language historians, who seem not always to have been called upon to give evidence for their statements, have often remarked upon "

Hixon and Colodoy, p. 11.

16

INTRODUCTION

the "vigor" of the Anglo-Saxon elements in our language as compared with classical and other borrowed words. 11 Though hard to prove, some examples are impressive. In times of stress we use help! fire! look out! not assistance, conflagration, and regard. And of course the infamous four-letter words, some of which have yet to receive lodging in our unabridged dictionaries, are almost all Anglo-Saxon. In this regard it is interesting to note that it is the words per se, not their denotations, that are taboo; the realities are readily discussed today in almost all strata of society, but in more polite (less vigorous?) terms. Notable in our corpus is the fact that, of the non-compounded trade names, considerably more than half are of Anglo-Saxon origin — a much larger percentage than we would be led to expect from our knowledge of the composition of the language from which they are extracted. Among them we find such "vigorous" monosyllables a s ALL, BAN, BOAT, BRAKE, CLUE, DAB, DEFT, FLIT, GLADE, LARK, LILT, MELT, STRIDE, TAME, THRILL, THUM, TREND. Perhaps it is their monosyllabic nature that is their

strength. A maximum of information is communicated in a minimum of time, or space, depending upon the medium. 0.223 Miscellaneous Borrowings - The polyglot nature of English vocabulary well testifies to the open-door policy of the language in general to borrowings from all corners of the earth. The lexicon of trade names is no exception. From the French we find in our corpus BEAU, ENFA(NT), LE CHIC; from Italian the diminutive suffix of endearment in KICKERINOS, the superlative in PINKISSIMO and the first component of PRESTO SET. Borrowing a pattern from Spanish, the name-makers produce ΒΟΟΚΕTERIA, but with added stem-vowel (by analogy with cafeteria where the e is an integral part of the first member) and, by extension, using the suffix with a verb, WASHATERIA (see 2.421m). The extreme centralization of unstressed vowels in English makes the choice of stem-vowel grapheme arbitrary, as illustrated by the contrast in these two trade names, unless it is made on some basis other than sound (see 5.12). One particularly interesting borrowing, from the point of view of process, is that of the Persian-Arabic-Hindi word kabob (also spelled kabab, kebab, kebob, and cabob). At an earlier period the word meant to cook or to be hot, and it is still used to express these meanings in some dialects of Arabic today. It is best known to people of western cultures, however, in its specialized meaning of "cubes of meat which have been cooked in a certain way, on a skewer over an open fire". Furthermore, it is most often associated with fif /JiJ/, the Turkish word for skewer, which has been adopted generally throughout the Middle East. In borrowing kabob, the name-makers use it not to mean heat or cook or meat or even cooked meat, but to mean skewer. Thus we find CHEESE KABOB, COLD-CUT KABOB, and SNAK-KABOB with only one thing in common — they are all served on skewers.

11

Bradley, Hixon and Colodny, Greenough and Kittredge.

INTRODUCTION

0.23

17

Levels and Varieties of Language from which Trade Names are Derived.

0.231 The more formal aspects of our language are illustrated in the corpus, as anticipated, by compounds of classical provenience: ACOUSTIFIBRE, DICTYCIDE, FLEXACHROME, HEPTACHLOR, LACTUM, QUADNUMATICÖ, ZEPHYROID. They most often name drugs, pharmaceuticals and other chemicals, or electronic equipment, though a fair number of building materials are also so named. 0.232 Geographical Dialect and Rapid Speech. - Dialects have their distinctive characteristics at all linguistic levels: sound, vocabulary, syntax. As is illustrated later (see 1.4), spelling manipulations designed to reflect dialectal pronunciations sometimes misfire. Nevertheless we find a certain number of items which have, as their sound-source, pronunciations peculiar to certain geographical areas. We note particularly the items in which ar, er, or or is replaced by a, thus mimicking the r-less dialect of Manhattan, the place of origin of much of our material: BABEE TENDA, CEDA PAD, LETTADEX, ODAWICK, WATASEAL.

Geographical dialects, however, are not a popular source of trade name elements, probably because they tend to obscure origins. In the realm of vocabulary we find only one lexical item that is distinctly dialectal. From the southeast U.S. we get tote, to carry, as in TOTE BAG and TERRACE TOTER, TWISTER, originally dialectal from areas where tornadoes are frequent, has become general colloquial throughout the United States, YUBAN < Yule Blend, though allowing the interpretation compound-ofclipped-forms (see 3.12) which undoubtedly seems more credible to the average reader, is, in fact, an excellent spelling representation of the dialect of the semi-literate South Carolinians with whom the name originated. 12 The extreme lengthening of vowels, commonly referred to as drawling, eclipses consonantal members of a sequence. Rapid or careless speech, more closely related to class dialect than to geographical, is the sound-source of some respelled trade names. Dental stops from medial position in consonant clusters are the sounds most frequently lost: 13 IMPAX from impacts, PROTEX from protects (but see also 2.51) INFANSEAT, SOF-SET, STANZ-ALL, EXTRAXDUST. LOSS of the initial sound from unstressed pronouns may also be considered in this category: TUB 'UMS, TWIST-EMS, STICK-M-CAPS. LOSS of the voiceless glottal fricative from initial position of the second component of compounds, as in TINTAIR, QUIKARD, and TUFIDE, may also be a phenomenon of rapid speech, though we have no experimental evidence to verify it. It is more likely, however, that the omission, instead of intending to represent a common pronunciation, was devised to emphasize the compound nature of the formations by assuring the primary-tertiary stress. If such is the case, these items are better treated with process than with source. 12 Origin explained in a letter from Ruth Scherm, Staff Assistant, Department of Public Relations, General Foods Corporation. 13 This is a very common phenomenon. See Wallace on Simplification of Consonant Clusters. See also Wise, p. 201.

18

INTRODUCTION

0.233 Baby Talk, Broken Language, and Euphemism. - These three varieties of language frequently overlap. We use the term baby talk in preference to the more elegant child language because we wish to draw a distinction. Child language is the language of young children; baby talk is a kind of jargon used by adults when speaking to young children. It includes some of the sound substitutions that are made by young learners and many that are not, plus a vocabulary of diminutives, regularized verbs, and avoidance terms. In this category we place DI-DEE DUNK and DYDEE DOLL-E, PANDEES (for panties), TWEEDIE (for sweetie), TUMS from tummy, a baby talk version of stomach, and DOOZIT, a regularized form of does it. Other trade names deriving from this variety of language are KIT ΚΑΤ, a clipped form of the reduplicative kitty cat, PEEK-A-BREW by analogy with the exclamation from the game of peekaboo (see 4.32), a n d KOPY ΚΑΤ.

Less coy, more purely euphemistic, are SANI FLUSH and JONNY MOP, in whichflush and jonny replace toilet bowl, and HIPAWAY in which the constituent hip is a polite term for excess flesh, beyond the limit prescribed by fashion, in the area of the upper thighs and buttocks, HELPEE SELFEE is a stylized form of "broken" English, meant to indicate the speech of a foreigner, specifically a Chinese, and thus to suggest laundry service (see 4.11). 0.234 Slang and Other Unconventional Language. - Among the many slang and informal colloquial expressions from which trade names in our corpus derive we note the following groups: 0.2341 The Intensives. - BREEZE is something very easy; buster, as in CHEESEBUSTER, is something very large; GOOP is something very sticky, as glue; HEP means very well informed; dandy, as in GYM-DANDY (see 4.31) something very fine and elegant; j i f f y , as in JIFFY BAG and JIFFY SEW, and also jig as in JIG TIME, mean very quickly; KNITTIN' PRETTY < sitting pretty, very well off; smooth as in MANSMOOTH, very pleasant, attractive, enjoyable; REAL KEEN, very sharp; super as in SUPER-DET (see 4.341), a product of superior grade; and Mr., also written Mister, used to mean "epitome of" as in Mr. America and Mr. Big Mouth: MISTER MUSTARD, MISTER SOFTEE, MR. CLEAN, MR. SLICK.

0.2342 Cant and Jargon. - From the military, TOP BRASS and V.I.P.; from jazz enthusiasts platter in PLATTER PAK, and SHARPIE; from the underworld SCRAM and PRIVATE EYE; from horse-racing gizmo > QUIZMO (see 4.341); from narcotics addicts CLOUD 9 and SPRING-DING by way of wing ding', from student language chug-a-lug > SLUG-A-BUG.

0.2343

Old Established Colloquialisms. - Among the oldest are

MEDICO

(1689),14 kid

14 Dates are first instances recorded in the O E D . Inasmuch as slang is usually current for a long time before it is written, these terms are probably much older than the dates suggest.

INTRODUCTION

19

(1690) as in KIDDIE KEEPER, and snooze (1793) as in SNOOZ ALARM. From the latter half of the nineteenth century: cop (1859) as in FLY KOP, spud for potato (1860) as in SPUDNUT, looney (1872) from lunatic in LUNI-CYCLE, and PARD from partner (1872). Softie, as in SOFT-EEZ and yak as in KI-YAKS (see 5.28) are more recent but well established; according to Wentworth and Flexner they first appeared in literature in the 1940's. The words tot and tyke, as in TOTKNITS and VI-TYKE, terms of endearment for children, are much older, as are the expressions to tub (for to wash) as in TUB 'UMS, STAY-PUT, SURE FIRE, and the exclamatory HANG-IT-ALL. Zip as a slang term for speed, as in ZIP GRIP, ZIP SANDER, and ZIP STRIP is relatively young (1920's) but obsolescent. It is rapidly being replaced by jet. 0.235 Some Contrived Popular Etymologies. - We noted above that kabob from shish kabob has acquired the meaning of shish. We should add that this transference probably results from the transposition of word order necessitated in making the idiomatic translation "meat cooked on a skewer" where skewer is the final element. A similar shift is seen in the change from rendezvous — popularly translated as "meeting place" to EAT-A-VOO, an eating place. Likewise the semi-suffix -rama < panorama often has the semantic value of pan "all" (see 2.56). ROAD-E-O < rodeo simulates popular etymology, PYREX from an earlier Pie Rex15 is an example of classicization similar to the sixteenth century respelling of debt < det and doubt < dout. 0.236 Special Trade Name Diction. - Certain frequently recurring morphemes, chiefly monosyllables where one might expect polysyllablics, often with very general semantic reference, point to the evolution of a type of trade name diction, a nucleus of words somehow felt to be more appropriate for trade naming than their synonyms. Color occurs in the corpus, but much more frequently we find chrom or tone — CHROMSPUN, ANSCO-CHROME, PLASTRA-TONE, QUINTONE, TOUCH 'N TONE; protect is almost always keep or guard — CURL-KEEP, GLASS KEEPER, GARDTOES, BABI-GARD, FROST GUARD; help is usually aid — BAND AID, COLONAID, DIAR-AID, STAIN-AID, CARVE AID; always is ever — EVER-BRITE, EVER-DRI, EVERFAST, EVERSHARP, WEAREVER; strong is often tough — TUFF-KOTE, TUFF TAPE, TUFF TARP, REZILTUF. Where syntax would require everything or everybody we invariably find all — FITZ-ALL, STANZ-ALL, SEAL ALL, ALL-SAW.

0.24 Proper Names. - We should not leave the topic of the linguistic sources of our data without specifically mentioning the frequent use of proper names as components of trade names. Names of persons, or places, and of other products are all grist for the trade name mill. Inasmuch as they are clipped and combined, prefixed and suffixed, specialized and generalized in the same ways as are common nouns and other parts of speech, they are not handled separately but included in the general discussion of the total material. " Mencken (1), p. 173.

20

INTRODUCTION

0.3 Two Conclusions about the Sources of Trade Names. - As a result of thus examining the corpus with the intention of discovering the ultimate linguistic sources of the items, we come to the conclusions that (1) with the exception of a very small number of computer-made names, trade names are formed from morphemes already in the language or in some neighboring language from which they are borrowed and (2) the total linguistic material, with the exception of profane and taboo terms, is available to the name-makers. 0.4 In the following chapters we attempt to analyze the ways in which the namemakers manipulate and mold this material into the trade names which play such an important role in the economy of our nation. In using the word attempt we are admitting our conviction of the elusive quality of the creative process. The careful reader will note that the analyses which begin in an orderly and scientific manner become more and more speculative as the study progresses from the simplest to the most complex level of linguistic structure. We can not claim, therefore, to have discovered in every case the actual way in which the trade names in our corpus were created; we claim only to have uncovered a number of ways in which trade names can be created, and thus to have refuted the cry of crisis.

1.

GRAPHEMICS

1.0 One of the chief ways in which the name makers manipulate their source material is by changing the spelling. A generic or purely descriptive term such as window glass or kitchen cleaner does not distinguish one such product from any other product of the same type, and consequently does not fulfill the function of a trade name. The same words spelled differently, however, as for instance *WINDOGLAS and *KITCHINKLEENER, are quite satisfactory trade names for certain types of products and, indeed, many trade names are created from generic terms solely by the technique of orthographic change. Others, created by more devious and complex processes, about which we shall have more to say later, are also respelled in ways that attract the eye without obscuring the message. Altogether, approximately 30% of the data, or 587 of the 2000 items, illustrate the use of this technique. Before examining the specific instances of graphic manipulation we shall inquire into the phenomenon which makes such a process possible, namely, the orthographic system of present-day American English. 1.1 A Brief Synchronic Description of English Orthography. - If we examine the contemporary method of recording English without regard to what we know of the history of the language, and look for correspondence between sound and symbol and also between referent and symbol, we discover a highly complex and frequently inconsistent system composed of several sub-systems — some features of which are phonemic, some quasi-phonemic or alphabetic, some diacritic, some morphographic, and some completely inexplicable. We will use as our sound reference for this description the phonemic system of the idiolect of the author which recognizes 22 consonant and 12 vowel segmental phonemes as follows: Consonants IPI Ν Ν Ν Μ/ lul

/fI /θ/ Ν Μ /δ/

Μ

Ν Iii

Μ Μ /3/

Η Μ Μ

Ν Μ

22

GRAPHEMICS

Vowels Ν Ν Μ /ε/

Μ Μ Η Μ

Ν Μ Μ Ν

Diphthongs and syllabic nuclei are interpreted as VC or CY sequences: /ey/, /ay/, /ay/, /aew/, /ow/, /yu/; the so-called affricates as CC: /tf/, /d^/. The graphemic system consists of 21 consonant symbols, 5 vowel symbols, a very limited number of logograms such as those which represent the Arabic numerals , etc., ampersand , percent < %> and, for our purposes — in which only single names are concerned, as opposed to discourse — three marks of punctuation, the period , the apostrophe ' S are changed to 's (4) in MILCO and COLA, but there are no instances of > , > , or > any other variant representation of /J"/. The unambiguous is reduced to ambiguous (1) in QUICFREZ, and the unambiguous final to (2) where it is clear from the context that the phonemic reference is /i/. We find one instance of where we would expect (-ITE), in QUICKIGHT, where the final syllable can only be the suffix /ayt/ (see 2.42 li), but no other cases of change of diacritic from word-final to a medial vowel or consonant cluster. Opposing the use of graphemes as logograms we find three instances of logograms used to symbolize homophonous syllables in ACTIV-8, Q-9 < quinine, and SWEET-10; one off-glide symbol is added in the open first syllable of MAYPO < maple. Counter examples to the Anglicization of French spellings are the numerous Frenchified instances of FIBRE, LUSTRE, and CREME, and > in the item FLORA-CHEQUE (also Br.). There are no examples of the substitution of or for . 1.26 Graphemic Haplology. — To this point we have examined only representational changes within word boundaries. As shall be seen later, however, a very large proportion of trade names are formed by the process of compounding, and mention must be made here of the numerous (48) instances of overlapping, i.e. the use of one grapheme in place of two where the last sound of the first component of a compound and the first sound of the second component may be represented by the same grapheme. This is a graphic phenomenon which parallels the loss of one of a pair of identical syllables, known as haplology (see 3.22). In a sense this manipulation is only a special instance of phonemicization, since the morpho-phonemic patterning of the language is such that identical consonant phonemes falling together at morpheme boundaries within a constituent unit reduce to a single phoneme. Examples may be cited from both traditional and altered orthography, with loss of the grapheme accounting for over 30% of the instances. In the former group we find AIREFINER, CALFEEDER, ENDUST, EVEREADY, FASTEETH, TRAVELOK, HARROWEEDER, HOTRAY; i n t h e

latter DANSKINS < dance skins, QUICOLD, SMOCLOUD, STARKRIMSON, and a few cases in which the unique grapheme with bi-phonemic reference stradles morpheme boundaries a s i n QUIXET, QUIXIGN, a n d FLAXOAP.

1.27 Punctuation. — The period is used as it is in the language proper, that is, to indicate the logogramatic nature of certain otherwise unpronounceable sequences of graphs which precede it, such as Mr. = /mists'/, and the proper-name value of individual characters, such as /viaypi/ for V.I.P.; the exception being that it is occasionally missing from instances of the latter type, as in ZBT and VSQ, a phenomenon which also occurs in all but the most formal of written English. Apostrophes are used only in their function of indicating the omission of an unpronounced grapheme from a traditional morphographic sequence: TWIST'N'TYE, WET'N'DRY, but not consistently. We also find the patterns BRUSH'N ROLL, PLEATS'N

GRAPHEMICS

29

and HI-N-DRI, DAY-N-NIGHT. Apostrophes are regularly omitted from contractions : KANT BITE, KANTSCAR.3 The macron, not currently a unit of English orthography, is found in four items:

PEARLS,

AMBROSIA, APECO, DRÄNO, a n d NÖDÖZ.

1.28 Hyphens and Space. — Perhaps the greatest departure from current graphemic style made in the creation of trade names is in the use of hyphens. If we use the term compounding in its most inclusive sense, as used by lexicographers, to mean the process of making a word from at least one free form plus a phoneme or phoneme sequence, or sequences, which may be drivational affixes and/or one or more free forms, we find that 94.2% of our data falls in this category. Of the 1884 such items, 609 — slightly less than one-third — contain hyphens. By far the most common pattern, accounting for 433 of the items, is that of the compound with a single hyphen between two constituent free forms, either or both of which may be present as a clipped variant, but with its full lexical meaning. Examples of this type are: ALL-SAW, BABI-GARD, QUICK-CURE, STAIN-AW AY, ABDO-FIT, CAD-KOTE, AQUA-VAC, GRO-BRA, MIN-MAX, PERMA-CHAR. Similar compounds used appelatively can occasionally be found in the parent language, such as book-store and post-office, but all have more frequently used variants written solid (bookstore) or with space separating their constituents (post office). According to the 1961 edition of the Merriam Webster New International Dictionary, Unabridged, "It [the hyphen] is used much less often today than it formerly was. The few compounds in which it is most likely to be used are those that would be written solid except that they contain, at the point of juncture, letters in a sequence unusual within an English word, so that apprehension at this point may be retarded jack-knife, well-lit, set-to. Thus the hyphen is often not so much a uniter of words as a separator of letters."4 The second most frequent pattern, accounting for 104 items, is one that is seldom, if ever, found in present-day non-commercial English. It consists of units formed of two components joined by an arbitrarily chosen "binding" or stem vowel, usually A or o, flanked by two hyphens, as in BAN-O-TRAY, CLAMP-O-FRAME, HUSH-A-DUCT, ICE-O-BOX, MARX-A-COPTER, ROLL-A-MAGIC, SELECT-O-SPEED. These may be formed on analogy with phrases containing the indefinite article or a clipped form of of such as dime-adozen, mile-a-minute, or man-o,-war. Trade names in this pattern occur also: ONE-ADAY, JUST-A-DROP, and BEADS-O-BLEACH, STIK-O-PAINT, as do other types of threecomponent units joined by hyphens such as TOUCH-AND-GLOW, C-CLEAR-THRU, and STA-UP-TOP.

Hyphens are also used within word boundaries to indicate the syllabary reference of individually set-off graphemes (18) as in BULK-E-KNIT, FAB-U-LAWN, FILT-R-ITE and STAY-L-ASTIC, or simply as purely graphic infixes without any phonemic, morphemic, or semantic reference whatever (13) as in CON-TACT and TRAK-TOR. '

4

cf. Michaelson, pp. 5-6. Webster, p. 30a.

30

GRAPHEMICS

For each of these patterns We find counter patterns without hyphens, in equal or greater number, testifying to complete lack of uniformity equal to that which obtains generally in the total language. Beside ABSO-DRY we find ABSOPURE; EASY-OFF and EASY ON; E-Z KAMPER, E.Z. PAINTER, and STRYPEEZE (trade pronunciation attested as /stripizi/; HANDI-ADD and HANDIWRAP; HAVAHART and HAV-A-SEAT; KANT BITE and KANTSCAR. Occasionally it is only a hyphen which distinguishes between products: ZEROMATIC is a chemical for freezing and removing corns and calluses, ZER-O-MATIC a food freezer with thermostatic control; QT is a quick tanning lotion, Q-T a soundconditioning tile. In short we can say about hyphens in trade names what Fowler says about them in general, that "... usage is so variable as to be better named caprice" 6 except that proportionately trade names use more of them. Finally, regarding the manipulation of space, we find seven instances of partials (clippings as constituents of compounds) bounded on both sides by space. This is counter to the widespread process of fusion (solid writing) and although a group of seven items in 2000 is very small, the power of analogy is very great. This tiny nucleus could very easily become a productive pattern. The freed partials occur in the following trade names: ACCLI BATOR, AERO SHAVE, COLD FLEX, LANOL WHITE, MUSICAL RAMA, ROTO LITE, a n d VANI CHEST.

1.3 Parallels in the History of the Development of Standard Spellings. — Orthography is by far the most conservative aspect of any language. 6 The numerous attempts that have been made in the U.S. to adjust our spelling to our uniquely American pronunciation have resulted in the change of only a handful of isolated items. 7 To discover, then, whether the above listed manipulations of the name-makers are different in kind from the changes that have gradually taken place in the patterns of graphemic representation during the history of the language, we must turn back to earlier records of written English. The picture is considerably clouded by the facts of constant sound change, loss of inflections, and particularly the great vowel shift of the Middle English period, none of which concerns us here. In addition we must concede that orthography can never be considered a completely subconscious phenomenon; the choice of representation is, after all, a conscious act on the part of the recorder, yet the patterns that emerge and become established are often not those recommended by reformers or by more conservative lexicographers. They seem rather to be the whims of the collective subconscious of hundreds of thousands of users of the written language. Considering the changes in order of their frequency of occurrence in the corpus, we can find parallels for most of them by skipping from century to century for our examples. If we are to believe the opinion of the linguistic historians, and we have no evidence to oppose it, the earliest recordings of Old English were almost completely 8

Fowler, p. 245. * Sturtevant, p. 24. * See Tauber dissertation.

GRAPHEMICS

31

phonemic, the letters of the Latin alphabet being supplemented by the runic characters and > and by the macron (see 1.27) for indicating long vowel values. The notable exception is that seems to have been used both with phonemic reference /k/ and as a diacritic indicating the /J/ value of a preceding . 1.31 Consonant Gemination and Gemination Reduction. — Consonant gemination (cf. SLIP NOTT) early became a stylistic device, possibly reflecting lengthened consonants in a particular dialect. Some lines from the introduction of Ormulum, c. 1200, amply illustrate the practice. Nu, bro^err Wallterr, broJ>err min affterr t>e fleaeshess kinde ... Icc hafe wennd inntill Ennglissh goddspelless hall3he läre, Affterr J)att little witt fcatt me min Drihhtin h a f e ^ t lenedd 8 The style, never popular with some writers, was gradually replaced by the use of single consonants, particularly in pre-consonantal position [wennd > wend, Drihhtin > Drihtin, affterr > after in a later ms.] and was well on its way out of the language at the time it was attacked as "an ignorant superfluitie" 9 by Richard Mulcaster, one of the chief reformers of English spelling, in 1582. Remnants still exist, particularly at morpheme boundaries, as in command, innate, but the trend is toward monographic representation. Americans have eliminated the double , still used by the British in such words as traveler (Br. traveller) and marvelous (Br. marvellous). Examples of reduction of to are few but decisive and seem to have occurred during the late 17th and early 18th centuries. We find physiches and mathematickes in Mulcaster (1581), metaphysicks, mathematicks, and musicke in Shakespeare (1596), magick (Milton 1634) and logick (Floyer 1707); but logic and rhetoric (Bacon 1685), mathematics (Swift 1726), and metaphysics (Johnson 1739).10 1.32 Grapheme Substitutions. — The change from to to represent /k/ is a much older one, going back to the 12th century when the grapheme was first introduced into English writing from the Greek. Some of the earliest instances are folk for the earlier folc, kynige from cynige (king). The process seems to have been a very slow one and was virtually halted by the advent of printing, though one is still free to choose one or the other for the representation of proper names, e.g. Catherine or Katherine, Caren or Karen, Carl or Karl. * As reproduced in Baugh, p. 485. * From Elementarie as quoted by Baugh, p. 259. 10 Examples from OED.

32

GRAPHEMICS

The grapheme was used in OE only to represent the alien cluster /ts/ in a few borrowings. Its use to represent /z/ came into English with French borrowings during the late Norman period, and from that time on it has been used, though not regularly nor systematically, in place of to represent the phoneme /z/, usually in morpheme medial, intervocalic position; it has never replaced in the representation of the word-final plural morpheme. British English still retains -ise for the verb-forming suffix regularly spelled -ize in America. 1.33 J-Come-Lately and Other Sound-Change Spellings. — The grapheme , originally an allograph of used only in initial position, did not attain individual status until the end of the 17th century. Its changed status is the result of a progression of sound changes from /1/ > /y/ > /dy/ > /d3/, at which point the sound it represented fell together with one represented by in French borrowings. This double representation has caused trouble for learners of English, both native and foreign, ever since. Morpheme medial mute vowels, phonemic in earlier periods of the language, have gradually been eliminated by different stylists over a period of centuries and the process has eventuated in a number of variant spellings such as hearken and harken, appraise and apprise, parliament and parlement. The British, ever conservative, still retain the in honour, colour, and similar words which has been missing from the American scene from the time of Daniel Webster. 1.34 The Confusion of and and Other Minor Patterns. — The confusion of and seems to have arisen as a result of the gradual loss of the high front rounded vowel, itA [y] or [ü], traces of which were present in some dialects, but not in others, during the Middle English Period (roughly 1150-1500). Phones which now occupy the phonemic points and glides /i/, jyj, /ay/, and /ey/ were variously represented with practically no consistency, except in the works of individual authors, and with no noticeable trend, until the late 16th century, at which time came to be used more and more in medial position and finally. A specimen of Sir John Checke's Gospel According to Saint Matthew,11 c. 1550, exhibits compani, thurti, stooni, and bi, though the same words occur in earlier works with as in current practice. In John Lyly's Euphues and his Ephoebus we find ryde and dye (for die), polytique and valyaunt,li although we find earlier and later specimens of the same words with . Native English words were rendered in French spelling patterns, either intentionally or mistakenly, by Norman scribes in the early Middle English period. OE cwen > ME queen (cf. FLORA-CHEQUE). Many were re-Anglicized in the late 16th and early 17th centuries by purists who were interested in reviving the "vigor" of the native language, notably Spenser and Milton. British English still retains some French spellings which Americans have Anglicized, e.g. theatre, cheque, raquet. 11

"

As reproduced in Baugh, p. 486. Examples from Skeat (2), pp. 327-335

GRAPHEMICS

33

1.35 Lack of Syllabary. — The one type of graphemic manipulation which occurs in the creation of trade names and for which we can find no parellel in the history of the language is the use of syllabic writing. Though employed by other languages, at present notably Japanese, it does not seem at any time to have been used for recording English other than in games and puzzles as already mentioned. Perhaps, then, we must consider this device the one real innovation of the name-makers in the realm of graphemics. 1.4 The Primacy of the Visual Image and Some Resultant Problems in Morphophonemics. — The great emphasis among 20th century American linguists on the primacy of speech has tended to obscure the fact, well known among philologists, that in any language which has a long history of writing there develops a certain interaction between written forms and spoken forms which often becomes a force in determining direction of change. The most obvious examples of this phenomenon in English are the many instances of spelling pronunciations which have become standard, such as those of perfect, tune, Goth, author, nephew, soldier, fault, etc., originally /parfst/, /tjun/, /got/, /atsr/, /nevyu/, /sod33·/, and /fat/. Meaning shifts also result from folk-etymologizing from written forms as, for example, tuberose /tübroz/ < tuber + osa. That speech is more often than not the more fundamental of language forms cannot be denied, yet visual morphemes do exist, independent of vocal-auditory morphemes, as Bolinger so convincingly argues in his Visual Morphemes, in which he marshals four different types of evidence. It should be convincing enough for our purpose to reflect upon the place of morphographic representations in the traditional spelling patterns of English as set forth in 1.14. Literate people simply do not experience the same response to prey and pray, led and lead, vain and vein, bard and barred, or tacks and tax though these words be completely out of context. As one articulate opponent of spelling reform puts it, "As people have come to read more and more, the visual effect of words has acquired vastly greater power of instantly creating connotation." 13 Every trade name has a graphemic entity, but examination of our corpus brings to light a great many which do not have any one indisputable vocal-auditory correlate. In some cases it seems even questionable that the name-maker had any auditory image in mind (in ear?) at all, or that the name was ever meant to be vocalized. Perhaps in this era of self-service shopping the sound of a name is of no importance unless it names a product which will be advertised over electronic media. We list here some trade names which informants found difficult to pronounce, accompanied by phonemic transcriptions of the attempted pronunciations. First there is a small group of trade names each of which has two distinct pronunciations both current among the tradespeople who handle the products.14 These 15

"

Foley, p. 6. All instances attested by tradespeople.

34

GRAPHEMICS

are commercial examples of the /ikanamiks/ ~ /skanamiks/ type and must be classified as freely fluctuating allo-trade names. Among them COTRON DACRON PREM TRICOT VINA-LUX ZENETTE

/kätrin/ ~ /käträn/ /dekrän/ ~ /daekran/ /prsm/ ~ /prim/ /trikow/ ~ /träykät/ /vinaläks/ ~ /väynaläks/ /ζεηέΐ/ ~ /ζΐηέί/

For at least two of these cases it is clear that the problem is the result of the conflict between a learned phonic pattern and a transparent derivation, PREM is a Swift product and an obvious clipping of premium, the word with which Swift products have been associated since they entered the market, but the pattern CCeC suggests the /ε/ value of the vowel. Likewise a ZENETTE is a little Zenith, pronounced /ζίηιθ/ in America. Does the clipping of Zenith leave /zin/ or /ζεη/? The controversy over COTRON may be of the same order. Those who view the product as cotton with just a little rayon in it (R is for rayon) say /kätrin/; those who think of it as a mixture of coTton and RayON say /käträn/. /träykät/ is a spelling pronunciation, probably reinforced by a popular etymology involving the prefix tri- and a clipped form of cotton. The fact that tricots are usually made of rayon or wool does not lessen the likelihood; popular etymologies are notoriously illogical. Other variant pronunciations arise from ambiguity of the reference of particular symbols in instances where derivations are obscured, for example: ALSIDE BREMIL IBECO LYT-ALL SURFORM

/selsayd/ ~ /olsayd/ /bremil/ ~ Ibremil/ ~ /brimil/ /ibikow/ ~ /äybikow/ ~ /ibikow/ ~ /ibikow/ /litol/ ~ /läytol/ /saform/ ~ /Jurform/

A third group consists of compounds whose first constituent, when free, ends in mute, diacritic . Consider the following: All Informants Pronounced

No Informants Pronounced

Divided Pronunciation Informants Undetermined

HOMERAMA

HOMELITE

CAKELITE

MASSAGEMATIC

GAMELITES

CHROMELITE

FREZEMASTER

GUIDE-MATIC GAGETRON ZONELAC

35

GRAPHEMICS

GAGETRON, known to be a kind of gauge, was pronounced /g6d3tran/, / g ^ a t r a n / , and /g£fcd3atran/.

Trade names ending in and < - E E Z E ) are variously pronounced /iz/ and /izi/ by consumers without regard for the possible distinction in meaning, although tradespeople who handle the articles so named are usually agreed on one pronunciation or the other for a particular product. One saleslady in a lingerie shop particularly lamented the fact that so many of her customers asked for /tjefiziz/ when they really meant /TJEFIZIZ/. "It just doesn't make sense", she said, "but of course I always know what they mean". When individual graphs used to represent syllables are imbedded in phonemic or quasi-phonemic writing rather than being set off by hyphens, the resulting sequences are often more challenging than the ordinary shopper cares to contend with. Consider QUALITRULE, QUixAM, ROYLEDGE ( a n e d g i n g f o r ledges m a d e b y R o y a l ) , UDESOLVE,

BORGLASKA. Haplologies and replacement of partials or bound forms by free forms in compounding cause problems in stress placement which sometimes seem insurmountable to the native speaker. More than one informant has refused to try to pronounce CALEMONA, CIRCOLAIR, FEATHAIRE, HAP-P-NUT ( w h e n

peanuts were in

evidence),

NYLONGE (a nylon sponge) and SERV-ICE. One informant, when asked how she would tell a saleslady that she wanted to try on an IMPRESS bra, replied laughingly, "I'd probably call it /smpris/ — or else I'd spell it". The Midwesterner may find no complication in HARAWAY and MOHARA. For the native of the eastern seaboard they present no problem in pronunciation; they simply completely lose identity. 1.5 Conclusion and Implications. — We conclude that so long as the standard orthography of English remains the complicated mechanism that it is (and we receive no encouragement from Tauber to expect that it will be simplified to any significant extent in the near future) the name-makers will have little difficulty pursuing their practice of creative spelling. When the patterns now dominant (see 1.2) lose the freshness of their appeal, as some are beginning to do, new counter-patterns will evolve. In place of phonemicized respellings we may find ones patterned after what Hall calls the "semi-regulars" or the "regular irregularities"15 as in *PHISH PHRY and *PHLOWER CEDE, *SUIRTS a n d *SUORTS, o r *BOCKSKIGHTS a n d *SPEAD BOUTS, *P-KNUTS —

o r *P-PNUTS — o r *P-MNUTS — o r *PEONUTS a n d *APL PSYDR.

O f the ways t o

rearrange the spelling without altering the phonemic content we have seen only a timid beginning.

"

Hall, p. 24.

2. MORPHEMICS

2.0 We have said that names are made, for the most part, from "words and morphemes" already in the language (0.2), and in doing so have completely ignored the knotty problem of the definition of the word. This is not the place to review the intricacies of the enigma; in the interest of efficacy we shall use word as it is ordinarily understood by the layman, with all its ambiguities, to designate any free form which when written may be bounded on all sides by space. With such usage, then, it is possible to say that a word is composed of two or more words without being contradictory. Our use of morpheme, too, demands clarification, for as Bolinger points out, the concept as traditionally defined, i.e. the "minimum meaningful element in an utterance", is applicable to only a small body of carefully selected data; 1 in other instances diachronic and constistuent analyses of the same word will often yield diverse morphemic content.2 Inasmuch as our approach is historical — we are interested in learning how what we have got to be what it is from what it was — we use morpheme in its diachronic sense of component. In this chapter we will examine some of the ways in which these words and morphemes are modified — truncated, combined, and reassigned — in making the new units we call trade names. We will analyze items formed by one or more of the recognized word-formation patterns operative in present-day English, including clipping and acro-naming but excluding compounding, phrasing, and functional shift as being more properly considered syntactic processes. Before doing so, however, we will comment upon a small number of items which cannot logically be classified as instances of graphemic or morphemic or syntactic manipulation but which, rather, are involved with all three and perhaps with semantics as well. These few transitional items serve to illustrate dramatically that the levels of linguistic structure of which we so glibly speak are merely reference points on a continuum and are inextricably entangled in the undefinable and elusive concept we call the word. We group these items together on the rationale that each is formed by a process which we designate as rearrangement, though what is rearranged differs in each case. 1 1

Bolinger (2), p. 136. Bolinger (1), pp. 18-22.

MORPHEMICS

37

2.1 Rearrangement. — The anagram is hard to recognize and we may have missed a few, but we find no reason to believe that rearrangement is a much used method of trade name formation. The process seems to us to border on the computer-type process which is the cut-off point in our discussion. We recognize a few, however. SERUTAN, the name of a laxative, is nature's spelled backwards (attested) and, of course without the seemingly always dispensable apostrophe. The trade name ABDEC for a product containing all five vitamins, A-B-C-D-and-E, is a rearrangement of the symbols for the ingredients to form a word easily pronounceable for a native speaker of English, ZUD, a rust-stain removing agent, is an anagram of DUZ, which in turn is a trade name spelling of the emphatic does, as in "It does remove stains", BAF is a rearrangement of FAB, a clipping of fabric; the product is a fabric cleaner, ACRONITE, a product of the Acorn Manufacturing Company, illustrates a single metathesis of or > ro and although the choice of name was most likely reinforced by the significance of the resultant morpheme (see 0.2212) there is no denying its anagrammatic origin. ADAPTABEL from adaptable and TANFASTIC from fantastic with transpositions of / and e, f and t respectively are treated elsewhere (see 5.3) as being otherwise motivated. Another type of anagram found in the corpus is that formed by rearrangement of syllables, ALAMAC is a product made in McAlester — and here the auditory image, not the visual, is primary, as is also the case in LURVEL, a special brand of velour. D.O.C., an acronymic trade name formed from the initials of the words denture oxygen cleaner, illustrates the use of the process of rearrangement at the syntactic level, for clearly dental oxygen cleaner is not an English nominal pattern; the order of modifiers has been rearranged, as in *furniture lemon oil polish or *lip lanolin stick. For the motivation in this case see 4.13. 2.2 Clipping. — "When a long word comes to be used very frequently in English, we tend to abbreviate it" says Miller,3 giving as examples movie, talkie, gas, auto, hypo. Zipf, dealing statistically with the same phenomenon, comes to the conclusion that there is a tendency for the length of a word to be negatively correlated with its frequency of usage, and that this is true whether word length is measured in phonemes or syllables.4 We might almost conjecture that the name-makers believe the process of which Miller speaks to be reversible and thus by creating trade names which are shortened or clipped from longer words they are assuring them high frequency of occurrence. Be that as it may, historically and currently, clipping can be shown to be a common process of word formation 5 and although many very commonly used clippings such as dorm, math, lab — to mention only academic ones — have never been completely accepted into standard written English, probably because the full forms from which they derive are still in the lexicon, others such as Miss, pants, cab,

• Miller, p. 89. 4 Zipf, p. 65. • Marchand, pp. 357-367.

38

MORPHEMICS

mob, bus, van are the only words for their significates, the longer forms having dropped out of the language. Approximately 1 % of the trade names in our corpus are truncated forms of common words, though in most cases the full forms of the words from which they have been derived are not generic names for the products they signify such as *MAR for marmalade or *XY for xylophone but they are, rather, descriptive, suggestive, imagistic, or purely affective terms, and thus we cannot claim these names to have been "created" by clipping but we can say that clipping is the process by which they were formed. Since we deal later with the motivations underlying the determination of descriptive and affective appellations (see Chapters 4 and 5) we limit our discussion here to a consideration of the points of clipping and of what is discarded, what retained. We find that in trade naming, as Marchand finds for the language in toto, that back-clipping, i.e. preservation of the first part of the word, is the rule; fore-clipping is rare and often merely the dropping of an unstressed prefix or combining form. Only two fore-clippings are found among the un-compounded trade names in the corpus: CUE < barbecue and JESTS < digest, plus plural morpheme {s} (see last paragraph this section). Furthermore, as will be considerably more evident when we observe the clipped components of compounds, the point of truncation is very often determined by the syllable structure of the source word rather than by any consideration for the morpheme constituents. More specifically, words can be divided into larger-than-phone segments in any one of three ways — by graphic syllable, by auditory syllable, or by root and affix structure. Occasionally the three coincide, as in absorb, e.quip.ment, jack.et, roll.er; or at least are not discrepant, in the sense that affix and syllable boundaries coincide, as in nu.tri.ent, vul.can.ize. More often than not, however, the syllable structure of words obscures their formative structure, as in ach.ro.mat.ic, med.i.cal, re.flec.tor, ther.mom. e.ter. It is of no importance to this study that phoneticians are not in agreement as to the methods of defining or measuring syllables or determining their boundaries. Some time early in the 18th century printers established a system of graphic syllabification, mainly for the purpose of indicating points at which words may conveniently be divided at the end of a printed line. This system has been perpetuated by all bona fide lexicographers up to the present, and is adhered to by all the better publishing houses and by the government printing office. In addition, reputable dictionaries include, after each orthographic entry, a respelled entry marked with diacritics and stress symbols, which purports to indicate the most widely used and generally accepted pronunciation of each word. Syllable boundaries of these re-spelled words often vary from those of the orthographic entries, as in chlo.rine (klor-en), des.sert (di-zurt), shel.lac (sha-lak), sus.pend.ers (sa-spen-derz). Occasionally even the number of syllables is divergent, as in caf.fe.in (kaf-en), Cal.i.for.ni.a (kal-a-forn-ya), fed.er.al (fed-rel), min.er.al (min-ral), veg.e.ta.ble (vej.ta-b}).6 • All examples from Webster's New World Dictionary.

MORPHEMICS

39

The concept of the syllable has been and continues to be emphasized in the teaching of reading and of spelling in the elementary grades; it is also given prominence in the voluminous material prepared for the teaching of remedial reading. It is the graphic syllable that receives attention and very little mention is made of the discrepancies between the written and spoken forms of the language in regard to syllabification. One might hypothesize from these facts that graphic syllabification is very much a part of our subconscious awareness of words and that it might play a dominant role in determining the choice points at which words are dismembered, particularly when dealing with graphic entities. To a certain degree this is demonstrable. Of the 32 cases of clippings in our corpus (and we are now including clipped components of compounds) where the graphic and auditory syllable boundaries in the area of reduction vary, 21 are broken at graphic syllable boundaries, 11 at auditory syllable boundaries. The conflict is in evidence where two or more reduced forms are produced from the same source word, one based on the graphic image, one on the auditory, as in as. pi.rin (as-per-in) or (as-prin) >

ASPER- a n d -PRIN a n d -RIN.

Even more evident is the conflict between formative and syllable structure. In 6 cases where the conflict exists, the graphic syllable determines the point of reduction: tex.tile and tex.ture > TEX, quar.ter > QUAR-, lac.to > -LAC, de.lec.ta.ble > DELECTA-, ach.ro.mat.ic > ACHRO-, ac.cli.mate > ACCLI. In four other cases the formative structure is respected: ste.nog.ra.phy > STENO-, ther.mom.e.ter > THERM, re.ver.ber. ate > REVERB, his.ta.mine > HIST. In nine cases two or more reductions are made at the different points: abrasion > ABRA-/ABRAS-, adhesive > ADHE-/ADHESE-, calculate > CALCU-/CALCUL-/CALCULA-, chlorine > CHLO-/CLOR-, durable > DUR-/DURA-, galvanized > GAL-/GALV-/GALVA-/GALVAN-, medical > MEDI-/MEDIC-, quadri > QUAD-/QUADR-, temperature > TEM-/ TEMP. We cannot say, therefore, that either morphemic structure or syllable structure, graphic or auditory, in general determines the points at which clippings occur. Rather we must say that the conflict of these three possibilities is in evidence and that its existence bountifully makes available to the name-makers a considerably greater number of alloforms than they would otherwise have to work with. To return now to our analysis of the trade names formed solely by the process of clipping we note that more than half are reductions of nouns, most of which are reduced to their first, stressed syllable. In context, and often even out of context, identities are generally retained. We find BLEM < blemish, LUX < luxury, PIC < picture, PREM < premium (see 1.4), SKRIP < script — though this one might equally well be considered a respelling in imitation of rapid or careless speech (0.232), TUMS < tummy, VEL < velvet and the longer DIAL < dialysis (?) — identity probably lost here, IDENS < identification tags, INTERCOMS < intercommunication systems, and ROKA < Roquefort, a proper name. Since many such trade names also demonstrate the phenomenon of functional shift (3.5) we find clippings of adjectives as follows: CERTS < certain, FAB < fabulous (but also from fabric, see 2.1), FEMS < feminine,

40

MORPHEMICS

oral, PERM < permanent, TEC < technical, viv < vivid; and of verbs: REVERB < reverberate, Siz < sizzle, and TING < tingle. One notable phenomenon in the formation of trade names by the process of clipping is that when the product to be named is one whose generic name is a countable noun, e.g. tablets, tags, pads, the plural morpheme {s} is suffixed to the clipped form and, although it appears to be recognized as a plural, for many speakers it becomes undetachable. Though thoroughly experienced in language eliciting techniques, we were unable to elicit "a Tum", "a Jest", "a Fem" from each of nine informants, though we did get three instances of "a Turns" and two of "a Jests". However, similar results were obtained when trying to elicit singular forms of two trade names not formed by clipping, namely PUFFS and CHOCKS. We must conclude, therefore, that the occurrence of this process — a mutation of two morphs into one — is not limited to trade names formed by clipping, though it is with these that it most often occurs.

ORA
hinge folded, by inversion > folded hinge, by deletion of ending > fold hinge, plus connecting vowel > FOLD-O-HINGE. "The calking compound is colored", by ellipsis > calking compound colored, by inversion > colored calking compound, minus -ed > color calking compound, by clipping of component B, itself a compound, > color calk, by spelling change > KOLOR KALK. Examples of this type are numerous. The following group includes both pure adjectives and participials. ACOUSTEEL

DURA-BRASS

LUSTRO-WARE

READY DIET

ACOUSTIDECK

ELASTRATOR

MULTI-VI

STERI-PAD

ACOUSTIMETAL

FLEX-O-GLASS

NUBREST

TUFF-KOTE

ACOUSTINET

FLEX-O-MOCS

NU-DIET

TUFF TAPE

ACOUSTIROC

FLEXPORT

PERMA-LITE

TUFF-TARP

ADFINISH

FOLD-O-HINGE

PERMA-PLUG

TUFIDE

ALKA-SELTZER

HOTRAY

PERMA-STONE

VERSA-TABLE

CLEAR COAT

KOJEL

PORTA-FILE

VULCA-NEES

COORDI-KNITS

KOLOR-KALK

PORTA-GATE

WELDWOOD

DELECTAVITES

KOOL HOSE

QUILTRESS

X-TRA SHELF

It is interesting to note that of this type, too, we find only one deviation from syntactic regularity, i.e. one Α-head compound, formed without inversion, namely YARN-BRITE < "The yarn is bright". (c) Subject - Predicate Adverbial Compounds reflect a wide variety of semantic relationships, such as whence, whither, where, for whom, to whom, about what (concern), for what (purpose), like what (resemblance). The majority of them are B-head compounds formed from source sentences of the type "The Β is prep A" by ellipsis and inversion, e.g. "The ware is from Boonton" > ware Boonton > BOONTONWARE; "The

66

SYNTACTICS

snacks are for dieters" > snacks dieters > dieters snacks > diet snacks "The coating is like flint" > coating flint > flint coating > flint coat

>

DIET-SNAX;

>

FLINTKOTE.

Examples of this type are: BOONTONWARE

DIET-SNAX

I-SOL

STENOSTIK

CHALLA CLOTH

FARMCAST

PANT-RACK

TALENT TABLET

COCCIVAC

FIREFAILLE

PLANTRAY

TEE-PJ'S

DEN-SHUR CUP

FLINTKOTE

SAKRETE

TELE-MUFF

DENTOTAPE

FLORA-CHEQUE

SNOOZ-ALARM

TELETENNA

DENTUCREME

HISTOMAP

SOYALAC

YARNEEDLES

DESK PORTER

HOGCAST

SPUDNUTS

A smaller sub-group of B-head compounds derive without inversion from source sentences of the type " A's are prep the B" or "An A is prep the B", most of the examples being locatives, e.g. CERAGLASS < "Ceramic is on the glass (ware)"; SUSPANTS < "Suspenders are on the pants". Other examples are DYDEE DOLL-Ε, MICRO-TWEEZE, PIANO BAR, SOCKETOOL, TAP-A-LINE, ZIPFOLIO, ZIPJEANS.

Α-head compounds of this type are also found in the corpus, but in very limited number. The items: CHEESE KABOB, COLD-CUT KABOB, SNAC-KABOBS, PLASTIC WOOD, SOLVENTIQUE, VI-TYKE.

3.312 Subject - Verb Compounds are of two types, transitive and intransitive, (a) The intransitives are few in number. They are all B-head compounds, formed by inversion from source sentences of the type "The Β As". Those found in the corpus a r e : GLO-COAT, GRO-BRA, MELTAMINS, ROLL-A-RACK, ROTICUL, ROTOCAN, ROTO-EDGER, ROTOHOE, ROTO LITE, ROTO-ROOTER, ROTOTILLER, STRETCH PAK, TRAVELOK, TRAVELRITER, VIBRA-GRATE.

(b) Subject - Transitive Verb Compounds are derived from source sentences by the three-step process of deletion of object and determiners, dropping of inflections, and inversion. The process can be illustrated with free forms as follows: The product is a B. "The Β As x's", by deletion > BAs, by dropping the inflection > BA, by inversion > AB. "The switch dims lights" > switch dims > switch dim > DIMSWITCH. Where one of the components is reduced, the process is the same: "The meter calculates distances" > meter calculates > meter calculate > CALCUMETER; "The textile cures callouses" > textile cures > textile cure > cure tex, plus binding vowel > curotex, plus graphic change > KUROTEX. Examples of this type are: ACCLI BATOR

DIMSWITCH

IMMUNOVAC

QUIET-KOIL

BAN-O-TRAY

EXPAND-O-BUTTON

KUROTEX

RELAX-CINCH

CALCUMETER

FERTO-STICKS

PROTECTO-CAPS

RESC-U-TUBE

DEHUMIDI-COILS

IDENTO-TAGS

PROTECT-O-LITE

SHADESCREEN

67

SYNTACTICS SIMILAC

STERI-SPRAY

TOTE BAG

SOLDER-MITE

SUPP-HOSE

TRIMOBILE

and one reflexive, SUP-PANTS < "The pants support themselves". Α-head compounds of this type, of which we find only two in the corpus, are formed without inversion. "The bandage aids people" > bandage aids > BAND-AID ; "The vise grips things" > vise grips > VISE-GRIP. 3.313 Subject - Direct Object Compounds occur in both normal and inverted order where Β is the head; no Α-head compounds of this type occur in the corpus. The most common semantic relationship expressed by normal order compounds, i.e. "A xs B" where χ is any transitive verb, is that of producer and product as illustrated by the free-form component compounds WELCHADE and WESTCLOX. Other, though similar, relationships are mirrored in the more extensive group composed of partials, e.g. The Berry Brothers breed the queens (hens); The Phillips Petroleum Company markets the gasoline; Television transmits the course. (a) Normal order subject-direct object compounds are formed simply by ellipsis of the verb and determiners. Subject and object may occur in their full forms or one or both may be reduced. The process can be illustrated as follows: Kernel sentence — A makes the Β > AB. Welch makes the ade > WELCHADE; A motor powers the mop > MOTO-MOP ; Scott makes the napkins > SCOTKINS. Examples of this type are: ACCOTEX

DOWGARD

NESTEA

ACLOHIDE

FEDRA WAX

OAKOMETER

SPORT-AMINS

AMCOATS

GALLICIDE

PENCALE

STEIN-TEX TELECOURSE

SEROFOAM

AMERITEX

JEFFILAC

PHILGAS

ANCHORGLASS

MARX-A-COPTER

QUAKERTROL

ULTE-VAC

BERAQUEENS

MOORGARD

SCOTKINS

ZELINCLOTH

CACHE-KNITS

MOTO-MOP

SCOTTFOAM

ZERB-O-HIST

CALBODY

MOTO-MOWER

SCOTTOWELS

ZINLAC

(b) Inverted order compounds, i.e. those derived from source sentences of the pattern "B xs A" are varied in the semantic relationships they reflect, particularly among the partials. For example, they are derived from such source sentences as "The alloy prevents abrasion", "The textile resists acid", "The mel cures acne", "The tablets kill bugs", "The meter measures fade", "The gum contains aspirin", "The pads give comfort". The process is the same as that described in (a) plus the additional step of inversion. An example of the process of compounding with full forms: Kernel sentence — "The gas destroys mildew", by deletion > gas mildew, by inversion > mildew gas, by graphic alteration > MIL-DU-GAS. With one clipped form: Kernel sentence — "The

68

SYNTACTICS

tablets nourish plants" > tablets plants > plants tablets > plant tabs > PLANTABBS. In cases where both components are reduced forms of compounds, the clipping is sometimes made in both directions, resulting in a type of blend (see 5.3), e.g. "The lazy-susan holds a telephone", by deletion lazy-susan telephone, by inversion telephone lazy-susan, by clipping TELE-SUSAN. Examples of the compound type subject - direct object inverted are: ABRACOTE

BRYLCREEM

JAPELLENT

PENSTIX PHONE CADDY

ABRASALLOY

BUG TABS

JEL-O-SERT

ACITEX

CEDA-PAD

JONNY MOP

PINE-SOL

ACNOMEL

CHAP STICK

KARDKO

PLANTABBS

ACRYSOL

CHLORODENT

KEY KADDY

PLATTER-PAK

ALL-SAW

CORN STICK

KOFFEEKIT

PLUGMOLD

ALPHACAPS

DATA-PHONE

KOMFO-PADS

SCORE CADDY

AMM-I-DENT

FADE-OMETER

LAVA-PAD

SEW TRAY

ASPERGUM

FLAXOAP

MAIL CADDY

STACK PACK

BAG KADDIE

FLYCAKE

MALT-O-MEAL

TELE-CART

BEAUTY-MASK

FOODLINER

MIL-DU-GAS

TELE-SUSAN

BLISTIK

GAMELITES

MINTRATES

VITAKAPS

BOOKMOBILE

GAMMOMETER

MOTH CLOUD

WEATHEROMETER

BOOK NOOK

GARDENLITE

ODA-WICK

ZILLOY

The careful reader will note that in some of the examples the head noun and deleted verb are identical. Thus we derive our compounds from sentences such as "The saw saws all" (see 0.236) "The light lights the garden," "The mop mops the jonny". These are similar to another small sub-group, the agentives, trade names in -er or -or, which can also be classed as subject-object compounds. Examples of these are: AIREFINER, BABEE TENDA,

CALFEEDER,

GARB-O-LINERS,

GARMENTVEYOR,

GLASS KEEPER,

KIDDIE

KEEPER, LINT-E-JECTOR, SHOE SAVER, TROUBLE TRAPPER.

3.314 Subject - Manner Adverbial Compounds. — These are derived by similar processes from source sentences of the type "The Β xs (ys) Aly" where χ is any verb and y any direct object. Thus we have QUICKGAGE < "The gauge measures water quickly", by deletion of χ and y and determiners > gauge quickly, by loss of derivational suffix > gauge quick, by inversion > quick gauge, by respelling > QUICKGAGE. B-head compounds of this type, some of which will be recognized as agentives (see 3.313) are: E.Z. PAINTER, QUICKHESIVE, QUIET-MO, QUIET-RITER, QUIKANINK, QUIKHETER, QUIK-TOTER, QUINK, RAPIDIGGER, SKIL-SAW, SPEEDLAC. Of this type, too, we find one Α-head compound formed without inversion. Since the adverb is one without-/)', the process of formation is simple deletion plus elimination of inflection and graphic alteration. "It filters air right" > FILT-R-ITE.

69

SYNTACTICS

3.315 Verb - Direct Object. — Compounds of this type derive from source sentences of the pattern "You A the B" by deletion of subject and determiners. Most items found in the corpus exhibit the pattern with binding vowel at the nexus of verb and object. Though the vowel, when a and preceding a countable noun, may be "felt" by the native speaker to be the indefinite article, thus giving the trade name the appearance, and perhaps the force, of an imperative, it is better analyzed simply as binding vowel (but see 1.28) for it occasionally precedes uncountables, e.g. WASH-A-FLAN, and because other items of the same pattern are joined by o. Examples of this type are: ADA-COTE

ADD-A-LIMB

ADJUSTOVEYOR

PICK-A-PACK

ADAPT-A-FRAME

ADJUST-A-DESK

CLAMP-O-FRAME

POR-ROK

ADAPTABLE

ADJUSTAT

HAV-A-SEAT

RENT-A-CAR

ADAPTAHORN

ADJUSTA-TROL

INFLATE-A-FORM

SPRAY-O-NAMEL

ADA-STIC

ADJUST-A-VIDER

PAK-A-ROBE

TUK-A-BED

ADATROL

ADJUSTO-TUBE

PIC-A-PUFF

WASH-A-FLAN

Once again we find a single instance of syntactic irregularity: CAPADORS < "You adore the caps" by inversion and transposition of the plural morpheme to the end of the new formation. 3.316 The type Verb - Adverbial Compound, derived from source sentences of the patterns "You A (xs) prep the B" and "You Β (xs) prep the A", is not very common. We find only four items in the corpus, three formed without inversion, one inverted: DANSKINS < You dance in the skins (leotards); HIDE-A-BASKET < You hide things in the basket; WASH-IN-NET < You wash clothes in the net; and, by inversion, GLASBAKE < You bake things in the glass. 3.317 Object - Adverbial. — Compounds of this type reflect, mainly, instrumentals and locatives. They derive from source sentences of the types "You χ A prep B" and "You χ Β prep A" where χ is any transitive verb and prep any preposition, e.g. (a) "You remove lint with the maze (filter)" > lint maze, plus binding vowel > LINT-AMAZE; (b) "You use the candle in a patio" > candle patio, by inversion > patio candle, by graphic manipulation > PATTY-O-CANDLE. The (a) type source sentence yields a compound by deletion only; the (b) type requires inversion. B-head compounds of this type are: (a) AERO POL, BAR-B-TABLE, CAD-KOTE, LASH-KOTE, LINT-A-MAZE, ZONE LAC: ( b ) CHARCO-BURGER, CHEESEBURGER, KEN-L-RATION, PATTY-O-CANDLE, TOMATOBURGER.

Α-head compounds of this type:

BAC-A-BELT, CEMENTIQUE, LAUNDROCOIN.

3.32 Attributive Compound Trade Names, by our definition, can not be generated from the subject, subjects of all source sentences which we will use being the generic name of the product or "you" the consumer. The major syntactic relationships illustrated in the attributive group are:

70

SYNTACTICS

(1) Verb - Object (a) Normal order (b) Inverted order (2) Verb - Adverb Modifier (a) Transitive Manner Directional (b) Intransitive Manner Directional

(3) Verb - Adverbial Noun (4) Predicate Adjective - Adverb Modifier (5) Object - Adverbial (6) Object - Object Complement (a) Verbal (b) Adjectival

3.321 Verb - Object Attributive Compounds derive from source sentences of the types "The χ As Bs", "The χ Bs As", "You A Bs prep x", or "You Β As prep x" where χ is the product, A and Β the constituents of the compound. (a) Normal Order Compounds are generally derived by ellipsis and loss of inflection, although in a few cases inflectional endings are retained (see 3.12). Examples: "The lotion covers marks" > covers marks > COVERMARK and "The instrument extracts dust" > extracts dust > XTRAXDUST. Items in this category are: ABSORB-OYL

COVERSPECS

KURLASH

SPRAY NET

ADACHROME

ENDAC

PIXALL

STANZALL

AD-AIRE

ENDUST

QUIETONE

STRETCH-ALL

ADJUST-A-DOCK

FITZ-ALL

REFLECTO-LITE

SURE-JELL

ADJUST-A-FLO

GARDTOES

ROLLASH

TINTAIR

BANCARE

HATCH-A-PLANT

SANIFLUSH

TOAST-ALLS XTRAXDUST

CARRI-ALL

HEAT-A-CUP

SEAL ALL

CONTROCAL

HUSH-A-DUCT

SHUR-RANE

COOL-RAY

KIL-GLARE

SHUR-STOP

COVERMARK

KLEEN FLOOR

SPACE-A-HANGER

A small sub-group replaces the noun object with a pronoun, yielding trade names of which only one component is informative: ABSORBIT

GETS-IT

RENUZIT

BLANCHIT

HIDE-IT

SUMIT ZIP-HER

CLIPIT

HOL-DEM

CODIT

HOLD-IT

DOOZIT

NUM-ZIT

(b) Inverted Verb - Object Compounds are by far the most common of all the attributives. They are formed from source sentences by deletion of subject and determiners,

71

SYNTACTICS

loss of inflection, and inversion, e.g. from the source sentence "The belt lifts the abdomen" > lifts abdomen > lift abdomen > abdomen lift > ABDO-LIFT. Loss of inflection and clipping of polysyllabic components are the rules rather than the exceptions. Examples of this type are: ABDO-FIT

DENTUR-EZ

LIP-EZE

SNO-THRO

ABDO-LIFT

DENTUR-KLEEN

MANTAN

SPEK-GRIPS

ACTROL

DIAR-AID

NAILDRI

SUEDE RENEW

AD-A-LITE

DOOREASE

OVEN-BRITE

SURFORM

AIR-FRESH

FAN-O-TROL

PAN-FREE

SWEETROL TAPFREE

ALLEREST

FIBREGARD

PERSTOP

BABI-GARD

FINE-O-METER

POR-SO-KLEEN

TEMPGARD

RAINCHEX

THIGHMOLD TRANSEAL

CALCULAIDE

FLOWER GUARD

CESS-KLEEN

FORMFIT

RAY-BAN

CHAFEZE

GARDEN-GARD

REFRIG-DEFROST

WATASEAL

CLIMATROL

ICE-THAW

RESP-R-AID

WATERLOX

COLONAID

JET-STRIP

SCRATCHEX

ZIPPER-EASE

CURL-KEEP

LASHBRITE

SHOE STRETCH

CURVFIT

LEAF SHINE

SHU-GRIP

DENTA-KLEEN

LIMELIM

SKUFF-KOTE

Verb - Object Compounds derived from source sentences of the type "You Β As prep x " a r e : BOOT PARK, CAR-PARK, DI-DEE DUNK, DOG TYE, FLOWER-A-RANGB, PRES-A-PLY.

3.322 Verb - Adverb Compounds are made from source sentences with either transitive or intransitive verbs. (a) Transitive Verb - Adverb Compounds are derived from sentences of the pattern "The χ As ys Bly" for manner adverbs, "The χ As ys B" for directionals, e.g. BAILKWIK < "The pump bails boats quickly"; CHASE-AWAY < "The chemical chases insects away." Manner adverb compounds thus derived: BAIL-KWIK, GUARD-O-MATIC, GUIDE-MATIC, MARKWELL, MASSAGEMATIC, POST-TRONIC, REDUCE-EZE, SORB-O-MATIC, STRYPEEZE. D i r e c t i o n a l : CHASE-A-WAY, RINSE AWAY, SHUT-OFFS.

We also find Verb - Manner Adverb Compounds made by inversion: "The shears trim grass accurately" > trim accurately > accurately trim > ACCURATRIM. Examples of this type are plentiful. ACCURATRIM

PERMA-LIFT

QUICKSTART

COMPLI-FIT

PERMA-WEAR

QUICK-STOP

QUIK-KUT

EASY MARK

QUICFREZ

QUICK-TRIM

QUIK PAC

INSTANT SEW

QUICK-CURE

QUIET-HEAT

QUIKSEEL

KWIK-LITE

QUICK-SOL

QUIETYPE

QUIKSHARP

QUIK KLEEN

72

SYNTACTICS

QUIXOL

SPEED FEED

QWIK-OPEN

SPEED SNIPS

TRIMFIT

We find no examples of Verb - Directional Adverb Compounds formed from source sentences with transitive verbs by inversion, e.g. *AWAY-CHASE, *OFF-SHUTS. (b) Intransitive Verb - Adverb Compounds are not so numerous, but the pattern seems productive. We find ( 1 ) non-inverted manner adverbs: ADHERITE, ANKORITE, SETFAST, SLYDE-O-MATIC; (2) inverted manner adverbs: FREE-FLEX, QUIKARD, QUIXET, SPEEDRY, TITE-FIT, TRU-GLO; (3) non-inverted directional adverbs: BUBBLE UP, FLUFF OUT, PAK-AWAY, ROLLABOUT, SNAP-BAK, SW1NG-A-WAY, TURNABOUTS; (4) inverted directional: DOWNTURN, UPSWEEP.

3.323 Verb - Adverbial Noun Attributive Compounds represent a variety of semantic relationships as do substantive compounds of the same type. The majority of those in the corpus are formed by deletion and inversion from "The χ Bs prep As", e.g. "The chemical guards against ice" > guards ice > ICEGUARD. ACCORDOFOLD

ICEGUARD

LUMI-CARE

NOISEGUARD

ACNECARE

JIFFY SEW

MAGICOLOR

PECHGLO WALLGLIDE

BRICK-STIX

KITCHENAID

MAGIKOTER

FABSPRAY

KOW-KARE

MAGI-STIK

Those formed without inversion:

ADHERZAL, DISPOSALL, KOOKMASTER.

3.324 Compounds of the Type Predicate Adjective - Adverb Modifier, from sentences of the copula pattern "The χ is A(ly) B" are frequent among the attributives. In the process of compounding, the -ly suffix is invariably dropped. Compounds of this pattern found in the corpus: ABSO-MATIC

ETERNA-MATIC

EVERGLAZE

NUFIT

ABSO-DRY

EVER-DRI

EVERLASTIC

QUIK-BILT

ABSOPURE

EVEREADY

EVERSHARP

REAL KEEN

BULK-E-KNIT

EVERFAST

FANTA-SOFT

STARKRIMSON

3.325 Object - Adverb Compounds from manner adverbs are rare. We find only three instances. Uninverted: WEED-O-MATIC < "It removes weeds automatically"; Inverted: QUIK-TEMP < "It raises the temperature quickly", and QUIXIGN < "It makes signs quickly." The pattern Object - Directional Adverb is better represented: ADHESE-AWAY, BUGS AWAY, BULGES AWAY, ERR-AWAY, GREASE-OFF, GUMOUT, HARAWAY, HIPAWAY, PAPEROFF, STAIN-AWAY, TARZOFF, WAXOFF, WORM-AWAY.

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SYNTACTICS

3.326 Object Complement Compounds derive from sentences of the types "The χ makes A B" or "The χ makes Β A" in which makes is a causative and the second component is either an unmarked infinitive or an adjective, e.g. "The wax makes the floor glow", or "The wax makes the floor beautiful", the latter pattern itself probably an ellipsis of be beautiful, become beautiful, appear beautiful or some such construction although the sentence type is so common as not to be so "felt" by the native speaker. We find compounds of both normal and inverted order, as follows: (a)

(b)

Object - Verbal Complement Compounds Normal Order: ALUMI-GLO, COPPER GLO, GARD-N-GRO, Inverted Order: GRO-STUFF, VARAFLAME Object - Adjectival Complement Compounds Normal Order : CAKELITE, CARNU, CURVALLURE,

NYLAST, RUG-STA

FLY DEAD, GUNSLICK, ODORGON,

SLEEPEASE, SLEEP-EZE

Inverted Order:

ACCRITEM, LAWN,

BEAUTIFLOR,

COOL-STRIDE,

ELASTIC SHOE,

FAB-U-

FASTEETH, GOOD-AIRE, HEALTHI-POOL, QUIXAM, SPEED-

WRITING

3.4 Phrasing. — The graphic nature of our material precludes establishing a category phrase on the basis of suprasegmentale; we establish it rather on syntactic grounds. We include in this category units composed of primaries, i.e. members of form classes, plus a function word, and — in the case of comparatives — reduction and rearrangement of such units. The main types of phrasing found to be used in the formation of trade names are coordinate conjunction, negation, genitive paraphrasis, and comparison. 3.41 Coordinate Conjunction. — One pattern of trade names very much in vogue at the moment is the phrasal type "x and x", both x's being either verbs, nouns, or adjectives. (a)

In Verb-and-Verb Phrases the and may express sequence, as in BROWN 'N SERVE, result, as in TOUCH-AND-GLOW, TOUCH 'N TELL, TOUCH 'N TONE; simultaneity, as in BRUSH 'N ROLL, FLEX-N-FLOAT, IRON 'N MEND, SPIN 'N SWING, TWIST 'N TYE, WASH 'N TINT; or simple addition, as in EDGE 'N' HOE, TRIM 'N COMB. Though phrasal trade names, like compounds, are primarily descriptive, occasionally we find a misleading one which forfeits accurate description for comformity to a popular sound or symbol pattern, WASH 'N DRI for instance, the name of a chemical-impregnated travel towel, would more accurately be *DRY WASH; MIX 'N MATCH would be *MIX OR MATCH, the two activities, given the context, being mutually exclusive. FREEZE-N-STORE, KUT 'N SERV, WASH 'N WEAR;

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SYNTACTICS

(b) Noun-and-woun Phrases found in the corpus are reductions of (1) time adverbials: (during) DAY-N-(during) NIGHT, (2) locatives: (on) SHIP 'N (on) SHORE, (3) similies: (like) SILK 'N (like) SATIN, (4) part and whole: TWEEDS AND (other) WEEDS, (5) two-inone : SHIRT 'N SHORTS, or they are simply additive: CHEES-'N-SALAMI, PLEATS 'N PEARLS. (c) Adjective-and-Adjective Phrases found in the corpus number only three: HI-N-DRI, which is not an original formation (see 4.33), LIGHT AND BRIGHT, WET 'N' DRY. (d) The usual symmetry of language leads us to hypothesize "Adverb-and-Adverb" phrases of the type *FAST 'N SLOW, *RIGHT 'N LEFT, *QUIK 'N FIRM, always minus the -ly (see 3.324). None were found in the corpus, however. 3.42 Negation. Trade names "formed" of verbs negated in traditional and nontraditional ways: CRAWLZ NO MORE (a literary pattern), KANT BITE, KANTSCAR, NÖDÖZ, NO-SEW, NO SLIP, SLIP NOTT (inversion). Trade names formed of nouns negated in traditional and non-traditional ways: MILNOT (not milk), NAIR (no hair), NO WEIGHT, NOXEMA ( < no eczema), ODORONO (odor? oh, no!). 3.43

Genitive Paraphrasis is illustrated by BALL-O-FOOT, BEADS-O-BLEACH, DISC-O-FELT, and with respelling, WHEELZA-

END-O-PEST, END-O-WEED, LINE-O-HEAT, STIK-O-PAINT, FUN.

3.44 Trade Names from Syntactic Patterns of Comparison are of several different types. We find the comparatives LESTARE, LESTOIL, and MORPUL, all with graphemic alteration. Similes of the pattern as ... as ..., with the exception of HARD AS NAILS which is not an original formation but a very tired figure given new life via semantic shift (see 4.32), have the same appearance as compounds, the subordinating conjunctions being suppressed and the order of the primaries reversed: BRONZTAN < as tan as bronze, DESERT DRI < as dry as a desert, SABLE SOFT, ZEPHRLYTE. It might be well argued that our definition of compound should be revised to include these formations. Other comparatives are reductions of longer, more complex patterns, e.g. FLIGHTLIGHTS are pieces of luggage light enough to be taken on flights; JET-DRI is a paint which dries as fast as a jet propels an airplane; MANSMOOTH blouses are as smooth (see 5.28) as a man's shirt; SUGARIPE fruits are so ripe that they are full of sugar. Other comparatives from the corpus which can be similarly analyzed: ANGEL FACE, ANGEL SKIN, MAGI-STIK, MAIDENFORM, NECTROMA, SATINGLAS, SNO-BOL, TISH-U-KNIT, TURTLE WAX.

3.5 Functional Shift. — According to Marchand, the process of functional shift — which he prefers, for technical reasons not pertinent to our subject, to call zero derivation — is not a specifically English process resulting from the loss of inflectional endings

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as claimed by Jespersen and quite generally believed. He refutes the opinion on two counts: (1) this type of word-formation developed extensively in English during the thirteenth century, at a time before final verbal and substantival endings had been dropped, and (2) the process is also productive in present-day French, Spanish, and German. "I do not think that the weakening of the inflectional system has anything to do with the problem [sic] of zero derivation", he states. "Stems are immediate elements for the speaker who is aware of the syntagmatic character of an inflected form." 2 1 Be this as it may, functional shift is certainly a very active process in English wordformation today and one which is on the increase. 22 We find examples of it in trade name formation too, the main types being verb > noun, and adjective > noun for single-word trade names, although other types occur in limited number. 3.51

Trade Names from Verbs: — Vt

- ACTIV-8, ADORN, BAN, BANISH, IMPRESS

(see

1.4), KLUTCH, MELT, PERSUADE, STIC, XPAND, XPOSE; V i - FLIT.

3.52 Trade Names from Adjectives. - BEAU (a borrowing), (< sleek plus -s plural morpheme), TABU, ΤΙ-DEE, TIGHT. 3.53

Trade Names from Ambiguous Verb-Adjectives.

3.54 Trade Names from Adverbs. morpheme), OFF.

— CHOCKS (
noun. Clad in KAMCLAD and ZINCLAD shows shift from obsolescent past participle to substantive, PERK-UPS illustrates nominalization of a two-word verb. Sonar, coined as an acronymic substantive from sound navigation ranger, is used attributively — thus noun > adjective — in SON-R SWITCH. Zero as a synonym of no illustrates noun > adjective in the formation of ZEROGLOSS, ZEROLASTIC, ZERO-FROST. Stat, a Gr or L root used in English as a bound word-forming element denoting stationary, as in thermostat and gyrostat, becomes a substantive free form in the trade name STAT, a chemical solution which keeps the condition of paint brushes stationary. 3.6 Sentence Names. — A few trade names comprise entire sentences. The process may be considered an extended functional shift, the nominalization of a sentence. Most are imperatives: B-CLEEN, B-KLEER (but see 2.331), DIP IT, DIAL-A-NEEDLE, HANG21 M

Marchand, p. 295. Coard, whole article.

76 IT-ALL, HAVAHART

SYNTACTICS

(for the latter two see also 4.31), MAKE-A-STAMP,

PIN IT, ROLL-A-NOTE,

SELECT-A-NOTE, TINT-A-GREEN, TUB-UMS, TWIST-EMS, TYPIT, WEED-B-GONE.

LOOK a n d

though one word sentences, must be included in this imperative category. Other sentence-names are simple statements with graphemic change: I-HEAL-U, U-C-IT,

SCRAM,

U-DO-IT, U-SELECT-IT.

3.7 Summary and Conclusion. — We have attempted in this chapter and in the previous one to group and classify according to process those trade names from the corpus which appear to have been formed by one or more of the recognized wordformative processes active in the other-than-commercial aspects of our language. We are well aware that in some instances our analyses are not beyond challenge, particularly among the compounds, many of which could as well be derived from kernel sentences other than those we suggest. The fact is of no great import to this study, however. We have given at least one, often more than one, plausible explanation of how each item could have come into being and in so doing have enumerated a goodly number of productive processes and patterns which may be used in the creation of new trade names. In addition we have suggested a few possible patterns which do not occur (2.6, 3.322a, 3.41d). In conclusion we may say that for the items analyzed in these two chapters the ways of naming products for trade do not differ very greatly from the ways of naming other objects. There are no sharp boundary lines between trade names which we can consider compounds, pseudo-compounds, or derivatives as we know there are none in the language in general. Compounding, by far the most productive of noun-forming processes in English today, seems to be the favorite of the name-makers as well.

4.

SEMANTICS

4.0 Having thus examined and classified all the divergencies from orthographic tradition and all of the word-formation processes illustrated in the corpus, we are left with a residue of items wholly unconsidered, and we are acutely aware that we have not said everything significant that is to be said about most of the items with which we have dealt. To state, for instance, that ALL is a morph which regularly executes determinative function in the syntax of the language but that in being chosen as a trade name it becomes a noun by a process known as functional shift is merely to say that determiners are available for naming products. It tells us nothing of how they come to be chosen. Clearly, then, we must probe more deeply to discover the creative process we are seeking. In this chapter and in the next we will explore some of the motivating forces, both linguistic and metalinguistic, which are intimately involved in the business of trade naming. A trade name, we have said (0.0), is any name specifically created for the purpose of furthering trade. Thus the naming process involves, in addition to the name-maker and a product or service, a prospective purchaser. 1 Furthermore, we construe our definition explicitly to indicate the relationship between referent and name to be subordinate to the relationship between name and prospective purchaser. In other words, the ultimate task of the name-maker is not to create a name which adequately characterizes; it is to create one which precipitates or contributes to the precipitation of purchase. To admit the immeasurability of this quality is by no means to suggest that it does not exist. 4.1 Motivation Research. — Within the past twenty years, our period of greatest productivity, there has developed a wholly new and utterly dynamic field of study centered around the question "What makes people buy?" Leaning heavily upon the oblique techniques of psychoanalysis but incorporating also in its "unified approach" 2 some of the more direct information gathering and interpreting methods used in the 1 We choose the term purchaser rather than the more generally used consumer for the reason that the advertiser is not concerned with the consumption of goods but only with their purchase. ' The claim that Motivation Research is a unified approach was made by Dr. Ernest Dichter, outstanding Motivation Research practitioner, in answer to criticisms of his methods by Pölitz and others. See Stryker article, p. 222.

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disciplines of psychology, anthropology, sociology, and other social sciences, this area of specialization, known as Motivation Research, claims to have the power to uncover our deepest, most unconscious motivations and thus reveal the most fundamental reasons why we do what we do — specifically, why we buy what we buy. Though widely criticized on both scientific and moral grounds, Motivation Research has been eminently successful if we can judge by the demands for its services or by the effects of its findings on the nature of advertising. Examination of our corpus suggests that the name-makers have kept abreast of the probings of the Motivation Research specialists. "Too precise a description", warns Herta Herzog, "narrows the suggested usage of a product". 3 "Advertising becomes more effective", proclaims Edward H. Weiss, "as it is concentrated on the emotional needs of the buyer". 4 Products must appeal to our feelings, "... deep in the psychological recesses of the mind" affirms Ernest Dichter. 5 "You want the customer to fall in love with your product", asserts Pierre Martineau.® To the extent that these pronouncements are interpreted to apply to the linguistic content of advertising, they specifically prescribe suggestive, affective, emotive use of language as distinct from its denotative function. Though the poet has long been celebrated as the chief artisan of this medium, his skills are no less known or practiced by the various latter-day rhetoricians: the politician, the union-organizer, the editorialist, the preacher, the trade-name maker. The division of our final comments into two chapters must not be construed to mean that their contents are mutually exclusive. Much, perhaps most, of the stuff of poetry communicates below the level of consciousness. The division is one of expedience: we deal here with the relatively unembellished delitescent onslaughts on the receiving mechanisms of the prospective purchaser; we reserve for the next chapter comment upon those items which appear to us to have been motivated by more aesthetic considerations. 4.11 Suggestion. — Compounds, we noted, are informative; they make specific assertions about products; we need only recognize the pattern of syntactic compression. And this we do because the ability to do so is our heritage; it is the grammar of our language. "This yarn is bright"; "This switch dims lights"; "These pads give comfort". Other names are infinitely more subtle. They do not inform; they suggest, leaving the prospective purchaser free to determine the contents, uses, and virtues of the product in accordance with his own needs, be they physical or emotional, conscious or subconscious (cf. quote from Herta Herzog, above). Take, for instance, ALL, the name of a very popular detergent. It suggests completeness. Does it get all the dirt out, or does it get the dirt all (completely) out? Or is it called ALL because it can be used in all types of machines, or on all kinds of fabrics? Perhaps it can be used for • As reported by Vance Packard, p. 217.

4

Ibid., p. 70. • Ibid., p. 25. • Ibid., p. 39.

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79

all cleaning jobs: dishes, clothes, walls, floors; or perhaps it does all the work, leaving nothing for the housewife to do but sit back and watch it perform. Though few, if any, shoppers are consciously aware of these suggestions, we have evidence to support the opinion that they are present in the subconscious of many. Questioning twenty shoppers as they walked past the detergent shelf in a large supermarket concerning the meaning, to them, of the name ALL, we compiled the following data: Two women responded with four of the above suggestions; four more responded with three; seven gave two answers; four gave one of the above; only three shoppers said that ALL was just a name with no special meaning. DUZ is a similar creation, though with added orthographic alteration. It suggests activity, accomplishment, but leaves open to the imagination of the prospective purchaser to decide just what it does, DEFT suggests skill — whatever this product does, it does well — and thus is related semantically to the numerous compound trade names containing MASTER. CASCADE is of another order, and perhaps not so skillfully devised. Though apparently intended to suggest the freshness, purity, and sparkle of rushing water (we glean from the texts of the ads), a word-association question presented to 21 subjects yielded the following responses: rushing (7), falling (4), water (4), noise (3), up-state (1), Oregon (1), vacation (1). These last two, though, may represent very positive valence; the associations are pleasant ones and thus serve to put the receiver in a pleasant and positive frame of mind (see 4.2). CHIFFON and FLUFFO, though names of widely differing products — a soap powder and a shortening — suggest the airiness and froth so much in vogue in our light-makesright world of today, as realized in the demand for light weight fabrics, light cosmetics and hair sprays, light diets, even light beer. If there is any utilitarian reason why a light weight soap is superior to a heavy one it eludes the writer, unless it be that it rinses out more thoroughly than a full-bodied one; but it is simple enough to conceive how the housewife can generalize, subconsciously of course, from airy shortening to airy cake, SUNAIRE, a light weight textile, and C-FOAM, a cushion material, fit into the same general frame of reference while adding the suggestion of out-doorsiness, also currently valued in our culture, BLUEGRASS, too, suggests intercourse with nature and doubtlessly contrives to make a perfume addict out of the woman who would utterly disdain My Sin or Intimate. SWANSDOWN suggests softness, but only half so persistently as does KITT'N-GORA, a superlative which, in doubly suggesting softness suggests a material doubly soft. Such creations border on the poetic, ESKILOOS suggest not only the cold of the Arctic, but the warmth and security of the igloo, FLORIENT, of which the orient component no doubt is associated for some with spices and incense, is a less positive stimulus for those to whom it recalls the not-so-pleasing olfactory image of the night-soils of Japan. FUJIETTE, on the other hand, does its work via contiguity association. It is the name of a silk-like synthetic fabric. The types of products for which we find names that suggest, and the paths of sug-

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gestion, vary widely. The Samson of SAMSONITE suggests supreme strength, via our early Biblical training. For the middle-aged former comic strip addict or vaudeville enthusiast SQUIRT can suggest only grapefruit; we don't know how this one fares with the younger set. Among magazine titles we find ATLAS, suggesting a world view, and HORIZON, suggesting a view beyond the horizon — a simple case of contrast association, COSMOPOLITAN suggests urbanity, sophistication, but although we have not made a readership survey we would wager that the periodical so named is not read by true cosmopolites but by those who like to believe that they aspire in that direction. EBONY not only denotes black; it connotes highly prized treasure. Were the namemakers concerned only with denotative meaning this popular magazine of, by, and for the Negro population of America might equally well be called *SOOT. But perhaps these last two items would be better placed in our next category. 4.12 Persuasion. — Some names do more than suggest; they persuade. They do their work by promising the prospective purchaser the things he values most, though in most cases he is not even aware of what they are. Vance Packard in his best-seller expose "The Hidden Persuaders" reveals some of the methods by which the Motivation Research specialists discover our subconscious motivations, our suppressed desires, our sublimated urges, and how advertisers use this knowledge to persuade us to buy. Trade naming, though only one small part of advertising, is perhaps a prime part for as a rule a name stays with a product throughout its lifetime. 4.121 The Sloth Factor. — There is an old Chinese proverb which, freely translated, becomes something like this: "In every man born of woman there is a streak of laziness." The Motivation Research practitioners agree, and one wonders how deeply it was necessary to probe. Products which have to do with physical exertion then should be easily enhanced by names which tell the consumer he need exert only a minimum of energy. Thus we find, among others, EASY ON, EASY-OFF, KWIKEEZE, STRYPEEZE, and just plain EASY; LESTOIL, ONE WIPE, DESK PORTER, BAG KADDIE, BANCARE, and BREEZE (see 0.2341). 4.122 The Need for Speed. — Closer to the conscious level on the part of the consumer is his penchant for the hasty consummation of the job in hand. What he may not be aware of is the extent to which an appeal to that facet of his personality influences his choice of consumer goods. In addition to the QUICKIGHT, QUICK-X, QUICK, and QUICKO mentioned in previous chapters, and the KWIKEEZE just above, we find forty-four trade names beginning with the morpheme /kwik/, among them QUIK-BILT, QWIK-FLO, QUICK-START, QUICK-ZIP, and five compounds containing the initial morpheme /spid/: SPEED FEED, SPEEDLAC, SPEEDRY, SPEED SNIPS, and SPEEDWRITING. Likewise motivated but with the added dimension of symbolism are the several formations with jet: JET-COOL, JET DRI, JET-O-CIDE. INSTANT SPARE, INSTANT SEW, JIFFY SEW, JIFFY BAG, and JIG TIME all promise swift accomplishment; INSTANT LANGUAGE

SEMANTICS

81

is perhaps the ultimate in hyperbole. Less extravagant in their claims, though pandering to our need for speed are FIRECHIEF, DART, WISK, WHINK.

RECORDS

4.123 The Class Climbing Compulsion. — Being an ambassador is a highly prestigious situation, but for all the new nations emerging on the world scene ambassadorships are still accessible only to less than one one-millionth of the population of America. Membership in an aristocracy, though slightly more available, comes high and the channels to attainment are not very clear. How then to cope with the great American myth, that with persistence all things are available to all? The problem has been very nicely met by the name-makers. With the proper persistence (i.e. cash expenditure) one can ride in an AMBASSADOR, tread on an ARISTOMAT, lounge in an A-RESTO-CRAT (see also 5.3), read a CORONET, drink IMPERIAL. The many trade names formed with the morpheme /bks/, exemplified in our corpus by LUX, ACRYLUX, ELECTROLUX, ULTRALUX were probably designed to persuade — subconsciously, of course — those of us (and it appears to include most of us) who desire possession of a quality and quantity of material goods far in excess of our manifest needs, that we are in some way superior to our apparent peers. Even the housewife who must limit her purchases to Sears, with extra eifort (i.e. longer terms) can equip her home with LADY KENMORE appliances, as contrasted with ordinary Kenmore equipment. On a smaller scale (i.e. for less cash outlay) she can fractionally satisfy her urge to be exclusive by decorating her shelves with ROYALEDGE, painting her nails with PERSIAN PRINCESS, controlling her contour with a LADY MARLENE, or even, given the appropriate semantic association, by cleaning her teeth with CREST. For those who associate superiority with scholarship there are the many Latin and/or Greek based trade names such as AQUASCUTUM, MAGNAVOX, ACROSONIC, QUANTI-THERM. Since it is generally conceded that it takes an excess of both brains and money to get into Vassar, few girls qualify, yet there is scarcely a young miss alive in America today who can not obtain a VASSARETTE. 4.124 Parsimony. — The penny-pinching penchant, so admired in past decades, has all but disappeared from the American scene. It persists in a few rugged individuals and is most charitably considered a kind of disease, like alcoholism or kleptomania. Still we find a handful of trade names making their appeal to this anachronistic segment of our population: DAB, JUST-A-DROP, ONE-A-DAY, ONLIWON. 4.13 Seduction. — When persuasive names promise what they can not even fractionally supply, we class them as seductive. In this category we place MEDICO (smoking pipes!) which promises sanction of the medical profession; CHEMEX (coffee makers), which associates coffee making with the esteemed science of chemistry via the shape of the pot; and those that promise us eternal youth such as OVALINE and MOON DROPS. These latter lead us to the consideration of some items which seem to have been

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motivated by an attempt to make an even more fundamental attack on the subconscious. 4.2 Attitude Estimation. — "Naming", to quote Kurt Goldstein, "presupposes a special attitude toward the object. The name is an expression of the conceptual attitude." 7 He refers to the attitude of the namer. This, no doubt, accounts for the large number of informative names already discussed. The salient features of a product are noted and from these are abstracted, in accordance with the conceptual strengths and habits of the name-maker, one or two or more with which words or formatives of high frequency are traditionally associated. These words and/or formatives are then spliced, clipped, or rearranged in one of the many patterns described in the preceding chapters. But in trade naming, as we have seen, there is another, more decisive attitude to be considered: the attitude that the name elicits in the prospective purchaser. We cannot resist contemplating how much simpler the name-maker's task would be if only the Watsonians had been correct in their cogitations about words and meaning. But we know now that meaning is not a particular response but rather a "disposition to behave in varying ways as the contingent circumstances are changed".8 Attitude, for the social psychologist, is a dispositional concept, usually described and measured in terms of situation-response probabilities or tendencies of approach or avoidance. It has been specifically defined as "a learned implicit process which is potentially bipolar, varies in its intensity, and mediates evaluative behavior".9 For a number of the items which make up our trade name corpus there exists no discernible relationship — literal, metaphorical, or associational — between name and thing. Before the conditioning which quickly takes place as the result of repeated pairing of name and product, the name-word can be said to have no denotational meaning in its newly acquired environment. The person being dispatched to a supermarket with the injunction "Don't forget the *BLISS" has absolutely no hint as to which counter he must search for it, regardless of his age, I.Q., or level of sophistication. Such names, we contend, are "created" by a process which we will call Attitude Estimation. Words which traditionally represent, or are associated with, concepts toward which, it is estimated, a great majority of prospective purchasers have intensely favorable attitudes, are chosen as trade names with the intention that some portion of the favorable attitude or approach tendency toward the concept will be transferred to the product. Trade names which illustrate this process in its purest state are: BIOMIRACLE, BLUE JAY, CHEER, CHEERIOS, EXCELLO, FRIENDMAKER, JOY, JUBILEE, MERITENE, PARD, PLEDGE, SEVEN UP, SHEER GENIUS, THRILL, TREET, XLENT, XPERT, YIPPEES. 7

Goldstein, p. 4. • Brown, p. 103. For a more complete statement of the theory of meaning as a representational mediation process see Osgood (1), p. 695 ff; Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum, pp. 5-9; Mowrer, Chap. II. * Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum, p. 190.

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83

Some other compound or complex names, and some simplexes which do have denotational relationship with the products they represent also evidence serious consideration of prospective purchaser attitude, i.e. the choice of words is often based chiefly on affective meaning. We note compounds with ACME and ULTRA and LUX, with the life-force suggesting BIO- and VITA, and the simplex LIFE itself, used to name three different products: a breakfast cereal, a magazine, and a cigarette. Though we cannot estimate intensity, there is little doubt about the direction of attitude elicited b y t h e s o u n d o r s i g h t o f s u c h w o r d s a s CREST, GLADE, PURR, LARK, LILT, ZEST, a n d TRIUMPH — o r b y LIGHT AND BRIGHT, c o n c e p t s f o u n d t o b e c o n s i s t e n t l y e v a l u a t e d a s

"good" in studies of the generality of affective systems.10 The "meaning" of smile in TILE SMILE is p u r e l y a f f e c t i v e , a s is t h a t of t h e fair o f FAIRLANE, t h e gay o f GAY-TOP a n d GAYLANA a n d t h e happy

o f HAPPI-JAMA a n d HAP-P-NUT. HALO a n d HEAVENSENT ( w h y

not *HEAVENSCENT?) must occupy a semantic space close to that of the ANGEL comp o u n d s , CELESTA, a n d AMBROSIA; WHITE CLOUD a n d DOVE elicit p o s i t i v e a f f e c t i v e r e -

sponses through the medium of a culturally shared symbolism; LITTLE HELPER, a compound unit reserved, until it was made a trade name, exclusively for an adulated young child cannot fail (the name-maker hopes) to arouse some small fraction of the agreeable emotional experience associated with adulated young children. Other items from our corpus could be so analyzed; our statements do not exhaust the topic of attitude manipulation; these examples are, perhaps, the ones which best illustrate the pattern. 4.3 Mnemonic Potential. — It has been amply demonstrated that familiar patterns of words and that meaningful sequences are more readily retained and recalled, more resistant to interference effects, than are nonsense syllables or disconnected discourse. 11 This knowledge of the ways of verbal habits seems to be the principal motivating force in the creation of another group of our residue items, those of high mnemonic potential. For instance, compounds and phrases of very high frequency, some even trite and hackneyed, are converted into trade names by being assigned to products or enterprises. The frequency may be of long standing in the language, as in the case of word sequences from literary or folk tradition, or it may be the result of topicality. In most cases at least one of the components of the word group has an associational bond with some quality or characteristic of the referent, though we intuit wide variance in associative strengths exhibited by different items. The plethora of types of verbal associations discovered to exist12 provides great latitude for the imagination of the name-maker and encourages punning and other bold deviations from semantic regularity. 4.31 10 11

"

In this group we find AIR LIFT (a foam rubber fatigue mat), SUMIT < summit

Osgood, Lecture 1-18-61. Miüer, Chap. 10, pp. 199-222. Miller, Chap. 9, especially pp. 179-185.

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(a desk-size adding machine), and TOP SECRET (a gray-hiding hair tint for men) gleaned from current world affairs; GET SET (a hair waving lotion), KOPY ΚΑΤ, LADYBUG, PATTY-O and PIGGY BACK from children's games; GRAVY TRAIN, TOP BRASS, and V.I.P. from military jargon; from sports and games, ON-GUARD, RIGHT GUARD, and SEVEN UP ; from mining, LUCKY STRIKE. Among common terms used in trade naming taken from learning and literature, including folk literature, we find MILKY WAY, THE GOLDEN FLEECE, NINE LIVES, PUSS 'N BOOTS, BILLY THE KID, PRIVATE EYE, NEW AWAKENING.

The sequences ALL ABOUT,

RED HOT, HANG-IT-ALL, HARD AS NAILS, HAVA-

HART, HOLD IT, PERKUP, POWER HOUSE, SURE FIRE, STAY PUT, JUST A DROP, a n d YARDMAN

are so common in the colloquy of every native speaker as to decry explication. Contrariwise CRACKER BARREL and HI-BOY < highboy, a furniture piece found in every American home fifty years ago, are compounds obsolescing from general parlance. The former gets artificial respiration daily via television westerns; the latter is a pun, but one which, we fear, has an estimable life expectancy, as do GYM DANDY < Jim Dandy, the late 19th century American deus ex machina, JIG TIME, and QUADRILL < quadrille. Their mnemonic qualities which derive from their etymologies for the most part elude the post-war generation. Other puns made on common word sequences and found among our residue items are: RAIN DEARS, plastic shoe protectors; AIR MALE, a very light-weight "airy" fabric used in men's clothing; MALE POUCH, a man's underbrief; PAD-LOCK, an ironing board with a pad which locks in place; TURKISH DELIGHT, a terry-cloth robe; and ROAD-E-O, a commercially sponsored auto driving competition. Still others obscure morpheme boundaries so that we cannot unequivocally classify them with word sequences; perhaps the term syllable sequence will suffice, e.g. AB-SCENT, a deodorant; PASS-I-FIER, an electrical gadget for conveying messages, favorable or unfavorable, to cars which one has passed on the road; SELL-A-BRATION, an outlet store, discount house, where things are always on sale; ICE-O-BAR, a cold drink dispenser; KAR-GO rental trailers; and NOSH-A-RYE < Näsherei, a delicatessen famous for its rye bread. 4.32 Semantic Shift. — Many of the trade names we place in this category illustrate an interesting reversal in semantic shift. The usual progression of semantic reference is from literal to figurative;13 here we find word groups which have come to be used almost exclusively with figurative reference suddenly shifted back into literal function. Consider, for instance, GREEN THUMB, trade name for a garden glove which actually has green thumbs. In this dramatic instance we can not avoid the suspicion that the name created — or at least colored — the product, rather than the other way around. Other examples are TURN COAT, a reversible coat, about which we shall have more to say immediately below; JIG TIME is a jig saw; HANG-IT-ALL, a broiler equipped with hooks for hanging food on; GYM DANDY, a kind of gymnastic equipment; KEYNOTER, an office machine which notes what you say when you push its keys. We "

G r e e n o u g h a n d Kittredge, Chaps. 17 & 18; Bradley C h a p . 5, Sturtevant, C h a p . 13.

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85

would like also to include here PERK-UPS, filters for coffee percolators, but we have just discovered that the only etymological connection between perk and percolate is our own folk brand. [percolate < L percolatus, past part, ofpercolare < per, through + colare, to filter, strain, sieve 11 perk < ME perken < O N F perquer, to perch < per que, perch < L pertica, pole]. 4.33 Trade Names to Relieve Aggressions? Among our sample of assigned or borrowed names of high mnemonic potential we find a small group which gives us greater than usual pause. These names seem to violate one of our unstated assumptions: that a trade name should enhance. A BLACK JACK, we know, is a kind of bludgeon; an EASY MARK a simple person, easily swindled; FASTIME, in our lexicon, is a contemptuous synonym for daylight savings time, bestowed by farmers who abhor the convention; HI-N-DRI means helpless, stranded; a MADCAP is a reckless, impulsive person; and a TURNCOAT a renegade, an apostate, WISHY WASH is not an unaltered borrowing. It recalls both wish-wash (n), a weak insipid drink and wishy-washy (adj) meaning feeble, unsubstantial. With the exception of the last which has, after all, alliteration (see 5.12) and, if we allow, a certain degree of phonetic symbolism 14 we find these names to have a certain very positive affective appeal, despite the distinctly morbid denotations of the lexical units of which they are composed, and we are at a loss to explain how the change takes place, or discover the motivating force behind such creations. Two unrelated bits of linguistic lore come to mind, either or both of which may have some bearing on the case, though we are not at all sure. The first is our awareness of the polar nature of many hypocoristic formations, a phenomenon we have never heard explained but one which is unquestionably related to the commonly recognized occurrence of association by contrast. The second is of an entirely different order: an explicit statement by a professional advertiser, Stephen D. James, amateur world-peace planner, explained away objections to his coinage Peace-Hostage-Exchange-Plan with the words, "If you have something to sell, whether it is a product or an idea for peace, you've simply got to shake people out of their natural detachment." 15 Having dwelled upon these names together for some time, we are indeed thoroughly shaken and must admit to an almost overwhelming compulsion to don MADCAP and TURNCOAT and trudge off into the dark of night in search of a WISHY WASH EASY MARK whom we can bludgeon with our BLACK JACK and leave HI-N-DRI in FASTIME. But trade names are not designed to be dwelled upon and, besides, occurrences of this type are relatively rare; the chance of a prospective purchaser coming upon seven of them at once is practically nil. 4.34 Analogic Creations. — We have, to this point, concerned ourselves exclusively with the effects upon prospective purchasers of the conscious maneuverings of the 14

"

Marchand, p. 315. The New Yorker, March 17, 1962, p. 34.

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name-makers. It is perhaps appropriate that before leaving the topic of semantics we consider briefly some effects upon the name-makers of the physiology of language per se. The part played by imitative, and especially analogic process in the creation of new linguistic forms is beyond dispute. 16 New forms are, either consciously or unconsciously, patterned after existing forms, though the pattern followed may be phonic, graphic, syntactic, semeiotic, or any combination of these features. We find in the corpus a number of such analogic creations for some of which we can isolate the pattern. 4.341 Sound. — Some trade names simply sound like other popular or traditional vocables, without suggesting any further relationship with the prototype. Since familiarity of sound pattern is known to be a positive mnemonic factor, 17 to such names there accrues some worth by virtue of their sound whether the imitation be conscious or unconscious. We refer to such creations as DEL-O κ transfer in KEY KADDY, KIT ΚΑΤ, KOFFEEKIT. THRIFT-TEX, CHALLA CLOTH, and GARD-N-GEM are instances of eye-alliteration without accompanying sound rhyme. In contrast to the sublety of slant rhyme we find identical rhyme or reduplication, SNO-BOL,

i n EVEN EVEN a n d THIN THIN.

5.2 Imagery: The Figure of Speech. — The poet, as contrasted with the expositor, presents his message obliquely; he suggests rather than states. But the suggestive language of the poet differs from that treated in 4.11 in the sense that it is structured. It does not depend for its effectiveness on chance associations, but operates in specific patterns which had been recognized and named even before the time of Aristotle. Of the many types of figures consistently employed in poetic expression throughout 4

Brooks and Warren, p. 7. • Hayakawa, pp. 144-145; Deutsch, p. 117.

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91

the history of English literature we find the most persistent to be metaphor,metonymy, hyperbole, irony, personification, and pun. 6 5.21 The Pun, a figure involving semantic and sometimes also syntactic ambiguity in the presence of phonetic (but not, alas, graphemic) identity, is frequently used in trade naming. Examples found in the corpus are listed in 4.31 with the discussion of mnemonics. 5.22 Irony, the figure which implies exactly the opposite of what is stated, is not commonly used in trade naming. We find one clear-cut example of it, however, in SORRY, the name of a parchisi-type parlor game, ANT DINER may also be considered somewhat ironic; a diner usually dispenses nourishment, not lethal poison. 5.23 Hyperbole. — Examples of hyperbole abound. Consider, for instance, the number of trade names containing the morpheme /ol/ such as ADHERZAL, DISPOSALL, FITZ-ALL, PIXALL, STANZALL, and VEG-ALL, and those having as one constituent a shortened form of permanent, e.g. PERMA-LIFT, PERMA-LITE, PERMAWEAR, CELAPERM. An even greater degree of exaggeration is found in trade names claiming magic: MAGIC CHEF, MAGICOLOR, MAGIC-RUB, MAGIC TOUCH, MAGIKOTER, MAGI-STIK, ROLL-A-

and VACU-MAGIC — the latter three quite probably also partially motivated by the phonetic similarity of the morphemes magic and matic. We find trade names claiming qualities of mysticism, miracle, fabulousness, wonder, e.g.

MAGIC, ROTO-MAGIC,

MYSTIK, MIRA-COOL, MIRAFOAM, WIND-O-WONDER, FABU-LASTIC, FABULON, a n d FAB-U-

does not make walls glow; KUROTEX cures nothing, it merely relieves; relieve a tickle, they hardly save lives. Can a powder puff — LUSHUS — be "highly gratifying to the senses"? How much does a phantom weigh (FANTOMWATE)? We have already mentioned WHINK and INSTANT LANGUAGE RECORDS (4.122). PURITRON is electrically, not electronically operated; MINKLAM contains no mink; and the housewife who really gets a THRILL from polishing furniture urgently needs to have her wires uncrossed. LAWN. KEM-GLO LIFE SAVERS

5.24

Personification is amply demonstrated in such trade names as HANDY ANDY and

HANDY MANDY, EARLIANA a n d SLENDERELLA, LAWN-BOY, POW-R-BOY, a n d CHORE GIRL, HANDY MAN a n d YARD-MAN, BREWMASTER, MAGIC CHEF a n d BURGER CHEF. T h e p r o -

ducts so named acquire a certain fraction, be it ever so small, of the human element in the connotative area of the perceptive mechanisms of the decoders. In this group, too, we can include all of the trade names having as one of their constituents the morpheme master, e.g. JOBMASTER, KOOKMASTER, NAILMASTER, SHINEMASTER, SURFMASTER and all of those with maid such as AIR MAID, CLOSET MAID ; with porter, e.g. DESK PORTER, or /kaedi/, however spelled; and with chief and mister, e.g. MISTER MUSTARD, MISTER SOFTEE, • Deutsch, p. 52; Perrin, p. 263; Hockett, p. 317.

92 MR. SLICK

AESTHETICS

and

MR. CLEAN.

For some receivers there is a degree of personification in

aide as in CALCULAIDE and SEPTIC AIDE and in the -er of DETROITER. Other miscel-

laneous personifications are FLY KOP, PRIVATE EYE, STORM HERO, XPERT, LIQUID PLUMR. A related phenomenon, the attribution of a quality of animation, is illustrated in the trade names GRO-BRA, TILE SMILE, HAPPI-JAMA, GRASSHOPPERS — children's rubbers, a n d SKIMMERAMAS.

5.25 Metonymy, and the included figure sometimes referred to as synecdoche, though considered a poetic device, has become so common in discourse as to be difficult to recognize. It is illustrated in the corpus by such trade names as HARDTOP and RAMPSIDE for kinds of vehicles, PUFFS and FLUFF OUT for tissues, MEXENE for Mexican Chili powder, AIR STEPS and PILLOW WALKS for shoes and SNOW BUCKS for buckskin shoes. The /krisp/ of RY-KRISP also illustrates the naming of a whole by a word commonly used to designate one quality of the whole, as does the /loft/ of NYLOFT, a carpet fiber. There are many others; notably recurrent are the use of tone for paint, e.g. BARCOTONE, PLASTR-TONE and knit, also spelled nit, for garments made from knitted material, e.g. BEAUNIT, BULK-E-KNIT, CACHE KNITS, CORDI-KNITS, FLEXNIT, e t c .

5.26 Metaphor, likewise, is not confined to poetry, though a good command of it has often been called the poet's most essential skill. It demands for its creation a sensitivity to resemblances of whatever source, order, or degree. A metaphor may be physical or functional or both, or far more complex, involving the vague and inscrutable stirrings hitherto referred to as emotion. Among the most meager of the metaphorical trade names found in the corpus are those for which shape alone provides the resemblance, i.e. TROMBONE for a pesticide sprayer with a sliding arm, PLANT PENS for pen-shaped soil conditioning sticks, and TURTLE BACK for a sponge shaped like the shell of a turtle. Some metaphors are built on resemblance in substance; among these we find CELACLOUD, WHITE CLOUD, a n d CHIFFON, CELO-ROCK, POR-ROK, LIQUITILE, PLASTIC

the names of a number of synthetic products of glass-like substance such as and PLEXIGLAS and of innumerable light-weight materials such as AIRE-LON, AIRLON and CIRCOLAIR. Others reflect a similarity in one salient property as hardness in ADAFLINT and FLINTKOTE, solidity in OAKWELD and WELD WOOD, dryness in ARRID, softness in VEL(vet), and the cooling sensation of ice in BEAUTY ICE. Metaphorical trade names based on resemblance of function are SILK NET and SPRAY NET, neither of which is a net, SKIN DEW which keeps skin moist, QUICK-CURE, which repairs flat (sick) tires, ZIP-SANDER which doesn't sand but treats wood with a similar result, WINDO ZIPPER which doesn't zip, but opens and closes as does a zipper, and the several trade names with the morpheme maid mentioned in 5.24 above. The metaphor is a very useful device for the name-maker; it permits him to make assertions which a less-poetic medium would not allow, LAM-FUR, for instance, is not fur, but the name asserts that both physically and functionally the commercial product WOOD,

FLEX-o-GLASS, PLASTIGLASS

AESTHETICS

93

deputizes for the natural one. The name MINKLAM for a similar product seems to us much less skillfully devised. In noun-noun compounds it is always the second noun which is the head. One can appreciate, though, the name-maker's problem with this item. Neither *LAMINK nor *LAMBMINK would do: the first for reason of ambiguity, the second because of graphemic awkwardness, BREAST O'CHICKEN affirms that tuna is chicken; BERQUEENS declares a royal lineage for the hens so named, and GARD-NGEM avows the rare beauty and worth of ... an ordinary water sprayer. Metaphor tolerates the admixture of the real and the illusory as in ANGEL SKIN, DRAGON SKIN, and DREAMSPUN. And it may provide the muted joy of humor as in the calling of a raincoat a DOLPHIN or a pair of shoes KI-YAKS (but see also 5.28). The skin of DANSKINS (tights) exaggerates the most salient feature of the product; it verges on the hyperbolic. The platter of PLATTER-PAK, a record case, is a harmonic metaphor: not only are records similar in shape to platters, but they serve up appetizing fare. GLADE as the name of an air-freshener may have had a purely olfactory motivation; for us it contains much more (see 4.2). SHUR-RANE, an irrigation system, is singly but positively assertive. Perhaps the most daring and the potentially most powerful use of metaphor in the trade naming process is to be found in the single morpheme trade names of the styles of automobiles, particularly the compacts, for they "put all their eggs in one basket" so to speak; they essay to create a very complex multidimensional image with just one word. The role played by the automobile in the life of every American family and adult individual is very complex and not fully understood but it is beyond question that the car, more than any other single product of our industry, characterizes the American way of life — whatever that may be — a certain freedom of movement, a daring, an idolatry of power, a "need for speed" ... Despite his incomplete comprehension of the task, i.e. the total image to be created, the name-maker chooses his metaphor artfully and usually manages, by some indeterminable contrivance, to avoid potential negative connotations, COMETS, our informants tell us, are "shiny" and "bright" and "speedy"; no one mentions evanescence, DARTS, they say, are "swift" and "sure", but they do not say swift sure weapons. The word FALCON arouses sensations of speed, precision, obedience — but what happens to the part of the definition, always the first, which asserts a falcon to be a bird of prey trained to hunt and kill small game? Picture the panic at Ford Motors if the public should suddenly envision FALCONS seeking out and bearing down on small children trying to cross streets on their way to school! TEMPEST, too, seems to connote power and movement to the auto buyer, yet avoid the suggestion of violence and destruction. We know nothing of the nature of the mental process which permits this amelioration-fractionation and we wonder if the name-maker does, and if he has an instrument for measuring it. We think not. LANCER, for instance, though a martial and thus potentially destructive image, loses much of its connotation of destructiveness by virtue of its archaism, but by the same token it also loses power. LARK

seems to us a safer image; we found no potentially negative connotations of

94

AESTHETICS

it. Association questions elicited the responses "freedom", "gaiety", "song", "happy". The name SPRITE projects an image of diminutive proportions, pleasing appearance, ease and lightness of movement, supernatural power and capriciousness; the last seems rather to enhance than to diminish its acceptability. The metaphorical use of IMPALA is a work of art ahead of its time. The word does not occur in the three most widely used desk dictionaries, and only two of seventeen informants questioned knew its original meaning. The others just accepted it as a nice-sounding name for a car, although one mumbled hesitantly, "I don't suppose it has anything to do with impale." For the most purely poetic of the metaphorical trade names found in the corpus we nominate RAINMAKER, a kind of highball made of Bubble U p and Vodka. "The metaphorical process", states Edward Stankiewicz, "transcends the framework of concrete literary works, establishing a bridge between them and other works. ... poetry, or works of art in general, are most fully understood in the contex of other works, i.e. in the context of tradition." 7 RAINMAKER is one such work of art, a metaphor based on a metaphor from a popular Broadway play. The original metaphor designates a con man who, in spite of his purely selfish and mercenary interests, inadvertently performs the miracle (rainmaking was considered a miracle until relatively recently) of transforming people's personalities by giving them a newer, brighter outlook on life. For the play-goer there can be no more appropriate name for a pick-meu p until someone writes another play involving the experience of elation. 5.27 Miscellaneous Devices. — Among other devices which characterize poetic language we find the use of archaisms, calculated redundancies, and expressions of a synthetic nature — which Stankiewicz classifies as a special case of the metaphorical process. 5.271 Archaisms are found in QUIKEDGE, in which the morpheme quick has its older meaning of keen; WEED-B-GONE, an archaic imperative pattern; and BAGS-O-PLENTY < bags aplenty, an obsolete post positive adjective respelled. The base of ZAPONITE is an archaic literary form of what we today spell Japan. The y of YODORA might be construed an archaism (see 2.41); less likely, but possible, the use of the macron (see 1.27). 5.272 Redundancies and near-redundancies are common. Some of the more interesting : ZEPH-AIR (zephyr is air) and FEATHAIRE, NIBLETS < nible + et, a small, small bite, SONOTONE or sound sound, ROTO-CLONE or round round, PREDICASTS < predict and forecast, VISE-GRIP — what does a vise do but grip? — and VISTA-PANORAMIC or view-all-view, IMMUNOVAC is of this order. What is a vaccine for if not to immunize? And LIZAGATOR too, for alligators are one kind of lizard. We should probably list here also the aforementioned reduplicatives (5.12) and the commonplace '

Stankiewicz, p. 19.

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95

and SILK 'N SATIN. When used with generics, as they often are, MAZOLA oil is corn-oil-oil and Coats ONT thread is our-new-thread-thread. These uses are clear indication that the original meanings of the trade names have been lost. KIT ΚΑΤ

5.273 In the realm of synesthesia we find: LILT, a home permanent preparation, in which a word from the language of the modality of sound is used to refer to a phenomenon of the modality of sight; MUM in which the modalities transferred are sound and smell; and WHISPERWATE where they are sound and pressure. 5.28 Multiple Meaning. — In addition to the aesthetic devices already discussed, the qualities of "concentration and intensity" that so clearly distinguish poetic treatment 8 are often realized in the use of intentionally ambiguous sound sequences. "The lack of numerous inflectional suffixes and of a sharp distinction between word-classes is often converted in English poetry into a virtue. Thus modern poets, like e. e. cummings, exploit this ambiguity of class-membership as well as of unusual and ambiguous word-order, ambiguities which set the words outside the syntactic frame, lending greater emphasis to their semantic content." 9 We find numerous instances of just such exploitation in trade naming also. Consider, for instance, the mat of BRUSH-O-MAT which derives both from automatic and from the simplex mat, a small rug such as is put at doors, CALART is an acronymic formation from the first two words of California Artificial Flower Company, but the sequence art has additional implications. The Β of B-KLEER might have been acronymic in origin, the product being a bottle-washing compound, and/or it could have been originally conceived as an imperative as in WEED-B-GONE. The O's of CHEERIOS (first named Cheery Oats) and FROSTY O'S had acronymic origin — they are both oat cereals — but formatively the first completely overlaps the well-known British greeting; the latter might be classified with FLAKO and FLUFFO (2.41k). The ο of DRANO may, to some, suggest open; the product is, primarily, a drain opener. Are the park's of BOOT PARK and CAR PARK pure noun (place) or verb plus zero derivation? CAPADOR is an interesting creation carefully designed with multiple reference. It contains, phonetically, the morpheme adore which suggests "you will adore it", "you will look adorable in it", "people will adore you when you wear it". This same sound sequence is also a reduction of toreador, preserved in the graphic representation and in the order, CAPADORS are beaded barret-shaped beanies with a Spanish flair. Another arresting ambiguity is the discrepancy between the visual and the aural images received from such trade names as CORRECTOL, GARDOL, and IMMUNOL. Analysis of the graphic forms suggests simple derivational formation from verbal (whole or clipped) base plus commercial suffix. Aurally, however, the final syllable, being homophonous with the word all, suggests, rather, syntactic reductions of the assertions "This corrects all", "This guards all", "This immunizes all".

• Brooks and Warren, p. 125 and others. • Stankiewicz, p. 16.

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AESTHETICS

Contemplation of the trade name IMPREGNOLE reveals still another dimension of complexity, an ambiguity or multiple meaning, perhaps not even designed but growing out of the accidental identity of in- meaning in and in- meaning not, as in the case of the potentially dangerous inflammable, IMPREGNOLE is an oil which impregnates, i.e. permeates and saturates, textile material and thereby makes it impregnable to water. DRYSTIK is in the form of a stick, and it also sticks to everything, MYSTIK, on the other hand, also an adhesive, is not stick-shaped, but it clings as though by some mystical power, FARMCAST and HOGCAST are both, at once, forecasts and broadcasts; the second syllable carries the full meaning of both words, LINT-A-MAZE is both a maze (filter) and amazing, FAB, a soap for fine fabrics, takes on a quality of fabulousness as a result of prudent clipping. For those who know the proper names of the manufacturers, the formation FANTASOFT contains not only fantastically but also Fancourf, MORTITE is not only "more tight" than other weather stripping, it is Mortite: produced by Mort; SHAGORA is not only as soft as angora, it is made by Pandora. A BABY TENDA tends and is tender; DAYAMINS contain the mini mum daily requirement of vitam/ns; a DEN-SURE CUP makes sure your dentures get good care; a FROST-TEE is a /-shaped feether that's f r o s i j . The comp of JAINCOMP may have been clipped from either company or computer or from both, whereas RECOMP is a compact computer (see 2.41h). The smooth of MAN-SMOOTH has both literal and slang reference (cf. BREEZE). Similarly the sheer of SHEER GENIUS, a diaphanous cosmetic, and the top's of TOP BRASS and TOP SECRET, both hair preparations, have literal reference as individual words in addition to the meanings of the compounds in which they occur, SURE FIRE photo flash bulbs are not only bound to succeed (compound meaning) but they are literally sure to fire. The -er's of KLEENER and SLIMMER can be interpreted both as agentive and comparative. The /iz/'s of CHAFEZE, SLEEPEASE, and SOFT-EEZ, when heard but not seen, quite easily become the diminutive, hypocoristic suffix. The -s of ENNDS may be at once a nominal plural and a verbal singular inflection: "These pills are called ENNDS"; "This stuff ends bad breath". The η of GARD-N-GRO must belong to either garden or and in speech by virtue of stress, but in the sometimes greater eloquence of non-speech it can belong to both. A WASH-IN-NET is a wash««' net to wash lingerie in. We find both -ite and /rait/ in FILT-R-ITE; we see, though we cannot hear, the rite in ACCRITEM ; we hear, though we cannot see, the scent of HEAVENSENT, FLAIR as a name for a stylish cook stove must be considered a bit of a pun. STRIDE, for a floor wax, suggests not only walking but taking scuff in its stride, VIGORO contains, for us, both vigor and grow: the excrescent vowel in the latter even adds emphasis. The stat of LEKTROSTAT refers both to static (n) and, by analogic generalization, to an instrument of control. WILSOLVE not only will dissolve grease; it will solve your cleaning problems, POLLYFLEX is many (poly-) colored like a polly (parrot) and PYREX, for those who have the necessary associations, contains not only PYR- (Gr fire) but pie and rex.10 GRO-STUFF is "

Webster's New World Dictionary.

AESTHETICS

97

syntactically ambiguous: is it stuff that makes things grow, or does it (make) grow a lot of stuff? Do FRIENDMAKER suits make friends (purchasers) for themselves, or for those who buy and wear them? Aurally, GADGETEER contains tier as well as -eer\ it is a display rack which exhibits gadgets in tiers, SLIP-X eliminates slipping and it comes in the form of an X. SCRATCHEX, to the eye, has hex as well as ex — the hex of hexachlorophene, the active ingredient, and, for some, a hex (bewitchment) on the need for scratching, MAGNA-FLEX and MAGNAGRIP are both magnets; the magn- root serves both substantival and attributive functions simultaneously. A RAINCHEX checks the rain and is also covered with checks. RE-PELLS are pellets that repel, PRO-TEX is a textile which protects (cf. IMPAX 0.232). The class-membership ambiguity of TRIM (n/v/adj) affords multiple harmonic interpretations when the word is used as the trade name of a manicuring set. TRIG, we find, has come to English from two different sources, with two distinctly different meanings, both of which are particularly appropriate for the name of an anti-perspirant: trig (v.i.) to act as a check on moving < Icelandic tryggia, to make fast; and trig (adj.) neat, trim, smart, spruce < Gothic triggws, true, faithful. We doubt that these concepts are elicited, either consciously or subconsciously, in the mind of the average prospective purchaser. From the point of view of image building the creation probably belongs in a class with IMPALA (5.26). We include it here to illustrate the ingenuity of the name-maker in exploiting multiple meaning. Both up and pup are relevant in SCOOPUP (a long handled shovel for cleaning kennels), as are luni, a variant of loony, and uni in LUNI-CYCLE (a one-wheeled velocipede). TOTRUST contains both rust and trust; you can trust it to totally destroy rust. The /not/ of LADS OF KNOTE refers both to eminence and to musical notation; the factor of MALE FACTOR is both an element which contributes to the masculine quality of one's toilet and Max-the-maker's last name. Though SCOTKINS is formed on napkins, the suffix appears to regain some of its diminutive force which was lost with the passing of nape. SERV-ICE is a unique graphic end-haplology which discourages vocalization (see 1.4). TOPIC is for topping and it is, in addition, if we are to believe the name, worthy of rhetorical discussion. The hyphen in KI-YAKS does more than indicate pronunciation: it "frees" the morpheme yak, a slang term meaning to talk a great deal. In the fashion world it is important for things to be talked about a great deal. Only the best styles occasion yakking. 5.3 The Steroscopic Image. — Perhaps the trade names whose process of creation most closely parallels that of the purely aesthetic are those which fall into the category generally referred to as portmanteau words, telescoped words, or blends. 11 The method of their coinage, the superposition of one word upon another, though often attributed to Lewis Carroll as a result of his widely-read characterization of it in "Through the Looking Glass", is really much older — perhaps as old as the language 11

For other names by which this type of word is designated see Wentworth.

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AESTHETICS

itself, or more. Louise Pound gives us examples from Shakespeare and from Wiclif, and other, older coinages from German and from French. 12 What distinguishes blends, as we shall call them, from names made by other wordformation processes (Chapters 2 and 3) and from those discussed just above (5.28) is the intentional obviousness of their motivation, the brashness of their insistence that the decoder shall receive two or more messages simultaneously. This attempt to abolish the linear-ness of language is a linguistic art akin to the technique of the cubist painter who purposely distorts and superimposes one figure upon another to emphasize the multi-dimensionality of the inner reality — the non-linearness of mental images. This art, widely practiced by certain journalists, sportswriters, movie and radio press agents and, most persistently by the staff writers of TIME13 may be seen in its greatest perfection in the vocabulary of James Joyce who exploits his facile command of many languages, living and dead, to create by distortion "words" of many different meanings, each applicable, but each in a different way, to the context in which the created word is used. 14 And in so doing he "respects the intonation" of the individual source words whose sounds he distorts. 15 The name-makers whose blends are represented in our corpus do not begin to approach the artistic accomplishments of Joyce, but their process and their objectives are the same as those of the literary master — and some of their creations are well worth noting from an artistic as well as from a commercial point of view. Consider, for instance, the concentration of information conveyed by such trade names as BISQUICK, CONTEMPORA, EVERLASTIC, GLAMPOO, IN-SINKERATOR, LOLLI-PUPS, SCHOO-

(which has, in addition to soya and mayonnaise, the suggestion that the prospective purchase will be amazed by its goodness), SUNBRELLA and LOTTES, SOYAMAISE

SWING-CHRONIZER, TANFASTIC a n d TANSATION.

Other blends, already mentioned in different contexts, are ADAPTABLE, A-RESTO-CRAT and ARISTO-MATS, BI-FIDELITY, LEESURES — slacks for leisure by Lees — , NOSH-A-RYE, and PASS-I-FIER. To these we add AB-SCENT — a deodorizer, ADHEZIP, AZALEAMUM, BONANZA SPLIT, BOOM-A-RING,CARA-RYE, CAR-BE-CUE, CHOC-A-LOT, DISPOSALL, EXECUTARY, FURNI-CHEER, HOMERICA, PETTIPANTS, REFRIGARRANGER, SEEBRELLA, SWIFT'NING - A

shortening by Swift, and WRAPARONG < wraparound and sarong, all of which are quite transparent. Probably requiring somewhat more context for comprehension are the shorter SPAM .spiced ham, PREAM powdered cream, SKROODLES screw-shaped noodles, ROYLIES Roy&\ doilies, TRINSE — a /ravel rinse, and TWISSORS, an instrument which has the characteristics of both iweezers and scissors, EGGTOBER is positively surrealistic; it is the thirteenth month — like the thirteenth bun of the baker's dozen — of profits that you receive when you feed your hens with feeds containing terramycin. " "

14

"

Pound (1), pp. 4-6. Mencken (2) pp. 330-340 and any issue of Time. For examples of Joycian multi-lingual blends see Moholy-Nagy, pp. 341-350. Schlauch, p. 483.

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99

5.4 Conclusion. — Some of the name-makers are truly masters of many of the techniques used by our greatest literary artists. A random sampling of trade names amply illustrates their effective use of rhyme and rhythm, figure, imagery, symbolism, and the intentional ambiguity and multiple meaning which characterize the vivid, intense, and terribly concentrated kind of shorthand we call poetry.

6.

SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATION

6.1 Summary. — Reading into the Lippincott and Margulies statement, that finding names for new products is a marketing crisis, the implication that our engineers are more ingenious than our language manipulators, we decided to examine a sample of trade names with the intention of apprehending, if possible, the creative process involved in their making, and of setting forth the resulting productive patterns available for the creation of new trade names in the future. A corpus of 2000 trade names was collected and a preliminary examination of the items was made to determine the sources of the linguistic material of which they were composed. For all except 33 items, many of which we found to be products of a computer, we were able to state specifically the sources, which were found to be either proper names, words, or morphemes of English or of commonly-known morphemes from other languages with which speakers of English have contact. Noting that for many items the most distinctive feature was a departure from orthographic tradition, we then listed the departures and classified them into a limited number of patterns. Comparing these with spelling changes known to have occurred in the language over a period of centuries we found many parallels, the notable exception being that some trade names exhibit elements of syllabary spelling which has never been used in the serious recording of English. We next examined some of the word-formation processes illustrated in the corpus: (1) rearrangement — changing the order of letters, sound segments, syllables, or words; (2) shortening — clipping off the beginning or the end of a word, usually at a syllable boundary; (3) acronaming — creating names from initials or initial sequences; (4) affixing — adding a prefix or a suffix; and (5) a process we called pseudo-compounding which is midway between affixing and compounding of clipped words. Finding well over one-third of the items in the corpus to be composed of two or more words put together in ways that English words in general are compounded, we then classified these compound trade names on the basis of the syntactic relations existing between their components. In so doing we expressed our conviction that compounds are reduced predications, and that compound trade names make statements about the products and services they name. In the same chapter we defined and classified phrase-names, sentence-names, and names formed by functional shift. From consideration of the process of functional shift, we progressed to a contempla-

SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATION

101

tion of names created by re-assignment or semantic shift. Our attempt to fathom the genesis of these items led us to a perusal of studies of motivation research, word association, representational mediation theory, and mnemonics. Finally, we noted in some detail the poetic devices exploited by the trade name makers. 6.2 Findings and Conclusions. — Our attempt to ferret out all the substance of certain of the more intricate trade names in our corpus has left us with an overwhelming consciousness and awe of the complexity of language, and a realization that our determination to iterate the mental machinations involved in the creation of 2000 trade names was not a realistic one. Nevertheless, we do not feel that the spirit of trade naming has entirely eluded us. In its simplest form, the trade name is a descriptive statement — true or false — about a product or service to be marketed, which has been disguised or altered in some way, such as a re-spelling or a new compounding, to make it distinctive. In its most profound form, it is a work of fine art — an eloquent one-word poem. Trade names, we find, by and large, come about in the same ways as other names — names of people and places and things and ideas. There is no one specific feature that characterizes the trade name. Variant spellings are used more frequently in trade naming than in other kinds of naming, but we find them also in personal names and occasionally in place names: Jane and Jayne; Smith, Smithe, Smyth, and Smythe; Mackinac and Mackinaw. The use of a portion of a word to convey the meaning conveyed by a whole word, particularly in compounds, as mat for automatic or tron for electronic — a practice often commented upon in popular articles as being peculiar to trade naming — we discovered to be a phenomenon common to all IE languages which dates back at least as far as we have written records of them. The development of suffixes from free forms, or from reductions of free forms, a phenomenon common in trade naming, we found also to be a normal process of language change, one convincingly exemplified in English by the transparent cases of -ful < full and the adverbial -ly < lie, an older form of like. Indeed, we learned that even inflectional suffixes in some cases can be traced to reductions of free forms: "Zwischen

Wortbildung

und flexion besteht

heit; letzere ist nur eine Weiterentwicklung

keine absolute, der erstem"

ursprungliche

[I.e. sie]

Verschieden-

1

As for the semantic content of mutilated forms, what is lost and/or retained unquestionably depends more on environment and context than on any consideration of the points of clipping. This, too, we find to be true not only of trade names. Bazell gives us ample evidence that the sememe and the morpheme are not in any sense identical. "To seek a semantic unit within the boundaries of a word simply because these boundaries are clearer than others, is like looking for a lost ball on the lawn 1

Ludwig, p. 115.

102

SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATION

simply because the thicket provides poor ground for a search."2 The same opinion is substantiated by Sturtevant's study of blends,3 by Bolinger's morpheme analysis4 and by Mezger's observations of IE formatives.5 And as for the "goodness" or "badness" of names — let us not say appropriateness, for we are not at all sure that a trade name need be appropriate — as we said before (4.0), of this we have no measure. It is all very well for Hopkins to state that an ill-chosen name loses trade6 but he gives no evidence, nor can he. It is easy for Lippincott and Margulies to blame the failure of the Edsel on its "incredibly selected" inept name7 but we are sure that had it offered the style and performance of the Lincoln Continental at the price and economy of the Ford it would be the number one seller today regardless of what it was called. Is Daisy a "good" name for a canopener? Perhaps. At least as good as Petunia or Morning Glory. Though we can claim little knowledge of the techniques of marketing, it is our considered opinion that Daisy owes its success largely to the facts that it is well-designed, sturdily constructed, moderately priced, and widely advertised. A name may catch the eye or the ear and hold its attention; it may capture the imagination, or appeal to a specific aesthetic sensitivity, but unless the product with which it is associated meets the needs, physical or psychological, of the purchaser, a name will not guarantee a repeat sale where there is a competing product. It can, however, we are convinced, contribute to the acceptability of or the preference for a satisfactory product, other things being equal. 6.3 Implication. — The one clear implication seems to be that if other things are equal, and if our entrepreneurs are convinced that "the name's the thing", they will see to it that the names of their new products are created by literary artists. As for what will happen then — we are reminded of an analogy drawn by I. A. Richards in his discussion of attitudes: "A man walking over uneven ground makes, without reflection or emotion, a continuous adjustment of his steps to his footing; but let the ground become precipitous and both reflection and emotion will appear. The increased complexity of the situation and the greater delicacy and appropriateness of the movements required for convenience and safety, call forth far more complicated goings on in the mind." 8 If the situation is really as critical as the Messrs. Lippincott and Margulies say, we predict some very complicated goings on in the minds of the trade name makers of the future.

J

Bazell (2), p. 30. » Sturtevant, p. 111. 4 Bolinger (2). 5 Mezger, whole article. • Hopkins, p. 96. ' Lippincott and Margulies, p. 50. • Richards, p. 109.

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APPENDIX

THE CORPUS ABDEC ABDO-FIT ABDO-LIFT ABRACOTE ABRASALLOY ABRASEX ABREVIATEX AB-SCENT ABSO-DRY ABSO-MATIC ABSOPURE ABSORBIT ABSORB-OYL ACCELOGLOS ACCENT ACCLI BATOR ACCOLON ACCORDOFOLD ACCOTEX ACCRITEM ACCURATRIM ACCUTRON ACE HESIVE ACHROSURGIC ACIDEX ACIDO ACIDON ACITEX ACITHERM ACITITE ACLOHIDE ACMEFLEX ACMELENE ACMELOID ACMELUX ACMETEX ACMETYLE ACNECARE ACNOMEL ACOUSTACOLOR

ACOUSTEEL ACOUSTICON ACOUSTIDECK ACOUSTIFIBRE ACOUSTIFLEX ACOUSTIMETAL ACOUSTINET ACOUSTIROC ACOUSTOLIGHT ACOUSTONE ACRATHERM Α CRΑWATT ACRILAN ACRILUX ACRONITE ACROPLANE ACROSONIC ACROTEX ACRYLOID ACRYLUX ACRYSOL ACRYTEX ACTIONFLEX ACTIV-8 ACTIVISIBLE ACTIVO ACTROL ACU-MATH ADACHROME ADA-COTE ADAFLINT AD-AIRE AD-A-LITE ADAPT-A-FRAME ADAPTABLE AD APTAHORN ADAPTIC ADAPTOMATIC ADA-STIC ADATROL

ADD-A-LIMB ADD-A-PEARL ADDIATOR ADDIPHONE ADDRESSERETTE ADEX AD FINISH ADHERITE ADHERZAL ADHESE-AWAY ADHEZIP ADJUST-A-DESK ADJUST-A-DOCK ADJUSTA-FIT ADJUSTA-FLO ADJUST-A-STRAPS ADJUSTAT ADJUSTA-TROL ADJUST-A-VIDER ADJUSTO-CORD ADJUSTOE ADJUSTOFLEX ADJUSTO-KWIK ADJUST-O-MATIC ADJUSTO-TUBE ADJUSTOVEYOR ADLUX ADORN AERO POL AERO SHAVE AFTER TAN AGILON AGRICO AIREFINER AIRE-LON AIREQUIPT AIREX AIR-FRESH AIRGUIDE AIR LIFT

AIRLON AIR MAID AIR MALE AIR STEPS ALAMAC ALDRIN ALFOL ALITALIA ALKA-SELTZER ALL ALLABOUT ALLEREST ALL-SAW ALPHACAPS ALPINER ALPO ALSIDE ALUBRITE ALUMI-GLO AMBASSADOR AMBROSIA AMCOATS AMERITEX AMEROCK AMM-I-DENT AMOLIN AMOSAN ANACIN ANCHORGLASS ANEFRIN ANGEL FACE ANGEL SKIN ANIDON ANKORITE ANSCOCHROME AN-SPEC ANT DINER ANTRON APECO AQUASCUTUM

APPENDIX AQUA-VAC AQUA VELVA A-RESTO-CRAT AR-EX ARGO ARISTO-MATS ARNEL ARRESTIN ARRID ARTEX ASPERGUM ASTRONARIUM ATLAS ATRAZINE AUDIOTAPE AUDIVOX AUDOGRAPH AVICOLOR AZALEAMUM BABEE TENDA BABI-GARD BAC-A-BELT BACTINE BAF BAG KADDIE BAGS-O-PLENTY BAIL-KWIK BALL-O-FOOT BAN BANCARE BANCLOK BAND-AID BANISH BAN-LON BAN-O-TRAY BAR-B-TABLE BARCOTONE B-CLEEN BEADS-O-BLEACH BEAU BEAUNIT BEAUTIFLOR BEAUTY ICE BEAUTY-MASK BEAUTYREST BEEFARONI BEEFBURGER BELT-ONS BELTX BEMBERG BERAQUEENS BERNZ-O-MATIC BEST-FLEX BICILLIN Bl-FIDELITY BILLY THE K I D

BIO-MIRACLE BIO-SHAMPOO BISODOL BISQUICK B-KLEER BLACK JACK BLANCHIT BLEM BLENDETTE BLISTEX BLISTIK BLUEGRASS BLUE JAY BLUE LUSTRE BLUETTES BOAT BOAT-A-RAMA BOILTEX BONANZA SPLIT BONDEX BOOKETERIA BOOKMOBILE BOOK NOOK BOOM-O-RING BOONTONWARE BOOT PARK BORAXO BORGLASKA BOSCO BOWLENE BOWLER-RAMA B-PLEX BRAKE BRASSO BREAST-OCHICKEN BREEZE BREMIL BRICK-STIX BREWMASTER BRONZTAN BROWN 'N SERVE BRUSH 'N ROLL BRUSH-O-MAT BRYLCREEM BT BUBBLE UP BUFFERIN BUG TABS BUGS AWAY BULK-E-KNIT BULGES AWAY BUMPITS BURGER CHEF BURLON BUR-MIL

CABLEX CACHE-KNITS CAD-KOTE CADMAX CAFCO CAFOTAN CAKELITE CALART CALAVO CALBESTOS CALBODY CALCUFIT CALCULAGRAPH CALCULAIDE CALCULITE CALCUMETER CALEMONA CALENDATER CALFEEDER CALGONITE CAMBRI CHECK CAMEL CANARAMIC CANDETTES CAN-O-MAT CAN-O-MATIC CANTRECE CAPADORS CARA-RYE CAR-BE-CUE CARDS IN THE ROUND CARNU CAR-PARK CARRI-ALL CARRY-ON-CASE CARTOSE CARVE AID CASCADE C-CLEAR-THRU CEDA-PAD CED AROMA CELACLOUD CELAIRE CELANESE CELAPERM CELATRESS CELESTA CELLUTEX CELO-ROCK CELOTEX CEMENTIQUE CERAGLASS CERTO CERTS CESS-KLEEN

107 C-FOAM CHAFEZE CHALLA CLOTH CHAP STICK CHARCO BURGER CHARKETS CHAR-KOLE CHASE-A-AWAY CHECK MAILERS CHEER CHEERI-AID CHEERIOS CHEESEBURGER CHEESEBUSTER CHEESE KABOB CHEESE-NIPS CHEES-'N-SALAMI CHEMEX CHEM-O-CEL CHERACOL CHICLETS CHIFFON CHLORODENT CHOC-A-LOT CHOCKS CHORD-A-MATIC CHORE GIRL CHROMCRAFT CHROMELITE CHROMSPUN CHRONOTABS CHUBBETTE CIELLA CINEPHONIC CINERAMA CINETRONIC CIRCOLAIR CLAMP-O-FRAME CLEAN-O-MATIC CLEARASIL CLEAR COAT CLIMATROL CLIPIT CLOROX CLOSET MAID CLOUD 9 CLUE COATARAMA COCA COLA COCCIVAC CODIT COFFEEMATIC COLD-CUT KABOB COLDENE COLD FLEX COLONAID

108 COLORAMA COLORBRITE COMBEX COMET COMFO-PEDIC COMFO-TIGHTS COMMAIRE COMMENTARY COMPLI-FIT CONOCO CONSTANT COMMENT CON-TACT CONTEMPORA CONTROCAL COOL-RAY COOL-STRIDE COORDI-KNITS COPPER GLO COPPERTONE COPYFLEX COPYMAKER CORDOMATIC CORD-O-MATIC CORDURA CORN CHEX CORN STICK COROBEX CORONET CORRECTOL CORSETORIUM CORVAL COSMOPOLITAN COTRON COVERMARK COVERSPECS CRACKER BARREL CRAFTINT CRAWLZ NO MORE CRAYOLA CREME BOATS CRESLAN CREST CRISCO CRUSHETTE CUE CURL-KEEP CURVALLURE CURVFIT CUSTOM-TEX CUTEX CUTICURA CYSTEX DAB DACRON DANDERINE

APPENDIX

DANSKINS DAROLITE DART DATA-PHONE DAYALETS DAYAMIN DAY-N-NIGHT DAYTEENS DECAF DECTON DEFT DEGLOSSER DEHUMIDI-COILS DEK-ALL DELECTAVITES DEL-O DE-MOIST DEN-SHUR CUP DENTA-KLEEN DENTOTAPE DENTU-CREME DENTUREX DENTUR-EZ DENTUR-KLEEN DERUSTO DESENEX DESK PORTER DESERT DRI DETECTO DETECTO-STICK DETROITER DEXTRI-MALTOSE DIAL DIALAMATIC DIAL-A-NEEDLE DIAMON-DEB DIAMOND-ITE DIAR-AID DICTYCIDE DI-DEE DUNK DIELDRIN DIET-SNAX DIMSWITCH DINOBEN DIPHACIN DIP-IT DIRTEX DISC-O-FELT DISNEYKINS DISPOS-A-BOWL DISPOSALL DISS-CHROME DM D.O.C. DOE-LON DOG TYE

DOLPHIN DOOREASE DOOZIT DORMIN DOVE DOWGARD DOWNTURN DRAGON SKIN DRANO DREAMSPUN DRENCH COAT DRI-DON DRI-GLO DRISTAN DRIZZLER DROP OFF DRYSTIK DRY-WASH DU-BON-ETTE DUCO DUOFOLD DUPLI-COLOR DURABALANCE DURA-BRASS DURA-QUIET DURATEX DUSTIKINS DUSTO DUSTY MAID DUZ DYDEE DOLL-E DYLITE DYNALLOY DYNATONE EARLIANA EASY EASY MARK EASY-OFF EASY ON EAT-A-VOO EBONETTES EBONY EDGE'N'HOE EFFECTO EGGTOBER EIDERLON ELASTIC SHOE ELASTRATOR ELECTRASOL ELECTROLUX EMBA EMKAY ENCO ENDAC ENDEN END-O-PEST

END-O-WEED ENDRIN ENDUST ENFAMIL ENGINAIR ENGLISH LEATHER ENKA ENNDS EPOXYCON ERR-AWAY ESKILOOS ETERNA-MATIC EVEN-EVEN EVENFLO EVER-BRITE EVER-DRI EVEREADY EVERFAST EVERGLAZE EVERLASTIC EVERLON EVERSHARP EVERSHINE EXACTO EXCEDRIN EXCELLO EXECUTARY EX-LAX EXPAND-O-BUTTON EXTAR EXTRAXDUST EYE-GENE EZERASE E-Z KAMPER EZO E.Z.PAINTER FAB FABREX FABRIC-ON FABSPRAY FABULASTIC FAB-U-LAWN FABULON FADE-OMETER FAIRLANE FALCON FAN-O-TROL FANTA-SOFT FANTOMWATE FARMCAST FASTEETH FASTI ME FATENA FEATHAIRE FEDRA WAX FEEN-A-MINT

APPENDIX

FEMS FERTO-STICKS FIBERGLAS FIBREGARD FILTERAMIC FILTER-FLO FILT-R-ITE FINE-O-METER FINISH FIRECHIEF FIREFAILLE FITZ-ALL FLAIR FLAKO FLAMESCENT FLAVO-MATIC FLAXOAP FLEXACHROME FLEXEES FLEX-FOAM FLEXI-SPRAY FLEXI-TUFT FLEX-N-FLOAT FLEXNIT FLEX-O-GLASS FLEXO-HITCH FLEX-O-LETTE FLEX-O-MOCS FLEXPORT FLEX-VAC FLIGHT-LIGHTS FLINTKOTE FLIP-A-FLAP FLIT FLO-MASTER FLO-MATIC FLO-MOR FLORABUNDA FLORA-CHEQUE FLORIENT FLOWER-A-RANGE FLOWER GUARD FLUFFO FLUFF OUT FLYCAKE FLY DEAD FLY KOP FOLD-O-HINGE FOODLINER FORMFIT FORTISAN FORTREL FORTUNE FOSTEX FREE-FLEX FREEZE-N-STORE

FREEZETTES FRESH FRESHLIKE FRESHURA FREZEMASTER FRI-DRI FRIENDMAKER FRIGIDAIRE FRILLIKINS FROST GUARD FROST-TEE FROSTY O'S FUJIETTE FURNI-CHEER FUTURA FUTURAMA FUTURITY GADGETEERS GAGETRON GALITROL GALLEY-QUE GALLICIDE GALUSTRE GALVA-DURA GALVANOX GALVANUM GALVEX GAMELITES GAMMOMETER GARBINATOR GARB-O-LINERS GARBRIDDER GARDEN-GARD GARDENLITE GARDEX GARD-N-GEM GARD-N-GRO GARDOL GARDTOES GARMENTVEYOR GARTAN GAYLANA GAYTOP GERITOL GERITOL JUNIOR GET SET GETS-IT G-LAC GLADE GLAMORENE GLAMPOO GLASBAKE GLASS KEEPER GLASS-O-NET GLEEM GLENTEX

GLO-COAT GLYCAMIDE GOLOS GOOD-AIRE GOOP GRAPETTE GRASSHOPPERS GRAVY TRAIN GREASE-OFF GREEN THUMB GRIPTEX GRO-BRA GROCETERIA GRO-STUF GUARD-O-MATIC GUIDE-MATIC GUMOUT GUNSLICK GYM-DANDY H-A HAF-A-JAMA HALO HANDI-ADD HANDI-BAKE HANDIWRAP HANDY ANDY HANDYMAN HANDY MANDY HANG-IT-ALL HAPPI-JAMA HAP-P-NUT HARAWAY HARD AS NAILS HARDTOP HARROWEEDER HATCH-A-PLANT HAVAHART HAV-A-SEAT HEALTHI-POOL HEALTH-TEX HEAT-A-CUP HEAVENSENT HELANCA HELPEE SELFEE HEP HEPTACHLOR HIBERNATOR HI-BOY HI-C HI-D HIDE-A-BASKET HIDE-IT HI-G HILL-HOLDER HI-N-DRI HIPAWAY

109 HIP-NIP HISTOMAP HOGCAST HOL-DEM HOLD-IT HOLD-STER HOLIDAY HOME-A-MINUTE HOMELITE HOMERAMA HOMERICA HOPSACK HORIZON HOTRAY HT-1 HUSH-A-DUCT HUSH PUPPIES HYDRO-CHECK HYGROMIX HYSORB I-APPEAL IBECO ICEGUARD ICE MILK ICE-O-BAR ICE-O-BOX ICE-O-DERM ICE-O-MAT ICE-O-MATIC ICE-THAW ICEX I-DENS IDENTO-TAGS INDENTRA I-HEAL-U ILCO IMCOR IMMUNOL IMMUNOVAC IMPACTOOL IMPALA IMPAX IMPERIAL IMPERVION IMPERVITE IMPERVITEX IMPERVO IMPREGNOLE IMPRESS INDIO INFANSEAT INFLATE-A-FORM IN-SINK-ERATOR INSTANTINE INSTANT LANGUAGE RECORDS

110 INSTANT SEW INSTANT SPARE INTERCOMS IN-ZIPS I-O-BRITE IRI-GATOR IRON 'Ν MEND ISODETTES I-SOL JAINCOMP JAMA-BLANKET JAMOLITE J & Β JAPELLENT JAPONEX JATO JAYANELL JAYBEECO JEFFILAC JEFFLEX JELEX JELL-O JEL-O-SERT JERM-O-NOX JESTS JET-COOL JET CREW JET-DRI JETGO JETLINER JET-O-CIDE JET-OIL JET-O-MAT JETSPUN JET-STRIP JIFFY BAG JIFFY SEW JIG TIME JOBMASTER JOLLY ROLL JONNY MOP JOY JUBILEE JUNIORITE JUST-A-DROP J-WAX KAMCLAD KANANA KANT BITE KANTSCAR KARDKO KAR-GO KARO KEDETTES KEDS KEM-GLO

APPENDIX

KEM-TONE KEN-L-RATION KEY KADDY KEY-NOTER KICKERINOS KIDDIE KEEPER KIL-GLARE KIMLON KINGMATICS KING-OF-EASE KING-PAK KIRKLON KITCHENAID KIT ΚΑΤ KITT'N-GORA KI-YAKS KLEENER KLEENEX KLEEN FLOOR KLEENSTEAM KLEER-VUE KLUTCH KNITTIN' PRETTY KODACHROME KODACOLOR KODEL KOFFEEKIT KOJEL KOLD KUP KOLD SKUTTLE KOLOR-KALK KOMFO-PADS KOOKMASTER KOOL-AID KOOL HOSE KOOLSHADE KOPYKAT KORLANE KOTEX KOW-KARE KROGO KROMEKOTE KROMEX K-RUB KRYLON KURLASH KURLEY KUT KUROTEX KUT'N'SERV KWIKEEZE KWIK-LITE LACTUM LADS OF KNOTE LADY BORDEN LADYBUG LADY KENMORE

LADY LONG LEGS LADY MARLENE LAMBURGER LAM-FUR LANACANE LANCER L & Μ LANOLITE LANOL WHITE LARK LASHBRITE LASH-KOTE LASTEX LASTIC LIFE LATEX LAUDROCOIN LAVA-PAD LAVORIS LAWN-BOY LAYETTE LEAF SHINE LE CHIC LEESURES LEISURECARE LEISUREWEAR LEKTROSTAT LESH-KNIT LESTARE LESTOIL LETTADEX LIFE LIFE SAVERS LIFT-LITE LIGHT & BRIGHT LILT LILTKILT LIMELIM LINE-O-HEAT LINK LINT-A-MAZE LINT-E-JECTOR LIP-EZE LIQUA-LINER LIQUID PLUMR L1QUIMAT LIQUIPRIN LIQUITILE LISTERINE LISTO LITE LITTLE HELPER LIZAGATOR LOF-GLASS LOLLI-PUPS LOLLI-TARDS LOOK

LUCITE LUCKY STRIKE LUMI-CARE LUNCH-IN-ETTE LUNI-CYCLE LURVEL LUSHUS LUSTRO-WARE LUX LYCRA LYT-ALL MADCAPS MAGIC CHEF MAGICOLOR MAGIC-RUB MAGIC TOUCH MAGIKOTER MAGI-STIK MAGNA-FLEX MAGNAGR1P MAGNAJECTOR MAGNALITE MAGNAVIEW MAGNAVOX MAIDENFORM MAIL CADDY MAKE-A-STAMP MALE FACTOR MALE POUCH MALT-O-MEAL MANSMOOTH MANTAN MAP-O-MEASURE MARBLE-LUS MARKS-A-LOT MARKWELL MAR-O-OIL MARVELON MARVELUSTRE MARX-A-COPTER MASONITE MASSAGEMATIC MATEY MAXFLI MAYBELLINE ΜΑΥΡΟ MAZOLA MEDICARE MEDICO MEDI-QUIK MELT MELTAMINS MERITENE METRECAL METRO-MITE MEXENE

APPENDIX

MEZURMATIC MICROLITE MICRO-LUBE MICRO-TWEEZE MILCO MIL-DU-GAS MILIUM MILKY WAY MILNOT MINALITE MINICARE MINKLAM MIN-MAX MINTRATES MIRA-COOL MIRAFOAM MIRRA-COTE MIRRO-MATIC MISTER MUSTARD MISTER SOFTEE MIX'N MATCH MIX-STIR M-O MODESS MOHARA-LITE MONRO-MATIC MOON DROPS MOORGARD MOORLASTIC MORPUL MORTITE MOSCO MOSFILM MOTH CLOUD MOTO-MOP MOTO-MOWER MOTOROLA MOUNTIES MOUSE COFFIN MR. CLEAN MR. SLICK MULTI-VI MUM MURINE MUSICAL RAMA MUSTEROLE MUTONES MYLAR MYSTIK NABISCO NAILDRI NAILMASTER NAIR NATURE NATURFLEX NEBURON

NECTAROMA NEOLITE NESTEA NEW AWAKENING NIBLETS NINE LIVES NITE-AIRES NODÖZ NOISEGUARD NORELCO NORTH-TEX NO-SEW NOSH-A-RYE NO SLIP NO-WEIGHT NOXEMA NUBREST NU-DIET NUFIT NUM-ZIT NURSMATIC NUSOFT NUTRENA NUTRI-MATIC NUTRINE NUTRI-TONIC NYLAST NYLOFT NYLONGE NYLOVEL NYROL NYTREL OAKEX OAKOMETER OAKWELD OCAS O-CELL-O OCTA-TUBE ODA-WICK ODORGON ODORONO O.F.C. OFF OLAC ONE-A-DAY ONE-WIPE ON-GUARD O.N.T. ONLIWON ORA ORA-FIX ORLON OVALINE OVALTINE OVEN-BRITE OVENETTE

OXYDOL OYSTERBORN PAD-LOCK PAK-A-ROBE PAK-A-WAY PANATONE PANDEES PANELESCENT PAN-FREE PANOVITE PANT-RAK PAPERMATE PAPER-OFF PARD PAR-T-PAK PASS-I-FIER PATTY-O PECHGLO PECTORAL PEDS PEEK-A-BREW PEEKANEL PENCALE PENNZOIL PENSTIX PENTRED PENWORTHY PEP PEPSI COLA PEPTO-BISMOL PERCLIPS PERFECTYPE PERFRON PERK-UPS PERM PERMA-CHAR PERMA-COIF PERMA-FINISH PERMA-LIFT PERMA-LITE PERMA-PLUG PERMA-STONE PERMATHAL PERMAWEAR PERSIAN PRINCESS PERSTOP PERSUADE PERTUSSIN PETTIPANTS PHANTOM WASTE PHILGAS PHONE CADDY PHONO-TRIX PHOSDRIN PIANO BAR PIC

111 PIC-A-PUFF PICK-A-PACK PICK-A-POWER PIGEMIA PIGGY-BACK PILLOW WALKS PINE-SOL PINEX PIN IT PINKISSIMO PIXALL PLAHELTH PLAN PLANTABBS PLANT PENS PLANTRAY PLANTSCAPE PLASTI-BONE PLASTICLOTH PLASTIC WOOD PLASTIGLASS PLASTI-KOTE PLASTI-LINER PLASTRA-TONE PLATTER-PAK PLEATS 'Ν PEARLS PLEDGE PLENAMINS PLEXIGLAS PLUGMOLD POLIDENT POLI-GRIP POLLYFLEX POLYMULSION POLYNOSIC PORKORIUM POR-ROK POR-SO-KLEEN PORTA-FILE PORTA-GATE PORT-A-WHEELS PORTO-PEDS POST-TENS POST-TRONIC POSTUM POSTURE-MATIC POWER HOUSE POWERMATIC POW-R-BOY PRAISE PREAM PREDICASTS PRELL PREM PRES-A-PLY PRESTO-SET

112 PRIVATE EYE PRO-RAY PROTECTO-CAPS PROTECTO-O-LITE PROTECT-O-MATIC PRO-TEX PRYME PUFFS PURINA PURITRON PUROLATOR PURR PURSETTES PUSS 'N BOOTS PYREX PYROFAX Q-9 Q-ROK QT Q-T QUADNUMATIC QUADRAFOS QUADRA-PLUG QUADREX QUADRILL QUADROVAN QUADRUS QUAKEROL QUAKERTROL QUALATEX QUALISTAT QUALITEX QUALITHERM QUALITROL QUALITRULE QU ANTI-THERM QUANTOGRAPH QUARAMIC QUARTECTOR QUATROIL QUENCH-O QUICKFREZ QUICK APART QUICK-CURE QUICKFLITE QUICKGAGE QUICK-GLO QUICKHESIVE QUICKIGHT QUICKLUSTRE QUICK-ON QUICK-SOL QUICKSTART QUICK-STOP QUICK-TITE QUICK-TRIM

APPENDIX QUICKWALL QUICK-X QUICK-ZIP QUIETEX QUIET-FLEX QUIET-HEAT QUIET-KOIL QUIET-MO QUIETONE QUIET-RITER QUIETYPE QUIK QUIKANINK QUIKARD QUIK-BANDS QUIK-BILT QUIK-DIP QUIKEDGE QUIKGO QUIKHETER QUIK KLEEN QUIK-KUT QUIKO QUIKOLD QUIK PAC QUIKSEEL QUIKSHARP QUIKSITE QUIK-TEMP QUIK-TEX QUIK-TOTER QUIK-TYE QUILTFLEX QUILTRESS QUINK QUIN-O-LENE QUINSANA QUINTONE QUINTEX QUIXAM QUIXET QUIXIGN QUIXOL QUIZMO QWIK-BRIK QWIK-FLO QWIK-OPEN RAINCHEX RAIN DEARS RAINMAKER RAMBL-CORD RAMPSIDE RANDOX RAP RAPIDIGGER RAY-BAN

RAYMASTER READY DIET REAL KEEN RECOMP RECORDAK RED-E RED HOT REDI-SPARE REDI-SPRAY REDUCE-EZE REFLECTO-LITE REFRIG-ARRANGER REFRIG-DEFROST REFRIG-O-PEGS RALAX-CINCH RENT-A-CAR RENUZIT RE-PELLS RESC-U-TUBE RESINOL RESISTRON RESP-R-AID REVERB REX-EME REZILTUF RID-JID RIGHT G U A R D RIH/LIT RINGO RINSE AWAY RINSO RIT ROAD-E-O ROKA ROLADEX ROLAIDS ROLLABOUT ROLL-A-MAGIC ROLL-A-MATIC ROLL-A-NOTE ROLL-A-RACK ROLLASH ROLLMASTER ROPE-WICK ROTICUL ROTOCAN ROTO-CLONE ROTO-EDGER ROTO-HOE ROTO LITE ROTO-MAGIC ROTO-ROOTER ROTO-SHINE ROTO TILLER ROYALEDGE ROYLIES

RUBBERMAID RUBEROID RUG FROST RUG-STA RUST-OLEUM RY-KRISP SABLE SOFT SACO-FLEK SACOLITE SAF-T-HED SAF-T-NEES SAF-TRED SAKRETE SALEM SAMSONITE SAMTHUR SANALAC SANFORIZED SANGAREE SANI FLUSH SANI-SCANTS SANI-WHITE SANKA SARAKA SATINGLAS SATOUR SAVOR-RITE SCALEXTRIC SCHOOLOTTE SCOOPUP SCORE CADDY SCOTCH-BRITE SCOTCHLITE SCOTKINS SCOTTFOAM SCOTTOWELS SCOUT-O-RAMA SCRAM SCRATCHEX SCRATCH-MASTER SCREEN-GLASS SCRIPTO SEAL ALL SEALED-AIRE SEAMFREE SEAMPRUFE SEAQUARIUM SECRET SEEBRELLA SEE ' N TAKE SELCKRAFT SELECT-A-NOTE SELECT-O-SPEED SELF-BELT SELL-A-BRATION SELL-O-RAMA

APPENDIX

SENSI-TEMP SEPTIC AIDE SEROFOAM SERUTAN SERV-ICE SETFAST SEVEN UP SEW TRAY SHADESCREEN SHAGORA SHAMPOO MASTER SHAPEMAKER SHARPIE SHAVEMASTER SHEER GENIUS SHINEMASTER SHIP ·Ν SHORE SHIRE-TEX SHIRTMAKER SHIRT 'N SHORTS SHOE SAVER SHOE STRETCH SHOPMATE SHORT-O-MATIC SHU-GRIP SHUR-BOND SHUR-CUSH SHUR-LINE SHUR-RANE SHUR-STOP SHUT-OFFS SILICARE SILK NET SILK 'N SATIN SILVER-SURE SILVIKRIN SIMILAC SIMMER-RING SIZ SK1L-SAW SKIMMERAMA SKIN DEW SKOLEX SKOOTERS SKRIP SKROODLES SKUFF-KOTE SKYCHIEF SKYWRITER SLANTOMATIC SLEEPEASE SLEEP-EZE SLEEX SLENDERELLA SLIDE FREE SLIK

SLIMMER SLIP NOTT SLIP-X SLUG-A-BUG SLUMBERKINS SLUMBERON SLYDE-O-MATIC SMO-CLOUD SNAC-KABOBS SNAP-BAK SNO-BOL SNO-GLO SNOOZ-ALARM SNO-THRO SNOW BUCKS SNUFF SOAPKINS SOBEE SOCKETOOL SOF-SET SOFT-EEZ SOFTEX SOFTOL SOILAX SOLARCAINE SOLDER-MITE SOLIDEX SOLVENTIQUE SOMINEX SONOTONE SON-R SWITCH SORB-O-MATIC SORRY S.O.S. SO-THRU SOYALAC SOYAMAISE SPACE-A-HANGER SPAM SPECTRO-MATIC SPEED FEED SPEEDLAC SPEEDRY SPEED SNIPS SPEEDWRITING SPEK-GRIPS SPIN 'N SWING SPORT-AMINS SPORTEENS SPORTEMPOS SPRAY NET SPRAY-O-MAT SPRAY-O-NAMEL SPRING AIR SPRING-DINGS SPRITE

SPUDNUTS SQUIRT SSS-T STA-BRITE STACK PACK STA-CLEAN STA-FLO STAIN-AID STAIN-AWAY STANZALL STAPLELESS STARBURST STAR-KIST STARKRIMSON STARLAC STARTENA STAT STA-UP-TOP STAYDRY STAY-L-ASTIC STAY-PUT STAZ-TITE STEAM-MOR STEEL-LITE STEIN-TEX STENOCRAFT STENOSTIK STERI-PAD STERI-SPRAY STIC STICK-M-CAPS STIK-O-PAINT STILEMANOR STIMULIN STOPETTE STORM HERO STRAPARAMA STRETCH-ALL STRETCH PAK STRIDE STRYPEEZE STURDIBILT STYLAIRE STYLE-O-MATIC STYROFOAM SUAVE SUCARYL SUCRETS SUEDE RENEW SUGARINE SUGARIPE SULFODENE SUMIT SUNAIRE SUN-BRELLA SUNEX

113 SUNKIST SUN-SET SUPER-DET SUP-PANTS SUPP-HOSE SURE FIRE SURE-JELL SURFMASTER SURFORM SUSPANTS SUSTAGEN SWAN SWANS DOWN SWEET-10 SWEETROL SWIFT'NING SWIMQUIP SWING-A-WAY SWING-CHRONIZER SYNCTRON SYNTOPICON TABU TACT TAG TALENT TABLET TAME TAMPAX TANFASTIC TANG TANNETTE TANSATION TAP-A-GLASS TAP-A-LINE TAPE-O-MATIC TAPFREE TARALAN TARZOFF TEABAGGER TEC TEENFORM TEE-PJ'S TEFLON TELAR TELE-CART TELECOURSE TELE-MUFF TELE-SUSAN TELETENNA TELETORIUM TELL-A-COIN TEMPEST TEMPGARD TERRACE TOTER TERRAFLEX TERRAMYCIN TEXACO

114 THALSPUN THE GOLDEN FLEECE THERAGRAN THERMASIL THERMISTER THERMO-CHEK THERMO-JAC THIGHMOLD THINEX THIN-THIN THOREXIN THREADEZY THRIFT-TEX THRILL THUM TIDE TI-DEE TIGHT TILE SMILE TIME TING TINT-A-GREEN TINAIR TINY TEARS TIRPOLENE TISH-U-KNIT TITE-FIT TOAST-ALLS TOASTMASTER TOE-FLEX TOILAFLEX TOMATOBURGER TONETTE TOP BRASS TOPIC TOPPERS TOP SECRET TORSOLETTE TOTE BAG TOTKNITS TOTRUST TOUCH-AND-GLOW TOUCH 'N TELL TOUCH 'N TONE TOUCH-O-MATIC TOURISTER TRADITION-AIRE TRAK-TOR TRANSEAL TRAVELOK TRAVEL-RITER TRED-WELL TREET TREND TRICOT

APPENDIX TRIG TRIM TRIMFIT TRIM 'N COMB TRIMOBILE TRINSE TRIP-L-CROP TRISCUIT TRI-TAPER TRITHIADOL TRIUMPH TRI-VI-SOL TROMBONE TROPICANA TROUBLE LIGHT TROUBLE TRAPPER TRUE-SKIN TRU-FLECTOR TRU-GLO TUB 'UMS TUFF-KOTE TUFF TAPE TUFF-TARP TUFIDE TUFLEX TUK-A-BED TUMS TURKISH DELIGHT TURNABOUTS TURNCOAT TURP-O-LENE TURTLE BACK TURTLE WAX TWEEDIE TWEEDS AND WEEDS TWISSORS TWIST-EMS TWISTERS TWIST'N'TYE TYCORA TYPIT TYREX U-C-IT U-CONTROL UDESOLVE U-DO-IT UGASCO U-HAUL ULTE-VAC ULTI-MAT ULTRA-CHEX ULTRALUX ULTRA-MATIC ULTRA-MITE UMPA

UNICAP UNIFLO UNGUENTINE UPPA-JAMA UPSWEEP U-SELECT-IT V-8 VACU-MAGIC VALIANT VANI CHEST VANKO VAPOCAN VARAFLAME VARI-GUIDE VASSARETTE VEALBURGER VEG-ALL VEL VEL-O-MATIC VELVEETA VENT-O-WALL VERSA-TABLE VERSETTE-TABLE VERTAGREEN VETO VI-AQUA VI-ASPIRIN VIBRA-GRATE VIBROCRAFTERS VIGORO V.I.I. VINA-LUX V.I.P. VISE-GRIP VISSOLVER VISTA-DOME VISTA-PANORAMIC VITA-FLUFF VITAKAPS-M VITALIS VITASAFE VI-TYKE VIV V.O. V05 VOCATRON VOGUETTES V.S.O.P. VSQ VULCA-NEES V.V.O. VYCRON VYRENE WABCOPAC WALLGLIDE WARFARIN

WASH-A-FLAN WASHATERIA WASH-IN-NET WASH 'N DRI WASH 'N TINT WASH 'N WEAR WATASEAL WATERLOX WAXOFF WAXTEX WEAREVER WEATHER OMETER WEATHER PROOFS WEED-B-GONE WEED-O-MATIC WEEKENDER WEIGHMASTER WELCHADE WELDWOOD WESTCLOX WET'N'DRY WHEATIES WHEELZAFUN WHINK WHIRL-A-WASH WHISPERWATE WHITE CLOUD WILSOLVE WINBRO WINDEX WIND-O-WONDER WINDO ZIPPER WISHBONES WISHY WASH WISK WOOL-FLEX WOOLITE WOOLRICH WORM-AWAY WRAPARONG WRITE-O-RAMA WYR-O-SCREEN X-ACTO XLENT XPAND XPERT XPOSE X-TRA-KEY X-TRA SHELF XTRAXDUST YARD-MAN YARN-BRITE YARNEEDLES YARTEX YAWMANOTE YIPEES

APPENDIX

YODORA YUBAN ZAMCHLO ZAPONITE ZBT ZEFRAN ZEF-R-TEX ZELINCLOTH ZENETTE ZEPH-AIR ZEPHRLYTE ZEPHYROID ZERB-O-HIST ZEREX

ZE-RO ZERO-FROST ZEROGLOSS ZEROLASTIC ZEROLENE ZEROLL ZEROMATIC ZER-O-MATIC ZEROSAFE ZEROSPOT ZEROTEX ZEST ZILLOY ZINALUM

ZINCLAD ZINCOLEAD ZING ZINKROMEX ZINLAC ZIPFOLIO ZIP-GRIP ZIP-HER ZIPJEANS ZIP-KLEEN ZIPOLA ZIPPER-EASE ZIPPER-LITE ZIPPER UPPER

ZIP-SANDER ZIP-STRIP ZIREX ZIRMET ZOBAR ZOBELINE ZONE LAC ZORB-OIL ZORON Z-RO ZOYBURGER ZUD